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Communication

Communication is the process of transferring information from one source to another. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". Communication can be perceived as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually accepted goal or direction. Communication as an academic discipline has a long history. http://seaver.pepperdine.edu/communication/disciplineofcommunication.htm Overview Communication is a process where by information is encoded and imparted by a sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing. Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. if you use these processes it is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Cion skills directly through education, and by practicing those skills and having them evaluated. There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message complexity. Montana, Patrick J. & Charnov, Bruce H. 2008. Management. 4th ed. New York. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. Pg 333. Types of communication There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language, voice tonality, and words. According to the research: Mehrabian and Ferris (1967). "Inference of Attitude from Nonverbal Communication in Two Channels". In: The Journal of Counselling Psychology Vol.31, 1967, pp.248-52. 55% of impact is determined by body language--postures, gestures, and eye contact, 38% by the tone of voice, and 7% by the content or the words used in the communication process. Although the exact percentage of influence may differ from variables such as the listener and the speaker, communication as a whole strives for the same goal and thus, in some cases, can be universal. System of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered as a language? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a language to communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication can be considered as a separate language. Human spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions. There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich is credited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages. Dialogue or verbal communication A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. The etymological origins of the word (in Greek διά(diá,through) + λόγος(logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix διά-(diá-,through) and the prefix δι- (di-, two) leading to the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties. Nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form. Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Schulzrinne, H and Wu, X: “Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy”, IEE Proceedings on Communications, 151(3), pp.185-189, 2004 without body language, voice tonality or words. Visual communication Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form. The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in their professional practice. Other types of communication Other more specific types of communication are for example: Facilitated communication Graphic communication Nonviolent Communication Science communication Strategic Communication Superluminal communication Technical communication Communication modelling Communication major dimensions schemeCommunication code scheme Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Content (what type of things are communicated), source, emisor, sender or encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination, receiver, target or decoder (to whom), and the purpose or pragmatic aspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols), pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent). Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rules in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions. In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). Non-human living organisms communication Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates. Every information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver — can be considered a form of communication. Thus, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations. Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics''' (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate with animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses. However, these animals have to learn a special means of communication. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized. Plants and fungi Among plants, communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the rootzone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizobia bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. This parallel sign-mediated interactions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. As recent research shows 99% of intraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of herbivory attack behavior to warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In Stress situations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents. Witzany, G. (2006). Plant Communication from Biosemiotic Perspective. Plant Signaling and Behavior 1(4): 169-178. Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content- Witzany, G. (2007). Applied Biosemiotics: Fungal Communication. In: Witzany, G. (Ed). Biosemiotics in Transdisciplinary Contexts. Helsinki, Umweb, pp. 295-301. Communication as academic discipline Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology," http://www.communicology.org/content/communicology-lexicon-definition relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate. Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction. References See Also Transmissions and Protocols Traffic Engineering Regulatory Focus Theory Right speech Further reading Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin 117, 497-529. Ferraro, G.(2002). Global Brains- Knowledge and Competencies for the 21st Century. Charlotte: Intercultural Associates, Inc. Severin, Werner J., Tankard, James W., Jr., (1979). Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, Uses''. New York: Hastings House, ISBN 0801317037 Wark, McKenzie 1997 The Virtual Republic Allen and Unwin St Leonards pp 22–9 Witzany, G. (2006 ) Plant Communication from Biosemiotic Perspective. Plant Signaling & Behavior 1(4): 169-178. Witzany, G. (2007 ). Applied Biosemiotics: Fungal Communication. In: Witzany, G. (Ed.) Biosemiotics in Transdisciplinary Contexts. *Helsinki. Umweb, pp 295–301. Montana, Patrick J. & Charnov, Bruce H. 2008. Management. 4th ed. New York. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. Pg 326-327. The Idea of Verbal Communication in Early Buddhism Wimal Dissanayake, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, USA, online text External links A brief history of communication across ages Communicating for change and impact How Human Communication Fails (Tampere University of Technology) The Transmission Model of Communication (Daniel Chandler)

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Nagarjuna

Acharya Nāgārjuna (Telugu: నాగార్జున, Tibetan: klu sgrub) (c. 150 - 250 CE) was an Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. His writings are the basis for the formation of the Madhyamaka school, which was transmitted to China under the name of the Three Treatise (Sanlun) School. He is credited with developing the philosophy of the Prajnaparamita sutras, and was closely associated with the Buddhist university of Nalanda. In the Jodo Shinshu branch of Buddhism, he is considered the First Patriarch. Little is known about the actual life of the historical Nagarjuna. The two most extensive biographies of Nagarjuna, one in Chinese and the other in Tibetan, were written many centuries after his life and incorporate much lively but historically unreliable material which sometimes reaches mythic proportions. Nagarjuna was born a Brahmin Buddhist Art & Antiquities of Himachal Pradesh By Omacanda Hāṇḍā (Page 97) , which in his time connoted religious allegiance to the Vedas, probably into an upper-caste Brahmin family and probably in the southern Andhra region of India. History Very few details on the life of Nāgārjuna are known, although many legends exist. He was born in Southern India, near the town of Nagarjunakonda (నాగార్జునకొండ) in present day Nagarjuna Sagar (నాగార్జునసాగర్) in the Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh. According to traditional biographers and historians such as Kumarajiva, he was born into a Brahmin family, but later converted to Buddhism. This may be the reason he was one of the earliest significant Buddhist thinkers to write in classical Sanskrit rather than Pāli or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with many of the Nikaya school philosophies and with the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. However, affilitation to a specific Nikaya school is difficult, considering much of this material is presently lost. If the most commonly accepted attribution of texts (that of Christian Lindtner) holds, then he was clearly a Māhayānist, but his philosophy holds assiduously to the non-Mahāyāna canon, and while he does make explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, he is always careful to stay within the parameters set out by the canon. Nagarjuna may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system. Christian Lindtner, Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing 1997, page 324. David Kalupahana sees Nagarjuna as a successor to Moggaliputta-Tissa in being a champion of the middle-way and a reviver of the original philosophical ideals of the Buddha. David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. Motilal Banarsidass, 2005, pages 2,5. Writings There exist a number of influential texts attributed to Nāgārjuna, although most were probably written by later authors. The only work that all scholars agree is Nagarjuna's is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way), which contains the essentials of his thought in twenty-seven short chapters. According to Lindtner the works definitely written by Nagarjuna are: Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā (Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way) Śūnyatāsaptati (Seventy Verses on Emptiness) Vigrahavyāvartanī (The End of Disputes) (Pulverizing the Categories) Vyavahārasiddhi (Proof of Convention) (Sixty Verses on Reasoning) (Hymn to the Absolute Reality) Ratnāvalī (Precious Garland) (Constituents of Dependent Arising) Sūtrasamuccaya (Exposition of the Enlightened Mind) (To a Good Friend) (Requisites of Enlightenment) Sushruta Samhita (Redactor of Ayurvedic Medicine text) There are other works attributed to Nāgārjuna, some of which may be genuine and some not. In particular, several important works of esoteric Buddhism (most notably the Pañcakrama or "Five Stages") are attributed to Nāgārjuna and his disciples. Contemporary research suggests that these works are datable to a significantly later period in Buddhist history (late eighth or early ninth century), but the tradition of which they are a part maintains that they are the work of the Mādhyamika Nāgārjuna and his school. Traditional historians (for example, the 17th century Tibetan Tāranātha), aware of the chronological difficulties involved, account for the anachronism via a variety of theories, such as the propagation of later writings via mystical revelation. A useful summary of this tradition, its literature, and historiography may be found in Wedemeyer 2007. Lindtner considers that the Māhaprajñāparamitopadeśa, a huge commentary on the Large Prajñāparamita not to be a genuine work of Nāgārjuna. This is only extant in a Chinese translation by Kumārajīva. There is much discussion as to whether this is a work of Nāgārjuna, or someone else. Étienne Lamotte, who translated one third of the Upadeśa into French, felt that it was the work of a North Indian bhikkhu of the Sarvāstivāda school, who later became a convert to the Mahayana. The Chinese scholar-monk Yin Shun felt that it was the work of a South Indian, and that Nāgārjuna was quite possibly the author. Actually, these two views are not necessarily in opposition, and a South Indian Nāgārjuna could well have studied in the northern Sarvāstivāda. Neither of the two felt that it was composed by Kumārajīva which others have rashly suggested. Philosophy Nāgārjuna's primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy is in the further development of the concept of śūnyatā, or "emptiness," which brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta (no-self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). For Nāgārjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman; all phenomena are without any svabhāva, literally "own-nature" or "self-nature", and thus without any underlying essence; they are empty of being independent. This is so because they are arisen dependently: not by their own power, but by depending on conditions leading to their coming into existence, as opposed to being. Nāgārjuna was also instrumental in the development of the two-truths doctrine, which claims that there are two levels of truth in Buddhist teaching, one which is directly (ultimately) true, and one which is only conventionally or instrumentally true, commonly called upāya in later Mahāyāna writings. Nāgārjuna drew on an early version of this doctrine found in the Kaccāyanagotta Sutta, which distinguishes nītārtha (clear) and neyārtha (obscure) terms - By and large, Kaccayana, this world is supported by a polarity, that of existence and non-existence. But when one reads the origination of the world as it actually is with right discernment, 'non-existence' with reference to the world does not occur to one. When one reads the cessation of the world as it actually is with right discernment, 'existence' with reference to the world does not occur to one. "By and large, Kaccayana, this world is in bondage to attachments, clingings (sustenances), and biases. But one such as this does not get involved with or cling to these attachments, clingings, fixations of awareness, biases, or obsessions; nor is he resolved on 'my self.' He has no uncertainty or doubt that just stress, when arising, is arising; stress, when passing away, is passing away. In this, his knowledge is independent of others. It's to this extent, Kaccayana, that there is right view. "'Everything exists': That is one extreme. 'Everything doesn't exist': That is a second extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma via the middle..." SN 12.15, . The version linked to is the one in found in the nikayas, and is slightly different from the one found in the Samyuktagama. Both contain the concept of teaching via the middle between the extremes of existence and non-existence. See A.K. Warder, A Course in Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, pages 55-56, or for the full text of both versions with analysis see pages 192-195 of Choong Mun-keat, The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A comparative study basted on the Sutranga portion of the Pali Samyutta-Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama; Harrassowitz Verlag, Weisbaden, 2000. Nagarjuna does not make reference to "everything" when he quotes the agamic text in his MMK; in this regard see David Kalupahana, Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, page 232. Nāgārjuna differentiates between (conventional) and paramārtha (ultimately true) teachings, but he never declares any to fall in this latter category; for him, even śūnyatā is śūnya--even emptiness is empty. For him, ultimately, | ||7 The designable is ceased when the range of thought is ceased, For phenomenality is like nirvana, unarisen and unstopped. This was famously rendered in his tetralemma with the logical propositions: X, not X, X and not X, neither X nor not X. Nagarjuna also taught the idea of relativity; in the Ratnavali, he gives the example that shortness exists only in relation to the idea of length. The determination of a thing or object is only possible in relation to other things or objects, especially by way of contrast. He held that the relationship between the ideas of "short" and "long" is not due to intrinsic nature (svabhāva). This idea is also found in the Pali Nikayas and Chinese Agamas, in which the idea of relativity is expressed similarly: "That which is the element of light ... is seen to exist on account of [in relation to] darkness; that which is the element of good is seen to exist on account of bad; that which is the element of space is seen to exist on account of form." David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, pages 96-97. In the Nikayas the quote is found at SN 2.150. For more on Nāgārjuna's philosophy, see Mūlamadhyamakakārikā. Iconography Nāgārjuna is often depicted in composite form comprising human and naga characteristics. Often the naga aspect forms a canopy crowning and shielding his human head. The notion of the naga is found throughout Indian religious culture, and typically signifies an intelligent serpent or dragon, who is responsible for the rains, lakes and other bodies of water. In Buddhism, it is a synonym for a realized arhat, or wise person in general. The term also means "elephant". English translations Mulamadhyamakakarika Other works Author Title Publisher Notes Lindtner, C Nagarjuniana Motilal, 1987 [1982] Contains Sanskrit or Tibetan texts and translations of the Shunyatasaptati, Vaidalyaprakarana, Vyavaharasiddhi (fragment), Yuktisastika, Catuhstava and Bodhicittavivarana. A translation only of the Bodhisambharaka. The Sanskrit and Tibetan texts are given for the Vigrahavyavartani. In addition a table of source sutras is given for the Sutrasamuccaya. Komito, D R Nagarjuna's "Seventy Stanzas" Snow Lion, 1987 Translation of the Shunyatasaptati with Tibetan commentary Bhattacharya, Johnston and Kunst The Dialectical Method of Nagarjuna Motilal, 1978 A superb translation of the Vigrahavyavartani Kawamura, L Golden Zephyr Dharma, 1975 Translation of the Suhrlekkha with a Tibetan commentary Jamieson, R.C. Nagarjuna's Verses on the Great Vehicle and the Heart of Dependent Origination D.K., 2001 Translation and edited Tibetan of the Mahayanavimsika and the Pratityasamutpadahrdayakarika, including work on texts from the cave temple at Dunhuang, Gansu, China Lindtner, C. Master of Wisdom: Writings of the Buddhist Master Nāgārjuna Dharma, 1986 An excellent introduction to Madhyamika, Master of Wisdom contains two hymns of praise to the Buddha, two treatises on Shunyata, and two works that clarify the connection of analysis, meditation, and moral conduct. Includes Tibetan verses in transliteration and critical editions of extant Sanskrit. Tibetan Translation (product ID: 0-89800-286-9) Tola, Fernando and Carmen Dragonetti Vaidalyaprakarana South Asia Books, 1995 Hopkins, Jeffrey Nagarjuna's Precious Garland: Buddhist Advice for Living and Liberation Snow Lion Publications, 2007 ISBN 1559392746 See also Middle way Notes References Campbell, W. L. Ed. and trans. 1919. The Tree of Wisdom: Being the Tibetan text with English translation of Nāgārjuna's gnomic verse treatise called the Prajñādanda. Calcutta University. Reprint: Sonam T. Kazi, Gangtok. 1975. Forizs, Laszlo, 1998. "The Relevance of Whitehead for Contemporary Buddhist Philosophy. Pāṇini, Nāgārjuna and Whitehead." Hoogcarspel, E., 2005. The Central Philosophy, Basic Verses. Olive Press Amsterdam (translation from Sanskrit, commentary with references to contemporary philosophy) Kalupahana, David J. The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY, 1986 Lamotte, E., Le Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse, Vol I (1944), Vol II (1949), Vol III (1970), Vol IV (1976), Institut Orientaliste: Louvain-la-Neuve. McCagney, Nancy, Nāgārjuna and the philosophy of openness. Lanham, Md. : Rowman & Littlefield, c 1997. Magliola, Robert. Derrida on the Mend. Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue UP, 1984; 2nd ed. 1986; rpt., 2000. (Through a sustained comparison, this book first brings Nagarjuna to the attention of American and European specialists in Jacques Derrida and French 'deconstruction'.) Magliola, Robert. On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture. Atlanta: Scholars P, American Academy of Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000. (This book further develops comparisons between Nagarjunist and Derridean deconstructions of substantialism.) Murti, T. R. V., 1955. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. George Allen and Unwin, London. 2nd edition: 1960. Murty, K. Satchidananda. 1971. Nagarjuna. National Book Trust, New Delhi. 2nd edition: 1978. Ramanan, K. Venkata. 1966. Nāgārjuna's Philosophy. Charles E. Tuttle, Vermont and Tokyo. Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 1978. (This book gives and excellent and detailed examination of the range and subtelties of Nagarjuna's philosophy.) Samdhong Rinpoche, ed. 1977. Madhyamika Dialectic and the Philosophy of Nagarjuna. Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, India. Sastri, H. Chatterjee, ed. 1977. The Philosophy of Nāgārjuna as contained in the Ratnāvalī. Part I [ Containing the text and introduction only ]. Saraswat Library, Calcutta. Streng, Frederick J. Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1967. Walser, Joseph. Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Wedemeyer, Christian K. 2007. Āryadeva's Lamp that Integrates the Practices: The Gradual Path of Vajrayāna Buddhism according to the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition. New York: AIBS/Columbia University Press. Zangpo, Ngorchen Kunga. 1975. The Discipline of The Novice Monk. Including Ācārya Nāgārjuna's The (Discipline) of the Novice Monk of the Āryamūlasaryāstivādīn in Verse, and Vajradhara Ngorchen Kunga Zenpo's Word Explanation of the Abridged Ten Vows, The Concise Novice monks' Training. Translated by Lobsang Dapa et al. Sakya College, Mussoorie, India External links Nagarjuna: a bibliography Nagarjuna Seminar The Life of Nagarjuna Overview of traditional biographical accounts Online version of the Mula madhyamaka karika with Tibetan and English Translated by Stephen Batchelor Kaccayanagotta Sutta on Access to Insight Nārāgjuna vis-à-vis the Āgama-s and Nikāya-s Byoma Kusuma Nepalese Dharmasangha ZenEssays: Nagarjuna and the Madhyamika She-rab Dong-bu (The Tree of Wisdom) LibriVox recording

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Microelectromechanical_systems

A mite less than 1 mm on a MEMS device. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) (also written as micro-electro-mechanical, or MicroElectroMechanical) is the technology of the very small, and merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and nanotechnology. MEMS are also referred to as micromachines (in Japan), or Micro Systems Technology - MST (in Europe). MEMS are separate and distinct from the hypothetical vision of molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics. MEMS are made up of components between 1 to 100 micrometres in size (i.e. 0.001 to 0.1 mm) and MEMS devices generally range in size from 20 micrometres (20 millionths of a metre) to a millimetre. They usually consist of a central unit that processes data, the microprocessor and several components that interact with the outside such as microsensors . At these size scales, the standard constructs of classical physics do not always hold true. Due to MEMS' large surface area to volume ratio, surface effects such as electrostatics and wetting dominate volume effects such as inertia or thermal mass. The potential of very small machines was appreciated long before the technology existed that could make them—see, for example, Richard Feynman's famous 1959 lecture There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor fabrication technologies, normally used to make electronics. These include molding and plating, wet etching (KOH, TMAH) and dry etching (RIE and DRIE), electro discharge machining (EDM), and other technologies capable of manufacturing very small devices. Microelectromechanical systems description MEMS technology can be implemented using a number of different materials and manufacturing techniques; the choice of which will depend on the device being created and the market sector in which it has to operate. Silicon Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern world. The economies of scale, ready availability of cheap high-quality materials and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide variety of MEMS applications. Silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. As well as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes silicon very reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions to trillions of cycles without breaking. The basic techniques for producing all silicon based MEMS devices are deposition of material layers, patterning of these layers by photolithography and then etching to produce the required shapes. Polymers Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to produce. Polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of material characteristics. MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection moulding, embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges. Metals Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes. Commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver. Microelectromechanical systems processes Deposition processes One of the basic building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere between a few nanometres to about 100 micrometres. Commonly used deposition processes are: electroplating, sputter deposition, physical vapour deposition (PVD) and chemical vapour deposition (CVD). Photolithography Lithography in MEMS context is typically the transfer of a pattern into a photosensitive material by selective exposure to a radiation source such as light. A photosensitive material is a material that experiences a change in its physical properties when exposed to a radiation source. If a photosensitive material is selectively exposed to radiation (e.g. by masking some of the radiation) the pattern of the radiation on the material is transferred to the material exposed, as the properties of the exposed and unexposed regions differs. This exposed region can then be removed or treated providing a mask for the underlying substrate. Photolithography is typically used with metal or other thin film deposition, wet and dry etching. Etching processes There are two basic categories of etching processes: wet and dry etching. In the former, the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution. In the latter, the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant. See Williams and Muller Williams, K.R. Muller, R.S., 1996, , Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, Volume: 5, Issue: 4, December 1996, pp. 256-269 or Kovacs, Maluf and Peterson Kovacs, G.T.A.; Maluf, N.I.; Petersen, K.E., , Proceedings of the IEEE Volume 86, Issue 8, August 1998 Page(s):1536 - 1551. for a somewhat dated overview of MEMS etching technologies. Wet etching Wet chemical etching consists in a selective removal of material by dipping a substrate into a solution that can dissolve it. Due to the chemical nature of this etching process, a good selectivity can often be obtained, which means that the etching rate of the target material is considerably higher than that of the mask material if selected carefully. Some single crystal materials, such as silicon, will have different etching rates depending on the crystallographic orientation of the substrate. This is known as anisotropic etching and one of the most common examples is the etching of silicon in KOH (potassium hydroxide), where Si <111> planes etch approximately 100 times slower than other planes (crystallographic orientations). Therefore, etching a rectangular hole in a (100)-Si wafer will result in a pyramid shaped etch pit with 54.7° walls, instead of a hole with curved sidewalls as it would be the case for isotropic etching, where etching progresses at the same speed in all directions. Long and narrow holes in a mask will produce v-shaped grooves in the silicon. The surface of these grooves can be atomically smooth if the etch is carried out correctly, with dimensions and angles being extremely accurate. Electrochemical etching (ECE) for dopant-selective removal of silicon is a common method to automate and to selectively control etching. An active p-n diode junction is required, and either type of dopant can be the etch-resistant ("etch-stop") material. Boron is the most common etch-stop dopant. In combination with wet anisotropic etching as described above, ECE has been used successfully for controlling silicon diaphragm thickness in commercial piezoresistive silicon pressure sensors. Selectively doped regions can be created either by implantation, diffusion, or epitaxial deposition of silicon. Reactive ion etching (RIE) In reactive ion etching (RIE), the substrate is placed inside a reactor in which several gases are introduced. A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF power source, breaking the gas molecules into ions. The ions are accelerated towards, and react with, the surface of the material being etched, forming another gaseous material. This is known as the chemical part of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part which is similar in nature to the sputtering deposition process. If the ions have high enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the material to be etched without a chemical reaction. It is a very complex task to develop dry etch processes that balance chemical and physical etching, since there are many parameters to adjust. By changing the balance it is possible to influence the anisotropy of the etching, since the chemical part is isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the combination can form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical. Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) A special subclass of RIE which continues to grow rapidly in popularity is deep RIE (DRIE). In this process, etch depths of hundreds of micrometres can be achieved with almost vertical sidewalls. The primary technology is based on the so-called "Bosch process" Laermer, F.; Urban, A.;, , TRANSDUCERS '05. The 13th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, 2005. Volume 2, June 2005, pp. 1118 - 1121. , named after the German company Robert Bosch which filed the original patent, where two different gas compositions are alternated in the reactor. Currently there are two variations of the DRIE. The first variation consists of three distinct steps (the Bosch Process as used in the UNAXIS tool) while the second variation only consists of two steps (ASE used in the STS tool). In the 1st Variation, the etch cycle is as follows: (i) SF6 isotropic etch; (ii) C4F8 passivation; (iii) SF6 anisoptropic etch for floor cleaning. In the 2nd variation, steps (i) and (iii) are combined. Both variations operate similarly. The C4F8 creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the second gas composition (SF6 and O2) etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately sputtered away by the physical part of the etching, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not the sidewalls. Since the polymer only dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and protects them from etching. As a result, etching aspect ratios of 50 to 1 can be achieved. The process can easily be used to etch completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are 3-6 times higher than wet etching. Xenon difluoride etching Xenon difluoride (XeF2) is a dry vapor phase isotropic etch for silicon originally applied for MEMS in 1995 at University of California, Los Angeles Chang, F.I. and Yeh, R. and Lin, G. and Chu, P.B. and Hoffman, E. and Kruglick, E.J.J. and Pister, K.S.J. and Hecht, M.H., Gas-phase silicon micromachining with xenon difluoride, Proc. SPIE Microelectronic Structures and Microelectromechanical Devices for Optical Processing and Multimedia Applications, 1995, pp. 117-128. Chang, Floy I-Jung. 1995. Xenon difluoride etching of silicon for MEMS. Thesis (M.S.)--University of California, Los Angeles, 1995. . Primarily used for releasing metal and dielectric structures by undercutting silicon, XeF2 has the advantage of a stiction-free release unlike wet etchants. Its etch selectivity to silicon is very high, allowing it to work with photoresist, SiO2, silicon nitride, and various metals for masking. Its reaction to silicon is "plasmaless", is purely chemical and spontaneous and is often operated in pulsed mode. Models of the etching action are available Brazzle, J.D.; Dokmeci, M.R.; Mastrangelo, C.H.; , 17th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), 2004, pages 737-740. , and university laboratories and various commercial tools offer solutions using this approach. Silicon microelectromechanical systems paradigms Bulk micromachining Bulk micromachining is the oldest paradigm of silicon based MEMS. The whole thickness of a silicon wafer is used for building the micro-mechanical structures. Silicon is machined using various etching processes. Anodic bonding of glass plates or additional silicon wafers is used for adding features in the third dimension and for hermetic encapsulation. Bulk micromachining has been essential in enabling high performance pressure sensors and accelerometers that have changed the shape of the sensor industry in the 80's and 90's. Surface micromachining Surface micromachining uses layers deposited on the surface of a substrate as the structural materials, rather than using the substrate itself. J. M. Bustillo, R. T. Howe, and R. S. Muller, "Surface micromachining for microelectromechanical systems," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 86, pp. 1552-1574, 1998. Surface micromachining was created in the late 80's to render micromachining of silicon more compatible with planar integrated circuit technology, with the goal of combining MEMS and integrated circuits on the same silicon wafer. The original surface micromachining concept was based on thin polycrystalline silicon layers patterned as movable mechanical structures and released by sacrificial etching of the underlaying oxide layer. Interdigital comb electrodes were used to produce in-plane forces and to detect in-plane movement capacitively. This MEMS paradigm has enabled the manufacturing of low cost accelerometers for e.g. automotive air-bag systems and other applications where low performance and/ or high g-ranges are sufficient. Analog Devices have pioneered the industrialization of surface micromachining and have realized the co-integration of MEMS and integrated circuits. High aspect ratio (HAR) micromachining Both bulk and surface micromachining are still used in industrial production of sensors, ink-jet nozzles and other devices. But in many cases the distinction between these two has diminished. New etching technology, deep reactive ion etching has made it possible to combine good performance typical to bulk micromachining with comb structures and in-plane operation typical to surface micromachining. While it is common in surface micromachining to have structural layer thickness in the range of 2 µm, in HAR micromachining the thickness is from 10 to 100 µm. The materials commonly used in HAR micromachining are thick polycrystalline silicon, known as epi-poly, and bonded silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers although processes for bulk silicon wafer also have been created (SCREAM). Bonding a second wafer by glass frit bonding, anodic bonding or alloy bonding is used to protect the MEMS structures. Integrated circuits are typically not combined with HAR micromachining. The consensus of the industry at the moment seems to be that the flexibility and reduced process complexity obtained by having the two functions separated far outweighs the small penalty in packaging. Applications Commercial applications include: Inkjet printers, which use piezoelectrics or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on paper. Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including airbag deployment in collisions. Accelerometers in consumer electronics devices such as game controllers (Nintendo Wii), personal media players / cell phones (Apple iPhone ) Johnson, R. Collin. There's more to MEMS than meets the iPhone, EE Times, (2007-07-09) and a number of Digital Cameras (various Canon Digital IXUS models). Also used in PCs to park the hard disk head when free-fall is detected, to prevent damage and data loss. MEMS gyroscopes used in modern cars and other applications to detect yaw; e.g. to deploy a roll over bar or trigger dynamic stability control. Silicon pressure sensors e.g. car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood pressure sensors. Displays e.g. the DMD chip in a projector based on DLP technology has on its surface several hundred thousand micromirrors. Optical switching technology which is used for switching technology and alignment for data communications. Bio-MEMS applications in medical and health related technologies from Lab-On-Chip to MicroTotalAnalysis (biosensor, chemosensor). Interferometric modulator display (IMOD) applications in consumer electronics (primarily displays for mobile devices). Used to create interferometric modulation - reflective display technology as found in mirasol displays. Companies with strong MEMS programs come in many sizes. The larger firms specialize in manufacturing high volume inexpensive components or packaged solutions for end markets such as automobiles, biomedical, and electronics. The successful small firms provide value in innovative solutions and absorb the expense of custom fabrication with high sales margins. In addition, both large and small companies work in R&D to explore MEMS technology. Research and development Researchers in MEMS use various engineering software tools to take a design from concept to simulation, prototyping and testing. Finite element analysis is often used in MEMS design. Simulation of dynamics, heat, and electrical domains, among others, can be performed by ANSYS, COMSOL and CoventorWare-ANALZYER. Other software, such as CoventorWare-ARCHITECT and MEMS-PRO, is used to produce a design layout suitable for delivery to a fabrication firm and even simulate the MEMS embedded in a system. Once prototypes are on-hand, researchers can test the specimens using various instruments, including laser doppler scanning vibrometers, microscopes, and stroboscopes. Industry structure The global market for micro-electromechanical systems, which includes products such as automobile airbag systems, display systems and inkjet cartridges totaled $40 billion in 2006 according to Global MEMS/Microsystems Markets and Opportunities, a comprehensive new market research report from SEMI and Yole Developpement. MEMS devices are defined as die-level components of first-level packaging, and include pressure sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, microphones, digital mirror displays, micro fluidic devices, etc. The materials and equipment used to manufacture MEMS devices topped $1 billion worldwide in 2006. Materials demand is driven by substrates, making up over 70 per cent of the market, packaging coatings and increasing use of chemical mechanical planarization (CMP). While MEMS manufacturing continues to be dominated by used semiconductor equipment, there is a migration to 200mm lines and select new tools, including etch and bonding for certain MEMS applications. See also NEMS, Nanoelectromechanical systems are similar to MEMS but smaller MOEMS, Micro Opto-Electrical-Mechanical Systems, MEMS including optical elements Micropower Hydrogen generators, gas turbines, and electrical generators made of etched silicon IBM Millipede, a MEMS technology for non-volatile data storage of more than a terabit per square inch Lucent who developed highly advanced optical telecommunications switches Cantilever one of the most common forms of MEMS. MEMS Thermal Actuator MEMS actuation created by thermal expansion Scratch Drive Actuator MEMS actuation using repeatedly applied voltage differences Electrostatic motors used where coils are difficult to fabricate Alcatel Micro Machining Systems Manufacturers of DRIE systems Infineon Technologies direct TPMS sensors Robert Bosch GmbH Producing more than 130 million MEMS in pressure, angular rate, acceleration per year in their plant in Reutlingen (and are currently building nearby another plant with an output of over 1 million chips per day) Sensirion Leading manufacturer of MEMS flow sensors Qualcomm Qualcomm MEMS Technologies - MEMS-based display technology for mobile devices Finetech, Equipment manufacturer for MEMS assembly VTI Technologies, designer and manufacturer of silicon capacitive acceleration and pressure sensors. IMTEK, Germany' largest MEMS research institute. Brain-computer interface MEMS sensor generations. References External links Amkor Technology MEMS Packaging Technology Solutions. A MEMS STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT-ON-A-CHIP, L. G. Fréchette, C. Lee, S. Arslan, Y-C. Liu, Proc. PowerMEMS’03, Makuhari, Japan, 4-5 December 2003. The Outer Limits, Mind Reacher Videos on MEMS and their applications.

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Helium

Helium () is the chemical element with atomic number 2, and is represented by the symbol He. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert monatomic gas that heads the noble gas group in the periodic table. Its boiling and melting points are the lowest among the elements and it exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions. An unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight was first observed from a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with the discovery of the element with Norman Lockyer, who observed the same eclipse and was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element which he named helium. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas. Helium is used in cryogenics, in deep-sea breathing systems, to cool superconducting magnets, in helium dating, for inflating balloons, for providing lift in airships and as a protective gas for many industrial uses (such as arc welding and growing silicon wafers). Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. The behavior of liquid helium-4's two fluid phases, helium I and helium II, is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics (in particular the phenomenon of superfluidity) and to those looking at the effects that temperatures near absolute zero have on matter (such as superconductivity). Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant in the observable Universe. Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is being created as a result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars. On Earth, helium is relatively rare and is created by the natural radioactive decay of some elements, as alpha particles that are emitted consist of helium nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations up to seven percent by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation. History Scientific discoveries The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868 as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Pierre Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he named the D3 Fraunhofer line because it was near the known D1 and D2 lines of sodium. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 256 He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios). Spectral lines of helium On March 26, 1895 British chemist Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10% rare earth elements) with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 257 These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes. It was independently isolated from cleveite in the same year by chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight. Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist William Francis Hillebrand prior to Ramsay's discovery when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogen. His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery and near-discovery in science. In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube to study the spectra of the new gas inside. In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than one kelvin. He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed because helium does not have a triple point temperature at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases are at equilibrium. Onnes' student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926. In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity. This phenomenon is related to Bose-Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zero, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity. Extraction and use After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence where, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas. With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium. This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas. The greatest reserves of helium were in the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in southwest Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. This enabled the United States to become the world's leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the United States Navy sponsored three small experimental helium production plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 200 thousand cubic feet (5,700 m3) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though only a few cubic feet (less than 100 liters) of the gas had previously been obtained. Some of this gas was used in the world's first helium-filled airship, the U.S. Navy's C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C. on December 1, 1921. Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft. This use increased demand during World War II, as well as demands for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project. The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime. Due to a US military embargo against Germany that restricted helium supplies, the Hindenburg was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. Helium use following World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption. After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960" (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau built a 425 mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas to connect those plants with the government's partially depleted Cliffside gas field, near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, when it then was further purified. By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve. Stwertka, Albert (1998). Guide to the Elements: Revised Edition. New York; Oxford University Press, p. 24. ISBN 0-19-512708-0 The resulting "Helium Privatization Act of 1996" Helium Privatization Act of 1996 (Public Law 104–273) directed the United States Department of the Interior to start emptying the reserve by 2005. Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available. For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria producing 600 million cubic feet (1.7 m3) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe's demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the US had risen to above 15,000 metric tons. In 2004–2006, two additional plants, one in Ras Laffen, Qatar and the other in Skikda, Algeria were built, but as of early 2007, Ras Laffen is functioning at 50%, and Skikda has yet to start up. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium. Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased. In the 2002 to 2007 period helium prices doubled, and during 2008 alone the major suppliers raised prices about 50%. Characteristics Gas and plasma phases Helium is the least reactive noble gas after neon and thus the second least reactive of all elements; it is inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Due to helium's relatively low molar (atomic) mass, in the gas phase its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For similar reasons, and also due to the small size of helium atoms, helium's diffusion rate through solids is three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 261 Helium is less water soluble than any other gas known, and helium's index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gas. Helium has a negative Joule-Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule-Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion. Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling. Helium discharge tube shaped like the element's atomic symbol Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium's electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, the particles interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Solid and liquid phases Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K (about −272 °C or −457 °F) and about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure. It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%. With a bulk modulus on the order of 5×107 Pa it is 50 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214 ± 0.006 g/ml at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar is 0.187 ± 0.009 g/ml. Helium I state Below its boiling point of 4.22 Kelvin and above the lambda point of 2.1768 kelvin, the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I. Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium doesn't boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered further. Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 262 This colorless liquid has a very low viscosity and a density one-eighth that of water, which is only one-fourth the value expected from classical physics. Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both types of liquid helium are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic properties. Helium II state Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state called helium II. Boiling of helium II is not possible due to its high thermal conductivity; heat input instead causes evaporation of the liquid directly to gas. The isotope helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about such properties in the isotope helium-3. Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape. Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum-mechanical state of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10−7 to 10−8 m it has no measurable viscosity. However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground state, which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid. In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container. The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper. This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum-mechanical mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second sound. Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, seemingly against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 263 As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the Van der Waals force. These waves are known as third sound. Isotopes There are eight known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth's atmosphere, there is one He-3 atom for every million He-4 atoms. Unlike most elements, helium's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts; most of it since Earth's formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust. Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay of tritium. Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth's mantle. He-3 is much more abundant in stars, as a product of nuclear fusion. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of He-3 to He-4 is around 100 times higher than on Earth. Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon's surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0.01 ppm. A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986, have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for fusion. Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 kelvin using evaporative cooling in a 1-K pot. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in a helium-3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid He-3 and He-4 below 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statistics: helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3 atoms are fermions). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 264 Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins. It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is helium-5 with a half-life of 7.6×10−22 seconds. Helium-6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half life of 0.8 seconds. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain nuclear reactions. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 260 Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo. Helium-2 (two protons, no neutrons) is a radioisotope that decays by proton emission into protium, with a half-life of 3x10−27 seconds. Compounds Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions due to its valence of zero. It is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential. Helium can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur and phosphorus when it is subjected to an electric glow discharge, through electron bombardment or is otherwise a plasma. HeNe, HgHe10, WHe2 and the molecular ions He2+, He22+, HeH+, and HeD+ have been created this way. This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule He2, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently only held together by polarization forces. Theoretically, other true compounds may also be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF, discovered in 2000. . Calculations show that two new compounds containing a helium-oxygen bond could be stable. . The two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and N(CH3)4FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable [F– HeO] anion first theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment such compounds will end helium's chemical nobility, and the only remaining noble element will be neon. Helium has been put inside the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable up to high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside. If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds. Occurrence and production Natural abundance Helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe (after hydrogen), constituting 23% of the baryonic mass of the Universe. The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis from one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton-proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis. ; In the Earth's atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million. The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into space by several processes. In the Earth's heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements. Nearly all helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. The decay product is primarily found in minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveites, pitchblende, carnotite and monazite, because they emit alpha particles, which consist of helium nuclei (He2+) to which electrons readily combine. In this way an estimated 3000 tonnes of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere. In the Earth's crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in a similar way by non-permeable layer of rock like natural gas the greatest concentrations on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is derived. The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm up to over 7% in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico. Modern extraction For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium. Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, p. 258 The principal impurity in Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process. This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers. In 2005, approximately 160 million m³ of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves, with approximately 83% from the United States, 11% from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia and Poland. In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium. Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, but this is not an economically viable method of production. Applications Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small containers called Dewars which hold up to 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 11,000 gallons (41,637 liters). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high pressure cylinders holding up to 300 standard cubic feet, while large quantities of high pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of up to 180,000 standard cubic feet. Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp. Airships, balloons and rocketry Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is approximately 7% more buoyant, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable (in addition to being fire retardant). In rocketry, helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V booster used in the Apollo program needed about 13 million cubic feet (370,000 m³) of helium to launch. Commercial and recreational Helium alone is less dense than atmospheric air, so it will change the timbre (not pitch ) of a person's voice when inhaled. However, inhaling it from a typical commercial source, such as that used to fill balloons, can be dangerous due to the risk of asphyxiation from lack of oxygen, and the number of contaminants that may be present. These could include trace amounts of other gases, in addition to aerosolized lubricating oil. For its low solubility in nervous tissue, helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis. At depths below small amounts of hydrogen are added to a helium-oxygen mixture to counter the effects of high pressure nervous syndrome. At these depths the low density of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing. Helium-neon lasers have various applications, including barcode readers. Industrial For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials that are contaminated easily by air. Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Because of its inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels and impulse facilities . Because it diffuses through solids at three times the rate of air, helium is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment and high-pressure containers. Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number. The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming. Liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners. Scientific The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of refraction. This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy. The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 tonnes of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 Kelvin. Helium at low temperatures is also used in cryogenics. Safety Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood. If enough helium is inhaled that oxygen needed for normal respiration is replaced asphyxia is possible. The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen; its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns and the liquid to gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are installed. Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature. Biological effects The voice of a person who has inhaled helium temporarily changes in timbre in a way that makes it sound high-pitched. The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air; because the fundamental frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract. (The opposite effect, lowering frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride.) Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration. Breathing pure helium continuously causes death by asphyxiation within minutes. Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders is extremely dangerous, as the high flow rate can result in barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue. However, death caused by helium is quite rare, with only two fatalities reported between 2000 and 2004 in the United States. At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead to high pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem. See also Abiogenic petroleum origin Helium-3 propulsion Leidenfrost effect Superfluid Tracer-gas leak testing method Helium atom Notes References External links General The Periodic Table of Videos - Helium US Government' Bureau of Land Management: Sources, Refinement, and Shortage. With some History of Helium. U.S. Geological Survey Publicationson Helium beginning 1996 It's Elemental – Helium More detail Helium at the Helsinki University of Technology; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4 Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics - includes a summary of some low temperature techniques Miscellaneous Physics in Speech with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch Article about helium and other noble gases Ebyte article on helium scarcity and potential effects on NMR and MRI communities be-x-old:Гелій

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Judah

Judah (Hebrew: יְהוּדָה, Standard Hebrew: Yəhuda; Tiberian vocalization: , "Celebrated, praised") is the name of several Biblical and historical figures. The original Judah was the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, as recorded in Genesis 29:35. The original Greek text of the New Testament makes no difference between the names "Judah", "Judas" and "Jude", rendering them all as Ioudas; but in many English translations "Judah" is used for the figure in the Tanakh and the tribe named after him, "Judas" is used primarily for Judas Iscariot, and "Jude" for other New Testament persons of the same name. In Matthew 1 and Luke 3 Judah, the son of Jacob and Leah, is the progenitor of Jesus. The Bible itself mentions no other people of the name, except the original one; however, it became a very common name among Jews in Hellenistic times and remains such up to the present. The name Judah can refer to: Judah (Bible), one of the sons of the Biblical patriarch Jacob (Israel) All later individuals, groups and places of this name are directly or indirectly derived from this Judah. Ethnic, political and geographic names and terms The Tribe of Judah, the Hebrew tribe whose members regarded the above as their eponymous ancestor The Kingdom of Judah, the kingdom dominated by the Tribe of Judah and ruled by the House of David, from the breaking off of the Kingdom of Israel following the death of King Solomon until the Babylonian Exile Judea, the former territory of the Kingdom of Judah after its demise (c. 586 BC), being successively a Babylonian, a Persian, a Ptolemaic and a Seleucid province, an independent kingdom under the Hasmoneans regarding itself as successor of the Biblical one, a Roman dependent kingdom and a Roman province Iudaea Province, Roman province, with the Latin spelling Jew, derived from Hebrew "Yehudi" יהודי (literally, "Judean"); the derivation is more clear in German "Jude" and in Slavic "Zid" Judean Mountains, modern Israeli name for the mountains around Jerusalem, politically divided between Israel and the Occupied West Bank Judea and Samaria, official Israeli name for the West Bank. Other places Judah, Indiana, a small town in the United States People Given name Persons that had only the name Judah Those persons had neither middle name nor last name Judah Maccabee, leader of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire Judah haNasi, chief redactor of the Mishnah and second-century Jewish leader Judah II, third-century Jewish sage Judah III, third- and fourth-century Jewish sage Judas Iscariot Yehuda Halevi, prominent Medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Persons that had Judah as their first or middle name Judah P. Benjamin, a politician and lawyer in the United States and Confederate States of America Judah Nagler, singer, guitarist and songwriter for indie-pop band The Velvet Teen Yehuda Alharizi, prominent Medieval Spanish Jewish rabbi, translator, poet and traveller Yehuda Amichai, Israeli poet Yehuda Amital, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivat Har Etzion and a former member of the Israeli cabinet Judah Lew ben Bezalel, the Maharal, an important Talmudic scholar, Jewish mystic, and philosopher who served as a leading rabbi in Prague (now in the Czech Republic) for most of his life Judah Freed. American author and journalist Yehuda Gilad, clarinetist Yehuda Gilad, rabbi and politician Yehuda Krinsky, Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic rabbi Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin, Rosh yeshiva of the Volozhin yeshiva and author of several works of rabbinic literature in Lithuania Dr. Judah Folkman, American cellular biologist, founder of the field of antiangiogenesis. Judah Friedlander, American actor. *30 Rock Judah N. VanSyckel, American politician and future lawyer integral in the politics of South Carolina; also authored "Moe's Manifesto" and a treatise on the consequences of the Bush doctrine. Others Haile Selassie I, called the Lion of Judah (or the Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah) in Rastafari Surname Henry M. Judah, American soldier Theodore Judah, American engineer who dreamed of the first transcontinental railroad Zab Judah, former world champion welterweight boxer Organizations Bnei Yehuda, Israeli football team (literally, "Sons of Judah" or "Sons of Judea") Hapoel Mahane Yehuda F.C., Israeli football team Yehuda Matzos, an Israeli matza company Young Judaea, a peer-led Zionist youth movement of Hadassah Mateh Yehuda Regional Council Mahane Yehuda Market

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Mosque

A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. Muslims often refer to the mosque by its Arabic name, masjid, — (pl. masājid, — ). The word "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (, masjid jāmi‘), which has more community and social amenities. The mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat (prayer) (, ṣalāt) as well as a center for information, education, and dispute settlement. The Imam leads the prayer. They have developed significantly from the open-air spaces that were the Quba Mosque and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in the 7th century. Many mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls. Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula, but are now found in all inhabited continents. Etymology The Arabic masjid means aplace of worship and is a noun of place from the verb sajada (root "s-j-d," meaning "to bow" or "to kneel") in reference to the prostrations performed during Islamic prayers. Either the word masjid itself or at least the verb from which it is derived was borrowed from Aramaic. The word "m-s-g-d" is attested in Aramaic as early as the 5th century BCE, and the same word is later found in Nabataean inscriptions with the meaning "place of worship"; apparently, this Aramaic word originally meant "stele" or "sacred pillar". The same root exists also in Hebrew,(ס-ג-ד), meaning "to worship". The modern-day English word "mosque", just like its equivalents in many other European languages, derives from the word masjid via Spanish mezquita. The pre-cursors of the word "mosque" appeared during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries and "Moseak", "muskey", "moschy", and "mos'keh" were just some of the variations that came into use until it was decided that "mosquee", imitating Middle French, Italian, and Old Spanish, would become the standard. In the early 18th century, the modern spelling became the most popular and standard spelling of the word. 'History Grand entryways and tall towers, or minarets, have long been and continue to be closely associated with mosques. However, the first three mosques were very simple open spaces on the Arabian Peninsula. Mosques evolved significantly over the next 1,000 years, acquiring their now-distinctive features and adapting to cultures around the world. Diffusion and evolution Mosques were built outside the Arabian Peninsula as Muslims moved to other parts of the world. Egypt became occupied by Muslim Arabs as early as 640, and since then so many mosques have appeared throughout the country that its capital city, Cairo, has acquired the nickname of city of a thousand minarets. Egyptian mosques vary in amenities, as some have Islamic schools (madrassas) while others have hospitals or tombs. Mosques in Sicily and Spain do not primarily reflect the architecture of Visigothic predecessors, but instead reflect the architecture introduced by the Muslim Moors. It is hypothesized, however, that there were some elements of pre-Islamic architecture which were Islamicized into Andalusi and Maghribi architecture, for example, the distinctive horseshoe arch. The minaret at the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China The first Chinese mosque was established in the eighth century in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current building dates from the eighteenth century, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional Chinese architecture. It is distinguished from other buildings by its green roof (Buddhist temples are often built with a yellow roof). Mosques in western China incorporate more traditional elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas. By the fifteenth century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, Indonesia's two most populous islands. As with Hinduism and Buddhism before it, the new religion and its accompanying foreign influences were absorbed and reinterpreted, with mosques given a unique Indonesian/Javanese interpretation. At the time, Javanese mosques took many design cues from Hindu, Buddhist, and even Chinese architectural influences. They lacked, for example, the ubiquitous Islamic dome which did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century, but had tall timber, multi-level roofs not too dissimilar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples still common today. A number of significant early mosques survive, particularly along the north coast of Java. These include the Mesjid Agung in Demak, built in 1474, and the Grand Mosque of Yogyakarta that feature multi-level roofs. Javanese styles in turn influenced the architectural styles of mosques among Indonesia's Austronesian neighbors: Malaysia, Brunei and the southern Philippines. The Great Mosque of Paris. Mosques diffused into India during the reign of the Mughal empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Mughals brought their own form of architecture that included pointed, onion-shaped domes, as seen in Delhi's Jama Masjid. Mosques first arrived in the Ottoman Empire (mostly present-day Turkey) during the eleventh century, when many local Turks converted to Islam. Several of the first mosques in the Ottoman Empire, such as the Hagia Sophia in present-day Istanbul, were originally churches or cathedrals in the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans created their own design of mosques, which included large central domes, multiple minarets, and open façades. The Ottoman style of mosques usually included elaborate columns, aisles, and high ceilings in the interior, while incorporating traditional elements, such as the mihrab. Today, Turkey is still home to many mosques that display this Ottoman style of architecture. Mosques gradually diffused to different parts of Europe, but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent. Major European cities, such as Rome, London, and Munich, are home to mosques that feature traditional domes and minarets. These large mosques in urban centers are supposed to serve as community and social centers for a large group of Muslims that occupy the region. However, one can still find smaller mosques in more suburban and rural regions throughout Europe where Muslims populate, an example of this is the Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking, the first purpose built mosque in the UK. There are 40,000 to 50,000 mosques in the United States and Islam is the fastest growing religion there. Mosques first appeared in the United States in the early twentieth century, the likely first being one in Maine built by Albanian immigrants in 1915. as more immigrants continue to arrive in the country, especially from South Asia, the number of American mosques is increasing faster than ever before. Whereas only two percent of the country's mosques appeared in the United States before 1950, eighty-seven percent of American mosques were founded after 1970 and fifty percent of American mosques founded after 1980. Conversion of places of worship The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria was a Byzantine church before the Islamic conquest of the Levant. Some ecclesiastical elements are still evident. According to early Muslim historians, towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims received "permission" to take their churches and synagogues, One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus, Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik took the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque, which is now known as Umayyad Mosque; overall, Abd al-Malik is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques. The process of turning churches into mosques was especially intensive in the villages. The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques. Ottoman Turks converted into mosques nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople, including the famous Hagia Sophia, immediately after capturing the city in 1453. In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam. Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492. The most prominent of them is the Great Mosque of Cordoba. The Iberian Peninsula, Southeast Europe, and India (the Babri Masjid incident) are other regions in the world where such instances occurred once no longer under Muslim rule. Religious functions Prayers Muslims performing salat at the Umayyad Mosque. All adult Muslims, with exceptions for the infirm, are required to offer Salat prayers five times daily. Most mosques will organise a formal time of prayer for each of the daily timeslots. In addition to holding the daily prayers, mosques hold weekly jumu'ah services which replace the midday prayer on Fridays. While daily prayers can be performed anywhere, it is required to attend Friday prayers at the mosque. The mosque is the centre of the Islamic community, illustrating the idea of brotherhood and iman. A funeral prayer, or salat ul-janazah, is normally held for a deceased Muslim outdoors in a courtyard or square close to the mosque, with all congregants present, including the imam, participating. During eclipses, mosques will host special prayers called eclipse prayers. There are two large holidays (Eids) in the Islamic calendar, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha during which there are special prayers held at mosques in the morning. These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so larger mosques will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques. Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards or town squares. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul. Ramadan events Islam's holiest month, Ramadan, is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host iftar dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, maghrib. Food is provided, at least in part, by members of the community, thereby creating nightly potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve iftar dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the iftar dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold suhoor meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, fajr. As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable. Following the last obligatory daily prayer (isha) special, optional tarawih prayers are offered in larger mosques. During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized the entire Qur’an will recite a segment of the book. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe Laylat al-Qadr, the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Qur'anic revelations. On that night, between sunset and sunrise, mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam. Mosques or the community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night. The Al-‘Abbās Mosque is visited by millions of Shī‘ah pilgrims every year, in Karbala, Iraq. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques within the Muslim community will host i'tikaf, a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate. Muslims performing i'tikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam. As a result, the rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay. Charity The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as zakat. Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give zakat and, if necessary, collect it. Prior to the holiday of Eid ul-Fitr, mosques also collect a special zakat that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday. Contemporary political roles Mosque in Cuiabá, Brazil. The late twentieth century saw an increase in the number of mosques used for political purposes. Today, civic participation is commonly promoted in mosques in the Western world. Because of the importance in the community, mosques are used for preaching peaceful co-existence with non-believers, even in times of adversity. Advocacy Countries with a minority Muslim population are more likely than Muslim-majority countries of the Greater Middle East to use mosques as a way to promote civic participation. American mosques host voter registration and civic participation drives that promote involving Muslims, who are often first- or second-generation immigrants, in the political process. As a result of these efforts as well as attempts at mosques to keep Muslims informed about the issues facing the Muslim community, regular mosque attendants are more likely to participate in protests, sign petitions, and otherwise be involved in politics. Nevertheless, a link between political views and mosque attendance can still be seen in other parts of the world. Following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in February 2006, imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers as vehicles to call for calm and peace in the midst of widespread violence. A few mosques have become the platforms of extremist imams to advocate terrorism and extreme Islamic ideals. Finsbury Park Mosque in London is exemplary of a mosque that has been used in this manner. Social conflict The 16th Century Babri Mosque in India was destroyed by Hindu extremists in 1992. As they are considered important to the Muslim community, mosques, like other places of worship, can be at the heart of social conflicts. Babri Mosque was the subject of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished. Before a mutual solution could be devised, the mosque was destroyed by approximately 200,000 Hindus on December 6, 1992 as the mosque was built by Babur allegedly on the site of a previous Hindu temple marking the birthplace of Ram. The controversy surrounded the mosque was directly linked to rioting in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people. A February 2006 bombing that seriously damaged Iraq's al-Askari Mosque, exacerbated tensions that had already existed. Other mosque bombings in Iraq, both before and after the February 2006 bombing, have been part of the conflict between the country's groups of Muslims. However, mosque bombings have not been exclusive to Iraq; in June 2005, a suicide bomber killed at least 19 people at an Afghan mosque. In April 2006, two explosions occurred at India's Jama Masjid. Following the September 11 attacks, several American mosques were targeted in attacks ranging from simple vandalism to arson. Furthermore, the Jewish Defense League was suspected of plotting to bomb the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California. Similar attacks occurred throughout the United Kingdom following the 7 July 2005 London bombings. Outside the Western world, in June 2001, the Hassan Bek Mosque was the target of attacks involving hundreds of Israelis angry at Arabs for a previous attack. Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan, by Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay, was financed by approximately 1976 SAR130 million (2006 US$120 million) from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Saudi influence Although the Saudi involvement in mosques around the world can be traced back to the 1960s, it was not until later in the twentieth century that the government of Saudi Arabia became a large influence in foreign mosques. Beginning in the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government began to finance the construction of mosques in countries around the world. An estimated US$45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government financing mosques and Islamic schools in foreign countries. Ain al-Yaqeen, a Saudi newspaper, reported in 2002 that Saudi funds may have contributed to building as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers Saudi citizens have also contributed significantly to mosques in the Islamic world, especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1992, mosques in impoverished Afghanistan saw many contributions from Saudi citizens. The King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California and the Islamic Cultural Center of Italy in Rome represent two of Saudi Arabia's largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud contributed US$8 million and US$50 million to the two mosques, respectively. Architecture Styles The Mosquée Ennasr mosque in Ariana has a futurist architectureThe architecture of mosques are a continuation of pre-Islamic architecture of palaces built during the Parthian and Sassanian dynasties of Persia. The Sarvestan palace from the Sassanian era is a great example of this. For example, the idea of having an arched entrance and a central dome is clearly one borrowed from pre-Islamic, Persian architecture. After the Arab invasion of Persia, this architecture, as well as elements of Sassanian culture, was used for the new Islamic world. Many forms of mosques have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world. Notable mosque types include the early Abbasid mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia. The oil-wealth of the twentieth century drove a great deal of mosque construction using designs from leading non-Muslim modern architects and promoting the careers of important contemporary Muslim architects. Abuja National Mosque, NigeriaArab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard and covered prayer hall. Historically, in the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required the use of numerous columns and supports. One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Mezquita de Córdoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns. Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitors can enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity. The Jami Ul Alfar mosque in Colombo Sri Lanka has a striking candy-striped facade with structural elements fusing Moorish and Colonial style architectures The Jamiah Masjid in Tamilnadu, South India has Dravidian style of architecture The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the fifteenth century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed. This style was heavily influenced by the Byzantine religious architecture with its use of large central domes.Iwan mosques are most notable for their domed chambers and iwans, vaulted spaces opening out at one end. In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style represents a borrowing from pre-Islamic Iranian architecture and has been used almost exclusively for mosques in Iran. Hajja Soad mosque in Khartoum land terminal. Designed by arch. Hussein Kinani at 2006, Sudan. Hajja Soad's mosque took a pyramid shape which is a creative style in Islamic architecture. Minarets A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The tallest minaret in the world is located at the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, Morocco. The first mosques had no minarets, and even nowadays the most conservative Islamic movements, like Wahhabis, avoid building minarets, seeing them as ostentatious and unnecessary. The first minaret was constructed in 665 in Basra during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the construction of minarets, as they were supposed to bring mosques on par with Christian churches with their bell towers. Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose — calling the faithful to prayer. The Islamic Solidarity Mosque in Mogadishu with a tall minaret. Before the five required daily prayers, a muezzin calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the call to prayer (adhan), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community. The adhan is required before every prayer. However, nearly every mosque assigns a muezzin for each prayer to say the adhan as it is a recommended practice or sunnah of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At mosques that do not have minarets, the adhan is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground. The iqama, which is similar to the adhan and said immediately before the start of prayer, is usually not said from the minaret even if a mosque has one. Domes The domes of the Khatem Al Anbiyaa Mosque in Beirut, Lebanon. The domes, often placed directly above the main prayer hall, may signify the vaults of heaven and the sky. As time progressed, dome grew, from occupying a small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing the whole roof above the prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia. Some mosques have multiple, often smaller, domes in addition to the main large dome that resides at the center. Prayer hall The prayer hall, or musalla, in a Turkish mosque, with a Minbar. The prayer hall, also known as the musalla, has no furniture; chairs and pews are absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line the room. Some mosques have Arabic calligraphy and Qur'anic verses on the walls to assist worshippers in focusing on the beauty of Islam and its holiest book, the Qur'an, as well as for decoration. Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qiblah wall, the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qiblah wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca, the location of the Kaaba. Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the qiblah wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. Sometimes, especially during Friday prayers, a raised minbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for a khatib or some other speaker to offer a sermon (khutbah). The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis. A simple heritage mosque in Australian outback contrasts with the grand designs of established Islamic communities. Bourke cemetery, New South Wales Ablution facilities As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. However, worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard. This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques. Contemporary features Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants. As mosques are supposed to appeal to the community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics to libraries to gymnasiums, to serve the community. "Makeshift" Mosques Most especially in Metro Manila, Philippines area, is common for some Muslim-denominated bazaars (tiangge) to also have a makeshift mosque. They are made primarily for Muslim tenants, most especially when a mosque is not available on the vicinity. Such mosques can be seen in the Riverbanks Mall in Marikina and on the bazaar in the parking lot between Sta Lucia Mall and Robinsons Metro East in Pasig. Rules and etiquette Baitul Mukarram (Dhaka), the National Mosque of Bangladesh. The structure resembles the Kaaba in Mecca.Mosques, in accordance with Islamic practices, institute a number of rules intended to keep Muslims focused on worshipping Allah. While there are several rules, such as those regarding not allowing shoes in the prayer hall, that are universal, there are many other rules that are dealt with and enforced in a variety of ways from mosque to mosque. Prayer leader Appointment of a prayer leader is considered desirable, but not always obligatory. The permanent prayer leader (imam) must be a free honest man and is authoritative in religious matters. In mosques constructed and maintained by the government, the prayer leader is appointed by the ruler; in private mosques, however, appointment is made by members of the congregation through majority voting. According to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, the man who built the mosque has a stronger claim to the title of imam, but this view is not shared by the other schools. Leadership at prayer falls into three categories, depending on the type of prayer: five daily prayers, Friday prayer, or optional prayers. According to the Hanafi and Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, appointment of a prayer leader for Friday service is mandatory because otherwise the prayer is invalid. The Shafi'i and Hanbali schools, however, argue that the appointment is not necessary and the prayer is valid as long as it is performed in a congregation. A slave may lead a Friday prayer, but Muslim authorities disagree over whether the job can be done by a minor. An imam appointed to lead Friday prayers may also lead at the five daily prayers; Muslim scholars agree to the leader appointed for five daily services may lead the Friday service as well. Interior of the Mezquita, a hypostyle former mosque with columns arranged in grid pattern, in Córdoba, Spain. All Muslim authorities hold the consensus opinion that only men may lead prayer for men. Nevertheless women prayer leaders are allowed to lead prayer in front of all-female congregations. Cleanliness All mosques have rules regarding cleanliness, as it is an essential part of the worshipper's experience. Muslims before prayer are required to cleanse themselves in an ablution process known as wudu. However, even to those who enter the prayer hall of a mosque without the intention of praying, there are still rules that apply. Shoes must not be worn inside the carpeted prayer hall. Some mosques will also extend that rule to include other parts of the facility even if those other locations are not devoted to prayer. Congregants and visitors to mosques are supposed to be clean themselves. It is also undesirable to come to the mosque after eating something that smells, such as garlic. Among the crowds at Imām Ridhā Mosque, are many women who dress in Chador to maintain their modesty and elegance. Dress Islam requires that its adherents wear clothes that portray modesty. As a result, although many mosques will not enforce violations, both men and women when attending a mosque must adhere to these guidelines. Men are supposed to come to the mosque wearing loose and clean clothes that do not reveal the shape of the body. Likewise, it is recommended that women at a mosque wear loose clothing that covers to the wrists and ankles, and cover their heads with a hijab or other covering. Many Muslims, regardless of their ethnic background, wear Middle eastern clothing associated with Arabic Islam to special occasions and prayers at mosques. Concentration As mosques are places of worship, those within the mosque are required to remain respectful to those in prayer. Loud talking within the mosque, as well as discussion of topics deemed disrespectful, is forbidden in areas where people are praying. In addition, it is disrespectful to walk in front of or otherwise disturb Muslims in prayer. The walls within the mosque have few items, except for possibly Arabic calligraphy, so Muslims in prayer are not distracted. Muslims are also discouraged from wearing clothing with distracting images and symbols so as not to divert the attention of those standing behind them during prayer. In many mosques, even the carpeted prayer area has no designs, its plainness helping worshippers to focus. Gender separation Muslims praying in the male section of a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. Islamic law requires men and women to be separated in the prayer hall; ideally, the women must occupy the rows behind the men. Muhammad preferred women to pray at home rather than at a mosque, and according to the hadith Muhammad said: "The best mosques for women are the inner parts of their houses", although Muhammad told Muslims not to forbid women from entering mosques. The second caliph Umar at one time prohibited women from attending mosques especially at night because he feared they may be teased by males, so he required them to pray at home. Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women; for example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women. Many mosques today will put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room against most Islamic beliefs. Mosques in South and Southeast Asia put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago. In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all due to the lack of space and the fact that some prayers, such as the Friday Jummah, are mandatory for men but optional for women. Although there are sections exclusively for women and children, the Grand Mosque in Mecca is desegregated. Non-Muslims in mosques The Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca is one of two mosques in Morocco open to non-Muslims. Under most interpretations of Islamic law, non-Muslims may be allowed into mosques, as long as they do not sleep or eat there. A dissenting opinion is presented by followers of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, who argue that non-Muslims may not be allowed into mosques under any circumstances. The Qur'an addresses the subject of non-Muslims, and particularly polytheists, in mosques in two verses in its ninth chapter, Sura At-Tawba. The seventeenth verse of the chapter prohibits those who join gods with Allah — polytheists — from entering mosques: It is not for such as join gods with Allah, to visit or maintain the mosques of Allah while they witness against their own souls to infidelity. The works of such bear no fruit: In Fire shall they dwell. (Yusuf Ali ) The twenty-eighth verse of the same chapter is more specific as it only considers polytheists in the Sacred Mosque, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca: The Badshahi Mosque (Royal Mosque) of Lahore, built by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is also open to non-Muslim tourists. O ye who believe! Truly the Pagans are unclean; so let them not, after this year of theirs, approach the Sacred Mosque. And if ye fear poverty, soon will Allah enrich you, if He wills, out of His bounty, for Allah is All-knowing, All-wise.'' (Yusuf Ali ) According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal, these verses were followed to the letter at the times of Muhammad, when Jews and Christians, considered monotheists, were still allowed to the Masjid al-Haram. However, the Umayyad caliph Umar II later forbade non-Muslims from entering mosques, and his ruling remained in practice in Saudi Arabia. Today, the decision on whether non-Muslims should be allowed to enter mosques varies. With few exceptions, mosques in the Arabian peninsula as well as Morocco do not allow entry to non-Muslims. For example, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca is one of only two mosques in Morocco currently open to non-Muslims. However, there are also many other places in the west as well as the Islamic world where non-Muslims are welcome to enter mosques. Most mosques in the United States, for example, report receiving non-Muslim visitors every month. Many Mosques throughout the United States welcome non-Muslims as a sign of openness to the rest of the community as well as to encourage conversions to Islam. Liyakatali Takim is a professor in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Denver In modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Grand Mosque and all of Mecca are open only to Muslims. Likewise, the Masjid al-Nabawi and the city of Medina that surrounds it are also off-limits to those who do not practice Islam. For mosques in other areas, it has most commonly been taken that non-Muslims may only enter mosques if granted permission to do so by Muslims and if they have a legitimate reason. All entrants regardless of religious affiliation are expected to respect the rules and decorum for mosques. In modern Turkey non-Muslim tourists are allowed to enter any mosque, but there are some strict rules. Visiting a mosque is allowed only between prayers; visitors are required to wear long trousers and not to wear shoes, women must cover their heads; visitors are not allowed to interrupt praying Muslims, especially by taking photos of them; no loud talk is allowed; and no references to other religions are allowed (no crosses on necklaces, no cross gestures etc.) At different times and places, non-Muslims living under Muslim rule were required to demonstrate deference to mosques. In most cities of Morocco, Jews were required to remove their shoes when passing by a mosque. Danish traveler Carsten Niebuhr wrote that in 18th century Egypt "Jews and Christians had to dismount before several mosques in veneration of their sanctity." Dogs Dogs are usually banned from entering mosques, but on September 24, 2008, the Muslim Law Council UK granted a blind Muslim permission to take his guide dog into the mosque via a Fatwa. See also Eidgah List of largest mosques Islamic art Sahn Timeline of Islamic history Arabesque Islamic Golden Age Indo-Islamic Architecture Moorish Revival Famous mosques Masjid al-Haram; Mecca, Saudi Arabia - holiest site in Islam Masjid al-Nabawi; Medina, Saudi Arabia - second-holiest site in Islam Al-Aqsa Mosque; Jerusalem, Israel/Palestinian territories (disputed) - third- or fourth-holiest site in Islam Hala Sultan Tekke; Larnaca, Cyprus - third- or fourth-holiest site in Islam Cited by: The Story of Hala Sultan Tekke, University of Arizona: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, "The Mosque of Umm Haram is the chief Muslim shrine on the island of Cyprus and an important holy site for the entire Muslim world... The Hala Sultan Tekke is the third most revered site of pilgrimage in the Muslim world." Retrieved: 23-02-2009 Papalexandrou, Nassos. Hala Sultan Tekke, Cyprus: An Elusive Landscape of Sacredness in a Liminal Context, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, Volume 26, Number 2. John Hopkins University Press, (October 2008) pp. 251-281. "Der Parthog calls it the “third most holy space in Islam” (1995:222–223)" Fazl Mosque; London, the first ever mosque built in London. Baitul Futuh; United Kingdom, the largest mosque in Western Europe. Grand Mosque of Rome; Italy, the largest mosque of whole Europe. Berlin Mosque, Ahmadiyya Moschee; Berlin, Germany, Germany's oldest mosque, built between 1923 and 1925 Islamic Centre Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany, one of the leading Shia centres in the Western world Baitun nur; Canada, the largest mosque in North America. Al-Azhar Mosque; Cairo, Egypt Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque; Damascus, Syria - Tomb of Zaynab bint Ali Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque; Damascus, Syria - Tomb of Fatimah the youngest daughter of Husayn ibn Ali Umayyad Mosque; Damascus, Syria Imam Ali Mosque; Najaf, Iraq - Tomb of the First Shī`a Imām, 'Ali ibn Abī Tālib Imam Husayn Mosque; Karbala, Iraq - Tomb of the Third - Twelver Shī`a Imām, Husayn ibn Ali Al Kadhimiya Mosque; Kadhimayn, Iraq - Tomb of the Seventh Shī`a Imām, Musa al-Kadhim and the Ninth Shī`a Imām, Muhammad at-Taqi Al Askari Mosque; Samarra, Iraq - Tomb of the Tenth Shī`a Imām, `Alī an-Naqi and the Eleventh Shī`a Imām, Hasan al-`Askarī Imam Ridha Mosque; Mashad, Iran - Tomb of the Eighth Shī`a Imām, 'Ali ar-Ridha Fatimah al-Ma'sumah Mosque; Qom, Iran - Tomb of Fatimah al-Ma'sūmah, sister of the Eighth Shī`a Imām, 'Ali ar-Ridha Hacı Bayram Mosque; Ankara, Turkey Faisal Mosque; Islamabad, Pakistan - largest mosque in the world, in area Badshahi Masjid; Lahore, Pakistan - largest Mughal Empire mosque Mezquita; Córdoba, Spain - tenth century Moorish place of worship, now a Roman Catholic cathedral Hagia Sophia; Istanbul, Turkey - former cathedral; mosque from 1453 to 1935 Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque); Istanbul, Turkey - built across from the Hagia Sophia Shah Mosque; Isfahan, Iran - commissioned by Shah Abbas I Jama Masjid; Delhi, India - India's largest mosque Mother Mosque of America; Cedar Rapids, Iowa - the oldest mosque in North America Huaisheng Mosque Over 1,300 years old, one of the oldest mosques in China. Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque; Muscat, Oman - Mosque with the world's second largest carpet and chandelier (Sheikh Zayed Mosque in Abu Dhabi now holds these records) Istiqlal Mosque; Jakarta, Indonesia - the largest mosque in Southeast Asia Masjid Agung Demak; Demak, Central Java, Indonesia - the first mosque in Java Hassan II Mosque, Casablanca, Morocco, contains the world's largest minaret. Grande Mosquée de Paris, Paris, France Media References Books and journals Drury, Abdullah, Islam in New Zealand: The First Mosque (Christchurch, 2007) ISBN 978-0-473-12249-2 . Encyclopedias Further reading Notes and references External links Website with a gallery of Masjid Pictures from around the world. Mosques in the USA Virtual Mosque Tour - Provide free websites for Mosques in the UK UK Mosques - detailed graphical map of each one Local Mosques Ottoman: Art and the Culture - provides information on Ottoman mosques and architecture Pictures of over 40 Istanbul Mosques The Mosque Review (Masjid) - provides an overview of the features and floor plans of mosques The Martyred Mosques On the Seven Mosques of Medina A review of Mosque Architecture Islam in Keighley Darul Ishaat - keighley based Online Islamic store mosque: Photos, Videos on Technorati Local Mosques at Islamicity Imamia Mission Shia Organisation in Bury, Manchester, U.K. Mosques From Around the World Mosques From Around the World at Islamicity High-res photo gallery of world wide mosques Mosques - Great Buildings Online LexicOrient- Mosques Mosques in Egypt Mosques in Singapore American Mosques Mosques at sacred destinations A directory of UK mosques, with mosque address The mosque in Islamic religion Architectural features of mosques Islamic Architecture Mosque Online - Assisting Mosques get Online Free Ulu Cami: A Karachay Mosque serving Muslim Community in Northern Jersey Mosques map in the World be-x-old:Мячэт

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Antimatter

In particle physics, antimatter is the extension of the concept of the antiparticle to matter, where antimatter is composed of antiparticles in the same way that normal matter is composed of particles. For example, an antielectron (a positron, an electron with a positive charge) and an antiproton (a proton with a negative charge) could form an antihydrogen atom in the same way that an electron and a proton form a normal matter hydrogen atom. Furthermore, mixing matter and antimatter would lead to the annihilation of both in the same way that mixing antiparticles and particles does, thus giving rise to high-energy photons (gamma rays) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. There is considerable speculation as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, whether there exist other places that are almost entirely antimatter instead, and what might be possible if antimatter could be harnessed, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics. The process by which this asymmetry between particles and antiparticles developed is called baryogenesis. Notation One way to denote an antiparticle is by adding a bar (or macron) over the particle's symbol. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as p and p, respectively. The same rule applies if you were to address a particle by its constituent components. A proton is made up of u u d quarks, so an antiproton must therefore be formed from u u d antiquarks. Another convention is to distinguish particles by their electric charge. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as e− and e+ respectively. Origin (naturally occurring production) Asymmetry Almost every object observable from the Earth seems to be made of matter rather than antimatter. Many scientists believe that this preponderance of matter over antimatter (known as baryon asymmetry) is the result of an imbalance in the production of matter and antimatter particles in the early universe, in a process called baryogenesis. The amount of matter presently observable in the universe only requires an imbalance in the early universe on the order of one extra matter particle per billion matter-antimatter particle pairs. Antiparticles are created everywhere in the universe where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy cosmic rays impacting Earth's atmosphere (or any other matter in the solar system) produce minute quantities of antimatter in the resulting particle jets, which are immediately annihilated by contact with nearby matter. It may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the Milky Way Galaxy and other galaxies, where very energetic celestial events occur (principally the interaction of relativistic jets with the interstellar medium). The presence of the resulting antimatter is detectable by the gamma rays produced when positrons annihilate with nearby matter. The gamma rays' frequency and wavelength indicate that each carries 511 keV of energy (i.e. the rest mass of an electron or positron multiplied by c2). Recent observations by the European Space Agency's INTEGRAL (International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory) satellite may explain the origin of a giant cloud of antimatter surrounding the galactic center. The observations show that the cloud is asymmetrical and matches the pattern of X-ray binaries, binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars, mostly on one side of the galactic center. While the mechanism is not fully understood, it is likely to involve the production of electron-positron pairs, as ordinary matter gains tremendous energy while falling into a stellar remnant. Antimatter may exist in relatively large amounts in far away galaxies due to cosmic inflation in the primordial time of the universe. NASA is trying to determine if this is true by looking for X-ray and gamma ray signatures of annihilation events in colliding superclusters. Artificial production Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the pair production threshold). During the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter, also called baryon asymmetry, is attributed to violation of the CP-symmetry relating matter and antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery. Positrons are also produced via the radioactive beta+ decay, but this mechanism can be considered as "natural" as well as "artificial". Antihydrogen In 1995 CERN announced that it had successfully brought into existence nine antihydrogen atoms by implementing the SLAC/Fermilab concept during the PS210 experiment. The experiment was performed using the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), and was led by Walter Oelert and Mario Macri. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities. The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210, and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic ("hot") and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s — ATHENA and ATRAP. In 2005, ATHENA disbanded and some of the former members (along with others) formed the ALPHA Collaboration, which is also situated at CERN. The primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic ("cold") antihydrogen, better suited to study. In 1999 CERN activated the Antiproton Decelerator, a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 3.5 GeV to 5.3 MeV — still too "hot" to produce study-effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward. In late 2002 the ATHENA project announced that they had created the world's first "cold" antihydrogen. The antiprotons used in the experiment were cooled sufficiently by decelerating them (using the Antiproton Decelerator), passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a Penning trap. The antiprotons also underwent stochastic cooling at several stages during the process. The ATHENA team's antiproton cooling process is effective, but highly inefficient. Approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator; roughly 10 thousand make it to the Penning trap. In early 2004 ATHENA researchers released data on a new method of creating low-energy antihydrogen. The technique involves slowing antiprotons using the Antiproton Decelerator, and injecting them into a Penning trap (specifically a Penning-Malmberg trap). Once trapped the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to an energy potential significantly less than the antiprotons; the resulting Coulomb collisions cool the antiprotons while warming the electrons until the particles reach an equilibrium of approximately 4 K. While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into a second trap (the mixing trap). Exciting the resonance of the mixing trap’s confinement fields can control the temperature of the positron plasma; but the procedure is more effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the trap’s environment. The positron plasma cloud is generated in a positron accumulator prior to injection; the source of the positrons is usually radioactive sodium. Once the antiprotons are sufficiently cooled, the antiproton-electron mixture is transferred into the mixing trap (containing the positrons). The electrons are subsequently removed by a series of fast pulses in the mixing trap's electrical field. When the antiprotons reach the positron plasma further Coulomb collisions occur, resulting in further cooling of the antiprotons. When the positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to form. Being electrically neutral the antihydrogen atoms are not affected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields. Utilizing this method, ATHENA researchers predict they will be able to create up to 100 antihydrogen atoms per operational second. ATHENA and ATRAP are now seeking to further cool the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to an inhomogeneous field. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, their spin produces magnetic moments. These magnetic moments vary depending on the spin direction of the atom, and can be deflected by inhomogeneous fields regardless of electrical charge. The biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that when fully operational their facilities are capable of producing 107 antiprotons per second. Assuming an optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen, it would take two billion years to produce 1 gram or 1 mole of antihydrogen (approximately 6.02×1023 atoms of antihydrogen). Another limiting factor to antimatter production is storage. As stated above there is no known way to effectively store antihydrogen. The ATHENA project has managed to keep antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for tens of seconds — just enough time to briefly study their behaviour. Hydrogen atoms are the simplest objects that can be considered as "matter" rather than as just particles. Simultaneous trapping of antiprotons and antielectrons was reported and the cooling is achieved; there are patents on the way of production of antihydrogen. Antihelium A small number of nuclei of the antihelium isotope, have been created in collision experiments. Positrons Positrons were reported in November 2008 to have been generated by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in larger numbers than by any previous synthetic process. A laser drove ionized electrons through a millimeter radius gold target's nuclei, which caused the incoming electrons to emit energy quanta, that decayed into both matter and antimatter. Positrons were detected at a higher rate and in greater density than ever previously detected in a laboratory. Previous experiments made smaller quantities of positrons using lasers and paper-thin targets; however, new simulations showed that short, ultra-intense lasers and millimeter-thick gold are a far more effective source. Cosmos Online - Laser creates billions of antimatter particles (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/2345/laser-creates-billions-particles-antimatter) Preservation Antimatter cannot be stored in a container made of ordinary matter because antimatter reacts with any matter it touches, annihilating itself and the container. Antimatter that is composed of charged particles can be contained by a combination of an electric field and a magnetic field in a device known as a Penning trap. This device cannot, however, contain antimatter that consists of uncharged particles, for which atomic traps are used. In particular, such a trap may use the dipole moment (electrical or magnetic) of the trapped particles; at high vacuum, the matter or antimatter particles can be trapped (suspended) and cooled with slightly off-resonant laser radiation (see, for example, magneto-optical trap and Magnetic trap). Small particles can be also suspended by just intensive optical beam in the optical tweezers. Cost Antimatter is said to be the most costly substance in existence, with an estimated cost of $62.5 trillion per gram. This is because production is difficult (only a few atoms are produced in reactions in particle accelerators), and because there is higher demand for the other uses of particle accelerators. According to CERN, it has cost a few hundred million Swiss Francs to produce about 1 billionth of a gram. Several NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts-funded studies are exploring whether it might be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that occurs naturally in the Van Allen belts of Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants like Jupiter, hopefully at a lower cost per gram. Uses Medical Antimatter-matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET). In positive beta decay, a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and neutrinos are also given off). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a cyclotron and are widely generated for medical use. Fuel In antimatter-matter collisions resulting in photon emission, the entire rest mass of the particles is converted to kinetic energy. The energy per unit mass (9×1016 J/kg) is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy (compared to TNT at 4.2×106 J/kg, and formation of water at 1.56×107 J/kg), about 4 orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using nuclear fission (about 40 MeV per 238U nucleus transmuted to Lead, or 1.5×1013 J/kg), and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than the best possible from fusion (about 6.3×1014 J/kg for the proton-proton chain). The reaction of 1 kg of antimatter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8×1017 J (180 petajoules) of energy (by the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc²), or the rough equivalent of 47 megatons of TNT. For comparison, Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, reacted an estimated yield of 50 Megatons, which required the use of hundreds of kilograms of fissile material (Uranium/Plutonium). Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology, because as much as 50% of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and antinucleons is carried away by neutrinos, so, for all intents and purposes, it can be considered lost. Antimatter rocketry ideas, such as the redshift rocket, propose the use of antimatter as fuel for interplanetary travel or possibly interstellar travel. A patent has been issued for an antimatter engine claiming speeds up to one third the speed of light. Fernando de la Peña Llaca, Antimatter engine, World patent WO/2002/086317, filed 31-05-2001, issued 31-10-2002, retrieved online 12th May 2009. Since the energy density of antimatter is vastly higher than conventional fuels, the thrust to weight equation for such craft would be very different from conventional spacecraft. The scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it could be used in antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion. Generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy—millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter due to inefficiencies in the process. Known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter, so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter. Counterbalancing this, when antimatter annihilates with ordinary matter, energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated—so energy storage in the form of antimatter could (in theory) be 100% efficient. Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in 1955 by Segrè and Chamberlain. The current antimatter production rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to increase to between 3 and 30 nanograms per year by 2015 or 2020 with new superconducting linear accelerator facilities at CERN and Fermilab. Some researchers claim that with current technology, it is possible to obtain antimatter for US$25 million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters (given current electricity generation costs). Antimatter production costs, in mass production, are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs, so economical pure-antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as deuterium-tritium fusion power (assuming that such a power source actually would prove to be cheap). Many experts, however, dispute these claims as being far too optimistic by many orders of magnitude. They point out that in 2004, the annual production of antiprotons at CERN was several picograms at a cost of $20 million. This means to produce 1 gram of antimatter, CERN would need to spend 100 quadrillion dollars and run the antimatter factory for 100 billion years. Storage is another problem, as antiprotons are negatively charged and repel against each other, so that they cannot be concentrated in a small volume. Plasma oscillations in the charged cloud of antiprotons can cause instabilities that drive antiprotons out of the storage trap. For these reasons, to date only a few million antiprotons have been stored simultaneously in a magnetic trap, which corresponds to much less than a femtogram. Antihydrogen atoms or molecules are neutral so in principle they do not suffer the plasma problems of antiprotons described above. But cold antihydrogen is far more difficult to produce than antiprotons, and so far not a single antihydrogen atom has been trapped in a magnetic field. One researcher of the CERN laboratories, which produces antimatter regularly, said: See also Ambiplasma Particle accelerator Antiparticle Antihydrogen References External links Freeview Video 'Antimatter' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU CERN Webcasts (RealPlayer required) What is Antimatter? (from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter-Matter Studies) FAQ from CERN with lots of information about antimatter aimed at the general reader, posted in response to antimatter's fictional portrayal in Angels and Demons What is direct CP-violation? Animated illustration of antihydrogen production at CERN from the Exploratorium. Mystery of antimatter source solved - Maybe Gordon Fraser, Antimatter, The Ultimate Mirror'', ISBN 978-0521652520

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Garbage_collection_(computer_science)

In computer science, garbage collection (GC) is a form of automatic memory management. The garbage collector, or just collector, attempts to reclaim garbage, or memory used by objects that are no longer in use by the application. Garbage collection was invented by John McCarthy around 1959 to solve the problems of manual memory management in Lisp. Garbage collection is often portrayed as the opposite of manual memory management, which requires the programmer to specify which objects to deallocate and return to the memory system. However, many systems use a combination of the two approaches, and there are other techniques being studied (such as region inference) to solve the same fundamental problem. Note that there is an ambiguity of terms, as theory often uses the terms manual garbage collection and automatic garbage collection rather than manual memory management and garbage collection, and does not restrict garbage collection to memory management, rather considering that any logical or physical resource may be garbage collected. Description The basic principles of garbage collection are: Find data objects in a program that cannot be accessed in the future Reclaim the resources used by those objects By making manual memory deallocation unnecessary (and often forbidding it), garbage collection frees the programmer from having to worry about releasing objects that are no longer needed, which can otherwise consume a significant amount of design effort. It also aids programmers in their efforts to make programs more stable, because it prevents several classes of runtime errors. For example, it prevents dangling pointer errors, where a reference to a deallocated object is used. (The pointer still points to the location in memory where the object or data was, even though the object or data has since been deleted and the memory may now be used for other purposes, creating a dangling pointer. This can, and often does, lead to storage violation errors that are extremely difficult to detect.) Many computer languages require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (e.g., Java, C#, and most scripting languages) or effectively for practical implementation (e.g., formal languages like lambda calculus); these are said to be garbage collected languages. Other languages were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage collected implementations available (e.g., C, C++). Some languages, like Ada and Modula-3, allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects; others, like D, are garbage collected but allow the user to manually delete objects and also entirely disable garbage collection when speed is required. In any case, it is far easier to implement garbage collection as part of the language's compiler and runtime system, but post hoc GC systems exist, including ones that do not require recompilation. The garbage collector will almost always be closely integrated with the memory allocator. Benefits Garbage collection frees the programmer from manually dealing with memory allocation and deallocation. As a result, certain categories of bugs are eliminated or substantially reduced: Dangling pointer bugs, which occur when a piece of memory is freed while there are still pointers to it, and one of those pointers is used. Double free bugs, which occur when the program attempts to free a region of memory that is already free. Certain kinds of memory leaks, in which a program fails to free memory that is no longer referenced by any variable, leading, over time, to memory exhaustion. Researchers draw a distinction between "physical" and "logical" memory leaks. In a physical memory leak, the last pointer to a region of allocated memory is removed, but the memory is not freed. In a logical memory leak, a region of memory is still referenced by a pointer, but is never actually used. Maebe, Ronsse, and De Bosschere, "Precise detection of memory leaks." http://www.cs.virginia.edu/woda2004/papers/maebe.pdf Garbage collectors generally can do nothing about logical memory leaks. Novice programmers sometimes believe that garbage collection makes memory leaks impossible, not realizing that logical leaks are still possible. In languages that provide dynamic allocation, garbage collection is crucial to memory safety and often to the associated property of type safety. This in turn improves the security of the language by preventing a wide class of security vulnerabilities based on over-writing memory in unexpected ways. Tracing garbage collectors Tracing garbage collectors are the most common type of garbage collector. They first determine which objects are reachable (or potentially reachable), and then discard all remaining objects. Reachability of an object Informally, a reachable object can be defined as an object for which there exists some variable in the program environment that leads to it, either directly or through references from other reachable objects. More precisely, objects can be reachable in only two ways: A distinguished set of objects are assumed to be reachable—these are known as the roots. Typically, these include all the objects referenced from anywhere in the call stack (that is, all local variables and parameters in the functions currently being invoked), and any global variables. Anything referenced from a reachable object is itself reachable; more formally, reachability is a transitive closure. The reachability definition of "garbage" is not optimal, insofar as the last time a program uses an object could be long before that object falls out of the environment scope. A distinction is sometimes drawn between syntactic garbage, those objects the program cannot possibly reach, and semantic garbage, those objects the program will in fact never again use. For example: Object x = new Foo(); Object y = new Bar(); x = new Quux(); /* at this point, we know that the Foo object will * never be accessed - it is syntactic garbage */ if(x.check_something()) { x.do_something(y); } System.exit(0); /* in the above block, y *could* be semantic garbage, * but we won't know until x.check_something() returns * some value - if it returns at all */ The problem of precisely identifying semantic garbage can easily be shown to be partially decidable: a program that allocates an object X, runs an arbitrary input program P, and uses X if and only if P finishes would require a semantic garbage collector to solve the halting problem. Although conservative heuristic methods for semantic garbage detection remain an active research area, essentially all practical garbage collectors focus on syntactic garbage. Another complication with this approach is that, in languages with both reference types and unboxed value types, the garbage collector needs to somehow be able to distinguish which variables on the stack or fields in an object are regular values and which are references; since in memory, an integer and a reference might look alike. This often runs into problems with generic programming, where you may want to have a generic container class be able to hold various types of elements (e.g. the programmers want to have a list that can hold integers or references, or a mix of them). The garbage collector then needs to know whether to treat the element as a reference and follow it, or whether it is a primitive value. One common solution is the use of Tagged pointers. Basic algorithm Tracing collectors are so called because they trace through the working set of memory. These garbage collectors perform collection in cycles. A cycle is started when the collector decides (or is notified) that it needs to reclaim memory, which happens most often when the system is low on memory. The original method involves a naive mark-and-sweep in which the entire memory set is touched several times. Naive mark-and-sweep In the naive mark-and-sweep method, each object in memory has a flag (typically a single bit) reserved for garbage collection use only. This flag is always cleared (counter-intuitively), except during the collection cycle. The first stage of collection sweeps the entire 'root set', marking each accessible object as being 'in-use'. All objects transitively accessible from the root set are marked, as well. Finally, each object in memory is again examined; those with the in-use flag still cleared are not reachable by any program or data, and their memory is freed. (For objects which are marked in-use, the in-use flag is cleared again, preparing for the next cycle.) This method has several disadvantages, the most notable being that the entire system must be suspended during collection; no mutation of the working set can be allowed. This will cause programs to 'freeze' periodically (and generally unpredictably), making real-time and time-critical applications impossible. In addition, the entire working memory must be examined, much of it twice, potentially causing problems in paged memory systems. Tri-colour marking Because of these pitfalls, most modern tracing garbage collectors implement some variant of the tri-colour marking abstraction, but simple collectors (such as the mark-and-sweep collector) often do not make this abstraction explicit. Tri-colour marking works as follows: Create initial white, grey, and black sets; these sets will be used to maintain progress during the cycle. Initially the white set or condemned set is the set of objects that are candidates for having their memory recycled. The black set is the set of objects that cheaply can be proven to have no references to objects in the white set; in many implementations the black set starts off empty. The grey set is all the remaining objects that may or may not have references to objects in the white set (and elsewhere). These sets partition memory; every object in the system, including the root set, is in precisely one set. Pick an object from the grey set. Blacken this object (move it to the black set), by greying all the white objects it references directly. Repeat the previous step until the grey set is empty. When there are no more objects in the grey set, then all the objects remaining in the white set are provably not reachable and the storage occupied by them can be reclaimed. The tri-colour marking algorithm preserves an important invariant: No black object points directly to a white object. This ensures that the white objects can be safely destroyed once the grey set is empty. (Some variations on the algorithm do not preserve the tricolour invariant but they use a modified form for which all the important properties hold.) The tri-colour method has an important advantage: it can be performed 'on-the-fly', without halting the system for significant time periods. This is accomplished by marking objects as they are allocated and during mutation, maintaining the various sets. By monitoring the size of the sets, the system can perform garbage collection periodically, rather than as-needed. Also, the need to touch the entire working set each cycle is avoided. Implementation strategies In order to implement the basic tri-colour algorithm, several important design decisions must be made, which can significantly affect the performance characteristics of the garbage collector. Moving vs. non-moving Once the unreachable set has been determined, the garbage collector may simply release the unreachable objects and leave everything else as it is, or it may copy some or all of the reachable objects into a new area of memory, updating all references to those objects as needed. These are called "non-moving" and "moving" garbage collectors, respectively. At first, a moving GC strategy may seem inefficient and costly compared to the non-moving approach, since much more work would appear to be required on each cycle. In fact, however, the moving GC strategy leads to several performance advantages, both during the garbage collection cycle itself and during actual program execution: No additional work is required to reclaim the space freed by dead objects; the entire region of memory from which reachable objects were moved can be considered free space. In contrast, a non-moving GC must visit each unreachable object and somehow record that the memory it alone occupied is available. Similarly, new objects can be allocated very quickly. Since large contiguous regions of memory are usually made available by the moving GC strategy, new objects can be allocated by simply incrementing a 'free memory' pointer. A non-moving strategy may, after some time, lead to a heavily fragmented heap, requiring expensive consultation of "free lists" of small available blocks of memory in order to allocate new objects. If an appropriate traversal order is used, objects that refer to each other frequently can be moved very close to each other in memory, increasing the likelihood that they will be located in the same cache line or virtual memory page. This can significantly speed up access to these objects through these references. One disadvantage of a moving garbage collector is that it only allows access through references that are managed by the garbage collected environment, and does not allow pointer arithmetic. This is because any native pointers to objects will be invalidated when the garbage collector moves the object (they become dangling pointers). For interoperability with native code, the garbage collector must copy the object contents to a location outside of the garbage collected region of memory. An alternative approach is to pin the object in memory, preventing the garbage collector from moving it and allowing the memory to be directly shared with native pointers (and possibly allowing pointer arithmetic). Copying vs. mark-and-sweep vs. mark-and-don't-sweep To further refine the distinction, tracing collectors can also be divided by considering how the three sets of objects (white, grey, and black) are maintained during a collection cycle. The most straightforward approach is the semi-space collector, which dates to 1969. In this moving GC scheme, memory is partitioned into a "from space" and "to space". Initially, objects are allocated into "to space" until they become full and a collection is triggered. At the start of a collection, the "to space" becomes the "from space", and vice versa. The objects reachable from the root set are copied from the "from space" to the "to space". These objects are scanned in turn, and all objects that they point to are copied to "to space", until all reachable objects have been copied to "to space". Once the program continues execution, new objects are once again allocated from the "to space" until it is once again full and the process is repeated. This approach has the advantage of conceptual simplicity (the three object color sets are implicitly constructed during the copying process), but the disadvantage that a (possibly) very large contiguous region of free memory is necessarily required on every collection cycle. This technique is also known as stop-and-copy. Cheney's algorithm is an improvement on the semi-space collector. A mark and sweep garbage collector maintains a bit (or two) with each object to record whether it is white or black; the grey set is either maintained as a separate list (such as the process stack) or using another bit. As the reference tree is traversed during a collection cycle (the "mark" phase), these bits are manipulated by the collector to reflect the current state. A final "sweep" of the memory areas then frees white objects. The mark and sweep strategy has the advantage that, once the unreachable set is determined, either a moving or non-moving collection strategy can be pursued; this choice of strategy can even be made at runtime, as available memory permits. It has the disadvantage of "bloating" objects by a small amount. A mark and don't sweep garbage collector, like the mark-and-sweep, maintains a bit with each object to record whether it is white or black; the gray set is either maintained as a separate list (such as the process stack) or using another bit. There are two key differences here. First, black and white mean different things than they do in the mark and sweep collector. In a "mark and don't sweep" system, all reachable objects are always black. An object is marked black at the time it is allocated, and it will stay black even if it becomes unreachable. A white object is unused memory and may be allocated. Second, the interpretation of the black/white bit can change. Initially, the black/white bit may have the sense of (0=white, 1=black). If an allocation operation ever fails to find any available (white) memory, that means all objects are marked used (black). The sense of the black/white bit is then inverted (for example, 0=black, 1=white). Everything becomes white. This momentarily breaks the invariant that reachable objects are black, but a full marking phase follows immediately, to mark them black again. Once this is done, all unreachable memory is white. No "sweep" phase is necessary. Generational GC (aka Ephemeral GC) It has been empirically observed that in many programs, the most recently created objects are also those most likely to become unreachable quickly (known as infant mortality or the generational hypothesis). A generational GC divides objects into generations and, on most cycles, will place only the objects of a subset of generations into the initial white (condemned) set. Furthermore, the runtime system maintains knowledge of when references cross generations by observing the creation and overwriting of references. When the garbage collector runs, it may be able to use this knowledge to prove that some objects in the initial white set are unreachable without having to traverse the entire reference tree. If the generational hypothesis holds, this results in much faster collection cycles while still reclaiming most unreachable objects. In order to implement this concept, many generational garbage collectors use separate memory regions for different ages of objects. When a region becomes full, those few objects that are referenced from older memory regions are promoted (copied) up to the next highest region, and the entire region can then be overwritten with fresh objects. This technique permits very fast incremental garbage collection, since the garbage collection of only one region at a time is all that is typically required. Generational garbage collection is a heuristic approach, and some unreachable objects may not be reclaimed on each cycle. It may therefore occasionally be necessary to perform a full mark and sweep or copying garbage collection to reclaim all available space. In fact, runtime systems for modern programming languages (such as Java and the .NET Framework) usually use some hybrid of the various strategies that have been described thus far; for example, most collection cycles might look only at a few generations, while occasionally a mark-and-sweep is performed, and even more rarely a full copying is performed to combat fragmentation. The terms "minor cycle" and "major cycle" are sometimes used to describe these different levels of collector aggression. Stop-the-world vs. incremental vs. concurrent Simple stop-the-world garbage collectors completely halt execution of the program to run a collection cycle, thus guaranteeing that new objects are not allocated and objects do not suddenly become unreachable while the collector is running. This has the obvious disadvantage that the program can perform no useful work while a collection cycle is running (sometimes called the "embarrassing pause"). Incremental and concurrent garbage collectors are designed to reduce this disruption by interleaving their work with activity from the main program. Incremental garbage collectors perform the garbage collection cycle in discrete phases, with program execution permitted between each phase (and sometimes during some phases). Concurrent garbage collectors do not stop program execution at all, except perhaps briefly when the program's execution stack is scanned. Careful design is necessary with these techniques to ensure that the main program does not interfere with the garbage collector and vice versa; for example, when the program needs to allocate a new object, the runtime system may either need to suspend it until the collection cycle is complete, or somehow notify the garbage collector that there exists a new, reachable object. Precise vs. conservative and internal pointers Some collectors running in a particular environment can correctly identify all pointers (references) in an object; these are called "precise" (also "exact" or "accurate") collectors, the opposite being a "conservative" or "partly conservative" collector. Conservative collectors have to assume that any bit pattern in memory could be a pointer if (when interpreted as a pointer) it would point into any allocated object. Thus, conservative collectors may have some false negatives, where storage is not released because of accidental fake pointers, but this is rarely a significant drawback in practice, unless the program has to handle data that is or seems to be random and could easily be a pointer. Naturally 64bit systems suffer less from this problem than 32bit systems, since the possibility for a 64bit pattern to form a valid pointer is smaller than for a 32bit pattern as the domain of a 64bit value is much greater than a 32bit value. Thus it is less probable for a "random" 64bit value to point to a region on system's memory. Whether a precise collector is practical usually depends on the type safety properties of the programming language in question. An example for which a conservative garbage collector would be needed is the C programming language, which allows typed (non-void) pointers to be type cast into untyped (void) pointers, and vice versa. A related issue concerns internal pointers, or pointers to fields within an object. If the semantics of a language allow internal pointers, then there may be many different addresses that can refer to the same object, which complicates determining whether an object is garbage or not. An example for this is the C++ programming language, in which multiple inheritance can cause pointers to base objects to have different addresses. Even in languages like Java, however, internal pointers can exist during the computation, say, of an array element address, and in a tightly-optimized program the corresponding pointer to the object itself may have been overwritten in its register, so such internal pointers need to be scanned. Performance implications Tracing garbage collectors require some implicit runtime overhead that may be beyond the control of the programmer, and can sometimes lead to performance problems. For example, commonly used stop-the-world garbage collectors, which pause program execution at arbitrary times, may make garbage collection inappropriate for some embedded systems, high-performance server software, and applications with real-time needs. Manual heap allocation search for best/first-fit block of sufficient size free list maintenance Garbage collection locate reachable objects copy reachable objects for moving collectors read/write barriers for incremental collectors search for best/first-fit block and free list maintenance for non-moving collectors It is difficult to compare the two cases directly, as their behavior depends on the situation. For example, in the best case for a garbage collecting system, allocation just increments a pointer, but in the best case for manual heap allocation, the allocator maintains freelists of specific sizes and allocation only requires following a pointer. However, this size segregation usually cause a large degree of external fragmentation, which can have an adverse impact on cache behaviour. Memory allocation in a garbage collected language may be implemented using heap allocation behind the scenes (rather than simply incrementing a pointer), so the performance advantages listed above don't necessarily apply in this case. In some situations, most notably embedded systems, it is possible to avoid both garbage collection and heap management overhead by preallocating pools of memory and using a custom, lightweight scheme for allocation/deallocation. The overhead of write barriers is more likely to be noticeable in an imperative-style program which frequently writes pointers into existing data structures than in a functional-style program which constructs data only once and never changes them. Some advances in garbage collection can be understood as reactions to performance issues. Early collectors were stop-the-world collectors, but the performance of this approach was distracting in interactive applications. Incremental collection avoided this disruption, but at the cost of decreased efficiency due to the need for barriers. Generational collection techniques are used with both stop-the-world and incremental collectors to increase performance; the trade-off is that some garbage is not detected as such for longer than normal. Determinism A disadvantage of tracing garbage collection is that it is not deterministic. An object which becomes eligible for garbage collection will usually be cleaned up eventually, but there is no guarantee when (or even if) that will happen. The reason is that the operating mechanism of tracing garbage collection makes it difficult to give any such guarantees. This can cause a number of problems in practice. It is difficult to provide destructors that run deterministically (ideally right after an object becomes eligible for GC). Resource management Blog entry by Brad Abrams. Retrieved 2009-03-27. Therefore, frameworks with tracing GC (such as Java and .NET Framework) do not provide destructors and require manual deallocation of resources. The performance impact (see above) caused by GC is seemingly random and hard to predict. Reference counting Reference counting is a form of automatic memory management where each object has a count of the number of references to it. An object's reference count is incremented when a reference to it is created, and decremented when a reference is destroyed. The object's memory is reclaimed when the count reaches zero. There are two major disadvantages to reference counting: If two or more objects refer to each other, they can create a cycle whereby neither will be collected as their mutual references never let their reference counts become zero. Some garbage collection systems (like the one in CPython) using reference counting use specific cycle-detecting algorithms to deal with this issue. In naïve implementations, each assignment of a reference and each reference falling out of scope often require modifications of one or more reference counters. However, optimizations to this are described in the literature. When used in a multithreaded environment, these modifications (increment and decrement) may need to be interlocked. This may be an expensive operation for processors without atomic operations such as Compare-and-swap. One important advantage of reference counting is that it provides deterministic garbage collection (as opposed to tracing GC). Escape analysis Escape analysis can be used to convert heap allocations to stack allocations, thus reducing the amount of work needed to be done by the garbage collector. Availability Generally speaking, higher-level programming languages are more likely to have garbage collection as a standard feature. In languages that do not have built in garbage collection, it can often be added through a library, as with the Boehm garbage collector for C and C++. This approach is not without drawbacks, such as changing object creation and destruction mechanisms. Most functional programming languages, such as ML, Haskell, and APL, have garbage collection built in. Lisp, which introduced functional programming, is especially notable for introducing this mechanism. Other dynamic languages, such as Ruby (but not Perl, or PHP, which use reference counting), also tend to use GC. Object-oriented programming languages such as Smalltalk, Java and ECMAScript usually provide integrated garbage collection, a notable exception being C++. Historically, languages intended for beginners, such as BASIC and Logo, have often used garbage collection for variable-length data types, such as strings and lists, so as not to burden programmers with manual memory management. On early microcomputers, with their limited memory and slow processors, garbage collection could often cause apparently random, inexplicable pauses in the midst of program operation. Limited environments Garbage collection is rarely used on embedded or real-time systems because of the perceived need for very tight control over the use of limited resources. However, garbage collectors compatible with such limited environments have been developed. Wei Fu and Carl Hauser, "A Real-Time Garbage Collection Framework for Embedded Systems". ACM SCOPES '05, 2005. http://portal.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=1140392&type=pdf&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 The Microsoft .NET Micro Framework and Java Platform, Micro Edition are embedded software platforms that, like their larger cousins, include garbage collection. See also Cheney's algorithm Memory management Reversible computing Memory leak Weak reference References External links A Garbage Collection Course Curriculum at MSDN Academic Alliance Publications by the OOPS group at the University of Texas at Austin A garbage collector for C and C++ by Hans Boehm Notes on the CLR Garbage Collector A Glance At Garbage Collection In Object-Oriented Languages On-the-fly garbage collection: an exercise in cooperation by Edsger W. Dijkstra and Leslie Lamport and A.J.Martin and C.S.Scholten and E.F.M.Steffens Richard Jones and Rafael Lins, Garbage Collection: Algorithms for Automatic Dynamic Memory Management, Wiley and Sons (1996), ISBN 0-471-94148-4 Richard Jones' Garbage Collection Page A Real-Time Garbage Collector Based on the Lifetimes of Objects by H. Lieberman and C. Hewitt, MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory

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Azad_Kashmir

Azad Jammu and Kashmir (; AJK) or, for short, Azad Kashmir (literally, "free Kashmir") is the southernmost political entity within the Pakistani-controlled part of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. It borders the present-day Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir to the east (separated from it by the Line of Control), the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan to the west, the Federally Administered Northern Areas (FANA) to the north, and the Punjab Province of Pakistan to the south. With its capital at Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir covers an area of 13,297 km² (5,134 mi²) and has an estimated population of about four million. Azad Kashmir's financial matters, i.e., budget and tax affairs, are dealt with by the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council, rather than by Pakistan's Central Board of Revenue. The Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council is a supreme body consisting of 11 members, six from the government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and five from the government of Pakistan. Its chairman/chief executive is the president of Pakistan. Other members of the council are the president and the prime minister of Azad Kashmir and a few other AJK ministers. History map of the entire Kashmir region After the Partition of India in 1947, the princely states were given the option of joining either India or Pakistan. However, Hari Singh, the maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, wanted Jammu and Kashmir to remain independent. In order to buy some time, he signed a stand-still agreement, which side-stepped the agreement that each princely state would join either India or Pakistan. http://www.indiatogether.org/peace/kashmir/intro.htm The raiders from North-West Frontier Province and the Tribal Areas feared that Hari Singh may join Indian Union. In October 1947 supported by Pakistani Army they attacked Kashmir and tried to take over control of Kashmir. Initially Hari Singh tried to resist their progress but failed. Hari Singh then requested Indian Union to help. India responded that it could not help unless Kashmir joins India. So on 26 October 1947 Kashmir accession papers were signed and Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar. Fighting ensued between Indian Army & Pakistani Army with control stabilizing more or less around what is now the "Line of Control". South Asian Journal. Las Dana-Haji Pir Road, Bagh District Later, India approached UN to solve dispute & resolutions were passed to hold a plebiscite with regard to Kashmir's future. However this plebiscite has not been held on either side since the legal requirement for the holding of a plebiscite was the withdrawal of the Indian and Pakistani armies from the parts of Kashmir that were under their respective control--a withdrawal that never did take place. UNCIP Resolution of August 13, 1948 (S/1100) - Embassy of India, Washington, DC In 1949, a cease-fire line separating the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of Kashmir was formally put into effect. After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, that line changed significantly in a few areas, and the new line, which was formally agreed to in 1972, was designated as the "Line of Control," separating the Indian and Pakistani forces and the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of the former princely state. The Line of Control has remained unchanged UNMOGIP: United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan. since the 1972 Simla pact, which bound the two countries "to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations." Some political experts claim that, in view of that pact, the only solution to the issue is mutual negotiation between the two countries without involving a third party, such as the United Nations. Following the 1949 cease-fire agreement, the government of Pakistan divided the northern and western parts of Kashmir which it held into the following two separately-controlled political entities: Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) - the narrow southern part, 250 miles (400 km) long, with a width varying from 10 to 40 miles (15 to 65 km). Federally Administered Northern Areas (FANA) - the much larger area to the north of AJK, 72,496 km² (27,991 mi² ), directly administered by Pakistan as a de facto dependent territory, i.e., a non-self-governing territory. An area of Kashmir that was once under Pakistani control, but is no longer, is the Shaksgam tract--a small region along the northeastern border of the Northern Areas that was provisionally ceded by Pakistan to the People's Republic of China in 1963 and which now forms part of China's Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang. Dispute Positions According to Pakistan's constitution, Azad Kashmir is not part of Pakistan, and its inhabitants have never had any representation in Pakistan's parliament.As far as the United Nations is concerned, the entire area of the former princely state of Kashmir, including Azad Kashmir, remains a disputed territory still awaiting resolution of the long-standing dispute between India and Pakistan. In 1950, the government of India, held local assembly elections in Indian administered Kashmir and regarded the outcome as a referendum by which in 1956, unilaterally reorganised that portion of the former state that was under its control, thereby making that portion an integral part of India. The government of Pakistan, on the other hand, continues to this day to regard the entire area of the former state as "territory in dispute" to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at some future date, in order to determine the entire area's accession to either India or Pakistan. While continuing to call for that plebiscite, however, the government of Pakistan has, so far, been unwilling to entertain the idea of a third option for the plebiscite, i.e., a choice of independence for the entire former state. Today, Azad Kashmir and FANA are together referred to by India as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" (POK) and, conversely, the present Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir is referred to by Pakistan as "Indian-occupied Kashmir." Government Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) is a self-governing state under Pakistani control but is not constitutionally part of Pakistan. It has its own elected president, prime minister, legislature, high court, and official flag. The government of Pakistan has not yet allowed the state to issue its own postage stamps, however, and Pakistani stamps are used in the state, instead. The state is administratively divided into two divisions which, in turn, are divided into eight districts. + Division District Area (km²) Population (1998) HeadquartersMirpur Bhimber 1,516 301,633 Bhimber  Kotli 1,862 563,094 Kotli  Mirpur 1,010 333,482 MirpurMuzaffarabad Muzaffarabad 2,496 638,973 Muzaffarabad  Neelum - Neelum is a recently created district and no figures are available as yet. 3,621 106,778 AthmuqamPoonch Poonch 855 411,035 Rawalakot   Bagh 1,368 393,415 Bagh  Sudhnati 569 334,091 Pallandari AJK total 8 districts 13,297 2,972,501 Muzaffarabad Ethnic Groups Azad Kashmir is predominantly Muslim. The majority of the population is culturally, linguistically, and ethnically related to the people of northern Punjab. The article Ethnic groups of Azad Kashmir gives a breakdown of all the major tribes in the state. Languages Urdu is the official language of Azad Kashmir but is spoken by only a minority of people. The dominant language spoken in the state is Pahari, which is very similar to Pothwari and Hindko. Economy In the latter part of 2006, billions of dollars for development were mooted by international aid agencies for the reconstruction and rehabilitation of earthquake-hit zones in Azad Kashmir, though much of those funds were subsequently lost in bureaucratic channels, leading to delay in help reaching the most needy, and hundreds of people are still living in tents. Rs1.25 trillion to be spent in Azad Kashmir: Reconstruction in quake-hit zone - Dawn Pakistan A land-use plan for Muzaffarabad city was prepared by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. Education The Literacy rate for Azad Kashmir was 62% in 2004. Higher than any other region in Pakistan. Out of 62% about 55.47% are people at the age of 10 or a little above of it, 70.52% are male and 40.46% are female. Literacy Rate in Azad Kashmir nearly 62 pc. However, only 2.2% were graduates compared to the average of 2.9% for the whole of Pakistan. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_17-4-2005_pg7_37 - 7th Paragraph. Gallery State Symbols Notable Pakistani Kashmiris Prof Dr Mohammad Sharif Chattar,botanist,author,poet Barrister Sultan Mahmood,Ex PM of Azad Kashmir Lord Nazir Ahmed, member of the UK House of Lords Karam Hussain, mayor of Kirklees, UK Ghulam Ahmad, author, educator, and philanthropist Khawaja Zafar Iqbal, journalist Dr. Ali Adnan Ibrahim, scholar and lawyer Saira Khan, BBC presenter Mian Muhammad Bakhsh, sufi saint Khalid Mahmood, member of the UK parliament Sheikh Younas Azam, Kashmiri journalist (deceased) Shamas Rehman, activist Baba Shadi Shaheed, sufi saint Tassadaq Hussain Khan, former army chief Aziz Khan, chairman of the Joint Chief of Staff Committee of the Pakistani military Sardar Muhammad Anwar Khan, vice-chief of the General Staff General Raja Sakhi Daler Khan, Mangral rajput (Fateh-e-Kotli, Fakhr-e-Kashmir, Ghazi-e-Kashmir, and Khadam-e-Din) Tahir Abbas BSc(Econ) MSocSc PhD FRSA, recognised sociologist at the University of Birmingham, UK Mohammed Arshed Rashed, archeologist, noted for his discovery of the ancient site of Bhimber, which dates back to 600 BC Muhammad Wasim Butt, chairman of Bait-Ul-Ilm School. Raja Hadier Khan, Khaka rajput Raja Mumtaz Ratthor, former prime minister of Azad Kashmir (deceased) References External links Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir

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Duesberg_hypothesis

The Duesberg hypothesis is the claim, associated with University of California, Berkeley professor Peter Duesberg, that various non-infectious factors such as recreational and pharmaceutical drug use are the cause of AIDS, and that HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a harmless passenger virus. The most prominent defenders of this hypothesis are Duesberg himself, biochemist and vitamin proponent David Rasnick, and journalist Celia Farber. The majority of the scientific community considers that Duesberg's arguments are the result of cherry-picking predominantly outdated scientific data and selectively ignoring evidence in favour of HIV's role in AIDS. Cohen J. (1994) The Duesberg phenomenon. Science 266, 1642-1644 PMID 7992043 There is broad scientific consensus that the Duesberg hypothesis is incorrect, and that HIV is the cause of AIDS. National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Disease Fact Sheet: The Evidence that HIV Causes AIDS. Accessed via National Institutes of Health website on March 9 2007. Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS, from the Centers for Disease Control. Accessed March 9 2007. World Health Organization HIV and AIDS Programme, from the World Health Organization website. Accessed March 9 2007. Role of legal and illegal drug use Duesberg argues that there is a statistical correlation between trends in recreational drug use and trends in AIDS cases. He argues that the rapid increase of AIDS cases in the 1980s corresponds to a supposed epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe during the same time frame. These claims are not supported by epidemiologic data. The average yearly increase in opioid-related deaths from 1990-2002 was nearly three times the yearly increase from 1979-1990, with the greatest increase in 2000-2002, yet AIDS cases and deaths fell dramatically during the mid-to-late-1990s. Duesberg's claim that recreational drug use, rather than HIV, was the cause of AIDS has been specifically examined and found to be false. Cohort studies have found that only HIV-positive drug users develop opportunistic infections; HIV-negative drug users do not develop such infections, indicating that HIV rather than drug use is the cause of AIDS. Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) in gay men. However, this argument has been described as an example of the fallacy of a statistical confounding effect; it is now known that a herpesvirus, potentiated by HIV, is responsible for AIDS-associated KS. Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine (AZT) can cause AIDS. Duesberg's claim that antiviral medication causes AIDS is regarded as disproven by the scientific community. Placebo-controlled studies have found that AZT as a single agent produces modest and short-lived improvements in survival and delays the development of opportunistic infections; it certainly did not cause AIDS, which develops in both treated and untreated study patients. With the subsequent development of protease inhibitors and highly active antiretroviral therapy, numerous studies have documented the fact that anti-HIV drugs prevent the development of AIDS and substantially prolong survival, further disproving the claim that these drugs "cause" AIDS. Scientific study and rejection of Duesberg's risk-AIDS hypothesis Several studies have specifically addressed Duesberg's claim that recreational drug abuse or sexual promiscuity were responsible for the manifestations of AIDS. An early study of his claims, published in Nature in 1993, found Duesberg's drug abuse-AIDS hypothesis to have "no basis in fact". A large prospective study followed a group of 715 homosexual men in the Vancouver, Canada area; approximately half were HIV-seropositive or became so during the follow-up period, and the remainder were HIV-seronegative. After more than 8 years of follow-up, despite similar rates of drug use, sexual contact, and other supposed risk factors in both groups, only the HIV-positive group suffered from opportunistic infections. Similarly, CD4 counts dropped in the patients who were HIV-infected, but remained stable in the HIV-negative patients, in spite of similar rates of risk behavior. The authors concluded that "the risk-AIDS hypothesis... is clearly rejected by our data", and that "...The evidence supports the hypothesis that HIV-1 has an integral role in the CD4 depletion and progressive immune dysfunction that characterise AIDS." Similarly, the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) — which between them observed more than 8,000 Americans — demonstrated that "...the presence of HIV infection is the only factor that is strongly and consistently associated with the conditions that define AIDS." MACS and WIHS Studies Provide Overwhelming Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS. From the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Accessed March 9 2007. A 2008 study found that recreational drug use (including marijuana, cocaine, poppers and amphetamines) had no effect on CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, providing further evidence against a role of recreational drugs as a cause of AIDS. Current AIDS definitions Duesberg argued in 1989 that a significant number of AIDS victims had died without proof of HIV infection. However, with the use of modern culture techniques and polymerase chain reaction testing, HIV can be demonstrated in virtually all patients with AIDS. Since AIDS is now defined partially by the presence of HIV, Duesberg claims it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS doesn't require HIV. However, the first definitions of AIDS mentioned no cause and the first AIDS diagnoses were made before HIV was discovered. The addition of HIV positivity to surveillance criteria as an absolutely necessary condition for case reporting occurred only in 1993, after a scientific consensus was established that HIV caused AIDS [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 31(37), 24 Sept. 1982] Update on Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), United States. [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 34(25), 28 June 1985] Revision of the CDC Surveillance Case Definition of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome for National Reporting, United States. [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 36(S1), 14 August 1987] Revision of the CDC Surveillance Case Definition for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 41(RR-17), 18 December 1992] 1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults. AIDS in Africa According to the Duesberg hypothesis, AIDS is not found in Africa. What Duesberg calls "the myth of an African AIDS epidemic," [Duesberg P "Inventing the AIDS Virus" Regnery, 1997. ISBN 0895263998] Page 291. among people "he repeatedly refers to...as Schwartzes," Discover Magazine feature on Duesberg. Jeanne Linzer, Discover, 15 May 2008, AIDS "Dissident" Seeks Redemption...and a Cure for Cancer. Accessed 16 May 2008. exists for several reasons, including: The need, according to Duesberg, of the CDC, the WHO, and other health organizations to justify their existences, resulting in their "manufacturing contagious plagues out of noninfectious medical conditions." [Duesberg P "Inventing the AIDS Virus" Regnery, 1997. ISBN 0895263998] Page 137. Media sensationalism, with stories that "helped shape the Western impression of an AIDS problem out of control," resulting in high levels of funding. Willing participation in deception by local doctors who wish to take advantage of this aid money: "African doctors themselves participate in building the myth of the AIDS pandemic." [Duesberg P "Inventing the AIDS Virus" Regnery, 1997. ISBN 0895263998] Pages 290-1. Confusion or incompetence on the part of African doctors: "Many common Third World diseases are confused with AIDS even if they are not part of its official definition." [Duesberg P "Inventing the AIDS Virus" Regnery, 1997. ISBN 0895263998] Page 293. Duesberg states that African AIDS cases are "a collection of long-established, indigenous diseases, such as chronic fevers, weight loss, alias “slim disease”, diarrhea and tuberculosis" that result from malnutrition and poor sanitation. African AIDS cases, though, have increased in the last three decades as HIV's prevalence has increased Boerma JT, Nunn AJ, Whitworth JA. (1998) Mortality impact of the AIDS epidemic: evidence from community studies in less developed countries. AIDS 12 Suppl 1, S3-14 PMID 9677185 but as malnutrition percentages Figure of malnutrition percentage decreases Accessed 02 May 2008. and poor sanitation have declined in many African regions. Accessed 02 May 2008. In addition, while HIV and AIDS are more prevalent in urban than in rural settings in Africa, "HIV prevalence (%) by gender and urban/rural residence, selected sub-Saharan African countries, 2001-2005 From UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. Accessed 02 May 2008. malnutrition and poor sanitation are found more commonly in rural than in urban settings. According to Duesberg, common diseases are easily misdiagnosed as AIDS in Africa because "the diagnosis of African AIDS is arbitrary" and does not include HIV testing. A definition of AIDS agreed upon in 1985 by the World Health Organization in Bangui did not require a positive HIV test, but since 1985, many African countries have added positive HIV tests to the Bangui criteria for AIDS or changed their definitions to match those of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control. From the World Health Organization Accessed 01 May, 2008. One of the reasons for using more HIV tests despite their expense is that, rather than overestimating AIDS as Duesberg suggests, the Bangui definition alone excluded nearly half of African AIDS patients." Duesberg notes that diseases associated with AIDS differ between African and Western populations, concluding that the causes of immunodeficiency must be different. Tuberculosis is much more commonly diagnosed among AIDS patients in Africa than in Western countries, while PCP conforms to the opposite pattern. Cohen J. (2000) Is AIDS in Africa a distinct disease? Science 288(5474), 2153-5 PMID 10896593 Tuberculosis, though, had higher prevalence in Africa than in the West before the spread of HIV. In Africa and the United States, HIV has spurred a similar percentage increase in tuberculosis cases. PCP may be underestimated in Africa: since machinery "required for accurate testing is relatively rare in many resource-poor areas, including large parts of Africa, PCP is likely to be underdiagnosed in Africa. Consistent with this hypothesis, studies that report the highest rates of PCP in Africa are those that use the most advanced diagnostic methods" Science Outsold? Correcting the Falsehoods of "Science Sold Out: Does HIV Really Cause AIDS?" Page 15. Accessed 01 May 2008. Duesberg also claims that Kaposi's Sarcoma is "exclusively diagnosed in male homosexual risk groups using nitrite inhalants and other psychoactive drugs as aphrodisiacs", but the cancer is fairly common among heterosexuals in some parts of Africa, [Chokunonga E, Levy LM, Bassett MT, Borok MZ, Mauchaza BG, Chirenje MZ, Parkin DM. (1999) Aids and cancer in Africa: the evolving epidemic in Zimbabwe. AIDS 13(18), 2583-8 PMID 10630528] and is found in heterosexuals in the United States as well. Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Sub-Saharan Africa From HIV InSite at the University of California, San Francisco. Accessed 02 May 2008. Duesberg writes on his website that "There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals," However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed. One recent article on AIDS and men who have sex with men (MSM). A recent article on various risk groups and risk factors in Africa. In addition, AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults. Nunn AJ, Mulder DW, Kamali A, Ruberantwari A, Kengeya-Kayondo J-F, Whitworth J. (1997) Mortality associated with HIV-1 infection over five years in a rural Ugandan population: cohort study. BMJ 315, 767-771 PMID 9345167 Borgdorff MW, Barongo LR, Klokke AH, Newell JN, Senkoro KP, Velema JP, Gabone RM. (1995) HIV-1 incidence and HIV-1 associated mortality in a cohort of urban factory workers in Tanzania. Genitourin Med. 71, 212-215 PMID 7590710 Duesberg's offer to infect himself Robert Gallo suggested that Duesberg infect himself with HIV if he insisted on maintaining his stance that HIV is harmless. Duesberg claims that he would do so, but that he would need the approval of the U.S. National Institutes of Health and the university that employs him to work with HIV. Critics regard this as a stunt, because the NIH cannot ethically give "approval" for a person to knowingly infect themselves with HIV. Duesberg claims that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive Peter Duesberg argues that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive: they do not kill cells and they do not cause cancer, he maintains. Duesberg writes, "retroviruses do not kill cells because they depend on viable cells for the replication of their RNA from viral DNA integrated into cellular DNA." However, Duesberg elsewhere states that "the typical virus reproduces by entering a living cell and commandeering the cell's resources in order to make new virus particles, a process that ends with the disintegration of the dead cell." [Duesberg P "Inventing the AIDS Virus" Regnery, 1997. ISBN 0895263998] Page 90. Duesberg also rejects the involvement of retroviruses and other viruses in cancer. To him, virus-associated cancers are "freak accidents of nature" that do not warrant research programs such as the War on Cancer. Duesberg rejects a role in cancer for numerous viruses, including leukemia viruses, Epstein-Barr Virus, Human Papilloma Virus, Hepatitis B, Feline Leukemia Virus, and Human T-lymphotropic virus. Duesberg P "Inventing the AIDS Virus" Regnery, 1997. ISBN 0895263998 Duesberg claims that the supposedly innocuous nature of all retroviruses is supported by what he considers to be their normal mode of proliferation: infection from mother to child in utero. Duesberg does not suggest that HIV is an endogenous retrovirus, a virus integrated into the germ line and genetically heritable: Scientific response to the Duesberg hypothesis The current consensus in the scientific community is that the Duesberg hypothesis has been refuted by a large and growing mass of evidence showing that causation of AIDS by HIV is clear, that virus numbers in the blood correlate with disease progression, that a plausible mechanism for HIV's action has been proposed, and that anti-HIV medication decreases mortality and opportunistic infection in people with AIDS. In the December 9 1994 issue of Science (Vol. 266, No. 5191), Duesberg's methods and claims were evaluated. The authors concluded that: it is abundantly evident that HIV causes disease and death in hemophiliacs, a group generally lacking Duesberg's proposed risk factors. Cohen J. (1994a) Duesberg and critics agree: Hemophilia is the best test. Science 266, 1645-1646 PMID 7992044 HIV fulfills Koch's postulates, which are one set of criteria for demonstrating a causal relationship between a microbe and a disease. Cohen J. (1994b) Fulfilling Koch's postulates. Science 266, 1647 PMID 7992045 Full text available from National Institutes of Health website. the AIDS epidemic in Thailand cited by Duesberg as confirmation of his hypothesis is in fact evidence of the role of HIV in AIDS. Cohen J. (1994c) The epidemic in Thailand. Science 266, 1647 PMID 7992046 According to researchers who conducted large-scale studies of AZT, the drug does not cause AIDS. Furthermore, researchers acknowledged that recreational drugs do cause immune abnormalities, though not the type of immunodeficiency seen in AIDS. Cohen J. (1994d) Could drugs, rather than a virus be the cause of AIDS? Science 266, 1648-1649 PMID 7992047 Effectiveness of antiretroviral medication The vast majority of people with AIDS have never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of AZT (zidovudine) in 1987, and people in developing countries today where very few individuals have access to these medications. UNAIDS, 2003. The NIAID reports that, "In the mid-1980s, clinical trials enrolling patients with AIDS found that AZT given as single-drug therapy conferred a modest survival advantage compared to placebo. Among HIV-infected patients who had not yet developed AIDS, placebo-controlled trials found that AZT given as single-drug therapy delayed, for a year or two, the onset of AIDS-related illnesses. Significantly, long-term follow-up of these trials did not show a prolonged benefit of AZT, but also did not indicate that the drug increased disease progression or mortality. The lack of excess AIDS cases and death in the AZT arms of these placebo-controlled trials effectively counters the argument that AZT causes AIDS. Subsequent clinical trials found that patients receiving two-drug combinations had up to 50 percent improvements in time to progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to people receiving single-drug therapy. In more recent years, three-drug combination therapies have produced another 50 to 80 percent improvement in progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to two-drug regimens in clinical trials." HHS, 2005 "Use of potent anti-HIV combination therapies has contributed to dramatic reductions in the incidence of AIDS and AIDS-related deaths in populations where these drugs are widely available, an effect which clearly would not be seen if antiretroviral drugs caused AIDS." Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD. (1998) Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 853-860 PMID 9516219 Mocroft A, Vella S, Benfield TL, Chiesi A, Miller V, Gargalianos P, d'Arminio Monforte A, Yust I, Bruun JN, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD. (1998) Changing patterns of mortality across Europe in patients infected with HIV-1. EuroSIDA Study Group. Lancet 352, 1725-1730 PMID 9848347 Mocroft A, Katlama C, Johnson AM, Pradier C, Antunes F, Mulcahy F, Chiesi A, Phillips AN, Kirk O, Lundgren JD. (2000) AIDS across Europe, 1994-98: the EuroSIDA study. Lancet 356, 291-296 PMID 11071184 Vittinghoff E, Scheer S, O'Malley P, Colfax G, Holmberg SD, Buchbinder SP. (1999) Combination antiretroviral therapy and recent declines in AIDS incidence and mortality. J. Infect. Dis. 179, 717-720 PMID 9952385 Detels R, Munoz A, McFarlane G, Kingsley LA, Margolick JB, Giorgi J, Schrager LK, Phair JP. (1998) Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapy on time to AIDS and death in men with known HIV infection duration. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Investigators. JAMA 280, 1497-1503 PMID 9809730 de Martino M, Tovo PA, Balducci M, Galli L, Gabiano C, Rezza G, Pezzotti P. (2000) Reduction in mortality with availability of antiretroviral therapy for children with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children and the Italian National AIDS Registry. JAMA 284, 190-197 PMID 10889592 Hogg RS, Yip B, Kully C, Craib KJ, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Montaner JS. (1999) Improved survival among HIV-infected patients after initiation of triple-drug antiretroviral regimens. CMAJ 160, 659-665 PMID 10102000 Schwarcz SK, Hsu LC, Vittinghoff E, Katz MH. (2000) Impact of protease inhibitors and other antiretroviral treatments on acquired immunodeficiency syndrome survival in San Francisco, California, 1987-1996. Am J Epidem 152, 178-185 PMID 10909955 Kaplan JE, Hanson D, Dworkin MS, Frederick T, Bertolli J, Lindegren ML, Holmberg S, Jones JL. (2000) Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. Suppl 1, S5-14 PMID 10770911 McNaghten AD, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Dworkin MS, Ward JW. (1999) Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after AIDS diagnosis. Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. AIDS 13, 1687-1695 PMID 10509570 Opponents claim that nearly all HIV-positive people will develop AIDS Duesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV+ people have not yet developed AIDS; HIV/AIDS scientists note that many drug-free HIV+ people have developed AIDS, and that, in the absence of medical treatment or rare genetic factors postulated to delay disease progression, it is very likely that nearly all HIV+ people will eventually develop AIDS. Scientists also note that HIV-negative drug users do not suffer from immune system collapse. See also AIDS denialism Stealth-adapted virus References External links Peter Duesberg's website The Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS: from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases How HIV Causes AIDS: National Institutes of Health fact sheet. Koch's Postulates and the Etiology of AIDS: An Historical Perspective.

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Lighthouse

Drawing of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, on the island of Pharos The Roman lighthouse at Dover Castle. A lighthouse is a tower, building, or framework designed to emit light from a system of lamps and lenses or, in older times, from a fire and used as an aid to navigation and to pilots at sea. Lighthouses are used to mark dangerous coastlines, hazardous shoals and reefs, and safe entries to harbors and can also assist in aerial navigation. Once widely used, the number of operational lighthouses has declined due to the expense of maintenance and replacement by modern electronic navigational aids. Lighthouse technology Cutaway fixed Fresnel Lens of Loschen-lighthouse, Bremerhaven In a lighthouse, the source of light is called the "lamp" (whether electric or fueled by oil) and the concentration of the light is by the "lens" or "optic". Originally lit by open fires and later candles, the Argand hollow wick lamp and parabolic reflector was developed around 1781 in Europe. In the US, whale oil was used with solid wicks as the source of light, until the Argand parabolic reflector system was introduced around 1810 by Winslow Lewis. Colza oil replaced whale oil in the early 1850s, but US farmers' lack of interest in growing this caused the service to switch to lard oil in the mid 1850s. Kerosene started replacing lard oil in the 1870s and the service was finally totally converted by the late 1880s. Electricity and carbide (acetylene gas) started to replace kerosene around the turn of the 20th century. Crompton & Rhein (2002) The use of the latter was promoted by the Dalén light, which automatically lit the lamp at nightfall and extinguished it at dawn. Lens technology Prior to modern strobe lights, lenses were used to concentrate the light from a continuous source. Two tasks were involved: vertical light rays of the lamp are redirected into a horizontal plane horizontally the light is focused into one or a few directions at a time, with the light beam sweeping around; as a result, in addition to seeing the side of the light beam, there are instants that one can see the light directly from a further distance away. Fresnel lens Pigeon Point Lighthouse with light on illuminated by Fresnel lens This concentration of light is accomplished with a rotating lens assembly. In classical period lighthouses, the light source was a kerosene lamp, or earlier an animal or vegetable oil Argand lamp, and the lenses rotated by a weight driven clockwork assembly wound by lighthouse keepers, sometimes as often as every two hours. The lens assembly sometimes floated in mercury to reduce friction. In more modern lighthouses, electric lights and motor drives were used, generally powered by diesel electric generators. These also supplied electricity for the lighthouse keepers. Crompton & Rhein (2002) Efficiently concentrating the light from a large omnidirectional light source requires a very large diameter lens. This would require a very thick, heavy lens if naïvely implemented. Development of the Fresnel lens (pronounced [freɪ'nɛl]/FREH nel or ['frɛz.nəl]/frez null) in 1822 revolutionized lighthouses in the 1800s, focusing 85% of a lamp's light versus the 20% focused with the parabolic reflectors of the time. Its design enabled construction of lenses of large size and short focal length without the weight and volume of material in conventional lens designs. Although the Fresnel lens was invented in 1822, it was not used in the US until the 1850s due to the parsimonious administrator of the United States Lighthouse Establishment, Stephen Pleasonton. With the creation of the United States Lighthouse Board in 1852, all US lighthouses received Fresnel lenses by 1860. Fresnel lenses were ranked by Order, with a first order lens being the largest, most powerful and expensive; and a sixth order lens being the smallest. The order is based on the focal length of the lens. A first order lens has the longest focal length, with the sixth being the shortest. Coastal lighthouses generally use first, second or third order lenses, while harbor lights and beacons use fourth, fifth or sixth order lenses. Lighthouse Lenses and Illuminants How a Fresnel lens works. Some lighthouses, such as those at Cape Race, Newfoundland, and Makapu'u Point, Hawaii, used a more powerful hyperradiant Fresnel lens manufactured by the firm of Chance Brothers. In recent times, many Fresnel lenses have been replaced by rotating aerodrome beacons which require less maintenance. In modern automated lighthouses, this system of rotating lenses is often replaced by a high intensity light that emits brief omnidirectional flashes (concentrating the light in time rather than direction). These lights are similar to obstruction lights used to warn aircraft of tall structures. Recent innovations are "Vega Lights", and initial experiments with LED panels. Light characteristics In any of these designs an observer, rather than seeing a continuous weak light, sees a brighter light during short time intervals. These instants of bright light are arranged to create a light characteristic or, pattern specific to the particular lighthouse. Aids To Navigation Abbreviations For example, for the Scheveningen lighthouse, time intervals between flashes are alternately 2.5 and 7.5 seconds. Some lights have sectors of a particular color (usually formed by colored panes in the lantern) to distinguish safe water areas from dangerous shoals. Modern lighthouses often have unique reflectors or Racon transponders so the radar signature of the light is also unique. Lighthouses And Radar Beacons Building Design The lighthouses in Finland as of 1909 showing differing architecture To be effective the lamp must be high enough to be seen before the danger is reached by a mariner. The minimum height is calculated according to trigonometry by taking the square root of the height of a light in feet and multiplying it by 1.17 to yield the distance to the horizon in nautical miles. How far is the horizon? - BoatSafe Kids! Where dangerous shoals are located far off a flat sandy beach, the prototypical tall masonry coastal lighthouse is constructed to assist the navigator making a landfall after an ocean crossing. Often these are cylindrical to reduce the effect of wind on a tall structure, such as Cape May Light. Smaller versions of this design are often used as harbor lights to mark the entrance into a harbor, such as New London Harbor Light. Where a tall cliff exists, a smaller structure may be placed on top such as at Horton Point Light. Sometimes, such a location can be too high – as along the west coast of the United States. In these cases, lights are placed below clifftop to ensure that they can still be seen at the surface during periods of fog, as at Point Reyes Lighthouse. Another victim of fog was Point Loma Light (old) which was replaced with a lower light, Point Loma Light (new). Hyperboloid design Adziogol Lighthouse by V.G.Shukhov, Ukraine, 1910 As technology advanced, prefabricated skeletal iron or steel light houses tended to be used for lighthouses constructed in the twentieth century. These often have a narrow cylindrical core surrounded by an open lattice work bracing, such as Finns Point Range Light. Eddystone Lighthouse, one of the first wave-washed lighthouses Sometimes a lighthouse needs to be constructed in the water itself. Wave-washed lights are masonry structures constructed to withstand water impact, such as Eddystone Lighthouse in Britain and the St. George Reef Light off California. In shallower bays, screw pile ironwork structures are screwed into the seabed and a low wooden structure is placed above the open framework, such as Thomas Point Shoal Light. As screw piles can be disrupted by ice, in northern climates steel caisson lighthouses such as Orient Point Light are used. Orient Long Beach Bar Light (Bug Light) is a blend of a screw pile light that was later converted to a caisson light because of the threat of ice damage. Lighthouse Construction Types In waters too deep for a conventional structure, a lightship might be used instead of a lighthouse. Most of these have now been replaced by fixed light platforms (such as Ambrose Light) similar to those used for offshore oil exploration. Lightships of the US Components Lighthouse lantern room from mid 1800s While lighthouse buildings differ depending on the location and purpose, they tend to have common components. A Light Station comprises the Lighthouse tower and all outbuildings, such as the keeper's living quarters, fuel house, boathouse, and fog-signaling building. The Lighthouse itself consists of a tower structure supporting the lantern room where the light operates. The Lantern Room is the glassed-in housing at the top of a lighthouse tower containing the lamp and lens. Its glass storm panes are supported by metal Astragal bars running vertically or diagonally. At the top of the lantern room is a stormproof Ventilator designed to remove the smoke of the lamps and the heat that builds in the glass enclosure. A Lightning rod and grounding system connected to the metal Cupola roof provides a safe conduit for any lightning strikes. Immediately beneath the lantern room is usually a Watch Room or Service Room where fuel and other supplies were kept and where the keeper prepared the lanterns for the night and often stood watch. The clockworks (for rotating the lenses) were also located there. On a lighthouse tower, an open platform called the gallery is often located outside the watch room (called the Main Gallery) or Lantern Room (Lantern Gallery). This was mainly used for cleaning the outside of the windows of the Lantern Room. Light Station Components Lights near to each other that are similar in shape are often painted in a unique pattern so they can easily be recognized during daylight. This marking is called a daymark. The black and white spiral pattern of Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is one example. Race Rocks Light in western Canada is painted in horizontal black and white bands to stand out against the horizon. Range lights Range Lights in Nantucket, Massachusetts, indicating the observer is left of the desired channel Aligning two fixed points on land provides a navigator with a line of position called Range. Ranges can be used to precisely align a vessel within a narrow channel such as in a river. With landmarks of a range illuminated with a set of fixed lighthouses, nighttime navigation is possible. Such paired lighthouses are called Range lights. Two lights are used in this scheme. The one closer to the vessel is named the beacon or front range; the furthest away is called the rear range. The rear range light is always taller than the front. When the vessel is on the correct course, the two lights line up above one another. But when the observer is out of position, the difference in alignment indicates the proper direction of travel to correct the problem. Range Lights History Kõpu lighthouse in Estonia, the third oldest operating lighthouse in the world Ancient Perhaps the most famous lighthouse in history is the Lighthouse of Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos in Hellenistic Egypt. The name Pharos is still used as the noun for "lighthouse" in some languages, for example: Albanian, Catalan and Romanian (far), French (phare), Italian and Spanish (faro), Portuguese (farol), Bulgarian (фар), and Greek (φάρος). The term "pharology" (study of lighthouses) also derives from the island's name. The Lighthouse of Alexandria was built in 280 BC to serve as the port's landmark. With a height variously estimated between 115 and 135 meters (383 - 440 ft) it was among the tallest man-made structures on Earth for many centuries, and was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the World by classical writers. Two lighthouses, each called the Pharos, were built at Dover soon after the Roman conquest of Britain. They were sited on the two heights (Eastern Heights and Western Heights) and modeled on the one built for Caligula's aborted invasion at Boulogne. Tang Dynasty Chinese writer Jia Dan wrote in his book (written between 785 - 805) that in the sea route forming the opening mouth of the Persian Gulf, the medieval Iranians had erected large minaret towers that served as lighthouses. Confirming the Chinese reports, a century later, Arab writers al-Mas'udi and al-Muqaddasi wrote of the same lighthouses. In China, the medieval mosque at Canton had a minaret that served as a lighthouse. The later Song Dynasty Chinese pagoda tower built in medieval Hangzhou, known as the Liuhe Pagoda (erected in 1165), also served as a lighthouse for sailors along the Qiantang River. During the Dark Ages, Roman lighthouses fell into disuse, but some remained functional, such as the Tower of Hercules in A Coruña, Spain, and others in the Mediterranean Sea. As navigation improved, lighthouses gradually expanded into Western and Northern Europe. One of the oldest working medieval lighthouses in Europe is located at Hook Head in County Wexford, Ireland. This lighthouse has a sturdy circular design with walls up to 4 meters thick. Classic period Barnegat Light, a classic coastal lighthouse built by George Meade on Long Beach Island, New Jersey Lighthouse development accelerated in the seventeenth century with national lighthouse services established in Denmark (1650), and Britain's Trinity House constructing its first in 1601. The first Eddystone Lighthouse was lit in 1698, though its third incarnation was the most enduring, designed by John Smeaton and finished in 1759. As Britain became the dominant seapower, lighthouses constructed by the Stephenson family for the Northern Lighthouse Board began to appear in Scotland. The first lighthouse in America was Boston Light on Little Brewster Island (1716). The first keeper was George Worthylake who drowned, along with his wife and daughter, when returning to the island in 1718. The original tower was destroyed by the British during the evacuation of Boston and eventually reconstructed in 1784. The oldest existing lighthouse in America is Sandy Hook Lighthouse, NJ (1764), which is still in operation. By the end of the 19th century, the United States, with its long coastlines had the most lighthouses of any nation. Jones & Robert (1998) A modern automated lighthouse on St. Paul Island The US Bureau of Lighthouses was created in 1789 by the 9th Act of the first Congress which placed lighthouses under federal control. Over the years, lighthouses were placed under the direction of Department of Revenue (this department was disbanded in 1820), Department of Treasury (until 1903), then the Department of Commerce. The Lighthouse Board (of the U. S. Lighthouse Establishment) held sway from 1852 to July 1, 1910, when Commerce created the Lighthouse Service. The United States Coast Guard took over on July 7, 1939. Lighthouses: An Administrative History After 1852 the US was divided into Lighthouse Districts; originally eight, they eventually numbered 19. Each District was run by a Naval Officer appointed by the Lighthouse Board as the District Inspector. He ran the district in tandem with an Army Corps of Engineers' officer who was in charge of engineering projects. In 1910, civilians started replacing the military officers. Lighthouse keepers were needed to trim the wicks, replenish fuel, wind clockworks and perform maintenance tasks such as cleaning lenses and windows. In 1907, Nils Gustaf Dalén produced the sun valve which turned the beacon on and off using daylight. The first one was erected on Furuholmen’s lighthouse between Stockholm and Vaxholm. History - The Sun Valve In 1912 Dalén was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of 'automatic valves designed to be used in combination with gas accumulators in lighthouses'. Gustaf Dalén - Biography Dalén's inventions, electrification and automatic lamp changers began to make lighthouse keepers obsolete. For many years, lighthouses still had keepers, partly because lighthouse keepers could serve as a rescue service if necessary. Improvements in maritime navigation and safety such as GPS have led to the phasing out of non-automated lighthouses, with the last keepers removed in the 1990s. Lighthouse Keepers in the Nineteenth Century Modern Often in inaccessible locations, modern lighthouses are more functional and less picturesque; usually they use solar-charged batteries and have a single stationary flashing light sitting on a steel skeleton tower. The last manned lighthouse built in the US was the Charleston Light constructed in 1962. Resembling an air traffic control tower, it features a modern triangular shape, aluminum alloy skin, air conditioning, an elevator and the most powerful lamp in the Western Hemisphere. It too is now automated. Famous lighthouse builders Point Reyes Lighthouse, showing the lighthouse and buildings comprising the light station John Smeaton is noteworthy for having designed the third and most famous Eddystone Lighthouse but some builders are well known for their work in building multiple lighthouses. The Stevenson family (Robert, Alan, David, Thomas, David Alan and Charles) made lighthouse building a three generation profession in Scotland. Irishman Alexander Mitchell invented and built a number of screwpile lighthouses despite blindness. Corps of Engineers Lieutenant George Meade built numerous lighthouses along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts before gaining wider fame as the winning general at the Battle of Gettysburg. Alexander Ballantyne built two of the most challenging wave washed lighthouses on barren rock in the Pacific, Tillamook Rock Light and St. George Reef Light. Architects, Engineers and Contractors Englishman James Douglass was knighted for his work on lighthouses. Maintenance In the United States, lighthouses are maintained by the United States Coast Guard (USCG). Those in England and Wales are looked after by Trinity House; in Scotland, by the Northern Lighthouse Board; and in Ireland by the Commissioners of Irish Lights. In Canada, they are managed by the Canadian Coast Guard. In Australia, lighthouses are conducted by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority. The Soviet Union built a number of automated lighthouses powered by radioisotope thermoelectric generators in remote locations. They operated for long periods without external support with great reliability. AEI: September 1996, RTG Materials However numerous installations deteriorated, were stolen, or vandalized. Some cannot be found due to poor record keeping. Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators - Bellona Preservation As lighthouses became less essential to navigation, many of their historic structures faced demolition or neglect. In the United States, the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act of 2000 provides for the transfer of lighthouse structures to local governments and private non-profit groups, while the USCG continues to maintain the lamps and lenses. In Canada, the Nova Scotia Lighthouse Preservation Society won heritage status for Sambro Island Lighthouse, and sponsored a bill to change Canadian federal laws to protect lighthouses. Many groups formed to restore and save lighthouses around the world. They include the World Lighthouse Society and the United States Lighthouse Society. The United States Lighthouse Society | Home Page A further international group is the Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society, which sends amateur radio operators to publicize the preservation of remote lighthouses throughout the world. Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society Popular culture and symbolism Split Point Lighthouse, used in a popular Australian TV series Cabo Branco Lighthouse in Joao Pessoa, Brazil is a major attraction at the easternmost inland point of the Americas Visiting and photographing lighthouses are popular hobbies as is collecting ceramic replicas. Some lighthouses are popular travel destinations in their own right, and the buildings maintained as tourist attractions. In the US, National Lighthouse and Lightship Weekend is celebrated on the first weekend of August, and International Lighthouse and Lightship Weekend on the third weekend. Many lighthouses are open to the public and amateur radio operators communicate between them on these days. Lighthouses are popular icons on vehicle license plates. Barnegat Lighthouse, Tuckerton Island Lighthouse, Thomas Point Shoal Lighthouse, Saybrook Breakwater Light, White Shoal Light, and Biloxi Light are so depicted. http://www.sunherald.com/306/story/114405.html The Disney film Pete's Dragon featured a lighthouse and the resulting Helen Reddy song "Candle on the Water" alludes to it. The Australian television series Round the Twist also involved a family living at Split Point Lighthouse. To recognize the role of lighthouse keepers in maritime safety, the US Coast Guard named a class of coastal buoy tenders after famous US Lighthouse Keepers. Fourteen ships in the class were built between 1996 and 2000. USCG: About Us - Aircraft & Cutters Due to their function as beacons of safety, organizations choose lighthouses as a symbol. Marriage Encounter uses the lighthouse as their symbol. The lighthouse is also the symbol of US organization for the blind. Lighthouse International - Home - Hope When Vision Fails Lighthouses are often interpreted in dreams as beacons of truth or as male fertility and influence. Lighthouses were once regarded as an archetypical public good, because ships could benefit from the light without being forced to pay. One reason the Confederacy broke off from the United States was the former's opposition to most taxpayer-funded internal improvements; yet even the Confederate States Constitution explicitly allowed public funds to be spent on lighthouses. The Avalon Project : Constitution of the Confederate States; March 11, 1861 Their isolated and mysterious nature, makes lighthouses a frequent feature of horror or suspense films, and adventure video games. See also Day beacon Flannan Isles Lighthouse Mystery of 1900 Lens lantern List of lighthouses and lightvessels References and sources A rarer type of lighthouse on stilts in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand. Mostly protected by nearby islands, Bean Rock lighthouse lights the way into the Waitemata Harbour. Lighthouse "El Faro", Maspalomas, Gran Canaria References Sources Further reading Mckay Island Lighthouse Biography Bibliography on Michigan lighthouses. Crompton, Samuel Willard & Michael J. Rhein, The Ultimate Book of Lighthouses (2002) ISBN 1-59223-102-0. Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8143-2554-8 Jones, Ray & Bruce Roberts, American Lighthouses (Globe Pequot, September 1, 1998, 1st Ed.) ISBN 0-7627-0324-5. Jones, Ray, The Lighthouse Encyclopedia, The Definitive Reference (Globe Pequot, January 1, 2004, 1st ed.) ISBN 0-7627-2735-7. Noble, Dennis, Lighthouses & Keepers: U. S. Lighthouse Service and Its Legacy (Annapolis: U. S. Naval Institute Press, 1997. ISBN 1-55750-638-8. Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0. Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 0-942618-78-5. Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN 0-923756-03-5. Putnam, George R., Lighthouses and Lightships of the United States, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933). Roach, Jerry, Ultimate Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (2003). Thurston, Harry, Against Darkness and Storm: Lighthouses of the Northeast, (Halifax: Nimbus, 1993). ISBN 1-55109-039-2. United States Coast Guard, Aids to Navigation, (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945). United States Coast Guard, Aids to Navigation Historical Bibliography. Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN 1-880311-01-1. Weiss, George, The Lighthouse Service, Its History, Activities and Organization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926) Wright, Larry; Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1-55046-399-3. External links Ukrainian Lighthouses on the Air (ULA) Aerial photographs of many lighthouses in many parts of the world. The Lighthouse Directory Research tool with details of over 9000 lighthouses and navigation lights around the world with photos and links. Lighthouse Explorer website The Lighthouse Explorer Database, with over 7500 lighthouses listed in searchable format, with photos, directions, historical information, and other details Estonian lighthouses A large portfolio of Baltic Sea lighthouse photos. Guide to Lighthouses A growing gallery of Great Lakes & Michigan lighthouse images and history Lighthouses and beacons on Planete-TP Volume 7, US Coast Guard Lightlist in PDF Format. New England Lighthouses: A Virtual Guide History and guide to every lighthouse in New England American Lighthouse Foundation Non-profit lighthouse preservation group, based in Rockland, Maine. United States Lighthouse Society Non-profit historical and educational lighthouse group. be-x-old:Маяк

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Jack_Kemp

Jack French Kemp (July 13, 1935 May 2, 2009) was an American politician and professional football player. In the 1996 election, he was Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole's running mate for Vice President. He had previously contended for the presidential nomination in the 1988 Republican primaries. Kemp began his political career with nine terms as a Congressman for Western New York, from 1971 to 1989, and subsequently served as Housing Secretary in the George H. W. Bush administration. As an economic conservative, Kemp advocated low taxes and supply-side policies. His positions spanned the social spectrum, ranging from his conservative opposition to abortion to his more libertarian stances advocating immigration reform. As a proponent of both Chicago school and supply-side economics, he is notable as an influence upon the Reagan agenda and the architect of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, which is known as the Kemp–Roth tax cut. Before politics, Kemp was a professional quarterback for 13 years in the National Football League (NFL), Canadian Football League (CFL), and American Football League (AFL). He served as captain of both the San Diego Chargers and Buffalo Bills and earned the AFL Most Valuable Player award in 1965 after leading the Bills to a second consecutive championship. He played in the AFL for all 10 years of its existence, appeared in its All-Star game seven times, played in its championship game five times, and set many of the league's career passing records. Kemp also co-founded the AFL Players Association, for which he served five terms as president. During the early part of his football career, he served in the United States Army Reserve. After his days in political office, Kemp remained active as a political advocate and commentator, and served on corporate and non-profit organization boards. He also authored, co-authored, and edited several books. He promoted American football and advocated for retired professional football players. Kemp was the benefactor of Pepperdine University's Jack F. Kemp Institute of Political Economy. Early life Youth Born, According to the State of California. California Birth Index, 1905-1995. Center for Health Statistics, California Department of Health Services, Sacramento, California. Searchable at http://www.familytreelegends.com/records/39461 raised, and educated in , Kemp was the third of four sons of Frances Elizabeth (née Pope) and Paul Robert Kemp, Sr. Paul turned his motorcycle messenger service into a trucking company that grew from one to fourteen trucks. Frances was a well-educated social worker and Spanish teacher. Kemp grew up in the heavily-Jewish Wilshire district of West Los Angeles, but his tight-knit middle class family practiced in the Church of Christ, Scientist. In his youth, sports consumed Kemp, who once chose the forward pass as the subject of a school essay on important inventions, although his mother attempted to broaden his horizons with piano lessons and trips to the Hollywood Bowl. Kemp attended Melrose Avenue's Fairfax High School, which was, at the time, known both for its high concentration of Jewish students and concentration of celebrities' children. Over 95 percent of Kemp's classmates were Jewish, and he later became a supporter of Jewish causes. His classmates included Herb Alpert, Larry Sherry, and Judith A. Reisman. During his years in high school, Kemp worked with his brothers at his father's trucking company in downtown Los Angeles. In his spare time, he became a rigorous reader, preferring history and philosophy books. College After graduating from high school in 1953, he attended Occidental College, a founding member of the NCAA Division III Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. Kemp selected Occidental because its football team used professional formations and plays, which he hoped would help him to become a professional quarterback. At and , he considered himself too small to play for the USC Trojans or UCLA Bruins, the major Southern California college football programs. At Occidental, Kemp was a record-setting javelin hurler and played several positions on the football team: quarterback, defensive back, place kicker, and punter. Although he was near-sighted, Kemp was tenacious on the field. During his years as starting quarterback the team posted 6–2 and 3–6 records. Kemp was named a Little All-America player one year in which he threw for over 1,100 yards. That year, he led the nation's small colleges in passing. He and close friend Jim Mora, who later became an NFL head coach, were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. Another teammate in college was Ron Botchan, Occidental Players/Alumni who was a NFL umpire for years (record five Super Bowls). Sam Farmer, "Football Umpires are in the Line of Fire", Los Angeles Times, November 11, 2008, revised December 8, 2008 Kemp declined to become involved in student government. After graduating from Occidental with a degree in physical education, he pursued post-graduate studies in economics at Long Beach State University and California Western University, and served in the military from 1958 to 1962. Marriage and family Kemp graduated from Occidental in 1957 and married Joanne Main, his college sweetheart, after she graduated from Occidental in 1958. Main had grown up in , and attended Fillmore High School in Ventura County. Her father was a teacher and football coach in the Fillmore Unified School District before becoming vice principal and eventually superintendent of the district. Kemp's Biblical Literature professor, Keith Beebe, presided over the wedding, after which Kemp converted to his wife's Presbyterian faith. Jack Kemp was a 33rd degree Freemason in the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction. They had two sons, who were both professional football quarterbacks: Jeff Kemp played in the NFL from 1981 to 1991, and Jimmy Kemp played in the CFL from 1994 to 2002. They also had two daughters: Jennifer Kemp Andrews and Judith Kemp. Joanne once suffered a miscarriage, which Kemp later said made him re-evaluate the sanctity of human life and affected his opposition to abortion. Kemp is survived by his wife of fifty years, his four children and 17 grandchildren. Football career After being drafted by the Detroit Lions in the 17th round of the 1957 NFL Draft, Kemp was cut from the team before the 1957 NFL season began. He spent 1957 with the Pittsburgh Steelers and 1958 on the taxi squads of the New York Giants and San Francisco 49ers. The 1958 New York Giants played in that year's NFL Championship Game, known as the "Greatest Game Ever Played" and the first overtime NFL playoff game, but, as a third-string quarterback member of the taxi squad, Kemp did not take the field. After his time in the NFL, Kemp served a year as a private in the United States Army Reserve. During his service, he played one game for the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League, which made him ineligible for the NFL in 1959. According to his older brother Tom, his parents drove him from California to only to see him get cut. By this time Kemp had been cut from five professional teams (Lions, Steelers, Giants, 49ers, and Stampeders) and his family encouraged him to get on with his life. On February 9 and February 11, 1960, the newly formed AFL agreed to "no tampering" policies with the NFL and CFL respectively to keep from stealing star players. Thus, players like Kemp with modest NFL experience were common AFL signees at the time. Gruver, p. 44. Kemp signed as a free agent with the AFL's Los Angeles Chargers. Sid Gillman era (1960–1962) In 1960, Kemp led the Chargers to a Western Division Championship with a 10–4 record. Gruver, p. 55. He finished second in the league to Frank Tripucka in passing attempts, completions, and yards (making him and Tripucka the league's first 3,000-yard passers), led the AFL in yards per completion and times sacked, and finished one rushing touchdown short of the league lead. Under Kemp, the Chargers' offense averaged 46 points over its last four games and scored more than 41 points in five of its last nine games. Gruver, p. 56. In the 1960 AFL Championship Game, he led the team to field goals on its first two possessions, but after the Houston Oilers posted a touchdown in the second quarter for a 7–6 lead, the Chargers never recovered. Gruver, pp. 58–59. In 1961, San Diego Union editor Jack Murphy convinced Barron Hilton to move the Chargers from Los Angeles to San Diego. Gruver, p. 61. Kemp led the relocated team to a 12–2 record and a repeat Western Division Championship. Gruver, p. 71. He again finished second in passing yards (this time to George Blanda). The Chargers earned an AFL Championship Game rematch against the Oilers. However, this time the Chargers were unable to score until a fourth quarter field goal in a 10–3 loss. Gruver, p. 266. The Berlin Wall was erected in August 1961. On October 15, 1961, President John F. Kennedy activated Kemp's San Diego-based 977th Transportation Company reserves unit for duty in response. In September, the right-handed Kemp had injured his left shoulder while playing football. Medical examiners found swelling and muscle spasms and described his voluntary range of motion at 80 percent. In a decision that was reviewed and upheld by the Surgeon General of the United States Army, Army doctors found him as unfit for active duty. That year, he led the Chargers to a division title, passing for 2,686 yards and 15 touchdowns. Years later, Kemp's 1961 Chargers roommate, Ron Mix, recalled that Kemp needed "ten or so" shots of painkillers before each game and commented that "it sounds weird, but he could play football and not be fit to serve in the Army." In 1962, Kemp broke his middle finger two games into the season and was unable to play. Chargers coach Sid Gillman put Kemp on waivers to try to "hide" him. Gruver, pp. 82–83. Buffalo Bills coach Lou Saban noticed that Kemp was available and claimed him for a $100 waiver fee on September 25, 1962, Maiorana (1994), p. 86. in what sportswriter Randy Schultz has called one of the biggest bargains in professional football history. The Dallas Texans and Denver Broncos also attempted to claim Kemp, but he was awarded to Buffalo by AFL commissioner Joe Foss. Gruver, p. 83. Lou Saban era (1962–1965) According to Billy Shaw, Kemp's acquisition solved the Bills' quarterback problem, but Kemp was not excited about coming to Buffalo. According to Van Miller, "Jack's a skier, and he wanted to go to Denver and play for the Broncos. He hated the thought of coming to Buffalo." In Buffalo, he would become known for his love of reading a broad range of books including those by Henry Thoreau, which led to chidings from Saban. Injuries, including a broken finger, kept Kemp from playing for most of 1962. That season, Kemp received a military draft notice for service in the Vietnam War, but was granted a draft waiver because of a knee problem. The injuries healed, and Kemp debuted for Buffalo on November 18, 1962 by directing the only touchdown drive in a 10–6 win over the Oakland Raiders. He played only four games for Buffalo in 1962, but made the AFL All-Star team. The Bills won three of their last four games to finish 7–6–1. Maiorana (1994), p. 93–94. On December 14, 1962, the Bills outbid the Green Bay Packers for Notre Dame quarterback Daryle Lamonica. In 1963, a four-season starting quarterback battle began that continued until Lamonica left for the Raiders. Lamonica felt he "... learned a lot from Jack about quarterbacking. And I truly believe that we were a great one-two punch at the position for the Bills." In 1963, Kemp led the Bills from a slow start to a tie for the AFL Eastern Division lead with a 7–6–1 record. Maiorana (1994), p. 104. Kemp again placed second in passing attempts, completions, and yards, and he also finished second to teammate Cookie Gilchrist in rushing touchdowns. The Bills played the Boston Patriots in an Eastern Division playoff game to determine the division title on December 28, 1963, at War Memorial Stadium in , in weather. During the game, Buffalo replaced Kemp with Lamonica after falling behind 16–0, but still lost 26–8. Gruver, p. 115. Kemp was said to be the "clubhouse lawyer" for the Bills because of his role in mediating conflicts. In 1964, he managed personalities such as Gilchrist, who walked off the field when plays were not being called for him, and Saban, who he kept from cutting Gilchrist the following week. He also managed the politics of his quarterback battle with Lamonica, who engineered four winning touchdown drives in the Bills' first seven games. The 1964 team won its first nine games and went 12–2 for the regular season, winning the Eastern Division with a final game victory over the Patriots at Fenway Park. Kemp led the league in yards per attempt and finished one rushing touchdown short of the league lead, which was shared by Gilchrist and Sid Blanks. In the 1964 AFL Championship Game, he scored the final touchdown with just over nine minutes left in a 20–7 victory. Maiorana (1994), p. 116. According to Lamonica, the 1965 team had a new emphasis: "In '64 we had depended a lot on Gilchrist and our running attack to carry us. . .But that all changed in '65. The Bills had traded Gilchrist in the off season to the Denver Broncos. So we went to a pass-oriented game more that season than we ever had before. We not only went to our receivers, but we threw a lot to our running backs. And I really think it brought out the best in Jack that year." In 1965, the Bills finished with a 10–3–1 record. Maiorana (1994), p. 125. Kemp finished the season second in the league in pass completions. In the 1965 AFL Championship Game, Buffalo defeated the Chargers 23–0; for Kemp, the victory was special because it came against his former team. Kemp's role in leading the Bills to a repeat championship without Gilchrist and with star receiver Elbert Dubenion playing only three games earned him a share of the AFL MVP awards that he split with former Charger teammate, Paul Lowe. Kemp also won the Associated Press award and the Championship Game Most Valuable Player award. Maiorana (1994), p. 126. Gruver, p. 151. Joe Collier and John Rauch eras (1966–1969) Following the championship game, Saban resigned to coach the Maryland Terrapins and defensive coordinator Joe Collier was promoted to head coach for the 1966 AFL season. Maiorana (1994), p. 127. That year, Kemp led the Bills to their third consecutive division title with a 9–4–1 record. However, in the 1966 AFL Championship Game, which was played for the right to represent the AFL in Super Bowl I, the Bills lost to the Kansas City Chiefs 31–7. Maiorana (1994), pp. 136–37. Kemp was named an AFL All-Star for the sixth consecutive year. The 1967 Bills endured a 4–10 1967 AFL season, in which Kemp was not named to the All-Star game for the first time in his AFL career. Maiorana (1994), p. 147. On August 23, 1968, the Bills suffered a blowout preseason loss to the Houston Oilers. On August 26, Collier put the Bills through a 40-play scrimmage. During the scrimmage, Ron McDole fell on Kemp's right knee and injured it, forcing Kemp to sit out the entire 1968 AFL season. Maiorana (1994), p. 148. The Bills went 1–12–1 without Kemp. Maiorana (1994), p. 157. Despite Kemp's return from injury and the arrival of running back O. J. Simpson, the Bills only compiled a 4–10 record during the 1969 AFL season under new coach John Rauch. Maiorana (1994), pp. 158–66. Kemp was named an AFL All-Star in 1969 for the seventh time in the league's 10 years. He advocated recognition of the league, and in its last year, 1969, lobbied Pete Rozelle to have AFL teams wear an AFL patch to honor it. In 1969, the Erie County Republican Party approached him about running for the United States Congress. After the January 17, 1970, AFL All-Star game, Kemp returned home and talked to his wife before deciding to enter politics. Maiorana (2000), p. 174. Kemp said "I had a four-year no-cut contract with the Bills at the time. ... I figured that if I lost I could always come back and play. But the fans had their say and I was elected to Congress." Career summary Kemp led Buffalo to three straight Eastern Division titles and two straight AFL Championships. He led the league in career passes attempted, completions, and yards gained passing. He played in five of the AFL's 10 Championship Games, and holds the same career records (passing attempts, completions, and yardage) for championships. He is second in many other championship game categories, including career and single-game passer rating. A Sporting News All-League selection at quarterback in 1960 and 1965, he was the only AFL quarterback to be listed as a starter all 10 years of the league's existence and one of only 20 players to serve all 10 of those years. His number 15 was retired by the Bills in 1984. However, despite his success and important AFL records, he is most prominently listed in the NFL record book for less flattering accomplishments, including his place as a former record holder for most quarterback sacks in a game. Despite Kemp's many records, Joe Namath and Len Dawson were selected as the quarterbacks for the All-time AFL team. Kemp is a member of the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame and the Buffalo Bills' Wall of Fame. Kemp co-founded the AFL Players Association with Tom Addison of the Boston Patriots, and was elected its president five times. His founding of and involvement in the players' union contributed to his frequent siding with the Democrats on labor issues later in his career. The NCAA’s highest honor, the Theodore Roosevelt Award, was presented to Kemp in 1992, and he was named one of the Association’s 100 most influential student-athletes in 2006. Political career "Pro football gave me a good perspective. When I entered the political arena, I had already been booed, cheered, cut, sold, traded, and hung in effigy." — Jack Kemp Kemp's political career began long before his 1970 campaign. In 1960 and 1961, Kemp was an editorial assistant to San Diego Union editor and future Richard Nixon aide Herb Klein. Subsequently, Kemp became a volunteer in both Barry Goldwater's 1964 Presidential campaign and Ronald Reagan's successful 1966 California Gubernatorial campaign. In the 1967 football off-season, Kemp worked on Reagan's staff in Sacramento. In 1969, he was special assistant to the Republican National Committee chairman. Kemp was a voracious reader, and his political beliefs were founded in early readings of Goldwater's The Conscience of a Conservative, Ayn Rand's libertarian novels, such as The Fountainhead, and Friedrich von Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty. He also brought from his football career a belief in racial equality, which came from playing football with black teammates: Kemp said, "I wasn't there with Rosa Parks or Dr. King or John Lewis. But I am here now, and I am going to yell from the rooftops about what we need to do." Kemp's football colleagues confirmed this influence: John Mackey explained that "The huddle is colorblind." Congress (1971–1989) As a self-described "bleeding-heart conservative", Kemp represented a part of the suburban Buffalo region that is known as the southtowns and that traditionally voted Democratic for the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1989. He is as fondly remembered for his good hair and handsome looks as for his athletic prowess and political savvy, and he is described as having the charisma of the earlier J.F.K. (John F. Kennedy) David Rosenbaum described Kemp as an independent politician who often legislated outside his committees' jurisdictions and often spoke in favor of ideals and principles rather than his party's political platforms. As a supply-sider, he was not a proponent of balanced budgeting and trivialized it while speaking of growth as an economic goal. The Republicans had drafted Kemp after incumbent congressman Richard D. McCarthy decided to run for the United States Senate. During his inaugural campaign, his district was in economic malaise, and The New York Times described him as a John F. Kennedy throwback who campaigned on family values, patriotism, sports and defense. Upon his election to the Congress in a class of sixty-two freshmen, he was one of six newcomers—along with Ronald Dellums, Bella Abzug, Louise Day Hicks, Robert Drinan, and Pete du Pont—discussed in Time. The article described him as a football fan like United States President Richard Nixon and as the recipient of advice from White House Adviser Robert Finch and former Kemp boss Herb Klein, Nixon's Director of Communications. The Nixon aides encouraged Kemp to endorse the Cambodian invasion and to oppose criticism of Nixon's war policies in order to firm up Kemp's support from military hawks. Kemp championed several Chicago school and supply-side economics issues: economic growth, free markets, free trade, tax simplification and lower tax rates on both employment and investment income. He was a long-time proponent of the flat tax. He also defended the use of anti-Communist contra forces in Central America, supported the gold standard, spoke for civil rights legislation, opposed abortion, and was the first lawmaker to popularize enterprise zones, which he supported to foster entrepreneurship and job creation and expand homeownership among public housing tenants. During his career, he sometimes sounded like a liberal Democrat: he supported affirmative action and rights for illegal immigrants. The New York Times described Kemp as the most proactive combatant in the war on poverty since Robert Kennedy. He differed from Rockefeller Republicans and earlier combatants such as Lyndon Johnson by supporting incentive-based systems instead of traditional social programs. For his commitment to inner city concerns from within the Republican party, David Gergen heralded him as a "courageous voice in the wilderness." Although he was liberal on many social issues and supported civil liberties for homosexuals, he opposed certain gay rights such as the right to teach in schools. Kemp at times felt his role was that of "freewheeling, entrepreneurial, wildcatting backbencher." Time magazine identified 38-year-old second-term congressman Kemp as a future leader in its 1974 "Faces for the Future" feature. Another early-career notable magazine appearance was in a 1978 issue of Esquire. The article explained allegations of homosexual activity among staffers in Ronald Reagan's Sacramento office in 1967; Kemp was not implicated. Hugh Sidey mentioned him as a contender to unseat Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election and was a front runner for the vice presidency at the 1980 Republican National Convention, where he received 43 votes from conservative detractors of George H. W. Bush. After he was reelected for a sixth term in 1980, his Republican peers elected him to a party leadership position, and he served seven years as chairman of the House Republican Conference. This promotion occurred immediately after Kemp and David Stockman urged Reagan by memorandum to dedicate his first 100 days to working on an economic package with Congress. By 1984, many viewed Kemp as Reagan's heir apparent. Kemp had his first encounter with supply-side economics in 1967, when The Wall Street Journal'''s Jude Wanniski interviewed him at his Congressional office. Kemp questioned Wanniski all day (until midnight, at Kemp's home) and was eventually converted to University of Southern California professor Arthur Laffer's supply-side discipline. Thereafter, Kemp espoused supply-side economics freely, and in 1978 he and William V. Roth, Jr. proposed tax-cutting legislation. Kemp has been credited as responsible for supply-side economics' inclusion in President Reagan's economic plan, although at the time of Robert Mundell's Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics recognition some attributed much of the credit to Mundell, Laffer, Robert Bartley, and Wanniski. In 1979, Kemp wrote An American Renaissance (ISBN 0-06-012283-8), to deliver his message that "A rising tide lifts all boats." Although the realization of early 1980s tax cuts are attributed to Reagan, they were initiated by Kemp and Roth through their 1981 Kemp–Roth Tax Cut legislation. Reagan's budget based on this legislation passed over the objection of United States House Committee on Ways and Means Chairman Dan Rostenkowski. During the Reagan years, Kemp and his followers ignored budget balancing while promoting tax cuts and economic growth. These tax cuts have been credited by conservatives for the economic growth from 1983 to 1990, which by 1996 had become one of the longest expansions in American history. Kemp notes that Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker's success at stemming inflation and the favorable regulatory environment were also major factors. Detractors note that the expansion was fueled by undesirable sectors like gaming, prisons, medical treatment, and credit card use. An early Kemp tax reform attempt was an unsuccessful 1979 proposal to index tax brackets for cost of living fluctuations, which was incorporated in Reagan's 1980 package. Kemp co-sponsored a legislative attempt at enterprise zones in 1980. One of Kemp's more trying times as a congressman came in 1982 when Reagan decided to reverse the tax cuts and promote tax increases. The reversal was controversial and stimulated opposition by Kemp. Nonetheless, the revised taxes passed. In 1983, Kemp opposed the policies of Chairman Volcker on multiple occasions. The debates included domestic monetary involvement and roles in funding the International Monetary Fund. At several Republican National Conventions, Kemp has delivered speeches. He addressed the convention on July 15 at the 1980 Republican National Convention in and on August 21 at the 1984 Republican National Convention in . Kemp, Jack, An American Idea: Ending Limits to Growth, Goodrich, 1985 During the 1984 Convention, with Trent Lott as Republican Party Platform Committee Chairman, Congressmen Kemp and Newt Gingrich claimed control of the party platform to the consternation of G.O.P. senators Bob Dole and Howard Baker. Kemp's official role was as the chairman of the platform subcommittee on foreign policy. However, the three platform planks that he proposed involved tax hikes, the gold standard and the role of the Federal Reserve. Despite Kemp's official role, his real influence as an author was on the grammatical structure of the plank on tax hikes. By 1985, Kemp was a leading contender for the 1988 Presidential nomination. He also delivered remarks on free enterprise zones at the 1992 Republican National Convention in . Despite efforts and considerations of expanding his political domain, Kemp never held a fundraiser outside of his suburban Western New York district until well into his eighth term in Congress. Kemp has been a critic of soccer, also known as association football. In 1986, during a House floor debate over whether the United States should host the 1994 FIFA World Cup, Kemp proclaimed: "I think it is important for all those young out there — who someday hope to play real football, where you throw it and kick it and run with it and put it in your hands — [that] a distinction should be made that football is democratic capitalism, whereas soccer is a European socialist sport." Kemp has compared his speech to George Carlin's 1984 comedy routine on the differences between baseball and American football and has written that his "tongue was firmly planted in cheek" when making the speech. Despite the levity of the speech, it has garnered significant backlash. However, he continues to insist that soccer's main problem is "it doesn't have a quarterback". Kemp notes that about half of his grandchildren play or have played organized soccer and claims to have since 'changed' his position on soccer. He even attended the 1994 FIFA World Cup with long time soccer fan Henry Kissinger, although he wrote during the 2006 FIFA World Cup that soccer can be interesting to watch but is still a "boring game". Presidential bid (1988) In 1988, if Kemp had won his campaign for the United States Presidency, it would have made him the first person to move from the United States House of Representatives to the White House since James Garfield. When he formed his exploratory committee, he signed Ed Rollins, Reagan's 1984 re-election political director, as an advisor. From the outset, Kemp had failed to position himself as the primary alternative to Vice President Bush. Except for a select few cognoscenti, the general public did not recognize Kemp's leadership ability, although he was a successful man of ideas. In fact, most of the Republican electorate found themselves unfamiliar with Kemp early in his campaign. Political pundits recognized him, however, as a visionary idea man. In addition, he was quickly perceived as a verbose speaker who sometimes lost contact with his audience. Although Kemp tried to appeal to the conservatives, his libertarian philosophies of tolerance and individual rights and his commitment to supporting minorities, women, blue-collar workers and organized labor clashed with conservative voters' social and religious values. To Democrats, Kemp's free-market philosophies were a form of laissez-faire anarchy. However, as much as Kemp wanted to minimize government's role, he acknowledged that moves toward a more laissez-faire system should be well-thought out. After the May 1987 Gary Hart–Donna Rice scandal, a questionnaire by The New York Times requested things such as psychiatric records and access to FBI files from all 14 presidential candidates. Candidates from each party expressed opinions on both sides of the personal privacy issue, and Kemp rejected the Times inquiry as "beneath the dignity of a presidential candidate". His campaign was on an early positive course with many key early endorsements in New Hampshire, but Bush held the support of much of the Republican establishment in New York. Although he had an eclectic mix of supporters, Kemp's campaign began borrowing against anticipated Federal matching funds because it had quickly spent itself into the red, which may have been due to the use of expensive direct mail fundraising techniques. To offset his socially moderate stances, Kemp clarified his opposition to abortion, his support of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) and his support for a stronger military than that favored by Secretary of State George Shultz. To position himself as Reagan's successor, Kemp called for Shultz's resignation based on claims that Shultz had neglected freedom fighters in Afghanistan and Nicaragua and had waffled on SDI. Despite a platform covering the full range of political subjects, Kemp's primary campaign weapon was a fiscal policy based on tax cuts. As part of his fiscal policy, he opposed a Social Security benefits freeze and endorsed a freeze on government spending. Some viewed Kemp's supply-side stance as an attempt to ignore the national budget deficit. In late 1987, political pundits saw that Kemp needed to gain support from the far right on non-social issues. Kemp was among the majority of Republican candidates in opposition to Reagan's INF Treaty agreement with the Soviet Union's Mikhail Gorbachev despite general Republican voter approval of the treaty. With aspirations of support from right-wing voters, all candidates with low levels of poll support for the nomination took this same "sabre-rattling" stand. By early 1988, the moderates (Bush and Dole) were clearly the front-runners and Kemp was battling with Pat Robertson as the conservative alternative to the moderates. He used a somewhat negative advertising campaign that seemed to have the intended initial effect of boosting him to serious contention. His 1988 campaign was based on the platform of supply-side economics and inner-city enterprise zones. In Bare Knuckles and Back Rooms: My Life in American Politics, campaign chairman Rollins described Kemp as a candidate with foibles. Kemp's campaign managers say he was unmanageable: he ignored timers on his speeches, refused to call contributors, and refused to practice for debates. A humbling Super Tuesday, in which his 39 delegate total was fewer than eventual nominee and President Bush and both Dole and Pat Robertson, ended his campaign. After withdrawing from the race, he was still considered a contender for the Vice President nomination. In 1989, the Kemps switched their official residence from Hamburg, New York to , their current residence. In 1994, Kemp's 1988 campaign reached a settlement with the Federal Election Commission by agreeing to pay $120,000 in civil penalties for 1988 campaign election law violations for, among other things, excessive contributions, improper direct corporate donations, press overbilling, exceeding spending limits in Iowa and New Hampshire, and failure to reimburse corporations for providing air transportation. Cabinet (1989–1993) As a so-called "bleeding-heart conservative", Kemp was a logical choice for Bush as the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, whose job would be to foster public sector and private sector methods to meet the demands of public housing. However, the scandals of Reagan's Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Samuel Pierce and the neglect of the president were obstacles from the start, and Kemp was unsuccessful at either of his major initiatives: enacting enterprise zones and promoting public housing tenant ownership. The goal of these two plans was to change public housing into tenant-owned residences and to lure industry and business into inner cities with federal incentives. Although Kemp did not affect much policy as HUD's director, he cleaned up HUD's reputation, and developed a plan to salvage the troubled Federal Housing Administration. He halted or revamped corrupt programs and developed an antidrug offensive, which enabled him to collaborate with Director of the National Drug Control Policy Bill Bennett. He supported "Operation Clean Sweep" and similar movements to prohibit firearm possession in public housing. Although Kemp coaxed Bush to support a $4 billion housing program that encouraged public housing tenants to buy their own apartments, the Democratic Congress only allocated $361 million to the plan. In addition to opposition in Congress, Kemp fought White House Budget Director Richard Darman, who opposed Kemp's pet project HOPE (Homeownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere). The project involved selling public housing to its tenants. Darman also opposed Kemp's proposed welfare adjustment of government offsets. HOPE was first proposed to White House chief of staff John Sununu in June 1989 to create enterprise zones, increase subsidies for low-income renters, expand social services for the homeless and elderly, and enact tax changes to help first-time home buyers. Sununu opposed it at first as did most of the Cabinet, but in August 1990 Sununu, at the urging of United States Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, encouraged President Bush to endorse Kemp's Economic Empowerment Task Force. However, the Persian Gulf War and the budget negotiations overshadowed Kemp's new project. Darman battled Kemp and his allies such as Gingrich, James Pinkerton, and Vin Weber. The budget left him with $256 million for his plan, which Kemp increased during some appropriations battles. Soon after Clayton Yeutter was appointed chief White House domestic policy advisor, Kemp's Economic Empowerment Task Force was abolished. President Bush avoided federal antipoverty issues, and instead used Kemp as a mouthpiece to speak on the administration's low priority conservative activist agenda. Bush's contribution to the urban agenda had been volunteerism through his "Points of Light" theme, and Kemp received stronger support for his ideas from Presidential candidate Bill Clinton. By the time of the Los Angeles riots of 1992, Bush was a bit late in supporting enterprise zones, tenant ownership and welfare reform: Mort Zuckerman compared Bush's vision on racial issues to that of a man riding backwards in a railroad car. Nonetheless, the riots made Kemp a focal point of the administration, even though at first, Kemp had been overlooked. However, Charles E. Schumer had probably summarized the prospects of Kemp's success in advance best when he said in 1989, "Good ideas with money can do a whole lot. Good ideas without money aren't probably going to do a whole lot," and the issue here was the decision not to fund Kemp's ideas. Although Kemp was unable to procure money for his visions, he was among the administration's leading users of first class corporate jets. He cited lingering effects from a knee injury as the reason he had to fly first class at government expense as the Housing Secretary. Generally, his time as Housing Secretary was considered unsuccessful. However, although he could not get federal funding for empowerment zones passed during his tenure, by 1992 38 states had created empowerment zones, and in 1994 $3.5 billion was approved for them under President Clinton. A free market Kemp initiative to allow homeowners to subdivide their houses for the purpose of creating rental units without inordinate bureaucracy did not get executed under the Clinton administration, however. In 1992, with H. Ross Perot mounting a formidable campaign, Kemp was again considered a Vice Presidential candidate. Kemp was partly at fault for not achieving either of his primary goals because he did not get along with the rest of the Cabinet. At one point, Kemp told James Baker, White House Chief of Staff, that Bush's best chance to win re-election was to dump his economic advisors in dramatic fashion. Before the 1992 Republican National Convention, Kemp and six prominent Republican conservatives prepared a controversial memo urging Bush to revise his economic policy. Contemporaneously, conservative Republicans in office and in the media such as William F. Buckley, Jr. and George Will felt Dan Quayle should be ousted in favor of Kemp. This followed Kemp's reference to parts of the President's economic policy as "gimmicks" after the 1992 State of the Union Address. Kemp was respected within the party for opposing Bush, and towards the end of Bush's administration insiders recognized his value. In late 1991, 81 of the 166 Republican Congressmen signed a letter co-authored by Curt Weldon and Dan Burton requesting that Bush cede some domestic authority to Kemp as a "domestic policy czar." The letter, highlighting Kemp's "energy, enthusiasm and national clout", insulted Bush. Kemp was a bit of a surprise to stay in the Bush Cabinet for the duration of his presidency, and he was described as one of the few Bush Administration members who would take tough stands. Kemp did not expect to be retained if the Republicans were reelected in 1992, and some pundits agreed with him. Post-HUD years (1993–1996) Kemp gave public speeches for $35,000 apiece between his time as Housing Secretary and his Vice Presidential nomination. By 1994, Kemp had embarked on 241 fund-raising dinners to raise $35 million for a 1996 Presidential bid and to pay off his 1988 campaign debts. After stepping down from his $189,000 Secretary of Housing and Urban Development job, Kemp personally earned $6.9 million in the next three years, primarily for speaking on behalf of local Republican candidates. During the Super Bowl XXVIII festivities, Kemp hosted a notable fundraiser series. Kemp was considered the star of the 1992 Republican National Convention. In 1992 and 1993, Kemp was considered the favorite or co-favorite for the 1996 Presidential nomination. At the time of the 1994 mid-term elections, Kemp was widely anticipated to announce his candidacy for 1996, and his supporters wanted a formal announcement by the end of the year. In January 1995, Kemp's stated reason for not entering the 1996 Republican Party presidential primaries was that his personal beliefs were out of balance with the contemporary Republican political landscape: Kemp opposed term limits, he always preferred tax cuts to anything resembling a balanced budget amendment and, unlike most Republicans, favored federal incentives to combat urban poverty. In 1995, Gloria Borger noted Kemp was not in step with the 1994 Contract with America. Kemp also noted a distaste for the vast fundraising necessary for a Presidential campaign. Gergen stated that by 1996 the selection process had become so expensive, mean and personally invasive that it discouraged several top Republicans from running. In 1995, while the world awaited the campaign decision announcement by Colin Powell, Kemp had positive thoughts on the prospect of such a campaign. Senate Majority Leader Dole and Gingrich appointed Kemp to head a tax reform commission in response to voter concern that the tax code had become too complicated. Kemp championed many issues including the flat tax, which he formally proposed after he was appointed. The proposal included some politically popular income tax deductions, such as mortgage interest, but it remained fairly general. Among the 1996 Republican Party candidates, both Steve Forbes and Phil Gramm proposed the flat tax. During the campaign, Kemp's endorsement was highly coveted. Forbes had tried to get Kemp to run in the 1996 campaign, but Kemp declined and in fact endorsed Forbes just as Dole was closing in on the nomination, and just after Dole gained the endorsements of former contenders Lamar Alexander and Richard Lugar. Some feel the primary reason for the endorsement was to keep the flat tax idea and other supply-side views alive. Many thought Kemp had destroyed his own political future with the endorsement, and Kemp profusely apologized to Dole's campaign offices. After it became clear Dole would be the nominee, Kemp attempted to form a bipartisan seminar with Felix Rohatyn to produce a fiscal plan that could be endorsed by both parties. Kemp was also outspoken on immigration on around this time: according to Kemp's interpretation of a scientific index that he and Bennett support, "immigrants are a blessing, not a curse." In 1994, Kemp and Bennett opposed California ballot Proposition 187, a measure to bar illegal immigrants from obtaining public services, in direct opposition to first-term Republican California Governor Pete Wilson, one of its endorsers who was running for re-election. Republican Senate candidate Michael Huffington had also endorsed the proposition. Kemp supported rights for illegal immigrants, but opposed Lamar Smith and Alan Simpson's proposed restrictions on legal immigration. Vice Presidential nomination (1996) Bob Dole and Kemp were featured on the cover of Time magazine, but were nearly displaced by a story about Mars (inset on cover) Kemp had a reputation as the highest-profile progressive Republican. When Dole declined an invitation to speak to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, he suggested Kemp as a substitute even before Kemp had become the Vice Presidential nominee. On August 5, 1996, Dole announced a 15% flat tax in response to both the Forbes campaign and Kemp's tax reform commission. Several of Dole's other campaign ideas came from Kemp and Bill Bennett's Empower America, which had Jeane Kirkpatrick, Weber, Forbes and Alexander as principals. For example, Dole borrowed Kirkpatrick's tough foreign policy, Bennett's "right conduct" and even Alexander's school choice interest. Bennett declined the offer to be Dole's running mate, but suggested Kemp, a man described as Dole's antagonist. On August 16, 1996, the Republican Party chose Kemp as its 1996 vice presidential nominee, running alongside former Senator Dole. Kemp was seen as a means to attract conservative and libertarian-minded voters like those of tough nomination-challengers Forbes and Pat Buchanan. Kemp was chosen over Connie Mack, John McCain, and Carroll Campbell, and it is assumed that this was partly because Kemp had several former staffers in influential positions as Dole's senior advisors. Dole had had a long history of representing the budget-balancing faction of the Party, while Kemp had had a long history of representing the tax-cutting advocates, and Kemp's tax-cutting fiscal track record was seen as the perfect fit for the ticket. When Kemp became Dole's running mate in 1996, they appeared on the cover of the August 19, 1996 issue of Time magazine, but the pair barely edged out a story on the reported discovery of extraterrestrial life on Mars, which was so close to being the cover story that Time inset it on the cover and wrote about how difficult the decision was. The two politicians had a storied history stemming from alternative perspectives and objectives. Dole was a longstanding conservative deficit-hawk who had even voted against John F. Kennedy's tax cuts, while Kemp was an outspoken supply-sider. In the early 1980s, according to David Stockman, Kemp convinced Reagan to make a 30 percent across-the-board tax cut a central 1980 presidential campaign feature. Once Reagan was elected, Dole was the Senate Finance Committee Chairman who Kemp claims resisted the plan every step of the way. Dole concedes he expressed reservations about the 1981 plan. The big confrontation came after the tax plan was approved and after Dole subsequently proposed tax increases that he referred to as reforms. Kemp was vocal in his opposition to the reforms and even penned an op-ed piece in The New York Times, which enraged Dole. Reagan supported the reforms at Dole's request, causing Kemp to summon allies to meetings to stop the act, which eventually passed in 1982. At the 1984 Republican National Convention, Kemp, along with allies such as Gingrich and Lott, added a plank to the party platform that put President Reagan on record as ruling out tax increases. Gingrich called this action "Dole-proofing" the platform, and the plank passed over Dole's opposition. Then, in 1985, Dole proposed an austere budget that barely passed in the senate with appendectomy patient Pete Wilson casting the tieing vote and Vice President Bush casting the deciding vote. In meetings with the President that excluded Dole, Kemp reworked the budget to exclude crucial Social Security cutbacks. This is said to have been Dole's most crushing political defeat and to have contributed to the Republican loss of control of the Senate. During the 1988 Presidential election, the two antagonized each other. After Bush won and Kemp left Congress for the Cabinet, the two did not really cross paths again until 1996, when Kemp endorsed Dole's opponent Forbes on the eve of the New York Primary in March. Dole despised Kemp's economic theories, but he felt Kemp-like tax cuts offered his best chance at electoral success. For his part, Kemp had to make concessions as well: he had to back expelling the children of illegal immigrants from public schools despite his longstanding opposition to Proposition 187 and mute his opposition to abolishing affirmative-action programs in California. Some derided Kemp for his compromise and referred to him as a "con artist." From the outset of their campaign, Dole-Kemp trailed, and they faced skeptics even from within the party. However, Kemp was able to use the nomination to promote his opposition to Clinton's partial birth abortion ban veto. During the campaign, Kemp and Forbes advocated for a stronger stand on tax cutting than Dole used. However, in general, the opinion was that Kemp was helpful to the ticket's chances of catching Bill Clinton, and Kemp's advocacy gave a clear picture of the tax reforms that would likely occur on the condition of a successful campaign. Kemp was seen as likely to influence several types of swing voters, especially those of his native state of California, and even the Democrats feared Kemp might lure voters. After receiving the nomination, Kemp became the ticket’s spokesman for minorities and the inner-city. Due to agreement on the self-help policy that Louis Farrakhan has endorsed in many fora including the Million Man March, Kemp in a sense aligned himself with Farrakhan. However, Farrakhan is perceived as being anti-Semitic, and Kemp is considered an ally of Republican Jews. This issue necessitated some political sidestepping. As the nominee, Kemp at times overshadowed Dole. In fact, more than once, Kemp was described as if he was the Presidential nominee. In addition to having overshadowed Dole, despite the negative ad campaigns that the ticket used, Kemp was a very positive running mate who relied on a pep rally type of campaign tour full of football-related metaphors and hyperbole. Although some enjoyed Kemp's style, referring to him as the Good Shepherd, his detractors, such as U.S. News & World Report writer Steven V. Roberts, criticized the extensive use of recounting stories of passing balls relative to the use of recounting stories of passing bills. During the campaign, Kemp expressed the opinion that the Republican party leaders did not stand behind the ticket wholeheartedly. Despite Kemp's voice on minority issues, Colin Powell's support and polls that showed about 30% of blacks identified themselves as conservatives on issues such as school prayer, school vouchers and criminal justice, the Republicans were unable to improve upon historical support levels from African-American voters. Both Gore and Kemp had Presidential aspirations, which induced pursuit of debate on a higher plane. In addition, Gore and Kemp were long-time friends, unlike Gore and his previous Vice Presidential opponent Quayle. Thus, as debaters they avoided personal attacks. However, some felt Kemp failed to counter substantive attacks. In the final October 9, 1996 Vice Presidential Debate against Al Gore (held as the Dole–Kemp ticket trailed badly in the national polls), Kemp was soundly beaten, and Al Gore's performance is considered one of the best modern debate performances. The debate topics ranged broadly from the usual such as abortion and foreign policy to the unusual such as an incident preceding the then-current baseball playoffs, in which Roberto Alomar, the Baltimore Orioles' second baseman, cursed and spat on an umpire. The Mexico policy debate was one of the more interesting topics for critical review. The Gore victory was not a surprise since Kemp had been outmatched by Gore in previous encounters, and Gore had a reputation as an experienced and vaunted debater. Legacy His legacy includes the Kemp–Roth Tax Cut of the 1980s, also known as the first of two "Reagan tax cuts." These served as the foundation of supply-side economics, known as Reaganomics. Many Republicans have endorsed this Laffer Curve view that tax cuts spur economic growth and reduce deficits. Although George H. W. Bush called this philosophy voodoo economics, George W. Bush and his Treasury Secretary, John W. Snow, were believers. Kemp is also remembered alongside George Wallace and William Jennings Bryan for influencing history by changing the direction of presidential elections despite their defeats. In the early 21st century, Kemp continued to be considered along with Reagan as the politician most responsible for the implementation of supply-side tax cuts and along with Steve Forbes as the political figure most responsible for their continued place in the marketplace of political ideas. He has been described as a beacon of economic conservatism and a hero for his urban agenda. Today, he continues to be described as a hero to fiscal conservatives who believe that free markets and low taxes work better than government bureaucracies. Kemp was considered the leader of the progressive conservatives who adhere to the hard right on social issues, but avoid protectionist fiscal and trade policy. In addition to Roth, he has had numerous political allies. At times, he collaborated with Gingrich and Lott on deregulation and tax cuts, collaborated with McCain and Phil Gramm on tax cuts and spending restraints, legislated with and campaigned for Joseph Lieberman, and fought poverty with James Pinkerton. Pete du Pont was a progressive conservative ally. After retiring from Congress and serving in the Cabinet, Kemp remained close to Gingrich, Lott, Weber and Mack. Kemp was a member of the federal committee to promote Martin Luther King, Jr. Day as a national holiday. As a progressive voter, he has civil rights leaders such as Benjamin Hooks, Andrew Young and Coretta Scott King and conservative black intellectuals like Glenn C. Loury and Robert L. Woodson as supporters and friends. He boasted of having Democratic friends such as William H. Gray III, Charles B. Rangel and Robert Garcia. Ken Blackwell was a Deputy Secretary under Kemp. During the Reagan presidency, when Kemp was able to effect tax cutting, a leading United States Senate tax-cutting proponent was Democrat Bill Bradley, a former basketball star. Several American football players have followed Kemp to Congress: Steve Largent, J. C. Watts, and Heath Shuler. Late career Kemp with Sue Myrick, Phil English and Mike Turner (c. May 2004) In 1993, Kemp, Bennett, Kirkpatrick and financial backer Theodore Forstmann co-founded the free market advocacy group Empower America, which later merged with Citizens for a Sound Economy to form Freedom Works. Empower America represented the populist wing of the party: while avoiding divisive issues such as abortion and gay rights, it promoted free markets and growth over balancing the budget and cutting the deficit. He resigned as Co-Chairman of Freedom Works in March 2005 after the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) questioned his ties to Samir Vincent, a Northern Virginia oil trader implicated in the U.N. Oil-for-food scandal who pled guilty to four criminal charges, including illegally acting as an unregistered lobbyist of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. Testimony about Kemp became prominent in the trial. Also, FBI informant Richard Fino tied Kemp to James Cosentino just weeks before the 1996 election. By 1996, Kemp had been named a director of six corporate boards. He was a director for Hawk Corporation, IDT Corporation, CNL Hotels and Resorts, InPhonic, Cyrix Corporation and American Bankers Insurance Group. Kemp served on the board of Oracle Corporation, which is owned by friend Larry Ellison, since 1996 and was named to the board of Six Flags, Inc. in December 2005. Kemp opted not to stand for re-election to IDT's board in 2006. He also served on the Habitat for Humanity Board of Directors, and served on the board of Atlanta-based software maker EzGov Inc. Kemp also served on the Board of Directors of Election.com, which was the private company that ran the world's first election on the internet (won by Al Gore), the 2000 Arizona Democratic Primary. Kemp was the founder and chairman of Kemp Partners, a strategic consulting firm that helps clients achieve both business and public policy goals. In addition to corporate boards of directors, Kemp served on several advisory boards such as the UCLA School of Public Policy Advisory Board, and the Toyota Diversity Advisory Board as well as the Howard University Board of Trustees, on which he served since 1993. On March 25, 2003, Kemp was selected as Chairman of the Board of Directors of USA Football, a national advocacy group for amateur football created by the National Football League (NFL) and the NFL Players Association. The organization supports Pop Warner, American Youth Football, Boys and Girls Clubs Of America, National Recreation and Park Association, Police Athletic League, YMCA and the Amateur Athletic Union. He was also vice president of NFL Charities. In the late 1990s, Kemp remained outspoken on political issues: he was critical of Clinton's International Monetary Fund lax policies toward South Korea. In early 1998, he was a serious contender for the 2000 United States presidential election, but his campaign possibilities faltered, and he instead endorsed eventual winner George W. Bush. Kemp continued his political advocacy for reform of taxation, Social Security and education. When a 1997 budget surplus was earmarked for debt repayment, Kemp opposed the plan in favor of tax cuts. Along with John Ashcroft and Alan Krueger, he endorsed reform of payroll taxes to eliminate double taxation. In addition to his fiscal and economic policies, Kemp advocated against abortion when Congress was considering a bill banning intact dilation and extractions. He also advocates for retired NFL veterans on issues such as cardiovascular screening, assisted living, disability benefits, and the 2007 joint replacement program. He has argued in support of reforming immigration laws. In the late 1990s, Kemp also was a vocal advocate for free market reform in Africa, arguing that the continent had great economic growth potential if it could shed autocratic and statist governmental policies. "Africa is getting on the growth track," by Jack Kemp and Congressman Donald M. Payne, Investor's Business Daily, June 20, 1997. In 1997, when Gingrich was embroiled in a House ethics controversy, Kemp served as an intermediary between Dole and Gingrich to save the Republican Party leader. Later, in 2002, when Lott made caustic remarks about Strom Thurmond, Kemp was upset, and he supported Lott's apology, saying he had encouraged him to "repudiate segregation in every manifestation." Kemp was among the prominent leaders who pledged to raise money in 2005 for Scooter Libby's defense when he was charged with perjury and obstruction of justice in a case regarding the release of Central Intelligence Agency information. In 2006, Kemp, along with 2004 vice-presidential nominee John Edwards, co-chaired the Council on Foreign Relations task force on Russia, producing a document called "Russia’s Wrong Direction: What the United States Can and Should Do". After their task force roles ended, the pair advocated solutions to poverty in America at various fora. On January 6, 2008, Kemp endorsed McCain in the 2008 Republican presidential primaries shortly before the New Hampshire primary, which surprised conservative Republican tax cutters. However, as McCain neared the official nomination, the press associated McCain with Kemp more and more. Kemp prepared an open letter to Sean Hannity, Rush Limbaugh, Laura Ingraham and other conservative talk show hosts on McCain's behalf to quell their dissatisfactions. In addition, Kemp and Phil Gramm advised McCain on economic policy. In February 2008, Kemp was associated with a group called "Defense of Democracies" that was advocating an electronic surveillance bill that failed in the House of Representatives. The group's television ad caused such controversy that some of its advisors, including Schumer and Donna Brazile, resigned. Kemp donated to Pepperdine University's School of Public Policy to establish the Jack F. Kemp Institute of Political Economy. Wayne Angell, James Baker, Bennett, Michael Boskin, Edwin Feulner, Forbes, George Gilder, Carla Hills, Larry Kudlow, Laffer, Ed Meese, Mundell, Michael Novak, and Watts endorsed the Institute and agreed to lecture at Pepperdine, and to serve on an advisory committee. The Institute would create The Jack F. Kemp Library to house Kemp's papers; establish the Jack F. Kemp Distinguished Visiting Chair; and fund annual public lectures and conferences at the School. Illness and death On January 7, 2009, Kemp's office issued a statement announcing that he was battling cancer; the type of cancer and the anticipated treatment were not announced. His diagnosis and prognosis were never publicly disclosed. However, he continued to serve as chairman of his Washington-based Kemp Partners consulting firm and continued his involvement in charitable and political work until his death. On May 2, 2009, Kemp died at his home in Bethesda, Maryland from cancer; he was 73. President Barack Obama praised Kemp's work on race, adding that Kemp understood that divisions involving race and class stood in the way of the country's common goals. Former President George W. Bush said that Kemp "will be remembered for his significant contributions to the Reagan revolution and his steadfast dedication to conservative principles during his long and distinguished career in public service." Books In addition to authoring significant legislation as a congressman, Kemp has authored or co-authored several books:An American Idea: Ending Limits to Growth, (Washington, DC: American Studies Center, 1984, no ISBN)An American Renaissance: Strategy for the 1980s, (ISBN 0-06-012283-8, Harper & Row, 1979)The IRS v. The People, (ISBN 0-891-95077-X, Heritage Books, 2005) Authored by Ken Blackwell and edited by KempTrusting the People : The Dole-Kemp Plan to Free the Economy and Create a Better America, (ISBN 0-694-51804-2 audiobook, ASIN B000OEV5RE HarperCollins, 1996) coauthored with Bob Dole, narrated by Christine Todd WhitmanTogether We Can Meet the Challenge : Winning the Fight Against Drugs, (ISBN 9780788102721, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1994) Pro Sports: Should the Government Intervene?, (ISBN 9780844720975, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1977) 'U.S. By the Numbers: What's Left, Right & Wrong with America, (ISBN 9781892123145, Capital Books, Incorporated, 2000) with Raymond J. Keating, and Thomas N. Edmonds Our Communities, Our Homes: Pathways to Housing and Homeownership in America's Cities and States, (ISBN 9780976148111, Joint Center for Housing Studies, 2007) with Henry G. Cisneros, Kent W. Colton, and Nicolas P. Retsinas Kemp also wrote the foreword to several books: Reaganomics: Supply Side Economics in Action (ISBN 0-87000-505-7, Westport, Conn. : Arlington House, 1981) by Bruce R Bartlett with Arthur Laffer Raoul Wallenberg: Angel of Rescue by Harvey Rosenfeld (ISBN 0879751770, Prometheus Books, 1982) Best Editorial Cartoons of the Year: 1986 Edition by Charles Brooks (ed.) (ISBN 9780882896052, Pelican Publishing Company, Incorporated, 1986) Leadership Is Common Sense by Herman Cain (ISBN 9781930819023, Tapestry Press, 2001) Whole World's Watching: Decarbonizing the Economy and Saving the World by Martyn Turner and Brian O'Connell (ISBN 9780471499817, Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 2001) See also List of American Football League players Footnotes Citations References Clinton, Bill (2005). My Life. Vintage. ISBN 1-4000-3003-X. Foer, Franklin (2004). How Soccer Explains the World. Harper. Gruver, Ed (1997). The American Football League: A Year-by-Year History, 1960-1969, McFarland & Company, Inc., ISBN 0-7864-0399-3. Lodge, George (2000). "The Reagan Plan". Harvard Business School 9-381-173. Maiorana, Sal (1994). Relentless: The Hard-hitting History of Buffalo Bills Football, Quality Sports Publications, ISBN 1-885758-00-6. Maiorana, Sal (2000). Relentless: The Hard-hitting History of Buffalo Bills Football, Volume II Quality Sports Publications, ISBN 1-885758-17-0. External links Bubble gum cards Kemp's 1965 Topps football card 1970 Sports Illustrated article on Jack Kemp NCAA's 100 most influential student-athletes Kemp Partners Excerpt from October 1996 Kemp-Gore Debate Remarks from Vice Presidential nomination acceptance Summary of political positions from his own words New York Times obituary Jack Kemp at Findagrave Obituary in the Baltimore Sun Jack Kemp - Daily Telegraph obituary

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Decision_problem

In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a decision problem is a question in some formal system with a yes-or-no answer, depending on the values of some input parameters. For example, the problem "given two numbers x and y, does x evenly divide y?" is a decision problem. The answer can be either 'yes' or 'no', and depends upon the values of x and y. Decision problems are closely related to function problems, which can have answers that are more complex than a simple 'yes' or 'no'. A corresponding function problem is "given two numbers x and y, what is x divided by y?". They are also related to optimization problems, which are concerned with finding the best answer to a particular problem. A method for solving a decision problem given in the form of an algorithm is called a decision procedure for that problem. A decision procedure for the decision problem "given two numbers x and y, does x evenly divide y?" would give the steps for determining whether x evenly divides y, given x and y. One such algorithm is long division, taught to many school children. If the remainder is zero the answer produced is 'yes', otherwise it is 'no'. A decision problem which can be solved by an algorithm, such as this example, is called decidable. The field of computational complexity categorizes decidable decision problems by how difficult they are to solve. "Difficult", in this sense, is described in terms of the computational resources needed by the most efficient algorithm for a certain problem. The field of recursion theory, meanwhile, categorizes undecidable decision problems by Turing degree, which is a measure of the noncomputability inherent in any solution. Research in computability theory has typically focused on decision problems. As explained in the section Equivalence with function problems below, there is no loss of generality. Definition A decision problem is any arbitrary yes-or-no question on an infinite set of inputs. Because of this, it is traditional to define the decision problem equivalently as: the set of inputs for which the problem returns yes. These inputs can be natural numbers, but also other values of some other kind, such as strings of a formal language. Using some encoding, such as Gödel numbers, the strings can be encoded as natural numbers. Thus, a decision problem informally phrased in terms of a formal language is also equivalent to a set of natural numbers. To keep the formal definition simple, it is phrased in terms of subsets of the natural numbers. Formally, a decision problem is a subset of the natural numbers. The corresponding informal problem is that of deciding whether a given number is in the set. Examples A classic example of a decidable decision problem is the set of prime numbers. It is possible to effectively decide whether a given natural number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor. Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability. Decidability A decision problem A is called decidable or effectively solvable if A is a recursive set. A problem is called partially decidable, semidecidable, solvable, or provable if A is a recursively enumerable set. Partially decidable problems and any other problems that are not decidable are called undecidable. The halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list of undecidable problems. Complete problems Decision problems can be ordered according to many-one reducibility and related feasible reductions such as Polynomial-time reductions. A decision problem P is said to be complete for a set of decision problems S if P is a member of S and every problem in S can be reduced to P. Complete decision problems are used in computational complexity to characterize complexity classes of decision problems. For example, the Boolean satisfiability problem is complete for the class NP of decision problems under polynomial-time reducibility. History The Entscheidungsproblem, German for "Decision-problem", is attributed to David Hilbert: "At [the] 1928 conference Hilbert made his questions quite precise. First, was mathematics complete... Second, was mathematics consistent... And thirdly, was mathematics decidable? By this he meant, did there exist a definite method which could, in principle be applied to any assertion, and which was guaranteed to produce a correct decision on whether that assertion was true" (Hodges, p. 91). Hilbert believed that "in mathematics there is no ignorabimus' (Hodges, p. 91ff) meaning 'we will not know'. See David Hilbert and Halting Problem for more. Equivalence with function problems A function problem consists of a partial function f; the informal "problem" is to compute the values of f on the inputs for which it is defined. Every function problem can be turned into a decision problem; the decision problem is just the graph of the associated function. (The graph of a function f is the set of pairs (x,y) such that f(x) = y.) If this decision problem were effectively solvable then the function problem would be as well. This reduction does not respect computational complexity, however. For example, it is possible for the graph of a function to be decidable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of the pair (x,y) ) when the function is not computable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of x alone). The function f(x) = 2x has this property. Every decision problem can be converted into the function problem of computing the characteristic function of the set associated to the decision problem. If this function is computable then the associated decision problem is decidable. However, this reduction is more liberal than the standard reduction used in computational complexity (sometimes called polynomial-time many-one reduction); for example, the complexity of the characteristic functions of an NP-complete problem and its co-NP-complete complement is exactly the same even though the underlying decision problems may not be considered equivalent in some typical models of computation. See also Decidability (logic) – for the problem of deciding whether a formula is a consequence of a logical theory. yes-no question References Hanika, Jiri. Search Problems and Bounded Arithmetic. PhD Thesis, Charles University, Prague. http://eccc.hpi-web.de/pub/eccc/theses/hanika.pdf. Hodges, A., Alan Turing: The Enigma, Simon and Schuster, New York. Cf Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for some more history that led to Turing's work. Hodges references a biography of David Hilbert: Constance Reid, Hilbert (George Allen & Unwin; Springer-Verlag, 1970). There are apparently more recent editions. Kozen, D.C. (1997), Automata and Computability, Springer. Hartley Rogers, Jr., The Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-68052-1 (paperback), ISBN 0-07-053522-1 Sipser, M. (1996), Introduction to the Theory of Computation, PWS Publishing Co. Robert I. Soare (1987), Recursively Enumerable Sets and Degrees, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-15299-7

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Latitude

Latitude, usually denoted by the Greek letter phi (φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body) north or south of the equator. Lines of Latitude are the horizontal lines shown running east-to-west on maps (particularly so in the Mercator projection). Technically, latitude is an angular measurement in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the equator (low latitude) to 90° at the poles (90° N or +90° for the North Pole and 90° S or −90° for the South Pole). The complementary angle of a latitude is called the colatitude. Circles of latitude All locations of a given latitude are collectively referred to as a circle of latitude or line of latitude or parallel, because they are coplanar, and all such planes are parallel to the equator. Lines of latitude other than the Equator are approximately small circles on the surface of the Earth; they are not geodesics since the shortest route between two points at the same latitude involves a path that bulges toward the nearest pole, first moving farther away from and then back toward the equator (see great circle). Sign in northern Vermont. A specific latitude may then be combined with a specific longitude to give a precise position on the Earth's surface (see satellite navigation system). Important named circles of latitude Besides the equator, four other lines of latitude are named because of the role they play in the geometrical relationship with the Earth and the Sun: Arctic Circle: 66° 33′ 39″ N Tropic of Cancer: 23° 26′ 21″ N Tropic of Capricorn: 23° 26′ 21″ S Antarctic Circle: 66° 33′ 39″ S Only at latitudes between the Tropics is it possible for the sun to be at the zenith. Only north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle is the midnight sun possible. The reason that these lines have the values that they do, lies in the axial tilt of the Earth with respect to the sun, which is 23° 26′ 21.41″. Note that the Arctic Circle and Tropic of Cancer are colatitudes, since the sum of their angles is 90°—similarly for the Antarctic Circle and Tropic of Capricorn. Subdivisions A degree is divided into 60 minutes. One minute can be further divided into 60 seconds. An example of a latitude specified in this way is 13°19'43″ N (for greater precision, a decimal fraction can be added to the seconds). An alternative representation uses only degrees and minutes, where the seconds are expressed as a decimal fraction of minutes: the above example would be expressed as 13°19.717' N. Degrees can also be expressed singularly, with both the minutes and seconds incorporated as a decimal number and rounded as desired (decimal degree notation): 13.32861° N. Sometimes, the north/south suffix is replaced by a negative sign for south (−90° for the South Pole). Effect of latitude Average temperatures vary strongly with latitude. A region's latitude has a great effect on its climate and weather (see Effect of sun angle on climate). Latitude more loosely determines tendencies in polar auroras, prevailing winds, and other physical characteristics of geographic locations. Researchers at Harvard's Center for International Development (CID) found in 2001 that only three tropical economies — Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan — were classified as high-income by the World Bank, while all countries within regions zoned as temperate had either middle- or high-income economies. Location, Location, Location. The relationship of climate to, and the effect of disease and agricultural productivity on, the economic success of a city or region. The validity of the Harvard report may be questioned because a different threshold is used for the tropical regions and the World Bank list fails to include Qatar's, United Arab Emirates', and Kuwait's economies. Further, countries such as Brazil have far better incomes than much of the Former Soviet Union and Iron Curtain states. Elliptic parameters Because most planets (including Earth) are ellipsoids of revolution, or spheroids, rather than spheres, both the radius and the length of arc varies with latitude. This variation requires the introduction of elliptic parameters based on an ellipse's angular eccentricity, (which equals , where and are the equatorial and polar radii; is the first eccentricity squared, ; and or is the flattening, ). Utilized in creating the integrands for curvature is the inverse of the principal elliptic integrand, : Degree length On Earth, the length of an arcdegree of north-south latitude difference, , is about 60 nautical miles, 111 kilometres or 69 statute miles at any latitude. The length of an arcdegree of east-west longitude difference, , is about the same at the equator as the north-south, reducing to zero at the poles. In the case of a spheroid, a meridian and its anti-meridian form an ellipse, from which an exact expression for the length of an arcdegree of latitude difference is: This radius of arc (or "arcradius") is in the plane of a meridian, and is known as the meridional radius of curvature, . Similarly, an exact expression for the length of an arcdegree of longitude difference is: The arcradius contained here is in the plane of the prime vertical, the east-west plane perpendicular (or "normal") to both the plane of the meridian and the plane tangent to the surface of the ellipsoid, and is known as the normal radius of curvature, . The Math Forum John P. Snyder, Map Projections—A Working Manual (1987) 24-25 Along the equator (east-west), equals the equatorial radius. The radius of curvature at a right angle to the equator (north-south), , is 43 km shorter, hence the length of an arcdegree of latitude difference at the equator is about 1 km less than the length of an arcdegree of longitude difference at the equator. The radii of curvature are equal at the poles where they are about 64 km greater than the north-south equatorial radius of curvature because the polar radius is 21 km less than the equatorial radius. The shorter polar radii indicate that the northern and southern hemispheres are flatter, making their radii of curvature longer. This flattening also 'pinches' the north-south equatorial radius of curvature, making it 43 km less than the equatorial radius. Both radii of curvature are perpendicular to the plane tangent to the surface of the ellipsoid at all latitudes, directed toward a point on the polar axis in the opposite hemisphere (except at the equator where both point toward Earth's center). The east-west radius of curvature reaches the axis, whereas the north-south radius of curvature is shorter at all latitudes except the poles. The WGS84 ellipsoid, used by all GPS devices, uses an equatorial radius of 6378137.0 m and an inverse flattening, (1/f), of 298.257223563, hence its polar radius is 6356752.3142 m and its first eccentricity squared is 0.00669437999014. NIMA TR8350.2 page 3-1. The more recent but little used IERS 2003 ellipsoid provides equatorial and polar radii of 6378136.6 and 6356751.9 m, respectively, and an inverse flattening of 298.25642. IERS Conventions (2003) (Chp. 1, page 12) Lengths of degrees on the WGS84 and IERS 2003 ellipsoids are the same when rounded to six significant digits. An appropriate calculator for any latitude is provided by the U.S. government's National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). Length of degree calculator - National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency LatitudeN-S radiusof curvature Surface distance per 1° change in latitude E-W radius of curvatureSurface distance per 1° change in longitude 0° 6335.44 km 110.574 km 6378.14 km 111.320 km 15° 6339.70 km 110.649 km 6379.57 km 107.551 km 30° 6351.38 km 110.852 km 6383.48 km 96.486 km 45° 6367.38 km 111.132 km 6388.84 km 78.847 km 60° 6383.45 km 111.412 km 6394.21 km 55.800 km 75° 6395.26 km 111.618 km 6398.15 km 28.902 km 90° 6399.59 km 111.694 km 6399.59 km 0.000 km Types of latitude With a spheroid that is slightly flattened by its rotation, cartographers refer to a variety of auxiliary latitudes to precisely adapt spherical projections according to their purpose. For planets other than Earth, such as Mars, geographic and geocentric latitude are called "planetographic" and "planetocentric" latitude, respectively. Most maps of Mars since 2002 use planetocentric coordinates. Common "latitude" In common usage, "latitude" refers to geodetic or geographic latitude and is the angle between the equatorial plane and a line that is normal to the reference ellipsoid, which approximates the shape of Earth to account for flattening of the poles and bulging of the equator. This value usually differs from the geocentric latitude. The expressions following assume elliptical polar sections and that all sections parallel to the equatorial plane are circular. Geographic latitude (with longitude) then provides a Gauss map. As defined earlier in this article, is the angular eccentricity of a meridian. Reduced latitude On a spheroid, lines of reduced or parametric latitude, , form circles whose radii are the same as the radii of circles formed by the corresponding lines of latitude on a sphere with radius equal to the equatorial radius of the spheroid. Authalic latitudeAuthalic latitude, , gives an area-preserving transform to the sphere. Rectifying latitudeRectifying latitude, , is the surface distance from the equator, scaled so the pole is 90°, but involves elliptic integration: Conformal latitudeConformal latitude, , gives an angle-preserving (conformal) transform to the sphere. Geocentric latitude The geocentric latitude, , is the angle between the equatorial plane and a line from the center of Earth. It is the size of the central angle between the equator and the point of interest, as measured along a meridian. This value usually differs from the geographic latitude, as so: Illustration of geographic and geocentric latitudes. Astronomical latitude A more obscure measure of latitude is the astronomical latitude', which is the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the geoid (ie a plumb line). It originated as the angle between horizon and pole star. It differs from the geodetic latitude only slightly, due to the slight deviations of the geoid from the reference ellipsoid. Astronomical latitude is not to be confused with declination, the coordinate astronomers use to describe the locations of stars north/south of the celestial equator (see equatorial coordinates), nor with ecliptic latitude, the coordinate that astronomers use to describe the locations of stars north/south of the ecliptic (see ecliptic coordinates). Palaeolatitude Continents move over time, due to continental drift, taking whatever fossils and other features of interest they may have with them. Particularly when discussing fossils, it's often more useful to know where the fossil was when it was laid down, than where it is when it was dug up: this is called the palæolatitude of the fossil. The Palæolatitude can be constrained by palæomagnetic data. If tiny magnetisable grains are present when the rock is being formed, these will align themselves with Earth's magnetic field like compass needles. A magnetometer can deduce the orientation of these grains by subjecting a sample to a magnetic field, and the magnetic declination of the grains can be used to infer the latitude of deposition. Comparison of selected types The following plot shows the differences between the types of latitude. The data used are found in the table following the plot. Please note that the values in the table are in minutes, not degrees, and the plot reflects this as well. Also observe that the conformal symbols are hidden behind the geocentric due to being very close in value. Finally it is important to mention also that these differences don't mean that the use of one specific latitude will necessarily cause more distortions than the other (the real fact is that each latitude type is optimized for achieving a different goal). {| class="wikitable" !colspan="6"|Approximate difference from geographic latitude ("Lat") |- !Lat !Reduced !Authalic !Rectifying !Conformal !Geocentric |- |0° || 0.00′|| 0.00′|| 0.00′|| 0.00′|| 0.00′ |- |5° || 1.01′|| 1.35′|| 1.52′|| 2.02′|| 2.02′ |- |10°|| 1.99′|| 2.66′|| 2.99′|| 3.98′|| 3.98′ |- |15°|| 2.91′|| 3.89′|| 4.37′|| 5.82′|| 5.82′ |- |20°|| 3.75′|| 5.00′|| 5.62′|| 7.48′|| 7.48′ |- |25°|| 4.47′|| 5.96′|| 6.70′|| 8.92′|| 8.92′ |- |30°|| 5.05′|| 6.73′|| 7.57′||10.09′||10.09′ |- |35°|| 5.48′|| 7.31′|| 8.22′||10.95′||10.96′ |- |40°|| 5.75′|| 7.66′|| 8.62′||11.48′||11.49′ |- |45°|| 5.84′|| 7.78′|| 8.76′||11.67′||11.67′ |- |50°|| 5.75′|| 7.67′|| 8.63′||11.50′||11.50′ |- |55°|| 5.49′|| 7.32′|| 8.23′||10.97′||10.98′ |- |60°|| 5.06′|| 6.75′|| 7.59′||10.12′||10.13′ |- |65°|| 4.48′|| 5.97′|| 6.72′|| 8.95′|| 8.96′ |- |70°|| 3.76′|| 5.01′|| 5.64′|| 7.52′|| 7.52′ |- |75°|| 2.92′|| 3.90′|| 4.39′|| 5.85′|| 5.85′ |- |80°|| 2.00′|| 2.67′|| 3.00′|| 4.00′|| 4.01′ |- |85°|| 1.02′|| 1.35′|| 1.52′|| 2.03′|| 2.03′ |- |90°|| 0.00′|| 0.00′|| 0.00′|| 0.00′|| 0.00′ |} Corrections for altitude Line IH is normal to the spheroid representing the Earth (colored orange) at point H. The angle it forms with the equator (represented by line CA) corresponds to the point's geodetic latitude. When converting from geodetic ("common") latitude to other types of latitude, corrections must be made for altitude for systems which do not measure the angle from the normal of the spheroid. For example, in the figure at right, point H (located on the surface of the spheroid) and point H' (located at some greater elevation) have different geocentric latitudes (angles β and γ respectively), even though they share the same geodetic latitude (angle α). Note that the flatness of the spheroid and elevation of point H' in the image is significantly greater than what is found on the Earth, exaggerating the errors inherent in such calculations if left uncorrected. Note also that the reference ellipsoid used in the geodetic system is itself just an approximation of the true geoid, and therefore introduces its own errors, though the differences are less severe. (See Astronomical latitude, above.) Further reading John P. Snyder Map Projections: a working manual'' excerpts See also American Practical Navigator Cardinal direction Geographic coordinate system Geodetic system Geodesy Geotagging Great-circle distance Horse latitudes List of cities by latitude List of cities by longitude Longitude Navigation World Geodetic System Orders of magnitude (length) Footnotes External links Free GeoCoder GEONets Names Server, access to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency's (NGA) database of foreign geographic feature names. Look-up Latitude and Longitude Resources for determining your latitude and longitude Convert decimal degrees into degrees, minutes, seconds - Info about decimal to sexagesimal conversion Convert decimal degrees into degrees, minutes, seconds Latitude and longitude converter – Convert latitude and longitude from degree, decimal form to degree, minutes, seconds form and vice versa. Also included a farthest point and a distance calculator. Worldwide Index - Tageo.com – contains 2,700,000 coordinates of places including US towns for each city it gives the satellite map location, country, province, coordinates (dd,dms), variant names and nearby places. Distance calculation based on latitude and longitude - JavaScript version Average Latitude & Longitude of Countries Get the latitude and longitude of any place in the World Latitude / Longitude Converter – convert latitude / longitude between DMS and decimal formats. Determination of Latitude by Francis Drake on the Coast of California in 1579 be-x-old:Шырата

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Monaco

Monaco , officially the Principality of Monaco (; Monégasque: Principatu de Múnegu; ; ), is a small sovereign city-state located in South Western Europe. Monaco is the name of the country as well as the name of its capital city. The territory lies on the northern central coast of the Mediterranean Sea, has a land border on three sides only with France, and is about away from Italy. Monaco is often regarded as a tax haven, and many of its inhabitants are wealthy and from foreign countries, making up a majority of the population, at around 84%. Per capita purchasing power parity GDP (US dept. of State 2006 est.): $30,000 Monaco is a constitutional monarchy and principality, with Prince Albert II as head of state. The House of Grimaldi has ruled Monaco since 1297, and the state's sovereignty was officially recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Despite being independent, Monaco's defense is the responsibility of France. Monaco is the world's most densely populated sovereign country, and the world's smallest French-speaking country. An average person takes only 56 minutes to walk across the width of the country. Administrative divisions Wards of Monaco Monaco is the second smallest principality in Europe, as well as the second smallest country in the world; only Vatican City is smaller. The state consists of only one municipality (commune). There is no geographical distinction between the State and City of Monaco, although responsibilities of the government (State-level) and of the municipality (city-level) are different. According to the constitution of 1911, the principality was subdivided into three municipalities: Monaco (Monaco-Ville), the old city on a rocky promontory extending into the Mediterranean, known as the Rock of Monaco, or simply Le Rocher (the Rock), where the palace is located Monte Carlo, the principal residential and resort area with the Monte Carlo Casino in the east and northeast La Condamine, the northwest section including the port area, Port Nikolas Flores The three municipalities were merged into one in 1954, after accusations that the government was acting according to the motto "divide and conquer", and they had the status of wards (quartiers) thereafter. Fontvieille was added as fourth ward, a newly constructed area reclaimed from the sea (in the 1970s) Moneghetti became the fifth ward, created from a part of La Condamine Larvotto became the sixth ward, created from a part of Monte Carlo La Rousse/Saint Roman (including Le Ténao) became the seventh ward, also created from a part of Monte Carlo Subsequently, three additional wards were created: Saint Michel, from a part of Monte Carlo La Colle, from a part of La Condamine Les Révoires, from a part of La Condamine An additional ward was planned by new land reclamation, to be settled from 2014. Prince Albert II announced in his New Year Speech 2009 that such plans had been put on hold due to the current economic climate. Wards Currently the principality is subdivided into 10 wards (with their official numbers; Le Portier, the proposed ward, was anticipated as number 11): Nr Ward Area(m²) Population(Censusof 2000) Densitykm2CityBlocks(îlots)Remarks Former municipality of Monaco 05 Monaco-Ville 184,750 1,034 5597 19 Old City with palace Former municipality of Monte Carlo 01 Monte Carlo/Spélugues (Bd. Des Moulins-Av. de la Madone) 281,461 3,034 10779 20 the casino and resort area 02 La Rousse/Saint Roman (Annonciade-Château Périgord) 105,215 3,223 30633 15 in the northeast, incl. Le Ténao 03 Larvotto/Bas Moulins (Larvotto-Bd Psse Grace) 328,479 5,443 16570 15 eastern beach area 10 Saint Michel (Psse Charlotte-Park Palace) 142,223 3,807 26768 24 central residential area Former municipality of La Condamine 04 La Condamine 237,283 3,847 16213 27 port area in the northwest 07 La Colle (Plati-Pasteur-Bd Charles III) 188,073 2,822 15005 15 on the western border with Cap d'Ail 08 Les Révoires (Hector Otto-Honoré Labande) 75,747 2,515 33203 11 containing the Jardin Exotique 09 Moneghetti/ Bd de Belgique (Bd Rainier III-Bd de Belgique 107,056 3,003 28051 18  new land reclaimed from the sea 06 Fontvieille 324,157 3,292 10156 9 started 1971 11 Le Portier 275,0001) - - - plans put on hold by Prince Albert II in 2009   Monaco 1,974,444 32,020 16217 173  1) Area not included in total, as it is only proposed Note: for statistical purposes, the wards of Monaco are further subdivided into 173 city blocks (îlots), which are comparable to the census blocks in the United States. History The Principality of Monaco Monaco's name comes from the nearby Phocaean Greek colony, in the 6th century, which referred to the Ligurians as Monoikos, from the Greek μόνοικος "single house", from μόνος "alone, single" + οίκος "house", which bears the sense of a people either settled in a "single habitation" or of "living apart" from others. According to an ancient myth, Hercules passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods. As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos. Because the only temple of this area was the "House" of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos. Strabo, Geography, Gaul, 4.6.3 at LacusCurtious Statue of François Grimaldi, "il Malizia" ("the Shrewd"), guised as a monk with a sword under his frock before the Prince's Palace of Monaco. Following a land grant from Emperor Henry VI in 1191, Monaco was re-founded in 1228 as a colony of Genoa. Monaco has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1297, when Francesco Grimaldi ("Il Malizia", translated from Italian either as "The Malicious One" or "The Cunning One") and his men captured the fortress protecting the Rock of Monaco while he was dressed as a Franciscan monk - a Monaco in Italian, although this is a coincidence as the area was already known by this name. In 1793, French Revolutionary forces captured Monaco, and it remained under French control until 1814. The principality was re-established that year, only to be designated a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Monaco remained in this position until 1860, when by the Treaty of Turin, Sardinia ceded to France the surrounding county of Nice (as well as Savoy). During this time there was unrest in the towns of Menton and Roquebrune, which declared independence, hoping for annexation by Sardinia. The unrest continued until the ruling prince gave up his claim to the two towns (some 95% of the country), and they were ceded to France in return for four million francs. This transfer and Monaco's sovereignty was recognised by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Until the adoption of the 1911 constitution, the princes of Monaco were absolute rulers. In July 1918, a treaty was signed providing for limited French protection over Monaco. The treaty, part of the Treaty of Versailles, established that Monegasque international policy would be aligned with French political, military, and economic interests. In 1943, the Italian army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a Fascist administration. Shortly thereafter, following Mussolini's collapse in Italy, the Nazi German Wehrmacht occupied Monaco and began the deportation of the Jewish population. The prominent French Jew René Blum (Paris, 13 March 1878 - Auschwitz, 30 April 1943), who founded the Ballet de l'Opera in Monte Carlo, was arrested in his Paris home and held in the Drancy deportation camp outside Paris, France from whence he was then shipped to the Auschwitz concentration camp, where he was killed. Rainier III, Prince of Monaco from 1949 to 2005. Rainier III who ruled until 2005, acceded to the throne following the death of his grandfather, Prince Louis II, in 1949. On April 19, 1956, Prince Rainier married the American actress Grace Kelly; the event was widely televised and covered in the popular press, focusing the world's attention onto the tiny Principality. A new constitution, proclaimed in 1962, abolished capital punishment, provided for women's suffrage, and established a Supreme Court of Monaco to guarantee fundamental liberties. In 1993, the Principality of Monaco became a member of the United Nations, with full voting rights. In 2002, a new treaty between France and Monaco specified that, should there be no heirs to carry on the Grimaldi dynasty, the principality would still remain an independent nation rather than revert to France. Monaco's military defence, however, is still the responsibility of France. On 31 March 2005, Prince Rainier III, too ill to exercise his duties, relinquished them to his only son and heir, Prince Albert Alexandre Louis. Prince Rainier died on 6 April 2005, after a reign of 56 years, and his son succeeded him as Albert II, Sovereign Prince of Monaco. Following a period of official mourning, Prince Albert II formally assumed the princely crown on 12 July 2005, in a celebration that began with a solemn Mass at Saint Nicholas Cathedral, where his father had been buried three months earlier. His accession to the Monegasque throne was a two-step event, with a further ceremony, drawing heads of state for an elaborate levée, held on 19 November 2005 at the historic Prince's Palace in Monaco-Ville. Albert II is the son of the late Princess Grace, known prior to her marriage to Prince Rainer III in 1956 as Grace Kelly. Law and government Monaco has been governed as a constitutional monarchy since 1911, with the Sovereign Prince of Monaco as head of state. The executive branch consists of a Minister of State (the head of government), who presides over a four-member Council of Government (the Cabinet). Until 2002, the Minister of State was a French citizen appointed by the prince from among candidates proposed by the French government; since the constitution amendment in 2002, the Minister of State can be French or Monegasque. Under the 1962 constitution, the prince shares his power with the unicameral National Council (parliament). The twenty-four members of this legislative body are elected from lists by universal suffrage for five-year terms. The principality's local affairs are directed by the Communal Council, which consists of fifteen elected members and is presided over by the mayor. Economy Fontvieille and its new harbour One of Monaco's main sources of income is tourism; each year many are attracted to its casino and pleasant climate. (Monaco's own citizens are not allowed to gamble in the casino). In 2001, a major new construction project extended the pier used by cruise ships in the main harbour. The principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added, non-polluting industries, such as cosmetics and biothermics. The state retains monopolies in numerous sectors, including tobacco and the postal service. The telephone network (Monaco Telecom) used to be fully owned by the state; it now owns only 45%, while the remaining 55% is owned by both Cable & Wireless (49%) and Compagnie Monégasque de Banque (6%). It is still, however, a monopoly. Living standards are high, roughly comparable to those in prosperous French metropolitan areas. Monaco is not a member of the European Union, however, it is very closely linked via a customs union with France, and as such, its currency is the same as that of France, the euro. Before 2002, Monaco minted its own coins, the Monegasque franc. Monaco has acquired the right to mint euro coins with Monegasque designs on their national side. Tax haven Monte Carlo Casino Monaco levies no income tax on individuals. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy "tax refugee" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are less well-known business people. In 2000, a report by the French parliamentarians, Arnaud Montebourg and Vincent Peillon, alleged that Monaco had lax policies with respect to money laundering, including within its famed casino, and that the government of Monaco had been placing political pressure on the judiciary, so that alleged crimes were not being properly investigated. Assemblee-Nationale report In 1998, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) issued a first report on the consequences of the tax havens' financial systems. Monaco did not appear in the list of these territories until 2004, when OECD became indignant regarding the Monegasque situation and denounced it in its last report, as well as Andorra, Liechtenstein, Liberia and the Marshall Islands, underlining its lack of co-operation as regards to financial information disclosure and availability. Declaration of April 18th, 2004, by the representative of the OECD Centre for Tax Policy and Administration Gabriel Makhlouf regarding the list of alleged tax havens non-cooperatives countries comparable Stage Report 2004: Project of OECD on the detrimental tax practices, OECD, Paris, 2004 In 2000, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) stated: "The anti-money laundering system in Monaco is comprehensive. However, difficulties have been encountered with Monaco by countries in international investigations on serious crimes that appear to be linked also with tax matters. In addition, the FIU of Monaco (SICCFIN) suffers a great lack of adequate resources. The authorities of Monaco have stated that they will provide additional resources to SICCFIN." The Principality is no longer blamed in the 2005 FATF report, as well as all other territories. Review to Identify Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories: Increasing the Worldwide Effectiveness of Anti-Money Laundering Measures, FATF, Paris, 2005 Review to Identify Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories: Increasing the Worldwide Effectiveness of Anti-Money Laundering Measures, FATF, Paris, 2006 However, since 2003, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has identified Monaco, along with 36 other territories, as a tax haven. Financial Centres with Significant Offshore Activities in Offshore Financial Centres. The Assessment Program. A Progress Report Supplementary Information, IMF, Washington, 2005 The Council of Europe also decided to issue reports naming tax havens. Twenty-two territories, including Monaco, were thus evaluated between 1998 and 2000 on a first round. Monaco is the only territory that refuses to perform the second round, initially forecast between 2001 and 2003, whereas the 21 other territories are implementing the third and last round, planned between 2005 and 2007. First Mutual Evaluation Report on the Principality of Monaco, Moneyval, Strasbourg, 2003 Numismatics In Monaco, the euro was introduced in 2002. In preparation for this date, the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 2001. This is why the first euro coins from Monaco has the year 2001 on it, instead of 2002, like other countries of the Eurozone. Three different designs were selected for the Monegasque coins. In 2006, the design was changed after the death of ruling Prince Rainier to have the effigy of Prince Albert. Monaco also has a rich and valuable collection of collectors' coins, with face value ranging from 5 to 100 euro. These coins are a legacy of an old national practice of minting silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the Eurozone. For instance, a €5 Monegasque commemorative coin cannot be used in any other country. The same practice concerning commemorative coins is exercised with all eurozone countries. Commemorative coins are legal tender only in their country of issue, unlike normal circulation coins, which are accepted in all euro-zone countries. Geography of Monaco Monaco is completely bordered by France to the north, west, and south; to the east is the Mediterranean Sea. Climate Sport and entertainment Formula One Formation lap for the 1996 Monaco Grand Prix. Since 1929, the Monaco Grand Prix has been held annually in the streets of Monaco. It is widely considered to be one of the most prestigious automobile races in the world. The erecting of the Circuit de Monaco takes six weeks to complete, and the removal after the race another three weeks. The circuit has many elevation changes and tight corners, along with a tunnel. This together with being incredibly narrow makes it perhaps the most demanding Formula One track. Only two drivers have ever crashed into the harbour, the most famous being Alberto Ascari in the 1955 Monaco Grand Prix. (Ascari lost his life four days later at Monza). The other was Paul Hawkins, during the 1965 Monaco Grand Prix. Monte Carlo Rally The Monte Carlo Rally has been held since 1911, having originally been held at the behest of Prince Albert I and is, like the principality's Grand Prix, organised by the Automobile Club de Monaco. It has long been considered to be one of the toughest and most prestigious events in rallying and from 1973 to 2008 was the opening round of the World Rally Championship. Football AS Monaco FC plays at Stade Louis II and has been one of the more successful French sides of recent times. Because of the popular appeal of living in Monaco and the lack of income tax, many international stars have played for the club, such as Jürgen Klinsmann, Oliver Bierhoff, George Weah, John Collins, Akis Zikos, Rafael Márquez and Emmanuel Adebayor. The club reached the UEFA Champions League Finals in 2004, led by Fernando Morientes, Akis Zikos, Jérôme Rothen and Ludovic Giuly, losing 3-0 to Portuguese team, F.C. Porto. The Stade Louis II also plays host to the annual UEFA Super Cup, which is played between the winners of the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League. Rugby Monaco's national rugby team, as of January 2009, is 87th in the International Rugby Board rankings. Other sports View of the Port of Hercules, La Condamine, Monaco The Monte Carlo Masters is currently held annually in neighbouring Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France, as a professional tournament for men as part of tennis' ATP Masters Series. The tournament has been held since 1897. Golf's Monte Carlo Open was also held at the Monte Carlo Golf Club at Mont Agel in France between 1984 and 1992. Monaco has also competed in the Olympic Games, although, as of 2008, no athlete from Monaco has ever won an Olympic medal. In 2009, the Tour de France, the world's premier bicycle race, starts from Monaco with a 15 km closed-circuit individual time trial starting and finishing there on the first day (4 July) and the 182 km second leg starting there on the following day and ending in Brignoles, France. Monaco also stage part of the Global Champions Tour (International Show-jumping). Acknowledged as the most glamorous of the series, Monaco will be hosting the world's most celebrated riders in a setting facing out over the world's most beautiful yachts, and framed by the Port Hercule and Prince's palace. In 2009, the Monaco stage of the Global Champions tour takes place between 25 June - 27 June. Education Primary and secondary schools Monaco has ten state-operated schools, including: seven nursery and primary schools; one secondary school, Collège Charles III; Collège Charles III one lycée that provides general and technological training, Lycée Albert 1er; Lycée Albert 1er and one lycée that provides vocational and hotel training, Lycée technique et hôtelier de Monte-Carlo. There are also two grant-aided denominational private schools, including Institution François d'Assise Nicolas Barré and Ecole des Sœurs Dominicaines, and one international school, the International School of Monaco. Colleges and universities International University of Monaco Demographics Monaco's population is unusual in that the native Monegasques are a minority in their own country. The largest proportion of residents are French nationals (47%), followed by Monegasque (16%), and Italians (16%). The remaining 21% belong to one of the other 125 nationalities that make up Monaco's international population. Religion Christian Roman Catholic Saint Nicholas Cathedral, Monaco The official religion is Roman Catholicism, with freedom of other religions guaranteed by the constitution. There are five Roman Catholic parish churches in Monaco and one cathedral, which is the seat of the archbishop of Monaco. The diocese, which has existed since the mid-nineteenth century, was raised to an archbishopric in 1981 as the Archdiocese of Monaco. Anglican There is one Anglican church (St. Paul's Church), located in the Avenue de Grande Bretagne in Monte Carlo. In 2007 this had a formal membership of 135 Anglicans resident in the principality, but was also serving a considerably larger number of Anglicans temporarily in the country, mostly as tourists. The church site also accommodates an English-language library of over 3,000 books. See the website of St Paul's Church, Monaco. The church is part of the Anglican Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe. Jewish The Association Culturelle Israelite de Monaco (founded 1948) is a converted house containing a synagogue, a community Hebrew school, and a kosher food shop, located in Monte Carlo. The community (approximately 1,500 strong) mainly consists of retired Jews from Britain (40%) and North Africa. One third of the Jewish population there is Ashkenazi, while the other two thirds are Sephardic. Details at Jewish Virtual Library Security Sunset in Monte Carlo The wider defense of the nation is provided by France. Monaco has no navy or air force, but on both a per-capita and per-area basis, Monaco has the largest police force (515 police officers for 32,000 people) and police presence in the world. Its police includes a specialist unit which operates patrol and surveillance boats. There is also a small military consisting of a (mainly ceremonial) bodyguard unit for the Prince and his palace called the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince which numbers 112 officers and men and is equipped with modern weapons such as M-16 rifles and 9 mm pistols, and a militarized (and armed) fire and civil defence Corps. The Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince (Prince's Company of Carabiniers) is the main ceremonial unit of the military force of Monaco. It was created by Prince Honoré IV in 1817 for the protection of the Principality and the Princely family. The company numbers exactly 112 officers and men; while the NCOs and soldiers are local, the officers have generally served in the French Army. Together with the local fire service, the Carabiniers form Monaco's total public forces. In addition to their guard duties, the company patrols the Principality's beaches and coastal waters, as well as duties around the Palace in Monaco-Ville. Flag It is one of the world's oldest national flag designs. The flag of Monaco is identical to that of Indonesia (except for the ratio of height to width). Monaco Flag - World Flags 101 - Monacan Flags Transport Monaco is served by several train systems and the Monaco - Fontvieille Heliport. The closest airport is Cote d'Azur Airport in Nice, France. Some airlines marketed Monaco via Nice Airport. "Route Map" in 1993, Trans World Airlines See also AS Monaco FC, local Association football team. Stade Louis II, the team's home stadium. Association des Guides et Scouts de Monaco Foreign relations of Monaco International University of Monaco Jardin Exotique de Monaco (=exotic garden of Monaco) List of radio stations in Monaco List of rulers of Monaco Military of Monaco Monaco Grand Prix Monte-Carlo Philharmonic Orchestra Monte Carlo Rally Music of Monaco Oceanographic Museum Postage stamps and postal history of Monaco Prince's Palace of Monaco Railway line and station Telecommunications in Monaco References External links Government Official Government Portal Official website of the Prince's Palace of Monaco Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Monaco from UCB Libraries GovPubs History of Monaco: Primary documents Travel Official website for Tourism Your Monaco Monaco travel guide Other Order of the doctors of Monaco French Monaco Web portail Map and statistical tables for download (PDF) Monaco Photos Monaco information portal Photos and videos QTVR fullscreen panoramas of Monaco be-x-old:Манака

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Giulio_Alenio

Giulio Alenio published the map in Chinese Wanguo Quantu (萬國全圖, lit. "Complete map of all the countries"), putting China at the center of the world map. A life of Jesus by Giulio Alenio, 1637. The Colossus of Rhodes described in a 1620 book by Alenio. Giulio Alenio (often spelled Giulio Aleni; ; 1582 - June 10, 1649) was an Italian Jesuit missionary and scholar. He was born at Brescia, in Italy, and died at Yanping, China. He became a member of the Society of Jesus in 1600, and was distinguished for his knowledge of mathematics and theology. He entered the Society of Jesus and was sent to the East. He landed at Macau in 1610, and while waiting a favourable opportunity to penetrate into China busied himself for three years in teaching mathematics. His thirty years' residence in China was marked by unceasing zeal and considerable success. He adopted the dress and manners of the country, was the first Christian missionary in Kiangsi, and built several churches in Fujian. He wrote in Chinese a life of Jesus (Pekin, 1635-1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g. in 1887 in 3 vols., and used even by Protestant missionaries) and a cosmography (Iche fang wai ki Hang-chow, 1623, 6 vols.), which was translated into Manchu under the title The True Origin of 10,000 Things, a copy of which was sent from Beijing to Paris in 1789. Alenio died at Fuzhou in 1649. He was called "Confucius from the West". He was known to the Chinese people as 艾儒略. He was sent as a missionary to China in 1610 and while waiting at Macau for a favorable opportunity to enter the country he published his "Résultat de l'observation sue l'éclipse de lune du 8 Novembre, 1612, faite a Macao" (Mémoires de l'Acad. des Sciences, VII, 706.) After his arrival in China, he preached in the provinces of Xan-si and Fi-Kien. He published many works in Chinese on a variety of topics. Among the most important are a controversial treatise on the Catholic Faith, in which are refuted what he saw as the principal errors of the Chinese; The True Origin of All Things; and The Life of God, the Saviour, from the Four Gospels. There is a complete list of Alenio's works in Carlos Sommervogel. References Sommervogel, Carlos, Bibliothèque de la Campagnie de Jesus, I, 157 sq. Pfister, S.J., Bibliogr. des Jesuites Chinois miss. Cordier, Essai d'une bibliogr. des ouvr. publ. en Chine par les Eurpeens (Paris 1883). This article incorporates text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article "Giulio Alenio" by Joseph M. Woods, a publication now in the public domain.

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Chauvinism

Chauvinism () is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. Jingoism is its nationalistic, militarized form. A popular contemporary use of the term in English is in the phrase male chauvinism. Etymology The term is derived from Nicolas Chauvin, a semi-mythical soldier under Napoleon Bonaparte who is supposed to have served in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars (1789–1815). Despite the unpopularity of Bonapartism in Restoration France after 1815, Chauvin was said to be an ardent supporter and was often seen wearing a violet in his lapel, the symbol of his deposed Emperor. According to the myth, he remained fanatically loyal despite his poverty, disability, and the abuse he suffered. Many writers and historians falsely attribute to Chauvin the exploits of other Bonapartists. It is claimed that he served in the Old Guard at Waterloo, which is unlikely considering his age and the severity of his disabilities. When the Old Guard was surrounded and made its last stand at La Belle Alliance, he supposedly shouted in defiance to a call for their honorable surrender: "The Old Guard dies but does not surrender!", implying blind and unquestioned zealous devotion to one's country [or other group of reference]. This apocryphal phrase was in fact attributed to the Old Guard's commander, Pierre Cambronne who later asserted that his actual reply was "Merde!" ("Shit!"). The origin and early usage indicate that chauvinisme was coined to describe excessive nationalism, which the original French term continues to do. The term entered public use due to a satirical treatment of Chauvin in the French play La Cocarde Tricolore (The Tricolor Cockade). Chauvinism as nationalism In "Imperialism, Nationalism, Chauvinism", in The Review of Politics 7.4, (October 1945), p. 457, Hannah Arendt describes the concept: Chauvinism as sexism Male chauvinism is a term used to describe the belief that men are superior to women. The term was widely used by the feminist movement in the 1960s to describe men who believe or display an attitude that women are inferior to men, speak to women as inferiors, or treat women negatively based solely upon their gender. Female chauvinism is a less commonly used term used to describe the symmetrical attitude that women are superior to men. The term "female chauvinism" has been adopted by critics of some types or aspects of feminism; leading second-wave feminist Betty Friedan being a notable example. "If I were a man, I would strenuously object to the assumption that women have any moral or spiritual superiority as a class. This is [...] female chauvinism." Friedan, Betty. 1998. It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement. Harvard University Press These critics argue, for example, that in some gender feminist views, all men are considered irreconcilable rapists, wife-beating brutes, and useless as partners to women or as fathers to children. Wendy McElroy, Sexual Correctness: The Gender-Feminist Attack on Women; Guests: Camille Paglia & Christina Hoff Sommers Has Feminism Gone Too Far? Think Tank With Ben Wattenberg - aired: 4 Nov 1994 accessed 6 Jan 2006 Ariel Levy used the term in different sense in her book, Female Chauvinist Pigs, in which she argues that many young women in the United States are replicating male chauvinism and sexist stereotypes. Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, Ariel Levy, 2006, ISBN 0743284283 See also Internationalism (politics) Jingoism Misandry Misogyny One gets used to anything, except a guy Racism Sexism Testosterone poisoning Tribalism Women and children References nan:Chauvin-chú-gī be-x-old:Шавінізм

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Histology

A stained histologic specimen, sandwiched between a glass microscope slide and coverslip, mounted on the stage of a light microscope. Microscopic view of a histologic specimen of human lung tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Histology (compound of the Greek words: "tissue", and -λογία -logia) is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is performed by examining a thin slice (section) of tissue under a light microscope or electron microscope. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains. Histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Histology is that branch of biology,which deals with the study of microscopic structures of cells and tissues in plants and animals. Histopathology, the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool in anatomical pathology, since accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases usually requires histopathological examination of samples. Trained medical doctors, frequently board-certified as Pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and provide diagnostic information based on their observations. The trained scientists who perform the preparation of histological sections are histotechnicians, histology technicians (HT), histology technologists (HTL), medical scientists, medical laboratory technicians, or biomedical scientists. Their field of study is called histotechnology. Technical procedure Fixation Chemical Fixation with Formaldehyde or Other Chemicals Fixatives are used to preserve tissue from degradation, and to maintain the structure of the cells inclusive of sub-cellular components such as cell organelles (e.g., nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria). The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin (4% formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline). For electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2.5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins. The main action of these aldehyde fixatives is to cross-link amino groups in proteins through the formation of CH2 (methylene) linkage, in the case of formaldehyde, or by a C5H10 cross-links in the case of glutaraldehyde. This process, while preserving the structural integrity of the cells and tissue can damage the biological functionality of proteins, particularly enzymes, and can also denature them to a certain extent. This can be detrimental to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate Frozen Section Fixation Frozen section is a rapid way to fix and mount histology sections. It is used in surgical removal of tumors, and allow rapid determination of margin (that the tumor has been completely removed). It is done using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. The frozen tissue is sliced using a microtome, and the frozen slices and mounted on a glass slide and stained the same way as other methods. It is a necessary way to fix tissue for certain stain such as antibody linked immunofluorescence staining. Dehydration and infiltration Biological tissue must be supported in a hard matrix to allow sufficiently thin sections to be cut, typically 5 μm (micrometres; 1000 micrometres = 1 mm) thick for light microscopy and 80-100 nm (nanometre; 1,000,000 nanometres = 1 mm) thick for electron microscopy. For light microscopy, paraffin wax is most frequently used. Since it is immiscible with water, the main constituent of biological tissue, water must first be removed in the process of dehydration. Samples are transferred through baths of progressively more concentrated ethanol to remove the water, followed by a clearing agent, usually xylene, to remove the alcohol, and finally molten paraffin wax which replaces the xylene. Paraffin wax does not provide a sufficiently hard matrix for cutting very thin sections for electron microscopy. Instead, resins are used. Epoxy resins are the most commonly employed embedding media, but acrylic resins are also used, particularly where immunohistochemistry is required. Thicker sections (0.35μm to 5μm) of resin-embedded tissue can also be cut for light microscopy. Again, the immiscibility of most epoxy and acrylic resins with water necessitates the use of dehydration, usually with ethanol. Embedding After the tissues have been dehydrated and infiltrated with the embedding material they are ready for embedding. During this process the tissue samples are placed into moulds along with liquid embedding material which is then hardened. This is achieved by cooling in the case of paraffin wax and heating in the case of the epoxy resins (curing). The acrylic resins are polymerised by heat, ultraviolet light or chemical catalysts. The hardened blocks containing the tissue samples are then ready to be sectioned. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues may be stored indefinitely at room temperature, and nucleic acids (both DNA and RNA) may be recovered from them decades after fixation, making FFPE tissues an important resource for historical studies in medicine. Embedding can also be accomplished using frozen, non-fixed tissue in a water-based medium. Pre-frozen tissues are placed into moulds with the liquid embedding material, usually a water-based glycol or resin, which is then frozen to form hardened blocks. Sectioning For light microscopy, a glass knife mounted in a microtome is used to cut 10-micrometer-thick tissue sections which are mounted on a glass microscope slide. For transmission electron microscopy, a diamond knife mounted in an ultramicrotome is used to cut 50-nanometer-thick tissue sections which are mounted on a 3-millimeter-diameter copper grid. Then the mounted sections are treated with the appropriate stain. Frozen tissue embedded in a freezing medium is cut on a microtome in a cooled machine called a cryostat. Staining Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope. Staining is employed to give both contrast to the tissue as well as highlighting particular features of interest. Where the underlying mechanistic chemistry of staining is understood, the term histochemistry is used. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) is the most commonly used light microscopical stain in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin stains nuclei blue; eosin stains the cytoplasm pink. Uranyl acetate and lead citrate are commonly used to impart contrast to tissue in the electron microscope. Special staining: There are hundreds of various other techniques that have been used to selectively stain cells and cellular components. Other compounds used to color tissue sections include safranin, oil red o, Congo red, fast green FCF, silver salts, and numerous natural and artificial dyes that were usually originated from the development dyes for the textile industry. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. A commonly performed histochemical technique is the Perls Prussian blue reaction, used to demonstrate iron deposits in diseases like hemochromatosis. Histology samples have often been examined by radioactive techniques. In historadiography a slide (sometimes stained histochemically) is X-rayed. More commonly, autoradiography is used to visualize the locations to which a radioactive substance has been transported within the body, such as cells in S phase (undergoing DNA replication) which incorporate tritiated thymidine, or sites to which radiolabeled nucleic acid probes bind in in situ hybridization. For autoradiography on a microscopic level, the slide is typically dipped into liquid nuclear tract emulsion, which dries to form the exposure film. Individual silver grains in the film are visualized with dark field microscopy. Recently, antibodies are used to specifically visualize proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids: this is called immunohistochemistry, or when the stain is a fluorescent molecule, immunofluorescence. This technique has greatly increased the ability to identify categories of cells under a microscope. Other advanced techniques, such as nonradioactive in situ hybridization, can be combined with immunochemistry to identify specific DNA or RNA molecules with fluorescent probes or tags that can be used for immunofluorescence and enzyme-linked fluorescence amplification (especially alkaline phosphatase and tyramide signal amplification). Fluorescence microscopy and confocal microscopy are used to detect fluorescent signals with good intracellular detail. Digital cameras are increasingly used to capture histological and histopathological image Common laboratory stains Stain Common use Nucleus Cytoplasm Red blood cell (RBC) Collagen fibers Specifically stains Haematoxylin General staining when paired with eosin Blue N/A N/A N/A Nucleic acids—blue Blue eER (ergastoplasm)—blue Eosin General staining when paired with haematoxylin N/A Pink Orange/red PinkElastic fibers—pink Reticular fibers—pink Toluidine blue General staining Blue Blue Blue Blue Mast cells granules—purple Masson's trichrome stain Connective tissue Black Red/pink Red Blue/green Cartilage—blue/green Muscle fibers—red Mallory's trichrome stain Connective tissue Red Pale red Orange Deep blue Keratin—orange Cartilage—blue Bone matrix—deep blue Muscle fibers—red Weigert's elastic stain Elastic fibers Blue/black N/A N/A N/A Elastic fibers—blue/black Heidenhains'azan trichrome stain Distinguishing cells from extracellular components Red/purple Pink Red Blue Muscle fibers—red Cartilage—blue Bone matrix—blue Silver stain Reticular fibers, nerve fibers, fungi N/A N/A N/A Reticular fibers—brown/black Nerve fibers—brown/blackFungi—black Wright's stain Blood cells Bluish/purple Bluish/gray Red/pink N/A Neutrophil granules—purple/pink Eosinophil granules—bright red/orange Basophil granules—deep purple/violet Platelet granules—red/purple Orcein stain Elastic fibres Deep blue [or crazy red] N/A Bright red Pink Elastic fibres—dark brown Mast cells granules—purple Smooth muscle—light blue Periodic acid-Schiff stain (PAS) Basement membrane, localizing carbohydrates Blue N/A N/A Pink Glycogen and other carbohydrates—magenta Table sourced from The Nissl method and Golgi's method are useful in identifying neurons. Alternative techniques Alternative techniques include cryosection. The tissue is frozen and cut using a cryostat. Tissue staining methods are similar to those of wax sections. Plastic embedding is commonly used in the preparation of material for electron microscopy. Tissues are embedded in epoxy resin. Very thin sections (less than 0.1 micrometer) are cut using diamond or glass knives. The sections are stained with electron dense stains (uranium and lead) so that they can possibly be seen with the electron microscope. History In the 19th century, histology was an academic discipline in its own right. The 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had dueling interpretations of the neural structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. Cajal won the prize for his correct theory and Golgi for the staining technique he invented to make it possible. Histological classification of animal tissues There are four basic types of tissues: muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, and epithelial tissue. All tissue types are subtypes of these four basic tissue types (for example, blood cells are classified as connective tissue, since they generally originate inside bone marrow). Epithelium: the lining of glands, bowel, skin and some organs like the liver, lung, kidney Endothelium: the lining of blood and lymphatic vessels Mesothelium: the lining of pleural and pericardial spaces Mesenchyme: the cells filling the spaces between the organs, including fat, muscle, bone, cartilage, and tendon cells Blood cells: the red and white blood cells, including those found in lymph nodes and spleen Neurons: any of the conducting cells of the nervous system Germ cells: reproductive cells (spermatozoa in men, oocytes in women) Placenta: an organ characteristic of true mammals during pregnancy, joining mother and offspring, providing endocrine secretion and selective exchange of soluble, but not particulate, blood-borne substances through an apposition of uterine and trophoblastic vascularised parts Stem cells: cells able to turn into one or several of the above types Note that tissues from plants, fungi, and microorganisms can also be examined histologically. Their structure is very different from animal tissues. Related sciences Cell biology is the study of living cells, their DNA and RNA and the proteins they express. Anatomy is the study of organs visible by the naked eye. Morphology studies entire organisms. Artifacts Artifacts are structures or features in tissue that interfere with normal histological examination. These are not always present in normal tissue and can come from outside sources. Artifacts interfere with histology by changing the tissues appearance and hiding structures. These can be divided into two categories: Pre-histology These are features and structures that have being introduced prior to the collection of the tissues. A common example of these include: ink from tattoos and freckles (melanin) in skin samples. Post-histology Artifacts can result from tissue processing. Processing commonly leads to changes like shrinkage, color changes in different tissues types and alterations of the structures in the tissue. Because these are caused in a laboratory the majority of post histology artifacts can be avoided or removed after being discovered. A common example is mercury pigment left behind after using Zenker's fixative to fix a section. See also Pathology Anatomical pathology Histopathology Biological staining Digital Pathology Important publications in histology Geoffrey Bourne Laser capture microdissection References 1. Merck Source (2002). Dorland's Medical Dictionary. Retrieved 2005-01-26. 2. Stedman's Medical Dictionaries (2005). Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary. Retrieved 2005-01-26. 3. 4,000 online histology images (2007). (http://histology-online.com) External links Histology Protocols Immunohistochemistry - In Situ Hybridization Histoweb SIU SOM Histology Visual Histology Atlas Histology Glossary Histology Group of Victoria Incorporated Histology Photomicrographs Virtual Slidebox Blue Histology Histology for Dummies (Spanish)

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Electronic_music

Electronic music is music that employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music technology in its production. "The novelty of making music with electronic instruments has long worn off. The use of electronics to compose, organize, record, mix, color, stretch, randomize, project, perform, and distribute music is now intimately woven into the fabric of modern experience" (Holmes 2002, 1). In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. "The stuff of electronic music is electrically produced or modified sounds. ... two basic definitions will help put some of the historical discussion in its place: purely electronic music versus electroacoustic music" (Holmes 2002, 6). Examples of electromechanical sound producing devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, and the electric guitar. Purely electronic sound production can be achieved using devices such as the Theremin, sound synthesizer, and computer. "Electroacoustic music uses electronics to modify sounds from the natural world. The entire spectrum of worldly sounds provides the source material for this music. This is the domain of microphones, tape recorders and digital samplers... can be associated with live or recorded music. During live performances, natural sounds are modified in real time using electronics. The source of the sound can be anything from ambient noise to live musicians playing conventional instruments" (Holmes 2002, 8). Electronic music was once associated almost exclusively with Western art music but from the late 1960s on the availability of affordable music technology meant that music produced using electronic means became increasingly common in the popular domain. "Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture. Musical concepts that were once considered radical—the use of environmental sounds, ambient music, turntable music, digital sampling, computer music, the electronic modification of acoustic sounds, and music made from fragments of speech-have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music. Record store genres including new age, rap, hip-hop, electronica, techno, jazz, and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music" (Holmes 2002, 1). "By the 1990s, electronic music had penetrated every corner of musical life. It extended from ethereal sound-waves played by esoteric experimenters to the thumping syncopation that accompanies every pop record" (Lebrecht 1996, 106). Today electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music. __TOC__ History Late 19th century to early 20th century Telharmonium, Thaddeus Cahill, 1897. The ability to record sounds is often connected to the production of electronic music, but not absolutely necessary for it. The earliest known sound recording device was the phonautograph, patented in 1857 by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. It could record sounds visually, but was not meant to play them back. Rosen 2008 In 1878, Thomas A. Edison patented the phonograph, which used cylinders similar to Scott's device. Although cylinders continued in use for some time, Emile Berliner developed the disc phonograph in 1887. Russcol 1972, 67. A significant invention, which was later to have a profound effect on electronic music, was Lee DeForest's triode audion. This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube, invented in 1906, which led to the generation and amplification of electrical signals, radio broadcasting, and electronic computation, amongst other things. Before electronic music, there was a growing desire for composers to use emerging technologies for musical purposes. Several instruments were created that employed electromechanical designs and they paved the way for the later emergence of electronic instruments. An electromechanical instrument called the Telharmonium (sometimes Teleharmonium or Dynamophone) was developed by Thaddeus Cahill in the years 1898-1912. However, simple inconvenience hindered the adoption of the Telharmonium, due to its immense size. The first electronic instrument is often viewed to be the Theremin, invented by Professor Léon Theremin circa 1919–1920. Theremin, BBC h2g2 encyclopaedia project, Undated. Accessed: 05-20-2008. Another early electronic instrument was the Ondes Martenot, which was most famously used in the Turangalîla-Symphonie by Olivier Messiaen as well as other works by him. It was also used by other, primarily French, composers such as Andre Jolivet. "New Aesthetic of Music" Just a year later, another significant contribution was made to the advent of experimental music. This was the 1907 publication of Ferruccio Busoni's Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music, which discussed the use of electrical and other new sound sources in future music. He wrote of the future of microtonal scales in music, made possible by Cahill's Dynamophone: Only a long and careful series of experiments, and a continued training of the ear, can render this unfamiliar material approachable and plastic for the coming generation, and for Art. Busoni 1962, 95. Also in the Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music, Busoni states: Music as an art, our so-called occidental music, is hardly four hundred years old; its state is one of development, perhaps the very first stage of a development beyond present conception, and we—we talk of "classics" and "hallowed traditions"! And we have talked of them for a long time! We have formulated rules, stated principles, laid down laws;—we apply laws made for maturity to a child that knows nothing of responsibility! Young as it is, this child, we already recognize that it possesses one radiant attribute which signalizes it beyond all its elder sisters. And the lawgivers will not see this marvelous attribute, lest their laws should be thrown to the winds. This child—it floats on air! It touches not the earth with its feet. It knows no law of gravitation. It is wellnigh incorporeal. Its material is transparent. It is sonorous air. It is almost Nature herself. It is—free! But freedom is something that mankind have never wholly comprehended, never realized to the full. They can neither recognize or acknowledge it. They disavow the mission of this child; they hang weights upon it. This buoyant creature must walk decently, like anybody else. It may scarcely be allowed to leap—when it were its joy to follow the line of the rainbow, and to break sunbeams with the clouds. Busoni 1962, 76–77. Through this writing, as well as personal contact, Busoni had a profound effect on many musicians and composers, perhaps most notably on his pupil, Edgard Varèse, who said: Together we used to discuss what direction the music of the future would, or rather, should take and could not take as long as the straitjacket of the tempered system. He deplored that his own keyboard instrument had conditioned our ears to accept only an infinitesimal part of the infinite gradations of sounds in nature. He was very much interested in the electrical instruments we began to hear about, and I remember particularly one he had read of called the Dynamophone. All through his writings one finds over and over again predictions about the music of the future which have since come true. In fact, there is hardly a development that he did not foresee, as for instance in this extraordinary prophecy: 'I almost think that in the new great music, machines will also be necessary and will be assigned a share in it. Perhaps industry, too, will bring forth her share in the artistic ascent. Russcol 1972, 35-36. Futurists Luigi Russolo with his assistant Ugo Piatti and their Intonarumori (noise machines) In Italy, the Futurists were coming at the changing aesthetic from a different angle, but one that also affected the world of classical music. A major thrust of the Futurist philosophy was to value "noise," and to place artistic and expressive value on sounds that had previously not been considered even remotely musical. Balilla Pratella's "Technical Manifesto of Futurist Music" (1911) states that their credo is: To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic liners, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity.| Quoted in Russcol 1972, 40. On 11 March 1913, futurist Luigi Russolo published his manifesto "The Art of Noises". In 1914 he held the first "art-of-noises" concert in Milan on April 21. This used his Intonarumori, described by Russolo as "acoustical noise-instruments, whose sounds (howls, roars, shuffles, gurgles, etc.) were hand-activated and projected by horns and megaphones." Russcol 1972, 68. In June, similar concerts were held in Paris. The 1920–1930s This decade brought a wealth of early electronic instruments. Along with the Theremin, there is the presentation of the Ondes Martenot, Composers using the instrument ultimately include Boulez, Honneger, Jolivet, Koechlin, Messiaen, Milhaud, Tremblay, and Varèse. In 1937, Messiaen wrote Fête des belles eaux for 6 ondes Martenot, and wrote solo parts for it in Trois petites Liturgies de la Présence Divine (1943–44) and the Turangalîla Symphonie (1946–48/90). which was designed to reproduce the microtonal sounds found in Hindu music, and the Trautonium. Maurice Martenot invented the Ondes Martenot in 1928, and soon demonstrated it in Paris. Another development, which aroused the interest of many composers, occurred in 1919–1920. In Leningrad, Leon Theremin (actually Lev Termen) built and demonstrated his Etherophone, which was later renamed the Theremin. This led to the first compositions for electronic instruments, as opposed to noisemakers and re-purposed machines. In 1929, Joseph Schillinger composed First Airphonic Suite for Theremin and Orchestra, premièred with the Cleveland Orchestra with Leon Theremin as soloist. In 1924, Ottorino Respighi composed The Pines of Rome, which calls for the use of a phonograph recording of nightingales. However, at the time of composition, phonograph players were acoustical, not electric, and this is actually more along the lines of using a sound effect, and therefore cannot be considered an electroacoustic element in the composition. The following year, Antheil first composed for mechanical devices, electrical noisemakers, motors and amplifiers in his unfinished opera, Mr. Bloom, as a response to the "art of noises" of Luigi Russolo, Marinetti and the other Futurists. And just one year later in 1926, was the première of Antheil's Ballet Mécanique, using car horns, airplane propellers, saws, and anvils (but no electronics). Recording of sounds made a leap in 1927, when American inventor J. A. O'Neill developed a recording device that used magnetically coated ribbon. However, this was a commercial failure. Two years later, Laurens Hammond established his company for the manufacture of electronic instruments. He went on to produce the Hammond organ, which was based on the principles of the Telharmonium, along with other developments including early reverberation units. Russcol 1972, 70. The method of photo-optic sound recording used in cinematography made it possible to obtain a visible image of a sound wave, as well as to realize the opposite goal—synthesizing a sound from an artificially drawn sound wave. The research work by the Russian optical engineer Evgeny Murzin taken from 1937 to 1957 made it possible to create a photoelectric synthesizer—a musical instrument that combined three processes: creation, recording, and playback of music. Murzin named his invention in honour of the composer Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin (“ANS”). Developments from 1945 to 1960 Musique concrète Low-fidelity magnetic wire recorders had been in use since 1898, and in the late 1920s the movie industry adopted optical sound-on-film recording systems based on the photoelectric cell, but it was not until the 1930s that the German electronics company AEG developed the first practical audio tape recorder, the "Magnetophon". During World War II AEG technicians discovered the AC biasing technique, which dramatically improved the fidelity of magnetic recording by adding an inaudible high-frequency tone, and by 1943 AEG had developed the first stereo tape recorders. However these devices and techniques remained a secret outside Germany until the end of WWII, when captured Magnetophon recorders and reels of Farben recording tape were brought back to the United States by Jack Mullin and others. These captured recorders and tapes were the basis for the development of the first commercial tape recorder, the Model 200, manufactured by the American Ampex company (Angus 1984) with support from entertainer Bing Crosby, who became the first performer to record radio broadcasts and studio master recordings on tape. Magnetic audio tape opened up a vast new range of sonic possibilities to musicians, composers, producers and engineers. Audio tape was relatively cheap and very reliable, and its fidelity of reproduction was better than any audio medium to date. Most importantly, unlike discs, it offered the same plasticity of use as film. Tape can be slowed down, speeded up or even run backwards during recording or playback, with often startling effect. It can be physically edited in much the same way as film, allowing for unwanted sections of a recording to be seamlessly removed or replaced; likewise, segments of tape from other sources can be edited in. Tape can also be joined to form endless loops that continually play repeated patterns of pre-recorded material. Audio amplification and mixing equipment further expanded tape's capabilities as a production medium, allowing multiple pre-taped recordings (and/or live sounds, speech or music) to be mixed together and simultaneously recorded onto another tape with relatively little loss of fidelity. Another unforeseen windfall was that tape recorders can be relatively easily modified to become echo machines that produce complex, controllable, high-quality echo and reverberation effects (most of which would be practically impossible to achieve by mechanical means). It wasn't long before composers began using the tape recorder to develop a new technique for composition called Musique concrète. This technique involved editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. "Musique Concrete was created in Paris in 1948 from edited collages of everyday noise" (Lebrecht 1996, 107). The first pieces of musique concrète were assembled by Pierre Schaeffer, who went on to collaborate with Pierre Henry. On 5 October 1948, Radiodiffusion Française (RDF) broadcast composer Pierre Schaeffer's Etude aux chemins de fer. This was the first "movement" of Cinq études de bruits, and marked the beginning of studio realizations and musique concrète (or acousmatic music). Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on Déserts, a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio, and were later revised at Columbia University. In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the Ecole Normale de Musique de Paris. "Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before." Snyder [n.d.] Pierre Schaeffer: Inventor of Musique Concrète. Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, Orpheus, for concrete sounds and voices. Elektronische Musik Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music. In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951. Eimert 1972, 349. The brain child of Werner Meyer-Eppler, Robert Beyer, and Herbert Eimert (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig. In his 1949 thesis Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache, Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, elektronische Musik was sharply differentiated from French musique concrète, which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources. Eimert 1958, 2; Ungeheuer 1992, 117. With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, it became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism [sic]" (Lebrecht 1996, 75). "... at Northwest German Radio in Cologne (1953), where the term 'electronic music' was coined to distinguish their pure experiments from musique concrete..." (Lebrecht 1996, 107). on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in Mixtur (1964) and Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester (1967). Stockhausen 1978, 73–76, 78–79. Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space," sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world" "In 1967, just following the world premiere of Hymnen, Stockhausen said this about the electronic music experience: '... Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced—especially in the realm of electronic music—into extraterrestrial space. Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience, they identify it with the fantastic dream world. Several have commented that my electronic music sounds "like on a different star," or "like in outer space." Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space. Thus, extreme words are employed to describe such experience, which are not "objectively" communicable in the sense of an object description, but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space'" (Holmes 2002, 145). More recently, Stockhausen turned to producing electronic music in his own studio in Kürten, his last work in the genre being Cosmic Pulses (2007). American electronic music In the United States, sounds were being created electronically and used in composition, as exemplified in a piece by Morton Feldman called Marginal Intersection. This piece is scored for winds, brass, percussion, strings, 2 oscillators, and sound effects of riveting, and the score uses Feldman's graph notation. The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School (John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman), Johnson 2002, 2. and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration, In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative.| Johnson 2002, 4 Cage completed Williams Mix in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project. "Carolyn Brown [Earle Brown's wife] was to dance in Cunningham's company, while Brown himself was to participate in Cage's 'Project for Music for Magnetic Tape.'... funded by Paul Williams (dedicatee of the 1953 Williams Mix), who—like Robert Rauschenberg—was a former student of Black Mountain College, which Cage and Cunnigham had first visited in the summer of 1948" (Johnson 2002, 20). The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Louis and Bebe Barron. Columbia-Princeton Also in the U.S., in the same year, significant developments were happening in New York City. Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder—a professional Ampex machine—for the purpose of recording concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it. Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another." Russcol 1972, 92. Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation." On Thursday, May 8, 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These included Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition, and Underwater Valse. In an interview, he stated: "I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments." Otto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: "The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder . . . and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds." Luening 1968, 48. Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations." They played some early pieces informally at a party, where "a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future)." Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to "produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed. . . . Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. . . . In late September, 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions." Two months later, on October 28, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's Fantasy in Space (1952)—"an impressionistic virtuoso piece" using manipulated recordings of flute—and Low Speed (1952), an "exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range." Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, NY. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: "I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations." Luening 1968, 49. 1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated and/or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's Déserts, for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Luening and Ussachevsky: Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony and A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternates with mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers." Kurtz 1992, 75-76. Déserts was premiered in Paris in the first stereo broadcast on French Radio. At the German premiere in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen. The title Déserts, suggested to Varèse not only, "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness." Anonymous 1972. Stochastic music An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. Iannis Xenakis began what is called "musique stochastique," or "stochastic music," which is a method of composing that employs mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used graph paper and a ruler to aid in calculating the velocity trajectories of glissandi for his orchestral composition Metastasis (1953–54), but later turned to the use of computers to compose pieces like ST/4 for string quartet and ST/48 for orchestra (both 1962). Mid to late 1950s In 1954, Stockhausen composed his Elektronische Studie II—the first electronic piece to be published as a score. In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the Studio de Fonologia (already mentioned), a studio at the NHK in Tokyo founded by Toshiro Mayuzumi, and the Phillips studio at Eindhoven, the Netherlands, which moved to the University of Utrecht as the Institute of Sonology in 1960. The score for Forbidden Planet, by Louis and Bebe Barron, "From at least Louis and Bebbe Barron's soundtrack for 'The Forbidden Planet" onwards, electronic music - in particular synthetic timbre - has impersonated alien worlds in film" (Norman 2004, 32). was entirely composed using custom built electronic circuits in 1956. The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March of which no known recordings exist. However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer music practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed (reference 12). The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951. The music program was written by Christopher Strachey. The impact of computers continued in 1956. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed Iliac Suite for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly." Schwartz 1975, 347. Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential MUSIC I program. Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956 Stockhausen composed Gesang der Jünglinge, the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from the Book of Daniel. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog. The RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer made its debut in 1957. Unlike the earlier Theremin and Ondes Martenot, it was difficult to use, required extensive programming, and could not be played in real time. Sometimes called the first electronic synthesizer, the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer used vacuum tube oscillators and incorporated the first electronic music sequencer driven by two punched-paper tapes. It was designed by RCA and installed at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center where it remains to this day. In 1957, MUSIC, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music, was created by Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories. Later, Milton Babbitt, influenced in his student years by Schoenberg's "revolution in musical thought" began applying serial techniques to electronic music. From 1950 to 1960 the vocabulary of tape music shifted from the fairly pure experimental works which characterized the classic Paris and Cologne schools to more complex and expressive works which explored a wide range of compositional styles. More and more works began to appear by the mid-1950s which addressed the concept of combining taped sounds with live instruments and voices. There was also a tentative interest, and a few attempts, at incorporating taped electronic sounds into theatrical works. Dunn 1992, 17. The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's Poeme Electronique, which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Phillips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair. That same year, Mauricio Kagel, an Argentine composer, composed Transición II. The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians perform on a piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers use tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance. The 1960s These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's Gargoyles for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's Kontakte for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "In Kontakte, Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form,' resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth century film." Kurtz 1992, 1. The first of these synthesizers to appear was the Buchla. Appearing in 1963, it was the product of an effort spearheaded by musique concrète composer Morton Subotnick. In 1962, working with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, Subotnick and business partner Ramon Sender hired electrical engineer Don Buchla to build a "black box" for composition. The theremin had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g., Bernard Herrmann's classic score for The Day the Earth Stood Still). During the 1960s the theremin made occasional appearances in popular music. In the UK in this period, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (established in 1958) emerged one of the most productive and widely known electronic music studios in the world, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who added a keen musical ear to her great technical prowess; she is famous for her landmark 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic Doctor Who theme, composed by Ron Grainer, arguably the most widely known piece of electronic music in the world. Derbyshire and her colleagues -- including Dick Mills, Brian Hodgson (creator of the TARDIS sound effect), David Cain, John Baker, Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell -- collectively created a large and very varied body of work that includes station ID stings, program jingles, soundtracks, atmospheres and sound effects for BBC TV and radio stations and programs. Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his Composition for Synthesizer—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at CPEMC. For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing? Schwartz 1975, 124. The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of Déserts. He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel. Bayly 1982–83, 150. The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Terry Riley, and Anthony Martin. The center soon incorporated a voltage-controlled synthesizer based around automated sequencing by Don Buchla, and used in album-length Subotnick pieces such as Silver Apples of the Moon (1967) and The Wild Bull (1968). Later, the Center moved to Mills College, directed by Pauline Oliveros, where it is today known as the Center for Contemporary Music. "A central figure in post-war electronic art music, [Pauline] Oliveros [b. 1930] is one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center (along with Morton Subotnick, Ramon Sender, Terry Riley, and Anthony Martin), which was the resource on the U.S. west coast for electronic music during the 1960s. The Center later moved to Mills College, where she was its first director, and is now called the Center for Contemporary Music." from CD liner notes, "Accordion & Voice," Pauline Oliveros, Record Label: Important, Catalog number IMPREC140: 793447514024. Back across the Atlantic, in Czechoslovakia, 1964, the First Seminar of Electronic Music was held at the Radio Broadcast Station in Plzen. Four government-sanctioned electroacoustic music studios were later established in the 1960s under the auspices of extant radio and television stations. New instruments continued to develop. One of the most significant breakthroughs came in 1964, when Robert Moog introduced the Moog synthesizer, the first integrated modular voltage controlled analog synthesiser system. Moog Music later introduced a smaller synthesizer with a built-in keyboard and hardwired signal path called The Minimoog, which was introduced to many composers and universities and beacme widely used by popular musicians. A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized Moog Modular synthesizer is the Switched-On Bach album by Wendy Carlos, which triggered a craze for synthesiser music. This decade saw construction of more than 50 electronic music studios in the USA, mostly in universities. Pietro Grossi was an italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 in order to experiment with electronic sound and composition. Computer music CSIRAC, the first computer to play music, did so publicly in August 1951 (reference 12). One of the first large-scale public demonstrations of computer music was a pre-recorded national radio broadcast on the NBC radio network program Monitor on February 10, 1962. In 1961, LaFarr Stuart programmed Iowa State University's CYCLONE computer (a derivative of the Illiac) to play simple, recognizable tunes through an amplified speaker that had been attached to the system originally for administrative and diagnostic purposes. An interview with Mr. Stuart accompanied his computer music. The late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in MUSIC V, a direct digital synthesis language (Mattis 2001). Live electronics In America, live electronics were pioneered in the early 1960s by members of Milton Cohen's Space Theater in Ann Arbor, Michigan, including Gordon Mumma and Robert Ashley, by individuals such as David Tudor around 1965, and The Sonic Arts Union, founded in 1966 by Gordon Mumma, Robert Ashley, Alvin Lucier, and David Behrman. ONCE Festivals, featuring multimedia theater music, were organized by Robert Ashley and Gordon Mumma in Ann Arbor between 1958 and 1969. In 1960, John Cage composed Cartridge Music, one of the earliest live-electronic works. In Europe in 1964, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed Mikrophonie I for tam-tam, hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and Mixtur for orchestra, four sine-wave generators, and four ring modulators. In 1965 he composed Mikrophonie II for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators. In 1966-67 Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach "circuit bending"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage’s aleatoric music concept. 1970s to mid-80s In 1970, Charles Wuorinen composed Time's Encomium, the first Pulitzer Prize winner for an entirely electronic composition. The 1970's also saw the use of synthesisers in mainstream rock music with examples including Pink Floyd, Tangerine Dream, Yes and Emerson, Lake and Palmer. Synthesisers Released in 1970 by Moog Music the Mini-Moog was among the first widely available, portable and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became the most widely used synthesizer in both popular and electronic art music. IRCAM IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system, wikiC/2.06: Sogitec 4X featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. Pierre Boulez's Répons (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system. Rise of popular electronic music Throughout the seventies bands such as The Residents and Can spearheaded an experimental music movement that incorporated electronic sounds. Can were one of the first bands to use tape loops for rhythm sections and The Residents created their own custom built drum machine. The German band Kraftwerk took a more purely electronic approach on records such as 1974's Autobahn. Other artists in the 1970s who composed primarily electronic instrumental music and managed to reach beyond the academic sphere and into the popular realm, were Jean Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze, and Vangelis. Also in the 1970s, rock bands from Genesis to The Cars began incorporating synthesizers into traditional rock arrangements. Notably, British synthesist Brian Eno collaborated with rock performers such as David Bowie and Roxy Music. In 1979, UK recording artist Gary Numan helped to bring electronic music into the wider marketplace of pop music with his hit "Cars" from the album The Pleasure Principle. Other successful hit electronic singles in the early 1980s included "Don't You Want Me" by the Human League, "Whip It!" by Devo, and finally 1983's "Blue Monday" by New Order, which became the best-selling 12-inch single of all time. The Swiss duo Yello, Trevor Horn's Art of Noise, Naked Eyes, Prince, Kate Bush, Peter Gabriel, and Depeche Mode further incorporated early samplers like the Synclavier, Fairlight CMI, and E-mu Emulator into their hit records. By 1984, synthesizers and samplers were prominently featured in much popular music. Birth of MIDI In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface by which new instruments could communicate control instructions with other instruments and the prevalent microcomputer. This standard was dubbed MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface). A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized. The advent of MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer. MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments. Miller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode) Max at Opcode for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background. Digital synthesis In 1979 the Australian Fairlight company released the Fairlight CMI (Computer Musical Instrument) the first practical polyphonic digital synthesiser/sampler system. In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX-7. It used frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first experimented with by John Chowning at Stanford during the late sixties. Chowning 1973. Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds: At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist Larry Beauregard had connected his flute to DiGiugno's 4X audio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On a Guggenheim at the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a chamber musician, playing Handel flute sonatas, Boulez's Sonatine for flute and piano and by 1984 my own Synapse II for flute and computer—the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my Synthetic Performer. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating learning from rehearsals (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant, young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called MAX. Vercoe 2000, xxviii–xxix. Late 1980s to 90s Rise of dance music Advancements In the 1990s, interactive computer-assisted performance started to become possible, with one example described as follows: Automated Harmonization of Melody in Real Time: An interactive computer system, developed in collaboration with flutist/composer Pedro Eustache, for realtime melodic analysis and harmonic accompaniment. Based on a novel scheme of harmonization devised by Eustache, the software analyzes the tonal melodic function of incoming notes, and instantaneously performs an orchestrated harmonization of the melody. The software was originally designed for performance by Eustache on Yamaha WX7 wind controller, and was used in his composition Tetelestai, premiered in Irvine, California in March 1999. Dobrian 2002, Automated Harmonization of Melody in Real Time Other recent developments included the Tod Machover (MIT and IRCAM) composition Begin Again Again for "hypercello," an interactive system of sensors measuring physical movements of the cellist. Max Mathews developed the "Conductor" program for real-time tempo, dynamic and timbre control of a pre-input electronic score. Morton Subotnick released a multimedia CD-ROM All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis. The 2000s In recent years, as computer technology has become more accessible and music software has advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional musical performance practices: Emmerson 2007, 111–13. for instance, laptop performance (laptronica) Emmerson 2007, 80-81. and live coding. Emmerson 2007, 115; Collins 2003. In the last decade a number of software-based virtual studio environments have emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's Reason and Ableton Live finding popular appeal. 23rd Annual International Dance Music Awards: Best Audio Editing Software of the Year - 1st Abelton Live , 4th Reason. Best Audio DJ Software of the Year - Abelton Live. Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology, it is now possible to create high quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have, for better or for worse, democratized music creation, Chadabe 2004 leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Artists can now also individuate their production practice by creating personalized software synthesizers, effects modules, and various composition environments. Devices that once existed exclusively in the hardware domain can easily have virtual counterparts. Some of the more popular software tools for achieving such ends are commercial releases such as Max/Msp and Reaktor and freeware packages such as Pure Data, SuperCollider, and ChucK. Circuit bending Probing for "bends" using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips. A practice originally pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s; it has recently found significant popular appeal. Circuit bending is the creative short-circuiting of low voltage, battery-powered electronic audio devices such as guitar effects, children's toys and small synthesizers to create new musical instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with noise music, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with "bent" instruments. See also Computer Music Acousmatic music Electroacoustic music Experimental music genres NIME Noise music Sound sculpture Sound installation Sound art Progressive electronic music Video game music Game Boy music Winter Music Conference Schaffel music Dick Raaymakers (Kid Baltan) Raymond Scott Beaver & Krause Spectral music Live PA Musique concrète Techno Footnotes Techno References Angus, Robert. 1984. "History of Magnetic Recording, Part One". Audio Magazine (August): 27–33. Anonymous. 1972. Liner notes to The Varese Album. Columbia Records MG 31078. Bassingthwaighte, Sarah Louise. 2002. "Electroacoustic Music for the Flute". DMA dissertation. Seattle: University of Washington. Bayly, Richard. 1982–83. "Ussachevsky on Varèse: An Interview April 24, 1979 at Goucher College," Perspectives of New Music 21 (Fall-Winter 1982 and Spring-Summer 1983):145–51. Brick, Howard. 2000. Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801487005 (Originally published: New York: Twayne, 1998) Busoni, Ferruccio. 1962. '"Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music". Translated by Dr. Th. Baker and originally published in 1911 by G. Schirmer. Reprinted in Three Classics in the Aesthetic of Music: Monsieur Croche the Dilettante Hater, by Claude Debussy; Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music, by Ferruccio Busoni; Essays before a Sonata, by Charles E. Ives, 73–102. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Chadabe Joel. 1997. Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chadabe, Joel. 2004. "Electronic Music and Life". Organised Sound 9, no. 1: 3–6. Chowning, John. 1973. "The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21, no. 7:526–34. Collins, Nick. 2003. "Generative Music and Laptop Performance". Contemporary Music Review 22, no. 4:67-79. Dobrian, Christopher. 2002. "Current Research Projects". Accessed 29 June 2007. Donhauser, Peter. 2007. Elektrische Klangmaschinen. Vienna: Boehlau. Dunn, David. 1992 "A History of Electronic Music Pioneers", in catalog accompanying the exhibition Eigenwelt der Apparatewelt: Pioneers of Electronic Art, curated by Woody and Steina Vasulka and presented as part of Ars Electronica 1992, in Linz, Austria. Eimert, Herbert. 1958. "What Is Electronic Music?" Die Reihe 1 (English edition): 1–10. Eimert, Herbert. 1972. "How Electronic Music Began." Musical Times 113, no. 1550 (April): 347 & 349. (First published in German in Melos 39 (Jan.-Feb. 1972): 42–44.) Emmerson, Simon. 1986. The Language of Electroacoustic Music. London: Macmillan. Emmerson, Simon (ed.). 2000. Music, Electronic Media, and Culture. Aldershot (Hants.), Burlington (VT): Ashgate. ISBN 0754601099 Emmerson, Simon. 2007. Living Electronic Music. Aldershot (Hants.), Burlington (VT): Ashgate. ISBN 0754655466 (cloth) ISBN 0754655482 (pbk) Gard, Stephen. 2004. "Nasty Noises: ‘Error’ as a Compositional Element". Sydney Conservatorium of Music, Sydney eScholarship Repository. Griffiths, Paul. 1995. Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198165781 (cloth) ISBN 0198165110 (pbk) Holmes, Thomas B. 2002. Electronic and Experimental Music: Pioneers in Technology and Composition. Second edition. London: Routledge Music/Songbooks. ISBN 0415936438 (cloth) ISBN 0415936446 (pbk) Kurtz, Michael. 1992. Stockhausen: A Biography. Trans. by Richard Toop. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0571143237 Johnson, Steven. 2002. The New York Schools of Music and Visual Arts: John Cage, Morton Feldman. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415936942 Lebrecht, Norman. 1996. The Companion to 20th-Century Music. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306807343 (pbk) Luening, Otto. 1964. "Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music", Journal of Music Theory 8, no. 1 (Spring): 89–98. Luening, Otto. 1968. "An Unfinished History of Electronic Music". Music Educators Journal 55, no. 3 (November): 42–49, 135–42, 145. Macon, Edward L. 1997. Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195098870 Mattis, Olivia. 2001. "Mathews, Max V(ernon)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. London: Macmillan. Morawska-Büngeler, Marietta. 1988. Schwingende Elektronen: Eine Dokumentation über das Studio für Elektronische Musik des Westdeutschen Rundfunk in Köln 1951–1986. Cologne-Rodenkirchen: P. J. Tonger Musikverlag. Norman, Katharine. 2004. Sounding Art: Eight Literary Excursions through Electronic Music. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0754604268 Peyser, Joan. 1995. The Music of My Time. White Plains, N.Y.: Pro/AM Music Resources Inc.; London: Kahn and Averill. ISBN 0912483997; ISBN 1871082579 Roads, Curtis. 1996. The Computer Music Tutorial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0262181584 (cloth) ISBN 0262680823 (pbk) Rosen, Jody. 2008. "Researchers Play Tune Recorded before Edison". New York Times (27 March). Russcol, Herbert. 1972. The Liberation of Sound: An Introduction to Electronic Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Schwartz, Elliott. 1975. Electronic Music New York: Praeger. Snyder, Jeff. [n.d.]. "Pierre Schaeffer: Inventor of Musique Concrete". Accessed May 2002. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1978. Texte zur Musik 4. Cologne: DuMont Buchverlag. ISBN 3-7701-1078-1 Ungeheuer, Elena. 1992. Wie die elektronische Musik "erfunden" wurde: Quellenstudie zu Werner Meyer-Epplers musikalischem Entwurf zwischen 1949 und 1953. Kölner Schriften zur neuen Musik 2. Mainz and New York: Schott. ISBN 3795718910 Vercoe, Barry. 2000. "Forward," in The Csound Book: Perspectives in Software Synthesis, Sound Design, Signal Processing, and Programming, edited by Richard Boulanger, xxvii–xxx. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Watson, Scott. 2005. "A Return to Modernism". Music Education Technology Magazine (February) Weidenaar, Reynold. 1995. Magic Music from the Telharmonium: The Story of the First Music Synthesizer. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-8108-2692-5 Zimmer, Dave. 2000. Crosby, Stills, and Nash: The Authorized Biography. Photography by Henry Diltz. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80974-5 Further reading Bogdanov, Vladimir, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, and John Bush (editors). 2001. The All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music. AMG Allmusic Series. San Francisco: Backbeat Books. ISBN 0-87930-628-9 Cummins, James. 2008. Ambrosia: About a Culture - An Investigation of Electronica Music and Party Culture. Toronto, ON: Clark-Nova Books. ISBN 978-0-978489-21-2 Heifetz, Robin J. (ed.). 1989. "On The Wires of Our Nerves: The Art of Electroacoustic Music". Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses. ISBN 0838751555 Kahn Douglas. 1999. Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0262112434 New edition 2001, ISBN 0262611724 Kettlewell, Ben. 2001. Electronic Music Pioneers. [N.p.]: Course Technology, Inc. ISBN 1-931140-17-0 Licata, Thomas (ed.). 2002. Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313314209 Manning, Peter. 2004. Electronic and Computer Music. Revised and expanded edition. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195144848 (cloth) ISBN 0195170857 (pbk) Prendergast, Mark. 2001. The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. Forward [sic] by Brian Eno. New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN 0-7475-4213-9, ISBN 1-58234-134-6 (hardcover eds.) ISBN 1-58234-323-3 (paper) Reynolds, Simon. 1998. Energy Flash: A Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture. London: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 0-330-35056-0 (US title, Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture. Boston: Little, Brown, 1998 ISBN 0316741116; New York: Routledge, 1999 ISBN 0-415-92373-5) Schaefer, John. 1987. New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-097081-2 Shapiro, Peter (editor). 2000. Modulations: a History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound. New York: Caipirinha Productions ISBN 1-891024-06-X Sicko, Dan. 1999. Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk. New York: Billboard Books. ISBN 0-8230-8428-0 Edward A. Shanken, Art and Electronic Media. London: Phaidon, 2009. ISBN 9780714847825 External links Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music electronicmusic.com - News, Reviews, Interviews and Artist Profiles Digitally Imported - Over 25 genres of Electronic Music Internet radio ElectronicMp3s.com - Electronic Ezine Electronic Artist & Mp3s Pioneers of electronic music - A series of articles highlighting pioneers of electronic music www.ElectronicMusicMp3s.com - Magazine dedicated to Electronic & Experimental Music electronic albums ElectronicaMp3s.net - Electronica Artists Mp3s History of electronic musical instruments viral symphOny created using computer virus software by Joseph Nechvatal Art of the States: electronic - Small collection of electronic works by American composers CSIRAC homepage – From the Computation Laboratory at the University of Melbourne's Dept of Computer Science and Software Engineering Pietro Grossi official web site Skullz-Group:Electronic Music Portal & Community of DJs Avant Garde Blog and Forum. Visu@lMusiC...interactive Net Visu@lMusiC

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Politics_of_Malaysia

The politics of Malaysia takes place in the framework of a constitutional monarchy, in which the Monarch is head of state and the Prime Minister of Malaysia is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Malaysian government and the devolved governments of the 11 states in Peninsular Malaysia, and Sabah and Sarawak. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Senate (Dewan Negara) and the House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat). The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, though the executive maintains a certain level of influence in the appointment of judges to the courts. Malaysia is a multi-party system since the first direct election of the Federal Legislative Council of Malaya in 1955 on a first-past-the-post basis. The ruling party since then has always been the Alliance Party coalition and subsequently from 1973 onwards, its successor the National Front coalition. The National Front currently consists of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) and 11 other political parties. The Constitution of Malaysia is codified and the system of government is based on the Westminster system. Although Malaysian politics has been relatively stable, critics allege that "the government, ruling party, and administration...are intertwined with few countervailing forces." "Conclusion". In John Funston (Ed.), Government and Politics in Southeast Asia, p. 413. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 1-84277-105-1. Political conditions Malaysia's predominant political party, the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), has held power in coalition with other parties since Malaya's independence in 1957. In 1973, an alliance of communally based parties was replaced with a broader coalition — the Barisan Nasional — composed of fourteen parties. Today the Barisan Nasional coalition has three prominent members — the UMNO, MCA (Malaysian Chinese Association) and MIC (Malaysian Indian Congress). The Prime Minister of Malaysia has always been from UMNO. The political process in Malaysia has generally been described as taking the form of "consociationalism" whereby "communal interests are resolved in the framework of a grand coalition" "Malaysia: Developmental State Challenged". In Government and Politics in Southeast Asia' The executive branch has tended to dominate political activity, with the Prime Minister's office being in a position to preside "over an extensive and ever growing array of powers to take action against individuals or organizations," and "facilitate business opportunities". Critics generally agree that although authoritarianism in Malaysia preceded the administration of Mahathir bin Mohamad, it was he who "carried the process forward substantially" Legal scholars have suggested that the political "equation for religious and racial harmony" is rather fragile, and that this "fragility stems largely from the identification of religion with race coupled with the political primacy of the Malay people colliding with the aspiration of other races for complete equality." Like the desire of a segment of the Muslim community for an Islamic State, the non-Malay demand for complete equality is something that the present Constitution will not be able to accommodate. For it is a demand which pierces the very heart of the political system — a system based upon Malay political pre-eminence. It is a demand that challenges the very source of Malay ruling elites' power and authority. In early September 1998, Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad dismissed Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim and accused Anwar of immoral and corrupt conduct. Anwar said his ouster actually owed to political differences and led a series of demonstrations advocating political reforms. Later in September, Anwar was arrested, beaten while in prison (by among others, the chief of police at the time), and charged with corrupt practices, in both legal and moral contexts, charges including obstruction of justice and sodomy. In April 1999, he was convicted of four counts of corruption and sentenced to six years in prison. In August 2000, Anwar was convicted of one count of sodomy and sentenced to nine years to run consecutively after his earlier six-year sentence. Both trials were viewed by domestic and international observers as unfair. Anwar's conviction on sodomy has since been overturned, and having completed his six-year sentence for corruption, he has since been released from prison. In the November 1999 general election, the Barisan Nasional was returned to power with three-fourths of the parliamentary seats, but UMNO's seats dropped from 94 to 72. The opposition Barisan Alternatif coalition, led by the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), increased its seats to 42. PAS retained control of the state of Kelantan and won the additional state of Terengganu. The current Prime Minister is Dato' Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi (colloquially known as "Pak Lah"). He took office following the retirement of Dr. Mahathir (now Tun Dr. Mahathir) on October 31, 2003. He is seen as a more compromising and affable figure as opposed to Tun Dr. Mahathir's more confrontational and direct style. He has pledged to continue Tun Dr. Mahathir's growth oriented policies, while taking a less belligerent stance on foreign policy than Tun Dr. Mahathir, who has regularly offended Western countries, the United States of America and Australia in particular. In the March 2004 general election, Dato' Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi led Barisan Nasional to a landslide victory, in which Barisan Nasional recaptured the state of Terengganu. The coalition now controls 92% of the seats in Parliament. In 2005, Mahathir stated that "I believe that the country should have a strong government but not too strong. A two-thirds majority like I enjoyed when I was prime minister is sufficient but a 90% majority is too strong. ... We need an opposition to remind us if we are making mistakes. When you are not opposed you think everything you do is right." The national media are largely controlled by the government and by political parties in the Barisan Nasional/National Front ruling coalition and the opposition has little access to the media. The print media are controlled by the Government through the requirement of obtaining annual publication licences under the Printing and Presses Act. In 2007, a government agency — the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission — issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders. The official state ideology is the Rukunegara, which has been described as encouraging "respect for a pluralistic, multireligious and multicultural society". However, political scientists have argued that the slogan of Bangsa, Agama, Negara (race, religion, nation) used by UMNO constitutes an unofficial ideology as well. Both ideologies have "generally been used to reinforce a conservative political ideology, one that is Malay-centred" Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy. It is nominally headed by the Paramount Ruler or Yang di-Pertuan Agong, commonly referred to as the King of Malaysia. Yang di-Pertuan Agong are selected for five-year terms from among the nine Sultans of the Malay states; the other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. The king also is the leader of the Islamic faith in Malaysia. The system of government in Malaysia is closely modeled on that of Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British colonial rule. In practice however, more power is vested in the executive branch of government than in the legislative, and the judiciary has been weakened by sustained attacks by the government during the Mahathir era. Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years, with the last general election being in March 2008. Since independence in 1957, Malaysia has been governed by a multi-racial coalition known as the Barisan Nasional (formerly the Alliance). Executive power is vested in the cabinet led by the prime minister; the Malaysian constitution stipulates that the prime minister must be a member of the lower house of parliament who, in the opinion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, commands a majority in parliament. The cabinet is chosen from among members of both houses of Parliament and is responsible to that body. In recent years the opposition have been campaigning for free and fairer elections within Malaysia. On 10 November 2007, a mass rally, called the 2007 Bersih Rally, took place in the Dataran Merdeka Kuala Lumpur at 3pm to demand for clean and fair elections. The gathering was organised by BERSIH, a coalition comprising political parties and civil society groups(NGOs), and drew supporters from all over the country. On 11 November, the Malaysian government briefly detained de facto opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim on Tuesday and arrested a human rights lawyer and about a dozen opposition leaders, amid growing complaints the government is cracking down on dissent. Dozens of policemen blocked the main entrance to the parliament building in Kuala Lumpur to foil an opposition-led rally demanding free and fair elections. The rally carried out hand with the attempt to submit a protest note to Parliament over a government-backed plan to amend a law that would extend the tenure of the Election Commission chief, whom the opposition claims is biased. Malaysia's government has intensified efforts on March 6 2008 to portray opposition figure Anwar Ibrahim as a political turncoat, days ahead of Malaysian general election, 2008 on March 8 2008 that will determine whether he poses a legitimate threat to the ruling coalition.Campaigning wrapped up March 7 2008 for general elections that could see gains for Malaysia's opposition amid anger over race and religion among minority Chinese and Indians.. Malaysians voted March 8 2008 in parliamentary elections.. Election results showed that the ruling government suffered a setback when it failed to obtain two-thirds majority in parliament, and five out of 12 state legislatures were won by the opposition parties. Reasons for the setback of the ruling party, which has retained power since the nation declared independence in 1957, are the rising inflation, crime and ethnic tensions. Malaysia's government and ruling coalition declared defeat in a landslide victory in by-election by Anwar Ibrahim. Muhammad Muhammad Taib, information chief of the United Malays National Organisation which leads the Barisan Nasional coalition stated: Yes of course we have lost . . . we were the underdogs going into this race. thestandard.com.hk, Malaysian government declares by-election defeat to Anwar Anwar won by an astounding majority against Arif Shah Omar Shah of National Front coalition. Malaysia's Election Commission officials announced Anwar won by an astounding majority against Arif Shah Omar Shah of National Front coalition and over Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi's United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). bangkokpost.com, Malaysia's Anwar wins by landslide in election Reuters reported "Anwar Ibrahim has won with a majority of 16,210 votes, according to news website Malaysiakini (http://www.malaysiakini.com): Anwar won 26,646 votes, while the government's Arif Omar won 10,436 votes. uk.reuters.com, Website says Anwar wins Malaysia vote with big majority Anwar's People's Justice Party spokewoman Ginie Lim told BBC: "We won already. We are far ahead." news.bbc.co.uk, Malaysia's Anwar claims vote win Legislative branch The Parliament building in Kuala Lumpur The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (Dewan Negara) and the House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat). All seventy Senate members sit for three-year terms (to a maximum of two terms); twenty-six are elected by the thirteen state assemblies, and forty-four are appointed by the king based on the advice of the Prime Minister. The 222 members of the Dewan Rakyat are elected from single-member districts by universal adult suffrage. Parliament has a maximum mandate of five years by law. The king may dissolve parliament at any time and usually does so upon the advice of the Prime Minister. General elections must be held within three months of the dissolution of parliament. In practice this has meant that elections have been held every three to five years at the discretion of the Prime Minister. Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. Malaysia has two sources of law. The national constitution, the nation's supreme law, can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. (Since its formation, the BN has never lacked the necessary two-thirds until March 8 2008's General Election) The second source of law is syariah (Islamic law), which applies only to Muslims. The federal government has little input into the administration of syariah; it falls to the states to implement Islamic law, and interpretations vary from state to state. State governments The state governments are led by chief ministers (Menteri Besar or Ketua Menteri, the latter term being used in states without hereditary rulers), selected by the state assemblies (Dewan Undangan Negeri) advising their respective sultans or governors. Although Malaysia is a federal state, political scientists have suggested that its "federalism is highly centralised": Legal system The Malaysian legal system is based on English common law. The Federal Court reviews decisions referred from the Court of Appeals; it has original jurisdiction in constitutional matters and in disputes between states or between the federal government and a state. Peninsular Malaysia and the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak each has a high court. The federal government has authority over external affairs, defense, internal security, justice (except civil law cases among Malays or other Muslims and other indigenous peoples, adjudicated under Islamic and traditional law), federal citizenship, finance, commerce, industry, communications, transportation, and other matters. References External links Article on Politics of Malasia by the International Museum of Women. Books Abdul Rashid Moten & Syed Serajul Islam. (2005). Introduction to Political Science. Singapore: Thomson Publication. Ahmad Ibrahim, Tan Sri Datuk Seri. (1992). The Malaysian Legal System. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka. ILBS. (2007). Federal Constitution of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: International Law Book Services. Jeong Chun Hai. (2007). Fundamental of Development Administration. Selangor: Scholar Press. Wan Arfah Hamzah & Ramy Bulan. (2003). The Malaysian Legal System.'' Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti.

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Mouse

Feral mouse A mouse (plural mice) is a small mammal belonging to the order of rodents. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (Mus musculus). It is also a popular pet. The American white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) also sometimes live in houses. Another common mouse is the field mouse. This rodent is eaten by large birds such as hawks and eagles. They are known to invade homes for food and occasionally shelter. Although mice may live up to two and a half years in captivity, the average mouse in the wild lives only about four months, primarily owing to heavy predation. Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes and even certain kinds of insects have been known to prey heavily upon mice. Nevertheless, because of its remarkable adaptability to almost any environment, and its ability to live commensally with humans, the mouse is regarded to be the second most successful mammalian genus living on Earth today, after humans. Mice can at times be harmful rodents, damaging and eating crops and spreading diseases through their parasites and feces. In western North America, breathing dust that has come in contact with mouse feces has been linked to the deadly hantavirus.. The original motivation for the domestication of cats is thought to have been for their predation of mice and their relatives, the rats. Distribution and habitat All species of Mus are native to Eurasia and Africa, where they range from lowlands to mountaintops. The five species in the subgenus Pyromys are found in Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, and mainland Southeast Asia. Much of their range originally consisted of open grasslands or grassy patches in forests. Reproduction Pups that are just a day old Breeding onset is at about 50 days of age in both females and males, although females may have their first estrus at 25-40 days. Mice are polyestrous and breed year round; ovulation is spontaneous. The duration of the estrous cycle is 4-5 days and estrus itself lasts about 12 hours, occurring in the evening. Vaginal smears are useful in timed matings to determine the stage of the estrous cycle. Mating is usually nocturnal and may be confirmed by the presence of a copulatory plug in the vagina up to 24 hours post-copulation. The presence of sperm on a vaginal smear is also a reliable indicator of mating. Female mice housed together tend to go into anestrus and do not cycle. If exposed to a male mouse or the pheromones of a male mouse, most of the females will go into estrus in about 72 hours. This synchronization of the estrous cycle is known as the Whitten effect. The exposure of a recently bred mouse to the pheromones of a strange male mouse may prevent implantation (or pseudopregnancy), a phenomenon known as the Bruce effect. The average gestation period is 20 days. A fertile postpartum estrus occurs 14-24 hours following parturition, and simultaneous lactation and gestation prolongs gestation 3-10 days owing to delayed implantation. The average litter size is 10-12 during optimum production, but is highly strain dependent. As a general rule, inbred mice tend to have longer gestation periods and smaller litters than outbred and hybrid mice. The young are called pups and weigh at birth, are hairless, and have closed eyelids and ears. Cannibalism is uncommon, but females should not be disturbed during parturition and for at least 2 days postpartum. Pups are weaned at 3 weeks of age; weaning weight is . If the postpartum estrus is not utilized, the female resumes cycling 2-5 days postweaning. Newborn male mice are distinguished from newborn females by noting the greater anogenital distance and larger genital papilla in the male. This is best accomplished by lifting the tails of littermates and comparing perineums. Laboratory mice Knockout mice Mice are common experimental animals in biology and psychology primarily because they are mammals, and also because they share a high degree of homology with humans. They are the most commonly used mammalian model organism, more common than rats. The mouse genome has been sequenced, and virtually all mouse genes have human homologs. They can also be manipulated in ways that would be considered unethical to do with humans (note Animal Rights). A knockout mouse is a genetically engineered mouse that has had one or more of its genes made inoperable through a gene knockout. There are other reasons for why mice are used in laboratory research. Mice are small, inexpensive, easily maintained, and can reproduce quickly. Several generations of mice can be observed in a relatively short period of time. Mice are generally very docile if raised from birth and given sufficient human contact. However, certain strains have been known to be quite temperamental. Mice and rats have the same organs in the same places, just different proportions. Species Subgenus Coelomys Mus crociduroides (Western Sumatra) Mus mayori (Sri Lanka) Mus pahari (Northeastern India to southwestern Cambodia and northern Vietnam) Mus vulcani (Western Java) Subgenus Mus Mus booduga (Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, southern Nepal, central Myanmar) Mus caroli (Ryukyu islands, Taiwan and southern China to Thailand; introduced in Malaysia and western Indonesia) Mus cervicolor (Northern India to Vietnam; introduced to Sumatra and Java) Mus cookii (Southern and northeastern India and Nepal to Vietnam) Mus cypriacus (Cyprus) Mus majorius (Athens, Greece) Mus famulus (Southwestern India) Mus fragilicauda (Thailand and Laos) Mus macedonicus (Balkans to Israel and Iran) Mus musculus (introduced worldwide) Mus nitidulus (Central Myanmar) Mus spicilegus (Austria to southern Ukraine and Greece) Mus spretus (Southern France, Iberian Peninsula, Balearic Islands, Morocco to Tunisia) Mus terricolor (India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan; introduced to Sumatra) Subgenus Nannomys Mus baoulei (Ivory Coast to Guinea) Mus bufo (Mountains of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and neighboring parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo) Mus callewaerti (Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo) Mus goundae (Central African Republic) Mus haussa (Senegal to northern Nigeria) Mus indutus (Southern Angola to western Zimbabwe and northern South Africa) Mus mahomet (Ethiopia, southwestern Uganda and southwestern Kenya) Mus mattheyi (Ghana) Mus minutoides (Zimbabwe, Southern Mozambique, South Africa) Mus musculoides (Africa south of the Sahara, excluding the range of M. minutoides) Mus neavei (Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo to northeastern South Africa) Mus orangiae (South Africa) Mus oubanguii (Central African Republic) Mus setulosus (Senegal to Ethiopia and western Kenya) Mus setzeri (Northeastern Namibia, Botswana, and western Zambia) Mus siridandus (Colombia, Argentina) Mus sorella (Eastern Cameroon to western Tanzania) Mus tenellus (Sudan to southern Somalia and central Tanzania) Mus triton (Southern Ethiopia to central Angola and Malawi) Subgenus Pyromys Mus fernandoni (Sri Lanka) Mus phillipsi (Southwestern India) Mus platythrix (India) Mus saxicola (Southern Pakistan, southern Nepal, and India) Mus shortridgei (Myanmar to southwestern Cambodia and northwestern Vietnam) As pets Many people buy mice as companion pets. They can be playful, loving and can grow used to being handled. Pet mice should not be left unsupervised outside as they have many natural predators, including (but not limited to) birds, cats and dogs. Male mice tend to have a stronger odor than the females. Well looked after mice can make ideal pets. Some common mouse care products are: Cage - Usually a hamster or gerbil cage, but special mouse cages are now available. Food - Special pelleted and seed-based food is available. Mice can generally eat most rodent food (for rats, mice, hamsters, gerbils, etc) Bedding - Usually made of hardwood pulp, such as aspen, sometimes from shredded, uninked paper or recycled virgin wood pulp. Corn husk bedding should not be used because it promotes Aspergillis fungus, and can grow mold once it gets wet which is rough on their feet. Pet mice Some benefits of having mice as pets are Minimal shedding and allergens Entertaining and interactive Inexpensive Clean (contrary to popular belief) Socially self-sufficient when in a group of other mice Less likely to bite than other rodent pets Relatively intelligent Bond well to their owners Are playful and attentive Disadvantages include: Short lifespan Small and fragile (not as easy to handle as a dog or a cat) Defecate and urinate frequently Nocturnal Frequent eye infections when under stress Easily subject to disease when without optimal care Frequent reproduction Nutrition In nature, mice are herbivores, consuming any kind of fruit or grain from plants. Mouse: Northwestern University Ecodome Information Page In captivity, mice are commonly fed commercial pelleted mouse diet. These diets are nutritionally complete, but they still need a large variety of vegetables. Food intake is approximately per of body weight per day; water intake is approximately per 100 g of body weight per day. Louisiana Veterinary Medical Association As food "Pinkie" mice for sale as reptile food Humans have eaten mice since prehistoric times. They are still eaten as a delicacy throughout eastern Zambia and northern Malawi, as well as in parts of east Asia. They are an excellent seasonal source of protein. In most other countries, mice are no longer routinely consumed by humans. Across the U.S. pet owners keep exotic pets such as snakes, lizards, frogs, tarantulas and birds of prey. Most US pet stores now carry mice for this purpose. Because they breed quickly, grow quickly, are easy to care for, and can be sold in a wide variety of sizes, this makes them suitable for consumption by animals of various sizes. Mice also seem to be a desirable food item for a very large variety of carnivores. For ethical reasons it may be considered questionable (and under German law, forbidden) to feed live mice (or any vertebrate for that matter) to carnivores. There is also evidence to suggest that it may also cause the carnivorous animal stress and/or physical harm to kill and consume a live animal, especially if the circumstances are different to those in the wild, for example if there is no cover for the carnivorous animal to utilise. However some carnivorous pet owners claim their pet refuses to eat meals which are not living. Common terms used to refer to different age/size mice when sold for petfood are "pinkies", "fuzzies", "hoppers", and "adults" . Pinkies are newborn mice that have not yet grown fur; fuzzies have some fur but are not very mobile; hoppers have a full coat of hair and are fully mobile but are smaller than adult mice. Mice without fur are easier for the animal to consume, however mice with fur may be more convincing as animal feed. These terms are also used to refer to the various growth stages of rats (see Fancy rat). Mice in popular culture Mice appear in many of the Redwall books as heroes. References See also Audiograms in mammals House mouse Mice in fiction Mouse trap Mouse (computing) Musophobia (fear of mice) Rat Vacanti mouse External links Fancy Mice: extensive information about breeding mice and keeping them as pets High-resolution images of cross sections of mice brains History of the mouse (with focus on their use in genetics studies)

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Barada

Barada river 1868 Barada river about 1930 The Barada (, ) is the main river of Damascus, the capital city of Syria. It flows through the spring of `Ayn Fijah (عين فيجة), about 27 km north west of Damascus in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, but its source is Lake Barada, located at about 8 km from Zabadani. The Barada descends through a steep, narrow gorge before it arrives at Damascus, where it divides into seven branches that irrigate the oasis of Ghouta (الغوطة). The 'Barada' name is thought to derive from 'barid', ie 'cold'. The ancient Greek name means 'golden stream'. Barada river near Damascus Citadel 2006 Throughout the arid plateau region east of Damascus, oases, streams, and a few interior rivers that empty into swamps and small lakes provide water for local irrigation. Most important of these is the Barada, a river that rises in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and disappears into the desert. The Barada creates the Al Ghutah Oasis, site of Damascus. This verdant area, some 370 square kilometers, has enabled Damascus to prosper since ancient times. From the mid-1980s onwards, the size of Al Ghutah was gradually being eroded as suburban housing and light industry from Damascus encroached on the oasis. The river has suffered from severe drought in the last decades, mainly due to the lower rainfall rates and the large increase in the population in the region. It also suffers from serious pollution problems, especially in the summer, where there is almost no flow and little water in the basin. See also Before Vanishing, a documentary about the decline of Barada.

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Dalai_Lama

The Dalai Lama is a lineage of religious leaders of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Dalai Lamas were also the political leaders of Lhasa-based Tibetan government between the 17th century and 1959. "Lama" is a general term referring to Tibetan Buddhist teachers. The current Dalai Lama is often called "His Holiness" (HH) by Westerners, although this does not translate to a Tibetan title. Tibetans may refer to him by epithets such as Gyalwa Rinpoche, meaning "Precious Victor", or Yishin Norbu, meaning "Wish-fulfilling Jewel." The Dalai Lama is believed to be the rebirth of a long line of tulkus, who have chosen to be reborn in order to enlighten others. He is also the official leader of the Tibetan government-in-exile, or Central Tibetan Administration (CTA). Between the 17th century and 1959, the lines of Dalai Lamas were the head of the Tibetan Government, administering a large portion of the area from the capital Lhasa, although the extent of the lineage's political authority and rulership over territory has been contested. Since 1959, the Dalai Lama has presided over the former government of Tibet, now a government in exile. The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug School, but this position officially belongs to the Ganden Tripa, which is a temporary position appointed by the Dalai Lama (who in practice exerts more influence). Nomenclature "Dalai" means "Ocean" in Mongolian, and is a translation of the Tibetan name "Gyatso," while "Lama" is the Tibetan equivalent of the Sanskrit word "guru." "The Institution of the Dalai Lama" by R. N. Rahul Sheel in The Tibet Journal, Vol. XIV No. 3. Autumn 1989, pp. 19-32 says on pp. 31-32, n. 1: "The word Dalai is Mongolian for "ocean", used mainly by the Chinese, the Mongols, and foreigners. Rgya mtsho, the corresponding Tibetan word, always has formed the last part of the religious name of the Dalai Lama since Dalai Lama II [sic – should read Dalai Lama III]. The expression Lama (Bla ma) means the "superior one". Western usage has taken it to mean the "priest" of the Buddhism of Tibet. The term Dalai Lama, therefore, means "Ocean of Wisdom". Putting the terms together, the full title is "Ocean Teacher" meaning a teacher who is spiritually as deep as the ocean. The name is often mistranslated as "Ocean of Wisdom;" see the following section. Before the 20th century, English-speaking sources often referred to the Dalai Lama as the "Grand Lama". For example, in 1795 Benjamin Franklin Bache mocked George Washington by calling him the "Grand Lama of this Country". Pennsylvania Aurora. August 1795. History Kublai Khan In 1252, Kublai Khan granted an audience to Drogön Chögyal Phagpa and Karma Pakshi, the 2nd Karmapa. Karma Pakshi, however, sought the patronage of Möngke Khan. Before his death in 1283, Karma Pakshi wrote a will to protect the established interests of his sect by advising his disciples to locate a boy to inherit the black hat. His instruction was based on the premise that Buddhist ideology is eternal, and a Buddha would send emanations to complete the missions he had initiated. Karma Pakshi's disciples acted in accordance with the will and located the reincarnated boy of their master. The event marked the introduction of the teacher reincarnation system for the Black-Hat Line of Tibetan Buddhism and during the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle bestowed the title Great Treasure Prince of Dharma, the first of the three Princes of Dharma upon the Black-Hat Karmapa. Various sects of Tibetan Buddhism responded to the introduction of the teacher reincarnation system by creating similar lineages. The origin of the title of Dalai Lama In 1578 the Mongol ruler Altan Khan bestowed what would later become the title Dalai Lama on Sonam Gyatso, which was also later retroactively applied to the two predecessors in his reincarnation line, Gendun Drup and Gendun Gyatso. Gendun Gyatso was also Sonam Gyatso's predecessor as abbot of Drepung monastery. However, the 14th Dalai Lama asserts that Altan Khan did not intend to bestow a title as such, and that he intended only to translate the name "Sonam Gyatso" into Mongolian. As journalist Thomas Laird explains: Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 142. Grove Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. The 14th Dalai Lama remarks: Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 143. Grove Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. Whatever the intention may have been originally, the Mongolian "Dalai," which has no meaning as a Tibetan term, came to be commonly understood as a title. The name or title Dalai Lama in Mongolian may also have originally derived from the title taken by Temüjin or Genghis Khan when he was proclaimed emperor of a united Mongolia in 1206. Temüjin took the name Čingis Qāghan or "oceanic sovereign", the Anglicized version of which is Genghis Khan. Roux, Jean-Paul. (2003). Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire, p. 25. Trans from the French by Toula Balas. Thames & Hudson. London. ISBN 0-500-30113-1. Sonam Gyatso Sonam Gyatso was an Abbot at the Drepung Monastery who was widely considered one of the most eminent lama of his time. Although Sonam Gyatso became the first lama to hold the title "Dalai Lama" as described above, as he was the third member of his lineage he became known as the "Third Dalai Lama." The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his earlier incarnations. Yonten Gyatso (1589 – 1616), the 4th Dalai Lama and a non-Tibetan, was the grandson of Altan Khan. Verhaegen (2002: p.5-6) states that the tulku tradition of the Dalai Lama has evolved into, and been inaugurated as, an institution and is recognized as a "cornerstone of Tibetan identity and culture": Tibetans address the Dalai Lama as Gyalwa Rinpoche ('Precious Victor'), Kundun ('Presence') Yishin Norbu ('Wishfulfilling Gem'), and so on. Sheel, R. N. Rahul. "The Institution of the Dalai Lama." The Tibet Journal, Vol. XIV No. 3. Autumn 1989, p. 23. Unification of Tibet Güshi Khan The Fifth Dalai Lama, with the support of Gushri Khan (1582-1655), a Mongol ruler of Kokonor, united Tibet: Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 59-60. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk) Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the present 14th Dalai Lama, describes these unfortunate events as follows: Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin M. (1968). Tibet: An account of the history, the religion and the people of Tibet. Reprint: Touchstone Books. New York. ISBN 0-671-20559-5, p. 311. Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence of 13th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet. Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, assumed ruling power from the monasteries which previously had great influence in the Regent, in 1895. Due to his two periods of exile in 1904-1909, to escape the British invasion of 1904, and from 1910-1912 to escape a Chinese invasion, he became well aware of the complexities of international politics and was the first Dalai Lama to become aware of the importance of foreign relations. After his return from exile in India and Sikkim in January, 1913 he took control of foreign relations and dealt directly with the Maharaja and the British Political officer in Sikkim and the king of Nepal rather than letting the Kashag or parliament handle it. Sheel, R. N. Rahul. "The Institution of the Dalai Lama." The Tibet Journal, Vol. XIV No. 3. Autumn 1989, pp. 24 and 29. Thubten Gyatso issued a Declaration of Independence from China in the summer of 1912, and standardized the Tibetan flag in its present form. Sheel, R. N. Rahul. "The Institution of the Dalai Lama." The Tibet Journal, Vol. XIV No. 3. Autumn 1989, p. 20. He deported all Chinese residents in the country including the Ambans, and instituted many measures to modernise Tibet. Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin M. (1968). Tibet: An account of the history, the religion and the people of Tibet. Reprint: Touchstone Books. New York. ISBN 0-671-20559-5, pp. 314, 318. The Dalai Lamas continued to rule Tibet until the People's Republic of China invaded the region in 1949 and then took full control in 1959. The 14th Dalai Lama then fled to India and has since ceded temporal power to an elected government-in-exile. The current 14th Dalai Lama seeks greater autonomy for Tibet. Verhaegen (2002: p.6) frames the trans-polity influence that the Institution of the Dalai Lama has had historically in areas such as western China, Mongolia, Ladakh in addition to the other Himalayan Kingdoms: Verhaegen, Ardy (2002). The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies, no. 15. New Delhi, India: D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0202-6. p.6 Residence Potala Palace Norbulingka Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama and until the 14th Dalai Lama's flight into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lamas spent the winter at the Potala Palace and the summer at the Norbulingka palace and park. Both are in Lhasa and approximately 3 km apart. In 1959, after the start of the Chinese occupation of Tibet, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge in India. The then Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was instrumental in granting safe refuge to the Dalai Lama and his fellow Tibetans. The Dalai Lama has since lived in exile in Dharamsala, in the state of Himachal Pradesh in northern India, where the Central Tibetan Administration (the Tibetan government-in-exile) is also established. Tibetan refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamsala. "Dispatches from the Tibetan Front: Dharamsala, India," Litia Perta, The Brooklyn Rail, April 4, 2008 Searching for the reincarnation The search for the 14th Dalai Lama took the High Lamas to Taktser in Amdo Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, who promised Gendun Drup the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions that "she would protect the reincarnation lineage of the Dalai Lamas" In the Himalayan tradition, phowa (Tibetan) is the discipline that transfers the mindstream to the intended body. Upon the death of the Dalai Lama and consultation with the Nechung Oracle, a search for the Lama's reincarnation, or yangsi (yang srid), is conducted. Traditionally it has been the responsibility of the High Lamas of the Gelugpa Tradition and the Tibetan government to find his reincarnation. The process can take around two or three years to identify the Dalai Lama, and for the 14th Tenzin Gyatso it was four years before he was found. The search for the Dalai Lama has usually been limited historically to Tibet, although the third tulku was born in Mongolia. Tenzin Gyatso, though, has stated that there is a chance that he will not be reborn although if he is reborn it will not be in a country run by the People's Republic of China. The High Lamas used several ways in which they can increase the chances of finding the reincarnation. High Lamas often visit the holy lake, called Lhamo La-tso, in central Tibet and watch for a sign from the lake itself. This may be either a vision or some indication of the direction in which to search and this was how Tenzin Gyatso was found. It is said that Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, promised Gendun Drup, the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions "that she would protect the reincarnation lineage of the Dalai Lamas." Ever since the time of Gendun Gyatso, the 2nd Dalai Lama, who formalised the system, the Regents and other monks have gone to the lake to seek guidance on choosing the next reincarnation through visions while meditating there. Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 139, 264-265. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. The particular form of Palden Lhamo at Lhamo La-tso is Gyelmo Maksorma, "The Victorious One who Turns Back Enemies". The lake is sometimes referred to as "Pelden Lhamo Kalideva", which indicates that Palden Lhamo is an emanation of the goddess Kali, the shakti of the Hindu god Śiva. Dowman, Keith. (1988). The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide, p. 260. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London. ISBN 0-7102-1370-0 (pbk). "Lhamo Latso ... [is] a brilliant azure jewel set in a ring of grey mountains. The elevation and the surrounding peaks combine to give it a highly changeable climate, and the continuous passage of cloud and wind creates a constantly moving pattern on the surface of the waters. On that surface visions appear to those who seek them in the right frame of mind." Hilton, Isabel. (1999). The Search for the Panchen Lama. Viking Books. Reprint: Penguin Books. (2000), pp. 39-40. ISBN 0-14-024670-3. It was here that in 1935, the Regent, Reting Rinpoche, received a clear vision of three Tibetan letters and of a monastery with a jade-green and gold roof, and a house with turquoise roof tiles, which led to the discovery of Tenzin Gyatso, the present 14th Dalai Lama. Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, p. 139. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin M. (1968). Tibet: An account of the history, the religion and the people of Tibet, pp. 228-230. Reprint: Touchstone Books. New York. ISBN 0-671-20559-5, p. 311. Hilton, Isabel. (1999). The Search for the Panchen Lama. Viking Books. Reprint: Penguin Books. (2000), p. 42. ISBN 0-14-024670-3. High Lamas may also have a vision in a dream or if the Dalai Lama was cremated, they will often monitor the direction of the smoke as an indication of the direction of the rebirth. Once the High Lamas have found the home and the boy they believe to be the reincarnation, the boy undergoes a series of tests to affirm the rebirth. They present a number of artifacts belonging to the previous Dalai Lama and if the boy chooses the items which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, this is seen as a sign, in conjunction with all of the other indications, that the boy is the reincarnation. If there is only one boy found, the High Lamas will invite Living Buddhas of the three great monasteries together with secular clergy and monk officials, to confirm their findings and will then report to the Central Government through the Minister of Tibet. Later a group consisting of the three major servants of Dalai Lama, eminent officials and troops will collect the boy and his family and travel to Lhasa, where the boy would be taken, usually to Drepung Monastery to study the Buddhist sutra in preparation for assuming the role of spiritual leader of Tibet. However, if there are several possibilities of the reincarnation, in the past regents and eminent officials and monks at the Jokhang in Lhasa, and the Minister to Tibet would decide on the individual by placing the boys names inside an urn and drawing one lot in public if it was too difficult to judge the reincarnation initially. List of Dalai Lamas There have been 14 recognized reincarnations of the Dalai Lama: Name Picture Lifespan Recognized Reign Tibetan/Wylie PRC transcription (Chinese transcription) Alternative spellings 1. Gendun Drup 1391–1474 – N/A The title "Dalai Lama" was conferred posthumously to the 1st and 2nd Dalai Lamas. དགེ་འདུན་འགྲུབ་dge ‘dun ‘grub Gêdün Chub (根敦朱巴) Gedun DrubGedün DrupGendun Drup 2. Gendun Gyatso 1475–1541 – 1492–1541 དགེ་འདུན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་dge ‘dun rgya mtsho Gêdün Gyaco (根敦嘉措) Gedün GyatsoGendün Gyatso 3. Sonam Gyatso 1543–1588 ? 1578–1588 བསོད་ནམས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་bsod nams rgya mtsho Soinam Gyaco (索南嘉措) Sönam Gyatso 4. Yonten Gyatso 1589–1616 ? 1601–1616 ཡོན་ཏན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་yon tan rgya mtsho Yoindain Gyaco (雲丹嘉措) Yontan Gyatso 5. Lobsang Gyatso 1617–1682 1618 1642–1682 བློ་བཟང་རྒྱ་མཚོ་blo bzang rgya mtsho Lobsang Gyaco (羅桑嘉措) Lobzang GyatsoLopsang Gyatso 6. Tsangyang Gyatso 1683–1706 1688 1697–1706 ཚངས་དབྱངས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho Cangyang Gyaco (倉央嘉措) 7. Kelzang Gyatso 1708–1757 ? 1720–1757 བསྐལ་བཟང་རྒྱ་མཚོ་bskal bzang rgya mtsho Gaisang Gyaco (格桑嘉措) Kelsang GyatsoKalsang Gyatso 8. Jamphel Gyatso 1758–1804 1760 1762–1804 བྱམས་སྤེལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་byams spel rgya mtsho Qambê Gyaco (強白嘉措) Jampel GyatsoJampal Gyatso 9. Lungtok Gyatso 1806–1815 1807 1810–1815 ལུང་རྟོགས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་lung rtogs rgya mtsho Lungdog Gyaco (隆朵嘉措) Lungtog Gyatso 10. Tsultrim Gyatso 1816–1837 1820 1822–1837 ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་tshul khrim rgya mtsho Cüchim Gyaco (楚臣嘉措) Tshültrim Gyatso 11. Khendrup Gyatso 1838–1856 1840 1844–1856 མཁས་གྲུབ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་mkhas grub rgya mtsho Kaichub Gyaco (凱珠嘉措) Kedrub Gyatso 12. Trinley Gyatso 1857–1875 1860 1873–1875 འཕྲིན་ལས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་‘phrin las rgya mtsho Chinlai Gyaco (成烈嘉措) Trinle Gyatso 13. Thubten Gyatso 1876–1933 1878 1895–1933 ཐུབ་བསྟན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་thub bstan rgya mtsho Tubdain Gyaco (土登嘉措) Thubtan GyatsoThupten Gyatso 14. Tenzin Gyatso born 1935 1937 since 1950(currently in exile) བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་bstan ‘dzin rgya mtsho Dainzin Gyaco (丹增嘉措) Tenzing Gyatso Future of the position The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso in 2007 The main teaching room of the Dalai Lama in Dharamsala, India Verhaegen (2002: p.5) states: Despite its officially secular stance, the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of high reincarnations in Tibet, based on the precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor was said to have instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama by means of a lottery which utilised a golden urn with names wrapped in barley balls. Controversially, this precedent was called upon by the PRC to name their own Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama and the Tibetan Buddhists in exile do not regard PRC's Panchen Lama to be the legitimate Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama has recognized a different child, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, as the reincarnated Panchen Lama. This child and his family have been taken into 'protective custody' according to the PRC, although there has been no mention of what or whom the child must be protected from. All attempts by members of the EU parliament and US government to garner guarantees of the family's safety have been denied by the PRC. In September 2007 the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin Gyatso. The People's Republic of China may attempt to direct the selection of a successor using the authority of their chosen Panchen Lama. In response to this scenario, Tashi Wangdi, the representative of the 14th Dalai Lama, replied that the Chinese government's selection would be meaningless. "You can’t impose an Imam, an Archbishop, saints, any religion...you can’t politically impose these things on people," said Wangdi. "It has to be a decision of the followers of that tradition. The Chinese can use their political power: force. Again, it’s meaningless. Like their Panchen Lama. And they can’t keep their Panchen Lama in Tibet. They tried to bring him to his monastery many times but people would not see him. How can you have a religious leader like that?" Interview with Tashi Wangdi, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 14, 2007. The Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the institution of the Dalai Lama "should continue or not." He has given reference to a possible vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize his rebirth. Dalai Lama may forgo death before reincarnation, Jeremy Page, The Australian, November 29, 2007. In response to the possibility that the PRC may attempt to choose his successor, the Dalai Lama has said he will not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of China, or any other country which is not free. In 2007, two monks from Tashilhunpo monastery of Tibet committed suicide following a campaign of exclusion by Chinese officials. Two Monks from Panchen Lama's Monastery Commit Suicide These two monks had recognized the 11th Panchen Lama, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, and could therefore have been requested to recognize the next Dalai Lama. Tibet - "Suicides" of Tibetan Monks who were to recognise the next Dalai Lama Tibetan monks commit "suicide," victims of pre-Olympic repression On March 10 2009 Dalai Lama criticised China for oppressing his people and misrepresenting his wish for Tibetan autonomy. He warned Tibetans to prepare themselves “in case our struggle goes on for a long time". The Dalai Lama also spoke of his own exile, and that of the 90,000 Tibetans who followed him, as a period of “unimaginable hardship, which is still fresh in the Tibetan memory.” Introduction of the Dalai Lama into popular Western culture Because of the political and geographical isolation of Tibet, there was little mention of the persona of the Dalai Lama or Tibet in mainstream popular Western culture before the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950. The earliest New York Times mention of the Dalai Lama was in a July 8, 1853 article entitled "The Fate of Asia", where the Dalai Lama was mentioned once by name http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch in the context of larger nations seeking territory and influence in Asia. A March 3, 1878 The New York Times article entitled "Choosing the Dalai Lama" describes the process in 1841 of finding the new Dalai Lama and choosing between 4 child candidates. In the February 11, 1924 issue of Time magazine, in an article entitled "Everest Assault", http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,717690,00.html the Dalai Lama is mentioned as giving permission to British army officers in their attempt to scale Mount Everest. In the early 1940s, the United States Army led an expedition to Tibet, under the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, to bring gifts to the Dalai Lama, and to strengthen the relationship between the United States and Tibet during the political climate of the Second World War. This expedition was documented on color 16 mm film by the United States Army. Universal Newsreels, which screened before feature film presentations in American movie theaters through the late 1960s, produced newsreel segments describing the Dalai Lama to American audiences in the 1950s before the 1950 invasion of Tibet by China, as well as reporting on the invasion of Tibet itself. There were also Universal Newsreels reporting on the 1959 fleeing of the 14th Dalai Lama into Northern India. Once in India he told about what he had seen including the destruction of monasteries. UPI, Year in Review, http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1959/Death-of-John-Foster-Dulles/12295509433704-3/#title The Dalai Lama was on the cover of Time magazine on April 20, 1959, with the headline "The Escape that Rocked the Reds". After the 14th Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso) won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, the public awareness of the Dalai Lama became even more prevalent, and the Dalai Lama became the subject of several motion pictures, including Seven Years in Tibet starring Brad Pitt, Martin Scorsese's feature film Kundun, as well as documentary films like the 2008 theatrically released Dalai Lama Renaissance, http://www.dalailamafilm.com narrated by Harrison Ford. See also International Tibet Independence Movement Tibet Autonomous Region Footnotes References Yá Hánzhāng 牙含章: The Biographies of the Dalai Lamas (Dálài Lǎmá chuán 达赖喇嘛传; Beijing, Foreign Languages Press 1993); ISBN 7-119-01267-3. Schulemann, Guenther: Geschichte der Dalai-Lamas, Harrassowitz, Leipzig, 1958. Diki Tsering, edited & introduced by Khedroob Thondop. (2000). Dalai Lama, My Son: A Mother's Story. Virgin Publishing Company, London. ISBN 0-7535-0571-1. Murray Silver, "When Elvis Meets the Dalai Lama," (Bonaventure Books, Savannah, 2005). The author recounts how he was introduced to the Dalai Lama by mutual friend Richard Gere and became involved in various aspects of the Tibetan initiative; also includes an introduction to Tibetan Buddhism and biographies of several high lamas. The book relates a story about the author's wife and how she was healed of leukemia by the Dalai Lama's doctor and a monk from Kathmandu. Further reading Goodman, Michael H. (1986). The Last Dalai Lama. Shambhala Publications. Boston, Massachusetts. Mullin, Glenn H. (2001). The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnation. Clear Light Publishers. Santa Fe, New Mexico. ISBN 1-57416-092-3. External links The official site of the current Dalai Lama Namgyal - The official site of the current Dalai Lama's personal monastery in Ithaca NY USA The 13 Previous Dalai Lamas Tibet and the United States of America: An Annotated Chronology of Relations Since 1900 Information and Guide to Exile Home of the 14th Dalai Lama in India,Dharamsala McleodGanj -Mcllo.com Current Dalai Lama honored as Interfaith Hero on ReadTheSpirit.com

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Enola_Gay

{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin |name = "Enola Gay" |image = Image:Tibbets-wave.jpg |caption = Colonel Paul Tibbets waving from Enola Gays cockpit before taking off for the bombing of Hiroshima. }} |} The Enola Gay is the B-29 Superfortress bomber that dropped the first atomic bomb, code-named "Little Boy", to be used in , by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) in the attack on Hiroshima, Japan on 6 August 1945, just before the end of World War II. Because of the bomber's role in the atomic bombings of Japan, its name has been synonymous with the controversy over the bombings themselves. The B-29 was named after Enola Gay Tibbets, the mother of the pilot, Paul Tibbets. Paul Tibbets Commanded Enola Gay, dropped first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, AcePilots.com. Retrieved: 19 December 2007. The Enola Gay gained additional national attention in 1995 when the cockpit and nose section of the aircraft was exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) of the Smithsonian Institution in downtown Washington, D.C. The exhibit was changed due to a controversy over original historical script displayed with the aircraft. In 2003, the entire restored B-29 Enola Gay went on display at NASM's new Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. World War II history The Enola Gay(B-29-45-MO, serial number 44-86292 "Enola Gay B-29". Columbus, Ohio: Mid Coast Marketing, 2001. Enola Gay Retrieved: 19 December 2007. , victor number 82) was assigned to the USAAF's 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy, 509th Composite Group. Knaack, Marcelle Size. Post-World War II bombers, 1945–1973. Washington: Office of Air Force History, 1988. ISBN 0-16-002260-6. The bomber was one of 15 B-29s with the "Silverplate" modifications necessary to deliver atomic weapons. Enola Gay was built by the Glenn L. Martin Company at its Bellevue, Nebraska plant at what is now known as Offutt Air Force Base and was personally selected by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., commander of the 509th Composite Group, on 9 May 1945 while still on the assembly line. This would be the B-29 that he would use to fly the atomic bomb mission. The Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B-29s, Necessary Evil which was used as a camera plane to photograph the explosion and effects of the bomb and carry scientific observers, and The Great Artiste which was the blast measurement instrumentation aircraft. Enola Gay in its 6th BG livery, victor number 82 visible on fuselage just forward of the tail fin The aircraft was accepted by the USAAF on 18 May 1945, and assigned to Crew B-9 (Captain Robert A. Lewis, aircraft commander), who flew the bomber from Omaha to the 509th's base at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah on 14 June 1945. Thirteen days later, the aircraft left Wendover for Guam, where it received a bomb bay modification and flew to Tinian on 6 July. It was originally given the victor number "12," but on 1 August was given the circle R tail markings of the 6th Bomb Group as a security measure and had its victor changed to "82" to avoid misidentification with actual 6th BG aircraft. During July of that year, after the bomber flew eight training missions and two combat missions to drop pumpkin bombs on industrial targets at Kobe and Nagoya, Enola Gay was used on 31 July on a rehearsal flight for the actual mission. A "dummy" Little Boy assembly was dropped off Tinian. On 5 August 1945, during preparation for the first atomic mission, pilot Colonel Paul Tibbets who assumed command of the aircraft, renamed the B-29 after his mother, Enola Gay Tibbets (1893–1983), who had been named for the heroine of a novel. According to Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan-Witts Thomas 1977 , regularly assigned aircraft commander Robert Lewis was unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for this important mission, and became furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of 6 August to see it painted with the now-famous nose art. Tibbets himself, interviewed on Tinian later that day by war correspondents, confessed that he was a bit embarrassed of having attached his mother's name to such a fateful mission. The Hiroshima mission had been described as tactically flawless, and Enola Gay returned safely to its base on Tinian to great fanfare on the base. The first atomic bombing was followed three days later by another B-29 (Bockscar) Bockscar (piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney) which dropped a second nuclear weapon, "Fat Man", on Nagasaki. The Nagasaki mission, by contrast, had been described as tactically botched, although the mission had met its objectives. The crew encountered a number of problems in execution, and Bockscar had very little fuel by the time it landed on Okinawa. The Story of Nagasaki: The Missions On that mission, Enola Gay, flown by Crew B-10 (Capt. George Marquardt, aircraft commander, see Necessary Evil for crew details), was the weather reconnaissance aircraft for Kokura. Subsequent history On 6 November 1945, Lewis flew the Enola Gay back to the United States, arriving at the 509th's new base at Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico, on 8 November. On 29 April 1946, Enola Gay left Roswell as part of Operation Crossroads and flew to Kwajalein on 1 May. It was not chosen to make the test drop at Bikini Atoll and left Kwajalein on 1 July, the date of the test, and reached Fairfield-Suisun Army Air Field, California, the next day. Enola Gay in the Smithsonian storage facility at Suitland, 1987. The decision was made to preserve the aircraft, and on 24 July 1946, the plane was flown to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, in preparation for storage. On 30 August 1946, the title to the aircraft was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution and was removed from the USAAF inventory. From 1946 to 1961, the Enola Gay was put into temporary storage at a number of locations: 1 September 1946, Davis-Monthan AFB 3 July 1949, Orchard Place Air Field, Park Ridge, Illinois, flown there by Gen. Tibbets for acceptance by the Smithsonian. 12 January 1952, Pyote Air Force Base, Texas, moved after O'Hare International Airport's location was announced 2 December 1953, Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland 10 August 1960, disassembly at Andrews begun by personnel of the Smithsonian 21 July 1961, components transported to Smithsonian storage facility at Suitland, Maryland. Restoration of the bomber began on 5 December 1984, at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland. Recent developments Enola Gay today at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.Enola Gay became the center of a controversy at the Smithsonian Institution in 1994, when the museum put its fuselage on display as part of an exhibit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The exhibit, "The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the Cold War", was drafted by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum and arranged around the restored Enola Gay. Critics of the exhibit, especially those of the American Legion and the Air Force Association, charged that the exhibit focused too much attention on the Japanese casualties inflicted by the nuclear bomb, rather than on the motivations for the bombing or the discussion of the bomb's role in ending the World War II conflict with Japan. The exhibit brought to national attention many long-standing academic and political issues related to retrospective views of the bombings (see the debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). As a result, after various attempts to revise the exhibit in order to meet the satisfaction of competing interest groups had failed, the exhibit was canceled on 30 January 1995, though the fuselage did go on display. On 18 May 1998, the fuselage was returned to the Garber Facility for final restoration. Under the cockpit window of the Enola Gay, while in storage 1987. The entire aircraft has since been restored for static display and is currently a major permanent exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Dulles International Airport outside of Washington, D.C. As a result of the earlier controversy, the signage around the aircraft provides only the same succinct technical data as is provided for other aircraft in the museum, without discussion of the controversial issues. The aircraft is shielded by various means to prevent a repetition of the vandalism which was attempted against it when it was first placed on display, which was the throwing of a jar of red paint onto the Enola Gays wing. A video analytics system was installed in 2005. Multiple surveillance cameras automatically generate an alarm when any person or object approaches the aircraft. The propellers that were used on the bombing mission were later shipped to Texas A&M University. One of these propellers was trimmed to 12½ ft for use in the university's Oran W. Nicks Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The lightweight aluminum variable pitch propeller is powered by a 1,250 kVA electric motor providing a windspeed up to 200 mph. http://www.solarnavigator.net/aviation_and_space_travel/enola_gay.htm Mission personnel Bombardier Thomas Ferebee with the Norden Bombsight on Tinian after the dropping of Little Boy. Enola Gay'''s crew on 6 August 1945 consisted of 12 men: (An * denotes regular crewmen of the Enola Gay.) Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr. – Pilot and Aircraft commander Captain Robert A. Lewis – Co-pilot; Enola Gay's assigned aircraft commander* Major Thomas Ferebee – Bombardier Captain Theodore "Dutch" Van Kirk – Navigator U.S. Navy Captain William S. "Deak" Parsons – Weaponeer and bomb commander Lieutenant Jacob Beser – Radar countermeasures (also the only man to fly on both of the nuclear bombing aircraft) Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson – Assistant weaponeer Technical Sergeant George R. "Bob" Caron – Tail gunner* Technical Sergeant Wyatt E. Duzenberry – Flight engineer* Sergeant Joe S. Stiborik – Radar* Sergeant Robert H. Shumard – Assistant flight engineer* Private First Class Christian Fredrik Norloeff VHF-Radio operator* See also Bockscar References Notes Bibliography Bowers, Peter M. Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1999. ISBN 0-933424-79-5. Campbell, Richard H. The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005. ISBN 0-7864-2139-8. Haggerty, Forrest. 43 Seconds to Hiroshima: The First Atomic Mission. An Autobiography of Richard H. Nelson, "Enola Gay" Radioman. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2005. ISBN 1-42084-316-8. Harwit, Martin. An Exhibit Denied: Lobbying the History of Enola Gay. New York: Copernicus, 1996. ISBN 0-38794-797-3. Hess, William N. Great American Bombers of WW II. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1999. ISBN 0-76030-650-8. Krauss, Robert and Amelia. The 509th Remembered: A History of the 509th Composite Group as Told by the Veterans Themselves, 509th Anniversary Reunion, Wichita, Kansas October 7–10, 2004. 509th Press, 2005. ISBN 0-92356-866-2. LeMay Curtis and Bill Yenne. Super Fortress. London: Berkley Books, 1988. ISBN 0-425-11880-0. Mann, Robert A. The B-29 Superfortress: A Comprehensive Registry of the Planes and Their Missions. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2004. ISBN 0-7864-1787-0. Marx, Joseph L. Seven Hours to Zero. New York: G.P. Putnam Son's, 1967. Newman, Robert P. Enola Gay and the Court of History. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-82047-457-6. O'Reilly, Charles T. and William A. Rooney. Enola Gay and the Smithsonian Institution. New York: McFarland & Company, 2005. ISBN 0-78642-008-1. Pace, Steve. Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom: Crowood Press, 2003. ISBN 1-86126-581-6. Polmar, Norman. The Enola Gay: The B-29 that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Dulles, Virginia: Brassey`s, 2004. ISBN 1-57488-859-5. Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Simon & Schuster, 1986. ISBN 0-684-81378-5. Thomas, Gordon and Max Morgan Witts. Enola Gay. New York: Stein & Day Publishing, 1977. ISBN 0-81282-150-5. republished 1995 by Dalton Watson as Enola Gay: Mission to Hiroshima. ISBN 1-85443-127-7. republished 2006 by Konecky & Konecky as Enola Gay: The Bombing of Hiroshima. ISBN 15685-2597-4. Thomas, Gordon and Max Morgan Witts. Ruin from the Air: The Enola Gay's Atomic Mission to Hiroshima. London: Hamilton, 1977 (republished in 1990 by Scarborough House, ISBN 0-81288-509-0). Tibbets, Paul W. Flight of the Enola Gay. Reynoldsburg, Ohio: Buckeye Aviation Book Company, 1989. ISBN 0-94239-711-8. Wheeler, Keith. Bombers over Japan''. Virginia Beach, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1982. ISBN 0-8094-3429-6. External links Enola Gay Archive The Air Force Association's (a civilian organization) view of the Smithsonian controversy Annotated bibliography for the Enola Gay from the Alsos Digital Library Boeing B-29 Superfortress.Baugher's Encyclopedia of American Aircraft Retrieved: 4 November 2007. The Enola Gay Smithsonian Controversy 509th CG Aircraft Page, MPHPA The Smithsonian's site on ''Enola Gay' includes links to crew lists and other details The reality of A-bomb Disasters Eyewitnesses to Hiroshima Time magazine, August 1 2005 How many died at Hiroshima? analysis of the conflicting estimates Enola Gay at Roswell, New Mexico SMU's Frank J. Davis World War II Photographs contain 310 images, including 3 of the Enola Gay.

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Isle_of_Wight

The Isle of Wight is an island and a county, located 5–8 km from the south coast of the mainland, in the English Channel. It is separated from mainland Britain by the Solent and is situated south of the county of Hampshire. Various regular ferry services operate across the Solent: Southampton to Cowes is 16 km, Portsmouth Harbour to Ryde Pier is 8 km, Portsmouth Gunwharf to Fishbourne is 11 km, and Lymington to Yarmouth is 6 km. The island's holiday resorts have been popular since Victorian times as a holiday resort. The island is known for its outstanding natural beauty and for its world-famous sailing based at Cowes. The island has a rich history, including a brief status as an independent kingdom in the 15th century. It was home to the poet Alfred Lord Tennyson, and Queen Victoria built her much loved summer residence and final home Osborne House at East Cowes. The Island's maritime and industrial history encompasses boat building, sail making, the manufacture of flying boats, the world's first hovercraft and the testing and development of Britain's space rockets. It is home to the Isle of Wight International Jazz Festival, Bestival and the recently-revived Isle of Wight Festival, which, in 1970, was one of the largest rock music events ever held. Isle of Wight Festival history The island has some exceptional wildlife and is also one of the richest fossil locations for dinosaurs in Europe. It has in the past been part of Hampshire; however, it became an independent administrative county (although still sharing the Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire) in 1890. In 1974 it was reconstituted as a non-metropolitan and ceremonial county with its own Lord Lieutenant and the name was adopted as a postal county. The Island is the smallest ceremonial county in England at high tide (if the City of London is excluded), but its land area at low tide is larger than that of Rutland, normally thought of as Britain's smallest county. Episode 10, Series E, QI Glorious Isle has the Wight stuff Home.co.uk With a single Member of Parliament and 132,731 permanent residents according to the 2001 census, it is also the most populated Parliamentary constituency in the United Kingdom. History Early history The Isle of Wight is first mentioned in writing in Geography by Claudius Ptolemaeus. At the end of the Roman Empire the island of Vectis became a Jutish kingdom ruled by King Stuf and his successors until AD 661 when it was invaded by Wulfhere of Mercia and forcibly converted to Christianity at sword point. When he left for Mercia the islanders reverted to paganism. In AD 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla of Wessex and can be considered to have become part of Wessex. Following the accession of West Saxon kings as kings of all England, it then became part of England. The island became part of the shire of Hampshire and was divided into hundreds as was the norm. In 686, it became the last part of the country to convert to Christianity. Saxon Graves at Shalfleet, Isle of Wight History Centre, August, 2005 England, A Narrative History, Peter N. Williams The English Accept Christianity, The Story of England, Samuel B. Harding The island suffered especially from the Vikings. Alfred the Great's navy defeated the Danes in 871 after they had "ravaged Devon and the Isle of Wight". Memorial to Charles I at Carisbrooke Castle Middle ages The Norman Conquest created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight. Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were founded. The island did not come under full control of the Crown until it was sold by the dying last Norman Lord, Lady Isabella de Fortibus, to Edward I in 1293. The Lordship thereafter became a royal appointment, with a brief interruption when Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick was in 1444 crowned King of the Isle of Wight, William Camden, Britain, or, a Chorographicall Description of the most flourishing Kingdomes, England, Scotland, and Ireland (London, 1610) with King Henry VI assisting in person at the ceremony, placing the crown on his head. With no male heir, the regal title expired on the death of Henry de Beauchamp. Henry VIII, who developed the Royal Navy and its permanent base at Portsmouth, fortified the island at Yarmouth, East and West Cowes, and Sandown. Much later, after the Spanish Armada in 1588, the threat of Spanish attacks remained and the outer fortifications of Carisbrooke Castle were built between 1597 and 1602. Civil war During the war...English Civil War King Charles fled to the Isle of Wight, believing he would receive sympathy from the governor, Robert Hammond. Hammond was appalled, and imprisoned the King in Carisbrooke Castle. Osborne House and its grounds are now open to the public Queen Victoria Queen Victoria made Osborne House on the Isle of Wight her summer home for many years and, as a result, it became a major holiday resort for fashionable Victorians including Alfred Lord Tennyson, Julia Margaret Cameron, Charles Dickens (who wrote much of David Copperfield there) and members of European royalty. During her reign, in 1897, the world's first radio station Connected Earth: The origins of radio was set up by Marconi, at the Needles battery, at the western tip of the island. Modern history During the Second World War the island was frequently bombed. With its proximity to France the island also had a number of observation stations and transmitters, and was the starting-point for one of the earlier Operation Pluto pipelines to feed fuel to the Normandy landings. The Needles battery was used as the site for testing and development of the Black Arrow and Black Knight space rockets, subsequently launched from Woomera, Australia. The Isle of Wight Festival was a very large rock festival that took place near Afton Down, West Wight in 1970, following two smaller concerts in 1968 and 1969. The 1970 show was notable both for being one of the last public performances by Jimi Hendrix and for the number of attendees reaching, by many estimates, 600,000. Movies The Festival was revived in 2002 and is now an annual event. Physical geography and wildlife Isle of Wight map. Isle of Wight is approximately diamond-shaped and covers an area of 380 km2. Slightly more than half of the island, mainly in the west of the island, is designated as the Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The island has 258 km2 of farmland, 52 km2 of developed areas, and 92 km of coastline. The landscape of the island is remarkably diverse, leading to its oft-quoted description of "England in Miniature". West Wight is predominantly rural, with dramatic coastlines dominated by the famous chalk downland ridge, running across the whole island and ending in The Needles stacks — perhaps the most photographed aspect of the Isle of Wight. The highest point on the island is St Boniface Down, at 241 m which is a Marilyn. The famous view at The Needles and Alum Bay. The rest of the island landscape also has great diversity, with perhaps the most notable habitats being the soft cliffs and sea ledges, which are spectacular features as well as being very important for wildlife, and are internationally protected. The River Medina flows north into the Solent, whilst the other main river, the River Yar flows roughly north-east, emerging at Bembridge Harbour at the eastern end of the island. Confusingly, there is another entirely separate river at the western end also called the River Yar flowing the short distance from Freshwater Bay to a relatively large estuary at Yarmouth. To distinguish them, they may be referred to as the Eastern and Western Yar. The south coast of the island borders the English Channel. Without man's intervention the island might well have been split into three, with the sea breaking through at the west end of the island where a bank of pebbles separates Freshwater Bay from the marshy backwaters of the Western Yar east of Freshwater, and at the east end of the island where a thin strip of land separates Sandown Bay from the marshy basin of the Eastern Yar, east of Sandown. Yarmouth itself was effectively an island, with water on all sides and only connected to the rest of the island by a regularly breached neck of land immediately east of the town. Island wildlife is remarkable, and it is one of the few places in England where the red squirrel is flourishing, with a stable population (Brownsea Island is another). Unlike most of England, no grey squirrels are to be found on the island Operation Squirrel , nor are there any wild deer. Instead, rare and protected species such as the dormouse and many rare bats can be found. The Glanville Fritillary butterfly's distribution in the United Kingdom is largely restricted to the edges of the crumbling cliffs of the Isle of Wight. A competition in 2002 named the Pyramidal Orchid as the Isle of Wight's county flower. http://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/plantlife-discovering-plants-county-flowers.html Plantlife: County flowers The island is known as one of the most important areas in Europe for dinosaur fossils. The eroding cliffs often reveal previously hidden remains. Climate Being one of the most southerly parts of the UK, the Isle of Wight has a milder sub-climate than most other areas, which results in high numbers of holiday-makers, particularly in the resorts in the SE of the island. It also has a longer growing season than most other areas in the UK. http://uk.weather.com/weather/climatology/UKXX1881 Isle of Wight Climate Statistics Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg High (°C) 8 8 10 13 16 19 22 21 19 15 11 9 Avg Min (°C) 1 1 2 3 7 9 11 11 9 7 3 2 Mean (°C) 4 4 6 8 11 14 16 16 14 11 7 5 Avg Precip (mm) 89 61 66 48 56 53 41 56 66 79 84 89 Geology Blackgang Chine circa 1910 The Isle of Wight is made up of a wide variety of different rock types ranging from Early Cretaceous times (around 127 million years ago) to the middle of the Palaeogene (around 30 million years ago). All the rocks found on the island are sedimentary, made up of mineral grains from previously existing rocks. These are all consolidated to form the rocks that can be seen on the island today, such as limestone, mudstone and sandstone. Rocks on the island are very rich in fossils and many of these can be seen exposed on the beaches as the cliffs erode. Cretaceous rocks on the island, usually red, show that the climate was previously hot and dry. This provided suitable living conditions for dinosaurs. Dinosaur bones and footprints can be seen in and on the rocks exposed around the island's beaches, especially at Yaverland and Compton Bay. Along the northern coast of the island there is a rich source of fossilised shellfish, crocodiles, turtles and mammal bones. The youngest of these dates back to around 30 million years ago. The island is mainly made up of Tertiary clays, in most of the northern parts of the island, limestone, upper and lower greensands, wealden and chalk. View west from Shanklin Chine Politics The Clipper Ship "Flying Cloud" off the Needles, Isle of Wight, by James E. Buttersworth, 1859–60. The Isle of Wight is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county. Since the abolition of its two borough councils in 1995 and the restructuring of the county council as the Isle of Wight Council, it has been a unitary county. It is unique in England in this way — all other unitary areas are single districts with no county council, while the Isle of Wight is the other way round. It also has a single Member of Parliament, and is by far the most populous constituency in the United Kingdom (more than 50% above the average of English constituencies). As a constituency of the House of Commons, it is traditionally a battleground between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. The current MP Andrew Turner is a Conservative, and his predecessor Dr Peter Brand was a Liberal Democrat. The Isle of Wight Council election of 2005 was a landslide victory for the Conservative Party, displacing the long serving "Island First" group, a coalition of Liberal Democrats and independents. There has been a minor regionalist movement, in the form of the Vectis National Party and Isle of Wight Party, but this has generally performed badly in elections. Main towns Newport, located in the centre of the island, is the county town of the Isle of Wight and is the island's main shopping area. Recent developments include a new bus station with retail complex and a new retail park on the outskirts. Located next to the River Medina, Newport Quay was a busy port until the mid 19th century, but has now been mainly converted into art galleries, apartments and other meeting places. Ryde, the island's second largest town with a population of around 30,000, is located in the north east of the island. It is a Victorian town with an 800 metre long pier and 6 km of beaches, attracting many tourists each year. Every year there is a Ryde Carnival in two parts, spread over more than one day: one in the daytime, and one at night with many coloured lights. Ryde is also home to the ice hockey club Isle of Wight Raiders which play in the English Premier League. Cowes is the location of Cowes Week every year and a popular international sailing centre. It is also the home of the record-setting sailor Dame Ellen MacArthur. Sandown is another seaside resort, attracting many tourists each year. It is also home to the Isle of Wight Zoo and Dinosaur Isle geological museum, and one of the island's two 18-hole golf courses. Shanklin just south of Sandown, also attracts tourists, with its sandy beaches, Shanklin Chine and the old village. Ventnor is built on the steep slopes of St Boniface Down on the south coast of the island and leads down to a picturesque bay which attracts many tourists. Recent developments include Ventnor Haven, a small harbour built around a Victorian-style bandstand. Graveyard on the grounds of the church in the town of Brading, Isle of Wight In addition there are smaller towns along the coasts, particularly on the eastern side of the island. There are also a number of smaller villages. Some of these (for example, Godshill) also attract many tourists. Culture Language and dialect The Isle of Wight accent is a somewhat stronger than but similar to the traditional dialect of Hampshire, featuring the dropping of some consonants and an emphasis on longer vowels. It is similar to the West Country dialects heard in SW England, but less removed in sound from the Estuary English of the SE. As with many other traditional southern British regional dialects and accents, a strong island accent is not now commonly heard, and, as speakers tend to be older, this decline is likely to continue. The island also has its own local and regional words. Some words, including grockle (visitor, tourist - hence grockle-can, tour coach) and nipper/nips (a younger male person), are still commonly used and are shared with neighbouring areas of the mainland. A few are unique to the island, for example overner (a mainlander who has settled on the island), caulkhead (someone born on the island and born from long-established island stock) and 'somewhen' (a derivative of sometime, with similar meaning). Other words are more obscure and now used mainly for comic emphasis, such as mallishag (meaning "caterpillar") and nammit ("noon-meat", meaning food). Some other words are gurt meaning "great", and gallybagger ("scarecrow"). Identity There has been and still is some confusion between the identities of the Isle of Wight as a separate county and, as it once was, a part of the nearby county of Hampshire Example story in the Telegraph 16 Jan 2008 showing confusion between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire . Prior to 1890 the Isle of Wight was normally regarded and was administered as a part of Hampshire. With the formation of the Isle of Wight County Council in 1890 the distinct identity became officially established - see also Politics of the Isle of Wight. In January 2009 the new Flag of the Isle of Wight, the first general flag for the county, was accepted by the Flag Institute. Flag institute Sport Cowes is a world-famous centre for sailing, playing host to several racing regattas. Cowes Week is the longest-running regular regatta in the world, with over 1,000 yachts and 8,500 competitors taking part in over 50 classes of yacht racing. Skandia Cowes Week 2008 - Welcome In 1851 the first America's Cup race took place around the island. Other major sailing events hosted in Cowes include the Fastnet race, the Round the Island Race JPMorgan Asset Management Round the Island Race , the Admiral's Cup, and the Commodore's Cup. Rolex Commodores' Cup - Home The Isle of Wight Marathon is the United Kingdom's oldest continuously held marathon, having been run every year since 1957. Isle Of Wight Marathon Race The course starts in Ryde, passing through Newport, Shanklin and Sandown, before finishing back in Ryde. It is an undulating course with a total climb of 459 metres. The island is home to the Isle of Wight Islanders Speedway team, who compete in the sport's second division, the 'Premier League'. The club was founded in 1996, with a first-night attendance of 1740. The island is also home to the Wightlink Raiders, an ice hockey team based at Ryde Arena. They compete in the English Premier League, the 2nd Division in the country. There is also an ENL team, Vectis Tigers, also based at Ryde Arena. The Isle of Wight Hockey Club run three senior teams and a junior side, with the 1st XI competing in Hampshire's top division, just one below the regional leagues. The island also has a ladies team - the Vectis Ladies - which is a separate organisation to the IW Hockey Club. Ventnor Middle School on the Isle of Wight runs a successful hockey set-up, producing a number of players who have since gone on to play at high standards. The now-disbanded Ryde Sports F.C. was founded in 1888 and became one of the eight founder members of the Hampshire League in 1896. There are several other non-league clubs such as Newport (IW) F.C. There is an Isle of Wight Saturday Football League with three divisions, and a rugby union club The Isle has produced several high profile players including Kevin "The Hitman" Broderick, now playing for a local Sunday side. Isle Of Wight Rugby Football Club , plus various other sporting teams. http://www.solent.tv/sports.aspx Beach football is particularly prevalent on the island and has several of the nation's premier clubs with almost all of the England Beach Soccer team made up from players from the island. The Isle of Wight is the 39th official county in English cricket, and the Isle of Wight Cricket Board organise an internal cricket league between various local clubs, and Ventnor Cricket Club compete in the Southern Premier League, and have won the Second Division in several recent years. There is a new County Ground near Newport Isle of Wight County Cricket Ground | Isle of Wight Cricket Board Southern Premier Cricket League - Construction work underway on new island county ground Newclose: Cricket Scoreboard Arrives | Isle of Wight News:Ventnor Blog which held its first match on 6 September 2008. The Board's intent is to enter a side in the Minor Counties tournaments in future seasons. The Isle of Wight competes in the bi-annual Island Games, which it hosted in 1993. The Isle of Wight will host these games again in 2011. Music The Isle of Wight is home to the Isle of Wight International Jazz Festival, the Isle of Wight Festival and the Bestival. The Isle of Wight is also the home of the band "The Bees". Recently they have been having more national success and often perform at smaller concerts on the island. The band "Trixie's Big Red Motorbike" (extant in the early-to-mid 1980s) as well as Mark King of Level 42 also came from the Isle of Wight. Economy A satellite photograph of the Isle of Wight and the Solent. This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added by the Isle of Wight economy at current basic prices by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of pounds. published (pp.240–253) Year Regional Gross Value Added Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Agriculture includes hunting and forestry Industry includes energy and construction Services includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured 1995 831 28 218 585 2000 1,202 27 375 800 2003 1,491 42 288 1,161 Industry and agriculture The largest industry on the Isle of Wight is tourism, but the island has a strong agricultural heritage, including sheep and dairy farming and the growing of arable crops. Traditional agricultural commodities are more difficult to market off the island because of transport costs, but island farmers have managed successfully to exploit some specialist markets. The high price of these products overcomes the transport costs. One of the most successful agricultural sectors at present is the growing of crops under cover, particularly salad crops, including tomatoes and cucumbers. The Isle of Wight has a longer growing season than much of the United Kingdom and this also favours such crops. Garlic has been successfully grown in Newchurch for many years, and is even exported to France. This has led to the establishment of an annual Garlic Festival at Newchurch, which is one of the largest events of the island's annual calendar. The favourable climate has led to the success of vineyards, including one of the oldest in the British Isles, at Adgestone near Sandown. English Wine - Wine for Sale - Vineyard Tours, Isle of Wight Lavender is also grown for its oil. Isle of Wight lavender farm, lavender products, lavender plants, teas The largest sector of agriculture has been dairying, but due to low milk prices, and strict UK legislation for UK milk producers, the dairy industry has declined. There were nearly one-hundred and fifty dairy producers of various sizes in the mid-eighties, but this has now dwindled down to just twenty-four. The making of sailcloth, boats and other connected maritime industry has long been associated with the island, although this has somewhat diminished in recent years. Cowes is still home to various small marine-related companies such as boat-builders. Although they have reduced the extent of the plants and workforce, including the sale of the main site, GKN operates what was once the British Hovercraft Corporation a subsidiary of, and known latterly, when manufacturing focus changed, as Westland Aircraft. Prior to its purchase by Westland, it was the independent company known as Saunders-Roe. It remains one of the most notable historic firms, having produced many of the flying boats, and the world's first hovercraft. The island's major manufacturing activity today is in composite materials, used by boat-builders and the wind turbine manufacturer Vestas, which has a wind turbine blade factory and testing facilities in Newport and East Cowes. Bembridge Airfield is the home of Britten-Norman, manufacturers of the world-famous Islander and Trislander aircraft. This is shortly to become the site of the European assembly line for Cirrus light aircraft. The Norman Aeroplane Company is a smaller aircraft manufacturing company operating in Sandown. There are have been 3 other aircraft manufacturers that built planes on the island. A list of aircraft and airplane manufacturers as well as airfields on the Isle of Wight In 2005, Northern Petroleum began exploratory drilling for oil, with its Sandhills-2 borehole at Porchfield but ceased operations in October that year, after failing to find significant reserves. Breweries There are three breweries on the island. Goddards Brewery in Ryde opened in 1993. about us David Yates, who was head brewer of Burts and Island Brewery, started brewing as Yates Brewery at the Inn at St Lawrence in 2000. Yates' Brewery Ventnor Brewery, under new management, is the latest incarnation of Burt's Brewery, which has been brewing on the island since the 1840s in Ventnor. Ventnor Brewery:: Since 1840 . Until the 1960s most pubs were owned by Mews Brewery sited in Newport near the old railway station, but it closed and the pubs taken over by Strongs and then by Whitbread. By some accounts Mews beer was apt to be rather cloudy and dark. They pioneered the use of cans in the 19th century for export to British India. The old brewery was derelict for many years but was then severely damaged in a spectacular fire Services Tourism and heritage Compton Chine, looking east towards Blackgang The heritage of the island is a major asset, which has for many years kept its economy going. Holidays focused on natural heritage, including both wildlife and geology, are becoming a growing alternative to the traditional seaside resort holiday. The latter has been in decline in the United Kingdom domestic market, due to the increased affordability of air travel to alternative destinations. Tourism is still the largest industry on the island. In 1999, the 130,000 island residents were host to 2.7 million visitors. Of these, 1.5 million stayed overnight, and 1.2 million visits were day visits. Only 150,000 of these visitors were international visitors. Between 1993 and 2000, visits increased at a rate of 3% per year, on average. A website with Isle of Wight statistics for investors At the turn of the nineteenth century the island had ten pleasure piers including two at Ryde and a "chain pier" at Seaview. The Victoria Pier in Cowes succeeded the earlier Royal Pier but was itself removed in 1960. The piers at Ryde, Seaview, Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor originally served a coastal steamer service that operated from Southsea on the mainland. The piers at Seaview, Shanklin, Ventnor and Alum Bay were all destroyed by storms during the last century. Today only the railway pier at Ryde and the piers at Sandown, Totland Bay (currently closed to the public) and Yarmouth survive. Blackgang Chine is arguably the oldest theme park in the UK, and one of the oldest in the world. As well as more traditional tourist attractions, the island is often host to walking holidays Isle of Wight walking holidays - Wight Walks or cycling holidays through the attractive scenery. Almost every town and village on the island plays host to hotels, hostels and camping sites. Out of the peak summer season, the island is still an important destination for coach tours from other parts of the United Kingdom and an annual walking festival has attracted considerable interest. The 108 km Isle of Wight Coastal Path follows the coastline as far as possible, deviating onto roads where the route is impassable closer to the sea. A major contribution to the local economy comes from sailing and marine-related tourism. Transport A map of the island from 1945 The Isle of Wight has a total of 787 km of roadway. Major roads run between the main island towns, with smaller roads connecting villages. It is one of the few counties in the UK not to have a motorway, although there is a dual carriageway from Coppins Bridge in Newport towards the north of Newport near the island’s hospital and prison. A comprehensive bus network operated by Southern Vectis links most island settlements, with Newport as the central hub. The island's location 8 km off the mainland means that longer-distance transport is by boat. Car ferry and passenger services are run by Wightlink and Red Funnel as well as a hovercraft operated by Hovertravel. Fixed links, in the forms of tunnels or bridges, have been proposed. The island formerly had its own railway network of over 88 km, but only one line remains in regular use. The Island Line is part of the United Kingdom's National Rail network, running a little under 14 kilometres from Ryde to Shanklin. The line was opened by the Isle of Wight Railway in 1864, and from 1996 to 2007 was run by the smallest train operating company on the network, Island Line Trains. There are currently two airfields for general aviation, Isle of Wight Airport at Sandown and Bembridge Airport. The island has over 322 km of cycleways, much of which can be enjoyed by families off road. Major Trails are The Sunshine Trail which incorporates Sandown, Shanklin, Godshill and Wroxall in a 19 km circular route The Troll Trail' between Cowes and Sandown (21 km, 90% off road) The Round the Island Cycle Route which circumnavigates the island on a reported 100 kilometre ride. Cycles can be brought to the island by foot passengers on any of the car ferries. Hire cycles are also available. http://www.isleofwighthire.co.uk Communications All the island telephone exchanges are broadband-enabled, although some areas, such as Arreton, have no broadband access. Some urban areas such as Cowes and Newport are also covered by cable lines. Media The Isle of Wight's main local newspaper is the Isle of Wight County Press. It discusses local issues and is published each Friday, or on the previous working day if the Friday is a public holiday. In May 2008 the Isle of Wight Gazette was launched as a free newspaper supporting the local Earl Mountbatten Hospice. The island had a television station called Solent TV from 2002 until its closure on Thursday, 24 May, 2007. The island has two local commercial radio stations and also falls within the coverage area of a number of local stations on the near mainland. Isle of Wight Radio has broadcast in the medium-wave band since 1990 and on 102 and 107 MHz FM since 1998, as well as streaming on the internet. In 2007, Angel Radio began broadcasting on 91.5 MHz from studios in Cowes. On 1 February 2009, Wight FM began broadcasting as an internet radio station. An active local websites with coverage of island news is Ventnor Blog. Prisons The geography of the island, and its location near the densely populated south of England, led to it hosting three prisons: Albany, Camp Hill and Parkhurst, all located outside Newport near the main road to Cowes. Albany and Parkhurst were among the few Category A prisons in the UK until they were downgraded in the 1990s. The downgrading of Parkhurst was precipitated by a major escape: three prisoners (two murderers and a blackmailer) made their way out of the prison on 3 January 1995 for four days of freedom before being recaptured. Parkhurst especially enjoyed notoriety as one of the toughest jails in the British Isles and "hosted" many notable inmates, including the Yorkshire Ripper Peter Sutcliffe, New Zealand Drug Lord Terry Clark and the Kray twins. Camp Hill is located to the west of, and adjacent to, Albany and Parkhurst, on the very edge of Parkhurst Forest, having been converted first to a borstal and later to a Category C prison. It was built on the site of an army camp (both Albany and Parkhurst were barracks); there is a small estate of tree-lined roads with well-proportioned officers' quarters (of varying grandeur according to rank, but now privately owned) to the south and east. These 3 prisons were merged into a single HMP Isle of Wight in April 2009. Education There are sixty-nine Local Education Authority-maintained schools on the Isle of Wight, and two independent schools. As a rural community, many of these schools are small, with average numbers of pupils lower than in many urban areas. There are currently 46 primary schools, 14 middle schools and five high schools. However, education reforms have lead to plans for closures. There is also the Isle of Wight College, which is located on the outskirts of Newport. The island implements a middle school system. Famous residents Over the years, the island has had many well-known visitors. Many come over for health reasons due to the cool sea breeze and clean air. For example, Winston Churchill and Karl Marx were visitors to the island. Notable residents have included: Irish Republican Thomas Clarke Future Roman Emperor Vespasian, 44CE Robert Hooke, a 17th century natural philosopher and polymath, is perhaps best known for his definition of Hooke's Law of Elasticity, but he also coined the term "cell" to define the basic unit of life and made valuable contributions in the fields of physics, astronomy and microscopy. Charles I of England was imprisoned at Carisbrooke Castle. Cardell 'Scum' Goodman, late 17th century actor, murderer, highwayman and Jacobite conspirator was the son of Robert Hooke's fathers predecessor as vicar of Freshwater. Thomas Harrison, Regicide of Charles I and Fifth Monarchist leader was imprisoned at Carisbrooke Castle by Cromwell as were other Fifth Monarchy Men, John Rogers and Christopher Feake. Henry Sewell, first Prime Minister of New Zealand. Alfred Tennyson, who was Poet Laureate to Queen Victoria, lived at Freshwater and became Baron Tennyson of Aldworth in the County of Sussex and of Freshwater in the Isle of Wight. Julia Margaret Cameron, a renowned Victorian portrait and creative photographer, lived at Dimbola Lodge which is now a museum dedicated to her work. Sir Christopher Cockerell, inventor of the hovercraft, lived in East Cowes while it was being developed by Saunders-Roe. Alan Titchmarsh, the renowned UK gardener, was High Sheriff of the Isle of Wight in 2008/9. High Sheriff's new Badge of Office - July 2007, High Sheriff of the Isle of Wight website. Indie rock group The Bees is from the Isle of Wight. David Icke - Author Mimi Khalvati - Iranian poet was educated at Upper Chine School, near Shanklin Mark King, lead singer and bassist for 80's/90's pop-funk band Level 42. Bear Grylls Survival Expert and Motivational Speaker Allan Lake, presenter on Absolute Radio Dave Ellison Creator/writer/producer childrens world famous, award winning TV series'Tales of the Riverbank' Anthony Minghella, Academy Award-winning film director, playwright and screenwriter Laura Michelle Kelly, Olivier Award-winner for her role as Mary Poppins in the world premiere of the Mary Poppins musical and film actress playing Lucy Barker in Tim Burton's Sweeney Todd Selected places of interest Alum Bay Appuldurcombe House English Heritage Blackgang Chine Theme Park Brading Roman Villa Museum Carisbrooke Castle English Heritage Castle, where King Charles I was imprisoned Dimbola Lodge Museum, home of Victorian photographer, Julia Margaret Cameron Dinosaur Isle Museum Fort Victoria Country Park Godshill Village, and Model Village Isle of Wight Bus & Coach Museum Museum Isle of Wight Steam Railway Heritage Railway Isle of Wight Zoo, Yaverland Zoo Medina Theatre, home to the island's entertainment including music and performances. The Needles National Trust, which is near "The Old Battery" museum and Old Look-out Tower tea-room Osborne House English Heritage, where Queen Victoria and her husband, Prince Albert had a country residence Quarr Abbey Abbey Robin Hill Country Park Botanic Gardens, Ventnor Yarmouth Castle English Heritage Castle, associated with King Henry VIII Notable media references The 1980s pop group Level 42 is from the Isle of Wight. The Northumbrian scholar, Bede, recorded the arrival of Christianity on the Isle of Wight in the year 686, when the population was massacred and replaced by Christians. arrival of Christianity The Beatles' song "When I'm Sixty-Four", written by Paul McCartney, refers to renting a cottage on the Isle of Wight (if it's not too dear). Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club band The Isle of Wight is called The Island in some editions of Thomas Hardy's novels in his fictional Wessex. The Isle of Wight is the setting of Julian Barnes's novel England, England. The island also features in John Wyndham's novel The Day of the Triffids and Simon Clark's sequel to it, The Night of the Triffids. In the radio series Nebulous, the Isle of Wight has been accidentally disintegrated by Professor Nebulous while he was trying to move it slightly to the left to give it more sunlight, on Janril 57, 2069. Bob Dylan recorded the songs "Like a Rolling Stone", "Quinn the Eskimo (The Mighty Quinn)", "Minstrel Boy", and "She Belongs to Me" for the album Self Portrait live on the Isle of Wight. The Isle of Wight is the setting in D. H. Lawrence's book The Trespasser, filmed for TV in 1981 on location. In the 1966 novel Colossus, the entire island is selected for the development of a new base by the supercomputer, Colossus. The Isle of Wight is the setting of Graham Masterton's book Prey. Parts of Frágiles (Fragile: A Ghost Story), a 2005 movie starring Calista Flockhart, were filmed on the island. Karl Marx visited the Isle of Wight on numerous occasions while he was writing The Communist Manifesto. The Commodore 64 game 'Spirit of the Stones' by John Worsley was set on the Isle of Wight. The Lost Talismans of Spirit of the Stones In the radio panel game Genius, someone proposed that in order to increase tourism to the Isle of Wight, it should be made symmetrical, even though it would involve destroying Ventnor. The idea was rejected. In the Blackadder II episode "Potato", Blackadders plot to sail to France is thwarted when it turns out that the captain of his ship is completely incompetent at navigation, and that because of this, every expedition the captain had organised so far had been limited to "sailing around the Isle of Wight until everyone gets dizzy", and then sailing back home to Southampton. See also Isle of Wight gasification facility Isle of Wight Rifles List of civil parishes on the Isle of Wight List of places on the Isle of Wight Yaverland Battery References Hansard, Wednesday 14 November 2001 column 850 Isle of Wight County Press http://www.iwcp.co.uk/ External links Isle of Wight Guide General Information: Isle of Wight Council Official Tourism Website Isle of Wight Festival The Isle of Wight Weather Station Media: Isle of Wight County Press Isle of Wight Radio VentnorBlog Wifi Hotspots (Some free) Tourism: Photos: Isle of Wight Pictures Isle of Wight Historic Postcards Isle of Wight Photos Old pictures of Newport

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riverbank:1 anthony:1 minghella:1 academy:1 winning:1 film:4 director:1 playwright:1 screenwriter:1 laura:1 michelle:1 kelly:1 olivier:1 winner:1 role:1 mary:2 poppins:2 premiere:1 musical:1 actress:1 lucy:1 barker:1 tim:1 burton:1 sweeney:1 todd:1 select:2 appuldurcombe:1 brad:1 villa:1 model:1 steam:1 theatre:1 entertainment:1 trust:1 tower:1 tea:1 room:1 husband:1 prince:1 albert:1 quarr:1 abbey:2 robin:1 botanic:1 garden:1 reference:2 northumbrian:1 scholar:1 bede:1 arrival:2 massacre:1 replace:1 christian:1 beatles:1 song:2 paul:1 mccartney:1 refers:1 rent:1 cottage:1 dear:1 sgt:1 pepper:1 lonely:1 hearts:1 edition:1 hardy:1 novel:4 fictional:1 setting:3 julian:1 barnes:1 wyndham:1 triffids:2 simon:1 sequel:1 nebulous:2 accidentally:1 disintegrate:1 professor:1 try:1 move:1 left:1 give:1 sunlight:1 janril:1 bob:1 dylan:1 like:1 roll:1 stone:3 quinn:2 eskimo:1 mighty:1 minstrel:1 boy:1 belong:1 album:1 self:1 h:1 book:2 trespasser:1 colossus:2 entire:1 supercomputer:1 graham:1 masterton:1 prey:1 frágiles:1 fragile:1 ghost:1 star:1 calista:1 flockhart:1 numerous:1 occasion:1 communist:1 manifesto:1 spirit:2 worsley:1 lost:1 talisman:1 panel:1 genius:1 order:1 symmetrical:1 though:1 involve:1 idea:1 reject:1 blackadder:1 ii:1 potato:1 blackadders:1 plot:1 thwart:1 captain:2 completely:1 incompetent:1 navigation:1 expedition:1 limit:1 everyone:1 get:1 dizzy:1 gasification:1 rifle:1 parish:1 hansard:1 wednesday:1 november:1 column:1 iwcp:1 external:1 guide:1 information:1 ventnorblog:1 wifi:1 hotspot:1 photo:2 picture:2 postcard:1 |@bigram isle_wight:112 lord_tennyson:2 queen_victoria:5 parliamentary_constituency:1 carisbrooke_castle:7 norman_conquest:1 henry_viii:2 spanish_armada:1 charles_dickens:1 david_copperfield:1 normandy_landing:1 jimi_hendrix:1 oft_quote:1 http_www:4 jan_feb:1 feb_mar:1 mar_apr:1 aug_sep:1 sep_oct:1 oct_nov:1 nov_dec:1 precip_mm:1 clipper_ship:1 liberal_democrat:3 landslide_victory:1 ice_hockey:2 seaside_resort:2 golf_course:1 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Directed_set

In mathematics, a directed set (or a directed preorder or a filtered set) is a nonempty set A together with a reflexive and transitive binary relation ≤ (that is, a preorder), with the additional property that every pair of elements has an upper bound. Kelly, p. 65. Directed sets are a generalization of nonempty totally ordered sets. In topology, directed sets are used to define nets, which generalize sequences and unite the various notions of limit used in analysis. Directed sets also give rise to direct limits in abstract algebra and (more generally) category theory. Examples Examples of directed sets include: The set of natural numbers N with the ordinary order ≤ is a directed set (and so is every totally ordered set). The set N N of pairs of natural numbers can be made into a directed set by defining (n0 , n1) ≤ (m0, m1) if and only if n0 ≤ m0 and n1 ≤ m1. If x0 is a real number, we can turn the set R − {x0} into a directed set by writing a ≤ b if and only if |a − x0| ≥ |b − x0|. We then say that the reals have been directed towards x0. This is not a partial order. If T is a topological space and x0 is a point in T, we turn the set of all neighbourhoods of x0 into a directed set by writing U ≤ V if and only if U contains V. For every U: U ≤ U; since U contains itself. For every U,V,W: if U ≤ V and V ≤ W, then U ≤ W; since if U contains V and V contains W then U contains W. For every U, V: there exists the set U V such that U ≤ U V and V ≤ U V; since both U and V contain U V. In a poset P, every subset of the form {a| a in P, a ≤x}, where x is a fixed element from P, is directed. Contrast with semilattices Directed sets are a more general concept than (join) semilattices: every join semilattice is a directed set, as the join or least upper bound of two elements is the desired c. The converse does not hold however, witness the directed set {1000,0001,1101,1011,1111} ordered bitwise, where {1000,0001} has three upper bounds but no least upper bound. Directed subsets The order relation in a directed sets is not required to be antisymmetric, and therefore directed sets are not always partial orders. However, the term directed set is also used frequently in the context of posets. In this setting, a subset A of a partially ordered set (P,≤) is called a directed subset if A is not the empty set, and for any a and b in A there exists a c in A with a ≤ c and b ≤ c. Here the order relation on the elements of A is inherited from P; for this reason, reflexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly. A directed subset of a poset is not required to be downward closed; a subset of a poset is directed if and only if its downward closure is an ideal. While the definition of a directed set is for an "upward-directed" set (every pair of elements has an upper bound), it is also possible to define a downward-directed set in which every pair of elements has a common lower bound. A subset of a poset is downward-directed if and only if its upper closure is a filter. Directed subsets are used in domain theory, which studies directed complete partial orders. Gierz, p. 2. These are posets in which every upward-directed set is required to have a least upper bound. In this context, directed subsets again provide a generalization of convergent sequences. See also Filtered category Notes References J. L. Kelley (1955), General Topology. Gierz, Hofmann, Keimel, et al. (2003), Continuous Lattices and Domains, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521803381. be-x-old:Арыентаванае мноства

Directed_set |@lemmatized mathematics:1 direct:20 set:30 directed:11 preorder:2 filtered:2 nonempty:2 together:1 reflexive:1 transitive:1 binary:1 relation:3 additional:1 property:1 every:10 pair:4 element:6 upper:7 bound:7 kelly:1 p:7 generalization:2 totally:2 ordered:1 topology:2 use:4 define:3 net:1 generalize:1 sequence:2 unite:1 various:1 notion:1 limit:2 analysis:1 also:4 give:1 rise:1 abstract:1 algebra:1 generally:1 category:2 theory:2 example:2 include:1 natural:2 number:3 n:3 ordinary:1 order:9 make:1 real:2 turn:2 r:1 write:2 b:4 say:1 towards:1 partial:3 topological:1 space:1 point:1 neighbourhood:1 u:18 v:14 contains:4 since:3 contain:2 w:5 exist:2 poset:4 subset:8 form:1 x:3 fixed:1 contrast:1 semilattices:2 general:2 concept:1 join:3 semilattice:1 least:3 two:1 desired:1 c:4 converse:1 hold:1 however:2 witness:1 bitwise:1 three:1 subsets:1 require:4 antisymmetric:1 therefore:1 always:1 term:1 frequently:1 context:2 posets:2 setting:1 partially:1 call:1 empty:1 inherit:1 reason:1 reflexivity:1 transitivity:1 need:1 explicitly:1 downward:4 close:1 closure:2 ideal:1 definition:1 upward:2 possible:1 common:1 low:1 filter:1 domain:2 study:1 complete:1 gierz:2 provide:1 convergent:1 see:1 note:1 reference:1 j:1 l:1 kelley:1 hofmann:1 keimel:1 et:1 al:1 continuous:1 lattice:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 old:1 арыентаванае:1 мноства:1 |@bigram reflexive_transitive:1 totally_ordered:1 abstract_algebra:1 topological_space:1 et_al:1

Mandarin_Chinese

Mandarin ( or ), is a category of related Chinese dialects spoken across most of northern and south-western China. When taken as a separate language, as is often done in academic literature, the Mandarin language has more native speakers than any other language. The "standard" in Standard Mandarin refers to the standard Beijing dialect of the Mandarin language. Mandarin is also a general term describing any grade of nobility in the Chinese Imperial Court. In English, Mandarin can refer to either of two distinct concepts: In everyday use Mandarin refers to Standard Chinese or Standard Mandarin (Putonghua / Guoyu / Huayu), which is based on the particular Mandarin dialect spoken in Beijing. Standard Mandarin functions as the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China, the official language of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and one of the four official languages of Singapore. ‘Chinese’ — in practice Standard Mandarin — is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. In its broader sense, Mandarin is a diverse group of Mandarin dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China (Guanhua / Beifanghua / Beifang fangyan). This group of dialects is the focus of this article. The latter grouping is defined and used mainly by linguists, and is not commonly used outside of academic circles as a self-description. Instead, when asked to describe the spoken form they are using, Chinese speaking a form of non-Standard Mandarin will describe the variant that they are speaking, for example Southwestern Mandarin or Northeastern Mandarin, and consider it distinct from ‘Standard Mandarin’ (putonghua); they may not recognize that it is in fact classified by linguists as a form of ‘Mandarin’ in a broader sense. Nor is there a common ‘Mandarin’ identity based on language; rather, there are strong regional identities centred on individual dialects, because of the wide geographical distribution and cultural diversity of its speakers. Like all other varieties of Chinese, there is significant dispute as to whether Mandarin is a language or a dialect. See Identification of the varieties of Chinese for more on this issue. History The present divisions of the Chinese language developed out of the different ways in which dialects of Old Chinese and Middle Chinese evolved. Most Chinese living in northern and south-western China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin. The prevalence of this linguistic homogeneity in northern China is largely the result of geography: much of northern China is covered by plains and is flat. In contrast to this, the mountains and rivers of southern China have promoted linguistic diversity. Chronologically, there is no clear line to mark where Middle Chinese ends and Mandarin begins; however, the Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn (中原音韵), a rhyme book from the Yuan Dynasty, is widely regarded as a milestone in the history of Mandarin. In this rhyme book we see many characteristic features of Mandarin, such as the reduction and disappearance of final stop consonants and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones. Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people living in southern China spoke only their local language. Beijing Mandarin became dominant during the Manchu-ruling Qing Dynasty, and from the 17th century onward, the empire established orthoepy academies () in an attempt to make local pronunciations conform to the Beijing standard. These attempts, however, had little success. This situation changed with the widespread introduction of Standard Mandarin as the national language, to be used in education, the media, and formal situations in both the PRC and the ROC (but not in Hong Kong). As a result, Standard Mandarin can now be spoken intelligibly as a second language by most younger people in Mainland China and Taiwan, with various regional accents. In Hong Kong and Macau, because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language of education, the media, formal speech and everyday life remains the local Cantonese, although Standard Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential. Name and classification The English term comes from the Portuguese mandarim or Dutch mandarijn, from Indonesian/Malay məntəri, from Hindi mantri, from Sanskrit mantrin (meaning councilor or minister mandarin, Online Etymology Dictionary ); it is a translation of the Chinese term Guānhuà (), which literally means the language of the mandarins (imperial magistrates). The term Guānhuà is often considered archaic by Chinese speakers of today, though it is often used by linguists as a collective term to refer to all varieties and dialects of Mandarin, not just standard Mandarin. Another term commonly used to refer to all varieties of Mandarin is Běifānghuà (), or the dialect(s) of the North, although this term is used less and less among Chinese linguists in favour of "Guānhuà". Standard Mandarin From an official point of view, there are two versions of Standard Mandarin, since the People's Republic of China government refers to that on the Mainland as Putonghua, whereas the Republic of China government refers to their official language as Kuo-yü (Guoyu in pinyin). Technically, both Putonghua and Guoyu base their phonology on the Beijing accent, though Putonghua also takes some elements from other sources. Comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences. However, both versions of ‘school’ Standard Mandarin are often quite different from the Mandarin dialects that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the Beijing dialect. Putonghua and Guoyu also differ from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and usage. It is important to note that the terms ‘Putonghua (The Common Language)’ and ‘Guoyu’ refer to speech, and hence the difference in the use of simplified characters and traditional characters is not usually considered to be a difference between these two concepts. Dialects The eight main dialect areas of Mandarin in Mainland China. There are regional variations in Mandarin. This is manifested in two ways: The varieties of Mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people. As a result, there are pronounced regional variations in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. These regional differences are rather more pronounced than the differences in the varieties of English found in England, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States. Standard Mandarin has been promoted very actively by the PRC, the ROC, and Singapore as a second language. As a result, those who are not native speakers of Standard Mandarin frequently flavour it with a strong infusion of the sounds of their native tongues. Dialects of Mandarin can be subdivided into eight categories: Beijing Mandarin, Northeastern Mandarin, Ji Lu Mandarin, Jiao Liao Mandarin, Zhongyuan Mandarin, Lan Yin Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin, and Jianghuai Mandarin. Jin is sometimes considered the ninth category of Mandarin. (Others separate it from Mandarin altogether.) Phonology See Standard Mandarin for a description of Standard Mandarin phonology and dialects of Mandarin for an overview of the phonologies of Mandarin dialects. Unlike Cantonese and Min Nan which are syllable timed languages, Mandarin is a stress timed language (Avery & Ehrlich 1992) like many western languages including English. Syllables consist maximally of an initial consonant, a glide, a vowel, a final, and tone. Not every syllable that is possible according to this rule actually exists in Mandarin, as there are rules prohibiting certain phonemes from appearing with others, and in practice there are only a few hundred distinct syllables. Phonological features that are generally shared by the Mandarin dialects include: the palatalization of velars and alveolar sibilants when they occur before palatal glides; the disappearance of final stops and /-m/ (although in many Jianghuai Mandarin and Jin dialects, the glottal stop has been preserved as a final); the disappearance of the entering tone (although it has been preserved in many Jianghuai Mandarin and Jin dialects) and the presence of four tonal categories; the presence of retroflex consonants (although these are absent in many dialects of Southwestern and Northeastern Mandarin); the historical devoicing of plosives and sibilants. Vocabulary There are more polysyllabic words in Mandarin than in all other major varieties of Chinese except Shanghainese. This is partly because Mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than have southern varieties of Chinese, and has needed to deal with many more homophones — usually by forming new words via compounding, or by adding affixes such as lao- (老), -zi (子), -(e)r (兒/儿), and -tou (頭/头). There are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since Old Chinese, such as húdié (蝴蝶, butterfly). (Please refer to Matteo Ricci's China in the Sixteenth Century, "All Chinese words, without exception, are monosyllabic." ) The singular pronouns in Mandarin are wǒ (我) ‘I’, nǐ (你/妳) ‘you’, nín (您) ‘you (formal)’, and tā (他/她/它) ‘he/she/it’, with -men (們/们) added for the plural. Further, there is a distinction between the plural first-person pronoun zánmen (咱們/咱们), which is inclusive of the listener, and wǒmen (我們/我们), which may be exclusive of the listener. Dialects of Mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on these pronouns, but not with other varieties of Chinese (e.g., Shanghainese has 侬 non ‘you’ and 伊 yi ‘he/she’). Other morphemes that Mandarin dialects tend to share are aspect and mood particles, such as -le (了), -zhe (著/着), and -guo (過/过). Other Chinese varieties tend to use different words in some of these contexts (e.g., Cantonese 咗 and 緊). Because of contact with Mongolian and Manchurian peoples, Mandarin has some loanwords from Altaic languages not present in other varieties of Chinese, such as hútong (胡同) ‘alley.’ Southern Chinese varieties have borrowed from Tai , Austro-Asiatic , and Austronesian languages. Word formation The most common way used to form polysyllabic words in Mandarin is to aggregate words according to their meaning. For instance, the word for "typewriter" is 打字機 dǎ zì jī. The first word means "to strike," used because in typing one's fingers strike the keys. The second word means "character" (and, by extension, "letter"). The third word means "machine." So the combination means "machine for knocking out characters." Another possibility is to combine two words of similar meaning such as 匆忙 cōng máng, the first meaning "hurried" and the second meaning "busy." Words and names in foreign languages may be brought in by combining Chinese characters in an attempt to approximate the pronunciation of the foreign term. For example, "laser" can be written as 雷射 léi shè. Literally the two Chinese characters mean "thunder" and "to shoot [arrows]" and, by extension, "to radiate." Syntax Chinese is similar to English in many of its syntactic characteristics. It frequently forms sentences by stating a subject and following it by a predicate. The predicate can be an intransitive verb, a transitive verb followed by a direct object, a linking verb followed by a predicate nominative, etc. Chinese differs from English in distinguishing between names of things, which can stand as predicate nominatives, and names of characteristics. Names of characteristics (e.g., green) cannot follow linking verbs. There is no equivalent of the English predicate adjective. Instead, abstract characterizations such as "green," "angry," "hot," etc., stand as complete predicates in their own right. So one says, e.g., 我不累. Wǒ bú lèi. The word-for-word version in English would be, "I not tired." Chinese differs from English in that it forms another kind of sentence by stating a topic and following it by a comment. In English, speakers generally flag the topic of a sentence by prefacing it with "as for." For instance, one might say, "As for the money that Mama gave us, I have already bought candy." Note that the comment in this case is itself a complete sentence with subject, verb, and object. The Chinese version is simply, 媽媽給我們的錢,我已經買了糖了. Māma géi wǒmende qián, wó yǐjīng mǎile táng le. This is translated somewhat directly as, "The money Mom gave us, I already bought candy," lacking a preface as in English. Chinese does not have tense. Instead it uses a combination of aspect markers and markers of modality. In other words, it employs single syllables that indicate such things as (1) that the subject of the sentence did something that was expected or anticipated, (2) that the subject of the sentence has gone through some experience within a stated or implicit time period, (3) that a statement that was formerly not the case has now become true, i.e., that there has been a change of status, (4) that there still has not been a change in a condition previously noted, etc. The time that something happened can be given by an explicit term such as "yesterday," by relative terms such as "formerly," etc. Another major difference between the syntax of Chinese and languages like English lies in the stacking order of modifying clauses. 昨天發脾氣的外交警察取消了沒有交錢的那些人的入境証. Zuó tiān fā pí qìde wài jiāo jǐng chá qǔ xiāole méi yǒu jiāo qiánde nà xiē rénde rù jīng zhèng. Using the Chinese order in English, that sentence would be: "[Yesterday got angry] who foreign affairs policeman canceled [did not pay] who [those people] of visas. In more ordinary English order, that would be: The foreign affairs policeman who got angry yesterday canceled the visas of those people who did not pay. There are a few other features of the Mandarin language that will be unfamiliar to speakers of English, but the features mentioned above are generally the most noticeable. Writing system The writing system for almost all the varieties of Chinese is based on a set of written symbols that has been passed down with little change for more than two thousand years. Each of these varieties of Chinese has developed some new words during this time, words for which there are no matching characters in the original set. While it is of course possible to invent new characters (as was done to represent many elements in the periodic table), a more common course of development has been to borrow old characters that have fallen into disuse on the basis of their pronunciations. Chinese Characters were traditionally read top to bottom, right to left, but in modern usage it is more common to read from left to right. In the original set of characters and definitions (containing more than 40,000 items) there were the demonstrative pronouns ‘this’ (此, cǐ) and ‘that’ (彼, bǐ). But these terms were rare in spoken Mandarin, where ‘zhè’ and ‘nà’ (or regional variants of them) were used instead. There are no components in the original set that have those meanings associated with those pronunciations, so a word pronounced ‘zhè’ (这／這) was borrowed to write ‘this,’ and a word pronounced ‘nà’ (那) was borrowed to write ‘that.’ Originally, 這 meant ‘to go forward to meet someone’, and 那 was the name of a country (and later became a rare surname). As with other varieties of Chinese, the government of the People's Republic of China (as well as some other governments and institutions) has put a set of simplified forms into operation. Under this system, the forms of the words ‘here’ (zhèlǐ) and ‘there’ (nàlǐ) changed from 這裡 and 那裡 to 这里 and 那里. (See Simplified Chinese for more.) Mandarin literature Originally, written Chinese was learned and composed as a special language. It may originally have rather closely represented the way people spoke, but with time the spoken and written languages diverged rather strongly. The written language, called ‘classical Chinese’ or ‘literary Chinese,’ is much more concise than spoken Chinese, the main reason being that a single written character is often just what one wants to communicate yet its single syllable would not communicate an unambiguous meaning if spoken because of the huge number of homonyms. For instance, 翼 (yì, wing) is unambiguous in written Chinese but would be lost among its more than 75 homonyms in spoken Chinese. For writing formal histories, for writing government documents, and even for writing poetry and fiction, the written language was adequate and economical of both printing resources and the human effort of writing things down. But to record materials that were meant to be reproduced in oral presentations, materials such as plays and grist for the professional story-teller's mill, the classical written language was not appropriate. Even written records of the words of a famous teacher like Zhu Xi (朱熹；1130-1200) tend strongly to reflect his spoken language. From at least the Yuan dynasty, plays that recounted the subversive tales of China's Robin Hoods to the Ming dynasty novels, such as Shuihu Zhuan (《水浒传》; Outlaws of the marsh), on down to the Qing dynasty novel Honglou Meng (《红楼梦》; usually translated as ‘Dream of the Red Chamber’) and beyond, there developed a vernacular Chinese literature (白话文学; báihuà wénxué). In many cases this written language reflected the Mandarin spoken language, and, since pronunciation differences were not conveyed in this written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin speaking regions and beyond. A pivotal character during the first half of the twentieth century, Hu Shi （胡适）, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled Báihuà Wénxuéshǐ (A history of vernacular literature). See also Chinese grammar Confucius Institute References Additional reading Novotná, Z., ‘Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese’, Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No.35 (1967), (In English: examples of loan words and calques in Chinese) External links Arch Chinese - Learn To Read And Write Chinese Characters - Online Chinese character stroke order animations for all the simplified and 7,000 traditional characters, along with native speaker pronunciations, character decomposition, writing worksheet generation, example words and sentences, Pinyin table, radical table and character learning flashcards. BBC, BBC (this specifically refers to Mandarin Chinese) Mandarin - a Category III language Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers

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Art

Pompeii, House VII, 2, 6: Paquius Proculus and his wife. National Archaeological Museum of Naples in Naples, Italy, 1st century fresco. Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, (The Turkish baths), 1862 Vincent van Gogh, The Café Terrace on the Place du Forum, Arles, at Night, September 1888. Art is the process or product of deliberately arranging elements in a way that appeals to the senses or emotions. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music and literature. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as Aesthetics. The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the early 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans. Wollheim 1980, op. cit. Essay VI. pp. 231-39. An object may be characterized by the intentions, or lack thereof, of its creator, regardless of its apparent purpose. A cup, which ostensibly can be used as a container, may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament, while a painting may be deemed craft if mass-produced. Traditionally, the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery. This conception changed during the Romantic period, when art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science". Gombrich, Ernst. "Press statement on The Story of Art". The Gombrich Archive, 2005. Retrieved on January 18, 2008. Generally, art is made with the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions. The nature of art has been described by Richard Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, p.1, 2nd edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521 29706 0 It has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Oxford university Press, 2003, p5. ISBN 0-1992-7945-4 Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Oxford university Press, 2003, p16. ISBN 0-1992-7945-4 R.G. Collingwood's view, expressed in The Principles of Art, is considered in Wollheim, op. cit. 1980 pp 36-43 The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. Art as mimesis or representation has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Definition of the term The most common usage of the word "art," which rose to prominence after 1750, is understood to denote skill used to produce an aesthetic result. Hatcher, 1999 Britannica Online defines it as "the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others." Britannica Online By any of these definitions of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept to modern Western societies. Elkins, James "Art History and Images That Are Not Art", The Art Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Dec. 1995), with previous bibliography. "Non-Western images are not well described in terms of art, and neither are medieval paintings that were made in the absence of humanist ideas of artistic value". 553 Much has been written about the concept of "art". Davies, 1991 and Carroll, 2000 Where Adorno said in 1970 "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more[...]," Adorno, Theodor W. Aesthetic Theory. (1970) , Danto, 2003 The first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft," and also from an Indo-European root meaning "arrangement" or "to arrange". In this sense, art is whatever is described as having undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent. A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact, artificial, artifice, artillery, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. The second and more recent sense of the word art is as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Fine art means that a skill is being used to express the artist’s creativity, or to engage the audience’s aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it will be considered Commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. Novitz, 1992 However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically-, spiritually-, or philosophically-motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent. Painting by Song Dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24,8 × 25,2 cm. Art can describe several things: a study of creative skill, a process of using the creative skill, a product of the creative skill, or the audience’s experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (arts) that produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and echo or reflect a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Artworks can be defined by purposeful, creative interpretations of limitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person. Artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted based on images or objects. Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. It is also an expression of an idea and it can take many different forms and serve many different purposes. Although the application of scientific theories to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the "creation" of something new, this represents science only and is not categorized as art. History Venus of Willendorf Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings, and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic starting roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world: a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000yrs old, were discovered in a South African cave. Radford, Tim. "World's Oldest Jewellery Found in Cave". Guardian Unlimited, April 16, 2004. Retrieved on January 18, 2008. The great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, or Arabia (ancient Yemen and Oman). Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in their art. Because of the size and duration these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. They have also provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correct proportions In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Western Middle Ages, art focused on the expression of Biblical and not material truths, and emphasized methods which would show the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious. The western Renaissance saw a return to valuation of the material world, and the place of humans in it, and this paradigm shift is reflected in art forms, which show the corporeality of the human body, and the three dimensional reality of landscape. Landscape of pine valley, by Ming Dynasty artist Chen Hongshou. In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance with religious painting borrowing many conventions from sculpture and tending to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw many art forms flourish, jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and are traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang Dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy, colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century. The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake’s portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David’s propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others. By the 20th century these pictures were falling apart, shattered not only by new discoveries of relativity by Einstein Turney, Jon. "Does time fly?". The Guardian, September 6, 2003. Retrieved on January 18, 2007. and of unseen psychology by Freud, "Contradictions of the Enlightenment: Darwin, Freud, Einstein and modern art". Fordham University. Retrieved on January 18, 2008. but also by unprecedented technological development accelerated by the implosion of civilisation in two world wars. The history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by African sculpture. Japanese woodblock prints (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, the west has had huge impacts on Eastern art in 19th and 20th century, with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting powerful influence on artistic styles. Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with irony. Furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than regional cultures. Art theories In the nineteenth century, artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature. "go to nature in all singleness of heart, rejecting nothing and selecting nothing, and scorning nothing, believing all things are right and good, and rejoicing always in the truth." Ruskin, John. Modern Painters, Volume I, 1843. London: Smith, Elder and Co. [[Image:Joseph Mallord William Turner 012.jpg|thumb|The Burning of the Houses of Parliament; J. M. W. Turner, 1834]] The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans. Wollheim 1980, Essay VI. pp. 231-39. The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, Griselda Pollock, Differencing the Canon. Routledge, London & N.Y.,1999. ISBN 0-415-06700-6 and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines Modern Art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself". Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. ed. Francis Frascina and Charles Harrison, 1982. Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting: After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of Modern Art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century. Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Certain radical artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography. Purpose of Art Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different, reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those which are non-motivated, and those which are motivated (Levi-Strauss). Non-Motivated Functions of Art The non-motivated purposes of Art are those which are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. Aristotle has said, "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature." Aristotle. The Poetics, Republic In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something which humans must do by their very nature (i.e. no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility."Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry." -Aristotle Aristotle. The Poetics, Republic. Note: Although speaking mostly of poetry here, the Ancient greeks often speak of the arts collectively. http://www.authorama.com/the-poetics-2.html Experience of the mysterious. Art provides us with a way to experience ourselves in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as we appreciate art, music or poetry."The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science." -Albert Einstein Einstein, Albert. The World as I See It. http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay.htm Expression of the imagination. Art provide a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are maleable."Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else - something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant, Critique of Aesthetic Judgement (1790). Universal communication. Art allows the individual to express things toward the world as a whole. Earth Artists often create art in remote locations that will never be experienced by another person. The practice of placing a cairn, or pile of stones at the top of a mountain, is an example. (Note: This need not suggest a particular view of God, or religion.) Art created in this way is a form of communication between the individual and the world as a whole. Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture."Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova Silvia Tomaskova, "Places of Art: Art and Archaeology in Context": (1997) Motivated Functions of Art The purposes of art which are motivated refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) to sell a product, or simply as a form of communication. Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art."[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -Steve Mithen Steve Mithen. The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science. 1999 Art as Entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games. The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. The art movements which had this goal - Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian Constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others - are collectively referred to as the avante-garde arts."By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog’s life." -Andre Breton (Surrealism) Andre Breton, Surrealist Manifesto (1924) Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome. Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism). Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art which seeks to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object. Roland Barthes, Mythologies The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game. One of the central challenges of post-modern art (after the 1970s), is that as the world becomes increasingly utilitarian, functional, and market-driven, the presence of the non-motivated arts, or art which is ritualistic or symbolic, becomes increasingly rare. Classification disputes It is not uncommon in the history of art, especially in recent times, for disputation to take place as to whether something is art or not. Such disagreements may be referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Image of a horse from the Lascaux caves Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp’s Fountain, the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, Conceptual art, and Video games. Deborah Solomon, "2003: the 3rd Annual Year in Ideas: Video Game Art," New York Times, Magazine Section, December 14, 2003 Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about our values and where we are trying to go with our society than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin’s work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst’s and Emin’s work. Painter, Colin. "Contemporary Art and the Home". Berg Publishers, 2002. p. 12. ISBN 1-8597-3661-0 In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object’s arthood."<ref>Dutton, Denis Tribal Art in Encyclopedia of Aesthetics, edited by Michael Kelly (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).</ref> Danto, Arthur. “Artifact and Art.” In Art/Artifact, edited by Susan Vogel. New York, 1988. Controversial art [[File:Théodore Géricault, Le Radeau de la Méduse.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Theodore Gericault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820]] Theodore Gericault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was a social commentary on a current event, unprecedented at the time. Edouard Manet's "Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe" (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's "Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X)" (1884), caused a huge uproar over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation. In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts. Art, class and value Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe Art has been perceived by some as belonging to some social classes and often excluding others. In this context, art is seen as an upper-class activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. For example, the palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St. Petersburg with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, or of governments and institutions. Fine and expensive goods have been popular markers of status in many cultures, and continue to be so today. There has been a cultural push in the other direction since at least 1793, when the Louvre, which had been a private palace of the Kings of France, was opened to the public as an art museum during the French Revolution. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status. Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978 : Everyone an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism. There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object." Rorimer, Anne: New Art in the 60s and 70s Redefining Reality, page 35. Thames and Hudson, 2001. In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors." Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, page 16. Oxford University Press, 2005. Forms, genres, mediums, and styles The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories that are related to their technique, or medium, such as decorative arts, plastic arts, performing arts, or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of the few subjects that is academically organized according to technique . An artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic work is made from, and may also refers to the technique used. For example, paint is the media used in painting, paper is a media used in drawing. An art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expression takes. The media used often influences the form. For example, the form of a sculpture must exist in space in three-dimensions, and respond to gravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its formal qualities. To give another example, the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture. The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and virtual presence. The form of a particular work of art is determined by both the formal qualities of the media, and the intentions of the artist. A genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular media. For instance, well recognized genres in film are western, horror and romantic comedy. Genres in music include death metal and trip hop. Genres in painting include still life, and pastoral landscape. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions, clichés and tropes. (One note: the word genre has a second older meaning within painting; genre painting was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th century to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and can still be used in this way.) Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, showing the painting technique of sfumato. An artwork, artist’s, or movement's style is the distinctive method and form that art takes. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstract painting is called expressionistic (with a lower case "e" and the "ic" at the end). Often these styles are linked with a particular historical period, set of ideas, and particular artistic movement. So Jackson Pollock is called an Abstract Expressionist. Because a particular style may have a specific cultural meanings, it is important to be sensitive to differences in technique. Roy Lichtenstein's (1923-1997) paintings are not pointillist, despite his uses of dots, because they are not aligned with the original proponents of Pointillism. Lichtenstein used Ben-Day dots: they are evenly-spaced and create flat areas of color. These types of dots, used in halftone printing, were originally used in comic strips and newspapers to reproduce color. Lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the "high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics - to comment on class distinctions in culture. Lichtenstein is thus associated with the American Pop art movement (1960s). Pointillism is a technique in late Impressionism (1880s), developed especially by the artist Georges Seurat, that employs dots that are spaced in a way to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to paint images that were closer to the way we really see color. Both artists use dots, but the particular style and technique relates to the artistic movement these artists were a part of. These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art, to narrow it down. "Imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks. How would you proceed with your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video, or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomes something different than if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything else about the artwork remained the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns and compositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders." Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, page 4. Oxford University Press, 2005. Characteristics Art tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding, and is usually consciously created with this intention. Fine art intentionally serves no other purpose. As a result of this impetus, works of art are elusive, refractive to attempts at classification, because they can be appreciated in more than one way, and are often susceptible to many different interpretations. In the case of Gericault's Raft of the Medusa, special knowledge concerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Gericault's political intentions in the piece. Even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object, may invite reflection upon elevated themes. Traditionally, the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium. This characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense. Art has a transformative capacity: confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures or forms upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents. Skill and craft Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art is an act of expressing our feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. Adam. Detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Cappella Sistina (1511) A common view is that the epithet “art”, particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability or an originality in stylistic approach such as in the plays of Shakespeare, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled. A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands on works of art. Value judgment Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia. Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions like "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception," (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art, is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly taken that - that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808, is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing, allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in order to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist. Communication Art is often intended to appeal and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art explores what is commonly termed as the human condition; that is, essentially what it is to be human. Effective art often brings about some new insight concerning the human condition either singly or en-mass, which is not necessarily always positive, or necessarily widens the boundaries of collective human ability. The degree of skill that the artist has, will affect their ability to trigger an emotional response and thereby provide new insights, the ability to manipulate them at will shows exemplary skill and determination. Anti-art It is has been suggested in some quarters that the not making of art can constitute art. Or, more precisely, the suggestion is that the cessation of making art, can perhaps be considered a valid art form. This is obviously a minor opinion, and it is disputed. This notion has been associated with the term anti-art, and the suggestion which has been advanced is that the art movement associated with the artist's group known as the Situationists, actually made art by the very act of the cessation of making art. There is disagreement concerning the validity of this art "form." Martin Puchner. “Poetry of the revolution: Marx, manifestos, and the avant-gardes”. Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 226. “the situationists thus drew a radical conclusion that set them apart from most neo-avant-garde movements: to renounce the making of art entirely.” Paul N. Humble. “Anti-Art and the Concept of Art”. In : "A companion to art theory". Editors : Paul Smith and Carolyn Wilde, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. Page 250 : According to Paul N. Humble, the philosopher of art George Dickie considers that "What is not clear from Dickie's account is how we can have two genuine forms of anti-art, one of which (readymades) counts as art and one of which (dematerialized objects) seemingly does not. The distinction appears to be quite arbitrary." It might be useful to bear in mind that there is also an opinion articulated that takes a direct stance against anti-art, and that, not surprisingly is sometimes called anti-anti-art. Notes Bibliography Arthur Danto, The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art. 2003 Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003. Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) Art History and Visual Studies. Yale University Press, 2002. John Whitehead. Grasping for the Wind. 2001 Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today. 2000 Evelyn Hatcher, ed. Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999 Catherine de Zegher (ed.). Inside the Visible. MIT Press, 1996. Nina, Felshin, ed. But is it Art? 1995 Stephen Davies, Definitions of Art. 1991 Oscar Wilde, "Intentions". Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, "Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980." 2005 Further reading Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0895268337 (this book has significant material on Art and Science) Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objects Carl Jung, Man and His Symbols Benedetto Croce, Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 1902 Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, 1897 External links Art and Play from the Dictionary of the History of ideas In-depth directory of art Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) - online collections from UK museums, galleries, universities Artforum magazine - online art reviews - also previews of upcoming exhibitions Article on the meaning of Art in Ancient India on the website of Frontline be-x-old:Мастацтва

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De_Havilland_Mosquito

The de Havilland Mosquito was a British combat aircraft that excelled in a number of roles during the Second World War. Originally conceived as an unarmed fast bomber, uses of the Mosquito included: low to medium altitude daytime tactical bomber, high altitude night bomber, pathfinder, day or night fighter, fighter-bomber, intruder, maritime strike and photo reconnaissance aircraft. It was also used as the basis for a single-seat heavy fighter, the de Havilland Hornet. The aircraft served with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and many other air forces during the Second World War and postwar (see Operators below). The Mosquito was known affectionately as the "Mossie" to its crews Warbird Alley: deHavilland DH 98 Mosquito and was also known as "The Wooden Wonder" or "The Timber Terror" as the bulk of the aircraft was made of laminated plywood. Damn Interesting» The Timber Terror The Mosquito inspired admiration from all quarters, including the Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Göring. Göring was due to address a parade in Berlin in the morning of 30 January 1943, commemorating the 10th anniversary of the Nazis' being voted into power. Three 105 Squadron Mosquito B Mk. IVs launched a low-level attack on the main Berlin broadcasting station, History of the de Havilland Mosquito, Berlin, 30 January 1943: postponement of Göring's speech, commemorating the 10th anniversary of the Nazi's seizure of power keeping Göring off the air for more than an hour. The Reichsmarschall was not amused: The Mosquito inspired a conceptually similar German aircraft, the Focke Wulf Ta 154 Moskito, which, like its namesake, was constructed of wood. Design and development A 1943 advertisement for de Havilland taken from Flight & Aircraft Engineer magazine trumpets the speed of the bomber version Throughout the 1930s, de Havilland established a reputation in developing innovative high-speed aircraft such as the DH.88 Comet mailplane and DH.91 Albatross airliner that had already successfully employed the composite wood construction that the Mosquito would use. The firm had little experience of working with the Air Ministry, and when a contract was specified for new bombers, de Havilland's all-wood design approach was considered to be out of keeping with official policy. Sharp and Bowyer, 1971 p. 31 Their initial design had started off as an adaptation of the Albatross, armed with three gun turrets and a six-man crew, and powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin engines. However the resulting design had mediocre performance. The designers started looking for ways to improve it, including the addition of another pair of engines. After more work on the concept, they started moving in the other direction instead, removing everything that was unneeded in order to lower the weight. As each of the gun turrets was eliminated, the performance of the aircraft continued to improve, until they realised that, by removing all of them, the aircraft would be so fast it might not need guns at all. What emerged was an entirely different concept, a small twin-engined, two crew aircraft so fast that nothing in the sky could catch it. In promoting the design, de Havilland's marketing line was that it had produced the "fastest bomber in the world." It could carry 1,000 lb (454 kg) of bombs for 1,500 mi (2,414 km) at a speed of almost 400 mph (644 km/h), which was almost twice that of contemporary British bombers. In October 1938, the Ministry rejected their proposal, sceptical about the idea of a wooden plane and the concept of the unarmed bomber. They informed de Havilland that their contribution was best served by building wings for one of the existing bomber aircraft programs. Regardless, de Havilland was convinced the idea was sound and continued development on their own. The support of Sir Wilfrid Freeman eventually proved decisive and a contract for fifty aircraft, including one prototype, was finally placed under B.1/40 on 1 March 1940. Design and prototype construction was able to begin almost immediately, but work was cancelled again after Dunkirk in order to focus on existing types. The need for fighters became extremely pressing, and the contract was reinstated in July, but with the order changed to 20 bombers and 30 heavy fighters. The contract was later changed again, adding a prototype for a dedicated reconnaissance version that was even further stripped down for higher speeds. The Battle of Britain raged while the prototypes were being built, and 25% of the factory time was lost in the bomb shelters. De Havilland Mosquito - Great Britain Nevertheless, the original day bomber prototype, W4050, was rolled out on 19 November 1940, and first flew on 25 November, only 10 months after the go-ahead. The original estimates were that as the Mosquito prototype had twice the surface area and over twice the weight of the 1940 Spitfire Mk II, but also with twice its power, the Mosquito would end up being 20 mph (32 km/h) faster. Over the next few months, W4050 surpassed this estimate, easily besting the Spitfire Mk II in testing at Boscombe Down in February 1941 at a top speed of 392 mph (631 km/h) at 22,000 ft (6,700 m) altitude, compared to a top speed of 360 mph (579 km/h) at 19,500 ft (6,000 m) for the Spitfire. Construction of a prototype Mosquito fighter version was carried out at the secret Salisbury Hall facility, and on 15 May 1941, Geoffrey De Havilland personally flew W4052 off a field beside the shed it was built in. The first reconnaissance prototype, W4051, followed on 10 June 1941. During testing, it was found that the Mosquito day bomber prototype had the power and internal capacity to carry not just the of bombs originally specified, but four times that figure. In order to better support the higher loads the aircraft was capable of, the wingspan was increased from 52 ft 6 in (16.0 m) to 54 ft 2 in (16.5 m). It was also fitted with a larger tailplane, improved exhaust system, and lengthened nacelles that improved stability. These modifications became standard across the production versions. Design The bulk of the Mosquito was made of custom plywood. The fuselage was a frameless monocoque shell made of ⅜ in (9.5 mm) sheets of Ecuadorean balsawood sandwiched between sheets of Canadian birch, but in areas needing extra strength—such as along cut-outs—stronger woods replaced the balsa filler. The plys were formed to shape by band clamps over large concrete moulds, each holding one half of the fuselage, split vertically. While the casein-based glue in the plywood dried, carpenters cut a sawtooth joint into their edges while other workers installed the controls and cabling on the inside wall. When the glue was completely dried, the two halves were glued and screwed together. A covering of doped Madapolam (a fine plain woven cotton) fabric completed the unit. The wings were similar but used different materials and techniques. The main wing was built as a single unit. To form the basic shape, two birch plywood box spars were connected by plywood ribs, and stringers spanned the ribs. The skinning was also birch plywood, one layer thick on the bottom and doubled up on the top; between the two top layers was another layer of fir stringers. Building up the structure used an enormous number of brass screws, 30,000 per wing. The wing was completed with wooden flaps and aluminium ailerons. When both parts were complete the fuselage was lowered onto the wing, and once again glued and screwed together. The remainder consisted of wooden horizontal and vertical tail surfaces, with aluminium control surfaces. Engine mounts of welded steel tube were added, along with simple landing gear oleos filled with rubber blocks. Wood was used to carry only in-plane loads, with metal fittings used for all triaxially loaded components such as landing gear, engine mounts, control surface mounting brackets, and the wing-to-fuselage junction. The total weight of metal castings and forgings used in the aircraft was only . The glue used was initially casein-based. After a series of unexplained crashes of aircraft operating in tropical climates, this was changed to "Aerolite", a synthetic urea-formaldehyde adhesive developed by Dr. Norman de Bruyne , which was better able to resist deterioration in high humidity conditions. De Havilland also pioneered the use of radio frequency (RF) heating to accelerate curing of the adhesive. In England, fuselage shells were mainly made by the furniture companies Ronson, E. Gomme, Parker Knoll and Styles & Mealing. The specialized wood veneer used in the construction of the Mosquito was made by Roddis Manufacturing in Marshfield, Wisconsin, United States. Hamilton Roddis had teams of dexterous young women ironing the (unusually thin) strong wood veneer product before shipping to the UK. Cole 2001 Wing spars were made by J.B. Heath and Dancer & Hearne. Many of the other parts, including flaps, flap shrouds, fins, leading edge assemblies and bomb doors were also produced in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, which was well suited to these tasks due to a well established furniture-manufacturing industry. Dancer & Hearne processed much of the wood from start to finish, receiving timber and transforming it into finished wing spars at their High Wycombe factory. About 5,000 of the 7,781 Mosquitos made contained parts made in High Wycombe. In Canada, fuselages were built in the Oshawa, Ontario plant of General Motors of Canada Limited. These were shipped to De Havilland of Canada in Toronto for mating to fuselages and completion. De Havilland Australia started construction in Sydney. These production lines added 1,134 from Canada and 212 from Australia. Operational history Mosquito B XVI of 571 Squadron, 1944 The Mosquito is often described as having been faster than enemy fighters, although this is not completely true. On its introduction to service, the aircraft was about as fast as the front-line German fighters that opposed it, the BF 109F and Fw 190A. Nonetheless the fighters' speed advantage was slim enough that by the time those aircraft could reach interception altitude, the Mosquito would have completed its bombing run and would be racing for home. Advancements in German fighters eventually outpaced performance improvements in the Mosquito, but it was always an elusive target even in daylight. At night, however, no Luftwaffe aircraft even came close. At the time the Mosquito was introduced, most of the dedicated night fighter groups were equipped with aircraft like the Bf 110 or Junkers Ju 88 of much lower performance. Although there were several attempts to address this by introducing a new night fighter of greatly improved performance, a variety of problems from engine troubles to the intensifying Allied bombing campaign meant that they never matured. The Heinkel He 219 and Junkers Ju 388, that were technically the Mosquito's equal, simply did not enter large-scale production. Their tiny numbers meant they were never a serious threat, and in the night bombing role, the Mosquito went largely unopposed for the entire war. With the introduction of the nitrous oxide boosted Bf 109s and the jet-powered Me 262 late in the war, the Luftwaffe had interceptors with a clear speed advantage over the Mosquito. On 25 July 1944, a Mosquito from No. 544 Squadron became the first Allied victim of the Me 262 turbojet fighter. On that day, Leutnant Alfred Schreiber, flying 262 A-1a W.Nr. 130 017, caught and severely damaged the Mosquito in a pursuit. The Mosquito, which managed to escape into cloud, later crashed at its destination airfield in Italy, and the airframe was written off. Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 51. Morgan and Weal 1998, pp. 16–17. The PR Mk 32 photo reconnaissance version of the Mosquito attempted to counter this threat with extended, long-span wings, special high-altitude superchargers and the elimination of as much weight as possible, raising its cruising altitude to 42,000 ft (13,000 m), well above the service ceiling of the Me 262. While at least one PR Mk 32 aircraft was intercepted by FW 190s after losing an engine and descending to a lower altitude, it managed to escape, and none have appeared to have been lost in combat. RAF bomber operations Mosquito FB VI The first bomber squadrons to receive the Mosquito B IV used it for several low-level daylight raids throughout the summer of 1942. On 29 August 1942 Mk IVS of 105 Squadron RAF undertook a bombing mission against Pont-à-Vendin. They were attacked by Focke-Wulf Fw 190s. The Fw 190s attacked head-on before trying turning to attack from the stern. The Mosquitos used their speed to outpace the 190s. On 19 September Mosquitos attacked Berlin for the first time in daylight. Once again, when a Mosquito piloted by D.A.G George Parry was attacked by Messerschmitt Bf 109s, the pursuing fighters were outrun. One Mosquito failed to return. Bowman 2005, p. 34. One of the first was the Oslo raid on 25 September 1942, carried out by four aircraft of No. 105 Squadron RAF, after which the Mosquito was publicly revealed for the first time. Bowman 1998, p. 13. Another notable daylight mission was carried out in the morning of 30 January 1943, against a Nazi rally in Berlin, giving the lie to the speaker's (Reichmarschall Hermann Göring's) claim that such a mission was impossible. The radio station was put out of action for an hour. Not content with this, Mosquitos from 139 Squadron also went to Berlin in the afternoon of the same day and tried to interrupt an important speech by Joseph Goebbels, the Third Reich's Propaganda Minister. One Mosquito was lost on the afternoon raid. Bowman 2005, p. 37. Mosquito bomber versions were used as part of Bomber Command; the Pathfinders in No. 8 Group and the Light Night Strike Force (LNSF). The LNSF carried out high speed night raids with precision aiming and navigation. Their mission was twofold: they targeted small but vital installations; and acted as a diversion from the raids of the heavy bombers, simulating large formations through the use of chaff. On nights when no heavy bomber raid was planned, the LNSF would often strike to deny the German air defences a rest. As part of 8 Group Mosquitos took part in many bombing operations as pathfinders, marking targets accurately with flares for later attack by massive formations of heavy bombers. Bomber Command Mosquitos flew over 28,000 operations, dropping 35,000 tons (31,751 tonnes) of bombs, and losing just 193 aircraft in the process (a loss rate of 0.7%, compared to a 2.2% loss rate for the four engined heavies). It has been calculated that a Mosquito could be loaded with a . "cookie" bomb, fly to Germany, drop the bomb, return, bomb up and refuel, fly to Germany again and drop a second bomb and return, and still land before a Stirling (the slowest of Bomber Command's four-engined bombers) which left at the same time armed with a full bomb load, could strike Germany. A Mosquito IX also holds the record for the most missions flown by an Allied bomber in the Second World War. LR503, "F for Freddie", first serving with 109 and subsequently 105 Squadron, flew 213 sorties during the war, only to crash on 10 May 1945, two days after VE Day at Calgary airport during a victory tour, an accident attributed to pilot error. 618 Squadron - Highball and the Pacific At the same time that Barnes Wallis was designing the famous Upkeep to destroy German dams he also designed a smaller version — Highball — for attacks on enemy shipping. Thirsk 2006, pp. 78–81. The Weapons of Barnes Wallis. It was decided that the Mosquito was an ideal aircraft to carry two of these Bouncing bomb weapons in modified bomb bays. To this end 618 Squadron was formed in great secrecy on 1 April 1943, as part of Coastal Command. 618 Squadron's specialist role was to attack German shipping, with priority being accorded to the German battleship . The Mosquito selected for the conversion work to carry Highball was the Mk IV series II: the work entailed removing the bomb bay doors and equipping the aircraft with specialised carriers enabling them to carry two Highballs, each weighing 1,280 lb (580 kg), in tandem. The bombs were designed to skip across water and to provide weapon stability and accuracy. Before release they were spun backwards at 700 to 900 rpm by a ram air turbine mounted in the bomb bay's mid section, fed by an extendable air scoop. The bombs were to be dropped from a maximum altitude of 60 ft (20 m) at a speed of 360 mph (600 km/h). In the event, through lack of weapons, training and aircraft, 618 Squadron was kept frustratingly inactive and never attacked Tirpitz. Instead the unit was selected for carrier-borne operations in the Pacific. For this role 25 Mosquito B Mk IVs were further modified: Each aircraft was equipped with Merlin 25s, adapted to provide peak power at low altitudes, driving four-bladed Rotol propellers: these propellers had narrower blades than the standard three-bladed units, meaning that the engines would rev up faster and respond quicker to throttle movement, factors vital in the limited length of carrier take-offs. Longer intakes under the engine cowlings were fitted with tropical filters. The undercarriage legs were made of heavier-gauge metals and the wheels were fitted with the twin brake units of FB Mk VIs. The rear fuselages were structurally modified with a special internal longeron and reinforced bulkheads designed to take the additional loads imposed by carrier landings: an additional bulkhead (No. 5a) was fitted. Externally a "vee frame" arrestor hook was fitted. The "snap gear" which released the hook was operated by a Bowden cable from a lever mounted on the cockpit port side. An access hatch was moved from the starboard rear fuselage to underneath, and an extra longitudinal stiffening strake, identical to that already fitted to the starboard side of production Mosquitos, was fitted to the port fuselage. The tailwheel fork pivots incorporated end plates to avoid being caught in the arrestor cables. Armoured windscreens were fitted, along with hydraulic wipers. Three P R Mk XVIs, which were to be used for reconnaissance duties were also fitted with the four bladed propellers and fuselage modifications for carrier operations. These Mosquitos were transported to Australia on board the carriers and , arriving on 23 December 1944. In order to keep up aircrew proficiency and safeguard the modified Mosquitos 12 disassembled FB Mk VIs were also sent, arriving in Sydney in February 1945. These were reassembled at de Havilland Australia's Mascot factory. Once again, because of political-strategic infighting between the British Pacific Fleet and the U.S. military, the unit was never in action, and was disbanded at RAAF Narromine in July 1946. The converted Mosquitos were stripped of all military equipment and sold off. The sole surviving 618 Squadron Mosquito, an FB Mk VI HR621, is currently undergoing restoration at the Camden Aviation Museum, NSW. Mosquito Photos Night fighter The use of the Mosquito as a night fighter came about when the Air Ministry project for a night fighter (based on the Gloster F.9/37) was terminated so that Gloster could concentrate on jet aircraft development. Buttler, Tony. Secret Projects: British Fighters and Bombers 1935–1950 (British Secret Projects 3). Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-85780-179-2. The first fighter Mosquito introduced into service was the NF Mk II in mid-1942, with four 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano cannon in the fuselage belly and four .303 in. (7.7 mm) Browning machine-guns mounted in the nose. It carried Aircraft Interception radar (AI) Mk IV / Mk V when operating as a defensive night fighter over the UK, although at the time this was omitted from Mk IIs operating as night "Intruders", roaming over Europe at night to cause maximum disruption to lines of communications and flying operations. Sharp and Bowyer, 1971, pp. 338–339. These were fitted with a device called Serrate to allow them to track down German night fighters by emissions from their own Lichtenstein B/C, C-1, or SN-2, as well as a device codenamed Perfectos that tracked emissions from German IFF systems. On 30 May 1942, the NF Mk II scored its first kill Sharp and Bowyer, 1971, pp. 152, 454. , a Dornier Do 217 of Kampfgeschwader 2 Bowman 2005, p. 173. , and by the end of the war, Mosquito night fighters had claimed approximately 600 enemy aircraft, along with 600 V-1 flying bombs. Among this total were 68 single-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 190s. Bowman 2005, p. 173-189. This variant also operated over Malta, Italy, Sicily and North Africa from late 1942 on. The Mosquito NF XII became the first aircraft to carry the highly effective centimetric radar. From early 1944, the Mosquito also operated in the bomber support role with Bomber Command's 100 Group, their task being to harass the Luftwaffe NachtJagd (night fighters) attacking the bomber streams over Germany. The Mosquito squadrons of 100 Group used several different marks of Mosquitos for different purposes: N.F XIXs and NF 30s were used for dedicated night fighter operations providing escort for the bomber streams; F. Mk IIs and FB Mk VIs were used for "Flower" (patrolling enemy airfields well ahead of the bomber stream and dropping bombs to keep enemy night fighters on the ground as well as attacking night fighters in the landing pattern) and "Mahmoud" operations (Mahmouds were mounted independently of Bomber Command activity whereby Mosquitos flew to known assembly points for German night fighters (usually visual or radio beacons) and attacked any in the area); B Mk IVs and P.R Mk XVIs were used for Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) operations, using special equipment to detect and identify German radar and radio transmissions. Some 258 Luftwaffe night fighters were claimed destroyed by the Group, for the loss of some 70 Mosquitos. The omnipresence of the potent night fighter threat led to what the Luftwaffe crews dubbed "Moskitoschreck" (Mosquito terror), as the German aircrews were never sure when or where they might come under attack from the marauding 100 Group fighters, and indirectly led to a high proportion of aircraft and crew losses from crashes as night fighters hurried in to land to avoid the Mosquito threat (real or imagined). Mosquito night fighters continued to operate over Europe until the end of the war with a low casualty rate, in spite of the efforts of the Heinkel He 219-equipped units and Messerschmitt 262 jet fighters which were flown at night by pilots from 10./NJG 11. The commander of this unit, Oberleutnant Kurt Welter, claimed perhaps 25 Mosquitos shot down by night and two further Mosquitos by day while flying the Me 262, adding to his previous seven Mosquito kills in "hot-rodded" Bf 109G-6/AS or Fw 190 A-8 fighters. From September 1944 through to May 1945 a total of 92 night-flying Mosquitos of all marks on bombing, target marking, intruder and night fighter operations were lost. Sharpe and Bowyer 1971 As far as can be ascertained, three of his Me 262 claims over Mosquitos coincide with RAF records. Hinchcliffe 1996 Fighter-bomber versions Operational experience in its varied roles quickly led to the development of a versatile fighter-bomber version; the FB VI, which first saw service in early 1943. The Mark VI had a strengthened wing for external loads and along with its standard fighter armament could carry two bombs in the rear of the bomb bay and two bombs under the wings, or eight wing-mounted rockets. Later up-engined versions could carry bombs. The FB VI became the most numerous version of the Mosquito (2,292 built), equipping the day bomber 2 Group, the intruder squadrons of Fighter Command and 2nd Tactical Air Force, and the strike wings of Coastal Command, who used the variant as a potent anti-shipping aircraft armed with eight "60 lb" rockets. Mosquito FB.VI of 613 (City of Manchester) Squadron wearing 'D-Day stripes' at RAF Lasham in June 1944 One of the higher risk uses of the fighter-bomber Mosquito FB VI was by 21 Sqn., 464(RAAF) Squadron and 487(NZ) Squadron of No. 2 Group, 2nd Tactical Air Force in Operation Jericho, a mission to destroy the walls and guards' quarters of Amiens prison to allow members of the French Resistance to escape. In the aftermath of the operation the Mosquito of Group Captain Percy Pickard was shot down. Bowan 2005, p. 78. On 11 April 1944, after a request by Dutch resistance workers, six Mosquito FB VIs of No. 613 (City of Manchester) Squadron made a pinpoint daylight attack at rooftop height on the Kunstzaal Kleizkamp Art Gallery in The Hague, Netherlands, which was being used by the Gestapo to store the Dutch Central Population Registry. The first two aircraft dropped high explosive bombs, to "open up" the building, their bombs going in through the doors and windows. The other crews then dropped incendiary bombs, and the records were destroyed. Only persons in the building were killed - nearby civilians in a bread queue were unharmed. Scholefield 1998, pp. 50–51. On 21 March 1945, another similar raid, Operation Carthage, again by 21 Sqn., 464(RAAF) Sqn. and 487(NZ) Sqn. involved a very low-level bombing attack on the Gestapo headquarters in the Shellhus, near the centre of Copenhagen, Denmark. The attack had been requested several times by members of the Danish resistance, but was initially deemed too dangerous by the RAF. Twenty Mosquitos were involved, split into three attack waves. They were escorted by 30 RAF Mustangs. The main attack on the Gestapo headquarters caused the death of 55 German soldiers and 47 Danes working for the Gestapo, together with destruction of the Gestapo records in the headquarters. Eight Gestapo prisoners were killed while 18 prisoners escaped. A Mosquito flying in the first wave of the attack struck a tall lamp-post and crashed into a nearby Catholic school (the French school). Mosquitos of the third wave bombed this area by mistake, killing 86 children, 10 nuns, 8 teachers, and 21 other civilians; no civilians had been killed during the main attack. Four Mosquitos were lost and nine pilots/crew members died. The attack saved the lives of many resistance workers as the Gestapo archives and organisation were severely damaged. The Bombing of the Shellhus The famous RAF 617 squadron (Dambusters), while mainly equipped with Lancaster bombers, also employed the Mosquito for precision target marking. According to "The Dam Busters", Group Captain Leonard Cheshire developed a dive-bombing method of marking targets in advance of the main squadron, to allow the main bombers to strike from high altitude. Cheshire initially used his own Lancaster for this approach, but switched to the Mosquito as being a more suitable aircraft. These Mosquito missions contributed to Cheshire winning the Victoria Cross in recognition of his sustained courage throughout the war. Photo reconnaissance The Mosquito was used throughout the war for photo-reconnaissance missions, using modified day bomber, photo-reconnaissance, and high-altitude, long-range (PR Mk 32 and PR Mk 34) photo-reconnaissance aircraft types. Many of these aircraft missions set altitude and distance records for twin-engined, piston-engined aircraft. The PR.34, a photo reconnaissance version of the Mosquito, could reach , placing it among the fastest piston-engined aircraft of World War II. dhmosquito.com . De Havilland Mosquito. Retrieved on May 23, 2009. In 1945, an RAF PR Mk XVI Mosquito of Eastern Air Command operating out of airfields in Burma set a twin-engine record on a single photo-reconnaissance mission covering in 8 hours and 50 minutes. IBT Roundup, Far-Flying EAC Men Set Distance Record, Vol. III, No. 30 (5 April 1945) The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) ordered 120 Mosquitos for photographic reconnaissance, but only 40 were delivered and given the U.S. designation F-8 (six Canadian-built B Mk VII and 34 B Mk XX). Only 16 reached Europe, where 11 were turned over to the RAF and five were sent to Italy. The RAF provided 145 PR Mk XVI aircraft to the Eighth Air Force between 22 April 1944 and the end of the war. These were used for a variety of photographic and night reconnaissance missions. USAAF In addition to photo-reconnaissance missions, the USAAF employed its PR Mk XVI Mosquitos as chaff dispensers; as scouts for the heavy bomber force; on "Red Stocking" OSS missions; on weather observation flights, and as H2X Mickey platforms by the 802d Reconnaissance Group (Provisional), later re-named the 25th Bomb Group (Reconnaissance). The 25th BG flew 3,246 sorties and lost 29 PR Mk XVIs on operations. BOAC Between 1943 and the end of the war, Mosquitos were used as transport aircraft on a regular route over the North Sea between Leuchars in Scotland and Stockholm. Lockheed Hudsons and Lodestars were also used but these slower aircraft could only fly this route at night or in bad weather to avoid the risk of being shot down. During the long daylight hours of the Northern summer, the Mosquito was the only safe alternative. Because Sweden was neutral, the aircraft carried civilian markings and were operated by crews who were nominally "civilian employees" of BOAC. They carried small, high value cargoes such as precision ball bearings and machine-tool steel. Occasionally, important passengers were carried in an improvised cabin in the bomb bay, one notable passenger being the physicist Niels Bohr, who was evacuated from Stockholm in 1943. The flight almost ended in tragedy as Bohr did not don his oxygen equipment as instructed, and passed out. He would have died had not the pilot, surmising from Bohr's lack of response to intercom communication that he had lost consciousness, descended to a lower altitude for the remainder of the flight. Bohr's comment was that he had slept like a baby for the entire flight. Post-World War II Mosquitos flying with the Israeli Air Force saw action during the 1956 Suez Crisis. Although, at the time, the Mosquito was being taken out of service, 13 aircraft of various marks were taken out of storage. An additional 13 TR.33 ex Fleet Air Arm Mosquitos Mosquitos were purchased from a British scrap dealer in 1954 and delivered via Blackbushe Airport in early 1955. Sweden purchased 60 ex-RAF Mk XIX Mosquitos in 1948 to be used as a night fighter under the J 30 designation. The aircraft were assigned to F 1 Hässlö, thereby becoming the first (and only) dedicated night fighter unit of the Swedish Air Force. Its Mosquitos were replaced by jet fighters, de Havilland Venom Mk 51s, (designated J 33) in 1953. One-third of the J 30s crashed or broke down during service, mainly due to rudder problems. Swedish Air Force General Björn Bjuggren wrote in his memoirs that mechanical problems in the swivelling nose-mounted radar antenna caused destructive vibrations that broke apart one or two J 30s in the air. The Belgian Air Force operated 24 Mosquito NF.30 between 1949 and 1956. They were flown by 10 Smaldeel of 1 Wing based at Beauvechain until they were replaced in the night fighter role by Gloster Meteor NF.11s. MB-24 survives on display in the aviation museum in Brussels. During 1954, the Belgian Air Force also received three Mosquito FB.6 which had been converted to the target tug role. Scholefield, 1998, p. 38 Production Total Mosquito production was 7,781 of which 6,710 were built during the war. De Havilland accounted for 5,007 aircraft built in three factories in the United Kingdom. Mosquitos were also built by Airspeed Ltd, Percival Aircraft Company and Standard Motors. The Canadian and Australian arms of de Havilland produced 1,134 and 212 aircraft respectively. The ferry operation of the Mosquito from Canada to the war front was problematic, as a small fraction of the aircraft would mysteriously disappear over the mid-Atlantic. The theory of "auto-explosion" was offered, and, although a concentrated effort at de Havilland Canada to address production problems with engine and oil systems reduced the number of aircraft lost, it was unclear as to the actual cause of the losses. The company introduced an additional five hours flight testing to "clear" production aircraft before the ferry flight. By the end of the war, nearly 500 Mosquito bombers and fighter-bombers were delivered successfully by the Canadian operation. Hotson 1983, pp. 77–87. The last Mosquito was completed in November 1950; an NF Mk 38 built at Broughton near Chester, England. Notable pilots Bob Braham – The most highly decorated RAF airman of the Second World War and a top night fighter ace. Eric "Winkle" Brown – the test pilot credited in the Guinness Book of Records as having flown the greatest number of aircraft types in the world, was also the first pilot to land a Mosquito on an aircraft carrier (25 March 1944); previously the only British carrier aircraft had been single-engined and half the weight. Branse Burbridge – the RAF highest scoring Mosquito night fighter ace Leonard Cheshire VC – British No. 617 Squadron RAF commander (and successor to Guy Gibson); one of the most distinguished exponents of precision marking and of the Pathfinders; he later distinguished himself by devoting his life to the care of the disabled and terminally ill and founded the Cheshire Homes. Cheshire's 1944 VC cited his dive over Munich in a Mosquito, enduring "withering" fire for many minutes. Daily Mail Sidney Cotton – Australian spy and photographic reconnaissance pioneer John "Cats Eyes" Cunningham – British night fighter pilot Geoffrey de Havilland Jr – son of the founder and chief test pilot of the firm, carried out the maiden flight of the de Havilland Mosquito. Bill Edrich – English international cricketer, who played against Miller. Graduated from Blenheims to Mosquitos. Was awarded the DFC and became a Squadron Leader. Guy Gibson – British 617 Sqn commander; killed when his Mosquito crashed in the Netherlands while returning to England from a mission. Kirk Kerkorian – Worked as a ferry pilot for Mosquitos from Canada to Britain and elsewhere during WWII. The North Atlantic route was dangerous; the pay was high — $1000 per trip. Kirk Kerkorian with a section of the Las Vegas Review-Journal book, The Top 100, citing a 1974 biography by Dial Torgerson Kerkorian, An American Success Story. Keith Miller – Australian international cricketer, regarded by many as the greatest Australian all-rounder. In later life when asked how he dealt with pressure on the cricket field, Miller replied: "Pressure is [having] a Messerschmitt up your arse, playing cricket is not." Bolesław Orliński DFC – famous Polish pilot who flew a Breguet 19 from Warsaw-Tokyo-Warsaw in 1926 and, with a PZL P.24, set a speed record on 28 June 1934. Commanding officer of Polish 305 Squadron, he flew a Mosquito in a mission against German prison camp in Lille and a large German fuel dump at Nomexy. Percy Charles Pickard DFC, DSO, and 2 bars – English Group Captain who starred in film Target for Tonight early in the war. Later became Group Captain and was shot down and killed during Operation Jericho, the raid on Amiens Prison. Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema – Dutch resistance fighter and secret agent flew 72 sorties for the 139th Pathfinder squadron and wrote Soldier of Orange. Kenneth Wolstenholme – a Flight Lieutenant in No. 105 Squadron RAF. He later became the presenter and commentator on the BBC Match of the Day football programme. He spoke the widely repeated words "some people are on the pitch ... they think it's all over... it is now" as Geoff Hurst scored the fourth goal in England's 4-2 World Cup Final win over West Germany in 1966. Variants Prototypes A Mosquito PR41 restored to display standard at the Australian War Memorial. The first prototype to fly (E-0234 later W4050) being restored at the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre near St Albans. The original Mosquito design dated from 1938, but it was not until March 1940 that there was sufficient interest in the aircraft for construction to commence. Three prototypes were built, each with a different configuration. The first to fly was the bomber prototype W4050 on 25 November 1940, followed by the night fighter model on 15 May 1941 and the photo-reconnaissance model on 10 June 1941. Mosquito Mk I : First prototype aircraft. Mosquito Mk II : Second prototype aircraft. Photo-reconnaissance aircraft The photo-reconnaissance model became the basis for the Mosquito PR Mk I, while the bomber model became the Mosquito B Mk IV, of which 273 were built. The first operational sortie by a Mosquito was made by a PR Mk I on 20 September 1941, and the Mk IV entered service in May 1942 with No. 105 Squadron. The B Mk IV could accommodate 4 × 500 lb (227 kg) bombs in the bomb bay, and either two drop tanks or two additional bombs on wing hardpoints. Mosquito PR Mk IV : This designation was given to 32 Mosquito B.Mk IV bombers, converted into two-seat photo-reconnaissance aircraft. Mosquito PR Mk VIII : Photo-reconnaissance version. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines. 25 built. Mosquito PR Mk IX : Photo-reconnaissance version based on the Mosquito B.Mk IX bomber aircraft. Powered by two 1,680 hp (1,253 kW) Merlin 72 piston engines. Mosquito PR Mk XVI: Photo-reconnaissance version. Pressurised cockpit, 3 additional fuel tanks in bomb bay. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 72/73 or 76/77 piston engines. 435 built. Mosquito PR Mk 32 : Long-range, high-altitude photo-reconnaissance version. Powered by two 1,960 hp (1,260 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 32 piston engines. Five conversions. Mosquito PR Mk 34 : Very long-range photo-reconnaissance version. Addition fuel was carried in a bulged bomb-bay. 50 built. Bomber aircraft The Mosquito B Mk IX was a high-altitude bomber variant, but the most numerous bomber version was the Mosquito B Mk XVI of which about 1,200 were built. The Mosquito bombers could carry a "blockbuster" bomb in their internal bomb bay. This required a bulged bomb bay which could alternatively accommodate up to six bombs on an Avro carrier. Mosquitos were widely used by the RAF Pathfinder Force which marked targets for night-time strategic bombing. Despite an initially high loss rate, the Mosquito ended the war with the lowest losses of any aircraft in RAF Bomber Command service. Post war, the RAF found that when finally applied to bombing, in terms of useful damage done, the Mosquito had proved 4.95 times cheaper than the Lancaster AVIA 46/116 ; and they never specified a defensive gun on a bomber thereafter. Special Luftwaffe units (Jagdgeschwader 25 and Jagdgeschwader 50) were formed to combat the Mosquito attacks, though they were rather unsuccessful and the Luftwaffe considered the Mosquito a superior implementation of their own "Schnellbomber" concept. Mosquito B Mk V : One prototype bomber aircraft fitted with underwing pylons. One built. Mosquito B Mk 35 : Long-range high-altitude bomber version. Fitted with a pressurised cockpit, 122 built. Fighter Aircraft Developed during 1940, the Mosquito F Mk II was developed and the first prototype was completed on 15 May 1941. These aircraft were fitted with four 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano cannon in the fuselage belly and four .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns mounted in the nose. This fit required the movement of the crew ingress/egress door from the bottom to the right side of the nose. The aircraft also featured a modified windscreen, with flat bulletproof panels in front,. Scutts 1993, pp. 4–5. Night fighter aircraft The first production night fighter Mosquitos were designated the Mosquito NF Mk II. A total of 466 were built with the first entering service with No. 157 Squadron in January 1942, replacing the Douglas Havoc. These aircraft were similar to the F Mk II, but were fitted with the AI Mk IV metric wavelength radar. The herring-bone transmit antenna was mounted on the nose and the dipole receive antennae were carried under the outer wings. Scutts 1993, p. 7. A number of NF IIs had their radar equipment removed and additional fuel tanks installed for use as night intruders. These aircraft, designated NF II (Special) were first used by 23 Squadron in operations over Europe in 1942. Sharp and Bowyer 1971, pp. 338–339. No. 23 Squadron was then deployed to Malta on 20 December 1942, and operated against targets in Italy. Scutts 1993, p. 8. 97 NF Mk IIs were upgraded with centrimetric AI Mk VIII radar and these were designated the Mosquito NF.Mk XII. The Mosquito NF Mk XIII, of which 270 were built, was the production equivalent of the Mk XII conversions. The centimetric radar sets were mounted in a solid "thimble" (Mk XII / XIII) or "bull nose" (Mk XVII / XIX) radome, which required the machine guns to be dispensed with. The other night fighter variants were the Mk XV, Mk XVII (converted Mk IIs), Mk XIX and Mk 30. The last three marks mounted the U.S.-built AI Mk X radar. Mosquito NF Mk X: Unbuilt night fighter version. Mosquito NF Mk XI: Unbuilt night fighter version. Mosquito NF Mk XIV: Unbuilt night fighter version. Mosquito NF Mk XV: This designation was given to five Mosquito B.Mk IV bombers, which were converted into two-seat high-altitude night fighters. Mosquito NF Mk XVII: Designation for 99 NF.II conversions, with single-stage Merlin 21, 22, or 23 engines, but British AI.X (US SCR-720) radar. Mosquito NF Mk XIX: Improved version of the Mosquito NF XIII night fighter aircraft. It could be fitted with American or British AI radars. 220 built. Mosquito NF Mk 30: High-altitude night fighter version. Powered by two 1,710 hp (1,275 kW) Roll-Royce Merlin 76 piston engines, enabling a top speed at . Sharp and Bowyer, 1971, p. 434. It also carried early electronic countermeasures equipment. 526 built. Mosquito NF Mk 31: Unbuilt night fighter version. After the war, two more night fighter versions were developed, the NF Mk 36 and the NF Mk 38. Mosquito NF Mk 36: Similar to the mosquito NF.Mk 30 night fighter, but fitted with the American-built AI.Mk X radar. Powered by two 1,690 hp (1,260 kW) Roll-Royce Merlin 113/114 piston engines. 266 built. Mosquito NF Mk 38: Similar to the Mosquito NF.Mk 30 night fighter, but fitted with the British-built AI Mk IX radar. 50 built. To warn German night fighters that they were being tracked by these radars, the Germans introduced Naxos ZR radar detectors. Mosquito night intruders of No. 100 Group RAF, Bomber Command, were also fitted with a device called "Serrate" to allow them to track down German night fighters from their Lichtenstein B/C and SN-2 radar emissions, as well as a device named "Perfectos" that tracked German IFF. Fighter-bomber aircraft The most numerous Mosquito variant was the FB Mk VI fighter-bomber of which 2,718 were built. Originally converted from a Mk II, the Mk VI first flew in February 1943. Designed for a fighter-bomber role, the Mk VI could carry two 250 lb (113 kg) or two "short-fin" 500 lb (227 kg) bombs in the internal bomb bay as well as two more bombs under the wings. From early 1944, Coastal Command operated Mk VIs armed with eight "60 lb" (27 kg) rockets to carry out anti-shipping strikes. Other fighter-bomber variants were the Mosquito FB Mk XVIII (sometimes known as the Tsetse) of which 27 were made by converting Mk VIs. These were fitted with a Molins 57 mm (2.24 in) '6-pounder Class M' cannon, a QF 6-pounder anti-tank gun modified with an auto-loader to allow both semi- or fully-automatic fire, in the nose, along with two .303 in (7.7 mm) sighting machine guns. The Air Ministry initially suspected that this variant would not work, but mock tests proved otherwise. Although the gun provided the Mosquito with yet more anti-shipping firepower to pit against U-boats, it required a steady and vulnerable approach-run to aim and fire the gun, thus making rockets more effective, especially because Mosquitos without the 6-pounder didn't suffer the weight penalty of the gun. The effect of the new weapon was demonstrated on 10 March 1944 when four Mk VIs escorting XVIIIs from 248 Squadron engaged a German convoy of one U-Boat and four destroyers, protected by 10 Ju 88s. Three of the Ju 88s were shot down. Pilot Tony Phillips destroyed one Ju 88 with four shells. One of which tore the engine off the Ju 88. The U-Boat was damaged. On 25 March U-976 was sunk by Molins equipped Mosquitos. Bowman 2005, pp. 106–106. On 10 June, U-821 was abandoned in the face of intense air attack from No. 248 Squadron, and was later sunk by a B-24 Liberator of No. 206 Squadron. Bowman 2005, p. 108. Despite the preference for rockets, a further development of the idea was carried out using the even larger 32-pounder, a gun based on the QF 3.7 inch AA gun, the airborne version using a novel form of muzzle brake. Developed to prove the feasibility of using such a large weapon in the Mosquito, this installation was not completed until after the war when it was flown and fired in a single aircraft without problems before being scrapped. The FB Mk 26 and FB Mk 40, based on the Mk VI, were built in Canada and Australia and were powered by Packard-built Merlin engines. All the fighter variants shared a number of common features. They had a flat, single-piece armoured windscreen and the pilot was provided with a fighter-style control stick rather than a wheel. The guns in the nose also meant that the bomber variants' entry hatch in the nose had to be relocated to a door on the starboard side, forward of the leading edge. Training aircraft The Mosquito was also built as a trainer. Mosquito T Mk III : Two-seat training version. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 21 piston engines. 348 of the T Mk III were built for the RAF and Fleet Air Arm. de Havilland Australia built 11 T Mk 43 trainers, similar to the Mk III. Canadian-built aircraft A total of 1,133 Mosquito Aircraft Production at Downview by Richard Banigan (to 1945) Mosquitos were built by De Havilland Canada at Downsview Airfield in Downsview Ontario (now Downsview Park in Toronto Ontario) Mosquito B Mk VII : Canadian version based on the Mosquito B Mk V bomber aircraft. Powered by two 1,418 hp (1,057 kW) Packard Merlin 31 piston engines, 25 built. Mosquito B Mk XX : Canadian version of the Mosquito B Mk IV bomber aircraft, 145 built, of which 40 were converted into F-8 photo-reconnaissance aircraft for the USAAF. Mosquito FB Mk 21 : Canadian version of the Mosquito FB Mk VI fighter-bomber aircraft. Powered by two 1,460 hp (1,089 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines, three built. Mosquito T Mk 22 : Canadian version of the Mosquito T Mk III training aircraft. Mosquito B Mk 23 : Unbuilt bomber version. Mosquito FB Mk 24 : Canadian fighter-bomber version. Powered by two 1,620 hp (1,208 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 301 piston engines, two built. Mosquito B Mk 25 : Improved version of the Mosquito B Mk XX Bomber aircraft. Powered by two 1,620 hp (1,208 kW) Packard Merlin 225 piston engines, 400 built. Mosquito FB Mk 26 : Improved version of the Mosquito FB Mk 21 fighter-bomber aircraft. Powered by two 1,620 hp (1,208 kW) Packard Merlin 225 piston engines, 338 built. Mosquito T Mk 27 : Canadian-built training aircraft. Mosquito T Mk 29 : A number of FB Mk 26 fighters were converted into T Mk 29 trainers. Torpedo reconnaissance fighter aircraft To meet specification N.15/44 for Royal Navy use, de Havilland produced a carrier-borne variant. This resulted in 50 Sea Mosquito TR Mk 33s which featured folding wings, a thimble nose radome and fuselage hardpoints for mounting torpedoes. These were followed by 14 Sea Mosquito TR Mk 37s, which differed in having ASV Mk. XIII radar instead of the TR.33's AN/APS-6. Target tug aircraft The Royal Navy also operated the Mosquito TT Mk 39 for target towing. A number of B Mk XVIs bombers were converted into TT.Mk 39 target tug aircraft. The RAF's target tug version was the Mosquito TT Mk 35 which were the last aircraft to remain in operational service, finally being retired in 1956. Australian-built aircraft Mosquito FB Mk 40 : Two-seat fighter-bomber version for the RAAF. Powered by two 1,460 hp (1,089 kW) Roll-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines. A total of 178 built in Australia. Mosquito PR Mk 40 : This designation was given to six FB Mk 40s, which were converted into photo-reconnaissance aircraft. Mosquito FB Mk 41 : Two-seat fighter-bomber version for the RAAF. A total of 11 built in Australia. Mosquito PR Mk 41 : Two-seat photo-survey version for the RAAF. A total of 17 built in Australia. Mosquito FB Mk 42 : Two-seat fighter-bomber version. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 69 piston engines. One FB Mk 40 aircraft was converted into a Mosquito FB Mk 42. Mosquito T Mk 43 : Two-seat training version for the RAAF. A total of 11 FB Mk 40s were converted into Mosquito T Mk 43s. Operators (Night Fighters Sw designation: J30) Survivors Mosquito B Mk 35 (RS712) at the AirVenture Museum, Oshkosh, Wisconsin de Havilland Mosquito B 35 (VP189)(reconfigured to a FB VI, on display at the Alberta Aviation Museum) in Edmonton. Alberta There are believed to be around 30 preserved examples at various collections including the Royal Air Force Museum at Hendon and another (KB336) at the Canadian Aviation Museum in Ottawa. The wooden construction makes restoration difficult. As of 2004, the original prototype, serial number W4050, was undergoing a detailed conservation programme at the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre in Hertfordshire, UK. The centre also holds Mosquito FB6, TA122, currently undergoing extensive restoration, and Mosquito B35 TA634. It also holds the remains of a further B35, the badly damaged fuselage of TJ118. A restored example is currently on display in the World War II gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force. This Mosquito is a British-built B Mk 35 manufactured in 1946, later converted for target-towing, and is similar to the PR Mk XVIs used by the AAF. Having been flown to the Museum in February 1985, suffering several breakdowns along the way and taking many months to arrive, this aircraft has now been restored to a Mk XVI configuration and painted to represent a weather reconnaissance aircraft of the 653rd Bomb Squadron, 25th Bomb Group, based in England in 1944-1945. Another Mosquito is currently under restoration, involving the fabrication of new fuselage sections by volunteers at the Royal Australian Air Force Museum in Point Cook, Victoria, Australia. Given the poor state of the aircraft (PR XVI A52-600) when obtained and the nature of the aircraft's fabrication, along with money and labour issues at the museum, it is estimated that it will be in excess of 10 years before this Mosquito is complete. The last Mosquito known to be airworthy (serial number RR299), a T Mk III built By D.H. at Leavesden in Spring 1945, crashed on 21 July 1996 with the loss of both crew after suffering an engine power loss when performing a wing-over manoeuvre at Barton Aerodrome air show, near Barton, Greater Manchester. Several potential and current restorations to airworthiness exist. Glyn Powell located in Papakura, New Zealand has built a mould for the wooden fuselage, and the Canadian Historical Aircraft Association (CHAA) bought the very first fuselage ever sold. Glynn has also supplied a fuselage to Avspecs as well as the main wing which was delivered in October 2007. A flying replica using new wood but otherwise original parts (from T.43 NZ2305) is under construction by Glyn for his own use. Another in New Zealand, KA114, has been restored for American collector Jerry Yagen by Avspecs, and it has become the first airworthy Mosquito since 1996. It was intended to have the aircraft flying at the 2009 Classic Fighters airshow in New Zealand. Unfortunately, this goal was not achieved. The Mosquito B 35 (RS712) held in the Experimental Aircraft Association, Oshkosh, Wisconsin, USA was airworthy when owner Kermit Weeks loaned it to the museum. However it has not flown since 1996. During 1963 Lynn Garrison purchased a B 35 Mosquito RS700/CF-HMS from Spartan Air Services as part of his collection of historic aircraft. It was disassembled by volunteers at DeHavilland of Canada and transported to Calgary, Alberta, where it remains in storage awaiting restoration to static display condition. The CHAA based in Windsor, Ontario is building a Mosquito from scratch. They have two unused engines still in the crates and some parts retrieved from a crash in the Arctic. In Vancouver B.C., Mosquito VR796 (CF-HML) is currently under restoration at the Vancouver South Airport area. This is an ex-Spartan Air Services Aircraft and is a postwar B Mk35. It is in excellent condition and not far from becoming airworthy. Specifications (DH.98 Mosquito F. Mk II) (DH.98 Mosquito B Mk XVI) Popular culture De Havilland Mosquitos feature prominently in the 1964 film 633 Squadron alongside actors Cliff Robertson and Harry Andrews. The film was notable for its use of genuine, airworthy aircraft, rather than models, for many of the scenes. Mosquitos also play the title role of the 1969 film Mosquito Squadron, starring David McCallum and Charles Gray. See also Notable operations Oslo Mosquito raid Operation Jericho Operation Carthage Related References Notes Bibliography Birtles, Philip. Mosquito: A Pictorial History of the DH98. London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd., 1980. ISBN 0-531-03714-2. Bishop, Edward. The Wooden Wonder. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 3rd edition 1995. ISBN 1-85310-708-5. Bowman, Martin. Mosquito Bomber/Fighter-bomber Units 1942-45. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1997. ISBN 1-85532-690-3. Bowman, Martin. Mosquito Fighter/Fighter-bomber Units of World War 2. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. ISBN 1-85532-731-7. Bowman, Martin. Mosquito Photo-Reconnaissance Units of World War 2. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1-85532-891-4. Bowyer, Chaz. Mosquito at War. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 4th impression 1979. ISBN 0-7110-0474-9. Bowyer, Michael J.F., Bryan Philpott and Stuart Howe. Mosquito (Classic Aircraft No. 7: Their history and how to model them). Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1980. ISBN 0-85059-432-4. Bridgman, Leonard, ed. “The D.H.98 Mosquito.” Jane’s Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. ISBN 1-85170-493-0. Cole, Roger. High Wycombe - Local History Series. Stoud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing Ltd., 2001. ISBN 0-7524-2290-1. Hardy, M.J. The de Havilland Mosquito. Devon, UK/New York: David & Charles (Publishers) Ltd./Arco Publishing, 1977. ISBN 0-7153-7367-6, (David & Charles) ISBN 0-668-04051-3 (Arco). Hinchcliffe, Peter. The Other Battle: Luftwaffe Night Aces vs Bomber Command. London: Zenith Press, 1996. ISBN 0-76030-265-0. Holliday, Joe. Mosquito! The Wooden Wonder Aircraft of World War II. Toronto: Doubleday, 1970. ISBN 0-77010-138-0. Hotson, Fred. The De Havilland Canada Story. Toronto: CANAV Books, 1983. ISBN 0-9690703-2-2. Howe, Stuart. Mosquito Portfolio. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1984. ISBN 0-7110-1406-X. Jackson, Robert. Combat Legend; de Havilland Mosquito. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1-84037-358-X. Jones, R.C. de Havilland Mosquito: RAF Northern Europe 1936-45. London: Ducimus Books Ltd., 1970. McKee, Alexander. The Mosquito Log. London: Souvenir Press Ltd., 1988. ISBN 0-285-62838-0. Mason, Francis K. and Richard Ward. De Havilland Mosquito in RAF-FAA-RAAF-SAAF-RNZAF-RCAF-USAAF-French & Foreign Service. Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1972. ISBN 0-85045-043-8. Morgan, Hugh and John Weal. German Jet Aces of World War 2. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd, 1998. ISBN 1-85532-634-5. Radinger, Will and Walter Schick. Me262 (German lang. ed.), Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH, 1996. ISBN 3-925505-21-0. Sasbye, Kjeld Mahler. Operation Carthage. Copenhagen: Den Danske Luftfartsskole, 1994. ISBN 87-985141-0-5. Scholefield, R.A. Manchester Airport. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-7509-1954-X. Scutts, Jerry. Mosquito in Action, Part 1. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1993. ISBN 0-89747-285-3. Scutts, Jerry. Mosquito in Action, Part 2. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1993. ISBN 0-89747-303-5. Shacklady, Edward. De Havilland Mosquito (Classic WWII Aviation , Volume 6). Bristol, UK: Cerberus Publishing Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1-84145-108-8. Sharp, C. Martin and Michael J.F. Bowyer. Mosquito. London: Faber & Faber, 1971. ISBN 0-571-04750-5. Second revised and updated edition published 1995 by Crécy Books Ltd, ISBN 0-947554-41-6. Sweetman, Bill and Rikyu Watanabe. Mosquito. London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd., 1981. ISBN 0-7106-0131-X. Thirsk, Ian.de Havilland Mosquito: An Illustrated History Volume 2. Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing Limited, 2006. ISBN 0-85979-115-7. External links The Mosquito Page Fleet Air Arm archive de Havilland Museum Mosquito Bomber Crews and Their Experiences A flight simulator Mosquito A photograph of the Tsetse Mosquito FB Mk XVIII NT225 Video #1 of Mosquito Video #2 of Mosquito - CGI, but very realistic A photograph of the BOAC Mosquito G-AGFV A photograph of the Mosquito prototype W4050 Mosquito Pathfinders Mosquito at War (IWM Footage) Retrieved: 3 April 2008. de Havilland Mosquito FB Mk 26 Restoration Project Pathe News - The Mosquito Film of Mosquito FB Mk XVIII Tsetse and shipping attacks Data at Warbirdregistry.org

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Hydrocodone

Hydrocodone or dihydrocodeinone is a semi-synthetic opioid derived from two of the naturally occurring opiates codeine and thebaine. Hydrocodone is an orally active narcotic analgesic and antitussive. It is commonly available in tablet, capsule, and syrup form, and is often compounded with other analgesics like paracetamol or ibuprofen. It is marketed, in its varying forms, under a number of trademarks, including Vicodin, Symtan, Anexsia, Dicodid, Hycodan (or generically Hydromet), Hycomine, Hycet, Lorcet, Lortab, Norco, Novahistex, Hydrovo, Duodin, Kolikodol, Orthoxycol, Mercodinone, Synkonin, Norgan, and Hydrokon. Hydrocodone was first synthesized in Germany in 1920 and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration on 23 March 1943 for sale in the United States under the brand name Hycodan. <ref> See section I. B., DESI Review of Hydrocodone Products</ref> The particular niche in which hydrocodone is most commonly used is as an intermediate-strength centrally acting analgesic and strong cough suppressant, especially in those for whom histamine release and attendant itching from codeine is a problem. For the latter indication, at the 5- to 10-mg dose range, hydrocodone is more powerful than most cough suppressants, being roughly equal to its derivative Dihydrocodeinone enol acetate, with the top of the list being hydromorphone (Dilaudid Cough Syrup) and methadone (Methadone linctus, about 33 percent the concentration of the liquid used for opioid physical dependence maintenance or detoxification) and dihydrocodeine being right below, as is morphine. The experiments in dogs conducted by Winder and Rosière in the mid-1950s reported in the Journal of Pharmacology in 1955 indicate that hydrocodone is 12 times stronger than codeine as an antitussive (morphine 14x, methadone 9x), and other tests from 1920 forward showed it was about six times stronger as an analgesic. Overview Hydrocodone Bitartrate 10mg/Acetaminophen 650mg As a narcotic, hydrocodone relieves pain by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord. It can be taken with or without food as desired. When taken with alcohol, it can intensify drowsiness. It may interact with monoamine oxidase inhibitors, as well as other drugs that cause drowsiness. It is in FDA pregnancy category C: Animal reproduction studies have shown an adverse effect on the fetus, and there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in humans, but potential benefits may warrant use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks. In addition, a newborn of a mother taking the medication may exhibit breathing problems or withdrawal symptoms. Common side effects include dizziness, lightheadedness, nausea, sweating, drowsiness, constipation, vomiting, and euphoria. Vomiting in some patients is so severe that hospitalization is required. Some less common side effects are allergic reaction, blood disorders, changes in mood, itching, mental fogginess, anxiety, lethargy, difficulty urinating, spasm of the ureter, irregular or depressed respiration, and rash. Studies have shown hydrocodone as stronger than codeine but only one-tenth as potent as morphine at binding to receptors, whereas roughly half as potent as morphine in analgesic properties. However other studies have shown hydrocodone to be anywhere from half as potent to oxycodone (1.5× the potency of morphine) to only 66.6~% the potency of oxycodone (equipotent to morphine). Drugs.com - Hydrocodone potency Hydrocodone can become habit-forming, which leads to physical and psychological addiction, but the potential for addiction varies from individual to individual depending on unique biological differences. Sales and production of this drug have increased significantly in recent years, as have diversion and illicit use. In the U.S., formulations containing more than 15 mg per dosage unit are considered Schedule II drugs, as would any formulation consisting of just hydrocodone alone (however the latter do not exist in the U.S.-- see comment below). Those containing less than or equal to 15 mg per dosage unit in combination with acetaminophen or another non-controlled drug are called hydrocodone compounds and are considered Schedule III drugs. Hydrocodone is typically found in combination with other drugs such as paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen and homatropine methylbromide. The purpose of the non-controlled drugs in combination is often twofold: 1) To provide increased analgesia via drug synergy. 2) To limit the intake of hydrocodone by causing unpleasant and often unsafe side effects at higher-than-prescribed doses (See Below). In the UK, it is listed as a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. Hydrocodone is not available in pure form in the United States due to a separate regulation, and is always sold with an NSAID, acetaminophen, antihistamine, expectorant, or homatropine. The cough preparation Codiclear DH is the purest US hydrocodone item, containing guaifenesin and small amounts of ethanol as active ingredients. In Germany and elsewhere, hydrocodone is available as single-active-ingredient tablets as Dicodid (by analogy to the original manufacturer's other products Dilaudid and Dinarkon and others) available in 5- and 10-mg strengths. As with many other opioids, it is quite possible to reduce the amount of hydrocodone needed to stop a certain level of pain by having the patient take the hydrocodone along with one of the medications with analgesic-sparing properties, also known as potentiators. The most common, one of the most effective with hydrocodone, and safest is hydroxyzine. Orphenadrine, nefopam, carisoprodol, and antihistamines also potentiate most opioids. Especially in the case of carisoprodol, it is imperative that the titration and addition of the potentiator be done under strict supervision of a physician. Hydrocodone also interacts relatively well with most adjuvant and atypical analgesics used for severe and neuropathic pain such as first-generation anti-depressants, anticholinergics, anticonvulsants, centrally acting stimulants, NMDA antagonists, etc. Hydrocodone can usually be successfully used with duloxetine (Cymbalta) for neuropathic pain, especially that from diabetic neuropathy, provided that the patient has normal relative and absolute levels of Cytochrome P450-related liver enzymes. Some of the effects of hydrocodone come from the fact that a fraction of it is changed to hydromorphone in the liver, as is the case with all codeine-based analgesics (codeine into morphine, dihydrocodeine into dihydromorphine, nicocodeine into nicomorphine etc.). The percentage can vary based on both other medications taken and inherited metabolic quirks involving the Cytochrome P450 metabolic pathways — some cannot process it at all, whereas a smaller percentage can get even more strength from it than usual. These factors can also cause hydrocodone and related drugs to have a threshold effect, cause significant lengthening or shortening of the duration of effects in the absence of tolerance, and increase or decrease the de facto conversion ratio betwixt hydrocodone and other drugs like morphine, hydromorphone, and synthetics like levorphanol and methadone. Overdosing risks [[File:Main symptoms of Hydrocodone overdose.png|thumb|right|220px|Main symptoms of hydrocodone overdose.<ref name=medline> MedlinePlus drug information: Hydrocodone. Last revised: Last Revised - 10/01/2008. Retrieved on 15 Mars, 2009</ref> If severe, it may cause death. ] The presence of acetaminophen in hydrocodone-containing products allegedly deters many drug users, at least in theory, from taking excessive amounts. However, some users will get around this by extracting a portion of the acetaminophen using cold water, taking advantage of the water-soluble element of the drug. It is not uncommon for addicts to have liver problems from consuming excessive amounts of acetaminophen over a long period of time; taking 10,000 to 15,000 milligrams (10 to 15 grams) of acetaminophen in a period of 24 hours typically results in severe hepatotoxicity, and doses in the range of 15,000–20,000 milligrams a day have been reported as fatal. Rx List It is this factor that leads many recreational users to use only single-entity opiates such as oxycodone. One of the major problems today with the illicit use of hydrocodone, especially in younger populations, is that users may not be aware that hydrocodone pills contain acetaminophen. Consuming more than 4,000 milligrams of acetaminophen a day can cause liver damage, jaundice, and even liver failure Acetaminophen (Tylenol) - side effects, drug class, medical uses, and drug interactions by MedicineNet.com if the drug is being taken in excessive dosages for an extended period of time. Daily consumption of hydrocodone should not exceed 40 milligrams in patients not tolerant to opiates. However, the 2006 PDR (Physicians Desk Reference) clearly states that Norco 10, containing 10 milligrams of hydrocodone and 325 milligrams of APAP (viz., acetaminophen or paracetamol), can be taken at a dosage of up to twelve tablets per day (120 milligrams of hydrocodone). Such high amounts of hydrocodone are only'' intended for opiate-tolerant patients, and titration to such levels must be monitored very carefully. This restriction is only limited by the fact that twelve tablets, each containing 325 milligrams of APAP, puts the patient right below the 24-hour FDA maximum of 4,000 mg of APAP. Some specially compounded products are routinely given to chronic pain patients in doses of up to 180 mg of hydrocodone per day. Symptoms of hydrocodone overdosage include respiratory depression, extreme somnolence, coma, stupor, cold and/or clammy skin, sometimes bradycardia, and hypotension. A severe overdose may involve circulatory collapse, cardiac arrest and/or death. Mixing hydrocodone with alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, methylphenidate, benzodiazapines, barbiturates, and a number of other medication can have severe adverse reactions including but not limited to heart failure, heart attack, respiratory distress, pulmonary failure, liver or kidney failure, jaundice, amnesia, seizures, blackouts, and coma. Mixing acetaminophen with other NSAID analgesics like sulindac can cause serious damage to organs. Hydrocodone in particular, and the -codone family of opioids in general, have been shown to have a liability to cause long term hearing loss over periods of use. Alcohol It is not recommended to mix any amounts of hydrocodone and alcohol, as doing so could cause health problems. APAP is metabolized solely by the liver. Therefore the risk of fatal overdose due to hepatotoxicity can occur with significantly lower levels of APAP when mixed with ethanol. Also the mixture can potentially cause serious damage to the liver, kidneys, and stomach wall. Acetaminophen may increase the potential for coma, respiratory problems, and can damage the CNS. Due to the feeling of euphoria it provides, these potentially negative consequences are often ignored by physically and/or psychologically dependent users. Hydrocodone compounds Hydrocodone and acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol or abbreviated as APAP) 5-500 tablets (Mallinckrodt).When sold commercially in the United States, hydrocodone is always combined with another medication. Those combined with acetaminophen are known by various trademark names, such as Vicodin and Lortab. Hydrocodone also can be combined with aspirin (e.g., Lortab ASA), ibuprofen (e.g., Vicoprofen), and certain antihistamines (e.g., Chemdal HD). Combining an opioid such as hydrocodone with another analgesic can increase the effectiveness of the drug without increasing opioid-related side effects (e.g., nausea, constipation, sedation). Another argument for combining hydrocodone with acetaminophen is that it limits the potential for abuse. In tolerant users, hydrocodone can be taken in large doses relatively safely, but acetaminophen is fatally toxic to the liver in large quantities. FDA DESI Hydrocodone Cough Preparation Review Hydrocodone was until recently the active antitussive in more than 200 formulations of cough syrups and tablets sold in the United States. In late 2006, the FDA began forcing the recall of many of these formulations due to reports of deaths in infants and children under the age of six. The legal status of drug formulations originally sold between 1938 and 1962 - before FDA approval was required - was ambiguous. As a result of FDA enforcement action, 88% of the hydrocodone-containing medications have been removed from the market. At the present time, doctors, pharamacists, and codeine-sensitive or allergic patients or sensitive to the amounts of histamine released by its metabolites must choose among rapidly dwindling supplies of the Hycodan-Codiclear-Hydromet type syrups, Tussionex (an extended-release suspension similar to the European products Codipertussin (codeine hydrochloride) Paracodin suspension (dihydrocodeine hydroiodide), Tusscodin Retard (nicocodeine hydrochloride) and others), and a handful of weak dihydrocodeine syrups. The low sales volume and Schedule II status of Dilaudid Cough Syrup predictably leads to under-utilisation of the drug. There are several conflicting views concerning the US availability of cough preparations containing dionine (aka codethyline and ethylmorphine) — Feco Syrup and its equivalents were first marketed circa 1895 and still in common use in the 1940s and 1950s, and the main ingredient is treated like codeine in the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. See also Codeine Drug addiction Hydrocodone compound Hydromorphone Opioid Oxycodone Vicodin References External links DEA Scheduling Information Erowid Hydrocodone (Vicodin) Vault

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Ithaca,_New_York

The City of Ithaca (named for the Greek island of Ithaca) sits on the southern shore of Cayuga Lake, in Central New York State, USA. It is best known for being home to Cornell University — an Ivy League school with almost 20,000 students (most of them studying on Cornell’s Ithaca campus). Ithaca College is also located just south of the city in the Town of Ithaca. The college is strongly linked to the city, further adding to Ithaca’s strong “college town” focus and atmosphere. The City of Ithaca is the center of the Ithaca-Tompkins County metropolitan area (which also contains the separate municipalities of Town of Ithaca, Village of Cayuga Heights, Village of Lansing and other towns and villages in Tompkins County). The city is the county seat of Tompkins County. In 2000, the city's population was 29,287, and the metropolitan area had a population of 100,135. 2004 estimates puts the city population at 29,952, an increase of 2.3%. Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca is the North American seat of His Holiness Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama. History Early history The inhabitants of the Ithaca area at the time Europeans began arriving were the Saponi and Tutelo Indians, dependent tribes of the Cayuga Indians who formed part of the Iroquois confederation. These tribes had been allowed to settle on Cayuga-controlled hunting lands at the south end of Cayuga Lake as well as in Pony (originally Sapony) Hollow of Newfield, New York, after being forced from North Carolina by European invasion. They were driven from the area by the Sullivan Expedition which destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near the junction of state routes 13 and 13A just south of the Ithaca city limits. Indian presence in the current City of Ithaca was limited to a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge. The destruction of Iroquois confederation power opened the region to settlement by people of European origin, a process which began in 1789. In 1790, an official program began for distributing land in the area as a reward for service to the American soldiers of the Revolutionary War; most local land titles trace back to the Revolutionary war grants. Lots were drawn in 1791; informal settlement had already started. Partition of the Military Tract As part of this process, the Central New York Military Tract, which included northern Tompkins County, was surveyed by Simeon DeWitt. His clerk Robert Harpur had a fondness for ancient Greek and Roman history as well as English authors and philosophers (as evidenced by the nearby townships of Dryden and Locke). The Commissioners of Lands of New York State (chairman Gov. George Clinton) followed Harpur's recommendations at a meeting in 1790. The Military Tract township in which proto-Ithaca was located he named the Town of Ulysses, the Latin form of the Greek Odysseus from Homer's Odyssey. A few years later DeWitt moved to Ithaca, then called variously "The Flats," "The City," or "Sodom," and named it for the Greek island home of Ulysses (still the surrounding township at the time — nowadays Ulysses is just a town in Tompkins County). Contrary to popular myth, DeWitt did not name many of the classical references found in Upstate New York such as Syracuse and Troy; these were from the general classical fervor of the times. The Odyssey is routinely taught to elementary school students in the Ithaca area. The growth of Ithaca, village and city A view of the shops and businesses on the Ithaca Commons. In the 1820s and 1830, Ithaca held high hopes of becoming a major city when the primitive Ithaca and Owego Railway was completed in 1832 to connect the Erie Canal navigation with the Susquehanna River to the south. In 1821, the village set itself off by incorporation at the same time the Town of Ithaca parted with the parent town of Ulysses. These hopes survived the depression of 1837 when the railroad was re-organized as the Cayuga & Susquehanna and re-engineered with switchbacks in the late 1840s; much of this route is now used by the South Hill Recreation Way. However, easier routes soon became available, such as the Syracuse, Binghamton & New York (1854). In the decade following the Civil War railroads were built from Ithaca to all surrounding points (Geneva, New York; Cayuga, New York; Cortland, New York; Elmira, New York; Athens, Pennsylvania) mainly with financing from Ezra Cornell; however, the geography of the city has always prevented it from lying on a major transportation artery. Nevertheless, the village of Ithaca became a chartered city in 1887. When the Lehigh Valley Railroad built its main line from Pennsylvania to Buffalo in 1890 it bypassed Ithaca (running via eastern Schuyler County on easier grades), as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad had done in the 1850s. Ithaca became a city in 1888 and remained a small manufacturing and retail center until the recent education boom. In 1891, the Rev. John M. Scott and a local druggist, Chester Platt, invented the ice cream sundae in Ithaca, http://www.theithacajournal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070626/NEWS01/706260304/1002 The Ithaca Journal "New intel in the sundae wars: IHS grads scoop up ice cream facts" June 26, 2007, accessed June 26, 2007 The Official Website of the Ice Cream Sundae though other cities, such as Two Rivers, Wisconsin, make the same claim. Local Industry Ithaca was nationally known for the Ithaca Gun Company, makers of highly-valued shotguns, and Ithaca Calendar Clocks. The largest industry was the Morse Chain company, still active in Lansing, New York, as Borg Warner Automotive and on South Hill as Emerson Power Transmission. In the post-World War II decades, National Cash Register and the Langmuir Research Labs of General Electric were also major employers. Higher education Cornell University was founded by Ezra Cornell in 1865. It was opened as a coeducational institution, which was extremely unusual at the time; women first enrolled in 1870. Ezra Cornell also established a public library for the city. Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in 1892. The film industry During the early 20th century, Ithaca was an important center in the silent film industry. The most common type of film produced was the cliffhanger serial. These films often featured the local natural scenery. Many of these films were the work of Leopold Wharton and his brother Theodore Wharton in their studio on the site of what is now Stewart Park. Eventually the film industry centralized in Hollywood, which offered the possibility of year-round filming, and film production in Ithaca effectively ceased. Few of the silent films made in Ithaca are preserved today. Geography and climate Hemlock Gorge along Fall Creek before emptying into Beebe Lake on Cornell's Campus. The valley in which Cayuga Lake is located is long and narrow with a north-south orientation. Ithaca is at the southern end (the "head") of the lake, but the valley continues to the southwest behind the city. Originally a river valley, it was deepened and widened by the action of Pleistocene ice sheets over the last several hundred thousand years. The lake, which drains to the north, formed behind a dam of glacial moraine. The rock is predominantly Devonian and, north of Ithaca, is relatively fossil rich. Glacial erratics can be found in the area. The world renowned fossils found in this area can be examined at the Museum of the Earth. Ithaca was founded on flat land just south of the lake — land that formed in fairly recent geological times when silt filled the southern end of the lake. The city ultimately spread to the adjacent hillsides, which rise several hundred feet above the central flats: East Hill, West Hill, and South Hill. Its sides are fairly steep, and a number of the streams that flow into the valley from east or west have cut deep gorges, usually with several waterfalls. Ithaca experiences a moderate continental climate, with cold, snowy winters and sometimes hot and humid summers. The valley flatland has slightly milder weather in winter, and occasionally Ithacans experience simultaneous snow on the hills and rain in the valley. The phenomenon of mixed precipitation (rain, wind, and snow), common in the late fall and early spring, is known tongue-in-cheek as ithacation to many of the local residents. The natural vegetation of the Ithaca area, seen in areas unbuilt and unfarmed, is northern temperate broadleaf forest, dominated by deciduous trees. Due to the microclimates created by the impact of the lakes, the region surrounding Ithaca (Finger Lakes American Viticultural Area) experiences a short but adequate growing season for winemaking. As such the region is home to many wineries. Education Ithaca is a major educational center in Central New York. The city is home to Ithaca College, situated on South Hill, and Cornell University which overlooks the town from East Hill. The student population is very high, as almost 20,000 students are enrolled at Cornell, with an additional 6,300 students at Ithaca College. Tompkins Cortland Community College is located in the neighboring town of Dryden, New York, and has an extension center in downtown Ithaca. Empire State College offers non-traditional college courses to adults in downtown Ithaca. The Ithaca City School District, which encompasses Ithaca and the surrounding area, enrolls about 5,500 K-12 students in eight elementary schools, two middle schools, Ithaca High School, and the Lehman Alternative Community School, which provides its students wide-ranging freedom to choose their own curriculum. There are also several private elementary and secondary schools in the Ithaca area, including Immaculate Conception School and the Cascadilla School. Economy The economy of Ithaca is based on education and manufacturing with high tech and tourism in strong supporting roles. As of 2006, Ithaca remains one of the few expanding economies in economically troubled New York State outside of New York City, and draws commuters from the neighboring rural counties of Cortland, Tioga, and Schuyler, as well as from the more urbanized Chemung County. With some level of success, Ithaca has tried to maintain a traditional downtown shopping area that includes the Ithaca Commons pedestrian mall and Center Ithaca, a small mixed-use complex built at the end of the urban renewal era. Some in the community regret that downtown has lost vitality to two expanding commercial zones to the northeast and southwest of the old city. These areas contain an increasing number of large retail stores and restaurants run by national chains. Others say the chain stores boost local shopping options for residents considerably, many of whom would have previously shopped elsewhere, while increasing sales tax revenue for the city and county. Still others note that the stores, restaurants, and businesses that remain in downtown are not necessarily in direct competition with the larger chain stores. The tradeoff between sprawl and economic development continues to be debated throughout the city and the surrounding area. (Another commercial center, Collegetown, is located next to the Cornell campus. It features a number of restaurants, shops, and bars, and an increasing number of high rise apartments and is primarily frequented by Cornell University students.) Ithaca has many of the businesses characteristic of small American university towns: used bookstores, art house cinemas, craft stores, and vegetarian restaurants. The collective Moosewood Restaurant, founded in 1973, was the wellspring for a number of vegetarian cookbooks; Bon Appetit magazine ranked it among the thirteen most influential restaurants of the twentieth century. An aerial view of Stewart Park as 6,000 Ithaca residents set the unofficial world record for the largest human peace sign in June, 2008. Culture Ithacans support the Ithaca Farmers Market, professional theaters (Kitchen Theatre, Hangar Theatre, Icarus Theatre), a civic orchestra, much parkland, the Sciencenter, a hands-on science museum for people of all ages, and the Museum of the Earth. Ithaca is noted for its annual artistic celebration of community: The Ithaca Festival (and its parade), the Circus Eccentrithaca. The Constance Saltonstall Foundation for the Arts provides grants and Summer Fellowships at the Saltonstall Arts Colony for New York State artists and writers. Ithaca also hosts what is described as the third-largest used-book sale in the United States. Other festivals occur annually, with music and food. These include The Apple Festival in the fall, with many different varieties of apples and apple products; Chili Fest in February, a local contest involving many local restaurants who compete to make the best chili in several different categories. Ithacans are widely considered to be oriented towards peace. In June 2008, local peace activist Trevor Dougherty led almost 6,000 members of the Ithaca community in forming a giant human peace sign. This event took part during the Ithaca Festival, making Ithaca the unofficial home of the world's largest human peace sign. In Ithaca, 6,000 give peace a chance, The Post-Standard Ithaca has also pioneered the Ithaca Health Fund, a popular cooperative health insurance. Ithaca is also home to one of the United States' first local currency systems, Ithaca Hours, developed by Paul Glover (building on the pioneering work of Ralph Borsodi and Robert Swann). Music and Musicians Ithaca is known for its resident musicians and their performances. Traditional music, modern influences and experimental qualities combine to create a unique musical experience that has become known as "The Ithaca Sound". It can be heard at the root of any of the dozens of performers or groups that have emerged from Ithaca and the surrounding communities. These musicians have come from many backgrounds to pursue their careers in Ithaca. The School of Music at Ithaca College attracts talented musicians, some of whom retain their residence in Ithaca after graduating and take up work as performing musicians or in the sound engineering field. Several notable musicians have relocated from other countries to Ithaca in order to begin their careers, most notably Samite of Uganda, Mamadou Diabaté of Mali and Malang Jobateh of Senegal. In the nearby village of Trumansburg, the Finger Lakes Grassroots Festival of Music and Dance is held every third week in July. Initiated as a benefit for Aids research at the State Theater in Ithaca by the band Donna the Buffalo, it has successfully occurred every year for the past 18 years. The Grassroots Festival has brought thousands of bands through the region, further enriching the local musical palate with every new introduction of musical style and culture. Several local bands call it home as either a figurative birthplace or a nurturing environment within which to develop new forms of music. Other notable local music festivals include the Ithaca Festival, Musefest, the Summertime Block Party, the Juneteenth Celebration and Rock the Arts. Other regionally, nationally and internationally known performers and musical groups that call Ithaca home include: Johnny Dowd, John Brown's Body, The Sim Redmond Band, Donna the Buffalo, Who You Are, The Burns Sisters, Willie B, and Kevin Kinsella. Media The Clinton House, a 19th century building in downtown Ithaca The dominant local newspaper in Ithaca is a morning daily, The Ithaca Journal, founded 1815. The paper is owned by Gannett, Inc., publishers of USA Today. The alternative weekly newspaper Ithaca Times has a larger circulation, though it should be noted that the Times is distributed free of charge. Other area publications include Tompkins Weekly, the Ithaca Community News the Cornell Daily Sun, the Ithacan, and the Tattler. (The latter three are run by student staffs at Cornell University, Ithaca College, and Ithaca High School, respectively.) Ithaca is also home to several radio stations. WVBR is run by Cornell University students, but is an independent, commercial station in the rock format, playing a mix of modern and classic rock during the week and specialty shows on the weekend. WICB is a non-commercial student-run station, run by communications students at Ithaca College. The Cayuga Radio Group, a subsidiary of Saga Communications, Inc., owns Q-Country and Lite Rock 97.3, a country and soft rock station, as well as I-100, a classic rock station and located in Cortland, and The Wall, based in Auburn, has a transmitter in Ithaca. Politics Politically, the city's population has a significant tilt towards liberalism and the Democratic Party. A November, 2004 study by ePodunk lists it as New York's most liberal town. ePodunk This contrasts with the more conservative leanings of the surrounding Upstate New York region, and is also somewhat more liberal than the rest of Tompkins County. In 1988 Jesse Jackson received the most votes in Ithaca in the Democratic Presidential primary. In 2000 Ralph Nader received more votes for President than George W. Bush in the City of Ithaca, and 11% county-wide. 2000 presidential general election results, New York State Board of Elections In 2008, Barack Obama, running against New York State's Senator Hillary Clinton, won Tompkins County in the Democratic Presidential Primary, the only county that he won in New York State. 2008 presidential primary election results, New York State Board of Elections Local government The name Ithaca designates two governmental entities in the area, the Town of Ithaca and the City of Ithaca. The Town of Ithaca is one of the nine towns comprised by Tompkins County. (Towns in New York are something like townships in other states; every county outside New York City is subdivided into towns.) The City of Ithaca is surrounded by, but legally independent of, the Town. The Town of Ithaca contains the Village of Cayuga Heights, a small incorporated upper-middle class suburb located to the northeast of the City of Ithaca. The City of Ithaca has a mayor-council government. The charter of the City of Ithaca provides for a full-time mayor and city judge, each independent and elected at large. Since 1995, the mayor has been elected to a four-year term, and since 1989, the city judge has been elected to a six-year term. Since 1983, the city has been divided into five wards, each electing two members to the city council, known as the Common Council, for staggered four-year terms. The Town government consists of an executive, the Town Supervisor, elected to a four-year term, and a Town Council of three members also elected for terms of four years. The majority of local property taxes are actually assessed by an entirely independent agency with entirely different borders, the Ithaca City School District. City-Town consolidation In December 2005, the City and Town governments began discussing opportunities for increased government consolidation, including the possibility of joining the two into a single entity. This topic had been previously discussed in 1963 and 1969. The possibility of consolidation is controversial for Town residents who could be forced to pay higher taxes as they help shoulder the higher debt burden that the City has taken on. Some Town residents also worry that consolidation could lead to increased sprawl and traffic congestion. However, most of the Town's population is already concentrated in hamlets in proximity to the City's borders and Town residents take advantage of City amenities. Mayor Walter Lynn of the Village of Cayuga Heights (a wealthy Ithaca suburb located in the Town) called consolidation discussion a "waste of time." Ithaca Times - A Greater Ithaca? Greater Ithaca The term "Greater Ithaca" encompasses both the City and Town of Ithaca, as well as several smaller settled places within or adjacent to the Town: Municipalities Village of Groton Village of Lansing the southern part of the Town of Lansing Village of Cayuga Heights Hamlet of Forest Home Hamlet of South Hill Census-designated places East Ithaca Northeast Ithaca Northwest Ithaca Demographics Location of the Ithaca-Cortland CSA and its components: Ithaca is the larger principal city of the Ithaca-Cortland CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Ithaca metropolitan area (Tompkins County) and the Cortland micropolitan area (Cortland County), METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREAS AND COMPONENTS, Office of Management and Budget, 2007-05-11. Accessed 2008-08-01. MICROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREAS AND COMPONENTS, Office of Management and Budget, 2007-05-11. Accessed 2008-08-01. COMBINED STATISTICAL AREAS AND COMPONENT CORE BASED STATISTICAL AREAS, Office of Management and Budget, 2007-05-11. Accessed 2008-08-01. which had a combined population of 145,100 at the 2000 census. As of the census of 2000, there were 29,287 people, 10,287 households, and 2,962 families residing in the city. The population density was 5,360.9 people per square mile (2,071.0/km²). There were 10,736 housing units at an average density of 1,965.2/sq mi (759.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 73.97% White, 6.71% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 13.65% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.86% from other races, and 3.36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.31% of the population. There were 10,287 households out of which 14.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 19.0% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 71.2% were non-families. 43.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.81. In the city the population was spread out with 9.2% under the age of 18, 53.8% from 18 to 24, 20.1% from 25 to 44, 10.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females there were 102.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $21,441, and the median income for a family was $42,304. Males had a median income of $29,562 versus $27,828 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,408. About 13.2% of individuals and 4.2% of families were below the poverty line. Infrastructure Transportation Ithaca is in the rural Finger Lakes region about 250 miles to the northwest of New York City; the nearest larger cities, Binghamton and Syracuse, are an hour's drive away by car, while Rochester is about two hours away. Ithaca is served by Ithaca Tompkins Regional Airport, located about three miles to the northeast of the city center. US Airways Express offers flights to New York LaGuardia and its hub at Philadelphia using a mixture of small jets and propeller craft. Delta/Northwest Airlink provides twice-daily jet service to its hub at [Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport|Detroit Metro]] airport. Many residents choose to travel to Syracuse Hancock International Airport, Greater Binghamton Airport, Elmira-Corning Regional Airport or Greater Rochester International Airport for more airline service options. Ithaca lies at over a half hour's drive from any interstate highway, and all car trips to Ithaca involve at least some driving on two-lane state rural highways. The city is at the convergence of many regional two-lane state highways: Routes 13, 13A, 34, 79, 89, 96, 96B, and 366. These are usually not congested except in Ithaca proper. There is frequent intercity bus service by Greyhound Lines, New York Trailways, and Shortline (Coach USA), particularly to Binghamton and New York City, with limited service to Rochester, Buffalo and Syracuse, and (via connections in Binghamton) to Utica and Albany. The bus station serving all these companies Ithaca Greyhound Station is the former Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway station on Meadow St. between W State and W Seneca streets, about a kilometer west of downtown Ithaca. Ithaca is the center of an extensive bus public transportation system — Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit (TCAT) — which carried 3.1 million passengers in 2005. "3 Million Bus Passengers and Counting as TCAT Sets Record in 2005", Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit (TCAT), December 19, 2005. Last Accessed on March 24, 2006. TCAT was reorganized as a non-profit corporation in 2004 and is primarily supported locally by Cornell University, the City of Ithaca and Tompkins County. TCAT operates 39 routes, many running seven days a week. It has frequent service to downtown, Cornell, Ithaca College, and the Pyramid Mall in the neighboring Town of Lansing, but less frequent service to many residential and rural areas, including Trumansburg and Newfield. Chemung County Transit runs weekday commuter routes into Schuyler and Chemung counties, and Tioga County Public Transit runs weekday routes into neighboring Tioga, primarily to serve Cornell employees who prefer to live in these rural counties, or are forced to because of the high house prices near Ithaca. GADABOUT Transportation Services, Inc. provides demand-response paratransit service for seniors over 60 and people with disabilities. Ithaca Dispatch and Finger Lakes Taxi provide local and regional taxi service. In addition, Ithaca Airline Limousine connects to the airport. Norfolk Southern freight trains reach Ithaca from Sayre, Pennsylvania, mainly to deliver coal to the Milliken Power Station and haul out salt from the Cargill salt mine, both on the east shore of Cayuga Lake. There is no passenger rail service anymore, although from the 1870s through the 1930s there were trains to Buffalo via Geneva, New York; to New York City via Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania (Lehigh Valley Railroad) and Scranton, Pennsylvania (DL&W); to Auburn, New York; and to the US northeast via Cortland, New York; service to Buffalo and New York City lasted until 1961. The Lehigh Valley's top New York City-Ithaca-Buffalo passenger train, The Black Diamond, was one of railroad history's classic expresses, and was often referred to as 'The Handsomest Train in the World'. It was named after the railroad's largest commodity, anthracite coal. Ithaca also was one of the first communities in the nation to build a trolley system. As a growing urban area, Ithaca is facing steady increases in levels of vehicular traffic on the city grid and on the state highways. Outlying areas have limited bus service, and many people consider a car essential. However, Ithaca is a walkable and bikeable community for others. One positive trend for the health of downtown Ithaca is the new wave of increasing urban density in and around the Ithaca Commons. Because the downtown area is the region's central business district, dense mixed-use development that includes housing may increase the proportion of people who can walk to work and recreation, and mitigate the likely increased pressure on already busy roads as Ithaca grows. The downtown area is also the area best served by frequent public transportation. Still, traffic congestion around the Commons is likely to progressively increase. Unlike most urbanized areas in the United States, Ithaca does not have direct access to the Interstate highway system. In 1968, it was proposed to convert Route 13 from Horseheads to Cortland through Ithaca into a limited access highway (it is currently such for three miles heading north from Ithaca), but the plan lost local and State support. Other recent changes and trends Cascadilla Creek gorge, just south of the Cornell campus. For decades, the Ithaca Gun Company tested their shotguns behind the plant on Lake St.; the shot fell into Fall Creek (a tributary of Cayuga Lake) right at the base of Ithaca Falls. A major clean-up effort sponsored by the United States Superfund took place from 2002 to 2004. "EPA Finishes $4.8 Million Cleanup at Ithaca Gun", United States Environmental Protection Agency, October 29, 2004. Last Accessed on March 25, 2006. The former Morse Chain company factory on South Hill, now owned by Emerson Power Transmission, was the site of extensive groundwater and soil contamination. "Public Meeting - Emerson Power Transmission Environmental Investigation", New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. June 22, 2005. Emerson Power Transmission has been working with the state and South Hill residents to determine the extent and danger of the contamination and aid in cleanup. Last Accessed on December 6, 2008. Reputation Ithaca is commonly listed among the most culturally liberal of American small cities. The Utne Reader named Ithaca "America's most enlightened town" in 1997. Jay Walljasper, Jon Spayde, Ithaca, New York: A Gritty upstate City Where the Grassroots are Green, "America's 10 Most Enlightened Towns (and we don't mean Santa Fe)", May/June 1997 Issue, UTNE Reader According to ePodunk's Gay Index, Ithaca has a score of 231, versus a national average score of 100. "Ithaca Community Profile" Gays & Lesbians local index Like many small college towns, Ithaca has also received accolades for having a high overall quality of life. In 2004, Cities Ranked and Rated named Ithaca the best "emerging city" to live in the United States. In 2006, the Internet realty website "Relocate America" named Ithaca the fourth best city in the country to relocate to. Relocate-America.com, "Relocate-America.com's 2006 list of America's TOP 100 Places to Live." Available online . Last accessed 4 April 2006. In July 2006, Ithaca was listed as one of the "12 Hippest Hometowns for Vegetarians" by VegNews Magazine and chosen by Mother Earth News as one of the "12 Great Places You've Never Heard Of." Katherine Graham "Ithaca gets high marks from two earthy publications", July 28, 2006, The Ithaca Journal These designations have at times polarized some local residents: some note the recognition with pride, some see it as an indication of decadence, and others feel that it is a narrow view of the community. Some, particularly conservatives, note that the positive press often appears in left-leaning publications, or have more general questions about the methodologies used in determining the designations. In its earliest years during frontier days, what is now Ithaca was briefly known by the names "The Flats" and "Sodom," Dr. James Sullivan, "The History of New York State", Book VII: "The Finger Lakes Region", Chapter VII: Tompkins County. Lewis Historical Publishing Company, Inc. (1927) Last Accessed on March 25, 2006. the name of the Biblical city of sin, due to its reputation as a town of "notorious immorality", See, e.g., 1811 article in local paper, at or Town of Ithaca History project, available (click on "History Project", then "Historical maps..." and finally "famous for its notorious immorality"). a place of horse racing, gambling, profanity, Sabbath breaking, and readily available liquor. These names did not last long; Simeon DeWitt renamed the town Ithaca in the early 1800s, though nearby Robert H. Treman State Park still contains Lucifer Falls. That early reputation for immorality, together with its more recent reputation as having a left-leaning population, has once again made Ithaca mildly infamous in some circles as the "City of Evil," due to a satirical campaign by members of a politically conservative online discussion board. Some Ithacans have embraced the label. "Evil City Trio," and the label is sometimes referenced in the local press, including the Ithaca Journal and Cornell Daily Sun . Last Accessed 2 April 2006. This idea is further buoyed by Cornell University's early nickname, "the godless university" which came about due to their lack of affiliation with any organized religion. The Godless University by Kramnick, Isaac; Moore, R. Lawrence ERIC Department of Education accessed 01.10.2008 Points of interest The falls of Buttermilk Falls State Park Cayuga Nature Center Collegetown Cornell University Cornell Plantations Cornell Dairy Bar Llenroc House F.R. Newman Arboretum Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Ithaca College Ithaca Commons Moosewood Restaurant Sciencenter Paleontological Research Institution's Museum of the Earth Stewart Park Buttermilk Falls State Park Robert H. Treman State Park Finger Lakes Trail For additional information about recreational trails see: Trails in Ithaca, New York. Books set (at least partially) in Ithaca Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov (schoolgirl dialog captured on Ithaca city buses) Pnin by Vladimir Nabokov ('Waindell University' a portrait of Cornell) The War Between the Tates by Alison Lurie ('Corinth University', a thinly-disguised portrait of Cornell) Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me by Richard Fariña ('Mentor University', same as above) The Widening Stain by Morris Bishop The Names of the Dead by Stewart O'Nan Enchantment by Orson Scott Card (partially set in Ithaca and fictional nearby towns) Various Kurt Vonnegut books have Ithaca references, most notably Player Piano, Slaughterhouse-Five, and Cat's Cradle Fool on the Hill by Matt Ruff The Emigrants by W.G. Sebald The Alex Bernier Mysteries by Beth Saulnier takes place in a fictionalized Ithaca known as Gabriel We Were the Mulvaneys by Joyce Carol Oates Triphammer by Dan McCall Mailman by J. Robert Lennon takes place in a fictionalized Ithaca known as Nestor Z For Zachariah by Robert C. O'Brien Between Two Fires by Nicholas Nicastro describes scenes in and around the site of Ithaca during the Revolutionary War Water for Elephants by Sara Gruen (the main character, Jacob, was a Cornell University veterinary student) The second book in the Twilight series by Stephenie Meyer, called New Moon, has a mention of Ithaca and Cornell University. In the paragraph, Carlisle Cullen, a doctor in the novel, is working nights at a hospital in Ithaca and teaching part time at Cornell, and Jasper Hale is a student at the university. Movies set or filmed (at least partially) in Ithaca Green Lights (2002) — dir. Robert H. Lieberman The Manhattan Project — dir. Marshall Brickman Road Trip (2000) — dir. Todd Phillips The Sure Thing (1985) — dir. Rob Reiner Waiting on Alphie (2005) — dir. Kevin Hicks Love Story (1970) — dir. Arthur Hiller See also The Whartons Studio for films shot in Ithaca prior to 1920. Notable residents and natives This list is abridged from Hans Bethe, resident, physicist, Nobel Prize winner, Cornell Professor, head of theoretical division of the Manhattan Project Roald Hoffmann, Nobel Prize winner, American theoretical chemist Alex Haley, native, author of Roots: The Saga of an American Family and the Autobiography of Malcolm X Mary McDonnell, native, actor in Dances with Wolves, Independence Day, Battlestar Galactica, and others Vladimir Nabokov, resident, Cornell Professor, author (most famously of Lolita) Roy H. Park, resident, media executive, founder of Park Communications and the Park Foundation Carl Sagan, resident, astronomer, Cornell Professor, popularizer of science, and author and host of Cosmos Rod Serling, resident (of nearby Interlaken, NY), Ithaca College Professor, screenwriter, creator and host of The Twilight Zone Steve Squyres, resident, astronomer, Cornell Professor, Principal Investigator of the Mars Exploration Rover Mission E. B. White, resident, novelist, author of Charlotte's Web and co-author of The Elements of Style Paul Wolfowitz, native, academic, Deputy Secretary of Defense (2001-2005), former President of the World Bank (2005-2007) Dustin Brown, NHL player for the Los Angeles Kings Josh Bard. MLB baseball catcher for the Boston Red Sox Greg Graffin, resident, lead singer of the seminal punk band Bad Religion and holds a Ph.D from Cornell University in Zoology. Graffin is also a professor in the Evolutionary Biology department at Cornell. David Foster Wallace, native, novelist Johnny Dowd, resident, musician, poet, and co-founder of Zolar Trucking Disashi Lumumba-Kasongo, guitarist for band Gym Class Heroes Richard Feynman, resident, Nobel Prize winner, professor of physics See also List of Registered Historic Places in New York References External links Official City Website Ithaca Business and Website Directory Ithaca Wiki @ Wikispot Cornell Lab of Ornithology Cayuga Lake level History of Ithaca railways History and Remnants of the Ithaca trolley system

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Jason_Alexander

Jason Alexander (born September 23, 1959) is an American comedian and actor, best known for his role as George Costanza on the television series Seinfeld. Biography Early life Alexander was born Jason Scott Greenspan in Newark, New Jersey, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. He has a half-sister, Karen Van Horn, and a half-brother, Michael Greenspan. Alexander is a 1977 graduate of Livingston High School in Livingston, New Jersey. He attended Boston University but left the summer before his senior year, after getting work in New York City. He was later given an honorary degree in 1992. He is a talented magician, and only switched to acting as a career when he realized that he was unlikely to succeed as a magician. Stage career Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. On Broadway, he appeared in Stephen Sondheim's Merrily We Roll Along, The Rink, Neil Simon's Broadway Bound, Accomplice, and Jerome Robbins' Broadway, for which he garnered the 1989 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. Returning to the stage in 2003, Alexander was cast in a successful run, opposite Martin Short, in the Los Angeles production of Mel Brooks' The Producers Alexander also appeared with Kelsey Grammer in the 2004 musical adaptation of Charles Dickens'''s A Christmas Carol. He played Jacob Marley to Grammer's Ebenezer Scrooge. Alexander continues to appear in live stage shows, including Barbra Streisand's memorable birthday party for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, in which he appeared with Angela Lansbury, performing selections from Sweeney Todd. Alexander was recently named the Artistic Director of Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles, where he previously directed Sunday in the Park with George. He is scheduled to direct the upcoming revival of Damn Yankees at Reprise! Television Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the phenomenally successful, award-winning television sitcom Seinfeld (1989-1998), in which he played George Costanza (the Jerry Seinfeld character's best friend since childhood). Concurrently with his Seinfeld role, Alexander provided the voice of the lead character in the cult animated series Duckman (1994-1997). Alexander also voiced Catbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived Dilbert animated series based on the popular comic strip. He made cameo appearances in the second season of Curb Your Enthusiasm, playing himself. Alexander is also said to be appearing in the upcoming seventh season of Curb Your Enthusiasm, along with the other three principal Seinfeld cast members. Alexander co-starred with George Clooney and Elliot Gould in the short-lived CBS sitcom E/R from 1984-1985. He played Hospital Administrator Harold Stickley. Alexander also had a part in the ABC sitcom Dinosaurs, as Al (Sexual) Harris (who frequently engaged in sexual harassment). Despite a relatively successful career in film and stage, Alexander never managed to repeat his Seinfeld-level of success in television. 2001 marked his first post-Seinfeld return to prime-time television: the heavily-promoted but short-lived ABC sitcom Bob Patterson (which was canceled after just 5 episodes). His second chance as a t.v. series lead, the CBS sitcom Listen Up! (September 20, 2004 to April 25, 2005), also fell short of a second season. Based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personality Tony Kornheiser, Alexander was also the series' principal executive producer. Alexander appears on the Family Guy: Live in Vegas CD singing a verse in the song "All Cartoons are Fuckin' Dicks". Alexander is credited with coining the term "asshat" in a well known blooper from the show "Seinfeld". He was featured in the Friends episode "The One Where Rosita Dies" as a suicidal supply manager named Earl. Phoebe rings him trying to sell him toner and she learns about his problem and tries to convince him not to commit suicide. This is referred to in an episode of Malcolm in the Middle where Alexander appears as a neurotic and critical loner called Leonard. He describes himself as free and mentions that he makes money with a job "selling toner over the phone". Also in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George - his character's name on Seinfeld. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of the Broadway musical "Bye Bye Birdie", as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. Alexander appeared on Star Trek: Voyager on the episode "Think Tank" playing a genius alien named Kurros who was trying to get Seven of Nine to serve on his ship. He appeared in the first episode of the short-lived 2002 revival of The Twilight Zone, playing Death. He featured in the 2005 Monk episode "Mr. Monk and the Other Detective" as Monk's eponymous rival, Marty Eels. On the June 26, 2006 episode of the Jimmy Kimmel Live! talk show, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. He was also the Host of the 230th July 4, 2006 of the PBS July 4 "A Capitol Fourth" Celebrations in Washington, D.C. in which he sang, danced, and played tuned drums. Alexander has appeared twice on Bravo's Celebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. In the process, Alexander won $500,000 for United Way of America of the greater New Orleans area, a charity. On August 6, 2006, Alexander signed on to feature as a regular cast member in the second season of Everybody Hates Chris. Alexander was the host of the Comedy Central Roast of actor William Shatner on August 13, 2006 (first airdate: August 20, 2006). In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of the improv comedy series Thank God You're Here. He is also a frequent guest and panelist on: Bill Maher's Politically Incorrect and Real Time shows; Hollywood Squares; the Late Late Show, with both Craig Kilborn and Craig Ferguson; and, the Late Show with David Letterman. In 2008, Alexander guest-starred as a well-educated serial killer on the CBS show Criminal Minds. He returned to direct the 2009 season's episode 20 "Conflicted". Movies In addition to his roles as a misogynistic lawyer in Pretty Woman, co-starring with Richard Gere, and as the womanizer Mauricio in Shallow Hal, with Jack Black, Alexander has appeared in a litany of Hollywood film productions. They include Love! Valour! Compassion!, Dunston Checks In, The Last Supper, Jacob's Ladder and "Hood of Horror". He has also dabbled in the art of directing, starting with 1996's For Better or Worse and 1999's Just Looking. He also played the phenomenally successful US toymaker A.C. Gilbert in the 2002 movie: The Man Who Saved Christmas (film). Other work Alexander is also featured in country music star Brad Paisley's music videos "Celebrity" and "Online," the later of which he directed and won the 2007 Country Music Association's Video of the Year Award. In January 1995, Alexander did a commercial for Rold Gold pretzels to be broadcast during the Super Bowl. The commercial depicts Jason with Frasier dog "Eddie" jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, we're brought back to a supposedly "live feed" of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as we see Jason and the dog landing in the field to applause from the crowd. In the summer of 2005, he appeared with Lee Iacocca in ads for DaimlerChrysler. Alexander has also done a McDonald's commercial advertising the McDLT, in which he sings. He has also appeared in KFC commercials, including one with baseball superstar Barry Bonds of the San Francisco Giants and another one opposite Trista Rehn of The Bachelorette. It was rumored that he no longer appears in these commercials due to the alleged cruelty to animals by KFC suppliers and slaughterhouses, but he refuted that in Adweek [August 2, 2006]. Alexander said, "That's PETA bullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not." He performed a mentalism and magic act at the Magic Castle in Hollywood, California on April 24-30 2006. He has been awarded the Parlor Magician of the year award at the Castle. Alexander was the national spokesman for the Scleroderma Foundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted. He also voiced the character Abis Mal in The Return of Jafar. An avid poker player, Jason was also one of the "famous faces" due to being a regular player on the online poker website Hollywood Poker which is run in conjunction with Ongame Network. Alexander also played in the 2007 World Series of Poker main event, but was eliminated on the second day. He is currently signed with PokerStars where he plays under the screen name "J. Alexander" Alexander is currently starring in "Jason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular" exclusive to Australia. This is a sold-out show where he performs stand-up, improvisation and demonstrates some of his Broadway musical talent. He is backed up by some well known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006 for "Jason Alexander's Comedy Christmas." Both Alexander and his show have been receiving considerable media publicity in Australia and particularly Melbourne. He has expressed the great time he has had holidaying in Australia. Jason Alexander was host of the LOL Sudbury opening night Gala in Sudbury, Ontario on May 29, 2008 which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of the Twilight Zone Radio Dramas. Personal life He has been married to Daena E. Title since May 31, 1982. They have two children, Gabriel (b. May 1992) and Noah (b. February 1996). He is also the uncle and godfather of the Irish born actor Stephen Mullan, who appeared in movies such as She's All That and Tigerland. His brother-in-law is actor/writer/director Jonathan Penner (husband to Daene Title's sister Stacy) who appeared on Survivor: Cook Islands and left due to injury on Survivor: Micronesia - Fans vs. Favorites. According to an FX trivia question during a viewing of Shallow Hal, Alexander started losing his hair at the age of 16. FilmographyThe Burning - Dave (1981)Senior Trip - Pete (1981)The Mosquito Coast - Clerk (1986)Brighton Beach Memoirs - Pool Player (1986)Seinfeld - George Costanza (1989 - 1998)Pretty Woman - Philip Stuckey (1990)White Palace - Neil (1990)Jacob's Ladder - Geary (1990)I Don't Buy Kisses Anymore - Bernie Fishbine (1992)Coneheads - Neighbor Larry Farber (1993)Sexual Healing (1993)For Goodness Sake (1993)Duckman - Duckman - voice (1994 - 1997)The Paper - Marion Sandusky (1994)North (1994)Blankman (1994)The Return of Jafar - Abis Mal - voice (1994)Bye Bye Birdie - Albert (1995)The Last Supper (1995)The Hunchback of Notre Dame - Hugo- (voice) (1996)Dunston Checks In (1996)For Better Or Worse (1996)Love! Valour! Compassion! - Buzz Hauser (1997)Denial - Art Witz (1998)Dilbert - Catbert - voice (1999 - 2000)Love and Action in Chicago - Frank Bonner (1999)The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle - Boris Badenov (2000)The Trumpet of the Swan - voice (2001)Shallow Hal - Mauricio Wilson (2001)Friends - Earl (The One Where Rosita Dies) (2001)Bob Patterson - Bob Patterson (2001)The Hunchback of Notre Dame II - voice (2002)The Man Who Saved Christmas (2002)101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure - Lightning - voice (2002)A Christmas Carol - Jacob Marley (2004) How to Go Out on a Date in Queens - Johnny (2006) Everybody Hates Chris - Principal of School (2006 - 2007)Thank God You're Here! - Improv comedy (2007) The New Adventures of Old Christine (2008)Criminal Minds (2008) References External links A 1999 Interview about his 1981 Broadway role in Merrily We Roll Along (musical)

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Greenwich_Mean_Time

Greenwich clock with standard measurements Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is a term originally referring to mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London. It is regularly used to refer to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) when this is viewed as a time zone, especially by bodies connected with the United Kingdom, such as the BBC World Service, What is GMT? at the BBC Radio World Service the Royal Navy, the Met Office and others, although strictly UTC is an atomic time scale which only approximates GMT to within a second. It is also used to refer to Universal Time (UT), which is a standard astronomical concept used in many technical fields and is referred to by the phrase Zulu time. In the UK, GMT is the official time only during winter; during summer British Summer Time is used. GMT is substantially equivalent to Western European Time. Legal time in the UK is still "Greenwich mean time" (without capitalisation), according to the Interpretation Act 1978 (with an exception made for those periods when the Summer Time Act 1972 orders a hour's shift for daylight saving), see also the legal section in this article. Mean time at Greenwich was the prototype of Universal Time, as from the late 19th century, see the terms of the International Meridian Conference. Thus UT1, as a form of UT equalized for polar motion, is still a measure of mean time at Greenwich. The widely used time signals based on UTC are kept within 0.9 seconds of UT1, see 'History' section of this article). (The practice of referring to the time signals as 'GMT' is therefore only quantitatively correct to 0.9 second, and is informal and unofficial, see the 'time zone' section of this article.) UTC+0 is explained elsewhere in this article (links from map caption) as equal to Western European Time (WET). Thus WET is within 0.9 second of Greenwich mean time, and (within that tolerance) can fairly be described as 'substantially equivalent'. Noon Greenwich Mean Time is not necessarily the moment when the noon sun crosses the Greenwich meridian (and reaches its highest point in the sky in Greenwich) because of Earth's uneven speed in its elliptic orbit and its axial tilt. This event may be up to 16 minutes away from noon GMT (this discrepancy is known as the equation of time). The fictitious mean sun is the annual average of this nonuniform motion of the true Sun, necessitating the inclusion of mean in Greenwich Mean Time. Historically the term GMT has been used with two different conventions for numbering hours. The old astronomical convention (before 1925) was to refer to noon as zero hours, whereas the civil convention during the same period was to refer to midnight as zero hours. The latter is modern astronomical and civil convention. The more specific terms UT and UTC do not share this ambiguity, always referring to midnight as zero hours. History As the United Kingdom grew into an advanced maritime nation, British mariners kept at least one chronometer on GMT in order to calculate their longitude from the Greenwich meridian, which was by convention considered to have longitude zero degrees (this convention was internationally adopted in the International Meridian Conference of 1884). Note that the synchronization of the chronometer on GMT did not affect shipboard time itself, which was still solar time. But this practice, combined with mariners from other nations drawing from Nevil Maskelyne's method of lunar distances based on observations at Greenwich, eventually led to GMT being used worldwide as a reference time independent of location. Most time zones were based upon this reference as a number of hours and half-hours "ahead of GMT" or "behind GMT". Greenwich Mean Time was adopted across the island of Great Britain by the Railway Clearing House in 1847, and by almost all railway companies by the following year, from which the term "railway time" is derived. It was gradually adopted for other purposes, but a legal case in 1858 held "local mean time" to be the official time. This changed in 1880, when GMT was legally adopted throughout the island of Great Britain. GMT was adopted on the Isle of Man in 1883, Jersey in 1898 and Guernsey in 1913. Ireland adopted Greenwich Mean Time in 1916, supplanting Dublin Mean Time. Myers, Joseph. (2007). History of legal time in Britain. Retrieved 4 January 2008. Hourly time signals from Greenwich Observatory were first broadcast on 5 February 1924, rendering the time ball at the observatory obsolete in the process. The daily rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular (see ΔT) and is slowing down slightly; atomic clocks constitute a much more stable timebase. On 1 January 1972, GMT was replaced as the international time reference by Coordinated Universal Time, maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world. UT1, introduced in 1928, represents earth rotation time. Leap seconds are added to or subtracted from UTC to keep it within 0.9 seconds of UT1. Indeed, even the Greenwich meridian itself is not quite what it used to be—defined by 'the centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory at Greenwich'. Although that instrument still survives in working order, it is no longer in use and now the meridian of origin of the world's longitude and time is not strictly defined in material form but from a statistical solution resulting from observations of all time-determination stations which the BIPM takes into account when co-ordinating the world's time signals. Nevertheless, the line in the old observatory's courtyard today differs no more than a few metres from that imaginary line which is now the Prime Meridian of the world." Howse 1997, p. 178 Greenwich Mean Time in legislation Several countries throughout the world legislatively define their local time by explicit reference to Greenwich Mean Time. Some examples are: United Kingdom: The Interpretation Act 1978, section 9 - provides that whenever an expression of time occurs in an Act, the time referred to shall (unless otherwise specifically stated) be held to be Greenwich mean time. Under subsection 23(3), the same rule applies to deeds and other instruments. Belgium: Decrees of 1946 and 1947 set legal time as one hour ahead of GMT. Republic of Ireland: Standard Time (Amendment) Act, 1971, section 1, and Interpretation Act 2005, section 18(i). Canada: Interpretation Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. I-21, section 35. Time zone Although civil time in the United Kingdom, e.g., the Greenwich Time Signal, is in practice now based on UTC, the winter time scale, which is equal to UTC, is still popularly called GMT. Civil time in the UK is legally (but not practically) still based on astronomical GMT, not UTC. Those countries marked in dark blue on the map above use Western European Summer Time and advance their clock one hour in summer. In the United Kingdom, this is known as British Summer Time (BST); in the Republic of Ireland it is called Irish Standard Time (IST) Standard Time Act, 1968 (Ireland) — officially changing to GMT in winter. Those countries marked in light blue keep their clocks on UTC/GMT/WET year round. Anomalies Since political, in addition to purely geographical, criteria are used in the drawing of time zones, it follows that actual time zones do not precisely adhere to meridian lines. The GMT time zone, were it drawn by purely geographical terms, would consist of exactly the area between meridians 7°30'W and 7°30'E. As a result, there are European locales that despite lying in an area with a 'physical' UTC time, actually use another time zone (UTC+1 in particular); contrariwise, there are European areas that use UTC, even though their 'physical' time zone is UTC-1 (e.g., most of Portugal), or even UTC−2 (the westernmost part of Iceland). Actually, because the UTC time zone in Europe is 'shifted' to the west, Lowestoft in Suffolk, East Anglia, England at only 1°45'E is the easternmost settlement in Europe in which UTC is applied. Following is a list of the 'incongruencies': Countries (or parts thereof) west of 22°30'W ('physical' UTC-2) that use UTC The westernmost part of Iceland, incl. the northwest peninsula and its main town of Ísafjörður, which is west of 22°30'W, uses UTC. Bjargtangar, Iceland is the westernmost point in which UTC is applied. Countries (or parts thereof) west of 7°30'W ('physical' UTC-1) that use UTC Canary Islands (Spain) Most of Portugal, incl. Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Aveiro, and Coimbra. (Only the easternmost part, incl. cities such as Bragança and Guarda, lies east of 7°30'W.). Portugal has since the Treaty of Windsor (1386, world's oldest diplomatic alliance) always had close ties to Britain, which explains its choice of UTC. The Madeira Islands, even further to the west, also employ UTC. Western part of Ireland, incl. the cities of Cork, Limerick, and Galway Westernmost tip of Northern Ireland, incl. the capital of County Fermanagh, Enniskillen Extreme westerly portion of the Outer Hebrides, west of Scotland; for instance, Vatersay, an inhabited island in the Outer Hebrides and the westernmost settlement in the whole of Great Britain, lies at 7°54'W. If uninhabited islands and/or rocks are to be taken into account then St Kilda, west of the Outer Hebrides, at 8°58'W, and Rockall, at 13°41'W, should also be included. Westernmost island of the Faroe Islands (autonomous region of the Danish Kingdom), Mykines Iceland, including Reykjavík Countries (mostly) between meridians 7°30'W and 7°30'E ('physical' UTC) that use UTC+1 Spain (except for the Canary Islands which use UTC). Parts of Galicia in fact lie west of 7°30'W ('physical' UTC-1), whereas there is no Spanish territory east of 7°30'E ('physical' UTC+1). Spain's time is the direct result of Franco's Presidential Order (published in Boletín Oficial del Estado of 8 March 1940) abandoning Greenwich UTC time in favor of UTC+1 effective 23:00 16 March 1940. This is indeed an excellent example of the aforementioned political criteria used in the drawing of time zones: the time change was passed "in consideration of the convenience from the national time marching in step according to that of other European countries". The Presidential Order, most likely enacted to be in synchrony with allies nazi Germany and fascist Italy, included in its 5th article a provision for its future phase out which never took place. Due to this political decision Spain is two hours ahead of its local mean time during the summer (one hour ahead in winter), which probably explains the notoriously late schedule for which the country is known. Belgium Netherlands Most of France, incl. the cities of Paris, Marseilles and Lyon. Only small parts of Alsace, Lorraine and Provence are east of 7°30'E ('physical' UTC+1). See also WWV (radio station) — United States' time signal service CHU (radio station) — Canada's time signal service BPM (time service) — China's national time signal service DCF77 — Germany's time signal service VNG — Australia's national time signal service Marine chronometer — synchronised with GMT, and used by ships to calculate their longitude 24-hour watch — 24-hour wristwatch Swatch Internet Time — alternative, decimal measure of time Sandringham Time Rolex GMT Master II Notes References Howse, Derek. (1997). Greenwich time and the longitude. London: Philip Wilson. Myers, Joseph. (2007). History of legal time in Britain. Retrieved 4 January 2008. External links Greenwich Mean Time World Time Zone Map with current time The World Clock - Local times around the world by city NIST — World Time Scales International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service World Clock — Current Local Times Royal Observatory Greenwich The original BBC World Service GMT time signal in mp3 format be-x-old:GMT

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Médecins_Sans_Frontières

Médecins Sans Frontières (pronounced ), or Doctors Without Borders, is a secular humanitarian-aid non-governmental organization best known for its projects in war-torn regions and developing countries facing endemic disease. Médecins Sans Frontières was created in 1971 by a small group of French doctors in the aftermath of the Biafra secession, who believed that all people have the right to medical care regardless of race, religion, creed or political affiliation, and that the needs of these people supersede respect for national borders. The initiators of Médecins Sans Frontières were: Dr Marcel Delcourt Dr Max Recamier Dr Gérard Pigeon Dr Bernard Kouchner Dr Raymond Borel Dr Jean Cabrol Dr Vladan Radoman Dr Jean-Michel Wild Dr Pascal Greletty-Bosviel Dr Jacques Bérés Dr Gérard Illiouz Philippe Bernier Dr Xavier Emmanuelli The organization is known in most of the world by its French name or simply as MSF, but in the United States and Canada the name Doctors Without Borders is often used instead. Core documents outlining MSF´s principles are the Charter MSF Article MSF's Charter - ABOUT MSF - MSF UK MSF. Retrieved May 31, 2009. and the Chantilly Principles, along with the later La Mancha Agreement, MSF Article La Mancha Agreement MSF. Retrieved May 31, 2009. which in Rules, Section 2 addresses governance. MSF has an associative structure, where operational decisions are made, largely independently, by the 5 operational centres (Amsterdam, Barcelona, Brussels, Geneva and Paris). Common policies on core issues are coordinated by the International Council, in which each of the 19 sections (national offices) is represented. The International Council meets in Geneva, Switzerland, where the International Office, which coordinates international activities common to the operational centres, is also based. In 2007 over 26,000, mostly local, doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals, logistical experts, water and sanitation engineers and administrators provided medical aid in over 60 countries. Private donors provide about 80% of the organization's funding, while governmental and corporate donations provide the rest, giving MSF an annual budget of approximately USD 400 million. Forsythe, David P. (2005) The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521612810. The organization actively provides health care and medical training to populations in more than 60 countries, and frequently insists on political responsibility in conflict zones such as Chechnya and Kosovo. Only once in its history, during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, has the organisation called for military intervention. To be able to speak and act freely, MSF remains independent of any political, religious or economic powers. The majority of all MSF activities are paid for with private donations. MSF received the 1999 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of its members' continuous effort to provide medical care in acute crises, as well as raising international awareness of potential humanitarian disasters. MSF-USA: Special Report: The 10 Most Underreported Humanitarian Crises of 2005 Dr. James Orbinski, who was the president of the organization at the time, accepted the prize on behalf of MSF. Prior to this, MSF also received the 1996 Seoul Peace Prize. The Seoul Peace Prize Cultural Foundation The current president of MSF is Dr. Christophe Fournier. Creation Biafra A child with kwashiorkor during the Nigerian Civil War. During the Nigerian Civil War of 1967 to 1970, the Nigerian military formed a blockade around the nation's newly independent south-eastern region, Biafra. At this time, France was the only major country supportive of the Biafrans (the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States sided with the Nigerian government), and the conditions within the blockade were unknown to the world. A number of French doctors volunteered with the French Red Cross to work in hospitals and feeding centres in besieged Biafra. The Red Cross required volunteers to sign an agreement, which was seen by some as designed to maintain the organization's neutrality, whatever the circumstances. After entering the country, the volunteers, in addition to Biafran health workers and hospitals, were subjected to attacks by the Nigerian army, and witnessed civilians being murdered and starved by the blockading forces. The doctors publicly criticized the Nigerian government and the Red Cross for their seemingly complicit behavior. These doctors concluded that a new aid organization was needed that would ignore political/religious boundaries and prioritize the welfare of victims. 1971 establishment The Groupe d'Intervention Médicale et Chirurgicale en Urgence ("Emergency Medical and Surgical Intervention Group") was formed in 1970 by French doctors who had worked in Biafra, to provide aid and to emphasize the importance of victims' rights over neutrality. At the same time, Raymond Borel, the editor of the French medical journal TONUS, had started a group called Secours Médical Français ("French Medical Relief") in response to the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed at least 500,000 in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Borel had intended to recruit doctors to provide aid to victims of natural disasters. On 20 December 1971, the two groups of colleagues merged to form Médecins Sans Frontières. MSF’s first mission as an independent aid organization was to the Nicaraguan capital, Managua, where a 1972 earthquake had destroyed most of the city and killed between 10,000 and 30,000 people. Bortolotti, above, puts the death toll at 10,000. An estimate of 15,000 to 30,000, warning of an inevitable dysentery epidemic, comes from: Camilo, V (1974). The Earthquake in Managua, The Lancet (Correspondence) 303 (7845): 25–26 The organization, today known for its quick response in an emergency, arrived three days after the Red Cross had set up a relief mission. On 18 September and 19 September 1974, Hurricane Fifi caused major flooding in Honduras and killed thousands of people (estimates vary), and MSF set up its first long-term medical relief mission. MSF Article Chronologies: Années 70 (French) MSF-France. Retrieved 10 January 2006. Between 1975 and 1979, after South Vietnam had fallen to North Vietnam, there was the emigration of millions of Cambodians to Thailand to avoid the Khmer Rouge. In response MSF set up its first refugee camp missions in Thailand. When Vietnam withdrew from Cambodia in 1989, MSF started long-term relief missions to help survivors of the mass killings and reconstruct the country’s health care system. MSF Article (1999) Cambodia's second chance MSF. Retrieved January 10, 2006. Although its missions to Thailand to help victims of war in Southeast Asia could arguably be seen as its first war-time mission, MSF saw its first mission to a true war zone, including exposure to hostile fire, in 1976. MSF spent nine years (1976–1984) assisting surgeries in the hospitals of various cities in Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War, and established a reputation for its neutrality and its willingness to work under fire. Throughout the war, MSF helped both Christian and Muslim soldiers alike, assisting whichever group required the most medical aid at the time. In 1984, as the situation in Lebanon deteriorated further and security for aid groups was minimized, MSF withdrew its volunteers. MSF Article MSF in 1976: Lebanon (French) MSF. Retrieved 10 January 2006. New leadership Claude Malhuret was elected as the new president of MSF in 1977, and soon after, debates began over the future of the organization. In particular, the concept of témoignage ("witnessing"), which refers to speaking out about the suffering that one sees as opposed to remaining silent, MSF Article (2005) MSF's principles and identity - The challenges ahead MSF. Retrieved 10 January 2006. was being opposed or played down by Malhuret and his supporters. Malhuret thought MSF should avoid criticism of the governments of countries in which they were working, while Kouchner believed that documenting and broadcasting the suffering in a country was the most effective way to solve a problem. In 1979, after four years of refugee movement from South Vietnam and the surrounding countries by foot and by boat, French intellectuals made an appeal in Le Monde for "A Boat for Vietnam", a project intended to provide medical aid to the refugees. Although the project did not receive support from the majority of MSF, some, including later Minister Bernard Kouchner, nonetheless chartered a ship called L’Île de Lumière ("The Island of Light"), and, along with doctors, journalists, and photographers, sailed to the China Sea and provided some medical aid to the boat people. The splitoff organization which undertook this, Médecins du Monde, later developed the idea of humanitarian intervention as a duty, in particular on the part of Western nations such as France. Richard Seymour, The Liberal Defense of Murder (London 2008), p. 174. MSF development In 1982, Malhuret and Rony Brauman (who would become the organisation's president in 1982), brought increased financial independence to MSF by introducing fundraising-by-mail to better collect donations. The 1980s also saw the establishment of the other operational sections from MSF-France (1971): MSF-Belgium (1980), MSF-Switzerland (1981), MSF-Holland (1984), and MSF-Spain (1986). MSF-Luxembourg was the first support section, created in 1986. The early 1990s saw the establishment of the majority of the support sections: MSF-Greece (1990), MSF-USA (1990), MSF-Canada (1991), MSF-Japan (1992), MSF-UK (1993), MSF-Italy (1993), MSF-Australia (1994), as well as Germany, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Hong Kong (MSF-UAE was formed later)., Information obtained from the various sections' websites. Malhuret and Brauman were instrumental in professionalising MSF. In December 1979, after the Soviet army had invaded Afghanistan, field missions were immediately set up to provide medical aid to the mujahideen, and in February 1980, MSF publicly denounced the Khmer Rouge. During the 1984 - 1985 famine in Ethiopia, MSF set up nutrition programmes in the country in 1984, but was expelled in 1985 after denouncing the abuse of international aid and the forced resettlements. MSF's explicit attacks on the Ethiopian government led to other NGOs criticizing their abandonment of their supposed neutrality. Denis Kennedy, "Humanitarian NGOs and the Norm of Neutrality: A Community Approach" (http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/5/1/6/6/pages251669/p251669-1.php). The group also set up equipment to produce clean drinking water for the population of San Salvador, capital of El Salvador, after the 10 October 1986 earthquake that struck the city., MSF Article Chronologie: Années 80 (French) MSF-France. Retrieved 10 January 2006. Sudan In 1979, MSF set up missions to help civilians in southern Sudan affected by starvation and the ongoing civil war. MSF volunteers revealed many personal accounts of the horrors they had witnessed, including tortures, mass executions, cannibalism, and large-scale starvation and disease, and in 1989 two volunteers were killed when their plane was shot down., MSF has maintained relief efforts in Sudan for 25 years, despite arrests of their volunteers, MSF Article (2005) High Commissioner for Human Rights concerned over arrest of MSF head in Sudan MSF. Retrieved January 10, 2006. nearly constant fighting and civilian massacres, Brown V, Caron P, Ford N, Cabrol JC, Tremblay JP, and Lepec R (2002) Violence in southern Sudan, The Lancet 359 (9301): 161 famine, drought, poor sanitation, and outbreaks of tuberculosis, ebola, hepatitis E, polio, cholera, and malaria (among others, and all have the potential for epidemics). MSF has always appealed for help from the media, but the situation in Sudan has consistently been under-reported to the public in the United States and Europe. MSF Article (2002) MSF Top-Ten under-reported humanitarian stories for 2002 MSF Retrieved 10 January 2006. Early 1990s The early 1990s saw MSF open a number of new national sections, and at the same time, set up field missions in some of the most dangerous and distressing situations it had ever encountered. In 1990, MSF first entered Liberia to help civilians and refugees affected by the Liberian Civil War. MSF Article Chronologie: Années 90 (French) MSF-France. Retrieved January 11, 2006. Constant fighting throughout the 1990s and the Second Liberian Civil War have kept MSF volunteers actively providing nutrition, basic health care, and mass vaccinations, and speaking out against attacks on hospitals and feeding stations, especially in Monrovia. MSF Article (2004) Liberia: War ends, but the crisis continues MSF. Retrieved 11 January 2006. Field missions were set up to provide relief to Kurdish refugees who had survived the al-Anfal Campaign, for which evidence of atrocities was being collected in 1991. Choo V (1993) Forensic evidence of Iraqi atrocities against Kurds, The Lancet 341 (8840): 299–300. 1991 also saw the beginning of the Somali Civil War, and widespread famine and disease, for which MSF set up field missions in 1992. Failed United Nations interventions led to greater violence, and MSF denounced the organisation's operation in 1993, but volunteers continued to provide health care and food. Since the United Nations left, violence in Somalia has been unhindered, and MSF is one of the few organisations helping affected civilians by running clinics and hospitals. MSF Article (2005) Somalia - Saving lives in an abandoned land MSF. Retrieved 11 January 2006. MSF first began work in Srebrenica (in Bosnia and Herzegovina) as part of a UN convoy in 1993, one year after the Bosnian War had begun. The city had become surrounded by the Bosnian Serb Army and, containing about 60,000 Bosniaks, had become an enclave guarded by a United Nations Protection Force. MSF was the only organisation providing medical care to the surrounded civilians, and as such, did not denounce the genocide for fear of being expelled from the country (it did, however, denounce the lack of access for other organisations). MSF was forced to leave the area in 1995, when the Bosnian Serb Army captured the town. 40,000 Bosniak civilian inhabitants were deported, and approximately 7,000 went missing. MSF Article (2000) Srebrenica five years on MSF. Retrieved 11 January 2006. Rwanda When the genocide in Rwanda began in April 1994, some delegates of MSF working in the country were incorporated into the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) medical team for protection. Both groups succeeded in keeping all main hospitals in Rwanda's capital Kigali operational throughout the main period of the genocide. MSF, together with several other aid organisations, had to leave the country in 1995, although many MSF and ICRC volunteers worked together under the ICRC's rules of engagement, which held that neutrality was of the utmost importance. These events led to a debate within the organisation about the concept of balancing neutrality of humanitarian aid workers against their witnessing role. As a result of its Rwanda mission, the position of MSF with respect to neutrality moved closer to that of the ICRC, a remarkable development in the light of the origin of the organisation. Forsythe DP (2005). International humanitarianism in the contemporary world: forms and issues, Human Rights and Human Welfare Working Papers Aerial photograph of a Mihanda, Zaire refugee camp in 1996. Pictured are 500+ tents set up in the Mitumba Mountains. The ICRC lost 56 and MSF lost almost one hundred of their respective local staff in Rwanda, and MSF-France, which had chosen to evacuate its team from the country (the local staff were forced to stay), denounced the murders and demanded that a French military intervention stop the genocide. MSF-France introduced the slogan "One cannot stop a genocide with doctors" to the media, and the controversial Opération Turquoise followed less than one month later. This intervention directly or indirectly resulted in movements of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees to Zaire and Tanzania in what become known as the Great Lakes refugee crisis, and subsequent cholera epidemics, starvation and more mass killings in the large groups of civilians. MSF-France returned to the area and provided medical aid to refugees in Goma. One cannot stop a genocide with doctors (French) MSF-France. Retrieved 7 January 2006. At the time of the genocide, competition between the medical efforts of MSF, the ICRC, and other aid groups had reached an all time high, Forsythe DP (1996). The International Committee of the Red Cross and humanitarian assistance - A policy analysis, International Review of the Red Cross (314): 512–531. but the conditions in Rwanda prompted a drastic change in the way humanitarian organisations approached aid missions. The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief Programmes was created by the ICRC in 1994 to provide a framework for humanitarian missions, Buchanan-Smith, M (2002) Interrelationships between humanitarian organisations, ICRC FORUM: War and Accountability 40–45. and MSF is a signatory of this code. ICRC. Retrieved January 7, 2006. The code advocates the provision of humanitarian aid only, and groups are urged not to serve any political or religious interest, or be used as a tool for foreign governments. Principles of Conduct for The ICRC Movement and NGOs in Disaster Response Programmes ICRC. Retrieved 7 January 2006. MSF has since still found it necessary to condemn the actions of governments, such as in Chechnya in 1999, Médecins Sans Frontières (James Orbinski) – Nobel Lecture Nobelprize.org. Retrieved January 7, 2006. but has not demanded another military intervention since then. Bortolotti, Dan (2004). Hope in Hell: Inside the World of Doctors Without Borders, Firefly Books. ISBN 1552978656. Sierra Leone In the late 1990s, MSF missions were set up to treat tuberculosis and anaemia in residents of the Aral Sea area, and look after civilians affected by drug-resistant disease, famine, and epidemics of cholera and AIDS. MSF Article (1998) MSF 1998 MSF. Retrieved January 16, 2006. They vaccinated 3 million Nigerians against meningitis during an epidemic in 1996 MSF Article (2000) Preventing meningitis MSF. Retrieved 16 January 2006. and denounced the Taliban’s neglect of health care for women in 1997. MSF Article (1998) MSF and other aid organisations evicted from Kabul MSF. Retrieved 16 January 2006. Arguably, the most significant country in which MSF set up field missions in the late 1990s was Sierra Leone, which was involved in a civil war at the time. In 1998, volunteers began assisting in surgeries in Freetown to help with an increasing number of amputees, and collecting statistics on civilians (men, women and children) being attacked by large groups of men claiming to represent ECOMOG. The groups of men were traveling between villages and systematically chopping off one or both of each resident’s arms, raping women, gunning down families, razing houses, and forcing survivors to leave the area. MSF Article (1998) Attacks as told by victims MSF. Retrieved January 16, 2006. Long-term projects following the end of the civil war included psychological support and phantom limb pain management. MSF Article (2001) Controlling phantom limb pain in Sierra Leone MSF. Retrieved 16 January 2006. Ongoing missions The Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines was created in late 1999, providing MSF with a new voice with which to bring awareness to the lack of effective treatments and vaccines available in developing countries. In 1999 the organisation also spoke out about the lack of humanitarian support in Kosovo and Chechnya, having set up field missions to help civilians affected by the respective political situations. Although MSF had worked in the Kosovo region since 1993, the onset of the Kosovo War prompted the movement of tens of thousands of refugees, and a decline in suitable living conditions. MSF provided shelter, water and health care to civilians affected by NATO’s strategic bombing campaigns. MSF Article (2000) Kosovo: The physical and psychological consequences of war MSF. Retrieved January 12, 2006. A serious crisis within MSF erupted in connection with the organization's work in Kosovo when the Greek section of MSF was expelled from the organization because its members extended aid to both Albanian and Serbian civilians in Pristina during NATO's bombing. Solidaire - NATO used military operations data and assessments in Kosovo obtained by Medecins sans frontieres (MSF) The rift was healed only in 2005 with the re-admission of the Greek section to MSF. A similar situation was found in Chechnya, whose civilian population was largely forced from their homes into unhealthy conditions and subjected to the violence of the Second Chechen War. MSF Article (2002) No end in sight to the war in Chechnya MSF. Retrieved 12 January 2006. Colombia is another country in which war has directly affected civilians, and MSF first set up programmes in that country in 1985. With almost constant fighting between government forces, guerrilla groups such as FARC and paramilitary groups such as AUC, millions of civilians have been displaced from their homes, and domestic violence and abductions are common. MSF has largely been active in providing counsel for people troubled by the violence, as well as setting up health facilities for the large groups of displaced people and using mobile clinics to help isolated groups. MSF Article (2005) Colombia: Inescapable violence MSF. Retrieved 15 January 2006. MSF has been working in Haiti since 1991, but since President Jean-Bertrand Aristide was forced from power, the country has seen a large increase in civilian attacks and rape by armed groups. In addition to providing surgical and psychological support in existing hospitals - offering the only free surgery available in Port-au-Prince - field missions have been set up to rebuild water and waste management systems and treat survivors of major flooding caused by Hurricane Jeanne; patients with HIV/AIDS and malaria, both of which are widespread in the country, also receive better treatment and monitoring. MSF Article (2005) Haiti: Working amid intensifying violence MSF. Retrieved 15 January 2006. The Kashmir Conflict in northern India has resulted in a more recent MSF intervention (the first field mission was set up in 1999) to help civilians displaced by fighting in Jammu and Kashmir, as well as in Manipur. Psychological support is a major target of missions, but teams have also set up programmes to treat tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and malaria. MSF Article (2005) India: Bringing medical care MSF. Retrieved January 15, 2006. Mental health support has been of significant importance for MSF in much of southern Asia since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. MSF Article (2005) Post-tsunami mental health: 'We're still weak at the knees' MSF. Retrieved 15 January 2006. Africa MSF has been active in a large number of African countries for decades, sometimes serving as the sole provider of health care, food, and water. Although MSF has consistently attempted to increase media coverage of the situation in Africa to increase international support, long-term field missions are still necessary. Treating and educating the public about HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa, which sees the most deaths and cases of the disease in the world, WHO (2004) Introduction. AIDS epidemic update: December 2004. Retrieved 12 January 2006. is a major task for volunteers. Only 4% of Africans with HIV/AIDS are receiving anti-retroviral treatment, and MSF is urging governments and companies to increase research and development into HIV/AIDS treatments to decrease cost and increase availability. MSF Article (2004) For AIDS treatment to reach millions, it needs to be free MSF. Retrieved 15 January 2006. (See AIDS in Africa for more information) Although active in the Congo region of Africa since 1985, the First and Second Congo War brought increased violence and instability to the area. MSF has had to evacuate its teams from areas such as around Bunia, in the Ituri district due to extreme violence, MSF Article (2005) Nothing new in Ituri: The violence continues MSF. Retrieved 15 January 2006. but continues to work in other areas to provide food to tens of thousands of displaced civilians, as well as treat survivors of mass rapes and widespread fighting. MSF Article (2004) The tragedy of the other Congo - A forgotten war's victims MSF. Retrieved January 12, 2006. The treatment and possible vaccination against diseases such as cholera, measles, polio, Marburg fever, sleeping sickness, HIV/AIDS, and Bubonic plague is also important to prevent or slow down epidemics. MSF Article (2000) Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC): Complex emergency, human catastrophe MSF. Retrieved 12 January 2006. MSF has been active in Uganda since 1980, and provided relief to civilians during the country’s guerrilla war during the Second Obote Period. However, the formation of the Lord's Resistance Army saw the beginning of a long campaign of violence in northern Uganda and southern Sudan. Civilians were subjected to mass killings and rapes, torture, and abductions of children, who would later serve as sex slaves or child soldiers. Faced more than 1.5 million people displaced from their homes, MSF set up relief programmes in internally displaced person (IDP) camps to provide clean water, food and sanitation. Diseases such as tuberculosis, measles, polio, cholera, ebola, and HIV/AIDS occur in epidemics in the country, and volunteers provide vaccinations (in the cases of measles and polio) and/or treatment to the residents. Mental health is also an important aspect of medical treatment for MSF teams in Uganda, since most people refuse to leave the IDP camps for constant fear of being attacked. MSF Article (2005} Uganda: A neglected emergency MSF. Retrieved 12 January 2006. , MSF Article (2004) Uganda: Aiding civilians targeted by war MSF. Retrieved 12 January 2006. MSF first set up a field mission in Côte d'Ivoire in 1990, but ongoing violence and the 2002 division of the country by rebel groups and the government led to several massacres, and MSF teams have even begun to suspect that an ethnic cleansing is occurring. Mass measles vaccinations, MSF Article (2003) MSF vaccinates thousands against measles in Ivory Coast MSF. Retrieved 15 January 2006. tuberculosis treatment and the re-opening of hospitals closed by fighting are projects run by MSF, which is the only group providing aid in much of the country. MSF Article (2005) Côte d'Ivoire: Renewed violence deepens crisis Retrieved 21 January 2006. MSF has strongly promoted the use of contraception in Africa and has opposed declarations by Pope Benedict XVI to the effect that condoms are useless or even counter-productive in AIDS prevention. ANSA article Field mission structure Before a field mission is established in a country, an MSF team visits the area to determine the nature of the humanitarian emergency, the level of safety in the area and what type of aid is needed. Medical aid is the main objective of most missions, although some missions help in such areas as water purification and nutrition. MSF-USA Field Operations: What Do We Do? MSF. Retrieved 28 December 2005. Field mission team A field mission team usually consists of a small number of coordinators to head each component of a field mission, and a "head of mission." The head of mission usually has the most experience in humanitarian situations of the members of the team, and it is his/her job to deal with the media, national governments and other humanitarian organisations. Medical volunteers include physicians, surgeons, nurses, and various other specialists, all of whom usually have training in tropical medicine and epidemiology. In addition to operating the medical and nutrition components of the field mission, these volunteers are sometimes in charge of a group of local medical staff and provide training for them. Although the medical volunteers almost always receive the most media attention when the world becomes aware of an MSF field mission, there are a number of non-medical volunteers who help keep the field mission functioning. Logisticians are often the most important members of a team. They are responsible for providing everything that the medical component of a mission needs, ranging from security and vehicle maintenance to food and electricity supplies. They may be engineers and/or foremen, but they usually also help with setting up treatment centres and supervising local staff. Other non-medical staff are water/sanitation specialists, who are usually experienced engineers in the fields of water treatment and management and financial/administration experts who are placed with field missions. Who is needed? MSF-Canada. Retrieved 28 December 2005. Medical component Vaccination campaigns are a major part of the medical care provided during MSF missions. Diseases such as diphtheria, measles, meningitis, tetanus, pertussis, yellow fever, polio, and cholera, all of which are uncommon in developed countries, may be prevented with vaccination. Some of these diseases, such as cholera and measles, spread rapidly in large populations living in close proximity, such as in a refugee camp, and people must be immunised by the hundreds or thousands in a short period of time. MSF Article (2003) The Vaccine Gap: NY Times editorial MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. For example in Beira, Mozambique in 2004, an experimental cholera vaccine was received twice by approximately 50,000 residents in about one month. MSF Press Release (2003) MSF launches the first large-scale test of an oral vaccine against cholera in the city of Beira, Mozambique MSF. Retrieved 28 December 2005. An equally important part of the medical care provided during MSF missions is AIDS treatment (with antiretroviral drugs), AIDS testing, and education. MSF is the only source of treatment for many countries in Africa, whose citizens make up the majority of people with HIV and AIDS worldwide. WHO (2004) Introduction. AIDS epidemic update: December 2004. Retrieved 12 January 2006. Because antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) are not readily available, MSF usually provides treatment for opportunistic infections and educates the public on how to slow transmission of the disease. MSF Article (2004) World AIDS Day MSF country profiles MSF. Retrieved 28 December 2005. In most countries, MSF increases the capabilities of local hospitals by improving sanitation, providing equipment and drugs, and training local hospital staff. MSF Article (2004) Once ill equipped and poorly manned - transforming a hospital in North Darfur MSF. Retrieved 28 December 2005. When the local staff is overwhelmed, MSF may open new specialised clinics for treatment of an endemic disease or surgery for victims of war. International staff start these clinics but MSF strives to increase the local staff's ability to run the clinics themselves through training and supervision. MSF Article (2001) Tajikistan: Aid to health system in shambles MSF. Retrieved 28 December 2005. In some countries, like Nicaragua, MSF provides public education to increase awareness of reproductive health care and venereal disease. MSF Article (2004) Nicaragua: Focusing care on women's health and Chagas disease MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Since most of the areas that require field missions have been affected by a natural disaster, civil war, or endemic disease, the residents usually require psychological support as well. Although the presence of an MSF medical team may decrease stress somewhat among victims, often a team of psychologists or psychiatrists work with victims of depression, domestic violence and substance abuse. The doctors may also train local mental health staff. MSF Article (2002) MSF mental health activities: a brief overview MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Nutrition Often in situations where an MSF mission is set up, there is moderate or severe malnutrition as a result of war, drought, or government economic mismanagement. Intentional starvation is also sometimes used during a war as a weapon, and MSF, in addition to providing food, brings awareness to the situation and insists on foreign government intervention. Infectious diseases and diarrhoea, both of which cause weight loss and weakening of a person's body (especially in children), must be treated with medication and proper nutrition to prevent further infections and weight loss. A combination of the above situations, as when a civil war is fought during times of drought and infectious disease outbreaks, can create famine. MSF Article (2000) Preventing malnutrition and famine MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Volunteers in Niger working on a malnutrition project. In emergency situations where there is a lack of nutritious food, but not to the level of a true famine, protein-energy malnutrition is most common among young children. Marasmus, a form of calorie deficiency, is the most common form of childhood malnutrition and is characterised by severe wasting and often fatal weakening of the immune system. Kwashiorkor, a form of calorie and protein deficiency, is a more serious type of malnutrition in young children, and can negatively affect physical and mental development. Both types of malnutrition can make opportunistic infections fatal. MSF Article (2001) Malnutrition definition and MSF treatment MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. In these situations, MSF sets up Therapeutic Feeding Centres for monitoring the children and any other malnourished individuals. A Therapeutic Feeding Centre (or Therapeutic Feeding Programme) is designed to treat severe malnutrition through the gradual introduction of a special diet intended to promote weight gain after the individual has been treated for other health problems. The treatment programme is split between two phases: MSF Article (2001) MSF Therapeutic Feeding Programmes MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Phase 1 lasts for 24 hours and involves basic health care and several small meals of low energy/protein food spaced over the day. Phase 2 involves monitoring of the patient and several small meals of high energy/protein food spaced over each day until the individual’s weight approaches normal. MSF uses foods designed specifically for treatment of severe malnutrition. During phase 1, a type of therapeutic milk called F-75 is fed to patients. F-75 is a relatively low energy, low fat/protein milk powder that must be mixed with water and given to patients to prepare their bodies for phase 2. Drugs and Medical Supplies Catalogue Vol. 1 (2005) F-75 Description MSF. During phase 2 therapeutic milk called F-100, which is higher in energy/fat/protein content than F-75, is given to patients, usually along with a peanut butter mixture called Plumpy'nut. F-100 and Plumpy'nut are designed to quickly provide large amounts of nutrients so that patients can be treated efficiently. Drugs and Medical Supplies Catalogue Vol. 1 (2005) F-100 Description MSF. Drugs and Medical Supplies Catalogue Vol. 1 (2005) Plumpy'nut Description MSF. Other special food fed to populations in danger of starvation includes enriched flour and porridge, as well as a high protein biscuit called BP5. BP5 is a popular food for treating populations because it can be distributed easily and sent home with individuals, or it can be crushed and mixed with therapeutic milk for specific treatments. Drugs and Medical Supplies Catalogue Vol. 1 (2005) BP5 Description MSF. Dehydration, sometimes due to diarrhoea or cholera, may also be present in a population, and MSF set up rehydration centres to combat this. A special solution called Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS), which contains glucose and electrolytes, is given to patients to replace fluids lost. Antibiotics are also sometimes given to individuals with diarrhoea if it is known that they have cholera or dysentery. MSF Article (2001) Diarrhoea definition and MSF treatment MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Water and sanitation Clean water is essential for hygiene, consumption and for feeding programmes (for mixing with powdered therapeutic milk or porridge), as well as for preventing the spread of water-borne disease. MSF Article (2001) MSF: Water and Health MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. As such, MSF water engineers and volunteers must create a source of clean water. This is usually achieved by modifying an existing water well, by digging a new well and/or starting a water treatment project to obtain clean water for a population. Water treatment in these situations may consist of storage sedimentation, filtration and/or chlorination depending on available resources. MSF Article (2002) Simple water treatment MSF-UAE. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Sanitation is an essential part of field missions, and it may include education of local medical staff in proper sterilisation techniques, wastewater treatment projects, proper waste disposal, and education of the population in personal hygiene. Proper wastewater treatment and water sanitation are the best way to prevent the spread of serious water-borne diseases, such as cholera. MSF Article (2001) Cholera definition and MSF treatment MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Simple wastewater treatment systems can be set up by volunteers to protect drinking water from contamination. MSF Article (2002) Removal and treatment of wastewater MSF-UAE. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Garbage disposal could include pits for normal waste and incineration for medical waste. MSF Article (2002) Refuse pit MSF-UAE. Retrieved December 28, 2005. However, the most important subject in sanitation is the education of the local population, so that proper waste and water treatment can continue once MSF has left the area. Statistics In order to accurately report the conditions of a humanitarian emergency to the rest of the world and to governing bodies, data on a number of factors are collected during each field mission. The rate of malnutrition in children is used to determine the malnutrition rate in the population, and then to determine the need for feeding centres. MSF Article (2002) Malnutrition: rates and measures MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Various types of mortality rates are used to report the seriousness of a humanitarian emergency, and a common method used to measure mortality in a population is to have staff constantly monitoring the number of burials at cemeteries. MSF Article (2002) Mortality: rates and measures MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. By compiling data on the frequency of diseases in hospitals, MSF can track the occurrence and location of epidemic increases (or "seasons") and stockpile vaccines and other drugs. For example, the "Meningitis Belt" (sub-Saharan Africa, which sees the most cases of meningitis in the world) has been "mapped" and the meningitis season occurs between December and June. Shifts in the location of the Belt and the timing of the season can be predicted using cumulative data over many years. WHO Fact Sheet Meningococcal meningitis WHO. Retrieved December 28, 2005. In addition to epidemiology surveys, MSF also uses surveys of populations to determine the rates of violence in various regions. By estimating the scopes of massacres, and determining the rate of kidnappings, rapes, and killings, psychosocial programmes can be implemented to lower the suicide rate and increase the sense of security in a population. MSF Article Mental health care crucial in emergency situations MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Large-scale forced migrations, excessive civilian casualties and massacres can be quantified using surveys, and MSF can use the results to put pressure on governments to provide help, or even expose genocide. MSF Article A scientific approach to "témoignage" MSF. Retrieved December 28, 2005. Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines The Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines was initiated in 1999 to increase access to essential medicines in developing countries. "Essential medicines" are those drugs that are needed in sufficient supply to treat a disease common to a population. WHO Health topic Essential Medicines However, most diseases common to populations in developing countries are no longer common to populations in developed countries; therefore, pharmaceutical companies find that producing these drugs is no longer profitable and may raise the price per treatment, decrease development of the drug (and new treatments) or even stop production of the drug. MSF often lacks effective drugs during field missions, and started the campaign to put pressure on governments and pharmaceutical companies to increase funding for essential medicines. The Campaign Background MSF Access Website. Retrieved December 22, 2005. Dangers faced by volunteers Aside from injuries and death associated with stray bullets, mines and epidemic disease, MSF volunteers are sometimes attacked or kidnapped for political reasons. In some countries afflicted by civil war, humanitarian aid organisations may be viewed as helping the enemy, if an aid mission has been set up exclusively for victims on one side of the conflict, and be attacked for that reason. However, the War on Terrorism has generated attitudes among some groups in US-occupied countries that non-governmental aid organisations such as MSF are allied with or even work for the Coalition forces. Since the United States has labelled its operations "humanitarian actions" independent aid organisations have been forced to defend their positions, or even evacuate their teams. MSF Article (2004) Military humanitarianism: A deadly confusion MSF. Retrieved January 12, 2006. Insecurity in cities in Afghanistan and Iraq rose significantly following United States operations, and MSF has declared that providing aid in the countries was too dangerous. MSF Article (2004) Independent aid in Iraq virtually impossible MSF. Retrieved January 12, 2006. The organisation was forced to evacuate its teams from Afghanistan on 28 July 2004, MSF Article (2004) The real reasons MSF left Afghanistan MSF. Retrieved January 12, 2006. after five volunteers (Afghans Fasil Ahmad and Besmillah, Belgian Hélène de Beir, Norwegian Egil Tynæs, and Dutchman Willem Kwint) were killed on 2 June in an ambush by unidentified militia near Khair Khana in Badghis province. MSF Article (2004) MSF pulls out of Afghanistan MSF. Retrieved January 17, 2006. In June 2007, Elsa Serfass, a volunteer with MSF-France was killed in the Central African Republic and in January 2008, two expatriate staff (Damien Lehalle and Victor Okumu) and a national staff member (Mohammed Bidhaan Ali) were killed in an organized attack in Somalia resulting in the closing of the project. Arrests and abductions in politically unstable regions can also occur for volunteers, and in some cases, MSF field missions can be expelled entirely from a country. Arjan Erkel, Head of Mission in Dagestan in the North Caucasus, was kidnapped and held hostage in an unknown location by unknown abductors from 12 August 2002 until 11 April 2004. Paul Foreman, head of MSF-Holland, was arrested in Sudan in May 2005 for refusing to divulge documents used in compiling a report on rapes carried out by the pro-government Janjaweed militias (see Darfur conflict). Foreman cited the privacy of the women involved, and MSF alleged that the Sudanese government had arrested him because it disliked the bad publicity generated by the report. MSF Article (2005) MSF shocked by arrest of Head of Mission in Sudan - charged with crimes against the state MSF. Retrieved January 11, 2006. Documentary about Médecins Sans Frontières work Living in Emergency is an award-winning documentary film that tells the story of four MSF volunteer doctors confronting the challenges of medical work in war-torn areas of Liberia and Congo. It premiered at the 2008 Venice Film Festival and is scheduled to be released theatrically in 2009. Namesakes A number of other Non-governmental organizations (NGO) have adopted the Without Borders tag, inspired by the Doctors without Borders name. See also Attacks on humanitarian workers Living in Emergency: Stories of Doctors Without Borders (2008 documentary film) Timeline of events in humanitarian relief and development References Further reading (links to PDF file) (full text requires registration) External links More information Médecins Sans Frontières International Official Nobel Peace Prize page for MSF Essentialdrugs.org Observatoire de l'action humanitaire Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative English language sections Médecins Sans Frontières Australia Médecins Sans Frontières Canada / Doctors Without Borders Médecins Sans Frontières UK Médecins Sans Frontières USA / Doctors Without Borders Aid Watch Intelligent Giving profile of MSF UK Non-English language sections Médecins Sans Frontières Austria / Ärzte ohne Grenzen Médecins Sans Frontières Belgium / Artsen zonder Grenzen Médecins Sans Frontières Belgium Médecins Sans Frontières Brazil / Médicos sem Fronteiras Médecins Sans Frontières Denmark / Læger uden Grænser Médecins Sans Frontières France Médecins Sans Frontières Germany / Ärzte ohne Grenzen Médecins Sans Frontières Greece Médecins Sans Frontières Holland - Artsen zonder Grenzen Médecins Sans Frontières Hong Kong Médecins Sans Frontières Italy / Medici Senza Frontiere Médecins Sans Frontières Japan Médecins Sans Frontières Norway / Leger Uten Grenser Médecins Sans Frontières Spain / Médicos Sin Fronteras Médecins Sans Frontières Sweden / Läkare Utan Gränser Médecins Sans Frontières Switzerland / Suisse / Schweiz Médecins Sans Frontières United Arab Emirates

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Algorithms_for_calculating_variance

Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in statistical computing. A key problem in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values. Naïve algorithm The formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size n is: The formula for calculating an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations is: Therefore a naive algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following: n = 0 sum = 0 sum_sqr = 0 for x in data: n = n + 1 sum = sum + x sum_sqr = sum_sqr + x*x mean = sum/n variance = (sum_sqr - sum*mean)/(n - 1) This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by n instead of n − 1 on the last line. Because sum_sqr and sum * mean can be very similar numbers, the precision of the result can be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean. Two-pass algorithm An alternate approach, using a different formula for the variance, is given by the following pseudocode: n = 0 sum1 = 0 for x in data: n = n + 1 sum1 = sum1 + x mean = sum1/n sum2 = 0 for x in data: sum2 = sum2 + (x - mean)**2 variance = sum2/(n - 1) This algorithm is often more numerically reliable than the naïve algorithm I for large sets of data, although it can be worse if much of the data is very close to but not precisely equal to the mean and some are quite far away from it. The results of both of these simple algorithms (I and II) can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree. Compensated variant The compensated-summation version of the algorithm above reads: n = 0 sum1 = 0 for x in data: n = n + 1 sum1 = sum1 + x mean = sum1/n sum2 = 0 sumc = 0 for x in data: sum2 = sum2 + (x - mean)**2 sumc = sumc + (x - mean) variance = (sum2 - sumc**2/n)/(n - 1) On-line algorithm It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value only once; for example, when the data are being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion. The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element . Here, m denotes the estimate of the population mean(using the sample mean), s2n-1 the estimate of the population variance, s2n the estimate of the sample variance, and n the number of elements in the sequence before the addition. It turns out that a more suitable quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the (current) mean, , here denoted : A numerically stable algorithm is given below. It also computes the mean. This algorithm is due to Knuth, Donald E. Knuth (1998). The Art of Computer Programming, volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, 3rd edn., p. 232. Boston: Addison-Wesley. who cites Welford. B. P. Welford (1962)."Note on a method for calculating corrected sums of squares and products". Technometrics 4(3):419–420. n = 0 mean = 0 M2 = 0 for x in data: n = n + 1 delta = x - mean mean = mean + delta/n M2 = M2 + delta*(x - mean) # This expression uses the new value of mean variance_n = M2/n variance = M2/(n - 1) This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to massive cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals. A slightly more convenient form allows one to calculate the standard deviation without having to explicitly calculate the new mean. If is the number of elements in the sequence after the addition of the new element, then one has Weighted incremental algorithm When the observations are weighted, West (1979) D. H. D. West (1979). Communications of the ACM, 22, 9, 532-535: Updating Mean and Variance Estimates: An Improved Method suggests this incremental algorithm: n = 0 for x, weight in dataWeightPairs: # Alternately "for x in zip(data, weight):" if n = 0: n = 1 mean = x S = 0 sumweight = weight else: n = n + 1 temp = weight + sumweight S = S + sumweight*weight*(x-mean)**2 / temp mean = mean + (x-mean)*weight / temp sumweight = temp Variance = S * n / ((n-1) * sumweight) # if sample is the population, omit n/(n-1) Parallel algorithm Chan et al. . note that the above on-line algorithm III is a special case of an algorithm that works for any partition of the sample into sets , : . This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input. Higher-order statistics Terriberry extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis: Here the are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean , giving skewness: kurtosis: For the incremental case (i.e., ), this simplifies to: By preserving the value , only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost. Pébay further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases. Example Assume that all floating point operations use the standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both Algorithm I and Algorithm II compute these values correctly. Next consider the sample (108 + 4, 108 + 7, 108 + 13, 108 + 16), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. Algorithm II computes this variance estimate correctly, but Algorithm I returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30. While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of Algorithm I, it is easy to find data that reveal a major flaw in the naive algorithm: Take the sample to be (109 + 4, 109 + 7, 109 + 13, 109 + 16). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by Algorithm II, but the naive algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with Algorithm I and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm. See also Computational formula for the variance References External links

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Computer_security

Computer security is a branch of technology known as information security as applied to computers. The objective of computer security includes protection of information and property from theft, corruption, or natural disaster, while allowing the information and property to remain accessible and productive to its intended users. Security by design The technologies of computer security are based on logic. As security is not necessarily the primary goal of most computer applications, designing a program with security in mind often imposes restrictions on that program's behavior. There are several approaches to security in computing, sometimes a combination of approaches is valid: Trust all the software to abide by a security policy but the software is not trustworthy (this is computer insecurity). Trust all the software to abide by a security policy and the software is validated as trustworthy (by tedious branch and path analysis for example). Trust no software but enforce a security policy with mechanisms that are not trustworthy (again this is computer insecurity). Trust no software but enforce a security policy with trustworthy mechanisms. Many systems have unintentionally resulted in the first possibility. Since approach two is expensive and non-deterministic, its use is very limited. Approaches one and three lead to failure. Because approach number four is often based on hardware mechanisms and avoids abstractions and a multiplicity of degrees of freedom, it is more practical. Combinations of approaches two and four are often used in a layered architecture with thin layers of two and thick layers of four. There are various strategies and techniques used to design security systems. However there are few, if any, effective strategies to enhance security after design. One technique enforces the principle of least privilege to great extent, where an entity has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way even if an attacker gains access to one part of the system, fine-grained security ensures that it is just as difficult for them to access the rest. Furthermore, by breaking the system up into smaller components, the complexity of individual components is reduced, opening up the possibility of using techniques such as automated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. This enables a closed form solution to security that works well when only a single well-characterized property can be isolated as critical, and that property is also assessable to math. Not surprisingly, it is impractical for generalized correctness, which probably cannot even be defined, much less proven. Where formal correctness proofs are not possible, rigorous use of code review and unit testing represent a best-effort approach to make modules secure. The design should use "defense in depth", where more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds. Defense in depth works when the breaching of one security measure does not provide a platform to facilitate subverting another. Also, the cascading principle acknowledges that several low hurdles does not make a high hurdle. So cascading several weak mechanisms does not provide the safety of a single stronger mechanism. Subsystems should default to secure settings, and wherever possible should be designed to "fail secure" rather than "fail insecure" (see fail safe for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure. In addition, security should not be an all or nothing issue. The designers and operators of systems should assume that security breaches are inevitable. Full audit trails should be kept of system activity, so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks. Finally, full disclosure helps to ensure that when bugs are found the "window of vulnerability" is kept as short as possible. Early history of security by design The early Multics operating system was notable for its early emphasis on computer security by design, and Multics was possibly the very first operating system to be designed as a secure system from the ground up. In spite of this, Multics' security was broken, not once, but repeatedly. The strategy was known as 'penetrate and test' and has become widely known as a non-terminating process that fails to produce computer security. This led to further work on computer security that prefigured modern security engineering techniques producing closed form processes that terminate. Security architecture Security Architecture can be defined as the design artifacts that describe how the security controls (security countermeasures) are positioned, and how theythey relate to the overall information technology architecture. These controls serve the purpose to maintain the system's quality attributes, among them confidentiality, integrity, availability, accountability and assurance." Definitions: IT Security Architecture. SecurityArchitecture.org, Jan, 2008 . A security architecture is the plan that shows where security measures need to be placed. If the plan describes a specific solution then, prior to building such a plan, one would make a risk analysis. If the plan describes a generic high level design (reference architecture) then the plan should be based on a threat analysis. Hardware mechanisms that protect computers and data Hardware based or assisted computer security offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Devices such as dongles may be considered more secure due to the physical access required in order to be compromised. While many software based security solutions encrypt the data to prevent data from being stolen, a malicious program may corrupt the data in order to make it unrecoverable or unusable. Hardware-based security solutions can prevent read and write access to data and hence offers very strong protection against tampering. Secure operating systems One use of the term computer security refers to technology to implement a secure operating system. Much of this technology is based on science developed in the 1980s and used to produce what may be some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever. Though still valid, the technology is in limited use today, primarily because it imposes some changes to system management and also because it is not widely understood. Such ultra-strong secure operating systems are based on operating system kernel technology that can guarantee that certain security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating environment. An example of such a Computer security policy is the Bell-La Padula model. The strategy is based on a coupling of special microprocessor hardware features, often involving the memory management unit, to a special correctly implemented operating system kernel. This forms the foundation for a secure operating system which, if certain critical parts are designed and implemented correctly, can ensure the absolute impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is enabled because the configuration not only imposes a security policy, but in theory completely protects itself from corruption. Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the features that assure this maximal level of security. The design methodology to produce such secure systems is precise, deterministic and logical. Systems designed with such methodology represent the state of the art of computer security although products using such security are not widely known. In sharp contrast to most kinds of software, they meet specifications with verifiable certainty comparable to specifications for size, weight and power. Secure operating systems designed this way are used primarily to protect national security information, military secrets, and the data of international financial institutions. These are very powerful security tools and very few secure operating systems have been certified at the highest level (Orange Book A-1) to operate over the range of "Top Secret" to "unclassified" (including Honeywell SCOMP, USAF SACDIN, NSA Blacker and Boeing MLS LAN.) The assurance of security depends not only on the soundness of the design strategy, but also on the assurance of correctness of the implementation, and therefore there are degrees of security strength defined for COMPUSEC. The Common Criteria quantifies security strength of products in terms of two components, security functionality and assurance level (such as EAL levels), and these are specified in a Protection Profile for requirements and a Security Target for product descriptions. None of these ultra-high assurance secure general purpose operating systems have been produced for decades or certified under the Common Criteria. In USA parlance, the term High Assurance usually suggests the system has the right security functions that are implemented robustly enough to protect DoD and DoE classified information. Medium assurance suggests it can protect less valuable information, such as income tax information. Secure operating systems designed to meet medium robustness levels of security functionality and assurance have seen wider use within both government and commercial markets. Medium robust systems may provide the same security functions as high assurance secure operating systems but do so at a lower assurance level (such as Common Criteria levels EAL4 or EAL5). Lower levels mean we can be less certain that the security functions are implemented flawlessly, and therefore less dependable. These systems are found in use on web servers, guards, database servers, and management hosts and are used not only to protect the data stored on these systems but also to provide a high level of protection for network connections and routing services. Secure coding If the operating environment is not based on a secure operating system capable of maintaining a domain for its own execution, and capable of protecting application code from malicious subversion, and capable of protecting the system from subverted code, then high degrees of security are understandably not possible. While such secure operating systems are possible and have been implemented, most commercial systems fall in a 'low security' category because they rely on features not supported by secure operating systems (like portability, et al.). In low security operating environments, applications must be relied on to participate in their own protection. There are 'best effort' secure coding practices that can be followed to make an application more resistant to malicious subversion. In commercial environments, the majority of software subversion vulnerabilities result from a few known kinds of coding defects. Common software defects include buffer overflows, format string vulnerabilities, integer overflow, and code/command injection. Some common languages such as C and C++ are vulnerable to all of these defects (see Seacord, "Secure Coding in C and C++"). Other languages, such as Java, are more resistant to some of these defects, but are still prone to code/command injection and other software defects which facilitate subversion. Recently another bad coding practice has come under scrutiny; dangling pointers. The first known exploit for this particular problem was presented in July 2007. Before this publication the problem was known but considered to be academic and not practically exploitable. New hacking technique exploits common programming error. SearchSecurity.com, July 2007 In summary, 'secure coding' can provide significant payback in low security operating environments, and therefore worth the effort. Still there is no known way to provide a reliable degree of subversion resistance with any degree or combination of 'secure coding.' Capabilities vs. ACLs Within computer systems, the two fundamental means of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and capabilities. The semantics of ACLs have been proven to be insecure in many situations (e.g., Confused deputy problem). It has also been shown that ACL's promise of giving access to an object to only one person can never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities. This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems, but only that the designers of certain utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws. Capabilities have been mostly restricted to research operating systems and commercial OSs still use ACLs. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open source project in the area is the E language. First the Plessey System 250 and then Cambridge CAP computer demonstrated the use of capabilities, both in hardware and software, in the 1970s. A reason for the lack of adoption of capabilities may be that ACLs appeared to offer a 'quick fix' for security without pervasive redesign of the operating system and hardware. The most secure computers are those not connected to the Internet and shielded from any interference. In the real world, the most security comes from operating systems where security is not an add-on, such as OS/400 from IBM. This almost never shows up in lists of vulnerabilities for good reason. Years may elapse between one problem needing remediation and the next. See the article secure operating systems. Applications Computer security is critical in almost any technology-driven industry which operates on computer systems. The issues of computer based systems and addressing their countless vulnerabilities are an integral part of maintaining an operational industry. J. C. Willemssen, "FAA Computer Security". GAO/T-AIMD-00-330. Presented at Committee on Science, House of Representatives, 2000. In aviation The aviation industry is especially important when analyzing computer security because the involved risks include human life, expensive equipment, cargo, and transportation infrastructure. Security can be compromised by hardware and software malpractice, human error, and faulty operating environments. Threats that exploit computer vulnerabilities can stem from sabotage, espionage, industrial competition, terrorist attack, mechanical malfunction, and human error. P. G. Neumann, "Computer Security in Aviation," presented at International Conference on Aviation Safety and Security in the 21st Century, White House Commission on Safety and Security, 1997. The consequences of a successful deliberate or inadvertent misuse of a computer system in the aviation industry range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, which may lead to more serious concerns such as data theft or loss, network and air traffic control outages, which in turn can lead to airport closures, loss of aircraft, loss of passenger life. Military systems that control munitions can pose an even greater risk. A proper attack does not need to be very high tech or well funded; for a power outage at an airport alone can cause repercussions worldwide. J. Zellan, Aviation Security. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science, 2003, pp. 65-70. . One of the easiest and, arguably, the most difficult to trace security vulnerabilities is achievable by transmitting unauthorized communications over specific radio frequencies. These transmissions may spoof air traffic controllers or simply disrupt communications altogether. These incidents are very common, having altered flight courses of commercial aircraft and caused panic and confusion in the past. Controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore. Beyond the radar's sight controllers must rely on periodic radio communications with a third party. Lightning, power fluctuations, surges, brown-outs, blown fuses, and various other power outages instantly disable all computer systems, since they are dependent on an electrical source. Other accidental and intentional faults have caused significant disruption of safety critical systems throughout the last few decades and dependence on reliable communication and electrical power only jeopardizes computer safety. Notable system accidents In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified hackers into the Rome Laboratory, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using trojan horse viruses, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user. Information Security. United States Department of Defense, 1986 Now, a technique called Ethical hack testing is used to remediate these issues. Electromagnetic interference is another threat to computer safety and in 1989, a United States Air Force F-16 jet accidentally dropped a 230 kg bomb in West Georgia after unspecified interference caused the jet's computers to release it. Air Force Bombs Georgia. The Risks Digest, vol. 8, no. 72, May 1989 A similar telecommunications accident also happened in 1994, when two UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters were destroyed by F-15 aircraft in Iraq because the IFF system's encryption system malfunctioned. Terminology The following terms used in engineering secure systems are explained below. Authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are. Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications. Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. The next sections discuss their use. Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers. Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted or modified. Firewalls can provide some protection from online intrusion. Mandatory access control can be used to ensure that privileged access is withdrawn when privileges are revoked. For example, deleting a user account should also stop any processes that are running with that user's privileges. Secure cryptoprocessors can be used to leverage physical security techniques into protecting the security of the computer system. microkernels can be reliable against errors: eg EROS and Coyotos. Some of the following items may belong to the computer insecurity article: Access authorization restricts access to a computer to group of users through the use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer - such as through an interactive logon screen - or individual services, such as an FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, and, more recently, smart cards and biometric systems. Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware). application with known security flaws should not be run. Either leave it turned off until it can be patched or otherwise fixed, or delete it and replace it with some other application. Publicly known flaws are the main entry used by worms to automatically break into a system and then spread to other systems connected to it. The security website Secunia provides a search tool for unpatched known flaws in popular products. Cryptographic techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message, but eavesdroppers cannot. Backups are a way of securing information; they are another copy of all the important computer files kept in another location. These files are kept on hard disks, CD-Rs, CD-RWs, and tapes. Suggested locations for backups are a fireproof, waterproof, and heat proof safe, or in a separate, offsite location than that in which the original files are contained. Some individuals and companies also keep their backups in safe deposit boxes inside bank vaults. There is also a fourth option, which involves using one of the file hosting services that backs up files over the Internet for both business and individuals. Backups are also important for reasons other than security. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes, may strike the building where the computer is located. The building can be on fire, or an explosion may occur. There needs to be a recent backup at an alternate secure location, in case of such kind of disaster. Further, it is recommended that the alternate location be placed where the same disaster would not affect both locations. Examples of alternate disaster recovery sites being compromised by the same disaster that affected the primary site include having had a primary site in World Trade Center I and the recovery site in 7 World Trade Center, both of which were destroyed in the 9/11 attack, and having one's primary site and recovery site in the same coastal region, which leads to both being vulnerable to hurricane damage (e.g. primary site in New Orleans and recovery site in Jefferson Parish, both of which were hit by Hurricane Katrina in 2005). The backup media should be moved between the geographic sites in a secure manner, in order to prevent them from being stolen. Encryption is used to protect the message from the eyes of others. It can be done in several ways by switching the characters around, replacing characters with others, and even removing characters from the message. These have to be used in combination to make the encryption secure enough, that is to say, sufficiently difficult to crack. Public key encryption is a refined and practical way of doing encryption. It allows for example anyone to write a message for a list of recipients, and only those recipients will be able to read that message. Firewalls are systems which help protect computers and computer networks from attack and subsequent intrusion by restricting the network traffic which can pass through them, based on a set of system administrator defined rules. Honey pots are computers that are either intentionally or unintentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers or fix vulnerabilities. Intrusion-detection systems can scan a network for people that are on the network but who should not be there or are doing things that they should not be doing, for example trying a lot of passwords to gain access to the network. Pinging The ping application can be used by potential crackers to find if an IP address is reachable. If a cracker finds a computer they can try a port scan to detect and attack services on that computer. Social engineering awareness keeps employees aware of the dangers of social engineering and/or having a policy in place to prevent social engineering can reduce successful breaches of the network and servers. Notes References Ross J. Anderson: Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems, ISBN 0-471-38922-6 Morrie Gasser: Building a secure computer system ISBN 0-442-23022-2 1988 Stephen Haag, Maeve Cummings, Donald McCubbrey, Alain Pinsonneault, Richard Donovan: Management Information Systems for the information age, ISBN 0-07-091120-7 E. Stewart Lee: Essays about Computer Security Cambridge, 1999 Peter G. Neumann: Principled Assuredly Trustworthy Composable Architectures 2004 Paul A. Karger, Roger R. Schell: Years Later: Lessons from the Multics Security Evaluation</cite>, IBM white paper. Bruce Schneier: Secrets & Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World, ISBN 0-471-25311-1 Robert C. Seacord: Secure Coding in C and C++. Addison Wesley, September, 2005. ISBN 0-321-33572-4 Clifford Stoll: Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy Through the Maze of Computer Espionage, Pocket Books, ISBN 0-7434-1146-3 Network Infrastructure Security, Angus Wong and Alan Yeung, Springer, 2009. See also Attack tree Authentication Authorization CAPTCHA CERT Chaos Computer Club Computer security model Cryptography Cyber security standards Dancing pigs Data security Differentiated security Fault tolerance Firewalls Formal methods Human-computer interaction (security) Identity management Information Leak Prevention Internet privacy ISO/IEC 15408 Network security Network Security Toolkit OWASP Packetstorm Penetration test Physical information security Physical security Proactive Cyber Defence Sandbox (computer security) Security Architecture Separation of protection and security Ethical hack Timeline of hacker history Wireless LAN Security

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Babrak_Karmal

Babrak Karmal (January 6, 1929 – December 3, 1996) was the third President of Afghanistan (1979 - 1986) during the period of the communist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. He is the best known of the Marxist leadership. Having been restored to power with Soviet support, he was unable to consolidate his power and, in 1986, he was replaced by Dr. Mohammad Najibullah. He left Afghanistan for Moscow, where he died in 1996. Early years The son of a well-connected army general, although born into a wealthy family in the village of Kamari (east of Kabul), Babrak Karmal lived in hardship following the death of his mother. He was an indifferent student in high school and in the law school of Kabul University, quickly gained a reputation as an orator and activist in the university’s student union in 1951. He became involved in Marxist political activities while a student at Kabul University, and was imprisoned for five years as a result. In prison, Karmal was befriended by a fellow inmate, Mier Akbar Khybar. A third inmate, Mier Mohammad Siddiq Farhang, initiated both to pro-Moscow leftist views. After graduation he entered the Ministry of Planning, keeping in close touch with those who had special knowledge on communism, among them Mier Mohammad Siddiq Farhang and Ali Mohammad Zahma, a professor at Kabul University. Political career On January 1 1965 the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan was founded in Kabul, with Karmal serving as one of its twenty-eight founding members in its founding congress. Karmal was appointed its Secretary. As a result, he was elected and served in the quasi-democratic National Assembly of Afghanistan from 1965 until 1973 during the Constitutional Monarchy of King Zahir Shah. Karmal is known for his revolutionary and open speeches in the parliament against the ruling classes. In most of his parliamentary speeches, Karmal urged the people of Afghanistan to unite and stand up against the ruling classes and fight the status quo. Karmal and a few of his other comrades in the National Assembly, represented the only leftist group at the time. In 1967, when the party split into the Khalq and the Parcham factions, Karmal became the leader of the more moderate Parcham faction. When Mohammed Daoud Khan overthrew the monarchy and instituted the Republic, Karmal was asked by President Daud Khan to share power with him. In response, Karmal told Daud Khan that he (Karmal) needed to consult his comrades on this issue and inform him (Daud Khan) later. Of course, he never returned. The reason why it is believed Karmal's faction shared power with Daud Khan is that some of the people in Daud's government were later to assume important positions in Karmal's government. The factions reunited in 1977, and in April 1978 seized control of Afghanistan through a military coup. Karmal was initially Deputy Prime Minister but following the rise of the rival Khalq faction he and other important cadres of the Parcham faction like Dr. Najibullah, Noor Ahmad Noor, Anaita Ratebzad, and Mahmood Baryalai were soon 'exiled' as ambassadors to other countries while other important cadres of Parcham like Sultan Ali Kishtmand were put in jail. Note may be taken of the fact that Karmal (and his Parcham faction) was opposed to any move that would result in the seizure of state power by the PDPA at the time in Afghanistan arguing that the country was not yet ready for the socialist transformation of society. Therefore, the Parcham faction was opposed to the military coup that resulted in the overthrowing of Daud's government. Sultan Ali Keshtmand, one of the founding members of PDPA, in his latest book Keshtmand, Sultan Ali (2002) Yaad daashthaaye Syaasi wa Rooyidaadhaaye Taarikhi (Political Notes and Historical Events) unknown publication place, unknown publisher, unknown ISBN ; http://keshtmand.org/ site not found 20 January 2008[Publication information needed] emphasizes this. Indeed, the initiative of the coup was taken by Hafizullah Amin himself without the knowledge of the top PDPA leadership. The "order" for the launching of the coup against the Daud regime was delivered by Amin's son to Amin's military group in the army. The PDPA was attempting to modernize the country in line with socialist programs, but there was major unrest. In December 1979 the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and Soviet commandos killed the then leader Hafizullah Amin. The Soviets brought Karmal back to be President of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction of the PDPA was installed by the Soviets as Afghanistan's new head of government. President of the Republic Flag of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan during Babrak Karmal's rule. The flag was changed in order to reflect a more "Islamic" and popular design, restoring the historical colors that were common in previous flags. In his first radio broadcasts (Listen to the radio broadcast at http://www.afghanland.com/history/karmal.html) Karmal gave hopeful promises. He said that henceforth there would be no executions and that a new constitution would be drawn up providing for the democratic election of national and local assemblies. He also promised that political parties would function freely and that both personal property and individual freedom would be safeguarded. In particular, he stressed that soon a government representing a united national front would be set up and that it would not pursue socialism. He managed to fulfill some of his promises: the release of some political prisoners; the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan; the change of the red, Soviet-style banner of the Khalq period to the more orthodox one of black, red, and green; the granting of concessions to religious leaders; and the conditional restoration of confiscated property. However, his Government didn't enjoy International support from the beginning. The United Nations General Assembly voted by 104 to 18 with 18 abstentions for a resolution which "strongly deplored" the "recent armed intervention" in Afghanistan and called for the "total withdrawal of foreign troops" from the country. Immediate problems also were within the party. He was the chosen man of the Kremlin, and no one within the party could openly oppose him. No attempt was made to televise the process by which, even within the official party and the Revolutionary Council, Karmal was elected head of the party and of the state. Karmal’s poor performance in interviews with foreign journalists also failed to help his public image. In the first and last televised interview of his life, held before a large number of foreign and Afghan journalists after he was raised to power, Karmal divided the journalists on the basis of the Cold War line distinguishing between the democratic bloc and the socialist bloc countries. Thus, the civil war in Afghanistan started. This was a different type of war, however, since it involved guerrilla warfare and a war of attrition between the PDPA-Communist controlled regime and the Mujahideen; it cost both sides a great deal. Many Afghans, perhaps as many as five million, or one-quarter of the country's population, fled to Pakistan and Iran where they organized into guerrilla groups to strike Soviet and government forces inside Afghanistan. Others remained in Afghanistan and also formed fighting groups. These various groups were supplied with funds to purchase arms, principally from the United States, Saudi Arabia, the People's Republic of China, and Egypt. Fall from power The regime ruled only the city of Kabul, the provincial capitals, and those strategic areas where the Soviets and the Afghan Military had stationed military contingents and militia units. Despite high casualties on both sides, pressure continued to mount on the Soviet Union, especially after the United States brought in Stinger anti-aircraft missiles which severely reduced the effectiveness of Soviet air cover. Moscow came to regard Karmal as a failure and blamed him for the problems. Years later, when Karmal’s inability to consolidate his government had become obvious, Mikhail Gorbachev, then General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party, said: Not only that, but some Afghan troops who had fought for the Communist Government began to defect. In May 1986 he was replaced as party leader by Mohammad Najibullah, and six months later he was relieved of the presidency. Karmal then moved (or allegedly was exiled) to Moscow. He returned to Kabul in 1991 and then spent a few years in Hayratan (Afghanistan). He eventually died in Moscow in 1996 BBC Persian Interviews with Babrak Karmal . Death Karmal died in Moscow's Central Clinical Hospital from liver cancer on December 3, 1996. On December 5, about 200 members of the Afghan community in Moscow attended a memorial service at the Hospital. Most of those in attendance had served in Karmal's Afghan government. Karmal's body was flown the following day from Moscow to Termez, a city in Uzbekistan that borders Afghanistan. From there it was carried in an ambulance via the "Friendship Bridge" to Hayratan, the border city on the Afghan side near Termez. Nearly a thousand people from different parts of Afghanistan and from different walks of life were waiting in a very long line to welcome Karmal's body back to Afghanistan. His body was first taken to Hayratan General Hospital where it was put on display for hundreds of people who came to pay their last respects to the man who once was their President. Karmal's body was buried in the Hayratan common graveyard beside the grave of his life-long comrade Imtiaz Hassan, who had earlier died in Moscow and was buried in the Hayratan Graveyard. Films of Karmal's funeral and burial are available. When the Taliban captured Hayratan for a second time in August 1998, Babrak Karmal's body was exhumed from his grave but was soon re-buried in the same grave in presence of some residents (one of whom was a loyal member of Karmal's Parcham faction of the PDPA) of Hayratan contrary to the false belief that his body was thrown into Amu Darya. After the Taliban re-buried Babrak Karmal, some of his comrades residing in Hayratan city went to his grave, opened it and made sure he was there, and then closed it again. Pictures are available. Notes External links Biography of President Babrak Karmal

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mohammad_najibullah:2 befriend_fellow:1 fellow_inmate:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 zahir_shah:1 status_quo:1 parcham_faction:7 mohammed_daoud:1 daoud_khan:1 daud_khan:4 prime_minister:1 hafizullah_amin:2 http_www:1 guerrilla_warfare:1 saudi_arabia:1 soviet_union:1 mikhail_gorbachev:1 amu_darya:1 external_link:1

Johann_Homann

Planiglobii Terrestris Cum Utroq[ue] Hemisphærio Cælesti Generalis Exhibitio, Nürnberg 1707 The utopic Schlaraffenland Johann Baptist Homann (20 March 1664 – 1 July 1724) was a German geographer and cartographer, who made maps of the Americas . Homann was born in Oberkammlach near Kammlach, which is now in Bavaria. Although educated at a Jesuit school, he eventually converted to Protestantism. In 1715 Homann was appointed Imperial Geographer of the Holy Roman Empire. Giving such privileges to individuals was an added right that the Holy Roman Emperor enjoyed. In the same year he was also named a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. Of particular significance to cartography were the imperial printing privileges (Latin privilegia impressoria). These protected for a time the authors in all scientific fields such as printers, copper engravers, map makers and publishers. They were also very important as recommendation for potential customers. In 1716 Homann published his masterpiece Grosser Atlas ueber die ganze Welt (Grand Atlas of all the World). Homann died in Nuremberg. He was succeed by the Homann heirs company, in business until 1848, known as "Homann Erben", "Homannianos Heredes", "Heritiers de Homann" abroad. Literature Auserlesene und allerneueste Landkarten: der Verlag Homann in Nürnberg 1702–1848: eine Ausstellung des Stadtarchivs Nürnberg und der Museen der Stadt Nürnberg mit Unterstützung der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin-Preussischer Kulturbesitz im Stadtmuseum Fembohaus vom 19. September bis 24. November 2002. Hrsg. von Michael Diefenbacher, Markus Heinz und Ruth Bach-Damaskinos. Nürnberg: Tümmels, 2002. (Ausstellungskatalog des Stadtarchivs Nürnberg, Nr. 14). ISBN 3-925002-84-7 Christian Sandler (1886, 1890, 1905, Reprints 2001–2002) (biography section considered outdated) External links Maps of Homann in Denmark online from Det Kongelige Bibliotek. Requires DjVu-Plugin 50 maps of Homann at Bistum Augsburg

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Berthe_Morisot

Berthe Morisot (January 14, 1841 – March 2, 1895) was a painter and a member of the circle of painters in Paris who became known as the Impressionists. Undervalued for over a century, possibly because she was a woman, she is now considered among the first league of Impressionist painters. In 1864, she exhibited for the first time in the highly esteemed Salon de Paris. Sponsored by the government, and judged by academicians, the Salon was the official, annual exhibition of the Académie des beaux-arts in Paris. Her work was selected for exhibition in six subsequent Salons Denvir, 2000, pp. 29-79. until, in 1874, she joined the "rejected" Impressionists in the first of their own exhibitions, which included Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. It was held at the studio of the photographer Nadar. She became the sister-in-law of her friend and colleague, Édouard Manet, when she married his brother, Eugène. Education Berthe Morisot, The Cradle, 1872, Musée d'Orsay Morisot was born in Bourges, Cher, France into a successful bourgeois family. Both she and her sister, Edma Morisot, chose to become painters. Once Berthe Morisot settled on pursuing art, her family did not impede her career. She was born into a family that, according to family tradition, had included one of the most prolific Rococo painters of the ancien régime, Fragonard, Higonnet, p. 5 whose handling of color and expressive, confident brushwork influenced later painters. By age twenty, she had met and befriended the important, and pivotal, landscape painter of the Barbizon School, Camille Corot, who excelled in figure painting as well. The older artist instructed Berthe and her sister in painting and introduced them to other artists and teachers. Under Corot's influence, Morisot took up the plein air method of working. As art students, Berthe and Edma worked closely together until Edma married, had children, and no longer had time to paint so intensely as Berthe. Letters between them show a loving and cordial relationship, underscored by Berthe's regret at the distance between them and about Edma's withdrawal from painting. Edma wholeheartedly supported Berthe's continued work and the families of the two sisters always remained close. Manet and impressionism Berthe Morisot, Grain field, Musée d'Orsay Morisot's first appearance in the Salon de Paris came at the age of twenty-three in 1864, with the acceptance of two landscape paintings. She continued to show regularly in the Salon, to generally favorable reviews, until 1873, the year before the first Impressionist exhibition. Berthe Morisot, L'Enfant au Tablier Rouge, a sketch Meanwhile, in 1868 Morisot became acquainted with Édouard Manet. He took a special interest in Morisot, as is evident from his warm portrayal of her in several paintings, including a striking portrait study of Morisot in a black veil, while in mourning for her father's death (displayed at the top of the article). Correspondence between them bespeaks affection. He once gave her an easel as a Christmas present. He also interfered in one of her Salon submissions when he was engaged to transport it. Manet mistook one of Morisot's self-criticisms as an invitation to add his corrections, which he did, much to Morisot's dismay. Although traditionally Manet has been related as the master and Morisot as the follower, there is evidence that their relationship was a reciprocating one. Turner, 2000, p. 319. Morisot had developed her own distinctive artistic style. Records of paintings show Manet's approval and appreciation of certain stylistic and compositional decisions that Morisot originated. He incorporated some of these characteristics into his own work. Berthe Morisot, Child among Staked Roses, 1881, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne It was Morisot who convinced Manet to attempt plein air painting, which she had been practicing since having been introduced to it by Corot. She also drew Manet into the circle of painters who soon became known as the Impressionists. In 1874, Morisot married Manet's brother, Eugene, and they had one daughter, Julie. Julie Manet became the subject for many of her mother's paintings and a book of her memoirs Growing Up with the Impressionists: The Diary of Julie Manet, was published in 1987. As a doctrinaire Impressionist as well as a member of the haute bourgeoisie, Morisot painted what she experienced on a daily basis. Her paintings reflect the 19th century cultural restrictions of her class and gender. She avoided urban and street scenes as well as the nude figure and, like her fellow female Impressionist Mary Cassatt, focused on domestic life and portraits in which she could use family and personal friends as models. Paintings like The Cradle (1872), in which she depicted current trends for nursery furniture, reflect her sensitivity to fashion and advertising, both of which would have been apparent to her female audience. Her works include not only landscapes, portraits, garden settings and boating scenes, but also subjects portraying the comfort and intimacy of family and domestic life, as did her colleagues, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Mary Cassatt. Berthe Morisot died on March 2, 1895 in Paris and was interred in the Cimetière de Passy. Gallery See also Women artists Western painting History of painting Julie Manet Notes References Denvir, B. (2000). The Chronicle of Impressionism: An Intimate Diary of the Lives and World of the Great Artists. London: Thames & Hudson. OCLC 43339405 Higonnet, Anne (1995). Berthe Morisot. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20156-6 Turner, J. (2000). From Monet to Cézanne: late 19th-century French artists. Grove Art. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22971-2 Manet, Julie, Rosalind de Boland Roberts, and Jane Roberts. Growing Up with the Impressionists: The Diary of Julie Manet. London: Sotheby's Publications, 1987 External links Berthe Morisot at the WebMuseum

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Maria_Feodorovna_(Dagmar_of_Denmark)

Maria Feodorovna (26 November 1847 – 13 October 1928), born Princess Dagmar of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and later Princess Dagmar of Denmark, was Empress consort of Russia as spouse of Emperor Alexander III. She was the second daughter of King Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Among her children was the last Russian monarch, Emperor Nicholas II, whom she outlived by ten years. Family Princess Marie Sophie Fredrica/Frederikke Dagmar of Denmark was named after her kinswoman Marie Sophie Fredrica of Hesse-Kassel (1767–1852), Queen Dowager of Denmark. Dagmar's father soon became an heir to the throne of Denmark, largely due to his wife's succession rights as niece of King Christian VII. Born in Copenhagen as a daughter of a relatively impoverished princely cadet line, she was baptized into the Lutheran faith. Her father became King of Denmark in 1863 on the death of King Frederik VII. Due to the brilliant alliances of his children, he became known as the "Father-in-law of Europe." Most of her life, she was known as Maria Feodorovna (in Russian Мария Фёдоровна), the name which she took when converting to Orthodoxy immediately before her 1866 marriage to the future Tsar Alexander III. She was known within her family as Minnie. Maria Feodorovna was the younger sister of Alexandra, Queen Consort of King Edward VII and mother of George V of the United Kingdom, which helps to explain the striking resemblance between Nicholas II and George V. Her older brother was King George I of Greece. Her eldest brother became King Frederik VIII. Her youngest sister was Thyra, Duchess of Cumberland. Twice a fiancée, ultimately a bride The rise of Slavophile ideology in the Russian Empire led Alexander II of Russia to search for a bride for the heir apparent, Tsarevich Nicholas Alexandrovich of Russia, in countries other than the German states that had traditionally provided consorts for the tsars. In 1864, Nicholas, or "Nixa" as he was known in his family, went to Denmark where he was betrothed to Maria Feodorovna. On 22 April 1865 he died from tuberculosis. His last wish was that Maria would marry his younger brother, the future Alexander III. Maria Feodorovna was distraught after her young fiancé's death. She was so heartbroken when she returned to her motherland that her relatives were seriously worried about her health. She had already become emotionally attached to Russia and often thought of the huge, remote country that was to have been her home. The disaster had brought her very close to "Nixa's" parents, and she received a letter from Alexander II in which the Emperor attempted to console her. He told Maria Feodorovna in very affectionate terms that he hoped she would still consider herself a member of their family. Empress Marie Feodorovna's Favorite Residences in Russia and in Denmark, p.55 In June 1866, while on a visit to Copenhagen, the Tsesarevich Alexander asked Maria for her hand. They had both been in her room looking over photographs together. A Royal Family, pp.171-172 Maria Feodorovna left Copenhagen on 1 September 1866. Hans Christian Andersen was among the crowd which flocked to the quay in order to see her off. The writer remarked in his diary: "Yesterday, at the quay, while passing me by, she stopped and took me by the hand. My eyes were full of tears. What a poor child! Oh Lord, be kind and merciful to her! They say that there is a brilliant court in Saint Petersburg and the tsar's family is nice; still, she heads for an unfamiliar country, where people are different and religion is different and where she will have none of her former acquaintances by her side". Maria Feodorovna was warmly welcomed in Kronstadt by Alexander II of Russia and all his family. She was granted the title Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna of Russia. The lavish wedding took place on in the Imperial Chapel of the Winter Palace in St.Petersburg. After the wedding night, Alexander wrote in his diary, "I took off my slippers and my silver embroidered robe and felt the body of my beloved next to mine ... How I felt then, I do not wish to describe here. Afterwards we talked for a long time." ibid p.173 After the many wedding parties were over the newlyweds moved into the Anichkov Palace in St.Petersburg where they were to live for the next 15 years, when they were not taking extended holidays at their summer villa Livadia in the Crimea. Tsesarevna Maria Feodorovna was pretty and popular. Early on she made it a priority to learn the Russian language and to try to understand the Russian people. She rarely interfered with politics, preferring to devote her time and energies to her family, charities and the more social side of her position. Her one exception was her militant dislike of Germany due to the annexation of Danish territories by the newly created German Empire. Empress of All the Russias On the morning of 13 March 1881, Alexander II, aged sixty-two, was killed by a bomb on the way back to the Winter Palace from a military parade. In her diary, Maria later described how the wounded, still living Tsar was taken to the palace: "His legs were crushed terribly and ripped open to the knee; a bleeding mass, with half a boot on the right foot, and only the sole of the foot remaining on the left." ibid p.175 Alexander II died a few hours later. Although the people were not enamoured of the new Tsar, they adored Russia's new first lady. As Maria's contemporaries said of her: "She is truly an Empress." She herself was not altogether pleased with her new status. In her diary she wrote, "Our happiest and serenest times are now over. My peace and calm are gone, for now I will only ever be able to worry about Sasha." ibid p.176 Alexander and Maria were crowned at the Kremlin in Moscow on 27 May 1883. Just before the coronation, a major conspiracy had been uncovered, which cast a pall over the celebration. Nevertheless over 8000 guests attended the splendid ceremony. Because of the many threats against Maria and Alexander III, the head of the security police, General Cherevin, shortly after the coronation urged the Tsar and his family to relocate to Gatchina Palace, a more secure location, 50 kilometres outside St.Petersburg. The huge palace had 900 rooms and was built by Catherine II. The Romanovs heeded the advice. Maria and Alexander III lived at Gatchina for 13 years, and it was here that their five surviving children grew up. <center>Portrait by Vladimir Makovsky of Empress Maria Fyodorovna. Gatchina Palace, 1885 Under heavy guard, Alexander III and Maria made periodic trips from Gatchina to the capital to take part in official events. Maria longed for the balls and gatherings in the Winter Palace. These also occurred at Gatchina. Alexander used to enjoy joining in with the musicians, although he would end up sending them off one by one. When that happened, Maria knew the party was over. ibid, p.179 During Alexander III's reign, the monarchy's opponents quickly disappeared underground. A group of students had been planning to assassinate Alexander III on the sixth anniversary of his father's death at the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St.Petersburg. The plotters had stuffed hollowed-out books with dynamite, which they intended to throw at the Tsar when he arrived at the cathedral. However, the Russian secret police uncovered the plot before it could be carried out. Five students were hanged, including Alexander Ulyanov. He had a gifted younger brother, who was impressed by his elder brother's revolutionary political ideas. The boy was Vladimir Lenin, who in the following years spent much of his time among the revolutionaries underground in Europe developing the political ideas and theories he would practise in Russia after returning in 1917 to avenge his brother's death. <center>Empress Maria Fyodorovna and her husband Tsar Alexander III vacationing in Copenhagen in 1893 When Maria's eldest sister Alexandra visited Gatchina in July 1894, she was surprised to see how weak her brother-in-law Alexander III had become. He seemed to have shrivelled. Gone was the glow in his cheeks and his good cheer. At the time Marie had long known that he was ill and did not have long left. She now turned her attention to her eldest son, the future Nicholas II, for it was on him that both her personal future and the future of the dynasty now depended. Nicholas had long had his heart set on marrying Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt. Neither Alexander III nor Maria approved of the match. Nicholas summed up the situation as follows: "I wish to move in one direction, and it is clear that Mama wishes me to move in another - my dream is to one day marry Alix." ibid, p.184 Maria and Alexander found Alix shy and somewhat peculiar. They were also concerned that the young Princess was not possessed of the right character to be Empress of Russia. Nicholas's parents had known Alix as a child and formed the impression that she was hysterical and unbalanced. ibid Reluctantly they both agreed for Nicholas and Alix to wed. Dowager Empress On 1 November 1894, Alexander III died aged just forty-nine at Livadia. In her diary Maria wrote, "I am utterly heartbroken and despondent, but when I saw the blissful smile and the peace in his face that came after, it gave me strength." ibid, p.185 For a time Maria was inconsolable. Her sister, Alexandra, and brother-in-law, the future Edward VII arrived in Russia a few days later. The Prince of Wales planned Alexander's funeral and also set a date for the new Tsar Nicholas II's wedding to Alix. Maria Feodorovna's grandson-in-law, Prince Felix Yusupov, noted that she had great influence in the Romanov family. Sergei Witte praised her tact and diplomatic skill. Nevertheless, she did not get along well with her daughter-in-law, Alexandra Feodorovna, probably holding her responsible for many of the woes that beset the family of her son Nicholas. [[Image:Daughters of King Christian IX -2 -cropped.JPG|thumb|right|260px|The Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna (right) with her sister, Queen Alexandra (center), and her niece, Queen Alexandra's daughter Princess Victoria (left). London, 1905]] Once the death of Alexander III had receded, Maria again took a brighter view of the future. "Everything will be all right," as she said. She had lived for twenty-eight years in Russia, including thirteen as Empress, and thirty-four years of widowhood still awaited her, the last ten in exile in her ancestral land. At the end of November 1894, Maria moved into the Anichkov Palace in St.Petersburg, where she remained until the revolution began. Gradually, she was able to live and comport herself freely, and as time passed she grew less fearful. As Dowager Empress, she was no longer a political target for socialist and anarchist assassins. Revolution and exile Revolution came to Russia in March 1917. After meeting with her overthrown son, Nicholas II in Mogilev, Maria stayed for a while in Kiev, continuing her work for the Red Cross. When it became too dangerous for her to remain, she set off for the Crimea with a group of other refugee Romanovs. At the Black Sea, she received reports that her sons, her daughter-in-law and her grandchildren had been murdered. However, she rejected the report publicly as rumour. On the day after the murder of the Tsar's family, Maria received a messenger from Nicky, "a touching man" who told how difficult was the life of her son's family in Ekaterinburg. "And nobody can help or liberate them - only God! My Lord save my poor, unlucky Nicky, help him in his hard ordeals!" The Diaries of Empress Marie Feodorovna, p.239 In her diary she comforted herself: "I am sure they all got out of Russia and now the Bolsheviks are trying to hide the truth." A Royal Family, p.197 She firmly held on to this conviction until her death. The truth was too painful for her to bear. Her letters to her son and his family have since almost all been lost; but in one that survives, she wrote to Nicholas: "You know that my thoughts and prayers never leave you. I think of you day and night and sometimes feel so sick at heart that I believe I cannot bear it any longer. But God is merciful. He will give us strength for this terrible ordeal." Maria's daughter Olga Alexandrovna commented further on the matter, "Yet I am sure that deep in her heart my mother had steeled herself to accept the truth some years before her death." Vorres, I, The Last Grand Duchess, p.171 Despite the overthrow of the monarchy (1917), the Empress Maria at first refused to leave Russia. Only in 1919, at the urging of her sister Alexandra, did she grudgingly depart, fleeing via the Crimea over the Black Sea to London. King George V sent the warship HMS Marlborough to retrieve his aunt. After a brief stay in the British base in Malta and later London, she returned to her native Denmark, choosing her former holiday villa Hvidøre near Copenhagen as her new permanent home. Although Queen Alexandra never treated her sister badly and they spent holidays together in a shared cottage in Great Britain, Maria felt that she was now "number two". In exile in Copenhagen, Denmark, there were many Russian émigrées. For them, Maria still remained the Empress. People respected and highly valued her and often asked her for help. The All-Russian Monarchial Assembly held in 1921 offered her to become the locum tenens of the Russian throne. She declined the request - she would not like to interfere in political games and gave the evasive answer, "Nobody saw Nicky killed" and therefore there is a chance. She rendered financial support to Nikolai Sokolov, the investigator who studied the circumstances of the death of the Tsar's family. They did not meet - at the last moment, Grand Duchess Olga sent a telegram to Paris requesting to cancel the appointment. It would be too difficult for the old and sick woman to hear the terrible story of her son and his family. Empress Maria Fiodorovna, p.142 Death and burial In November 1925, Maria's favourite sister, Queen Alexandra, died. For Maria that was the last loss that she could bear. "She was ready to meet her Creator," wrote her son-in-law, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, about Maria's last years. On 13 October 1928 at Hvidøre near Copenhagen, in a house she had once shared with her sister Queen Alexandra, Maria died at Hvidore, at the age of 80. Following services in Copenhagen's Russian Orthodox Alexander Nevsky Church, the Empress was interred at Roskilde Cathedral. In 2005, Queen Margarethe II of Denmark and President Vladimir Putin of Russia and their respective governments agreed that the Empress's remains should be returned to Saint Petersburg in accordance with her wish to be interred next to her husband. A number of ceremonies took place from 23 to 28 September 2006. The funeral service, attended by high dignitaries, including the Crown Prince and Princess of Denmark and Prince and Princess Michael of Kent, did not pass without some turbulence. The crowd around the coffin was so great that a young Danish diplomat fell into the grave before the coffin was interred. http://nyhederne.tv2.dk/article.php/id-4982943.html On 26 September 2006, a statue of Maria Feodorovna was unveiled near her favourite Cottage Palace in Peterhof. Following a service at Saint Isaac's Cathedral, she was interred next to her husband Alexander III in the Peter and Paul Cathedral on 28 September 2006, 140 years after her first arrival to Russia and almost 78 years after her death. The Dowager Empress and Anna Anderson Maria Feodorovna never met Anna Anderson, the imposter who falsely claimed to be her murdered granddaughter Anastasia. On 22 January 2008, preliminary results of genetic analysis carried out on the remains of a boy and a young woman believed to belong to Nicholas II's son and heir Alexei, and daughter Maria were revealed. The Yekaterinburg region's chief forensic expert said, "Tests conducted in Yekaterinburg and Moscow allowed DNA to be extracted from the bones, which proved positive," Nikolai Nevolin said. "Once the genetic analysis has been completed in Russia, its results will be compared with test results from foreign experts." Nevolin said the final results would be published in April or May of 2008. YEKATERINBURG, January 22, 2008 (RIA Novosti) On 30 April 2008, Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing proves that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and Maria. Eduard Rossel, governor of the region 900 miles east of Moscow, said tests done by a U.S. laboratory had identified the shards as those of Alexei and Maria. "This has confirmed that indeed it is the children," he said. "We have now found the entire family." Shurmina, Natalya. Remains confirmed as tsar's missing children, The Guardian, 1 May 2008. Accessed 28 May 2008. Film and Stage Representations of the Dowager Empress The film Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna, in which Olivia de Havilland portrays the Dowager Empress, represents the latter as considering a personal meeting with Anna Anderson, the woman who claimed to be the Grand Duchess Anastasia. There is no evidence that the Empress Dowager ever had such an intention (or indeed that she had ever been requested to grant an audience to the woman). The Empress has been portrayed in many dramatizations. The character was voiced by Angela Lansbury in the 1997 Fox Animation Studios feature film Anastasia. She was portrayed by Helen Hayes in the London production of the play Anastasia and in the 1956 based on the play, and by Irene Worth in the classic 1971 film Nicholas and Alexandra. She was also portrayed by Jane Lapotaire in the 13-part British series Edward the Seventh, the story of her brother-in-law. Issue Empress Maria with her son, future Nicholas II Tsar Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna had four sons and two daughters: Tsar Nicholas II (6 May 1868 - 17 July 1918) Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia (7 June 1869 - 2 May 1870) Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia (6 May 1871 - 9 August 1899) Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia (6 April 1875 - 20 April 1960) Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich (28 November 1878 - c. 12 June 1918) Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia (13 June 1882 - 24 November 1960). Styles Her Serene Highness Princess Dagmar of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1847–1853) Her Highness Princess Dagmar of Denmark (1853–1858) Her Royal Highness Princess Dagmar of Denmark (1858–1866) Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna, Tsesarevna of Russia (1866–1881) Her Imperial Majesty The Empress of All the Russias (1881–1894) Her Imperial Majesty The Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia (1894–1928) Paintings by Maria Feodorovna Ancestry References Books Little Mother of Russia: A Biography of Empress Marie Feodorovna, by Coryne Hall ISBN 978-0841914216 - a biographical account of Empress Maria Feodorovna Empress Maria Fiodorovna, by A.I. Barkovets and V.M.Tenikhina, Abris Publishers, St.Petersburg, 2006 Empress Maria Feodorovna's Favourite Residences in Russia and Denmark, by Galina Korneva and Tatiana Cheboksarova, Liki Rossi, St.Petersburg, 2006 A Royal Family - The Story of Christian IX and his European descendants, by Anna Lerche and Marcus Mandal ISBN 87-15-10957-7 - chapter entitled 'Love and Revolution - Maria Feodorovna's Fate during the Greatness and Fall of the Russian Empire' - an excellent account with privileged access to private royal archives and interviews with members of various European Royal Families The Last Grand Duchess, by Ian Vorres, Finedawn Publishers, London, 1985 - the authorised biography of Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia, youngest daughter of Maria Feodorovna and Alexander III The Court of the Last Tsar, by Gregory King ISBN 978-0471727637 - gives a viewpoint on the role of the Empress Dowager in the court of her son, Nicholas II, and an opinion about her feelings about Alexandra. External links Royal House of Denmark and Royal House of Iceland Imperial House of Russia Mother of Last Russian Tsar to Be Reburied - Moscow News // Website of the Danish Cultural Society Dagmaria Information about the reburial - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark |- |- |-

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Orangutan

The orangutans are a species of great apes. Known for their intelligence, they live in trees and they are the largest living arboreal animal. They have longer arms than other great apes, and their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typical of other great apes; a new black-haired subspecies was recently discovered on Borneo by primatologist Birute Galdikas. Native to Indonesia and Malaysia, they are currently found only in rainforests on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, though fossils have been found in Java, the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Vietnam and China. There are only two surviving species in the genus Pongo and the subfamily Ponginae (which also includes the extinct genera Gigantopithecus and Sivapithecus). Etymology The name orangutan (also written orang-utan, orang utan and orangutang) is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words orang meaning "person" and hutan meaning "forest", thus "person of the forest". Orang Hutan is the common term in these two national languages, although local peoples may also refer to them by local languages. Maias and mawas are also used in Malay, but it is unclear if those words refer only to orangutans, or to all apes in general. The word was first attested in English in 1691 in the form orang-outang, and variants with -ng instead of -n as in the Malay original are found in many languages. This spelling (and pronunciation) has remained in use in English up to the present, but has come to be regarded as incorrect. The name of the genus, Pongo, comes from a 16th century account by Andrew Battell, an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in Angola, which describes two anthropoid "monsters" named Pongo and Engeco. It is now believed that he was describing gorillas, but in the late 18th century it was believed that all great apes were orangutans; hence Lacépède's use of Pongo for the genus.<ref name=Groves2002>{{cite journal | first = Colin | last = Groves | authorlink = Colin Groves | year = 2002 | url = http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/Gorilla%20Biology.pdf | title = A history of gorilla taxonomy | journal = Gorilla Biology: A Multidisciplinary Perspective, Andrea B. Taylor & Michele L. Goldsmith (editors) | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages = 15–34 | doi = 10.2277/0521792819 | volume = 3}}</ref> Anatomy Orangutans have a large, bulky body, a thick neck, very long, strong arms, short, bowed legs, and no tail. Orangutans are about 2/3 the size of the gorilla. They are mostly covered with long reddish-brown hair, although this differs between the species: Sumatran Orangutans have a more sparse and lighter coloured coat. http://www.red-ape.co.uk/orangutan/orang_anatomy.html The orangutan has a large head with a prominent mouth area. Adult males (sexually mature - 15yrs +) have large cheek flaps (which get larger as the ape ages) which show their dominance to other males and their readiness to mate to other females. The age of maturity for females is approximately 12 years old. Orangutans have senses very similar to humans, including hearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch. Orangutan hands are very much like humans. They have four long fingers plus an opposable thumb. Their feet have four long toes plus an opposable big toe. Orangutans can grasp things with both their hands and their feet. The largest males have an arm span of about 7.5 ft (2.3 m). Ecology and appearance Adult female orangutan Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes, spending nearly all of their time in the trees. Every night they fashion nests, in which they sleep, from branches and foliage. They are more solitary than the other apes, with males and females generally coming together only to mate. Mothers stay with their babies until the offspring reach an age of six or seven years. There is significant sexual dimorphism between females and males: females can grow to around 4 ft 2 in or 127 centimetres and weigh around 100 lbs or 45 kg, while flanged adult males can reach 5 ft 9 in or 175 centimetres in height and weigh over 260 lbs or 118 kg. The arms of orangutans are twice as long as their legs. Much of the arm's length has to do with the length of the radius and the ulna rather than the humerus. Their fingers and toes are curved, allowing them to better grip onto branches. Orangutans have less restriction in the movements of their legs than humans and other primates, due to the lack of a hip joint ligament which keeps the femur held into the pelvis. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans are not true knuckle-walkers, and walk on the ground by shuffling on their palms with their fingers curved inwards. Flanged adult male Diet Fruit makes up 65% of the orangutan diet. Fruits with sugary or fatty pulp are favored. Lowland Dipterocarp forests are preferred by orangutans because of their high fruit abundance, the same forests that provide excellent timber for the logging industry and good soil conditions for palm oil plantations. The fruit of fig trees are also commonly eaten since it is easy to both harvest and digest. Bornean orangutans are recorded to consume at least 317 different food items and include: young leaves, shoots, seeds and bark. Insects, honey and bird eggs are also included. Orangutans are highly opportunistic foragers with the composition of their diet varying markedly from month to month. Bark as a source of nourishment is only consumed as a last resort in times of food scarcity, fruits always being the preferred choice. Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the climber species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine. It does not appear to have any effect on orangutans except for excessive saliva production. Geophagy, the practice of eating soil or rock, has been observed in orangutans. There are three main reasons for this dietary behavior; for the addition of minerals nutrients to their diet; for the ingestion of clay minerals that can absorb toxic substances; or to treat a disorder such as diarrhea. Orangutans use plants of the genus Commelina as an anti-inflammatory balm. Matt Walker Wild orangutans treat pain with natural anti-inflammatory New Scientist 28 July 2008. Behaviour and language Orangutans at Singapore Zoo Like the other great apes, orangutans are remarkably intelligent. Although tool use among chimpanzees was documented by Jane Goodall in the 1960s, it was not until the mid-1990s that one population of orangutans was found to use feeding tools regularly. A 2003 paper in the journal Science described the evidence for distinct orangutan cultures. According to recent research psychologist Robert Deaner and his colleagues, orangutans are the world's most intelligent animal other than humans, with higher learning and problem solving ability than chimpanzees, which were previously considered to have greater abilities. A study of orangutans by Carel van Schaik, a Dutch primatologist at Duke University, found them capable of tasks well beyond chimpanzees’ abilities — such as using leaves to make rain hats and leakproof roofs over their sleeping nests. He also found that, in some food-rich areas, the creatures had developed a complex culture in which adults would teach youngsters how to make tools and find food. Mongobay.com. A two-week old orangutan A two year study of orangutan symbolic capability was conducted from 1973-1975 by Gary L. Shapiro with Aazk, a juvenile female orangutan at the Fresno City Zoo (now Chaffee Zoo) in Fresno, California. The study employed the techniques of David Premack who used plastic tokens to teach the chimpanzee, Sarah, linguistic skills. Shapiro continued to examine the linguistic and learning abilities of ex-captive orangutans in Tanjung Puting National Park, in Indonesian Borneo, between 1978 and 1980. During that time, Shapiro instructed ex-captive orangutans in the acquisition and use of signs following the techniques of R. Allen and Beatrix Gardner who taught the chimpanzee, Washoe, in the late-1960s. In the only signing study ever conducted in a great ape's natural environment, Shapiro home-reared Princess, a juvenile female who learned nearly 40 signs (according to the criteria of sign acquisition used by Francine Patterson with Koko, the gorilla) and trained Rinnie, a free-ranging adult female orangutan who learned nearly 30 signs over a two year period. For his dissertation study, Shapiro examined the factors influencing sign learning by four juvenile orangutans over a 15-month period. Dissertation. The first orangutan language study program, directed by Dr. Francine Neago, was listed by Encyclopedia Britannica in 1988. The Orangutan language project at the Smithsonian National Zoo in Washington, D.C., uses a computer system originally developed at UCLA by Neago in conjunction with IBM. Orangutan "laughing" Zoo Atlanta has a touch screen computer where their two Sumatran Orangutans play games. Scientists hope that the data they collect from this will help researchers learn about socializing patterns, such as whether they mimic others or learn behavior from trial and error, and hope the data can point to new conservation strategies. A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed that orangutans are the first non-human species documented to use 'calculated reciprocity' which involves weighing the costs and benefits of gift exchanges and keeping track of these over time. Humans aren’t alone in giving gifts. Although orangutans are generally passive, aggression toward other orangutans is very common; they are solitary animals and can be fiercely territorial. Immature males will try to mate with any female, and may succeed in forcibly copulating with her if she is also immature and not strong enough to fend him off. Mature females easily fend off their immature suitors, preferring to mate with a mature male. Orangutans usually do not swim, however they can be taught to swim and at least one population at a conservation refuge on Kaja island in Borneo have taught themselves to swim. Swimming orang-utans’ spearfishing exploits amaze the wildlife experts. Orangutans have even shown laughter-like vocalizations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. Species Genus Pongo Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus - northwest populations Pongo pygmaeus morio - east populations Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii - southwest populations Sumatran Orangutan (P. abelii) The populations on the two islands were classified as subspecies until recently, when they were elevated to full specific level, and the three distinct populations on Borneo were elevated to subspecies. The population currently listed as P. p. wurmbii may be closer to the Sumatran Orangutan than the Bornean Orangutan. If confirmed, abelii would be a subspecies of P. wurmbii (Tiedeman, 1808). Bradon-Jones, D., A. A. Eudey, T. Geissmann, C. P. Groves, D. J. Melnick, J. C. Morales, M. Shekelle, and C. B. Stewart. 2004. Asian primate classification. International Journal of Primatology. 23: 97-164. Regardless, the type locality of pygmaeus has not been established beyond doubts, and may be from the population currently listed as wurmbii (in which case wurmbii would be a junior synonym of pygmaeus, while one of the names currently considered a junior synonym of pygmaeus would take precedence for the northwest Bornean taxon). To further confuse, the name morio, as well as various junior synonyms that have been suggested, have been considered likely to all be junior synonyms of the population listed as pygmaeus in the above, thus leaving the east Bornean populations unnamed. In addition, a fossil species, P. hooijeri, is known from Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to P. pygmaeus or P. abeli'' or, in fact, represent distinct species. Conservation status Video of Orangutans at a rehabilitation centre in Borneo Sumatran Orangutan at the orangutan rehabilitation center in Bukit Lawang The Sumatran species is critically endangered and the Bornean species of orangutans is endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and both are listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the twentieth century) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout Borneo: it is apparently absent or uncommon in the south-east of the island, as well as in the forests between the Rejang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei). The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk. Density and population estimate of gibbons (Hylobates albibarbis) in the Sabangau catchment, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. A similar development have been observed for the Sumatran orangutans. The most recent estimate for the Sumatran Orangutan is around 7,300 individuals in the wild while the Bornean Orangutan population is estimated at between 45,000 and 69,000. These estimates were obtained between 2000 and 2003. Since recent trends are steeply down in most places due to logging and burning, it is forecast that the current numbers are below these figures. Orangutan habitat destruction due to logging, mining and forest fires, as well as fragmentation by roads, has been increasing rapidly in the last decade. A major factor in that period of time has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to oil palm plantations in response to international demand (the palm oil is used for cooking, cosmetics, mechanics, and more recently as source of biodiesel). The oil for ape scandal. Some UN scientists believe that these plantations could lead to the extinction of the species by the year 2012. Five years to save the orang utan | World | The Observer. Some of this activity is illegal, occurring in national parks that are officially off limits to loggers, miners and plantation development. There is also a major problem with hunting and illegal pet trade. In early 2004 about 100 individuals of Bornean origin were confiscated in Thailand and 50 of them were returned to Kalimantan in 2006. Several hundred Bornean orangutan orphans who were confiscated by local authorities have been entrusted to different orphanages in both Malaysia and Indonesia. They are in the process of being rehabilitated into the wild. Major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park and Sebangau National Park in Central Kalimantan, Kutai in East Kalimantan, Gunung Palung National Park in West Kalimantan, and Bukit Lawang in the Gunung Leuser National Park on the border of Aceh and North Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre in Sarawak and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary near Sandakan in Sabah. See also Ah Meng – celebrity orangutan of the Singapore Zoo Ken Allen – famous escape artist at the San Diego Zoo Tonda - famous orangutan at ZooWorld Birutė Galdikas Chantek Human evolutionary genetics – more information on the speciation of humans and great apes Jeffrey H. Schwartz List of apes List of fictional apes Orangutans in popular culture References External links Orangutan Foundation International The Orangutan Conservancy Borneo Orangutan Survival International Information from Grungy Ape on the difference between the two Orangutan species Love for Orangutans Orangutan Appeal UK Orangutan Language Project Orangutan Outreach The Great Orangutan Project OrangAid

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Area_51

Area 51 is a nickname for a military base that is located in the southern portion of Nevada in the western United States (83 miles north-northwest of downtown Las Vegas). Situated at its center, on the southern shore of Groom Lake, is a large secretive military airfield. The base's primary purpose is to support development and testing of experimental aircraft and weapons systems. DREAMLAND: Fifty Years of Secret Flight Testing in Nevada By Peter W. Merlin Rich, p. 57, Rich describes Groom in 1977 as being "...a sprawling facility, bigger than some municipal airports, a test range for sensitive aviation projects" The base lies within the United States Air Force's vast Nevada Test and Training Range. Although the facilities at the range are managed by the 99th Air Base Wing at Nellis Air Force Base, the Groom facility appears to be run as an adjunct of the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards Air Force Base in the Mojave Desert, around southwest of Groom, and as such the base is known as Air Force Flight Test Center (Detachment 3). Area 51 researcher Glenn Campbell claims that AFFTC Detachment 3 is located at Groom, citing the title of a leaked security manual, the mailbox in Henderson, Nevada he believes formerly served Groom, and the NASA biography of astronaut Carl E. Walz who was formerly a manager at AFFTC-DET3 !: "Area 51 is Edwards DET 3", Glenn Campbell, Groom Lake Desert Rat, 6/17/96 ; "Biography of Carl E. Walz (Colonel, USAF, Ret.), NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center "Black Projects at Groom Lake: Into the 21st Century", Peter W. Merlin Other names used for the facility include Dreamland, Paradise Ranch, Rich, p. 56 Rich writes "Kelly [Johnson, the U2's designer] had jokingly nicknamed this Godforsaken place Paradise Ranch, hoping to lure young and innocent flight crews" Home Base, Watertown Strip, Groom Lake, Patton, p. 3, lists Paradise Ranch, Watertown, Groom Lake, and Home Base as nicknames and most recently Homey Airport. Daily Aviator - Homey Airport, article retrieved January 14, 2008. The area is part of the Nellis Military Operations Area, and the restricted airspace around the field is referred to as (R-4808N FAA aviation chart for the Groom area ), known by the military pilots in the area as "The Box." The intense secrecy surrounding the base, the very existence of which the U.S. government barely acknowledges, has led it to become the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component to unidentified flying object (UFO) folklore. Geography Map showing Area 51, NAFR, and the NTS Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flat region of the Nevada Test Site (NTS), the location of 739 of the 928 nuclear tests conducted by the United States Department of Energy at NTS. US Department of Energy. Nevada Operations Office. United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992 (December 2000) The Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is approximately southwest of Groom Lake. The same "Area xx" naming scheme is used for other parts of the Nevada Test Site. NTS map showing the different areas overlaid on topographic map, State of Nevada - Division of environmental protection Annotated NTS map at the Federation of American Scientists website The original 6-by-10 mile rectangular base is now part of the so-called "Groom box", a 23-by-25.3 mile rectangular area of restricted airspace. The area is connected to the internal NTS road network, with paved roads leading south to Mercury and west to Yucca Flat. Leading northeast from the lake, the wide and well-maintained Groom Lake Road runs through a pass in the Jumbled Hills. The road formerly led to mines in the Groom basin, but has been improved since their closure. Its winding course runs past a security checkpoint, but the restricted area around the base extends further east. After leaving the restricted area, Groom Lake Road descends eastward to the floor of the Tikaboo Valley, passing the dirt-road entrances to several small ranches, before converging with State Route 375, the "Extraterrestrial Highway", south of Rachel. Operations at Groom Lake Groom Lake is not a conventional airbase, as frontline units are not normally deployed there. It instead appears to be used during the development, testing, and training phases for new aircraft. Once these aircraft have been approved by the United States Air Force or other agencies such as the CIA, operation of that aircraft is generally conducted from a normal air force base. Groom is reported, however, to be the permanent home for a small number of Soviet-designed aircraft Moldovan Minister of defense jailed for sale of MiG-29 to USA which are analyzed and used for training purposes. Soviet spy satellites obtained photographs of the Groom Lake area during the height of the Cold War, and later civilian satellites produced detailed images of the base and its surroundings. These images support only modest conclusions about the base, depicting a nondescript base, long airstrip, hangars and the lake. Satellite view of Area 51 from 1968. U-2 program Groom Lake was used for bombing and artillery practice during World War II, but was then abandoned until April 1955, when it was selected by Lockheed's Skunk Works team as the ideal location to test the forthcoming U-2 spy plane. Shadow Flights: America's Secret Air War Against the Soviet Union, Curtis Peebles, 2000, Presidio Press, ISBN 0-89141-700-1. Rich, pp. 141-144, details U2 test pilot Tony LeVier scouting the remote area near Death Valley for locations, saying of Groom "I gave it a ten plus [score]... a dry lake bed around three and a half miles around", and describes LeVier showing the lake to U-2 designer Kelly Johnson and CIA official Richard Bissell, and Johnson deciding to locate the runway "at south end of lake" The lakebed made an ideal strip from which they could operate the troublesome test aircraft, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter protected the test site from prying eyes and outside interference. Lockheed constructed a makeshift base at the location, then known as Site II or "The Ranch", consisting of little more than a few shelters, workshops and trailer homes in which to house its small team. In only three months a 5000-foot runway was constructed and was servicable by July 1955. The Ranch received its first U-2 delivery on July 24, 1955 from Burbank on a C-124 Globemaster II cargo plane, accompanied by Lockheed technicians on a Douglas DC-3. The first U-2 lifted off from at Groom on August 4, 1955. A U-2 fleet under the control of the CIA began overflights of Soviet territory by mid-1956. During this period, the NTS continued to perform a series of atmospheric nuclear explosions. U-2 operations throughout 1957 were frequently disrupted by the Plumbbob series of atomic tests, which detonated over two-dozen devices at the NTS. The Plumbbob-Hood explosion on July 5 scattered fallout across Groom and forced a temporary evacuation. Blackbird programs Even before U-2 development was complete, Lockheed began work on its successor as part of the CIA's OXCART project, involving the A-12—a Mach-3 high altitude reconnaissance aircraft—a later variant of which became the famed USAF SR-71 Blackbird. The Blackbird's flight characteristics and maintenance requirements forced a massive expansion of facilities and runways at Groom Lake. By the time the first A-12 prototype flew at Groom in 1962, the main runway had been lengthened to , and the base boasted a complement of over 1,000 personnel. It had fueling tanks, a control tower, and a baseball diamond. Security was greatly enhanced, the small civilian mine in the Groom basin was closed, and the area surrounding the valley was made an exclusive military preserve. Groom saw the first flight of most major Blackbird variants: A-12, the abortive YF-12 interceptor variant, and the D-21 Blackbird-based drone project. The A-12 would remain at Groom Lake until 1968. (The SR-71 first flew at Palmdale, California.) Have Blue/F-117 program The Lockheed Have Blue prototype stealth fighter (a smaller proof-of-concept model of the F-117 Nighthawk) first flew at Groom in December 1977. Rich, pp. 56-60 Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued there until mid-1981, when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters. In addition to flight-testing, Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and was the location for training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots. Subsequently, the still highly classified active-service F-117 operations moved to the nearby Tonopah Test Range Airport, and finally to Holloman Air Force Base. Area 51 border and warning sign stating that "photography is prohibited" and that "use of deadly force is authorized" under the terms of the 1950 McCarran Internal Security Act. A government vehicle is parked on the hilltop; from there, security agents observe the approach to Groom Lake. Commuter service is provided along Groom Lake Road by a bus, catering to a small number of employees living in several small communities beyond the NTS boundary (although it is not clear whether these workers are employed at Groom or at other facilities in the NTS). The bus travels Groom Lake Road and stops at Crystal Springs, Ash Springs, and Alamo, and parks at the Alamo courthouse overnight. Runways The base has seven runways including one that now appears to be closed. The closed runway, 14R/32L, is also by far the longest with a total length of approximately 7,100 meters (23,300 ft), not including stopway. The other runways are two asphalt runways, the 14L/32R with a length of 3,650 meters (12,000 ft) and 12/30 with a length of 1,650 meters (5,400 ft), and four runways located on the salt lake. These four runways are 09L/27R and 09R/27L, which are both approximately 3,500 meters (11,450 ft), and 03L/21R and 03R/21L, which are both approximately 3,050 meters (10,000 ft). The base also has a helipad. Measurements, runway state and alignment information based upon Google Earth / Digital Globe images as retrieved on December 21, 2007. In December 2007, airline pilots noticed that the base had appeared in their aircraft navigation systems' latest Jeppesen database revision with the ICAO airport identifier code of KXTA and listed as "Homey Airport" Don’t ask, don’t tell: Area 51 gets airport identifier The probably-inadvertent release of the airport data led to advice by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) that student pilots should be explicitly warned about KXTA, not to consider it as a waypoint or destination for any flight even though it now appears in public navigation databases. U.S. government's positions on Area 51 A letter from the USAF replying to a query about Area 51 On July 14, 2003 the Federal Government admitted the facility's existence, tacitly conceding that the Air Force has an "operating location" near the lake, but does not provide any further information. Unlike much of the Nellis range, the area surrounding the lake is permanently off-limits both to civilian and normal military air traffic. Radar stations protect the area, and unauthorized personnel are quickly expelled. Even military pilots training in the NAFR risk disciplinary action if they accidentally stray into the exclusionary "box" surrounding Groom's airspace. Hall, George. Skinner, Michael. Red Flag, Motorbooks International, 1993, ISBN 0879387599, p.49: "It is an understatement to say that overflying Dreamland is forbidden..." A montage of available USGS satellite photography showing southern Nevada. The NTS and the surrounding lands are visible; the NAFR and neighboring land has been removed Perimeter security is provided by uniformed private security guards working for EG&G's security subcontractor Wackenhut, Patton, p10 who patrol in desert camouflage Jeep Cherokees and Humvees, and more recently, champagne-colored Ford F-150 pickups and gray Chevy 2500 4X4 pickups. Although the guards are armed with M16s, no violent encounters with Area 51 observers have been reported; instead, the guards generally follow visitors near the perimeter and radio for the Lincoln County Sheriff. Deadly force is authorized if violators who attempt to breach the secured area fail to heed warnings to halt. Fines of around $600 seem to be the normal course of action, although some visitors and journalists report receiving follow-up visits from FBI agents. Some observers have been detained on public land for pointing camera equipment at the base. Surveillance is supplemented using buried motion sensors "Area 51 hackers dig up trouble" Kevin Poulsen, Security Focus May 25, 2004 "Road sensors", Dreamland Resort "New Area 51 road sensors", Dreamland Resort and by HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters. The base does not appear on public U.S. government maps; USGS 1:24K/25K Topo map for location UTM 11 605181E 4124095N (NAD27) (map via TopoQuest.com) the USGS topographic map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine. USGS 1:24K/25K Topo map for geopoint GROOM MINE, NV (map via TopoQuest.com) A civil aviation chart published by the Nevada Department of Transportation shows a large restricted area, "Airports and Landing strips, 2002", Nevada Department of Transportation, cf section R-4808N but defines it as part of the Nellis restricted airspace. The official aeronautical navigation charts for the area show Groom Lake but omit the airport facilities. Las Vegas Sectional Aeronautical Chart, National Aeronautical Chart Office, Federal Aviation Administration (last checked 26 September 2008) Similarly the National Atlas page showing federal lands in Nevada "Federal lands and Indian reservations", The National atlas of the United States of America, United States Department of the Interior, document ID: pagefed_nv7.pdf INTERIOR-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, RESTON, VIRGINIA-2003 does not distinguish between the Groom block and other parts of the Nellis range. Although officially declassified, the original film taken by U.S. Corona spy satellite in the 1960s has been altered prior to declassification; in answer to freedom of information queries, the government responds that these exposures (which map to Groom and the entire NAFR) appear to have been destroyed. Corona image Terra satellite images (which were publicly available) were removed from web servers (including Microsoft's "Terraserver") in 2004, Terraserver image and from the monochrome 1 m resolution USGS data dump made publicly available. NASA Landsat 7 images are still available (these are used in the NASA World Wind). Higher resolution (and more recent) images from other satellite imagery providers (including Russian providers and the IKONOS) are commercially available. These show, in considerable detail, the runway marking, base facilities, aircraft, and vehicles. Nevada's state government, recognizing the folklore surrounding the base might afford the otherwise neglected area some tourism potential, officially renamed the section of State Route 375 near Area 51 "The Extraterrestrial Highway", and posted fancifully illustrated signs along its length. Although federal property within the base is exempt from state and local taxes, facilities owned by private contractors are not. Area 51 researcher Glenn Campbell claimed in 1994 that the base only declares a taxable value of $2 million to the Lincoln County tax assessor, who is unable to enter the area to perform an assessment. Environmental lawsuit In 1994, five unnamed civilian contractors and the widows of contractors Walter Kasza and Robert Frost sued the USAF and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Their suit, in which they were represented by George Washington University law professor Jonathan Turley, alleged they had been present when large quantities of unknown chemicals had been burned in open pits and trenches at Groom. Biopsies taken from the complainants were analyzed by Rutgers University biochemists, who found high levels of dioxin, dibenzofuran, and trichloroethylene in their body fat. The complainants alleged they had sustained skin, liver, and respiratory injuries due to their work at Groom, and that this had contributed to the deaths of Frost and Kasza. The suit sought compensation for the injuries they had sustained, claiming the USAF had illegally handled toxic materials, and that the EPA had failed in its duty to enforce the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (which governs handling of dangerous materials). They also sought detailed information about the chemicals to which they were allegedly exposed, hoping this would facilitate the medical treatment of survivors. Congressman Lee H. Hamilton, former chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, told 60 Minutes reporter Leslie Stahl, "The Air Force is classifying all information about Area 51 in order to protect themselves from a lawsuit." "Area 51 / Catch 22" segment, 60 Minutes broadcast March 17, 1996. Citing the State Secrets Privilege, the government petitioned trial judge U.S. District Judge Philip Pro (of the United States District Court for the District of Nevada in Las Vegas) to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of secret witnesses, alleging this would expose classified information and threaten national security. Federal judges to hear case involving Area 51 Keith Rogers, Las Vegas Review-Journal, June 4, 2002 When Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, President Bill Clinton issued a Presidential Determination, exempting what it called, "The Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently, Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Turley appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall filed a brief that stated that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom "can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations." The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal, US 9th Circuit ruling on Kasza V Browner and related case Frost V Perry, Lake, Widnall and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting an end to the complainants' case. The President continues to annually issue a determination continuing the Groom exception. 2000 Presidential Determination 2002 Presidential Determination 2003 Presidential Determination This, and similarly tacit wording used in other government communications, is the only formal recognition the U.S. Government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex. An unclassified memo on the safe handling of F-117 Nighthawk material was posted on an Air Force website in 2005. This discussed the same materials for which the complainants had requested information (information the government had claimed was classified). The memo was removed shortly after journalists became aware of it. 21-Sun-2006/news/7488359.html "Warnings for emergency responders kept from Area 51 workers", Keith Rogers, Las Vegas Review-Journal, May 21, 2006 1974 Skylab photography In January 2006, space historian Dwayne A. Day published an article in online aerospace magazine The Space Review titled "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident." The article was based around a recently-declassified memo written in 1974 to CIA director William Colby by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board Skylab 4 had, as part of a larger program, inadvertently photographed a location of which the memo said: Although the name of the location was obscured, the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake. As Day noted: The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should, and NASA and the State Department arguing against classification. The memo itself questions the legality of unclassified images to be retroactively classified. Remarks on the memo, handwritten apparently by DCI (Director of Central Intelligence) Colby himself, read: The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of discussions regarding the Skylab imagery. The behind-the-scenes debate proved moot as the photograph appeared in the federal government's archive of satellite imagery along with the remaining Skylab 4 photographs, with no record of anyone noticing until Day identified it in 2007. UFO and other conspiracy theories concerning Area 51 Its secretive nature and undoubted connection to classified aircraft research, together with reports of unusual phenomena, have led Area 51 to become a focus of modern UFO and conspiracy theories. Some of the activities mentioned in such theories at Area 51 include: The storage, examination, and reverse engineering of crashed alien spacecraft (including material supposedly recovered at Roswell), the study of their occupants (living and dead), and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology. Meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials. The development of exotic energy weapons (for SDI applications or otherwise) or means of weather control. The development of time travel and teleportation technology. The development of unusual and exotic propulsion systems related to the Aurora Program. Activities related to a supposed shadowy one world government or the Majestic 12 organization. Many of the hypotheses concern underground facilities at Groom or at Papoose Lake, 8.5 miles south, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip (nicknamed the "Cheshire Airstrip", after Lewis Carroll's Cheshire cat) which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its camouflaged asphalt, and engineering based on alien technology. Publicly-available satellite imagery, however, reveals clearly visible landing strips at Groom Dry Lake, but not at Papoose Lake. Veterans of experimental projects such as OXCART and NERVA at Area 51 agree that their work (including 2,850 OXCART test flights alone) inadvertently prompted many of the UFO sightings and other rumors: While they deny the existence of a vast underground railroad system, many of Area 51's operations did (and presumably still do) occur underground. Several people have claimed knowledge of events supporting Area 51 conspiracy theories. These have included Bob Lazar, who claimed in 1989 that he had worked at Area 51's S-4 (a facility at Papoose Lake), where he was contracted to work with alien spacecraft that the U.S. government had in its possession. http://www.zamandayolculuk.com/cetinbal/s4sportmodel.htm Similarly, the 1996 documentary Dreamland directed by Bruce Burgess included an interview with a 71 year old mechanical engineer who claimed to be a former employee at Area 51 during the 1950s. His claims included that he had worked on a "flying disc simulator" which had been based on a disc originating from a crashed extraterrestrial craft and was used to train US Pilots. He also claimed to have worked with an extraterrestrial being named "J-Rod" and described as a "telepathic translator". Dreamland, Transmedia and Dandelion Production for Sky Television (1996). In 2004, Dan Burisch (pseudonym of Dan Crain) claimed to have worked on cloning alien viruses at Area 51, also alongside the alien named "J-Rod". Burisch's scholarly credentials are the subject of much debate, as he was apparently working as a Las Vegas parole officer in 1989 while also earning a PhD at SUNY. Portrayal in media and popular culture Popular culture often portrays Area 51 as a haven for extraterrestrials. The numerous conspiracy theories surrounding Area 51 have granted it a fairly high profile in popular culture, specifically in the area of science fiction. Dozens of films and television programs deal with fictionalized events at the site. The following is list of such media: The most widely seen example is the 1996 action film Independence Day, in which the complex is shown to have been studying the crashed scout ship from the Roswell UFO incident of 1947. The heroes of the film later make their final attack from the airstrips at the base, and in a nod to established fact, Randy Quaid's character Russell Casse at one point refers to the base not being shown on a state map of Nevada. The television series Seven Days took place largely inside the Area 51 complex itself, with the base depicted as being run by a covert National Security Agency (NSA) operation which used time travel made possible by alien technology recovered from the 1947 Roswell incident. Lara Croft infiltrates Area 51 in Tomb Raider 3. She must find a special stone called "Element 115." Joanna Dark infiltrates Area 51 in the multi-million selling first person shooter video game Perfect Dark. Her objectives are to meet up with a fellow secret agent, find the autopsy lab of the assumed to be dead alien named Elvis, and to get out successfully. In the beginning of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, "Hangar 51" is revealed to be the location of the government warehouse where the Ark of the Covenant was stored at the end of Raiders of the Lost Ark, and where KGB agents go to recover the remains of the Roswell alien, eventually revealed to be an interdimensional being with a crystalline skeleton. Writer David Koepp acknowledged the number 51 as a reference to popular beliefs about the connection between Roswell and Area 51. In the television series Stargate SG-1, Area 51 is used as a facility for storage and research of technology brought back to Earth from other planets. In the episode Knight to King's Pawn of the revived Knight Rider series on NBC, Michael Knight infiltrates a storage facility at Area 51, to recover KITT, after it was taken way by NSA agents. In the Metal Gear series, Area 51 turns out to be one of the headquarters of the Illuminati group known as The Patriots, who manipulate the government, public, and economy from behind the scenes. The character Raiden is injured during an attempt to rescue Sunny. In the comic Superman: Red Son, Abin Sur's body is stored in Area 51 by order of J. Edgar Hoover. John F. Kennedy later gives Lex Luthor access to the base to develop weapons to defeat the Soviet Union. For the finale of the documentary television series UFO Hunters, Season Two, Area 51 was filmed in October 2008. The high definition footage aired February 25, 2009 on the History channel. See also Groom Range - mountain range north of the lakebed Woomera Prohibited Area - defense and aerospace testing area in Australia Kapustin Yar Dugway Proving Grounds - Restricted facility in the Utah desert. References General references Rich, Ben; Janos, Leo. (1996) Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, ISBN 0-316-74300-3 Darlington, David. (1998) Area 51: The Dreamland Chronicles. Henry Holt & Company, ISBN 0-8050-6040-5 Patton, Phil (1998) Dreamland: Travels Inside the Secret World of Roswell and Area 51. Villard Books / Random House ISBN 0-375-75385-0 Area 51 resources at the Federation of American Scientists Leslie Stahl "Area 51 / Catch 22" 60 Minutes CBS Television March 17, 1996, a US TV news magazine's segment about the environmental lawsuit (Transcript) Area 51 related article archive from the pages of the Las Vegas Review-Journal Specific references External links General Dreamland Resort - Detailed history of Area 51 Roadrunners Internationale, a project covering the history of the U2 and Blackbird projects "How Area 51 Works", on HowStuffWorks Maps and photographs Dreamland Resort's map of Area 51 buildings Photographs, research, and discussion about Area 51 / S4 at The Anomalies Network Topographic Map of the Emigrant Valley / Groom area Aerial photos from different decades, overlaid with Google Maps interface Photographs of McCarran EG&G terminal and JANET aircraft Official FAA aeronautical chart of Groom Lake High resolution pictures of Area 51 "Historical pictures of Groom Lake, Groom Lake Mining District" - Department of Special Collections, Digital Image Collections, of the University of Nevada, Reno (accessed January 30, 2009)

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Polaris

Polaris (α UMi / α Ursae Minoris / Alpha Ursae Minoris, commonly North(ern) Star or Pole Star, and sometimes Lodestar) is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor. It is very close to the north celestial pole (42′ away ), making it the current northern pole star. Polaris is about 430 light-years from Earth. It is a multiple star. α UMi A is a six solar mass Wieland page 3: masses of A and P ... (6.0+1.54M⊙) F7 bright giant (II) or supergiant (Ib). The two smaller companions are: α UMi B, a 1.5 solar mass F3V main sequence star orbiting at a distance of 2400 AU, and α UMi Ab, a very close dwarf with an 18.5 AU radius orbit. There are also two distant components UMi C and UMi D. Wieland page 2 Recent observations show that Polaris may be part of a loose open cluster of type A and F stars. Polaris B can be seen with even a modest telescope and was first noticed by William Herschel in 1780. In 1929, it was discovered by examining the spectrum of Polaris A that it had another very close dwarf companion (variously α UMi P, α UMi a or α UMi Ab), which had been theorized in earlier observations (Moore, J.H and Kholodovsky, E. A.). In January 2006, NASA released images from the Hubble telescope, directly showing all three members of the Polaris ternary system. The nearer dwarf star is in an orbit of only 18.5 AU (2.8 billion km; There's More to the North Star Than Meets the Eye about the distance from our Sun to Uranus) from Polaris A, explaining why its light is swamped by its close and much brighter companion. Polaris is a classic Population I Cepheid variable (although it was once thought to be Population II due to its high galactic latitude). Since Cepheids are an important standard candle for determining distance, Polaris (as the closest such star) is heavily studied. Around 1900, the star luminosity varied ±8% from its average (0.15 magnitudes in total) with a 3.97 day period; however, the amplitude of its variation has been quickly declining since the middle of the 20th century. The variation reached a minimum of 1% in the mid 1990s and has remained at a low level. Over the same period, the star has brightened by 15% (on average), and the period has lengthened by about 8 seconds each year. Recent research reported in Science suggests that Polaris is 2.5 times brighter today than when Ptolemy observed it (now 2mag, antiquity 3mag). Astronomer Edward Guinan considers this to be a remarkable rate of change and is on record as saying that "If they are real, these changes are 100 times larger than [those] predicted by current theories of stellar evolution." Pole Star An artist's concept of Polaris's system Because in the current era α UMi lies nearly in a direct line with the axis of the Earth's rotation "above" the North Pole — the north celestial pole — Polaris stands almost motionless on the sky, and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it. Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for celestial navigation and for astrometry. The antiquity of its use is attested by the fact that it is found represented on the earliest known Assyrian tablets. In more recent history it was referenced in Nathaniel Bowditch's 1802 book, The American Practical Navigator, where it is listed as one of the navigational stars. Nathaniel Bowditch: The American Practical Navigator, 2002 Bicentennial Ed., Chapter 15 Navigational Astronomy, page 248, Figure 1530a. Navigational stars and the planets At present, Polaris is 0.7° away from the pole of rotation (1.4 times the Moon disc) and hence revolves around the pole in a small circle 1½° in diameter. Only twice during every sidereal day does Polaris accurately define the true north azimuth; the rest of the time it is only an approximation and must be corrected using tables or a rough rule of thumb. Due to the precession of the equinoxes, Polaris will not always be the pole star. Over tens of thousands of years, perturbations to the Earth's axis of rotation will cause it to point to other regions of the sky, tracing out a circle over 25,800 years. Other stars along this circle would have served as the pole star in the past and will again in the future, including Beta Ursae Minoris from 1500 BC to 500 AD, Thuban around 2500 BC and Vega 12,000 years ago. Etymology and cultural significance To the Bedouin people of the Negev and Sinai, Polaris is known as الجديّ al-jadiyy, "the billy goat". It and Suhail (= Canopus, α Car) are the two principal stars used for nomadic wandering at night. Because it was circumpolar and hence always visible from the Northern Hemisphere, it became associated with a steadfast nature, as opposed to Suhail, which disappears below the horizon and hence 'flees'. It has numerous traditional names: Alruccabah, Cynosura, Phoenice, Tramontana, Angel Stern, Navigatoria, Star of Arcady, Yilduz, Mismar, Polyarnaya. Cynosūra is from the Greek κυνόσουρα "the dog’s tail". Yilduz is from the Turkish word for "star" (see Yildun). A monkey's head is the emblem of the Mayan god of the pole star. In Hindu mythology its termed as Dhruva, meaning fixed. See also Polaris in fiction Notes References (Link to download full paper as PDF) External links Info on Polaris Polaris Ab imaged by Hubble

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EDIF

EDIF stands for Electronic Design Interchange Format, and has been predominantly used as a vendor neutral format in which to store Electronic netlists and schematics. It was one of the first attempts to establish a neutral data exchange format for the electronic design automation (EDA) industry. The goal was to establish a common format from which the proprietary formats of the EDA systems could be derived from. When customers needed to transfer data from one system to another, it was necessary to write translators from one format to other. As the number of formats (N) multiplied, the translator issue became an N-squared problem. The expectation was that with EDIF the number of translators could be reduced to the number of involved systems. Representatives of the EDA companies Daisy Systems, Mentor Graphics, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Tektronix, Texas Instruments and the University of California, Berkeley established the EDIF Steering Committee in November 1983. Later Professor Hilary Kahn (1943-2007) from the University of Manchester joined the team and lead the development from version EDIF 2 0 0 till the final version 4 0 0. Syntax The general format of EDIF involves using parentheses to delimit data definitions, and in this way it superficially resembles Lisp. The basic tokens of EDIF 2.0.0 were keywords (like library, cell, instance, etc), strings (delimited with double quotes), integer numbers, and symbolic constants (e.g. GENERIC, TIE, RIPPER for cell types), and "Identifiers", which are reference labels formed from a very restricted set of characters. EDIF 3.0.0 and 4.0.0 dropped the symbolic constants entirely, using keywords instead. So, the syntax of EDIF has a fairly simple foundation. A typical EDIF file looks like this: (edif fibex (edifVersion 2 0 0) (edifLevel 0) (keywordMap (keywordLevel 0)) (status (written (timeStamp 1995 1 1 1 1 1) (program "xxx" (version "v1")))) (library xxx (edifLevel 0) (technology (numberDefinition (scale 1 (e 1 -6) (unit distance)))) (cell dff_4 (cellType generic) (view view1 (viewType netlist) (interface (port aset (direction INPUT)) (port clok (direction INPUT)) ... (cell yyy (cellType generic) (view schematic_ (viewType netlist) (interface (port CLEAR (direction INPUT)) (port CLOCK (direction INPUT)) ... ) (contents (instance I_36_1 (viewRef view1 (cellRef dff_4))) (instance (rename I_36_3 "I$3") (viewRef view1 (cellRef addsub_4))) ... (net CLEAR (joined (portRef CLEAR) (portRef aset (instanceRef I_36_1)) (portRef aset (instanceRef I_36_3)))) ... Versions The 1 0 0 release of EDIF was made in 1985. EDIF 2 0 0 The first "real" public release of EDIF was version 2 0 0, which was approved in March 1988 as the standard ANSI/EIA-548-1988. It is published in a single volume. This version has no formal scope statement but what it tries to capture is covered by the defined viewTypes: BEHAVIOR to describe the behavior of a cell DOCUMENT to describe the documentation of a cell GRAPHIC to describe a dumb graphics and text representation of displayable or printable information LOGICMODEL to describe the logic-simulation model of the cell MASKLAYOUT to describe an integrated circuit layout NETLIST to describe a netlist PCBLAYOUT to describe a printed circuit board SCHEMATIC to describe the schematic representation and connectivity of a cell STRANGER to describe an as yet unknown representation of a cell SYMBOLIC to describe a symbolic layout The industry tested this release for several years, but finally only the NETLIST view was the one widely used and some EDA tools are still supporting it today for EDIF 2 0 0. To overcome problems with the main 2 0 0 standard several further documents got released: Electronic Industries Association EDIF Monograph Series, Volume 1, Introduction to EDIF, EIA/EDIF-1, Sept. 1988 EDIF Monograph Series, Volume 2, EDIF Connectivity, EIA/EDIF-2, June 1989 Using EDIF 2 0 0 for schematic transfer, EIA/EDIF/AG-1, July 1989 Documentation from Hilary J. Kahn, Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester EDIF 2 0 0, An Introductory Tutorial", September 1989 EDIF Questions and answers, volume one, November 1988 EDIF Questions and answers, volume two, February 1989 EDIF Questions and answers, volume three, July 1989 EDIF Questions and answers, volume four, November 1989 EDIF Questions and answers, volume five, June 1991 EDIF 3 0 0 Because of some fundamental weaknesses in the 2 0 0 release a new not compatible release 3 0 0 was released in September 1993, given the designation of EIA standard EIA-618. It later achieved ANSI and ISO designations. It is published in 4 volumes. The main focus of this version were the viewTypes NETLIST and SCHEMATIC from 2 0 0. MASKLAYOUT, PCBLAYOUT and some other views were dropped from this release and shifted for later releases because the work for these views was not fully completed. EDIF 3 0 0 is available from the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 61690-1 EDIF 4 0 0 EDIF 4 0 0 was released in late August 1996, mainly to add "Printed Circuit Board" extensions (the original PCBLAYOUT view) to EDIF 3 0 0. This more than doubled the size of EDIF 3 0 0, and is published in HTML format on CD. EDIF 4 0 0 is available from the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 61690-2 Evolution Problems with 2 0 0 To understand the problems users and vendors encountered with EDIF 2 0 0, one first has to picture all the elements and dynamics of the electronics industry. The people who needed this standard were mainly design engineers, who worked for companies whose size ranged from a house garage to multi-billion dollar facilities with thousands of engineers. These engineers worked mainly from schematics and netlists in the late 1980s, and the big push was to generate the netlists from the schematics automatically. The first suppliers were Electronic Design Automation vendors (e.g., Daisy, Mentor, and Valid formed the earliest predominating set). These companies competed vigorously for their shares of this market. One of the tactics used by these companies to "capture" their customers was their proprietary databases. Each had special features that the others did not. Once a decision was made to use a particular vendor's software to enter a design, the customer was ever after constrained to use no other software. To move from vendor A's to vendor B's systems usually meant a very expensive re-entry of almost all design data by hand into the new system. This expense of "migration" was the main factor that locked design engineers into using a single vendor. But the "customers" had a different desire. They saw immediately that while vendor A might have a really nice analog simulation environment, vendor B had a much better PCB or silicon layout auto-router. And they wished that they could pick and choose amongst the different vendors. EDIF was mainly supported by the electronics design end-users, and their companies. The EDA vendors were involved also, but their motivation was more along the lines of wanting to not alienate their customers. Most of the EDA vendors produced EDIF 2 0 0 translators, but they were definitely more interested in generating high-quality EDIF readers, and they had absolutely no motivation at all to write any software that generated EDIF (an EDIF Writer), beyond threats from customers of mass migration to another vendor's software. The result was rather interesting. Hardly any software vendor wrote EDIF 2 0 0 output that did not have severe violations of syntax or semantics. The semantics were just loose enough that there might be several ways to describe the same data. This began to be known as "flavors" of EDIF. The vendor companies did not always feel it important to allocate many resources to EDIF products, even if they sold a large number of them. There were several stories of active products with virtually no-one to maintain them for years. User complaints were merely gathered and prioritized. The harder it became to export customer data to EDIF, the more the vendors seemed to like it. Those who did write EDIF translators found they spent a huge amount of time and effort on generating sufficiently powerful, forgiving, artificially-intelligent readers, that could handle and piece together the poor-quality code produced by the extant EDIF 2 0 0 writers of the day. In designing EDIF 3 0 0, the committees were well aware of the faults of the language, the calumny heaped on EDIF 2 0 0 by the vendors and the frustration of the end users. So, to tighten the semantics of the language, and provide a more formal description of the standard, the revolutionary approach was taken to provide an information model for EDIF, in the information modeling language EXPRESS. This helped to better document the standard, but was done more as an afterthought, as the syntax crafting was done independently of the model, instead of being generated from the model. Also, even though the standard says that if the syntax and model disagree, the model is the standard, this is not the case in practice. The BNF description of the syntax is the foundation of the language inasmuch as the software that does the day-to-day work of producing design descriptions is based on a fixed syntax. The information model also suffered from the fact that it was not (and is not) ideally suited to describing EDIF. It does not describe such concepts as name spaces very well at all, and the differences between a definition and a reference is not clearly describable either. Also, the constructs in EXPRESS for describing constraints might be formal, but constraint description is a fairly complicated matter at times. So, most constraints ended up just being described as comments. Most of the others became elaborate formal descriptions which most readers will never be able to decipher, and therefore may not stand up to automated debugging/compiling, just as a program might look good in review, but a compiler might find some interesting errors, and actually running the program written might find even more interesting errors. (Additionally, analogous EXPRESS compilers/executors didn't exist when the standard was written, and may not still exist today!) Solutions to EDIF 2 0 0 problems The solution to the "flavor" problem of EDIF 2 0 0 was to develop a more specific semantic description in EDIF 3 0 0 (1993). Indeed, reported results of people generating EDIF 3 0 0 translators was that the writers were now much more difficult to get right, due to the great number of semantic restrictions, and the readers are comparatively trivial to develop. The solution to vendor "conflict of interest" was neutral third-party companies, who could provide EDIF products based on vendor interfaces. This separation of the EDIF products from direct vendor control was critical to providing the end-user community with tools that worked well. It formed naturally and without comment. Engineering DataXpress was perhaps the first such company in this realm, with Electronic Tools Company seeming to have captured the market in the mid to late 1990s. Another dynamic in this industry is EDIF itself. Since they have grown to a rather large size, generating readers and writers has become a very expensive proposition. Usually the third-party companies have congregated the necessary specialists and can use this expertise to more efficiently generate the software. They are also able to leverage code sharing and other techniques an individual vendor could not. By 2000, almost no major vendor produced its own EDIF tools, choosing instead to OEM third-party tools. Since the release of EDIF 4 0 0, the entire EDIF standards organisation has essentially dissolved. There have been no published meetings of any of the technical subcommittees, the EDIF Experts group, etc. Most of the individuals involved have moved on to other companies or efforts. The newsletter was abandoned, and the Users' Group no longer holds yearly meetings. EDIF 3 0 0 and 4 0 0 are now ANSI, IEC and European (EN) standards. EDIF Version 3 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-1, and EDIF Version 4 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-2. EDIF Descendants LKSoft took concepts from EDIF 2 0 0 to create a proprietary data format with the default extension ".cam" for their CircuitCAM system offered by LPKF Laser & Electronics AG. To efficiently work on EDIF like formats LKSoft has developed the EDIF Procedural Interface'', an API for the C programming language. Zuken, formally Racal-Redac Ltd., took concepts from the early EDIF 4 0 0 development to create a new proprietary format called CADIF for their Visula PCB-CAD system. This format is also widely used by 3rd party vendors. STEP-AP210, a part of ISO 10303, practically inherited all of the EDIF 4 0 0 functionality except for schematics. External links BYU EDIF Tools A Java framework for parsing/manipulating EDIF files, developed and maintained by BYU's Configurable Computing Lab EDIF Overview from Elgris Technologies, Inc. www.edif.org at the Internet Archive Archive of www.edif.org (now defunct) containing an introduction to the EDIF format Computer Aids for VLSI Design - Appendix D: Electronic Design Interchange Format by Steven M. Rubin Professor Hilary Kahn (1943-2007)

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Genomic_imprinting

Genomic imprinting is a genetic phenomenon by which certain genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. It is an inheritance process independent of the classical Mendelian inheritance. Imprinted genes are either expressed only from the allele inherited from the mother (eg. H19 or CDKN1C), or in other instances from the allele inherited from the father (eg. IGF2). Forms of genomic imprinting have been demonstrated in insects, mammals and flowering plants. Overview In diploid organisms somatic cells possess two copies of the genome. Each autosomal gene is therefore represented by two copies, or alleles, with one copy inherited from each parent at fertilisation. For the vast majority of autosomal genes, expression occurs from both alleles simultaneously. In mammals however, a small proportion (<1%) of genes are imprinted, meaning that gene expression occurs from only one allele. The expressed allele is dependent upon its parental origin. For example, the gene encoding Insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2/Igf2) is only expressed from the allele inherited from the father. The phrase "imprinting" was first used to describe events in the insect Pseudococcus nipae. In Pseudococcids or mealybugs (Homoptera, Coccoidea) both the male and female develop from a fertilised egg. In females, all chromosomes remain euchromatic and functional. In embryos destined to become males, one haploid set of chromosomes becomes heterochromatinised after the sixth cleavage division and remains so in most tissues; males are thus functionally haploid. In insects, imprinting describes the silencing of the paternal genome in males, and thus is involved in sex determination. In mammals, genomic imprinting describes the processes involved in introducing functional inequality between two parental alleles of a gene. Imprinted genes in mammals That imprinting might be a feature of mammalian development was suggested in breeding experiments in mice carrying reciprocal translocations. Nucleus transplantation experiments in mouse zygotes in the early 1980s confirmed that normal development requires the contribution of both the maternal and paternal genomes. The vast majority of mouse parthenogenones/gynogenones (with two maternal or egg genomes) and androgenones (with two paternal or sperm genomes) die at, or before, the blastocyst/implantation stage. In the rare instances that they develop to postimplantation stages, gynogenetic embryos show better embryonic development relative to placental development, while for androgenones, the reverse is true. Nevertheless, for the latter, only a few have been described. Parthenogenetic/gynogenetic embryos have twice the normal expression level of maternally derived genes, and lack expression of paternally expressed genes, while the reverse is true for androgenetic embryos. It is now known that there are at least 80 imprinted genes in humans and mice, many of which are involved in embryonic and placental growth and development. No naturally occurring cases of parthenogenesis exist in mammals because of imprinted genes. Experimental manipulation of a paternal methylation imprint controlling the Igf2 gene has, however, recently allowed the creation of rare individual mice with two maternal sets of chromosomes - but this is not a true parthenogenone. Hybrid offspring of two species may exhibit unusual growth due to the novel combination of imprinted genes. Genetic mapping of imprinted genes At the same time as the generation of the gynogenetic and androgenetic embryos discussed above, mouse embryos were also being generated that contained only small regions that were derived from either a paternal or maternal source. The generation of a series of such uniparental disomies, which together span the entire genome, allowed the creation of an imprinting map. Those regions which when inherited from a single parent result in a discernible phenotype contain imprinted gene(s). Further research showed that within these regions there were often numerous imprinted genes. Around 80% of imprinted genes are found in clusters such as these, called imprinted domains, suggesting a level of co-ordinated control. Imprinting mechanisms Imprinting is a dynamic process. It must be possible to erase and re-establish the imprint through each generation. The nature of the imprint must therefore be epigenetic (modifications to the structure of the DNA rather than the sequence). In germline cells the imprint is erased, and then re-established according to the sex of the individual; i.e. in the developing sperm, a paternal imprint is established, whereas in developing oocytes, a maternal imprint is established. This process of erasure and reprogramming ^ Reik W, Dean W, Walter J. Epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development. Science. 2001 Aug 10;293(5532):1089-93. Review is necessary such that the current imprinting status is relevant to the sex of the individual. In both plants and mammals there are two major mechanisms that are involved in establishing the imprint; these are DNA methylation and histone modifications. Regulation The grouping of imprinted genes within clusters allows them to share common regulatory elements, such as non-coding RNAs and differentially methylated regions (DMRs). When these regulatory elements control the imprinting of one or more genes, they are known as imprinting control regions (ICR). The expression of non-coding RNAs, such as Air on mouse chromosome 17 and KCNQ1OT1 on human chromosome 11p15.5, have been shown to be essential for the imprinting of genes in their corresponding regions. Differentially methylated regions are generally segments of DNA rich in cytosine and guanine nucleotides, with the cytosine nucleotides methylated on one copy but not on the other. Contrary to expectation, methylation does not necessarily mean silencing; instead, the effect of methylation depends upon the default state of the region. Functions of imprinted genes The control of expression of specific genes by genomic imprinting is unique to therian mammals (placental mammals and marsupials) and flowering plants. Imprinting of whole chromosomes has been reported in mealybugs. and a fungus gnat (Sciara). It has also been established that X-chromosome inactivation occurs in an imprinted manner in the extra-embryonic tissues of mice, where it is always the paternal X-chromosome which is silenced. The majority of imprinted genes in mammals have been found to have roles in the control of embryonic growth and development, including development of the placenta. Other imprinted genes are involved in post-natal development, with roles affecting suckling and metabolism. Theories on the origins of imprinting Imprinting appears to be able to increase the evolutionary fitness of genes in two ways, so either or both could be responsible for its origins. A widely accepted hypothesis for the occurrence of genomic imprinting is the "parental conflict hypothesis." This hypothesis states that the inequality between parental genomes due to imprinting is a result of the differing interests of each parent in terms of the evolutionary fitness of their genes. The father is more 'interested' in the growth of his offspring, at the expense of the mother. The mother's interest is to conserve resources for her own survival while providing sufficient nourishment to current and subsequent litters. Accordingly, paternally expressed genes tend to be growth promoting whereas maternally expressed genes tend to be growth limiting. Another hypothesis behind the origins of genomic imprinting is that this phenomenon evolved to silence foreign DNA elements, such as genes of viral origin. There appears to be an over-representation of retrotransposed genes, that is to say genes that are inserted into the genome by viruses, among imprinted genes. It has also been postulated that if the retrotransposed gene is inserted close to another imprinted gene, it may just acquire this imprint. Problems associated with imprinting Imprinting may cause problems in cloning, with clones having DNA that is not methylated in the correct position. It is possible that this is due to a lack of time for reprogramming to be completely achieved. When a nucleus is added to an egg during somatic cell nuclear transfer, the egg starts dividing in minutes, as compared to the days or months it takes for reprogramming during embryonic development. If time is the responsible factor, it may be possible to delay cell division in clones, giving time for proper reprogramming to occur. An allele of the "callipyge" (from the Greek for "beautiful buttocks"), or CLPG, gene in sheep produces large buttocks consisting of muscle with very little fat. The large-buttocked phenotype only occurs when the allele is present on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from a sheep's father and is not on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from that sheep's mother. Examples Several genetic diseases that map to 15q11 (band 11 of the long arm of chromosome 15) in humans are due to abnormal imprinting. This region is differently imprinted in maternal and paternal chromosomes, and both imprintings are needed for normal development. In a normal individual, the maternal allele is methylated, while the paternal allele is unmethylated. It is possible for an individual to fail to inherit a properly imprinted 15q11 from one parent, as a result either of deletion of the 15q11 region from that parent's chromosome 15 or, less frequently, of uniparental disomy (in which both copies have been taken from the other parent's genes). If neither copy of 15q11 has paternal imprinting, the result is Prader-Willi syndrome (characterised by hypotonia, obesity, and hypogonadism). If neither copy has maternal imprinting, the result is Angelman syndrome (characterised by epilepsy, tremors, and a perpetually smiling facial expression). NOEY2 NOEY2 is a paternally expressed imprinted gene located on chromosome 1 in humans. Loss of NOEY2 expression is linked to an increased risk of ovarian and breast cancers; in 41% of breast and ovarian cancers the protein transcribed by NOEY2 is not expressed, suggesting that it functions as a tumor suppressor gene Therefore, if a person inherits both chromosomes from the mother, the gene will not be expressed and the individual is put at a greater risk for breast and ovarian cancer. Imprinted genes in plants Genomic imprinting was first recognized in maize the year 1970 through genetic studies revealing non-Mendelian maternal expression of a seed pigmentation gene (Kermicle JL (1970) Dependence of the R-mottled aleurone phenotype in maize on mode of sexual transmission. Genetics 66: 69–85). Almost 40 years later, relatively few imprinted genes have been identified in plants, compared with over 80 genes that are imprinted in mammals. During fertilisation of the embryo in flowers, a second separate fertilisation event gives rise to the endosperm, an extraembryonic structure that nourishes the seed similar to the mammalian placenta. Unlike the embryo, the endosperm often contains two copies of the maternal genome and fusion with a male gamete results in a triploid genome. This uneven ratio of maternal to paternal genomes appears to be critical for seed development. Some genes are found to be expressed from both maternal genomes while others are expressed exclusively from the lone paternal copy. See also Bookmarking Epigenetics Metabolic imprinting References External links geneimprint.com Imprinted Gene and Parent-of-origin Effect Database J. Kimball's Imprinted Genes Site MRC Harwell Imprinting Resource

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Oxford

Oxford (, ) is a city, and the county town of Oxfordshire, in South East England. The city has a population of just under 165,000, with 151,000 living within the district boundary. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through Oxford and meet south of the city centre. For a distance of some along the river, in the vicinity of Oxford, the Thames is known as The Isis. The University of Oxford is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. Buildings in Oxford reflect every British architectural period since the arrival of the Saxons, including the iconic, mid-18th century Radcliffe Camera. Oxford is known as the "city of dreaming spires", a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold in reference to the harmonious architecture of Oxford's university buildings. History Oxford was first occupied in Saxon times, and was initially known as "OxenaRfoda", meaning "Ford of the Ox"; fords being very important before the days of bridges. A Handy Guide to Oxford, ch. 2 It began with the foundation of St Frideswide's nunnery in the 8th century, and was first mentioned in written records in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 912. In the 10th century Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes. St Frideswide is the patron saint of both the city and university. In 1191, a city charter stated in Latin, whatdotheyknow.com: Oxford charter 1191 The prestige of Oxford is seen in the fact that it received a charter from King Henry II, granting its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as those enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and various important religious houses were founded in or near the city. A grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order; and friars of various orders (Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustinians, and Trinitarians), all had houses at Oxford of varying importance. Parliaments were often held in the city during the thirteenth century. The Provisions of Oxford were installed by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort; these documents are often regarded as England's first written constitution. The Radcliffe Camera. The University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Oxford's earliest colleges were University College (1249), Balliol (1263) and Merton (1264). These colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers. These writings challenged European ideology – inspiring scientific discoveries and advancements in the arts – as society began seeing itself in a new way. These colleges at Oxford were supported by the Church in hopes to reconcile Greek Philosophy and Christian Theology. The relationship between "town and gown" has often been uneasy — as many as 93 students and townspeople were killed in the St Scholastica Day Riot of 1355. The sweating sickness epidemic in 1517 was particularly devastating to Oxford and Cambridge where it killed half of the cities population, including many students and professors. The Sweating Sickness. Story of London. Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford is unique as a college chapel and cathedral in one foundation. Originally the Priory Church of St Frideswide, the building was extended and incorporated into the structure of the Cardinal's College shortly before its refounding as Christ Church in 1546, since which time it has functioned as the cathedral of the Diocese of Oxford. The Oxford Martyrs were tried for heresy in 1555 and subsequently burnt at the stake, on what is now Broad Street, for their religious beliefs and teachings. The three martyrs were the bishops Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, and the Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. The Martyrs' Memorial stands nearby, round the corner to the North on St. Giles. During the English Civil War, Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642, after the king was expelled from London, although there was strong support in the town for the Parliamentarian cause. The town yielded to Parliamentarian forces under General Fairfax in the Siege of Oxford of 1646. It later housed the court of Charles II during the Great Plague of London in 1665-66. Although reluctant to do so, he was forced to evacuate when the plague got too close. In 1790, the Oxford Canal connected the city with Coventry. The Duke's Cut was completed by the Duke of Marlborough in 1789 to link the new canal with the River Thames; and in 1796 the Oxford Canal company built their own link to the Thames, at Isis Lock. In the 1840s, the Great Western Railway and London and North Western Railway linked Oxford with London. In the 19th century, the controversy surrounding the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church drew attention to the city as a focus of theological thought. Map of Oxford (1904). Oxford's Town Hall was built by Henry T. Hare, the foundation stone was laid on 6 July 1893 and opened by the future King Edward VII on 12 May 1897. The site has been the seat of local government since the Guild Hall of 1292 and though Oxford is a city and a Lord Mayoralty, it is still called by its traditional name of "Town Hall". By the early 20th century, Oxford was experiencing rapid industrial and population growth, with the printing and publishing industries becoming well established by the 1920s. Also during that decade, the economy and society of Oxford underwent a huge transformation as William Morris established the Morris Motor Company to mass produce cars in Cowley, on the south-eastern edge of the city. By the early 1970s over 20,000 people worked in Cowley at the huge Morris Motors and Pressed Steel Fisher plants. By this time Oxford was a city of two halves: the university city to the west of Magdalen Bridge and the car town to the east. This led to the witticism that "Oxford is the left bank of Cowley". Cowley suffered major job losses in the 1980s and 1990s during the decline of British Leyland, but is now producing the successful New MINI for BMW on a smaller site. A large area of the original car manufacturing facility at Cowley was demolished in the 1990s and is now the site of the Oxford Business Park. Oxford City Council. The influx of migrant labour to the car plants and hospitals, recent immigration from south-east Asia, and a large student population, have given Oxford a notable cosmopolitan character, especially in the Headington and Cowley Road areas with their many bars, cafes, restaurants, clubs, ethnic shops and fast food outlets. Oxford is one of the most diverse small cities in Britain with the most recent population estimates for 2005. 24ph=60_61&CurrentPageId=61&step=2&datasetFamilyId=1809&instanceSelection=121810&Next.x=4&Next.y=4 ONS Population Estimates 2005 showing that 27% of the population were from an ethnic minority group, including 16.2% from a non-white ethnic minority ethnic group (ONS). These figures do not take into account more recent international migration into the city, with over 10,000 people from overseas registering for National Insurance Numbers in Oxford between 2005/06 and 2006/07. Department for Work and Pensions On 6 May 1954, Roger Bannister, as a 25 year old medical student, ran the first authenticated four-minute mile at the Iffley Road running track in Oxford. Although he had previously studied at Oxford University, Bannister was actually studying at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in London at the time. Oxford's second university, Oxford Brookes University, formerly the Oxford School of Art, or Oxford Polytechnic, based on Headington Hill, was given its charter in 1991 and has been voted for the last five years the best new university in the UK. Attractions The University of Oxford The main quadrangle of University College. The University of Oxford is one of the most famous universities in the world. Leading academics come to Oxford from all over the world. The City Centre Aerial view of Oxford city centre. As well as being an extraordinary sight for tourists (3.5 million per annum ), Oxford City Centre is a very attractive location for the consumer to visit, as well as being a good location for socialising. The city centre is relatively small, and is centred on Carfax, Oxford, a cross-roads on which a clocktower stands, and which forms the junction of Cornmarket Street (pedestrianised), Queen Street (semi-pedestrianised), St Aldate's and The High. Cornmarket Street and Queen Street are home to Oxford's various chain stores, as well as a small number of independent retailers, one of the longest established of which is Boswells, which was founded in 1738. http://www.boswells-online.co.uk//mall/infopageviewer.cfm/Boswells/AboutUs . St Aldate's has few shops but is the location of a number of local-government buildings, including the Town Hall, the city police station and local council offices. The High (the word street is not part of the name of this road) has a number of independent and high-end chain stores. There are two small shopping centres in the city centre: The Clarendon Centre http://www.clarendoncentre.co.uk/ and The Westgate Centre http://www.oxfordcity.co.uk/shops/westgate/ . The Westgate Centre is named for the original West Gate in the city wall, and is located at the west end of Queen Street. It is quite small and contains a number of chain stores and a supermarket. The Westgate Shopping Centre is to undergo a massive but controversial refurbishment; http://www.oxford.gov.uk/planning/west-end-aap.cfm its plans involve tripling the size of the centre to , building a brand new 1,335 space underground car park and 90 new shops and bars, including a John Lewis department store. There will be a new and improved transport system, a complete refurbishment of the existing centre and the surrounding Bonn Square area. The development plans include a number of new homes, and completion is expected in 2011. Blackwell Books Blackwells Bookshop. Oxford University Museum of Natural History. The Malmaison Hotel in Oxford Castle. Blackwell Bookshop is a very popular tourist attraction in Oxford. Blackwell Books claims the largest single room devoted to book sales in the whole of Europe, the cavernous Norrington Room (10,000 sq ft). Other attractions Ashmolean Museum Bodleian Library Carfax Tower Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford Modern Art Oxford Museum of the History of Science Oxford Botanic Garden Pitt Rivers Museum Sheldonian Theatre St. Mary The Virgin Church Politics and governance Many important and famous politicians and people in the political public eye were resident in Oxford, often due to their membership of the University. Most notably of recent times, this list includes Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair, Benazir Bhutto and others. Oxford City Council Parliamentary representation A pre-election husting at the Oxford West and Abingdon constituency. The two MPs are Andrew Smith from the Oxford East constituency, erstwhile Secretary of State for Work and Pensions in the Labour government; and Dr Evan Harris from the Oxford West and Abingdon constituency, Liberal Democrat science spokesman. At the 2005 general election, Oxford East became a marginal seat with a Labour majority over the Liberal Democrats of just 963. Oxford West and Abingdon is a safe seat for the Liberal Democrats with Dr Harris enjoying a majority of just under 8,000. Parishes Oxford has four civil parishes with parish councils – these are Blackbird Leys, Littlemore, Old Marston and Risinghurst and Sandhills. Littlemore, Marston and Risinghurst and Sandhills have only recently been brought within the city boundary. Geography Oxford's latitude and longitude are or OS Grid Reference SP513061 (at Carfax Tower, which is usually considered the centre). Wards, neighbourhoods, and suburbs The Headington Shark. Barton Binsey Blackbird Leys Cowley Cowley Road Cutteslowe Donnington Grandpont Headington Iffley Littlemore Jericho Marston New Hinksey North Oxford Northway Osney Rose Hill Risinghurst Sandhills St Ebbes St John's street area Summertown Temple Cowley Waterways Wood Farm Wolvercote Broad Street in the snow (February 2007). A number of suburbs and residential areas are outside the city boundaries and separated from the city by the green belt. Boars Hill Botley Cumnor Hill Dean Court Harcourt Hill North Hinksey Climate Oxford has a Maritime Temperate climate ("Cfb" by Köppen classification). Precipitation is uniformly distributed throughout the year and is provided mostly by weather systems that arrive from the Atlantic. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oxford was -16.6 °C (2 °F) in January 1982. The highest temperature ever recorded in Oxford is 35.6 °C (96 °F) in August 2003 during the 2003 European heat wave. There is a field of thought that due to Climate change, temperatures are increasing in Oxford, precipitation is decreasing in summer and increasing in winter. The average conditions below are from the Radcliffe Meteorological Station. It boasts the longest series of temperature and rainfall records for one site in Britain. These records are continuous from January, 1815. Irregular observations of rainfall, cloud and temperature exist from 1767 . Economy The Oxford suburb of Cowley has a long history of carmaking and now produces the BMW MINI. Brewing Morrells, the Oxford based regional brewery was founded in 1743 by Richard Tawney. He formed a partnership in 1782 with Mark and James Morrell, who eventually became the owners. History of Headington, Oxford The brewery building, known as the "Lion Brewery", was located in St Thomas Street. After an acrimonious family dispute this much-loved brewery was closed in 1998, Morrells Brewery up for sale the beer brand names being taken over by the Thomas Hardy Burtonwood brewery. Morrells Brewery Ltd , while the 132 tied pubs were bought by "Morrells of Oxford" Jericho Echo , who sold the bulk of them on to Greene King in 2002 BBC NEWS | England | Brewer buys pub chain for £67m . The Lion Brewery was converted into luxury apartments in 2002. Brewery site plan nears final hurdle Commercial areas Broad Street Clarendon Shopping Centre Cornmarket Street George Street Golden Cross The High Street Little Clarendon Street Queen Street, Oxford The Covered Market Turl Street Westgate Shopping Centre Outside the City Centre: Banbury Road, Summertown, Oxford Botley Road, Oxford Cowley Retail Park, Cowley, Oxford Cowley Road, Oxford Iffley Road, Oxford London Road, Headington, Oxford North Parade, Oxford St. Clements, Oxford Templars Square Shopping Centre, Cowley, Oxford Walton Street, Jericho, Oxford Theatres and cinemas Burton Taylor Theatre, Worcester Street New Theatre, George Street Odeon Cinema, George Street Odeon Cinema, Magdalen Street Old Fire Station Theatre, George Street Oxford Playhouse, Beaumont Street Pegasus Theatre, Magdalen Road Phoenix Picturehouse, Walton Street Ultimate Picture Palace, Cowley Road Vue Cinema, Grenoble Road Landmarks centre|The dreaming spires of Oxford facing Christ Church to the south (Christ Church Cathedral on the left and Tom Tower on the right). Oxford has numerous major tourist attractions, many belonging to the university and colleges. As well as several famous institutions, the town centre is home to Carfax Tower and the University Church of St Mary the Virgin, both of which offer views over the spires of the city. Many tourists shop at the historic Covered Market. In the summer punting on the Thames/Isis and the Cherwell is popular. centre|All Souls College at twilight Urban Redevelopment The Westgate redevelopment is just part of a wider scheme proposed by the city council. This scheme includes a total redesign of the centre of Oxford to "pedestrianise" the city. The scheme, entitled Transform Oxford, is only a blueprint for public consultation at this stage, but county council officials are confident it will go ahead. One of the key elements is the pedestrianisation of Queen Street, with bus stops removed next summer to make way for the eventual complete removal of buses from the street. Pedestrianisation schemes in George Street and Magdalen Street should follow in the summer of 2010, with the removal of traffic from Broad Street the same year a possibility. In 2011, highways engineers plan to remodel the Frideswide Square junctions near the railway station, removing traffic lights and introducing roundabouts to improve traffic flow. Transport Buses Bus services are mainly provided by the Oxford Bus Company and Stagecoach Oxfordshire. Both companies also operate regular services to London. The Oxford Bus Company also runs the Airlink services to Heathrow and Gatwick. Other operators include Thames Travel, Arriva Shires & Essex and several smaller companies. There is a bus station at Gloucester Green, used mainly by the London and airport services, and National Express coach services. A Stagecoach bus behind an Oxford Bus Company park-and-ride bus in Oxford. Oxford has 5 park and ride sites that service the city centre; Pear Tree (Link to city centre with bus 300) Redbridge (Link to city centre with bus 300) Seacourt (Link to city centre with bus 400) Thornhill (Link to city centre with bus 400) Water Eaton (Link to city centre with bus 500) A service also runs to The John Radcliffe Hospital (from Thornhill/Water Eaton) as well as the Churchill and Nuffield Hospitals (from Thornhill). Rail Oxford railway station Oxford railway station is half a mile west of the city centre. The station is served by numerous routes, including CrossCountry services as far afield as Manchester and Edinburgh, First Great Western (who operate the station) services to London and other destinations and occasional Chiltern Railways services to Birmingham. The present station opened in 1952. Oxford is the junction for a short branch line to Bicester, which is being extended to form the East-West Rail Link to Milton Keynes, providing a passenger route avoiding London. Roads A roads The city has a ring road that consists of the A34, the A40, A4142 and the A423. It is mostly dual carriageway and was completed in 1966. The main roads that lead out of Oxford are: A34- which leads to Bicester, the M40 north, Birmingham and Manchester to the north, and Didcot, Newbury and Winchester to the south. The A34 is entirely grade separated dual carriageway all the way from Bicester to Winchester. A40- which leads to London and High Wycombe (as well as the M40 motorway south) to the east, and Cheltenham, Gloucester and south Wales to the west. A44- which begins in Oxford and leads to Worcester, Hereford and Aberystwyth. A420- which also begins in Oxford and leads to Bristol passing Swindon and Chippenham. Motorways The M40 Extension The city is served by the M40 motorway, which connects London to Birmingham. The original M40 opened in 1974 went from London to Waterstock where the A40 continued to Oxford. However, when the M40 was extended to Birmingham in 1991, a mile of the old motorway became a spur and the new section bended away sharply north. Now the M40 does a large arc around Oxford (staying around away from the centre) due to the woodland that the motorway had to avoid. The M40 meets the A34 a junction later, the latter now being in two parts, the A34 restarting in Birmingham. Education There are two universities in Oxford; the University of Oxford and Oxford Brookes University as well as Ruskin College. Oxford is home to wide range of schools many of which receive pupils from around the world. Three are University choral foundations, established to educate the boy choristers of the chapel choirs, and have kept the tradition of single sex education. Examination results in state-run Oxford schools are consistently below the national average and regional average. However, results in the city are improving with 44% of pupils gaining 5 grades A*-C in 2006. Source: DfES Pupil Annual School Level Census 2006 see Neighbourhood Renewal Unit floor target results http://www.fti.neighbourhood.gov.uk/document.asp?id=123. Media As well as the BBC national radio stations, Oxford and the surrounding area has several local stations, including BBC Radio Oxford, Fox FM, Oxford's FM 107.9, Oxford's FM1079 - The Way I Are and new station JACK fm on 106.8 along with Oxide: Oxford Student Radio Oxide Radio - Your Sound Education | Home (which went on terrestrial radio at 87.7 MHz FM in late May 2005). A local TV station, Six TV: The Oxford Channel is also available. The city is home to a BBC TV newsroom which produces an opt-out from the main South Today programme broadcast from Southampton. Popular local papers include The Oxford Times (compact; weekly), its sister papers The Oxford Mail (tabloid; daily) and The Oxford Star (tabloid; free and delivered), and Oxford Journal (tabloid; weekly free pick-up). Oxford is also home to several advertising agencies. Daily Information (known locally as Daily Info) is an events and advertising news sheet which has been published since 1964 and now provides a connected website. Recently (2003) DIY grassroots non-corporate media has begun to spread. UK Indymedia - Oxford indymedia Independent and community newspapers include the Jericho Echo Jericho Echo and Oxford Prospect. Oxford Prospect Culture Literature and film Well-known Oxford-based authors include: Oscar Wilde a nineteenth century poet and author who attended Oxford from 1874 to 1878. John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir attended Brasenose College. Best known for his The Thirty-nine Steps, authored 32 novels and many more volumes of history, poetry and essays. Susan Cooper who is best known for her The Dark Is Rising Sequence Lewis Carroll (real name Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), Student and Mathematical Lecturer of Christ Church. Colin Dexter who wrote and set his Inspector Morse detective novels in Oxford. Colin Dexter still lives in Oxford. John Donaldson (d.1989), a poet resident in Oxford in later life. Siobhan Dowd Oxford resident; who was an undergraduate at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Kenneth Graham educated at St. Edward's School, Oxford Michael Innes (J. I. M. Stewart), of Christ Church. P. D. James who lives part-time in Oxford. T. E. Lawrence, "Lawrence of Arabia", Oxford resident, undergraduate at Jesus, postgraduate at Magdalen. C. S. Lewis, Fellow of Magdalen. Ian McEwan, formerly an Oxford resident for many years. Iris Murdoch, Fellow of St Anne's. Iain Pears, undergraduate at Wadham College and Oxford resident, whose novel An Instance of the Fingerpost is set in the city. Philip Pullman who was an undergraduate at Exeter. Dorothy L. Sayers who was an undergraduate at Somerville. J. R. R. Tolkien, undergraduate at Exeter and later professor of English at Merton. Charles Williams, editor at Oxford University Press. Oxford appears in the following works: Jude the Obscure (1895) by Thomas Hardy (in which Oxford is thinly disguised as "Christminster"). Zuleika Dobson (1911) by Max Beerbohm. Gaudy Night (1935) by Dorothy L. Sayers. Brideshead Revisited (1945) by Evelyn Waugh. A Question of Upbringing (1951 ) by Anthony Powell Second Generation (1964 novel) by Raymond Williams The Children of Men (1992) by P. D. James. Doomsday Book (1992) by Connie Willis His Dark Materials (1995 onwards) by Philip Pullman Endymion Spring (2006) by Matthew Skelton Sport Oxford United, are currently in the Conference National, the highest tier of non-league football, but have enjoyed greater success in the past. They were elected to the Football League in 1962, reached the Third Division after three years and the Second Division after six, and most notably reached the First Division in 1985 - a mere 23 years after joining the Football League. They spent three seasons in the top flight, winning the Football League Cup a year after promotion. The next 18 years saw them decline gradually (though a brief respite in 1996 saw them win promotion to the new (post Premier League) Division One in 1996 and stay there for three years) until they suffered relegation to the Conference. They play at the Kassam Stadium (named after former chairman Firoz Kassam), which is situated near the Blackbird Leys housing estate and has been their home since relocation from the Manor Ground in 2001. Notable former managers include Arthur Turner, Ian Greaves, Jim Smith, Maurice Evans, Mark Lawrenson, Brian Horton, Denis Smith, Mark Wright, Ian Atkins and Ramon Diaz. Notable former players include Ron Atkinson, John Aldridge, Ray Houghton, Trevor Hebberd, Nigel Jemson, Kevin Francis, Bobby Ford, Joey Beauchamp, Tommy Mooney and Darren Purse. Oxford City F.C. is an amateur football club, separate from Oxford United. It plays in the Southern Football League Premier Division. Oxford Cheetahs motorcycle speedway team has raced at Cowley Stadium on and off since 1939. The Cheetahs competed in the Speedway Elite League and then the Speedway Conference League until 2007, when stadium landlords Greyhound Racing Association apparently doubled the rent. Speedway is not currently running in Oxford. Details of the 1949 and 1950 seasons at Cowley can be seen on Oxford Speedway website. Twinning Oxford's twin cities are: Bonn, Germany Grenoble, France Leiden, Netherlands León, Nicaragua Perm, Russia Umeå, Sweden Oxford, Michigan, United States The only Oxford twin city that is not a university town is "Oxford, Michigan" See also Bishop of Oxford Brill Tramway Earl of Oxford Oxfam Oxford bags Oxford Brookes University Oxford City F.C. Oxford comma Oxford Diocesan Guild of Church Bell Ringers Oxford Union Oxford United F.C. University of Oxford New College School Further reading History, learning, beauty reign over Oxford, Anne Gordon, The Boston Globe, June 22, 2008 Isolarion: A Different Oxford Journey, James Attlee, 2007. ISBN 978-0226030937 Oxford, Jan Morris, 2001. ISBN 978-0192801364 The Erosion of Oxford, James Stevens Curl, 1977. ISBN 0-902280-40-6 References External links Contemporary Limited Edition Architectural Prints of Oxford buildings National Park and Ride Directory Oxford - 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Oxford City Council official website Oxford From Above BBC program The Oxford Guide: an Open Guide to Oxford (wiki) Virtual Tour of Oxford Oxford's Own IT be-x-old:Оксфард

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Euler's_formula

This article is about Euler's formula in complex analysis. For Euler's formula in algebraic topology and polyhedral combinatorics see Euler characteristic. See also topics named after Euler. Euler's formula, named after Leonhard Euler, is a mathematical formula in complex analysis that shows a deep relationship between the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function. Euler's formula states that, for any real number x, where e is the base of the natural logarithm, i is the imaginary unit, and cos and sin are the trigonometric functions cosine and sine respectively, with the argument x given in radians. The formula is still valid if x is a complex number, and so some authors refer to the more general complex version as Euler's formula. Richard Feynman called Euler's formula "our jewel" and "one of the most remarkable, almost astounding, formulas in all of mathematics". History Euler's formula was proven for the first time by Roger Cotes in 1714 in the form (where "ln" means natural logarithm, i.e. log with base e). It was Euler who published the equation in its current form in 1748, basing his proof on the infinite series of both sides being equal. Neither of these men saw the geometrical interpretation of the formula: the view of complex numbers as points in the complex plane arose only some 50 years later (see Caspar Wessel). Euler considered it natural to introduce students to complex numbers much earlier than we do today. In his elementary algebra text book, Elements of Algebra, he introduces these numbers almost at once and then uses them in a natural way throughout. Applications in complex number theory This formula can be interpreted as saying that the function eix traces out the unit circle in the complex number plane as x ranges through the real numbers. Here, x is the angle that a line connecting the origin with a point on the unit circle makes with the positive real axis, measured counter clockwise and in radians. The original proof is based on the Taylor series expansions of the exponential function ez (where z is a complex number) and of sin x and cos x for real numbers x (see below). In fact, the same proof shows that Euler's formula is even valid for all complex numbers z. A point in the complex plane can be represented by a complex number written in cartesian coordinates. Euler's formula provides a means of conversion between cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates. The polar form reduces the number of terms from two to one, which simplifies the mathematics when used in multiplication or powers of complex numbers. Any complex number z = x + iy can be written as where the real part the imaginary part the magnitude of z atan2(y, x) is the argument of z—i.e., the angle between the x axis and the vector z measured counterclockwise and in radians—which is defined up to addition of 2π. Now, taking this derived formula, we can use Euler's formula to define the logarithm of a complex number. To do this, we also use the definition of the logarithm (as the inverse operator of exponentiation) that and that both valid for any complex numbers a and b. Therefore, one can write: for any . Taking the logarithm of both sides shows that: and in fact this can be used as the definition for the complex logarithm. The logarithm of a complex number is thus a multi-valued function, because is multi-valued. Finally, the other exponential law which can be seen to hold for all integers k, together with Euler's formula, implies several trigonometric identities as well as de Moivre's formula. Relationship to trigonometry Euler's formula provides a powerful connection between analysis and trigonometry, and provides an interpretation of the sine and cosine functions as weighted sums of the exponential function: The two equations above can be derived by adding or subtracting Euler's formulas: and solving for either cosine or sine. These formulas can even serve as the definition of the trigonometric functions for complex arguments x. For example, letting x = iy, we have: Complex exponentials can simplify trigonometry, because they are easier to manipulate than their sinusoidal components. One technique is simply to convert sinusoids into equivalent expressions in terms of exponentials. After the manipulations, the simplified result is still real-valued. For example: Another technique is to represent the sinusoids in terms of the real part of a more complex expression, and perform the manipulations on the complex expression. For example: This formula is used for recursive generation of cos(nx) for integer values of n and arbitrary x (in radians). Other applications In differential equations, the function eix is often used to simplify derivations, even if the final answer is a real function involving sine and cosine. Euler's identity is an easy consequence of Euler's formula. In electrical engineering and other fields, signals that vary periodically over time are often described as a combination of sine and cosine functions (see Fourier analysis), and these are more conveniently expressed as the real part of exponential functions with imaginary exponents, using Euler's formula. Also, phasor analysis of circuits can include Euler's formula to represent the impedance of a capacitor or an inductor. Definitions of complex exponentiation In general, raising e to a positive integer exponent has a simple interpretation in terms of repeated multiplication of e. Raising e to zero or a negative integer exponent can be understood as repeated division. A rational number exponent can be defined by radicals of e, and an irrational number exponent can be defined by finding rational-number exponents that are arbitrarily close to the irrational-number exponent, in a limit process. However, to define and understand a complex number exponent of e, a different type of generalization is required for the concept of exponentiation. In fact, several definitions are possible. All of them can be proven to be well-defined and equivalent, although the proofs are not included in this article. Taylor series definition It is well-known that, for any real x, the following series is equal to ex: (in other words, this is the Taylor series for the real exponential function, and it has an infinite radius of convergence). This invites the following definition of ez for complex z: This can be proven to be well-defined; in particular, the series converges for any z. Analytic continuation definition A simple-to-state, equivalent definition is that ez, for complex z, is the analytic continuation of the function ex for real x. This can be proven to be well-defined; in particular, it yields a single-valued function on the complex plane. Limit definition It is well-known that, for any real x, the following limit is equal to ex: This motivates the following definition of ez for complex z: Differential equation definition For real x, the function f(x)=ex is well-known to be the unique real function satisfying the differential equation: for all x. This motivates a definition of f(z)=ez for complex z as the function that satisfies the differential equation: for all complex z, where the derivative in f'''(z) is defined in the sense of a complex derivative. This can be proven to yield a unique function which is well-defined everywhere on the complex plane. Proofs Various proofs of this formula are possible. The first proof below starts with the "Taylor series definition" of ez, while the other two use the "Differential equation definition" of ez (see above). Using Taylor series Here is a proof of Euler's formula using Taylor series expansions as well as basic facts about the powers of i: and so on. The functions ex, cos x and sin x of the (real) variable x can be expressed using their Taylor expansions around zero: For complex z we define each of these functions by the above series, replacing the real variable x with the complex variable z. This is possible because the radius of convergence of each series is infinite. We then find that The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent. Taking z = x to be a real number gives the original identity as Euler discovered it. Q.E.D. Using calculus Define the (possibly complex) function ƒ(x), of real variable x, as The derivative of ƒ(x), according to the product rule, is: Therefore, ƒ(x) must be a constant function in x. Because ƒ(0) is known, the constant that ƒ(x) equals for all real x is also known. Thus, Multiplying both sides by eix, we get Q.E.D. Using ordinary differential equations Define the function g(x) by Considering that i is constant, the first and second derivatives of g(x) are because i 2 = −1 by definition. From this the following 2nd-order linear ordinary differential equation is constructed: or Being a 2nd-order differential equation, there are two linearly independent solutions that satisfy it: Both cos and sin are real functions in which the 2nd derivative is identical to the negative of that function. Any linear combination of solutions to a homogeneous differential equation is also a solution. Then, in general, the solution to the differential equation is {| | | |- | | |} for any constants A and B. But not all values of these two constants satisfy the known initial conditions for g(x''): . However these same initial conditions (applied to the general solution) are resulting in and, finally, Q.E.D. See also Movie of Euler's formula Euler's identity Complex number de Moivre's formula Exponentiation Exponential function Integration using Euler's formula References External links Proof of Euler's Formula by Julius O. Smith III Euler's Formula and Fermat's Last Theorem Complex Exponential Function Module by John H. Mathews Elements of Algebra Visual Representation of Euler's Formula

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Cucurbitales

The Cucurbitales are an order of flowering plants, included in the rosid group of dicotyledons. This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropic and temperate regions. The order includes various shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbers. One of major characteristics of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, mostly pentacyclic, with thick pointed petals (whenever present) (Matthews and Endress, 2004). The pollination is usually performed by insects, but wind pollination is also present (in Coriariaceae and Datiscaceae). The order consists of roughly 2300 species in seven families. The largest families are Begoniaceae with 1400 species and Cucurbitaceae with 825 species. The large families of Cucurbitales include several economically important plants. Specifically, the Cucurbitaceae are responsible for some food species, such as squash, pumpkin (both from Cucurbita), watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) and other melons, and cucumber (Cucumis). The Begoniaceae are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130. Classification Under the Cronquist system, the first four families were placed in the order Violales, within the Dilleniidae, with the Tetramelaceae subsumed within the Datiscaceae. The other families were distributed throughout various orders. The present classification is due to APG II (2003). References W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. pp. 380-382 (Cucurbitales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-87893-403-0. Matthews M. L. and Endress P. K. (2004). Comparative floral structure and systematics in Cucurbitales (Corynocarpaceae, Coriariaceae, Tetramelaceae, Datiscaceae, Begoniaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Anisophylleaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 145(2), 129-185. (Available online: DOI | Abstract | Full text (HTML) | Full text (PDF)) B. C. J. du Mortier (1829). Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent, 28. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay.

Cucurbitales |@lemmatized cucurbitales:5 order:6 flower:2 plant:3 include:3 rosid:1 group:1 dicotyledon:1 mostly:2 belong:1 tropical:1 area:1 limited:1 presence:2 subtropic:1 temperate:1 region:1 various:2 shrub:1 tree:1 together:1 many:1 herb:1 climber:1 one:1 major:1 characteristic:1 unisexual:1 pentacyclic:1 thick:1 point:1 petal:1 whenever:1 present:3 matthew:2 endress:2 pollination:2 usually:1 perform:1 insect:1 wind:1 also:1 coriariaceae:2 datiscaceae:3 consist:1 roughly:1 specie:5 seven:1 family:5 large:2 begoniaceae:3 cucurbitaceae:3 several:1 economically:1 important:1 specifically:1 responsible:1 food:1 squash:1 pumpkin:1 cucurbita:1 watermelon:1 citrullus:1 vulgaris:1 melon:1 cucumber:1 cucumis:1 know:1 horticultural:1 classification:2 cronquist:1 system:1 first:1 four:1 place:1 violales:1 within:2 dilleniidae:1 tetramelaceae:2 subsume:1 distribute:1 throughout:1 due:1 apg:1 ii:1 reference:1 w:1 judd:1 c:2 campbell:1 e:1 kellogg:1 p:2 f:1 stevens:1 j:3 donoghue:1 systematics:2 phylogenetic:1 approach:1 edition:1 pp:1 sinauer:1 associate:1 sunderland:1 massachusetts:1 isbn:1 l:2 k:1 comparative:1 floral:1 structure:1 corynocarpaceae:1 anisophylleaceae:1 botanical:1 journal:1 linnean:1 society:1 available:1 online:1 doi:1 abstract:1 full:2 text:2 html:1 pdf:1 b:1 du:1 mortier:1 analyse:1 de:4 familles:1 plantes:1 avec:1 indication:1 principaux:1 genre:1 qui:1 rattachent:1 imprimerie:1 casterman:1 tournay:1 |@bigram donoghue_plant:1 systematics_phylogenetic:1 sinauer_associate:1 sunderland_massachusetts:1 journal_linnean:1 linnean_society:1 de_familles:1 familles_de:1

John_Woo

John Woo Yu-Sen (born 1 May 1946) is a critically acclaimed international Chinese film director and producer. John Woo. Festival de Cannes fiche artiste (artist profile) Recognized for his stylized films of highly choreographed action sequences, Mexican standoffs, and use of slow-motion, Mr. Woo has directed several notable Hong Kong action films, among them, A Better Tomorrow, Hard Boiled, and The Killer. His English-language films include Hard Target, Broken Arrow, Face/Off, and Mission: Impossible 2. As a young boy, Woo had wanted to be a Christian minister. He later found a passion for movies influenced by the French New Wave especially Jean-Pierre Melville. Woo has said he was shy and had difficulty speaking, but found making movies a way to explore his feelings and thinking and would "use movie as a language". Woo cites his three favorite films as David Lean's Lawrence of Arabia, Akira Kurosawa's Seven Samurai and Melville's Le Samouraï. He also created the comic series Seven Brothers, published by Virgin Comics. Woo was described by Dave Kehr in The Observer in 2002 as "arguably the most influential director making movies today". Biography The Christian Woo family, faced with persecution in China, fled to Hong Kong when he was five. His father was rendered unable to work by tuberculosis. Rawnsley, Gary D. Rawnsley, Ming-Yeh T. (2003). Political Communications in Greater China: the construction and reflection of identity. Routledge publishing. ISBN 070071734X. Elder, Robert K. (2005). John Woo Interviews. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1578067766 Impoverished, the Woo family lived in the slums at Shek Kip Mei. Woo went to Concordia Lutheran School and received Christian education. His Christian background shows influences in his films. In 1953 the family was rendered homeless by the HK Shek Kip Mei fire. Charitable donations from disaster relief efforts enabled the family to relocate, however, violent crime had by then become commonplace in Hong Kong housing projects. The local movie theater would prove a haven of retreat. Woo found respite in musical films, such as The Wizard of Oz and American Westerns. He has stated the final scene of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid made a particular impression on him in his youth: the device of two comrades, each of whom fire pistols from each hand, is a recurrent spectacle later found in his own work. Woo married Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung in 1976 and has had three children. He has lived in the United States since 1993. Hong Kong career history In 1969, aged 23, Woo was hired as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios. In 1971, he became an assistant director at Shaw Studios, where he was mentored by the noted director Chang Cheh. His directorial debut in 1974 was the feature film The Young Dragons (鐵漢柔情, Tiě hàn róu qíng). In the Kung fu action genre, it was choreographed by Jackie Chan and featured dynamic camera-work and elaborate action scenes. The film was picked up by Golden Harvest Studio where he went on to direct more martial arts films. He later had success as a comedy director with Money Crazy (發錢寒, Fā qián hàn) (1977), starring Hong Kong comedian Ricky Hui. By the mid-1980s, Mr. Woo experienced professional burnout. Several of his films were commercial disappointments. In response, he took residence in Taiwan. It was during this period of self-imposed exile that director/producer Tsui Hark provided the funding for Woo to film a longtime pet project called A Better Tomorrow (1986). The story of two brothers—one a law enforcement officer, the other a criminal—the film became a financial blockbuster. A Better Tomorrow gained prominence as a defining achievement in Hong Kong action cinema for its combination of emotional drama, slow-motion gunplay, gritty atmospherics, and trenchcoat-and-sunglasses fashion appeal. Its signature narrative device of two-handed, two-gunned fire fight within confined quarters—often referred to as "gun fu"—would later inspire American filmmakers such as Robert Rodriguez, Quentin Tarantino and the Wachowski brothers. John Woo would make several more Heroic Bloodshed films in the late 1980s and early 1990s, also with leading man Chow Yun-Fat. These violent gangster thrillers typically focus on men bound by honor and loyalty, at odds with contemporary values of impermanence and expediency. The protagonists of these films, therefore, may be said to present a common lineage with the Chinese literary tradition of loyalty among generals depicted in classics such as "Romance of the Three Kingdom". Mr. Woo gained international recognition with the release of The Killer (1989). Widely praised by critics and audiences for its action sequences, acting and cinematography, The Killer became the most successful Hong Kong film in American release since Bruce Lee's Enter the Dragon (1973) and garnered Mr. Woo an American cult following. Bullet in the Head followed a year later, which Mr. Woo has stated he still considers his most personal work. Bullet in the Head did not meet financial expectations. Among the director's American admirers are Martin Scorsese and Sam Raimi (who has compared Woo's mastery of action to Hitchcock's mastery of suspense). Mr. Woo accepted a contract to work in America at a time when the 1997 handover of Hong Kong was imminent. His last Hong Kong film before emigrating to the United States was Hard Boiled (1992), the antithesis of his earlier glorification of gangsters. Memorable among its preponderance of action scenes is an approximate 30 minute sequence of gun-play set within a hospital. The director pointedly depicts the vulnerability of patients caught in the crossfire. One particular long take follows two characters for an elapsed time of 2 minutes and 42 seconds as they move between hospital floors. On the Criterion DVD and laserdisc, this chapter is referenced as "2 minutes, 42 seconds." The film climax extols the virtues of its leading man, a law enforcement agent, Chow Yun-Fat, who is seen to comfort an infant with a lullaby while engaged in fire fight with his criminal pursuers. He heroically takes leave of this carnage when he leaps to safety from a window, babe gallantly in arms. John Woo: Interviews (ISBN 1578067766) is the first authoritative English-language chronicle of Woo’s career. The volume includes a new 36-page interview with Woo by editor Robert K. Elder, which documents the years 1968 to 1990, from Woo’s early career in working on comedies and kung fu films (in which he gave Jackie Chan one of his first major film roles), to his gunpowder morality plays in Hong Kong. In 2008, Woo returned to Asian cinema with the completion of the epic war film Red Cliff, based on an historical battle from Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Produced on a grand scale, it is his first film in China since he emigrated from Hong Kong to the United States in 1993. Part 1 of the film was released throughout Asia in July, 2008, to skeptical and less than enthusiastic reviews and strong attendance. Part 2 was released in China in January, 2009. United States career history An emigre in 1993, the director experienced difficulty in cultural adjustment while contracted with Universal Studios to direct Jean-Claude Van Damme in Hard Target. Characteristic of other foreign national film directors confronted with the Hollywood environment, Mr. Woo was unaccustomed to pervasive management concerns, such as limitations on violence and completion schedules. When initial cuts failed to yield an "R" rated film, the studio assumed control of the project and edited footage to produce a cut "suitable for American audiences". A "rough cut" of the film, supposedly the original unrated version, is still circulated among his admirers. A three year hiatus saw Mr. Woo next direct John Travolta and Christian Slater in Broken Arrow. A frenetic chase-themed film, the director once again found himself hampered by studio management and editorial concerns. Despite a larger budget than his previous Hard Target, the final feature lacked the trademark Woo style. Public reception saw modest financial success. Reluctant to pursue projects which would necessarily entail front-office controls, the director cautiously rejected the script for Face/Off several times until it was rewritten to suit him. (The futuristic setting was changed to a contemporary one.) Paramount Pictures also offered the director significantly more freedom to exercise his specialty: emotional characterization and elaborate action. A complex story of adversaries—each of whom surgically alters their identity—law enforcement agent John Travolta and terrorist Nicolas Cage play a cat-and-mouse game, trapped in each other's outward appearance. Face/Off opened in 1997 to critical acclaim and strong attendance. Grosses in the United States exceeded $100 million. As a result, John Woo is generally regarded as the first Asian director to find a mainstream commercial base. In 2003, Mr. Woo directed a television pilot entitled The Robinsons: Lost In Space for The WB Television Network, based on the 1960s television series Lost In Space. The pilot was not purchased, although bootleg copies have been made available by fans. John Woo has made three additional films in Hollywood: Mission: Impossible II, Windtalkers and Paycheck. Mission: Impossible II was the highest-grossing film of 2000. Windtalkers and Paycheck fared poorly at the box office and were summarily dismissed by critics. The financial showing of Windtalkers and Paycheck portend an uncertain future for the director in American popular cinema. Recently, John Woo directed and produced a videogame called Stranglehold for games consoles and PC. It is a sequel to his 1992 film, Hard Boiled. He also produced the 2007 anime movie, Appleseed: Ex Machina, the sequel to Shinji Aramaki's 2004 film Appleseed. Future film projects His future film on Mighty Mouse will either be animated or live-action with CGI. He will also direct a remake of Papillon. There are persistent rumors that Woo will direct a film version of the videogame Metroid. He had optioned the rights at one point, but the option has long since expired. Woo's next projects are The Divide, a western concerning the friendship between two workers, one Chinese, the other Irish, on the transcontinental railroad, while The Devil's Soldier is a biopic on Frederick Townsend Ward, an American brought to China in the mid 19th century by the Emperor to suppress rebellion. Rendezvous in Black will be an adaption of the drama/thriller novel of the same name, and Psi-Ops is a sci-fi thriller about a telepathic agent, a remake of Blind Spot. In 2009 he will direct Ninja Gold, collaborating with video-game creator Warren Spector. He is also involved in numerous projects in a producing capacity. In May 2008, Woo announced that his next movie will be 1949, an epic love story based on true events and that spans the end of World War II and Chinese Civil War to the founding of the People's Republic of China. The announcement was made at Cannes Film Festival where Woo was in to promote Red Cliff. The shooting of 1949 will take place in China and Taiwan, with production set to begin by the end of 2008, theatrical release planned in December 2009. The film is to star South Korean actress Song Hye-kyo and Taiwanese actor Chang Chen, and was written by the scriptwriter of Ang Lee's Lust, Caution, Hui-Ling Wang. Quotes By Woo Woo discovered then–television actor Chow Yun-Fat to star in A Better Tomorrow, not anticipating the level of stardom the actor would achieve. Woo said of Yun-Fat in a 1999 interview with Robert K. Elder, "This guy was so elegant and also had great charisma. He reminded me of Alain Delon, and Steve McQueen, Ken Takakura—all my great idols, all in him. And I thought, while we are shooting, I just felt, 'He’s a great actor; he will be popular.' But I didn’t know he’d be that popular, you know?" Woo was quoted in the June 2000 edition of Premiere magazine: "I love doves. I am a Christian. Doves represent the purity of love, beauty. They're spiritual. Also the dove is a messenger between people and God... When I shot The Killer, these two men, the killer and the cop, they work in different ways, but their souls are pure, because they do the right thing. In the church scene, I wanted to bring them together. I wanted to use a metaphor of the heart. I came up with doves—they're white. When the men die, I cut to the dove flying—it's the soul, rescued and safe and also pure of heart. So the dove became one of my habits: I used it in Hard Boiled, Face/Off, and in Mission: Impossible II". Woo likes the look of the Beretta 92F/FS pistol and had featured it in many of his movies. He stated in an interview that it "is a great character" and added that "it's so strong and elegant." He also mentioned that other pistols looked dumb to him. By others In reply to a studio executive who said "I suppose Woo can direct action scenes," Quentin Tarantino has been quoted as saying "Sure, and I suppose Michelangelo can paint ceilings!" When Jean-Claude Van Damme was trying to get Woo for Hard Target, he described him as "the Martin Scorsese of Asia". References in other media In the anime series, R.O.D the TV which features three girls named after real life Hong Kong action stars, "John Woo" is the name of a mysterious carrier pigeon. In another anime series, FLCL, two characters can be seen watching the climactic end sequence of an action movie. Although the screen in not visible, it can be surmised that it is indeed a John Woo film, as one of the film's characters exclaims, "What are all these pigeons doing in here?" and a multitude of flapping wings heard. The screen was then broken, and a flock of white doves flew out of the TV set. Also the episode uses gun fu and frequent slow motion, as common in John Woo films. Also in the preview of the above mentioned episode (a preview of the next episode is always shown at the end of the previous, as with most anime series), the character Haruko mentions humorous things to keep in mind when seeing a John Woo film. Japanese professional wrestler SUWA, of the promotions Dragon's Gate and Pro Wrestling Noah, utilizes a seated dropkick that frequently sends its victim flying back-first into the corner. As a fan of Hong Kong action cinema, he calls this move the "John Woo", as a homage to the impact of shotgun blasts on the human body in Woo's films. In the video game Max Payne there are many homages and references to John Woo. For example, the black suit and tie Max is seen wearing at the beginning, as well as the dual guns and jumping and shooting in slow motion. One of the game's difficulty levels is named Hard Boiled, and John Woo's name is mentioned as a password for entering into a gangster hideout, Also a quote by the main character when he is ambushed is "I made like Chow Yun Fat". In the PC game F.E.A.R., the developers admitted that they been inspired by John Woo action movies, in that they wanted the game's action sequences to play out as dramatic and elegant gunfights. On The Simpsons episode "Half-Decent Proposal", Homer sternly tells Artie Ziff his terms for "selling" the billionaire a weekend with Marge: "No hand holding, kissing, or misdirected Woo...which is pretty much any John Woo movie." Ironically, this statement came in February 2002 when Woo had run off several successful Hollywood films, but in the following years Woo's American films were disappointments. On the television drama ER, Jeanie Boulet bonds with Dr. Ansapugh's sick son by asking him if he liked John Woo movies. The son asked her if she meant his Hong Kong or American entries, and they began talking. The Christian rock band Newsboys has a song "John Woo" which makes reference to the religious symbolism he often employs in his films. "I've got more action than my man John Woo" is a lyric from the Beastie Boys song "Sure Shot" from Ill Communication. In one of the versions of the PC game "Unreal Tournament", when a character is killed by another wielding dual pistols, the deceased character is listed by the kill readout as having been "John Woo'd" by the victor. Typing the cheat code "JOHNWOO" in the PC game Rise of the Triad gives the player dual pistols. Picking up a second submachine gun in the PC game Shadow Warrior causes the player's avatar Lo Wang to quip "Be proud, Mr. Woo!" Comedian Daniel Tosh references John Woo in a joke on both his CD True Stories I Made Up and his DVD Completely Serious. ("I want to be rich enough to release a dozen doves every time I walked into a room. Everyone would be like 'Did you see that guy come out of the bathroom? The one with doves!' 'I bet that's John Woo's kid.'") In the animated TV series American Dad episode "Homeland Insecurity", Stan describes what an argument with Francine is like and says "...and we have our little John Woo stand off..." Mathcore band Botch has a song, "John Woo". On an episode of the USA Network television show Psych entitled "The Greatest Adventure in the History of Basic Cable", Shawn Spencer comments in the middle of a Mexican standoff, "If there were doves flying around, this would be a John Woo movie." In the comic-book series Kick-Ass the vigilante superhero Big-Daddy quizzes his sidekick/daughter Hit-Girl on military and gun related trivia while she kills criminals. One of his questions is "What was John Woo's first English language film?" In the season 2 episode of How I Met Your Mother, Moving Day, Ted asks Robin if she owns any movies "not directed by John Woo." Filmography Directed YearFilm1973Fist to Fist1974The Young DragonsThe Dragon Tamers1975Hand of DeathPrincess Chang Ping1977From Riches to RagsMoney Crazy1978Hello, Late HomecomersFollow the Star1979Last Hurrah for Chivalry1980From Riches to Rags1981To Hell with the DevilLaughing Times1982Plain Jane to the Rescue1984When You Need a Friend1985Run, Tiger, Run1986Heroes Shed No TearsA Better Tomorrow1987A Better Tomorrow II1989Just HeroesThe Killer1990Bullet in the Head1991Once a Thief1992Hard Boiled1993Hard Target1996Broken ArrowOnce a Thief1997Face/Off1998Blackjack2000Mission: Impossible II2001Windtalkers2003Paycheck2005All the Invisible Children2008Red Cliff200919492010Rainbow Six Other works "Hostage" (short BMW film) (2002) Stranglehold (video game) (2007) 7 Brothers (graphic novel) (2006–2007) Appleseed: Ex Machina (2007) TVB "Power Up HK" Promotion Clip (2009) Two Nike commercials, "futebol airport" and "good vs evil". See also Cinema of China Cinema of Hong Kong References Further reading In English Bliss, Michael. Between the Bullets: The Spiritual Cinema of John Woo. Filmmakers series, no. 92. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002. ISBN 081084110X. Brown, Andrew M. J. Directing Hong Kong: The Political Cinema of John Woo and Wong Kar-Wai. Political Communications in Greater China: the Construction and Reflection of Identity. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2001. ISBN 070071734X. Fang, Karen Y. John Woo's A Better Tomorrow. The New Hong Kong Cinema. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004. ISBN 9622096522. Hall, Kenneth E. John Woo: The Films. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1999. ISBN 0786406194. Heard, Christopher. Ten Thousand Bullets: The Cinematic Journey of John Woo. Los Angeles: Lone Eagle Publishing Co., 2000. ISBN 158065021X. Woo, John, and Robert K. Elder (ed.). John Woo: Interviews. Conversations with filmmakers series. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 2005. ISBN 1578067758, ISBN 1578067766. In other languages Berruezo, Pedro J. John Woo y el cine de acción de Hong Kong. Biblioteca Dr. Vértigo, 23. [Barcelona]: Ediciones Glénat, 2000. ISBN 8484490432. Bertolino, Marco, and Ettore Ridola. John Woo: la violenza come redenzione. Recco, Genova: Le mani, 1998. ISBN 8880120980. Gaschler, Thomas, and Ralph Umard. Woo Leben und Werk. München: Belleville, 2005. ISBN 3933510481. Nazzaro, Giona A., and Andrea Tagliacozzo. John Woo: la nuova leggenda del cinema d'azione. Contatti, 199. Roma: Castelvecchi, 2000. ISBN 8882102033. Spanu, Massimiliano. John Woo. Il castoro cinema, 203. Milano: Castoro, 2001. ISBN 8880331922. Vié-Toussaint, Caroline. John Woo. Paris: Dark star, 2001. ISBN 2914680015. External links John Woo at HKcinema.net Hardboiled.de (via Internet Archive) A John Woo Retrospective John Woo - The Independents John Woo Interviews Ten HARD BOILED Moments - The Best of John Woo Allegory and symbolism in John Woo's cinematic arts : themes and aesthetics

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Blackbeard

Edward Teach or Edward Thatch (c. 1680 – November 22, 1718), better known as Blackbeard, was a notorious English pirate in the Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic during the early 18th century, a period referred to as the Golden Age of Piracy. His best known vessel was the Queen Anne's Revenge, which is believed to have run aground near Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina in 1718. Queen Anne's Revenge Online Blackbeard often fought, or simply showed himself, wearing a big feathered tricorn, and having multiple swords, knives, and pistols at his disposal. It was reported in A General Historie of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates that he had hemp and lit matches woven into his enormous black beard during battle to intimidate his enemies. Blackbeard is often regarded as the archetypal image of the seafaring pirate. Early life Little is known about Blackbeard's early life. He was most likely born in around 1680 in the British port town of Bristol. It has been suggested that his father was also a sailor aboard privateers in the waters off Port Royal in Jamaica, during the War of the Grand Alliance from 1688 to 1697. His birth name is usually given as either Edward Teach or Thatch, though other sources have suggested Edward Drummond. His first biographer, Captain Charles Johnson, claimed Blackbeard went to sea at an early age and served on a British ship in the War of the Spanish Succession, privateering in the Spanish West Indies and along the Spanish Main. After Britain withdrew from the War in 1713, Teach, like many other privateers, turned to piracy. His first experiences in piracy were as a crew member for Benjamin Hornigold, who was based in Jamaica. When Hornigold decided to retire from piracy after King George I offered the two pardons, Blackbeard refused to follow suit. Instead he took command of one of Hornigold's recent prizes, the French slave ship La Concorde, renaming her the Queen Anne's Revenge and arming her with 40 guns. Ross, I. "Blackbeard" United States Naval Institute Proceedings, October 1974 pp. 72-74 The Queen Anne's Revenge would remain Blackbeard's flagship for the bulk of his career as a pirate, from 1717 to 1718. Blackbeard the Pirate Blackbeard (18th century lithograph) According to Charles Johnson, Blackbeard fought a running duel with the British thirty-gun man-of-war HMS Scarborough, which added to his notoriety. However, neither the Scarboroughs log nor the official letters of its captain have any mention of such an encounter; historian Colin Woodard provides evidence suggesting Johnson confused and conflated two actual events: the Scarborough's battle against John Martel's band and Blackbeard's close encounter with another warship, HMS Seaford. Blackbeard would plunder merchant ships, forcing them to allow his crew to board their ship. The pirates would seize all of the valuables, food, liquor, and weapons. Despite his ferocious reputation, there are no verified accounts of him actually killing anyone. "For Blackbeard, at least, this investment paid off. According to historian Angus Konstam who has investigated Blackbeard's life and piratical career extensively, until Blackbeard's final battle with the lieutenant of HMS Pearl, Robert Maynard, who took the bearded icon's life, the world's most notorious and fearsome pirate had not so much as killed a single man (2006: 157). Apparently he didn't need to." p. 21, "Pirational Choice: The Economics of Infamous Pirate Practices", Peter T. Leeson He deliberately cultivated his barbaric reputation, and so could prevail by terror alone. "Rather than the result of flamboyance, madness, or eccentricity, pirates like Blackbeard deliberately constructed their bizarre and frightful physical appearances to facilitate piratical plunder. "There is no doubt that Blackbeard," for instance, "was conscious of the public image he had created" and worked diligently to maintain it (Lee 1974: 22)." Leeson 2008. However, colorful legends and vivid contemporary newspaper portrayals had him committing acts of cruelty and terror. One tale claims he shot his own first mate, saying "if he didn’t shoot one or two crewmen now and then, they’d forget who he was." Another legend is that having had too much to drink, he said to his crew, "Come, let us make a hell of our own, and try how long we can bear it." Going into the ship's hold, they closed the hatches, filled several pots with brimstone and set it on fire. Soon the men were coughing and gasping for air from the sulphurous fumes. All except Blackbeard scrambled out for fresh air. When Blackbeard emerged, he snarled, "Damn ye, ye yellow-bellied sapsuckers! I'm a better man than all ye milksops put together!" Pendrand, Norman C. (1975) Blackbeard: The Fiercest Pirate of All. According to Captain Charles Johnson's A General History of the Robberies & Murders of the Most Notorious Pirates: The story of Blackbeard's treatment of his fourteenth wife, or even whether she was his fourteenth wife, has been called into question by some. Thatch was away at sea for most of his adult life, leaving little time for continual marriages, and no records exist for his other thirteen wives. Many primary documents also attest to Blackbeard's merciful tendencies when it came to bystanders, which casts doubt onto the allegations that he'd subjected his teenage wife to gang rape. The Republic of Pirates: Being the True and Surprising Story of the Caribbean Pirates and the Man Who Brought Them Down by Colin Woodard, 2007. Blockade of Charleston Blackbeard's chief claim to fame is his blockade of Charleston, South Carolina. In approximately late May 1718, Blackbeard entered the mouth of Charleston harbour with the Queen Anne's Revenge and three lighter vessels. He plundered five merchant freighters attempting to enter or leave the port. No other vessels could transit the harbour for fear of encountering the pirate squadron. Aboard one of the ships that Blackbeard captured in the harbor mouth was a group of prominent Charleston citizens, including Samuel Wragg. Blackbeard held these hostages for ransom, making an unusual demand: a chest of medicines. He sent a deputation ashore to negotiate this ransom. Due partly to his envoys' preference for carousing rather than bargaining, the ransom took some days to be delivered, and Blackbeard evidently came close to murdering his prisoners. Eventually, the medicines were turned over, and Blackbeard released the hostages, without their clothing, but otherwise unharmed. Blackbeard's whole squadron then escaped northward. Shortly afterward, Blackbeard ran two of his vessels aground at Topsail Inlet (now Beaufort Inlet), including the Queen Anne's Revenge, and the ship Adventure when trying to 'save' the grounded ship. He has been accused by many, including his own crew, of doing this deliberately in order to downsize his crew and increase his own share of the treasure. Deliberate or not, he stripped three of the ships of all treasure, beached or marooned most of his crew, and went to Bath, North Carolina, where he finally accepted a pardon under the Royal Act of Grace. He then went off to Ocracoke Inlet in the last of his four vessels to enjoy his stolen loot. Death Blackbeard and Lieutenant Maynard Having accepted a pardon, Teach had apparently retired from piracy. Nevertheless, Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia became concerned that the notorious freebooter lived nearby. Spotswood decided to eliminate Blackbeard, even though he lived outside of Spotswood's jurisdiction. Blackbeard operated in many coastal waters; it was difficult for larger vessels to engage him in battle. Two smaller hired sloops were therefore put under the command of Lieutenant Robert Maynard, with instructions from Spotswood to hunt down and destroy Blackbeard, offering a reward of £100, and smaller sums for the lesser crew members. Maynard sailed from James River on November 11, 1718, in command of thirty men from HMS Pearl, and twenty-five men and a midshipman of HMS Lyme, and in command of the hired sloops, the Ranger and Jane (temporarily commissioned as His Majesty's Ships to avoid accusations of piracy themselves). Maynard found the pirates anchored in a North Carolina inlet on the inner side of Ocracoke Island, on the evening of November 21. Maynard and his men decided to wait until the following morning because the tide would be more favourable. Blackbeard's Adventure had a crew of only nineteen, "Thirteen white and six Negroes", as reported to the Admiralty. A small boat was sent ahead at daybreak, was fired upon, and quickly retreated. Blackbeard's superior knowledge of the inlet was of much help, although he and his crew had been drinking in his cabin the night prior. Throughout the night Blackbeard waited for Maynard to make his move. Blackbeard cut his anchor cable and quickly attempted to move towards a narrow channel. Maynard made chase; however his sloops ran aground, and there was a shouted exchange between captains. Maynard's account says, "At our first salutation, he drank Damnation to me and my Men, whom he stil'd Cowardly Puppies, saying, He would neither give nor take Quarter", although many different versions of the dialogue exist. Eventually, Maynard's sloops were able to float freely again, and he began to row towards Blackbeard, since the wind was not strong enough at the time for setting sail. When they came upon Blackbeard's Adventure, they were hit with a devastating broadside attack. Midshipman Hyde, captain of the smaller Jane, was killed along with six other men. Ten men were also wounded in the surprise attack. The sloop fell astern and was little help in the following action. Maynard continued his pursuit in Ranger, managing to blast the Adventure'''s rigging, forcing it ashore. Maynard ordered many of his crew into the holds and readied to be boarded. As his ship approached, Blackbeard saw the mostly empty decks, assumed it was safe to board, and did so with ten men. Blackbeard's assault was preceded by several grenades made by filling rum bottles with gunpowder. Broken glass swept the deck and gunpowder smoke obscured Maynard's view of Blackbeard's boarders. Ross, I. "Blackbeard" United States Naval Institute Proceedings October 1974 pp. 72-74. Blackbeard's severed head hanging from Maynard's bowsprit Maynard's men emerged, and the battle began. Primary sources disagree about the exact circumstances of Blackbeard's death. The most quoted account of the following events comes from the Boston News-Letter. (Other, more direct, accounts included the letters of Maynard himself and those of his commanding officers.) Despite the best efforts of the pirates (including a desperate plan to blow up the Adventure), Teach was killed, and the battle ended. Teach was reportedly shot five times and stabbed more than twenty times before he died and was decapitated. Legends about his death immediately sprang up, including the oft-repeated claim that Teach's headless body, after being thrown overboard, swam between 2 and 7 times around the Adventure before sinking. Teach's head was placed as a trophy on the bowsprit of the ship (it was also required by Maynard to claim his prize when he returned home). After the sheer terror of the battle with the pirates, and the wounds that the crew received, Maynard still only acquired his meager prize of £100 from Spotswood. Teach's head was placed on a pike or pole on the north shore of the Hampton River in Virginia, at a place now called Teach's Point, as a warning to other sailors who thought of taking up piracy. Legend History has romanticised Blackbeard. Popular contemporary engravings show him with the smoking ends of his pigtails or with lit cannon fuses in his hair and pistols in his bandoliers, and he has been the subject of books, movies, and documentaries. Hampton, Virginia holds an annual Blackbeard Festival. The crew of the modern day British warship HMS Ranger commemorate his defeat at the annual Sussex University Royal Naval Unit Blackbeard Night mess dinner in November. Another legend in coastal North Carolina holds that Captain Teach's skull was used as the basis for a silver drinking chalice. A North Carolina judge claimed to have drunk from it one night in the 1930s at a closed dinner with a university student. Teach was prone to burying treasure. He would allegedly take a treasure chest ashore with one sailor in a small boat, and return alone. The sailor's corpse was said to lie atop the chest in the excavation to discourage the squeamish from continuing the treasure hunt. In times as difficult as the American Revolution, people commonly dug along the beaches in search of hidden treasure. In 1996 a wreck believed to be Blackbeard's Queen Anne's Revenge was discovered near Beaufort, North Carolina. It is now part of a major tourist attraction. Blackbeard was thought to have fourteen "wives" throughout his life, living on various islands, as well as a wife and son in England. Blackbeard ! - Ladies Man - Coastal North Carolina, South Carolina. Outer Banks. Historical evidence In 1723, the book A General Historie of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates was written by a Captain Charles Johnson, sometimes attributed to Daniel Defoe. This book describes the adventures of various pirates besides Edward Teach: e.g., Anne Bonny and Mary Read. The General Histories descriptions, which have found their way into serious histories, are a mixture of historical evidence and fiction woven together in a way so complex that it is nearly impossible to divide them again. The problem appears especially in the case of Edward Teach's life and appearance. The description of the burning matches in his beard is in a literary style that uses dramatic descriptions to make a person more interesting—a style closely connected to Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe. The earlier mentioned battle with HMS Scarborough lacks evidence in the warship's log. Other incidents, e.g., the blockade of Charleston, South Carolina, appear in other sources. The remains of Edward Salter, suspected to be one of Blackbeard's crew, have been found and is undergoing identification. http://www.wdnweb.com/articles/2009/05/02/news/news01.txt In popular culture "Mic the Scallywag" of the Pirates of Emerson wearing cannon fuse in his hair in honour of Blackbeard. Books and comics Blackbeard appears as a character in Stephen Vincent Benét's drama, The Devil and Daniel Webster (1937). He is part of the Jury of the Damned summoned by the Devil. Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island (1883) contains two references to Blackbeard. 1) Squire Trelawney: "Blackbeard was a child to Flint." 2) In the book, one of Long John Silver's pirates is named Israel Hands, after one of Blackbeard's officers. Edward Teach appears in Neal Stephenson's series: The Baroque Cycle, commanding a fleet of pirate vessels. A large portion of the opening book Quicksilver involves Blackbeard pursuing Daniel Waterhouse, the protagonist, along the coast of New England (2004) In Marvel Comics, Doctor Doom sends the Fantastic Four back in time to find Blackbeard's treasure, but events unfold in such a way that the Thing turns out to be Blackbeard. Blackbeard appears in the 1967 episode of the Spiderman cartoon series "The Night of the Villains" as a dummy created by Parafino. In DC Comics, the immortal Vandal Savage took the alias Edward Teach and earned the nickname 'Blackbeard'. He later faked his own death. A character named Blackbeard (Marshall D. Teach instead of Edward Teach) is one of the most powerful pirates in the world of One Piece. Another pirate, Whitebeard, is known by the name Edward Newgate, taking the remainder of the real Blackbeard's name. Blackbeard appeared in one of the Time Warp Trio book series titled The Not-So-Jolly Roger. Edward Teach is an important secondary character in Gregory Keyes' series The Age of Unreason. In Robert Louis Stevenson's "The Master of Ballantrae" there is a pirate captain with a black beard called Teach, but he is distinguished from the Teach of this article. According to Peter Pan, Captain Hook was Blackbeard's boatswain. The 1986 DC Comics mini-series "Watchmen" features a fictional pirate-themed comic book called "Tales of the Black Freighter." It features horror stories surrounding a ship from hell, crewed by the damned and captained by Edward Teach. In the 2002 Novel Plum Island by Nelson Demille, the plot revolves around the discovery of Blackbeard's treasure. J. Meade Falkner's novel Moonfleet centres around John Trenchard's discovery of the last resting place of Blackbeard and his hidden treasure. Blackbeard made a slight appearance in Percy Jackson and the Sea of Monsters as a prisoner on Circe's Island, there he is a son of Ares. Blackbeard is the chief antagonist of the main character John Chandagnac and a Vodou sorcerer in Tim Powers' 1988 novel On Stranger Tides. His surname is here assumed to be Thatch. Films and miniseries Blackbeard appears in the movie Anne of the Indies (1951) Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) Peter Ustinov played the title role in the 1968 film comedy Blackbeard's Ghost. Blackbeard's Ghost (1968) Yellowbeard (1983), the title character played by Graham Chapman was based on Blackbeard. Blackbeard (2006), a Hallmark Channel television mini-series starring Angus MacFadyen (from Braveheart) as the pirate. TV In 2006, the BBC produced a two part docu-drama "Blackbeard: The Real Pirate of the Caribbean" starring James Purefoy as Blackbeard. Documentaries Blackbeard was one of the many famous pirates reviewed in the History Channel program "True Caribbean Pirates", along with Henry Morgan, Mary Read, Anne Bonny, and Black Bart Roberts. A 2-hour special on National Geographic called "Blackbeard: Terror at Sea", in which a narrative is given about Teach's adventures. A shipwreck that experts claim belonged to Blackbeard is currently being excavated off the North Carolina coast. http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/03/03/blackbeard.ap/index.html This excavation was the subject of an episode of the PBS series Secrets of the Dead. Computer and video games Blackbeard was the name of a 1988 Sinclair Spectrum computer game released by Topo Soft in Spain, and which was re-released by Kixx in the United Kingdom. In the game Sid Meier's Pirates!, Blackbeard plays a minor role as a rival pirate (at the start of the game, Blackbeard is the 2nd most notorious pirate in the Caribbean). (1987 and 2004) In the computer role-playing game, Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura, Edward Teach is the name of a famous pirate who transports the character to certain locations in the game world. In the adventure game Red Jack: The Revenge of the Brethren, Blackbeard is portrayed as one of the brethren under Red Jack's command. In the computer game Port Royale I&II (by Ascaron Entertainment), he appears as a marauding pirate that loots merchant fleets and Spanish treasure fleets. In the MMORPG Earth & Beyond, there is a star system only accessible by Pirates called 'Blackbeard's Wake'. The space station in the system is the 'Queen Anne's Revenge'. In the MMORPG game Voyage Century Online, Blackbeard is one of the Pirate bosses which you can fight. Other Blackbeard was the featured centerpiece of the famous Disney Park attraction Pirates of the Caribbean from 1967 to mid-2006, when he was replaced by Captain Hector Barbossa from the Pirates movie franchise. Blackbeard's flag was also one of several taken from real-life accounts and used in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End. William McGonagall wrote a poem about Blackbeard called 'Captain Teach alias "Black Beard"'. Joe Nuccio wrote a song about Blackbeard's demise entitled 'Edward Teach' on the CD 'Signing Einstein' (released 2001). Blackbeard is the subject of a musical written by Rob Gardner entitled "Blackbeard". See also Blackbeard's Castle References Bibliography Shomette, Donald G. Pirates on the Chesapeake: Being a True History of Pirates, Picaroons, and Raiders on Chesapeake Bay, 1610-1807. Centreville, Maryland: Tidewater Publishers, 1985. Spotswood, Alexander.The Official Letters of Alexander Spotswood, Lieutenant-Governor of the Colony of Virginia, 1710-1722''. Edited by R. A. Brock. New York: AMS Press Inc., 1973. North Carolina Office of Archives and History Notes External links Blackbeard on the Unmuseum North Carolina Office of Archives and History: Special Section on BlackBeard Mike Daniel the one who found Queen Anne's Revenge Queen Anne's Revenge Archaeological Site Detailed biography with links to discussion of new archival research on his life BBC Video about the potential finding of BlackBeards's ship National Geographic Magazine Article on Blackbeard Article on pirates and privateering in Bristol, and downloadable mp3 audio tour. "Vanished As She Sang", a fictional account of Blackbeard's visit to New Hampshire's Isles of Shoals. Information on Blackbeard, includes other information on Mary Read and Stede Bonnet

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Yangtze

The Yangtze River, or Chang Jiang (), Tibetan: 'Bri-chu, is the longest river in China and Asia, and the third-longest in the world, after the Amazon in South America and the Nile in Africa. The river is about 6,385 km long (3915 mi) and flows from its source in Qinghai Province, eastwards into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is considered by some as a dividing line between North and South China, although geographers generally consider the Qinling-Huai River line to be the official line of geographical division. As the largest river in the region, the Yangtze is historically, culturally, and economically important to China. One of the dams on the river, the Three Gorges Dam, is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world. The section of the river flowing through deep gorges in Yunnan province is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas: a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The name Yangtze River, as well as various similar names such as Yangtse River, Yangzi River, Yangtze Kiang, etc., is derived from Yangzi Jiang () , which, beginning in the Sui Dynasty, was the Chinese name for the river in its lower reaches, specifically, the stretch between Yangzhou (扬州) and Zhenjiang (镇江). The name comes from the ancient ferry crossing Yangzi Jin (扬子津, meaning "Yangzi Crossing"). From the Ming Dynasty, the name was sometimes written 洋子 (yángzĭ). Because it was the name first heard by missionaries and traders, this name was applied in English to the whole river. In Chinese, Yangzi Jiang is considered a historical or poetic name for the river. The modern Chinese name, Chang Jiang (长江/長江 Cháng Jiāng), literally means "long 'Jiang'" (Derived from Proto-Mon-Khmer languages, Jiang is the classical Chinese of Yangtze, but now it means river) and may sometimes also be used in English. It is also known to many as the 'Main Street' of China. Like many rivers, the river is known by different names over its course. At its source, it is called in Chinese the Dangqu (当曲, from the Tibetan for "marsh river"). Downstream, it is called the Tuotuo River (沱沱河) and then the Tongtian River (通天河, literally "river passing through heaven"). Where it runs through deep gorges parallel to the Mekong and the Salween before emerging onto the plains of Sichuan, it is known as the Jinsha River (金沙江 Jīnshā Jiāng, literally "golden sands river"). The first turn of the Yangtze at Shigu (石鼓), Yunnan Province, where the river turns 180 degrees from south- to north-bound. |Yangtze watershed The Yangtze was earlier known to the Chinese as simply Jiang (江 Jiāng), which has become a generic name meaning "river", or the Da Jiang (大江 Dà Jiāng, literally "great river"). The Tibetan name for the river is Drichu (, lit. "river of the female yak"). The Yangtze is sometimes referred to as the Golden Waterway. Geography The river originates in a glacier lying on the west of Geladandong Mountain in the Dangla Mountain Range on the eastern part of the Tibetan plateau. It runs eastward through Qinghai, turning southward down a deep valley at the border of Sichuan and Tibet to reach Yunnan. In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above 5000 m to less than 1000 m. The headwaters of the Yangtze are situated at an elevation of about . In its descent to sea level, the river falls to an altitude of at Yibin, Sichuan Province, the head of navigation for riverboats, and to at Chongqing. Between Chongqing and Yichang (I-ch'ang), at an altitude of and a distance of about , it passes through the spectacular Yangtze Gorges, which are noted for their natural beauty but are dangerous to shipping. It enters the basin of Sichuan at Yibin. While in the Sichuan basin, it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. It then cuts through Mount Wushan bordering Chongqing and Hubei to create the famous Three Gorges. Eastward of the Three Gorges, Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain. After entering Hubei, the Yangtze receives more water from thousands of lakes. The largest of these lakes is Dongting Lake, which is located on the border of Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At Wuhan, it receives its biggest tributary, the Han River, bringing water from its northern basin as far as Shaanxi. At the northern tip of Jiangxi, Lake Poyang, the biggest freshwater lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through Anhui and Jiangsu provinces, receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at Shanghai. Four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to Hukou, where Lake Poyang meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai. It is home to many thousands of people. Characteristics Tombs on a hill facing the Yangtze as it flows by Southbound ferry near Nantong The Yangtze flows into the East China Sea and was navigable by ocean-going vessels up to a thousand miles from its mouth even before the Three Gorges Dam was built. As of June 2003, this dam spans the river, flooding Fengjie, the first of a number of towns affected by the massive flood control and power generation project. This is the largest comprehensive irrigation project in the world and has a significant impact on China's agriculture. Its proponents argue that it will free people living along the river from floods that have repeatedly threatened them in the past and will offer them electricity and water transport—though at the expense of permanently flooding many existing towns (including numerous ancient cultural relics) and causing large-scale changes in the local ecology. Opponents of the dam point out that there are three different kinds of floods on the Yangtze River: floods which originate in the upper reaches, floods which originate in the lower reaches, and floods along the entire length of the river. They argue that the Three Gorges dam will actually make flooding in the upper reaches worse and have little or no impact on floods which originate in the lower reaches. Twelve hundred years of low water marks on the river were recorded in the inscriptions and the carvings of carp at Baiheliang, now submerged. The Yangtze is flanked with metallurgical, power, chemical, auto, building materials and machinery industrial belts and high-tech development zones. It is playing an increasingly crucial role in the river valley's economic growth and has become a vital link for international shipping to the inland provinces. The river is a major transportation artery for China, connecting the interior with the coast. The river is one of the world's busiest waterways. Traffic includes commercial traffic transporting bulk goods such as coal as well as manufactured goods and passengers. Cargo transportation reached 795 million tons in 2005. Xinhua - English Xinhua - English River cruises several days long, especially through the beautiful and scenic Three Gorges area, are becoming popular as the tourism industry grows in China. Flooding along the river has been a major problem. The rainy season in China is May and June in areas south of Yangtze River, and July and August in areas north of it. The huge river system receives water from both southern and northern flanks, which causes its flood season to extend from May to August. Meanwhile, the relatively dense population and rich cities along the river make the floods more deadly and costly. The most recent major floods were the 1998 Yangtze River floods, but more disastrous were the 1954 Yangtze River floods, killing around 30,000 people. Other severe floods included those of 1911, which killed around 100,000, 1931 (145,000 dead), and 1935 (142,000 dead). The Yangtze is very polluted, especially in Hubei (Shashi District). History Afternoon light on the jagged grey mountains rising from the Yangtze River gorge The Yangtze Harbor is important to the cultural origins of southern China. Human activity was found in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27 thousand years ago, initiating debate over the origin of the Chinese people. Early Homo and associated artefacts from Asia In the Spring and Autumn Period, Ba and Shu were located along the western part of the river, covering modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and western Hubei; Chu was located along the central part of river, corresponding to Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, and southern Anhui. Wu and Yue were located along the eastern part of the river, now Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. Although the Yellow River region was richer and more developed at that time, the milder climate and more peaceful environment made the Yangtze River area more suitable for agriculture. From the Han Dynasty, the region of the Yangtze River became more and more important in China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu, the northern part of Zhejiang, and the southeastern part of Anhui) provided 1/3-1/2 of the nation's revenues. A modern junk in Hong Kong Historically, the Yangtze became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period. Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and smaller countries in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing, though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911-1912, 1927-1937, and 1945-1949. The arrival of steamships The first merchant steamer in China, the Jardine, was built to order for the Firm in 1835. She was a small vessel intended for use as a mail and passenger carrier between Lintin Island, Macao, and Whampoa. However, after several trips, the Chinese authorities, for reasons best known to themselves, prohibited her entrance into the river. Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary who personified gunboat diplomacy, decided mainly on the "suggestions" of Jardine to wage war on China. In mid-1840, a large fleet of warships appeared on the China coast, and with the first cannon fire aimed at a British ship, the Royal Saxon, the British started the first of the Opium Wars. British warships destroyed numerous shore batteries and enemy warships, laid waste to several coastal forts, indiscriminately bombarding town after town with heavy cannon fire, even pushing up north to threaten the Imperial Palace in Beijing itself. The Imperial Government, forced to surrender, gave in to the demands of the British. British military superiority was clearly evident during the armed conflict. British warships, constructed using such innovations as steam power combined with sail and the use of iron in shipbuilding, wreaked havoc on coastal towns; such ships (like the Nemesis) were not only virtually indestructible but also highly mobile and able to support a gun platform with very heavy guns. In addition, the British troops were armed with modern muskets and cannons, unlike the Qing forces. After the British took Canton, they sailed up the Yangtze and took the tax barges, a devastating blow to the Empire as it slashed the revenue of the imperial court in Beijing to just a small fraction of what it had been. In 1842, the Qing authorities sued for peace, which concluded with the Treaty of Nanjing signed on a gunboat in the river, negotiated in August of that year and ratified in 1843. In the treaty, China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain, open five ports to Britain, and cede Hong Kong to Queen Victoria. In the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, the Qing empire also recognized Britain as an equal to China and gave British subjects extraterritorial privileges in treaty ports. The US, at the same time, wanting to protect its interests and expand trade, ventured the USS Wachusett six-hundred miles up the river to Hankow in about 1860, while the USS Ashuelot, a sidewheeler, made her way up the river to Ichang in 1874. The first USS Monocacy a sidewheel gunboat began charting the Yangtze River in 1871. The first USS Palos an armed tug was on Asiatic Station into 1891, cruising the Chinese and Japanese coasts, visiting the open treaty ports and making occasional voyages up the Yangtze River. From June to September 1891, anti-foreign riots up the Yangtze forced the warship to make an extended voyage as far as Hankow, 600 miles upriver. Stopping at each open treaty port, the gunboat cooperated with naval vessels of other nations and repairing damage. She then operated along the north and central China coast and on the lower Yangtze until June 1892. The cessation of bloodshed with the Taiping Rebellion, Europeans put more steamers on the river. The French, not to sit idle and get rice crumbs, engaged the Chinese in war over the rule of Vietnam. The Sino-French Wars of the 1880s emerged with the Battle of Shipu having French cruisers in the lower Yangtze. USS Luzon China Navigation Company was an early shipping company founded in 1876 in London, initially to trade up the Yangtze River from their Shanghai base with passengers and cargo. Chinese coastal trade started shortly after and in 1883 a regular service to Australia was initiated. Most of the company's ships were seized by Japan in 1941 and services did not resume until 1946. Robert Dollar was a later shipping magnate, who became enormously influential moving Californian and Canadian lumber to the Chinese and Japanese market. Yichang or Ichang, from the sea, is the head of navigation for river steamers; oceangoing vessels may navigate the river to Hankow, a distance of almost 1000 km (almost 600 mi) from the sea. For about inland from its mouth, the river is virtually at sea level. The Chinese Government, too, had steamers. It had its own naval fleet, the Nanyang Fleet, which fell prey to the French fleet. The Chinese would rebuild its fleet, only to be ravaged by another war with Japan (1895) , Revolution (1911) and ongoing inefficiency and corruption. Chinese companies ran their own steamers, but were second tier to European operations at the time. Steamers came late to the upper river. The three gorges and the strong current hindered plans. Achibald Little attempted a voyage with the Lee-Chuan, and the Kuling, delays and weak engines meant that he only succeeded in the first vessel in 1898. Little soon built the first truly successful boat, the Pioneer, about 1899—she plied the river for two more decades and was even the flagship for the Royal Navy on the China Station. There were a few commercial steamers on the upper river by the turn of the century and the Boxer Rebellion. The Commercial firms of Jardine Matheson, Butterfield and Swire, and Standard Oil had their own steamers on the river. Until 1881, the India and China coastal and river services were operated by several companies. In that year, however, these were merged into the Indo-China Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., a public company under the management of Jardines. The Jardine company pushed inland up the Yangtsze River on which a specially designed fleet was built to meet all requirements of the river trade. For many years, this fleet gave unequalled service. Jardines established an enviable reputation for the efficient handling of shipping. As a result, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company invited the firm to attend to the Agency of their Shire Line which operated in the Far East. Standard Oil ran the tankers Mei Ping, Mei An, and Mei Hsia. With the Treaty Ports, the European powers and Japan were allowed to float navy ships into China's internal waters. The British, US and French did this. A full international fleet featured on Chinese waters: Austro-Hungarians, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, and German navy ships came to Shanghaii and the treaty ports. The Japanese engaged in open war with the Chinese twice, and Russians twice, over conquest of the Chinese Qing empire-- in the First and Second Sino-Japanese War 1895, and 1905;and the Russo-Japanese war of 1904. Incidently, both the French and Japanese navies were heavily involved in running opium and narcotics to Shanghai, where it was refined into morphine. It was then transhipped by liner back to Marseille and France (ie. French Connection) for processing in Germany and eventual sale in the US or Europe. JN Izumo in Shanghai, 1937; she sank riverboats in 1941 In 1909 the gunboat USS Samar changed station to Shanghai, where she regularly patrolled the lower Yangtze River up to Nanking and Wuhu. Following an anti-foreign riots in Changsha in April 1910, which destroyed a number of missions and merchant warehouses, Samar sailed up the Yangtze River to Hankow and then Changsa to show the flag and help restore order. The gunboat was also administratively assigned to the Asiatic Fleet that year, which had been reestablished by the Navy to better protect, in the words of the Bureau of Navigation, "American interests in the Orient." After returning to Shanghai in August, she sailed up river again the following summer, passing Wuhu in June but then running aground off Kichau on 1 July 1911. After staying stuck in the mud for two weeks, Samar broke free and sailed back down river to coal ship. Returning upriver, the gunboat reached Hankow in August and Ichang in September where she wintered over owing to both the dry season and the outbreak of rebellion at Wuchang in October 1911. Tensions eased and the gunboat turned downriver in July 1912, arriving at Shanghai in October. Samar patrolled the lower Yangtze after fighting broke out in the summer 1913, a precursor to a decade of conflict between provincial warlords in China. In 1919, she was placed on the disposal list at Shanghai following a collision with a Yangtze river steamer that damaged her bow. The Spanish boats were replaced in the twenties by the Luzon and Mindanao were the largest, Oahu and Panay next in size, and Guam and Tutuila the smallest. China in the first fifty years of the twentieth century, was in low-grade chaos. Warlords, revolutions, natural disasters, civil war and invasions contributed. Yangtze boats were involved in the Nanjing Incident in 1927 when the Communists and Nationalists broke into open war. The Chiang's massacre of the Communists in Shanghai in 1927 furthered the unrest, US Marines with tanks were landed. River steamers were popular targets for both Nationalists and Communists, and peasants who would take periodic pot-shots at vessels. During the course of service the second USS Palos protected American interests in China down the entire length of the Yangtze, at times convoying U.S. and foreign vessels on the river, evacuating American citizens during periods of disturbance and in general giving credible presence to U.S. consulates and residences in various Chinese cities. In the period of great unrest in central China in the 1920s, Palos was especially busy patrolling the upper Yangtze against bands of warlord soldiers and outlaws. The warship engaged in continuous patrol operations between Ichang and Chungking throughout 1923, supplying armed guards to merchant ships, and protecting Americans at Chungking while that city was under siege by a warlord army The British had a series of Insect class gunboat which patrolled between Chungking and Shanghai. Cruisers and destroyers and Fly class vessels also patrolled. The most infamous incident was when USS Panay and HMS Bee in 1937,were dive bombed by Japanese airplanes during the Rape of Nanking. The Europeans were forced to leave the Yangtse River with the Japanese takeover in 1941. The former steamers were either sabotaged or pressed into Japanese or Chinese service. See Also China Station The Sand Pebbles (film) USS Asheville (PG-21) Brown water navy Yangtze Patrol HMS Amethyst (F116) Major cities along the river nhỏ|Map of the location of the Three Gorges Dam A loading point for coal barges on the Yangtze River The First Bridge at Wuhan. This view is downstream, backward the distant Three Gorges and Chongqing Panzhihua Yibin Luzhou Chongqing Yichang Jingzhou Shashi Shishou Yueyang Xianning Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Chaohu Chizhou Jiujiang Anqing Tongling Wuhu Hefei Chuzhou Maanshan Taizhou Yangzhou Zhenjiang Nanjing Jiangyin Nantong Shanghai Fengdu Crossings The main crossings by the province names in the order of downstream to upstream are: Shanghai: Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel (road & metro tunnel, expected 2010) Jiangsu and Shanghai: Chongqi Bridge (road bridge, expected 2010) Jiangsu: Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge (road/rail bridge, opened 1968) Runyang Bridge (road bridge, opened 2005) Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (road bridge, opened 1999) Sutong Bridge (road bridge, opened 2008) Anhui: Anqing Bridge (road bridge, opened 2005) Tongling Bridge (road bridge, opened 1995) Wuhu Yangtze River Bridge (road/rail bridge, opened 2000) Jiangxi: Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge (road/rail bridge, opened 1992) Hubei: Zhicheng Bridge 枝城长江大桥 Zhicheng Bridge over Yangtze River (road/rail bridge, opened 1971) Jingzhou Yangtze River Bridge (road bridge, opened 2002) Wuhan Junshan Yangtze River Bridge (a part of Beijing-Zhuhai Express Way/Wuhan Forth Circle Road, opened 2003) Wuhan Baishazhou Yangtze River Bridge (a part of Wuhan Third Circle Road, opened 2000) Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge (road/rail bridge, a part of Wuhan Inner Circle Road, opened 1957) Wuhan Qingdao Road Yangtze River Tunnel (expected the end of 2008) Second Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge (a part of Wuhan Inner Circle Bridge]] (road/rail bridge,expected 2009) Wuhan Yangluo Yangtze River Bridge (a part of Wuhan Fourth Circle Road, road bridge, opened 2008) Huangshi Yangtze River Bridge (road bridge, opened 1996) Chongqing Chaotianmen Bridge (road bridge, opened in 2009) Sichuan Jiang'an Bridge (road bridge, opened in 2008) Dams By 2007, there are two dams on the Yangtze river: Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam. The third one Xiluodu Dam is under construction. More dams are in planning stage, such as Wudongde, Baihetan, and Xiangjiaba. Tributaries A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries but the principal tributaries are the following ones: Yalong River Min River Jialing River Tuo he(river) Han River Fushui River Protected areas Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Miscellaneous The Yangtze is home to at least two critically endangered species: The Chinese Alligator and the Chinese Paddlefish. (This is the only other place besides the U.S. that is native to an alligator species.) In December 2006, the Baiji (Chinese River Dolphin) was declared functionally extinct after an extensive search of the river revealed no signs of the dolphin's inhabitance; however, one was sighted soon after. ScienceMode » River Dolphin Thought to be Extinct Spotted Again in China Cheung Kong Holdings, from the Cantonese form of Chang Jiang and named after the river, is the name of the holding company controlled by Li Ka-Shing, one of Asia's richest tycoons. In 2004 Martin Strel from Slovenia swam the river from the Tiger Leaping Gorge to Shanghai (. In 1342 the Yangtze River in Jiangzu province was reported to have run dry. Water completely disappeared for a day and the riverbed became visible. This event occurred again on January 13, 1954. According to p. 140 of the 986th edition of Australian Chinese Daily magazine published on 18 August 2007. The river was first rafted from source to mouth in 1986 by all-Chinese teams attempting to beat a Sino-American team to the first descent. Ten of the rafters drowned. The event was widely followed by the Chinese press, and became a source of national pride. Yangtze River Pictures As the Yangtze is undergoing a transformation due to the Three Gorges Dam, Canadian documentary filmmaker Yung Chang made an award-winning documentary called Up the Yangtze. See also scenery on the river Yangtze River Delta List of rivers in China 1998 Yangtze River Floods Three Gorges Dam Geography of China Shen Nong Stream Yangtze Service Medal Dragon Boat Ship lifts in China Chang Jiang Motorcycle Tiger Leaping Gorge Yangtze River Crossing South-North Water Transfer Project River cruise Yangtze Incident Baiji Finless Porpoise Three Furnaces China Travel Guide - Yangtze River Steamboats on the Yangtze River Hydraulic geoengineering (China Region) References Further reading Grover, David H. 1992 American Merchant Ships on the Yangtze, 1920-1941. Wesport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. Yangtze: nature, history, and the river. A Portable Stanford Book. ISBN 0-201-08894-0 Winchester, Simon. 1996. The River at the Center of the World: A Journey up the Yangtze & Back in Chinese Time, Holt, Henry & Company, 1996, hardcover, ISBN 0-8050-3888-4; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0-8050-5508-8; trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, ISBN 0-312-42337-3

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Frequency_modulation

See also: Amplitude modulation In telecommunications, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its frequency (contrast this with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant). In analog applications, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. Theory Suppose the baseband data signal (the message) to be transmitted is and is restricted in amplitude to be and the sinusoidal carrier is where fc is the carrier's base frequency and Ac is the carrier's amplitude. The modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal, In this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction, assuming xm(t) is limited to the range ±1. Although it may seem that this limits the frequencies in use to fc ± fΔ, this neglects the distinction between instantaneous frequency and spectral frequency. The frequency spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending out to infinite frequency, although they become negligibly small beyond a point. The harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by a sine wave signal can be represented with Bessel functions - this provides a basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain. Modulation index As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal: where is the highest frequency compomemt present in the modulating signal xm(t), and is the Peak frequency-deviation, i.e the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency. If , the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is approximately . If , the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is approximately . While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve signal-to-noise ratio significantly. With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others increase. If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases. Carson's rule A rule of thumb, Carson's rule states that nearly all (~98%) of the power of a frequency-modulated signal lies within a bandwidth of where , as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the center carrier frequency . Noise quieting The noise power decreases as the signal power increases, therefore the SNR goes up significantly. Bessel functions The carrier and sideband amplitudes are illustrated for different modulation indices of FM signals. Based on the Bessel functions. Modulation index Carrier 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0.00 1.00 0.25 0.98 0.12 0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03 1.0 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02 1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01 2.0 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 2.41 0 0.52 0.43 0.20 0.06 0.02 2.5 −.05 0.50 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.02 0.01 3.0 −.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01 4.0 −.40 −.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02 5.0 −.18 −.33 0.05 0.36 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.05 0.02 5.53 0 −.34 −.13 0.25 0.40 0.32 0.19 0.09 0.03 0.01 6.0 0.15 −.28 −.24 0.11 0.36 0.36 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.02 7.0 0.30 0.00 −.30 −.17 0.16 0.35 0.34 0.23 0.13 0.06 0.02 8.0 0.17 0.23 −.11 −.29 −.10 0.19 0.34 0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.03 8.65 0 0.27 0.06 −.24 −.23 0.03 0.26 0.34 0.28 0.18 0.10 0.05 0.02 9.0 −.09 0.25 0.14 −.18 −.27 −.06 0.20 0.33 0.31 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 10.0 −.25 0.04 0.25 0.06 −.22 −.23 −.01 0.22 0.32 0.29 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 12.0 0.05 −.22 −.08 0.20 0.18 −.07 −.24 −.17 0.05 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01 Implementation FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a VCO. For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal "Communication Systems" 4th Ed, Simon Haykin, 2001 . A common method for recovering the information signal is through a Foster-Seeley discriminator. Applications in broadcasting FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space. Applications in hardware FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by all analog VCR systems, including VHS, to record both the luminance (black and white) and the chrominance portions of the video signal. FM is the only feasible method of recording video to and retrieving video from magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large range of frequency components — from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below -60 dB. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction, and a simple limiter can mask variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-through and pre-echo. A continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal — as was done on V2000 and many Hi-band formats — can keep mechanical jitter under control and assist timebase correction. These FM systems are unusual in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting where the ratio is around 10,000. Consider for example a 6 MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5 MHz rate; by Bessel analysis the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz, while the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and (-1) MHz. The result is a sideband of reversed phase on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in an unwanted output at (6 - 1) = 5 Mhz. The system must be designed so that this is at an acceptable level. : "FM Systems Of Exceptional Bandwidth" Proc. IEEE vol 112, no. 9, p. 1664, September 1965 Applications in sound FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. An audio signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave. Applications in radio Main article: FM broadcasting An example of frequency modulation. This diagram shows the modulating, or message, signal, xm(t), superimposed on the carrier wave, xc(t) The modulated signal, y(t), produced from frequency-modulating xc(t) with xm(t). Edwin Armstrong presented his paper: "A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation", which first described FM radio, before the New York section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on November 6, 1935. The paper was published in 1936. As the name implies, wideband FM (W-FM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission: hence the term "FM radio" (although for many years the BBC called it "VHF radio", because commercial FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the VHF band; in certain countries, expressions referencing the more familiar wavelength notion are still used in place of the more abstract modulation technique name). FM receivers employ a special detector for FM signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. Problematically however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an adjacent channel. Frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate selectivity may plague any tuner. An FM signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal: see FM stereo. However, this is done by using multiplexing and demultiplexing before and after the FM process. The rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and demultiplexing process used in "stereo FM", and concentrates on the FM modulation and demodulation process, which is identical in stereo and mono processes. A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constant-amplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM. Miscellaneous Frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal. Frequency-shift keying is the frequency modulation using only a discrete number of frequencies. Morse code transmission has been implemented this way, as were most early telephone-line modems. Radio teletypes also use FSK. By the phenomenon of slope detection whereby FM is converted to AM in a frequency-selective circuit tuned slightly away from the nominal signal frequency, AM receivers may detect some FM transmissions, though this does not provide an efficient method of detection for FM broadcasts. FM modulation is also used in telemetry applications. See also Amplitude modulation Carson bandwidth rule (Estimate of RF bandwidth required for an FM signal) Frequency modulation synthesis (FM as an audio synthesis method) FM-UWB (FM and Ultra Wideband) Modulation, for a list of other modulation techniques History of radio Phase modulation FM broadcasting FM broadcast band Notes References A. Bruce Carlson: "Communication systems, 2nd edition", McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1981, ISBN 0-07-085082-2</div> External links Frequency Modulation Frequency Modulation FM receiving antennas Ratio Detector with schematics

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Heroin

For other meanings, see Heroin (disambiguation). Heroin, or diacetylmorphine (INN), also known as diamorphine (BAN), is a semi-synthetic opioid drug synthesized from morphine, a derivative of the opium poppy. It is the 3,6-diacetyl ester of morphine (hence diacetylmorphine). The white crystalline form is commonly the hydrochloride salt diacetylmorphine hydrochloride, however heroin freebase may also appear as a white powder. As with other opioids, heroin is used as both a pain-killer and a recreational drug and has high potential for abuse. Frequent and regular administration is associated with tolerance, moderate physical dependence, and severe psychological dependence which often develops into addiction. Despite this, heroin has been proven to act as an extraordinary fever reducer. Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Referring URL = http://www.incb.org/incb/yellow_list.html It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell diacetylmorphine without a licence in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Iran, India, the Netherlands, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, Pakistan, the United Kingdom and Swaziland. Under the name diamorphine, it is a legally prescribed controlled drug in the United Kingdom. In the Netherlands, under the name diacetylmorphine, it is available for prescription to long-term addicts. History Old advertisement for Bayer Heroin. Bayer Heroin bottle. The opium poppy was cultivated in lower Mesopotamia as long ago as 3400 BC. The chemical analysis of opium in the 19th century revealed that most of its activity could be ascribed to two alkaloids, codeine and morphine. Heroin was first synthesized in 1874 by C. R. Alder Wright, an English chemist working at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School in London, England. He had been experimenting with combining morphine with various acids. He boiled anhydrous morphine alkaloid with acetic anhydride over a stove for several hours and produced a more potent, acetylated form of morphine, now called diacetylmorphine. The compound was sent to F. M. Pierce of Owens College in Manchester for analysis, who reported the following to Wright: Doses ... were subcutaneously injected into young dogs and rabbits ... with the following general results ... great prostration, fear, and sleepiness speedily following the administration, the eyes being sensitive, and pupils constrict, considerable salivation being produced in dogs, and slight tendency to vomiting in some cases, but no actual emesis. Respiration was at first quickened, but subsequently reduced, and the heart's action was diminished, and rendered irregular. Marked want of coordinating power over the muscular movements, and loss of power in the pelvis and hind limbs, together with a diminution of temperature in the rectum of about 4° (rectal failure). Note: this is an annotated excerpt of Wright's invention, however, did not lead to any further developments, and diacetylmorphine only became popular after it was independently re-synthesized 23 years later by another chemist, Felix Hoffmann. Hoffmann, working at the Aktiengesellschaft Farbenfabriken (today: Bayer pharmaceutical company) in Elberfeld, Germany, was instructed by his supervisor Heinrich Dreser to acetylate morphine with the objective of producing codeine, a constituent of the opium poppy, similar to morphine pharmacologically but less potent and less addictive. But instead of producing codeine, the experiment produced an acetylated form of morphine that was one and a half to two times more potent than morphine itself. Bayer would name the substance "heroin", probably from the word heroisch, German for heroic, because in field studies people using the medicine felt "heroic". Bowden, Mary Ellen. Pharmaceutical Achievers. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2002. From 1898 through to 1910, under the name heroin, diacetylmorphine was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough suppressant. Bayer marketed heroin as a cure for morphine addiction before it was discovered that it is rapidly metabolized into morphine, and as such, heroin was essentially a quicker acting form of morphine. The company was embarrassed by this new finding and it became a historic blunder for Bayer. How aspirin turned hero, Sunday Times article, 13 September 1998, reproduced on a BLTC website, accessed 18 March 2009 As with aspirin, Bayer lost some of its trademark rights to "heroin" under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles following the German defeat in World War I. In the U.S.A. the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act was passed in 1914 to control the sale and distribution of "heroin" and other opioids. This law did allow the drug to be prescribed and sold for medical purposes. In 1924, the United States Congress passed additional legislation banning the sale, importation or manufacture. It is now a Schedule I substance, and is thus illegal in the United States. Pharmacology When taken orally, diacetylmorphine undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism via deacetylation, making it a prodrug for the systemic delivery of morphine. When the drug is injected, however, it avoids this first-pass effect, very rapidly crossing the blood-brain barrier due to the presence of the acetyl groups, which render it much more lipid-soluble than morphine itself. Once in the brain, it then is deacetylated into 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and morphine which bind to μ-opioid receptors, resulting in the drug's euphoric, analgesic (pain relief), and anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) effects; diacetylmorphine itself exhibits relatively low affinity for the μ receptor. Unlike hydromorphone and oxymorphone, however, administered intravenously, diacetylmorphine creates a larger histamine release, similar to morphine, resulting in the feeling of a greater subjective "body high" to some, but also instances of pruritus (itching) when they first start using. Histamine release by morphine and diamorphine in man. & Cutaneous Complications of Intravenous Drug Abuse Both morphine and 6-MAM are μ-opioid agonists which bind to receptors present throughout the brain, spinal cord and gut of all mammals. The μ-opioid receptor also binds endogenous opioid peptides such as β-endorphin, Leu-enkephalin, and Met-enkephalin. Repeated use of diacetylmorphine results in a number of physiological changes, including decreases in the number of μ-opioid receptors. These physiological alterations lead to tolerance and dependence, so that cessation of diacetylmorphine use results in a set of extremely uncomfortable symptoms including pain, anxiety, muscle spasms, and insomnia called the opioid withdrawal syndrome. Depending on usage it has an onset 4 to 24 hours after the last dose of diacetylmorphine. Morphine also binds to δ- and κ-opioid receptors. There is also evidence that 6-MAM binds to a subtype of μ-opioid receptors which are also activated by the morphine metabolite morphine-6β-glucuronide but not morphine itself. The contribution of these receptors to the overall pharmacology of heroin remains unknown. A subclass of morphine derivatives, namely the 3,6 esters of morphine, with similar effects and uses includes the clinically-used strong analgesics nicomorphine (Vilan®), and dipropanoylmorphine; there is also the latter's dihydromorphine analogue, diacetyldihydromorphine (Paralaudin®). Usage and effects Medical use Under the name diamorphine, heroin is prescribed as a strong analgesic in the United Kingdom, where it is given via subcutaneous, intramuscular, intrathecal or intravenous route. Its use includes treatment for acute pain, such as in severe physical trauma, myocardial infarction, post-surgical pain, and chronic pain, including in cancer. In other countries it is more common to use morphine or other strong opioids in these situations. In 2005, there was a shortage of diamorphine in the UK, due to a problem at the main UK manufacturers. http://www.ukhra.org/statements/diamorphine_shortage_uk.html Due to this, many hospitals changed to using morphine instead of diamorphine. Although there is no longer a problem with its manufacture, many hospitals have continued to use morphine. Diamorphine continues to be widely used in palliative care in the United Kingdom, where it is commonly given by the subcutaneous route, often via a syringe driver, if patients could not easily swallow oral morphine solution. The advantage of diamorphine over morphine is that diamorphine is more soluble and smaller volumes of diamorphine are needed for the same analgesic effect. Both of these factors are advantageous if giving high doses of opioids via the subcutaneous route, which is often necessary in palliative care. The medical use of diamorphine (in common with other strong opioids such as morphine, fentanyl and oxycodone) is controlled in the United Kingdom by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. In the UK, it is a class A controlled drug. Registers of its use are required to be kept in hospitals. Recreational use One stamp of Heroin Diacetylmorphine is used as a recreational drug for the profound relaxation and intense euphoria it produces, although the latter effect diminishes with increased tolerance. Its popularity with recreational drug users, compared to morphine, reportedly stems from its perceived different effects. In particular, users report an intense "rush" that occurs while the diacetylmorphine is being metabolized into 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and morphine in the brain. Any intravenous opioid will induce rapid, profound effects, but diacetylmorphine produces more euphoria than other opioids upon injection. One possible explanation is the presence of 6-monoacetylmorphine, a metabolite unique to diacetylmorphine. While other opioids of abuse, such as codeine, produce only morphine, heroin also leaves 6-MAM, also a psycho-active metabolite. However, this perception is not supported by the results of clinical studies comparing the physiological and subjective effects of injected diacetylmorphine and morphine in individuals formerly addicted to opioids; these subjects showed no preference for one drug over the other. Equipotent, injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects' self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, or sleepiness. Short-term addiction studies by the same researchers demonstrated that tolerance developed at a similar rate to both diacetylmorphine and morphine. When compared to the opioids hydromorphone, fentanyl, oxycodone, and pethidine/meperidine, former addicts showed a strong preference for diacetylmorphine and morphine, suggesting that diacetylmorphine and morphine are particularly susceptible to abuse and addiction. Morphine and diacetylmorphine were also much more likely to produce euphoria and other positive subjective effects when compared to these other opioids. One of the most common methods of illicit heroin use is via intravenous injection (colloquially termed "shooting up"). Heroin base (commonly found in the UK and Europe), when prepared for injection will only dissolve in water when mixed with an acid (most commonly citric acid powder or lemon juice) and heated. Heroin in the US is most commonly its hydrochloride salt, requiring just water to dissolve. Users tend to initially inject in the easily accessible veins in the arm, but as these veins collapse over time through damage caused by the acid, the user will often resort to injecting in other veins. Recreational users may also administer the drug through means of snorting, or smoking by inhaling its vapors when heated; either with tobacco in a rolled cigarette or by heating the drug on aluminium foil from underneath. When heated the heroin powder changes to a thick liquid, similar in consistency to molten wax, and it will run across the foil giving off smoke which the user inhales through a tube, usually made from foil also so that any heroin that collects on the inside of the tube can be smoked afterward. The user follows the "blob" of heroin with the intention of inhaling, through the tube, as much of the smoke as possible - i.e. "chasing the dragon." The onset of diacetylmorphine's effects depends upon the route of administration. Orally, since diacetylmorphine is completely metabolized in vivo to morphine before crossing the blood-brain barrier the effects are the same as with oral morphine. Snorting results in an onset within 3 to 5 minutes; smoking results in an almost immediate effect that builds in intensity; intravenous injection induces a rush and euphoria usually taking effect within 30 seconds; intramuscular and subcutaneous injection take effect within 3 to 5 minutes. The diacetylmorphine dose used for recreational purposes depends strongly on the frequency of use. A first-time user typically ingests between 5 and 20 mg of diacetylmorphine, but an individual who is heavily dependent on the drug may require several hundred mg per day. Notes on heroin dosage & tolerance. Erowid's Vault, 2001. Large doses of heroin can cause fatal respiratory depression, and the drug has been used for suicide or as a murder weapon. The serial killer Dr Harold Shipman used it on his victims as did Dr John Bodkin Adams (see his victim, Edith Alice Morrell). Because significant tolerance to respiratory depression develops quickly with continued use and is lost just as quickly during withdrawal, it is often difficult to determine whether a heroin death was an accident, suicide or murder. Examples include the overdose deaths of Sid Vicious, Janis Joplin, Tim Buckley, Layne Staley, Bradley Nowell, Ted Binion, and River Phoenix. First murder charge over heroin mix that killed 400 - World - Times Online Effects Data from The Lancet shows heroin to be the most dependence causing and most harmful of 20 drugs. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse, David Nutt, Leslie A. King, William Saulsbury, Colin Blakemore, The Lancet website, 24 March 2007, accessed 31 January 2009 (free registration required for full access) Indicated for: Relief of Extreme Pain Recreational uses: Euphoria Relaxation Other uses: Pain relief Cough suppressant anti-diarrhealContraindications: Alcohol Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines Stimulants Other opioids (depends heavily on tolerance)</div> </div> Central nervous system: Drowsiness Disorientation Delirium Cardiovascular & Respiratory: Bradycardia Hypotension Hypoventilation Shallow breathing Respiratory depression Eyes, Ears, mouth, and nose: Dry mouth (Xerostomia) Miosis, or pupil constriction ("pinpoint pupils") Gastrointestinal: Nausea Vomiting (protracted) Constipation Dyspepsia Urinary System: Urinary retention Musculoskeletal: Analgesia Ataxia Muscle spasticity Neurological: Analgesia Physical dependence Psychological: Anxiolysis Confusion Euphoria Psychological dependence Somnolence Skin: Itching Flushing/Rash Diamorphine ampoules for medicinal use Regulation In the Netherlands, diamorphine (heroin) is a List I drug of the Opium Law. It is available for prescription under tight regulation to long-term heroin addicts for whom methadone maintenance treatment has failed. Heroin is exclusively available for prescription to long-term heroin addicts, and cannot be used to treat severe pain or other illnesses. In the United States, heroin is a schedule I drug according to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, making it illegal to possess without a DEA license. Possession of more than 100 grams of heroin or a mixture containing heroin is punishable with a minimum mandatory sentence of 5 years of imprisonment in a federal prison. In Canada, heroin is a controlled substance under Schedule I of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA). Any person who seeks or obtains heroin without disclosing authorization 30 days prior to obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offense and subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years. Possession of heroin for the purpose of trafficking is guilty of an indictable offense and subject to imprisonment for life. In Hong Kong, heroin is regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. It is available by prescription. Anyone who supplies heroin without a valid prescription can be fined $10,000 (HKD). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing heroin is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of heroin without a license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and/or 7 years of jail time. In the United Kingdom, heroin is available by prescription, though it is a restricted Class A drug. According to the 50th edition of the British National Formulary (BNF), diamorphine hydrochloride may be used in the treatment of acute pain, myocardial infarction, acute pulmonary oedema, and chronic pain. The treatment of chronic non-malignant pain must be supervised by a specialist. The BNF notes that all opioid analgesics cause dependence and tolerance but that this is "no deterrent in the control of pain in terminal illness". When used in the palliative care of cancer patients, heroin is often injected using a syringe driver. Price The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that the retail price of brown heroin varies from €14.5 per gram in Turkey to €110 per gram in Sweden, with most European countries reporting typical prices of €45-55 per gram. The price of white heroin is reported only by a few European countries and ranged between €27 and €110 per gram. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical US retail prices are US$172 per gram. Production and trafficking: The Golden Triangle Primary worldwide producers of heroin. Manufacturing Heroin is produced for the black market by refining opium. The first step of this process involves isolation of morphine from opium. This crude morphine is then acetylated by heating with acetic anhydride. Purification of the obtained crude heroin and conversion to the hydrochloride salt results in a water-soluble form of the drug that is a white or yellowish powder. Crude opium is carefully dissolved in hot water but the resulting hot soup is not boiled. Mechanical impurities - twigs - are scooped together with the foam. The mixture is then made alkaline by gradual addition of lime. Lime causes a number of unwelcome components present in opium to precipitate out of the solution. (The impurities include inactive alkaloids, resins, proteins). The precipitate is removed by filtration through a cloth, washed with additional water and discarded. The filtrates containing the water-soluble calcium salt of morphine (calcium morphinate) are then acidified by careful addition of ammonium chloride. This causes morphine (as a free phenol) to precipitate. The morphine precipitate is collected by filtration and dried before the next step. The crude morphine (which makes only about 10% of the weight of opium) is then heated together with acetic anhydride at 85 °C (185 °F) for six hours. The reaction mixture is then cooled, diluted with water, made alkaline with sodium carbonate, and the precipitated crude heroin is filtered and washed with water. This crude water-insoluble freebase product (which by itself is usable, for smoking) is further purified and decolorised by dissolution in hot alcohol, filtration with activated charcoal and concentration of the filtrates. The concentrated solution is then acidified with hydrochloric acid, diluted with ether, and the precipitated heroin hydrochloride is the purest form of heroin collected by filtration. This precipitate is the so-called "no. 4 heroin", commonly known as "china white". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Bulletin on Narcotics 2007 China white is heroin in its purest form. Heroin freebase cut with a small amount of caffeine (to help vaporise it more efficiently), typically brown in appearance, is known as "no. 3 heroin". These two forms of heroin are the standard products exported to the Western market. Heroin no. 3 predominates on the European market, where heroin no. 4 is relatively uncommon. Another form of heroin is "black tar" which is common in the western United States and is produced in Mexico. The initial stage of opium refining—the isolation of morphine—is relatively easy to perform in rudimentary settings - even by substituting suitable fertilizers for pure chemical reagents. However, the later steps (acetylation, purification, and conversion to the hydrochloride salt) are more involved—they use large quantities of chemicals and solvents and they require both skill and patience. The final step is particularly tricky as the highly flammable ether can easily ignite during positive-pressure filtration (the explosion of vapor-air mixture can obliterate the refinery). If the ether does ignite, the result is a catastrophic explosion. Heroin can be produced in small quantities, often by end users, from morphine which is obtained from pharmaceuticals, or much less often from poppy straw, opium &c. The morphine can also be itself synthesised from codeine. The process involves wetting the morphine-bearing powder with acetic anhydride or chloride and igniting it, covering with foil and baking in an oven at 80°C for one to five hours and similar processes. The result in a mixture of heroin, morphine, 6-monoacetylmorphine and 3-monoacetylmorphine as well as any other drugs present in the precursors and some of their acetylated derivatives such as acetylcodeine. History of heroin traffic The origins of the present international illegal heroin trade can be traced back to laws passed in many countries in the early 1900s that closely regulated the production and sale of opium and its derivatives including heroin. At first, heroin flowed from countries where it was still legal into countries where it was no longer legal. By the mid-1920s, heroin production had been made illegal in many parts of the world. An illegal trade developed at that time between heroin labs in China (mostly in Shanghai and Tianjin) and other nations. The weakness of government in China and conditions of civil war enabled heroin production to take root there. Chinese triad gangs eventually came to play a major role in the heroin trade. French Connection route started in the 1930s. Heroin trafficking was virtually eliminated in the U.S. during World War II due to temporary trade disruptions caused by the war. Japan's war with China had cut the normal distribution routes for heroin and the war had generally disrupted the movement of opium. After World War II, the Mafia took advantage of the weakness of the postwar Italian government and set up heroin labs in Sicily. The Mafia took advantage of Sicily's location along the historic route opium took westward into Europe and the United States. Eric C. Schneider, Smack: Heroin and the American City, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008, chapter one Large scale international heroin production effectively ended in China with the victory of the communists in the civil war in the late 1940s. The elimination of Chinese production happened at the same time that Sicily's role in the trade developed. Although it remained legal in some countries until after World War II, health risks, addiction, and widespread recreational use led most western countries to declare heroin a controlled substance by the latter half of the 20th century. In late 1960s and early 70s, the CIA supported anti-Communist Chinese Nationalists settled near Sino-Burmese border and Hmong tribesmen in Laos. This helped the development of the Golden Triangle opium production region, which supplied about one-third of heroin consumed in US after 1973 American withdrawal from Vietnam. As of 1999, Myanmar (former Burma), the heartland of the Golden Triangle remained the second largest producer of heroin, after Afghanistan. Soviet-Afghan war led to increased production in the Pakistani-Afghani border regions, as U.S.-backed mujaheddin militants raised money for arms from selling opium, contributing heavily to the modern Golden Crescent creation. By 1980, 60% of heroin sold in the U.S. originated in Afghanistan. It increased international production of heroin at lower prices in the 1980s. The trade shifted away from Sicily in the late 1970s as various criminal organizations violently fought with each other over the trade. The fighting also led to a stepped up government law enforcement presence in Sicily. Trafficking See also: Opium production Traffic is heavy worldwide, with the biggest producer being Afghanistan. According to U.N. sponsored survey, , Afghanistan accounted for production of 87 percent of the world's heroin. The cultivation of opium in Afghanistan reached its peak in 1999, when 225,000 acres - 350 square miles - of poppies were sown. The following year the Taliban banned poppy cultivation, a move which cut production by 94 percent. By 2001 only 30 square miles of land were in use for growing opium poppies. A year later, after American and British troops had removed the Taliban and installed the interim government, the land under cultivation leapt back to 285 square miles, with Afghanistan supplanting Burma to become the world's largest opium producer once more. OPIUM WARS WITHIN, Jackie Jura ~ an independent researcher monitoring local, national and international events ~ http://www.orwelltoday.com/afghanheroin.shtml Opium production in that country has increased rapidly since, reaching an all-time high in 2006. War once again appeared as a facilitator of the trade. At present, opium poppies are mostly grown in Afghanistan, and in Southeast Asia, especially in the region known as the Golden Triangle straddling Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Yunnan province in the People's Republic of China. There is also cultivation of opium poppies in the Sinaloa region of Mexico and in Colombia. The majority of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from Mexico and Colombia. Up until 2004, Pakistan was considered one of the biggest opium-growing countries. Conviction for trafficking in heroin carries the death penalty in most South-east Asian, some East Asian and Middle Eastern countries (see Use of death penalty worldwide for details), among which Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand are the most strict. The penalty applies even to citizens of countries where the penalty is not in place, sometimes causing controversy when foreign visitors are arrested for trafficking, for example the arrest of nine Australians in Bali, the death sentence given to Nola Blake in Thailand in 1987, or the hanging of an Australian citizen Van Tuong Nguyen in Singapore, Risks of use For intravenous users of heroin (and any other substance), the use of non-sterile needles and syringes and other related equipment leads to several serious risks: the risk of contracting blood-borne pathogens such as HIV and hepatitis the risk of contracting bacterial or fungal endocarditis and possibly venous sclerosis abscesses Poisoning from contaminants added to "cut" or dilute heroin Chronic constipation Addiction and increasing tolerance Physical dependence can result from prolonged use of all opioids, resulting in withdrawal symptoms on cessation of use Decreased kidney function (although it is not currently known if this is due to adulterants or infectious diseases) Many countries and local governments have begun funding programs that supply sterile needles to people who inject illegal drugs in an attempt to reduce these contingent risks and especially the contraction and spread of blood-borne diseases. The Drug Policy Alliance reports that up to 75% of new AIDS cases among women and children are directly or indirectly a consequence of drug use by injection. The United States federal government does not operate needle exchanges, although some state and local governments do support needle exchange programs. A heroin overdose is usually treated with an opioid antagonist, such as naloxone (Narcan), or naltrexone, which has high affinity for opioid receptors but does not activate them. This reverses the effects of heroin and other opioid agonists and causes an immediate return of consciousness but may precipitate withdrawal symptoms. The half-life of naloxone is much shorter than that of most opioid agonists, so that antagonist typically has to be administered multiple times until the opioid has been metabolized by the body. Depending on drug interactions and numerous other factors, death from overdose can take anywhere from several minutes to several hours due to anoxia because the breathing reflex is suppressed by µ-opioids. An overdose is immediately reversible with an opioid antagonist injection. Heroin overdoses can occur due to an unexpected increase in the dose or purity or due to diminished opioid tolerance. However, many fatalities reported as overdoses are probably caused by interactions with other depressant drugs like alcohol or benzodiazepines. It should also be noted that since heroin can cause nausea and vomiting, a significant number of deaths attributed to heroin overdose are caused by aspiration of vomit by an unconscious victim. Some sources give a figure of between 75 and 375 mg for a 75 kg being fatal for 50% of opiate naive people. Toxic Substances in water Street heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity. This means that the user may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended. Also, tolerance typically decreases after a period of abstinence. If this occurs and the user takes a dose comparable to their previous use, the user may experience drug effects that are much greater than expected, potentially resulting in a dangerous overdose. It has been speculated that an unknown portion of heroin related deaths are the result of an overdose or allergic reaction to quinine, which may sometimes be used as a cutting agent. The "heroin overdose" mystery and other occupational hazards of addiction, Schaffer Library of Drug Policy A final factor contributing to overdoses is place conditioning. Heroin use is a highly ritualized behavior. While the mechanism has yet to be clearly elucidated, longtime heroin users display increased tolerance to the drug in locations where they have repeatedly administered heroin. When the user injects in a different location, this environment-conditioned tolerance does not occur, resulting in a greater drug effect. The user's typical dose of the drug, in the face of decreased tolerance, becomes far too high and can be toxic, leading to overdose. A small percentage of heroin smokers and occasionally IV users may develop symptoms of toxic leukoencephalopathy. The cause has yet to be identified, but one speculation is that the disorder is caused by an uncommon adulterant that is only active when heated. Symptoms include slurred speech and difficulty walking. Cocaine sometimes proves to be fatal when used in combination with heroin. Though "speedballs" (when injected) or "moonrocks" (when smoked) are a popular mix of the two drugs among users, combinations of stimulants and depressants can have unpredictable and sometimes fatal results. In the United States in early 2006, a rash of deaths was attributed to either a combination of fentanyl and heroin, or pure fentanyl masquerading as heroin particularly in the Detroit Metro Area; one news report refers to the combination as 'laced heroin', though this is likely a generic rather than a specific term. Harm reduction approaches to heroin Proponents of the harm reduction philosophy seek to minimize the harms that arise from the recreational use of heroin. Safer means of taking the drug, such as smoking or nasal, oral and rectal insertion, are encouraged, due to injection having higher risks of overdose, infections and blood-borne viruses. Where the strength of the drug is unknown, users are encouraged to try a small amount first to gauge the strength, to minimize the risks of overdose. For the same reason, poly drug use (the use of two or more drugs at the same time) is discouraged. Users are also encouraged to not use heroin on their own, as others can assist in the event of an overdose. Heroin users who choose to inject should always use new needles, syringes, spoons/steri-cups and filters every time they inject and not share these with other users. Governments that support a harm reduction approach often run Needle & Syringe exchange programs, which supply new needles and syringes on a confidential basis, as well as education on proper filtering prior to injection, safer injection techniques, safe disposal of used injecting gear and other equipment used when preparing heroin for injection may also be supplied including citric acid sachets/vitamin C sachets, steri-cups, filters, alcohol pre-injection swabs, sterile water ampules and tourniquets (to stop use of shoe laces or belts). Withdrawal Black tar heroin The withdrawal syndrome from heroin may begin within 6 to 24 hours of discontinuation of the drug; however, this time frame can fluctuate with the degree of tolerance as well as the amount of the last consumed dose. Symptoms may include: sweating, malaise, anxiety, depression, priapism, extra sensitivity of the genitals in females, general feeling of heaviness, cramp-like pains in the limbs, excessive yawning or sneezing, tears, rhinorrhea, sleep difficulties (insomnia), cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches; nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and fever. Adult Health Advisor 2005.4: Narcotic Drug Withdrawal Many users also complain of a painful condition, the so-called "itchy blood", which often results in compulsive scratching that causes bruises and sometimes ruptures the skin, leaving scabs. Abrupt termination of heroin use often causes muscle spasms in the legs (restless leg syndrome, [also known as "kicking the habit"]). The intensity of the withdrawal syndrome is variable depending on the dosage of the drug used and the frequency of use. Very severe withdrawal can be precipitated by administering an opioid antagonist to a heroin addict. Three general approaches are available to ease the physical part of opioid withdrawal. The first is to substitute a longer-acting opioid such as methadone or buprenorphine for heroin or occasionally another short-acting opioid and then slowly taper the dose. In the second approach, benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium) may be recommended for opiate withdrawal especially if there is comorbid alcohol withdrawal. Benzodiazepines may temporarily ease the anxiety, muscle spasms, and insomnia associated with opioid withdrawal. The use of benzodiazepines must be carefully monitored because these drugs have a high risk of physical dependence as well as abuse potential and have little or no cross tolerance with opiates and thus are not generally recommended as a first line treatment strategy. Also, although very unpleasant, opioid withdrawal is seldom fatal, whereas complications related to withdrawal from benzodiazepines, barbiturates and alcohol withdrawal (such as psychosis, suicidal depression, epileptic seizures, cardiac arrest, and delirium tremens) can prove hazardous and are potentially life-threatening. Many symptoms of opioid withdrawal are due to rebound hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system, which can be suppressed with clonidine (Catapres), a centrally-acting alpha-2 agonist primarily used to treat hypertension. Another drug sometimes used to relieve the "restless legs" symptom of withdrawal is baclofen, a muscle relaxant. Diarrhoea can likewise be treated with the peripherally active opioid drug loperamide. Methadone is another μ-opioid agonist most often used to substitute for heroin in treatment for heroin addiction. Compared to heroin, methadone is well (but slowly) absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and has a much longer duration of action of approximately 24 hours. Thus methadone maintenance avoids the rapid cycling between intoxication and withdrawal associated with heroin addiction. In this way, methadone has shown success as a substitute for heroin; despite bearing about the same addiction potential as heroin, it is recommended for those who have repeatedly failed to complete withdrawal or have recently relapsed. Patients properly stabilized on methadone display few subjective effects to the drug (i.e., it does not make them "high"), and are unable to obtain a "high" from other opioids except with very high doses. Methadone, since it is longer-acting, produces withdrawal symptoms that appear later than with heroin, but usually last considerably longer and can in some cases be more intense. Methadone withdrawal symptoms can potentially persist for over a month, compared to heroin where significant physical symptoms subside within 4 – 7 days. Buprenorphine is another opioid that was recently licensed for opioid substitution treatment. As a μ-opioid receptor partial agonist, patients develop less tolerance to it than to heroin or methadone due to its partial activation of the opiate receptor. Patients are unable to obtain a "high" from other opioids during buprenorphine treatment except with very high doses. It also has less severe withdrawal symptoms than heroin or other full agonist opiates when discontinued abruptly, although the duration of the withdrawal syndrome is often longer than that seen with heroin. It is usually administered sublingually (dissolved under the tongue) every 24-48 hrs. Buprenorphine is also a κ opioid receptor antagonist, which led to speculation that the drug might have additional antidepressant effects; however, no significant difference was found in symptoms of depression between patients receiving buprenorphine and those receiving methadone. Researchers at Johns Hopkins University have been testing a sustained-release "depot" form of buprenorphine that can relieve cravings and withdrawal symptoms for up to six weeks. A sustained-release formulation would allow for easier administration and adherence to treatment, and reduce the risk of diversion or misuse. Three opioid antagonists are available: naloxone and the longer-acting naltrexone and nalmefene. These medications block the ability of heroin, as well as the other opioids to bind to the receptor site. There is also a controversial treatment for heroin addiction based on an Iboga-derived African drug, ibogaine. Many people travel abroad for ibogaine treatments that generally interrupt substance use disorders for 3–6 months or more in up to 80% of patients. H.S. Lotsof. Ibogaine in the Treatment of Chemical Dependence Disorders: Clinical Perspectives. MAPS Bulletin 1995 V(3):19-26 Heroin prescription The UK Department of Health's Rolleston Committee report in 1926 established the British approach to heroin prescription to users, which was maintained for the next forty years: dealers were prosecuted, but doctors could prescribe heroin to users when withdrawing from it would cause harm or severe distress to the patient. This "policing and prescribing" policy effectively controlled the perceived heroin problem in the UK until 1959 when the number of heroin addicts doubled every sixteenth month during a period of ten years, 1959-1968. Nils Bejerot: The Swedish Addiction Epidemic in global perspective The failure changed the attitudes; in 1964 only specialized clinics and selected approved doctors were allowed to prescribe heroin to users. The law was made more restrictive in 1968. Beginning in the 1970s, the emphasis shifted to abstinence and the use of methadone, until now only a small number of users in the UK are prescribed heroin. In 1994 Switzerland began a trial heroin maintenance program for users that had failed multiple withdrawal programs. The aim of this program is to maintain the health of the user in order to avoid medical problems stemming from the use of illicit street heroin. Reducing drug-related crime and preventing overdoses were two other goals. The first trial in 1994 involved 340 users, although enrollment was later expanded to 1000 based on the apparent success of the program. Participants are allowed to inject heroin in specially designed pharmacies for 15 Swiss Francs per dose. A national referendum in November 2008 showed 68% of voters supported the plan, introducing heroin prescription into federal law. The trials before were based on time-limited executive ordinances. The success of the Swiss trials led German, Dutch, and Canadian cities to try out their own heroin prescription programs. Some Australian cities (such as Sydney) have instituted legal heroin supervised injecting centers, in line with other wider harm minimization programs. Starting in January 2009 Denmark is also going to prescribe heroin to a few addicts that have tried methadone and subutex without success. Popular culture Literature Beat Generation author William S. Burroughs wrote about his experiences with heroin in numerous books, starting with the 1953 semi-autobiographical Junkie (aka Junky). The Basketball Diaries is a 1978 book written by American author and musician Jim Carroll. It is an edited collection of the diaries he kept between the ages of twelve and sixteen. Set in New York City, they detail his daily life, sexual experiences, high school basketball career, Cold War paranoia, the counterculture movement, and, especially, his addiction to heroin, which began when he was 13. The book was made into a film under the same name in 1995 starring Leonardo DiCaprio. Irvine Welsh's 1993 novel Trainspotting which was later made into a feature film under the same name explores the turbulent lives of an eccentric group of heroin users. Allen Hoey's 2006 novel, Chasing the Dragon, examines the use of heroin among jazz musicians in the 1950s. A 2007 book entitled The Heroin Diaries by author and musician Nikki Sixx from Mötley Crüe and Sixx:A.M. chronicles his heroin addiction in his diary between the years 1986-1987, as well as his chronic extreme hedonism, attitudes, drug use and his inevitable route to dying and coming back to life. A 2008 book entitled "The Death Proclamation of Generation X: A Self-Fulfilling Prophesy of Goth, Grunge and Heroin" by researcher Maxim W. Furek investigates the prominence of heroin in music, motion pictures and Generation X culture. Published by i-Universe. ISBN 978-0-595-46319-0 Musicians who have used, or written about, heroin use The Velvet Underground song "Heroin" (from their first album The Velvet Underground and Nico) describes the use and effects of the drug, with Lou Reed singing from the perspective of a heroin addict, describing his thoughts and feelings while under the effects of the drug, while the music (led by a dissonant viola and guitar strums) is played to resemble the effects of heroin use (with rushed and calm parts interchanging). The song was ranked #448 on Rolling Stone Magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. David Bowie's first single "Space Oddity," was seemingly about his experience with heroin, as his 1980 single "Ashes to Ashes" included the lines that refer to Major Tom as "... a junkie/strung out on heaven's high/hitting an all-time low." Megadeth' song from Megadeth's Album Youthanasia - Addicted to Chaos, is influenced by Dave Mustaine's use of heroin previously. Rozz Williams' final album before his suicide, The Whorse's Mouth, dealt with his heroin addiction. Sid Vicious from the Sex Pistols died of a heroin overdose, and allegedly stabbed his girlfriend to death while both were strung out on heroin. Hillel Slovak, founding member of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, died of a 'speedball' overdose, which includes both cocaine and heroin. Together with band member Anthony Kiedis, he battled a heroin addiction prior to his death. Anthony Kiedis, also founding member (and current vocalist) of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, wrote about his heroin addiction in his autobiography, Scar Tissue. Kurt Cobain (front man of the grunge band Nirvana) was a user of heroin, and allegedly committed suicide after taking heroin. Brad Nowell died of a heroin overdose shortly before Sublime's first major label album came out. Slash (guitarist for Guns N' Roses) documents his extensive heroin use in his self-titled autobiography. Film Quentin Tarantino's 1994 film Pulp Fiction fully depicts the steps of heroin injection by Vincent Vega (John Travolta). Darren Aronosfky's 2000 film Requiem for a Dream, based on the book of the same name, depicts the lives of a group of heroin addicts and the devastating results of their addiction. The film Trainspotting, based on the book of the same name, revolves around a group of heroin users and the attempts of one of the group's efforts to quit. The film RENT (2005), based on the musical by Jonathan Larson, includes a character, Mimi who struggles with a heroin addiction and has contracted AIDS from her usage. The film Candy starring Heath Ledger focused on a couple very much in love and destroyed by heroin addiction. Party Monster, a movie based on James St. James' true tales of New York City club kids in the late 1980s, shows an extreme use of heroin and other drugs such as ketamine (Special K) and cocaine. The Film "Gia" based on a true story of model Gia Carangi is about her addiction and use of heroin and how it affected her. The film "Christiane F." portraying the troubles of young heroin users in Berlin. The film "Things We Lost in the Fire", deals with Benicio del Toro's character's struggle to get clean. The film American Gangster is based on real life drug lord Frank Lucas who sold heroin. 1971's The Panic In Needle Park starring Al Pacino revolves around Pacino's character and his girlfriend's addictions to heroin and the repercussions of it. The film features graphic scenes of users injecting the drug. See also Alphamethylfentanyl another drug with the street name "China White" Morphine Opioids Black Tar Heroin Cheese (recreational drug) HIV in Yunnan Drugs and prostitution Ibogaine Monoacetylmorphine Dipropanoylmorphine Diacetyldihydromorphine Recreational drug use Psychoactive drug The Great Binge Opium Polish heroin Poppy Drug injection Illegal drug trade Illicit drug use in Australia Entomotoxicology Heroin chic References Literature Diary Of A Drug Fiend by Aleister Crowley (1922) Heroin (1998) ISBN 1-56838-153-0 Heroin Century (2002) ISBN 0-415-27899-6 This is Heroin (2002) ISBN 1-86074-424-9 The Heroin User's Handbook by Francis Moraes (paperback 2004) ISBN 1-55950-216-9 The Little Book of Heroin by Francis Moraes (paperback 2000) ISBN 0-914171-98-4 Heroin: A True Story of Addiction, Hope and Triumph by Julie O'Toole (paperback 2005) ISBN 1-905379-01-3 The Heroin Diaries: A Year in the Life of a Shattered Rockstar by Nikki Sixx (2007) ISBN 978-0743486-28-6 Heroin: The Myths and the Facts by Richard Ashley (1972), St. Martin's Press, Library of Congress No. 72-89417 "The Death Proclamation of Generation X: A Self-Fulfilling Prophesy of Goth, Grunge and Heroin" by Maxim W. Furek, M. (2008), i-Universe. ISBN 978-0-595-46319-0 External links Border Stories: Heroin use and the AIDS epidemic in Tijuana, Mexico (VIDEO) Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia, especially opium and heroin production and trafficking in and around Afghanistan and Burma (Articles and maps and French and English) Drugs Factfile what you really need to know The mismanagement of methadone Harrowing Heroin by Geoff Morton National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment - non-profit education website for treatment of Heroin addiction NIDA InfoFacts on Heroin ONDCP Drug Facts United States Department of State fact sheet: anti-narcotics efforts in Pakistan - dated June 7, 2002 BBC Article entitled 'When Heroin Was Legal'. References to the United Kingdom and the United States Harm reduction strategies in relation to heroin and other illicit drugs Heroin news page - Alcohol and Drugs History Society

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Iao_Valley

Right|Iao Valley Īao Valley (Hawaiian: Ī-ao: "cloud supreme", pronounced similar to "EE-ow") is a lush, stream-cut valley in West Maui, Hawaiian Islands located 5 km (3 mi) west of Wailuku. Because of its natural beauty, it has become a popular tourist location. Īao Valley State Monument The Īao Needle. It looks short despite its elevation because nothing is next to it for scale. The state park is located on at the end of Īao Valley Road (Highway 32). The Īao Needle (Kūkaemoku) is a famous landmark in the state park, a vegetation-covered lava remnant rising from the valley floor or when measured from sea level. The needle is surrounded by the cliffs of the West Maui Mountains, a dormant volcano. One can take a short trail (Īao Needle Lookout Trail and Ethnobotanical Loop) to a windy overlook. Park hours are from 7 am to 7 pm. Rainforest Īao Valley is covered in dense rainforest, most of which consists of introduced vegetation on the valley floor. The Puu Kukui summit area at the head of the valley receives an average of of rainfall per year, making it the second wettest location in the state after Mount Waialeale. Much of this rainfall ends up flowing into the Īao Stream. Trails in the State Park run alongside Īao Stream and through the forest. History Īao Stream The Hawaiian god Kāne is considered to be the procreator and the provider of life. He is associated with wai (fresh water) as well as clouds, rain, streams and springs. Kanaloa, the Hawaiian god of the underworld, is represented by the phallic stone of the Īao Needle. It was here that Kapawa, the king of Hawaii prior to Pili, was buried. During the late 15th century, Īao Valley was designated as an alii burial area by Kakae, the ruler of Maui. The remains of the chiefs were buried in secret hiding places in the valley. In 1790 the valley was the site of the Battle of Kepaniwai. It was the battle in which Kamehameha the Great defeated Kalanikūpule and the Maui army during his campaign to unify the islands. The battle was said to be so bloody that dead bodies blocked Īao Stream, and the battle site was named Kepaniwai ("damming of the waters"). Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens Since 1952, Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens have memorialized the multicultural history of Maui. Scale models of ethnic buildings and gardens representing the immigration of Hawaiian, American missionaries, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Korean, and Filipino cultures are the highlight of the park. The gardens were restored in 1994. References Further reading

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Caitlin_Clarke

Caitlin Clarke (May 3, 1952 - September 9, 2004) was an American theater and film actress best known for her role as "Valerian" in the 1981 fantasy film Dragonslayer and for her role as Charlotte Cardoza in the 1998-1999 Broadway musical Titanic. Biography Clarke was born Katherine Anne Clarke in Pittsburgh, the oldest of five sisters, the youngest of whom is Torie Clarke. Her family moved to Sewickley when she was ten. Clarke received her B.A. in theater arts from Mount Holyoke College in 1974 and her M.F.A. from the Yale School of Drama in 1978. During her final year at Yale Clarke performed with the Yale Repertory Theater in such plays as Tales from the Vienna Woods. The first few years of Clarke's professional career were largely theatrical, apart from her role in Dragonslayer. After appearing in three Broadway plays in 1985, Clarke moved to Los Angeles for several years as a film and television actress. She returned to theater in the early 1990s, and to Broadway as Charlotte Cardoza in Titanic. Clarke was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2000. She returned to Pittsburgh to teach theater at the University of Pittsburgh and at the Pittsburgh Musical Theater's Rauh Conservatory until her death on September 9, 2004. Stage Broadway Titanic: A New Musical (1998) The Marriage of Figaro (1985) Arms and the Man (1985) Strange Interlude (1985) Teaneck Tanzi: The Venus Flytrap (1983) Off-Broadway Three Birds Alighting On A Field (1994) Unexpected Tenderness (1994) Quartermaine's Terms (1984) Thin Ice (1984) Total Eclipse (1984) Summer (1983) No End of Blame (1981) Othello (1979) Regional The Gigli Concert (Pittsburgh, 2002) Aristocrats (Pittsburgh, 2002) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf (Rochester, NY, 2000) Griller (Baltimore, 1999) Indiscretions (Dallas, 1997) The Glass Menagerie (Portland, Maine, 1997) Mrs. Warren's Profession (New Haven, 1996) The Queen And The Rebels (Baltimore, 1991) Our Country's Good (Los Angeles, 1989) Not Quite Jerusalem (New Haven, 1984) As You Like It (San Diego, 1984) Summer Vacation Madness (Minneapolis, 1982) Plenty (Chicago, 1981) Bal (Chicago, 1980) The Winter's Tale (Washington, 1979) Tales from the Vienna Woods (New Haven, 1978) Film Never Again (2002) Joe the King (1999) Cost of Living (1997) A Cure For Serpents (1997) Blown Away (1994) The Big Picture (1989) Penn & Teller Get Killed (1989) Crocodile Dundee (1986) Kenny (aka The Kid Brother) (1985) Dragonslayer (1981) Television Series: Northern Exposure, The Equalizer, Once A Hero, Moonlighting, Sex And The City, Law & Order ("Menace", "Juvenile", "Stiff"). Movies: Mayflower Madam (1986), Love, Lies and Murder (1991), The Stepford Husbands (1996). External links The Caitlin Clarke Page Obituary (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette) Obituary page

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Lavrentiy_Beria

Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (; Russian: Лаврентий Павлович Берия; 29 March 1899 – 23 December 1953) was a Soviet politician, and chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin. He was top deputy of the NKVD during the Great Purge, responsible for many of the millions of imprisonments and killings. Then at the end of the Purge, he became head of the NKVD, and carried out a purge of the NKVD itself. Beria was most influential during and after World War II, and immediately after Stalin's death in 1953, when as First Deputy Prime Minister he carried out a brief campaign of liberalization. However, in that same year he was arrested and executed by his political rivals. He claimed to have poisoned Stalin, according to Molotov's memoirs. Rise to power Beria was born the son of Pavel Khulaevich Beria, in Merkheuli, near Sukhumi, in the Sukhum district of Kutaisi governorate of modern Georgia (then part of Imperial Russia). He was Georgian. Последние Годы Правления Сталина He was educated at a technical school in Sukhumi and joined the Bolsheviks in March 1917 while an engineering student in Baku. In 1919 Beria worked in the security service of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. In 1920 or 1921 (accounts vary) Beria joined the Cheka - the original Bolshevik secret police. At that time, a Bolshevik revolt took place in the Menshevik-controlled Democratic Republic of Georgia, and the Red Army subsequently invaded. The Cheka was heavily involved in the conflict, which resulted in the defeat of the Mensheviks and the formation of the Georgian SSR. By 1922, Beria was deputy head of the Georgian branch of Cheka's successor, the OGPU. In 1924, he led the repression of a Georgian nationalist uprising, after which up to 10,000 people were executed. For this display of "Bolshevik ruthlessness", Beria was appointed head of the "secret-political division" of the Transcaucasian OGPU and was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. In 1926, Beria became head of the Georgian OGPU and was introduced to fellow Georgian Joseph Stalin, becoming an ally in Stalin's rise to power in the Communist Party and the Soviet regime. Some historians, however, claim that he was more henchman than ally, working to further his own cause by wooing Stalin in order to gain access to the inner circles of the Soviet regime. Beria was appointed Secretary of the Communist Party in Georgia in 1931, and for the whole Transcaucasian region in 1932. He became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1934. During this time he began to attack fellow members of the Georgian Communist Party, particularly Gaioz Devdariani, who was Minister of Education of the Georgian SSR. Beria ordered the killing of Devdariani's brothers George and Shalva, who held important positions in the Cheka and the Communist Party respectively. Eventually, Gaioz Devdariani was charged with violating Article 58 for alleged counter-revolutionary activities and was executed in 1938 by the orders of the NKVD troika. Even after moving on from Georgia, Beria effectively controlled the Republic's Communist Party until it was purged in July, 1953. By 1935, Beria was one of Stalin's most trusted subordinates. He cemented his place in Stalin's entourage with a lengthy oration titled, "On the History of the Bolshevik Organisations in Transcaucasia" (later published as a book), which fully rewrote the history of Transcaucasian Bolshevism, emphasizing Stalin's role in it. When Stalin's purge of the Communist Party and government began in 1934, after the assassination of Sergey Kirov, Beria ran the purges in Transcaucasia, using the opportunity to settle many old scores in the politically turbulent Transcaucasian republics. In June 1937, he said in a speech, "Let our enemies know that anyone who attempts to raise a hand against the will of our people, against the will of the party of Lenin and Stalin, will be mercilessly crushed and destroyed". Beria at the NKVD In August 1938, Stalin brought Beria to Moscow as deputy head of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), the ministry which oversaw the state security and police forces. Under Nikolai Yezhov, the NKVD carried out the Great Purge: the imprisonment or execution of millions of people throughout the Soviet Union as alleged "enemies of the people". By 1938, however, the oppression had become so extensive that it was damaging the infrastructure, economy and even the armed forces of the Soviet state, prompting Stalin to wind the purge down. In September, Beria was appointed head of the Main Administration of State Security (GUGB) of the NKVD, and in November he succeeded Yezhov as NKVD head (Yezhov himself was executed in 1940). The NKVD itself was then purged, with half its personnel replaced by Beria loyalists, many of them from the Caucasus. Although Beria's name is closely identified with the Great Purge due to his activities while deputy head of the NKVD, his leadership of the organization marked an easing of the repression. Over 100,000 people were released from the labour camps and it was officially admitted that there had been some injustice and "excesses" during the purges, which were blamed on Yezhov. Nevertheless this liberalization was only relative: arrests and executions continued and in 1940, as war approached, the pace of the purges again accelerated. During this period Beria supervised deportations from Poland and the Baltic states after Soviet occupation of those regions. In March 1939, Beria became a candidate member of the Communist Party's Politburo. Although he did not become a full member until 1946, he was already one of the senior leaders of the Soviet state. In 1941 Beria was made a Commissar General of State Security, the highest quasi-military rank within the Soviet police system of that time, comparable to Marshal of the Soviet Union. On 5 March 1940 Beria sent a note (no. 794/B) to Stalin, in which he stated that the Polish prisoners of war (mostly military officers) kept at camps and prisons in western Belarus and Ukraine were declared enemies of the Soviet Union, and recommended their execution (see Katyn massacre). In February 1941, he became Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, and in June, following Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, he became a member of the State Defense Committee (GKO). During World War II he took on major domestic responsibilities, using the millions of people imprisoned in NKVD labour camps for wartime production. He took control of production of armaments, and (with Georgy Malenkov) aircraft and aircraft engines. This was the beginning of Beria's alliance with Malenkov, which later became of central importance. In 1944, as the Germans were driven from Soviet soil, Beria was in charge of dealing with the various ethnic minorities accused of collaboration with the invaders, including the Chechens, the Ingush, the Crimean Tatars and the Volga Germans. All these were deported to Soviet Central Asia. (See "Population transfer in the Soviet Union".) In December 1944, Beria's NKVD was assigned to supervise the Soviet atomic bomb project, which built and tested a bomb by 1949. In this capacity he ran the successful Soviet espionage campaign against the atomic weapons program of the United States, which obtained much of the technology required. However his most important contribution was to provide the necessary workforce for this project, which was extremely labor-intensive. The Gulag system provided tens of thousands of people for work in uranium mines and the construction and operation of uranium processing plants, as well as the construction of test facilities such as those at Semipalatinsk and in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. The NKVD also ensured the necessary security of the project. In July 1945, as Soviet police ranks were converted to a military uniform system, Beria's rank was converted to that of Marshal of the Soviet Union. Although he had never held a military command, Beria, through his organization of wartime production, made a significant contribution to the Soviet Union's victory in World War II. Postwar politics Beria with Stalin (in background) and Stalin's daughter Svetlana With Stalin nearing 70, the postwar years were dominated by a concealed struggle for the succession among his lieutenants. At the end of the war the most likely successor seemed to be Andrei Zhdanov, party leader in Leningrad during the war, then in charge of all cultural matters in 1946. Even during the war Beria and Zhdanov had been rivals, but after 1946 Beria formed an alliance with Malenkov to block Zhdanov's rise. In January 1946 Beria resigned as chief of the NKVD, while retaining general control over national security matters from his post of Deputy Prime Minister, under Stalin. But the new chief, Sergei Kruglov, was not a Beria man. Also, by the summer of 1946, Beria's man Vsevolod Nikolayevich Merkulov was replaced as head of the MGB by Viktor Abakumov. Kruglov and Abakumov then moved expeditiously to replace Beria's men in the security apparatus leadership with new people. Very soon MVD Deputy Minister Stepan Mamulov was the only Beria-ist left outside foreign intelligence, on which Beria kept a grip. In the following months, Abakumov started carrying out important operations without consulting Beria, often working in tandem with Zhdanov, and sometimes on Stalin's direct orders. Some observers argue that these operations were aimed - initially tangentially, but with time more directly - at Beria. One of the first such moves was the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee affair that commenced in October 1946 and eventually led to the murder of Solomon Mikhoels and the arrest of many other members. This affair damaged Beria because not only had he championed creation of the committee in 1942, but his own entourage included a substantial number of Jews. Zhdanov died suddenly in August 1948, and Beria and Malenkov then moved to consolidate their power with a purge of Zhdanov's associates known as the "Leningrad Affair". Among the more than 2,000 people executed were Zhdanov's deputy, Aleksei Kuznetsov, the economic chief, Nikolai Voznesensky, the Party head in Leningrad, Pyotr Popkov, and the Prime Minister of the Russian Republic, Mikhail Rodionov. It was only after Zhdanov's death that Nikita Khrushchev began to be considered as a possible alternative to the Beria-Malenkov axis. Zhdanov's death did not, however, stop the anti-Semitic campaign. During the postwar years Beria supervised the establishment of Communist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe, and hand-picked the leaders. A substantial number of these leaders were Jews. Starting in 1948, Abakumov initiated several investigations against these leaders, which culminated with the arrest in November 1951 of Rudolf Slánský, Bedřich Geminder, and others in Czechoslovakia. These men were generally accused of Zionism and cosmopolitanism, but, more specifically, of providing weapons to Israel. From Beria's standpoint, this charge was extremely explosive, because large amounts of Czech arms had been sold to Israel on his direct orders. Altogether, 14 Czechoslovakian Communist leaders, 11 of them Jewish, were tried, convicted, and executed (see Slánský trial). (Similar investigations in Poland and other Soviet satellite countries at the same time) Around that time, Abakumov was replaced by Semyon Ignatyev, who further intensified the anti-Semitic campaign. On 13 January 1953, the biggest anti-semitic affair in the Soviet Union was initiated with an article in Pravda: the Doctors' plot. A number of the country's prominent Jewish doctors were accused of poisoning top Soviet leaders and arrested. Concurrently, a hysterical anti-semitic propaganda campaign appeared in the Soviet press. Altogether, 37 doctors (17 of them were Jewish) were arrested, and the MGB, on Stalin's orders, started to prepare Heller, Mikhail; Nekrich, Alexandr M. (1982). Utopia in Power: The history of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the present, New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 503-4 for the deportation of the entire Jewish population to Russia's Far East, or worse. Days after Stalin's death on 5 March, Beria freed all the arrested doctors, announced that the entire matter was fabricated, and indeed arrested the MGB functionaries directly involved. The anticipated deportation of Jews never took place. Early in the 1950s, Stalin's growing mistrust of Beria appeared in the Mingrelian Affair, in which many of Beria's protégés in Georgia were purged, diminishing Beria's power. After Stalin Stalin collapsed during the night after a dinner with Beria and other Soviet leaders, and died four days later on 5 March 1953. Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, in his political memoirs (published posthumously in 1993), claimed that Beria told him that he had poisoned Stalin. "I took him out," Beria supposedly boasted. There is evidence that after Stalin was found unconscious, medical care was not provided for many hours. Other evidence of the murder of Stalin by Beria associates was presented by Edvard Radzinsky in his biography Stalin. It has been suggested that warfarin was used; it would have produced the symptoms reported. After Stalin's death Beria was appointed First Deputy Prime Minister and reappointed head of the MVD, which he merged with the MGB. His close ally Malenkov was the new Prime Minister and initially the most powerful man in the post-Stalin leadership. Beria was second most powerful, and given Malenkov's personal weakness, was poised to become the power behind the throne and ultimately leader himself. Khrushchev became Party Secretary, which was seen as a less important post than the Prime Ministership. Beria was at the forefront of liberalization after Stalin's death. Beria publicly denounced the "Doctors' Plot" as a "fraud," investigated and solved the murder of Solomon Mikhoels, and effectuated an amnesty that freed over a million non-political prisoners from forced labour camps. In April he signed a decree banning the use of torture in Soviet prisons. Beria also signalled a more liberal policy towards the non-Russian nationalities in the Soviet Union . He persuaded the Presidium (as the Politburo had been renamed) and the Council of Ministers to urge the Communist regime in East Germany to allow liberal economic and political reforms. Beria maneuvered to marginalize the role of the Party apparatus in the decision-making process in policy and economic matters . Some writers have held that Beria's liberal policies after Stalin's death were a tactic to maneuver himself into power. Even if he was sincere, they argue, Beria's past made it impossible for him to lead a liberalizing regime in the Soviet Union, a role which later fell to Khrushchev. The essential task of Soviet reformers was to bring the secret police under party control, and Beria could not do this since the police were the basis of his own power. Others have argued that he represented a truly reformist agenda, and that his eventual removal from power delayed a radical political and economic reform in the Soviet Union by almost forty years. Given his record, it is not surprising that the other Party leaders were suspicious of Beria's motives in all this. Khrushchev opposed the alliance between Beria and Malenkov, but he was initially unable to challenge the Beria-Malenkov axis. Khrushchev's opportunity came in June 1953 when demonstrations against the East German Communist regime broke out in East Berlin (see Uprising of 1953 in East Germany). There was a suspicion that the practical Beria was willing to trade the reunification of Germany and the end of the Cold War for massive aid from the United States such as had been received in World War II. The East German demonstrations convinced Molotov, Malenkov and Nikolai Bulganin that Beria's policies were dangerous and destabilizing to Soviet power. Within days of the events in Germany, Khrushchev persuaded the other leaders to support a Party coup against Beria; even Beria's principal ally Malenkov abandoned him. Beria's fall In June 1953, Beria was arrested and held in an undisclosed location near Moscow. Accounts of Beria's fall vary considerably. According to one account, Khrushchev convened a meeting of the Presidium on 26 June, where he launched an attack on Beria, accusing him of being in the pay of British intelligence. Beria was taken completely by surprise. He asked, "What's going on, Nikita Sergeyevich? Why are you picking fleas in my trousers?" Molotov and others then also spoke against Beria, and Khrushchev put a motion for his instant dismissal. Malenkov then pressed a button on his desk as the pre-arranged signal to Marshal Georgy Zhukov and a group of armed officers in a nearby room. They immediately burst in and arrested Beria. This fits an account (from Khrushchev's perspective) related in . Beria was taken first to the Moscow guardhouse ("gauptvakhta") and then to the bunker of the headquarters of Moscow Military District. Defence Minister Nikolai Bulganin ordered the Kantemirovskaya Tank Division and Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division to move into Moscow to prevent security forces loyal to Beria from rescuing him. Many of Beria's henchmen were also arrested, among them Merkulov, Bogdan Kobulov, Sergey Golgidze, Vladimir Dekanozov, Pavel Meshik, and Lev Vlodzimirskiy. Pravda announced Beria's arrest only on 10 July, crediting it to Malenkov and referring to Beria's "criminal activities against the Party and the State." In December it was announced that Beria and the six accomplices mentioned, "in the pay of foreign intelligence agencies," had been "conspiring for many years to seize power in the Soviet Union and restore capitalism." Beria and the others were tried by a special session ("Spetsialnoye Sudebnoye Prisutstvie") of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union with no defense counsel and no right of appeal. Marshal Ivan Konev was the chairman of the court. Beria was found guilty of: 1) Treason. It was alleged, without any proof, that "up to the moment of his arrest Beria maintained and developed his secret connections with foreign intelligence services". In particular, attempts to initiate peace talks with Hitler in 1941 through the ambassador of Bulgaria were classified as treason; it was not mentioned that Beria was acting on the orders of Stalin and Molotov. It was also alleged that Beria, who in 1942 helped organize the defense of the North Caucasus, tried to let the Germans occupy the Caucasus. There were also allegations that "planning to seize power, Beria tried to obtain the support of imperialist states at the price of violation of territorial integrity of the Soviet Union and transfer of parts of USSR's territory to capitalist states." These allegations were due to Beria's suggestion to his assistants that in order to improve foreign relations it was reasonable to transfer the Kaliningrad Oblast to Germany, part of Karelia to Finland, and the Kuril Islands to Japan. 2) Terrorism. Beria's order to execute 25 political prisoners in October 1941 without trial was classified as an act of terrorism. 3) Counterrevolutionary activity during Russian Civil War. In 1919 Beria worked in the security service of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. Beria maintained that he was assigned to that work by the Hummet party which subsequently merged with the Adalat Party, the Ahrar Party, and the Baku Bolsheviks to establish the Azerbaijan Communist Party. Beria and all the other defendants were sentenced to death. When the death sentence was passed, according to Moskalenko's later account, Beria begged on his knees for mercy, but he and the other six defendants were immediately executed by firing squad on 23 December 1953. See Citizen Kurchatov documentary for more details on Beria's death. Apparently his body was cremated and buried around Moscow. However, according to other accounts, including his son Sergo's, Beria's house was assaulted on 26 June 1953, by military units and Beria himself was killed on the spot. Nikolay Shvernik, a member of the court which tried Beria, allegedly later told Sergo that he had never seen Beria alive. Sergo and Beria's wife, Nina Gegechkori (niece of the Old Bolshevik Sasha Gegechkori) were exiled to Sverdlovsk. They were released in 1964. Nina died in 1991 in exile in Ukraine. Sergo died in October 2000 still defending his father's reputation. After Beria's death, the MGB was separated from the MVD and reduced from a Ministry to a Committee (known as the KGB), and no Soviet police chief ever again held the kind of power Beria had wielded. In May 2000 the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation refused an application by members of Beria's family to overturn his 1953 conviction. The application was based on a Russian law that provided for rehabilitation of victims of false political accusations. The court ruled, however, that "Beria was the organizer of repression against his own people, and therefore could not be considered a victim." However, the Supreme Court found Vladimir Dekanozov, Pavel Meshik and Lev Vlodzimirskiy guilty of abuse of authority, instead of crimes against the state, and the sentence for them was posthumously changed from death to 25 year imprisonment. Sexual sadism Charges of sexual assault and sexual sadism against Beria were first made in the speech by a Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Nikolay Shatalin, at the Plenary Meeting of the committee on 10 July 1953, two weeks after Beria's arrest. Shatalin said that Beria had had sexual relations with numerous women and that he had contracted syphilis as a result of sex with prostitutes. Shatalin referred to a list (supposedly kept by Beria's bodyguard) of over 25 women with whom Beria had sex. Over time, however, the charges became more dramatic. Khrushchev in his posthumously published memoirs wrote: "We were given a list of more than 100 names of women. They were dragged to Beria by his people. And he had the same trick for them all: all who got to his house for the first time, Beria would invite for a dinner and would propose to drink for the health of Stalin. And in wine, he would mix in some sleeping pills..." Afterwards he would drop off his charge and the chauffeur would give them a bouquet of flowers. One victim, having recently given birth and still suffering from the sore breasts of nursing her infant, refused his advances, but was accidentally given the flowers. Upon noticing, Beria shouted, "It's not a bouquet, it's a wreath. May they rot on your grave." She was later arrested. By the 1980s, the sexual assault stories about Beria included the rape of teenage girls. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, author of a biography of Beria, described in an interview a specific sexual game Beria is said to have forced upon young girls before picking one of them to rape. This alleged practice got the name "Beria's Flower Game". Numerous stories have circulated over the years involving Beria personally beating, torturing and killing his victims. Since the 1970s, Muscovites have been retelling stories of bones found in the back yard, cellars, or hidden inside the walls of Beria's former residence, currently the Tunisian Embassy. Such stories continue to re-appear in the news media. The London Daily Telegraph reported in December 2003: "The latest grisly find—a large thigh bone and some smaller leg bones—was only two years ago when a kitchen was re-tiled. In the basement, Anil, an Indian who has worked at the embassy for 17 years, showed a plastic bag of human bones he had found in the cellars." According to historian Simon Sebag-Montefiore, Beria personally tortured Nestor Lakoba's family, driving his widow mad by placing a snake in her cell and beating his teenage children to death. Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5); New York: Vintage, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1400076781). p. 250 Such reports have been dismissed by people close to Beria, such as his son Sergo, and former Soviet foreign intelligence chief Pavel Sudoplatov, as politically motivated smears. It is said that Beria kept a special room adjacent to his office for the torturing and raping of small children. Knight, Amy, 'Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant', Princeton University Press, 1993. See also History of the Soviet Union List of Georgians (country) Warfarin, rat poison Notes and references Further reading Antonov-Ovseenko, Anton, Beria, Moscow, 1999 (in Russian) Avtorkhanov, Abdurahman, The Mystery of Stalin's Death, Novyi Mir, #5, 1991, pp. 194-233 (in Russian) Beria, Sergo, Beria: My Father, London, 2001 Knight, Amy, Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant, Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691-03257-2 Khruschev, Nikita, Khruschev Remembers: Last Testament, Random House, 1977, ISBN 0-517-17547-9 Rhodes, Richard, <I>Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb<I>, Simon and Schuster, 1996 ISBN 0-684-82414-0 Stove, R. J., The Unsleeping Eye: Secret Police and Their Victims, Encounter Books, San Francisco, 2003). ISBN 1-893554-66-X Sudoplatov, Pavel, Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness - A Soviet Spymaster, Little Brown & Co, 1994, ISBN 0-316-77352-2 Sukhomlinov, Andrei, "Kto Vy, Lavrentiy Beria?", Moscow, 2003 (in Russian), ISBN 5-89935-060-1 Wittlin, Thaddeus. Commissar: The Life and Death of Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1972. Yakovlev, A.N., Naumov, V., and Sigachev, Y. (eds), Lavrenty Beria, 1953. Stenographic Report of July's Plenary Meeting of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Other Documents, International Democracy Foundation, Moscow, 1999 (in Russian). ISBN 5-89511-006-1 External links Benjamin B. Fischer, "The Katyn Controversy - Stalin's Killing Field" Photocopy of Beria's letter to Stalin to execute Katyn officers prisoners Official site of the Memorial to Katyn Interview with Sergo Beria An outline of the Russian Supreme Court decision of 29 May 2000 Annotated bibliography for Lavrenty Beria from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. The Reversal of the Doctors' Plot and Its Immediate Aftermath, 17 July 1953. Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Purge of L.P. Beria, 17 April 1954. Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Summarization of Reports Preceding Beria Purge, 17 August 1954.

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Geography_of_Latvia

Geographic coordinates: Detailed map of Latvia Satellite image of Latvia in March 2003 Latvia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea on the level northwestern part of the rising East European platform, between Estonia and Lithuania. About 98% of the country lies under 200 m elevation (640 ft). The damp climate resembles New England's. With the exception of the coastal plains, the ice age divided Latvia into three main regions: the morainic Western and Eastern uplands and the Middle lowlands. Latvia holds over 12,000 rivers, only 17 of which are longer than , and over 3,000 small lakes, most of which are eutrophic. The major rivers include the Daugava, the Lielupe, the Gauja, the Venta and the Salaca. Woodlands, more than half of which are pine woods, cover around 41% of the country. Other than peat, dolomite, and limestone, natural resources are scarce. Latvia has 531 km (329 mi.) of sandy coastline, and the ports of Liepaja and Ventspils provide important warm-water harbors for the Baltic coast. Latvia is slightly larger than Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia, or Estonia. Its strategic location has instigated many wars between rival powers on its territory. As recently as 1944, the U.S.S.R. granted Russia the Abrene region on the Livonian frontier, which Latvia still contests. Physical environment Latvia is traditionally seen as a tiny country. In terms of its population of about 2.3 million, it deserves this designation. Geographically, however, Latvia encompasses 64,589 square kilometers, a size surpassing that of better-known European states such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Denmark. Seen from the air, Latvia is an extension of the East European Plain. Its flat terrain differs little from that of its surrounding neighbors. Latvia's only distinct border is the Baltic Sea coast, which extends for 531 kilometers. Its neighbors include Estonia on the north (267 kilometers of common border), Lithuania on the south (453 kilometers), Belarus on the southeast (141 kilometers), and Russia on the east (217 kilometers). Prior to World War II, Latvia bordered eastern Poland, but as a result of boundary changes by the Soviet Union, this territory was attached to Belorussia. Also, in 1944 Russia annexed the northeastern border district of Latvia, known as Abrene, including the town of Pytalovo. Geographic features The physiography of Latvia and its neighboring areas was formed, to a large degree, during the Quaternary period and the Pleistocene ice age, when soil and debris were pushed by glaciers into mounds and hills. Undulating plains cover 75% of Latvia's territory and provide the main areas for farming; 25% of the territory lies in uplands of moderate-sized hills. About 27% of the total territory is cultivable, with the central Zemgale Plain south of Riga being the most fertile and profitable. The three main upland areas, in the provinces of Kurzeme (western Latvia), Vidzeme (central Latvia), and Latgale (eastern Latvia), provide a picturesque pattern of fields interspersed with forests and numerous lakes and rivers. In this area, the extensive glacial moraines, eskers, and drumlins have limited the profitability of agriculture by fragmenting fields and presenting serious erosion problems. About 10% of Latvian territory consists of peat bogs, swamps, and marshes, some of which are covered by stunted forest growth. Forests are the outstanding feature of Latvia, claiming 42% of the territory. Timber and wood products are among the country's most important exports. Two-thirds of the forests consist of Scots Pine or Norway Spruce. Latvian forests differ from those of North America primarily because of their relatively brush-free understory. The forest floor, however, is far from a biological desert, as is often the case in tree plantations. Indeed, one of the most widespread pastimes of the population is picking Bilberries, Cranberries, mushrooms, and other bounties of the natural environment. Few of the forests are fully mature because of previous overcutting and also because of several violent storms during the 1960s, which snapped or uprooted millions of trees. As a consequence, most of the wood today is derived from thinning and improvement cuts, forming 50% of the annual total growth increment of 8 million cubic meters of wood. For a long time, wood has been a basic source of energy. The utilization of wood as fuel has increased dramatically in the 1990s, even in cities, because of the numbing price hikes on other forms of energy. Local wood is also an important resource for the pulp and paper industry and for specialized plywood and furniture manufacturers. A great concern today is the unregulated cutting of timber for the foreign market. Prices paid by European wood buyers are phenomenally high by local standards, and there is much pressure to utilize this opportunity for cash accumulation, even without legal permits. By 1992 the problem had become so serious that Latvian forestry officials were given the right to carry firearms. Not all forests are productive. Many areas, especially abandoned, formerly private farms, have become overgrown with low-value alders and other scrub trees. With the return of private farming, these areas are once again being reclaimed for agriculture. In the process, however, there is a danger that these areas, which are ideal for wildlife, will become threatened. The decades-long neglect of extensive areas of marginal farmland was a boon for the establishment of unique ecological conditions favorable for the survival of animal species rarely found in other parts of Europe. According to a World Wildlife Fund study in 1992, Latvia has unusual populations of Black Storks, Lesser Spotted Eagles, Otters, Beaver, Lynx, and Wolves. There are also great concentrations of deer (86,000; Red Deer and Roe Deer), Wild Boar (32,000), Elk (25,000), and Red Fox (13,000). Many Latvians today are planning to exploit this resource by catering to foreign hunters. The variegated and rapidly changing physiography of glacial moraines and lowlands has also allowed temperate flora, such as oaks, to grow within a few hundred meters of northern flora, such as bog cotton and cloudberries. This variety and the rapid change in natural ecosystems are among the unique features of the republic. The Soviet system left behind another windfall for naturalists. The Latvian western seacoast was a carefully guarded border region. Almost all houses near the sea were razed or evacuated. As a result, about 300 kilometers of undeveloped seashore are graced only by forests of pine and spruce and ecologically unique sand dunes. The temptation for fast profit, however, may foster violation of laws that clearly forbid any construction within one kilometer of the sea. Unless the government takes vigorous action, one of the last remaining wild shorelines in Europe may become just a memory. The seashore adjoining the population centers around Riga was a major focus of tourism during the Soviet era. Jurmala, with its many sanatoriums and tourist accommodations, its tall pines, sandy beaches, and antique architecture, is now experiencing a wrenching readjustment. East European tourists can no longer afford to come here, and Western tourists have not yet discovered the area and its relatively low prices. West Europeans may be loath to come, however, because excessive pollution has closed Jurmala beaches to swimming since 1988. Moreover, facilities and accommodations adequate for Soviet tastes fall far short of minimal standards expected in the West. Latvia has an abundant network of rivers, contributing to the visual beauty and the economy of the country. The largest river is the Daugava, which has been an important route for several thousand years. It has been used by local tribes as well as by Vikings, Russians, and other Europeans for trade, war, and conquest. With a total length of 1,020 kilometers, the Daugava (or Zapadnaya Dvina in its upper reaches) originates in the Valday Hills in Russia's Tver' Oblast, meanders through northern Belarus, and then winds through Latvia for 370 kilometers before emptying into the Gulf of Riga. It is about 200 meters wide when it enters Latvia, increasing to between 650 and 750 meters at Riga and to 1.5 kilometers at its mouth. The river carries an average annual flow of 21 cubic kilometers. Its total descent within Latvia of ninety-eight meters has made it an attractive source of hydroelectric power production. The first hydroelectric station, at Kegums, was built during Latvia's independence period. The second dam, at Plavinas, aroused an unusual wave of protest in 1958. Most Latvians opposed the flooding of historical sites and a particularly scenic gorge with rare plants and natural features, such as the Staburags, a cliff comparable in cultural significance to the Lorelei in Germany. The construction of the dam was endorsed in 1959, however, after the purge of relatively liberal and nationally oriented leaders under Eduards Berklavs and their replacement by Moscow-oriented, ideologically conservative cadres led by Arvīds Pelše. The third dam, just above Riga, did not provoke much protest because of the seeming hopelessness of the cause. The proposed fourth dam, at the town of Daugavpils on the Daugava River, became the rallying point for protest in 1986-87 by hundreds of thousands of Latvians. This dam was not constructed, in spite of the vast expenditures already poured into the project. Smaller rivers include the Lielupe, in central Latvia, with an average annual flow of 3.6 cubic kilometers; the Venta, in the west, with 2.9 cubic kilometers; the Gauja, in the northeast, with 2.5 cubic kilometers; and the Aiviekste, in the east, with 2.1 cubic kilometers. Very little hydroelectric power is generated by their waters, although planners are now thinking of reactivating some of the abandoned older dams and turbines. The Gauja is one of Latvia's most attractive, relatively clean rivers and has an adjoining large Gauja National Park along both of its banks as one of its notable features. Its cold waters attract trout and salmon, and its sandstone cliff and forest setting are increasingly a magnet for tourists interested in the environment. More than 60% of the annual water volume of Latvia's six largest rivers comes from neighboring countries, mainly from Belarus and Lithuania. These adjoining resources create obvious needs for cooperation, especially in pollution control. The dangers from a lack of cooperation were brought home to Latvians in November 1990, when a polymer complex in Navapolatsk, Belarus, accidentally spilled 128 tons of cyanide derivatives into the Daugava River with no warning to downstream users in Latvia. Only the presence of numerous dead fish alerted Latvian inhabitants to the danger. Climate Latvia's northern location matches Labrador's latitude. In the summer, daylight hours are long and in the winter short. In December it is still pitch dark at 9:00 A.M., and daylight disappears before 4:00 P.M. This light deprivation may be an important ingredient in deciphering certain aspects of Latvian collective behavior. It may account for the general exuberance and joie de vivre in spring and summer, and the relative taciturnity and melancholy the rest of the year. The climate is far different from that of Labrador, however, because of the effect of the Gulf Stream flowing across the Atlantic Ocean from Mexico. Average temperatures in winter are reasonably mild, ranging in January from -2.8 °C in Liepaja, on the western coast, to -6.6 °C in the southeastern town of Daugavpils. July temperatures range from 16.7 °C in Liepaja to 17.6 °C in Daugavpils. Latvia's proximity to the sea brings high levels of humidity and precipitation, with average annual precipitation of 633 millimeters in Riga. There, an average of 180 days per year have precipitation, forty-four days have fog, and only seventy-two days are sunny. Continuous snow cover lasts eighty-two days, and the frost-free period lasts 177 days. This precipitation has helped provide the abundant water for Latvia's many rivers and lakes, but it has created many problems as well. A large part of agricultural land requires drainage. Much money has been spent for land amelioration projects involving the installation of drainage pipes, the straightening and deepening of natural streams, the digging of drainage ditches, and the construction of polder dams. During the 1960s and 1970s, drainage work absorbed about one-third of all agricultural investments in Latvia. Although accounting for only one-third of 1% of the territory, Latvia was responsible for 11% of all artificially drained land in the former Soviet Union. An additional problem associated with precipitation is the difficulty of early mechanized sowing and harvesting because of waterlogged fields. Heavy precipitation occurs, especially during harvest time in August and September, requiring heavy investment outlays in grain-drying structures and ventilation systems. In 1992, ironically, Latvia experienced the driest summer in recorded weather history, but unusually heavy rains in the preceding spring kept crop damage below the extent expected. The moist climate has been a major factor orienting Latvian agriculture toward animal husbandry and dairying. Even most of the field crops, such as barley, oats, and potatoes, are grown for animal feed. Natural resources Latvia cannot claim valuable natural resources. Nevertheless, the abundant presence of such materials as limestone for cement (6 billion cubic meters), gypsum (165 million cubic meters), high-quality clay (375 million cubic meters), dolomite (615 million cubic meters), peat (480 million tons), and construction materials, including gravel and sand, satisfy local needs. Fish from the Baltic Sea is another potential export resource. Amber, million-year-old chunks of petrified pine pitch, is often found on the beaches of the Baltic Sea and is in high demand for jewelry. It has also had a symbolic impact on the country, which is often called Dzintarzeme, or Amberland. The future may hold potentially more valuable resources if oil fields are discovered in Latvian territorial waters, as some geologists have predicted. Area and boundaries Area: total: 64,588 km² land: 64,588 km² water: 0 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than West Virginia Land boundaries: total: 1,150 km border countries: Belarus 141 km, Estonia 339 km, Lithuania 453 km, Russia 217 km Coastline: 531 km Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m highest point: Gaizinkalns 312 m Resources and land use Natural resources: minimal; amber, peat, limestone, dolomite, hydropower, arable land Land use: arable land: 27% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 13% forests and woodland: 46% other: 14% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 160 km² (1993 est.) Environmental concerns Natural hazards: NA Environment - current issues: air and water pollution because of a lack of waste conversion equipment; Gulf of Riga and Daugava River heavily polluted; contamination of soil and groundwater with chemicals and petroleum products at military bases Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol See also Latvia Historical regions of Latvia Dobele crater References

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organic_pollutant:1 kyoto_protocol:1

Galliard

Galliard in Siena, Italy, 15th century The galliard (gaillarde, in French) was a form of Renaissance dance and music popular all over Europe in the 16th century. It is mentioned in dance manuals from England, France, Spain, Germany, and Italy, among others. Dance As a dance, the galliard is improvised, with dancers combining patterns of steps which occupy one or more measures of music. In one measure, a galliard typically has five steps; in French such a basic step is called a cinq pas and in Italy, "cinque passi". This is sometimes written in English sources as sinkapace. These steps are: right, left, right, left, cadence. The galliard is an athletic dance, characterised by leaps, jumps, hops, and other similar figures. The main feature that defines a galliard step is that the last two beats consist of a large jump, landing with one leg ahead of the other. This jump is called a cadence, and the final landing is called the posture. The sources generally describe movement patterns starting on the left foot, then repeating it starting with the right foot. A galliard pattern may also last twice as long, or more, which would involve 11 steps, or 17 steps, and so forth. The galliard was a favourite dance of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and although it is quite a vigorous dance, in 1589 when the Queen was in her mid fifties, John Stanhope of the Privy Chamber reported, "the Queen is so well as I assure you, six or seven galliards in a morning, besides music and singing, is her ordinary exercise". (Brissenden 1981, 4-5). In addition to being an entire dance, galliard steps are used within many other forms of dance. For example, 16th century Italian dances in Fabritio Caroso's (1581) and Negri's (1602) dance manuals often have a galliard section. One special step used during a galliard is lavolta, a step which involves an intimate, close hold between a couple, with the woman being lifted into the air and the couple turning about 270 degrees, within one six-beat measure. La Volta was considered quite a scandalous dance and some dancing masters questioned whether it ought to be danced at all. Another special step used during a galliard is the tassel kick (Salti del Fiocco). These steps are found in Cesare Negri's manual (Negri 1602), and involve a galliard step ending with a 180 degree or 360 degree spin, during which the dancer kicks out to kick a tassel suspended between knee and waist height. Musical form Musical compositions in the galliard form appear to have been written and performed long after the dance fell out of popular use. In musical compositions, the galliard often filled the role of an after dance written in 6, which followed and mimicked another piece (sometimes a pavane) written in 4. The distinctive 6 beats to the phrase can still be heard today in songs such as "God Save the Queen". See also Saltarello Renaissance Dance article and video clips (US Library of Congress) References Brissenden, Alan. 1981. Shakespeare and the Dance. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press. ISBN 0391018108 Caroso, Fabritio. 1581. Il ballarino. 2 volumes. Venice: Francesco Ziletti. Facsimile reprint in one volume, Monuments of Music and Music Literature in Facsimile. second series: Music Literature, 46, New York: Broude Brothers, 1967. Negri, Cesare. 1602. Le Gratie d'amore. Milan. Facsimile reprints, (1) Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, Sez. 2, n. 104, Bologna: Forni Editore, 1969; (2) Monuments of Music and Music Literature in Facsimile. second series: Music Literature, no. 141, New York: Broude Bros., 1969.

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Bernard_of_Clairvaux

Bernard of Clairvaux, O.Cist (1090 - August 20, 1153) was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. Three years later, he was sent to find a new house, which Bernard named Claire Vallée, 'of Clairvaux', on 25 June 1115. Bernard would preach an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. In the year 1128, Bernard assisted at the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar, who soon became the ideal of Christian nobility. On the death of Pope Honorius II, which occurred on February 14, 1130, a schism broke out in the Church. King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Étampes, and Bernard was chosen to judge between the rival popes. In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran. Bernard denounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the Pope, who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the matter. Bernard soon saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, elected Pope. Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, Bernard traveled in Southern France and his preaching there helped strengthen support against heresy. Following the Christian defeat at the Siege of Edessa, the Pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade. The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by the failure of the crusaders, the entire responsibility for which was thrown upon him. Bernard died at age 63, after 40 years spent in the cloister. He was the first Cistercian monk placed on the calendar of saints, and was canonized by Pope Alexander III on 18 January 1174. Pope Pius VIII bestowed upon him the title of "Doctor of the Church." Early life (1090-1113) Bernard's parents were Tescelin, lord of Fontaines, and Aleth of Montbard, both belonging to the highest nobility of Burgundy. Bernard was the third of a family of seven children, six of whom were sons. At the age of nine years, Bernard was sent to school at Chatillon-sur-Seine, run by the secular canons of Saint-Vorles. Bernard had a great taste for literature and devoted himself for some time to poetry. His success in his studies won the admiration of his teachers. Bernard wanted to excel in literature in order to take up the study of the Bible. He had a special devotion to the Virgin Mary, and he would later write several works about the Queen of Heaven. The Vision of St Bernard, by Fra Bartolommeo, c. 1504 (Uffizi). Bernard would expand upon Anselm of Canterbury's role in transmuting the sacramentally ritual Christianity of the Early Middle Ages into a new, more personally held faith, with the life of Christ as a model and a new emphasis on the Virgin Mary. In opposition to the rational approach to divine understanding that the scholastics adopted, Bernard would preach an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary, Bernard was only nineteen years of age when his mother died. During his youth, he did not escape trying temptations and around this time he thought of retiring from the world and living a life of solitude and prayer. Bunson (1998) p.129. In 1098, St Robert of Molesme had founded the monastery of Cîteaux, near Dijon, with the purpose of restoring the Rule of St Benedict in all its rigour. Returning to Molesmes, he left the government of the new abbey to St Alberic, who died in the year 1109. In 1113, St Stephen Harding had just succeeded him as third Abbot of Cîteaux when Bernard and thirty other young noblemen of Burgundy sought admission into the Cistercian order. McManners (1990) p.204. Abbot of Clairvaux (1113-28) Bernard exorcising a possession, altarpiece by Jörg Breu the Elder, c. 1500. The little community of reformed Benedictines at Cîteaux, which would have so profound an influence on Western monasticism, grew rapidly. Three years later, Bernard was sent with a band of twelve monks to found a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, in the Diocese of Langres. This Bernard named Claire Vallée, of Clairvaux, on the June 25, 1115, and the names of Bernard and Clairvaux would soon become inseparable. During the absence of the Bishop of Langres, Bernard was blessed as abbot by William of Champeaux, Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne. From that moment a strong friendship sprang up between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris, and the founder of the cloister of St Victor. The beginnings of Clairvaux Abbey were trying and painful. The regime was so austere that Bernard became ill, and only the influence of his friend William of Champeaux, and the authority of the General Chapter could make him mitigate the austerities. The monastery, however, made rapid progress. Disciples flocked to it in great numbers and put themselves under the direction of Bernard. His father and all his brothers entered Clairvaux as to pursue religious life, leaving only Humbeline, his sister, in the secular world. She, with the consent of her husband, soon took the veil in the Benedictine convent of Jully. Gerard of Clairvaux, Bernard's older brother became the cellarer of Citeaux. The abbey became too small for its members and it was necessary to send out bands to found new houses. In 1118, Three Fountains Abbey was founded in the Diocese of Châlons. In 1119, that of Fontenay in the Diocese of Autun and in 1121, that of Foigny, near Vervins, in the Diocese of Laon were founded. In addition to these victories, Bernard also has his trials. During an absence from Clairvaux, the Grand Prior of Cluny went to Clairvaux and enticed away the Bernard's cousin, Robert of Châtillon. This was the occasion of the longest, and most emotional of Bernard's letters. The abbey of Cluny as it would have looked in Bernard's time. In the year 1119, Bernard was present at the first general chapter of the order convoked by Stephen of Cîteaux. Though not yet 30 years old, Bernard was listened to with the greatest attention and respect, especially when he developed his thoughts upon the revival of the primitive spirit of regularity and fervour in all the monastic orders. It was this general chapter that gave definitive form to the constitutions of the order and the regulations of the "Charter of Charity" which Pope Callixtus II confirmed December 23, 1119. In 1120, Bernard authored his first work "De Gradibus Superbiae et Humilitatis" and his homilies which he entitled "De Laudibus Mariae." The monks of the abbey of Cluny were unhappy to see Cîteaux take the lead rôle among the religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. For this reason, the Black Monks attempted to make it appear that the rules of the new order were impracticable. At the solicitation of William of St. Thierry, Bernard defended the order by publishing his "Apology" which was divided into two parts. In the first part, he proved himself innocent of the charges of Cluny and in the second he gave his reasons for his counterattacks. He protested his profound esteem for the Benedictines of Cluny whom he declared he loved equally as well as the other religious orders. Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, answered Bernard and assured him of his great admiration and sincere friendship. In the meantime Cluny established a reform, and Abbot Suger, the minister of Louis VI of France, was converted by the Apology of Bernard. He hastened to terminate his worldly life and restore discipline in his monastery. The zeal of Bernard extended to the bishops, the clergy, and lay people. Bernard's letter to the Archbishop of Sens was seen as a real treatise, "De Officiis Episcoporum." About the same time he wrote his work on Grace and Free Will. Doctor of the Church (1128-46) Pope Honorius II called the Council of Troyes. In the year 1128, Bernard participated in the Council of Troyes, which had been convoked by Pope Honorius II, and was presided over by Cardinal Matthew, Bishop of Albano. The purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of Paris, and regulate other matters of the Church of France. The bishops made Bernard secretary of the council, and charged him with drawing up the synodal statutes. After the council, the Bishop of Verdun was deposed. It was at this council that Bernard traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar who soon became the ideal of Christian nobility. He later praised them in his "De Laudibus Novae Militiae." Durant (1950) p.593. Again reproaches arose against Bernard and he was denounced, even in Rome. He was accused of being a monk who meddled with matters that did not concern him. Cardinal Harmeric, on behalf of the pope, wrote Bernard a sharp letter of remonstrance stating, "It is not fitting that noisy and troublesome frogs should come out of their marshes to trouble the Holy See and the cardinals." Bernard answered the letter by saying that, if he had assisted at the council, it was because he had been dragged to it by force. In his response Bernard wrote, "Now illustrious Harmeric if you so wished, who would have been more capable of freeing me from the necessity of assisting at the council than yourself? Forbid those noisy troublesome frogs to come out of their holes, to leave their marshes . . . Then your friend will no longer be exposed to the accusations of pride and presumption." This letter made a positive impression on Harmeric, and in the Vatican. Schism Bernard's influence was soon felt in provincial affairs. He defended the rights of the Church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henri Sanglier, Archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, Bishop of Paris. On the death of Pope Honorius II, which occurred on February 14, 1130, a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes, Pope Innocent II and Pope Anacletus II. Innocent II having been banished from Rome by Anacletus took refuge in France. King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Étampes, and Bernard, summoned there by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent II. This caused the Pope to be recognized by all the great powers. He then went with him into Italy and reconciled Pisa with Genoa, and Milan with the Pope. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X of Aquitaine, Count of Poitiers, from the cause of Anacletus. St Bernard in a medieval illuminated manuscript. In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny the Pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the Pope supported by the army of Emperor Lothaire III, entered Rome, but Lothaire, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned to France in June, and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. At the Eucharist, he "admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants". William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the Pope as they had followed the deposed Anselm V, Archbishop of Milan. For this, he was offered, and he refused, the Archbishopric of Milan. He then returned to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the composition of the works which would win for him the title of "Doctor of the Church." He wrote at this time his sermons on the "Song of Songs." In 1137 he was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the Pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothaire and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of "grief and disappointment" in 1138, and with him the schism ended. Contest with Abelard In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned. About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by Saint Malachy, Primate of All Ireland, and a very close friendship was formed between them. Malachy wanted to become a Cistercian, but the Pope would not give his permission. Malachi would die at Clairvaux in 1148. Towards the close of the 11th century, the schools of philosophy and theology were dominated by a spirit of independence. This led for a time to the exaltation of human reason and rationalism. This movement found an ardent and powerful adherent in Peter Abelard. Abelard's treatise on the Trinity had been condemned in 1121, and he himself had thrown his book into the fire. In 1139, Abelard advocated new positions at odds with those of Rome. Bernard, informed of this by William of St-Thierry, wrote to Abelard who answered in an insulting manner. Bernard then denounced him to the Pope who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the matter. There, Abelard asked for a public debate with Bernard. Bernard delivered Rome's case with such clearness and force of logic that Abelard made no reply. He was obliged, after being condemned, to retire. The Pope confirmed the judgment of the council, Abelard submitted without resistance, and retired to Cluny to live under Peter the Venerable, where he died two years later. Cistercian Order and heresy Bernard had occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his overcrowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Some of these, at the command of Innocent II, took possession of Three Fountains Abbey, from which Pope Eugenius III would be chosen in 1145. Pope Innocent II died in the year 1143. His two successors, Pope Celestine II and Pope Lucius II, reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, and known thereafter as Eugenius III, raised to the Chair of Saint Peter. Bunson (1998) p.130. Bernard sent him, at the Pope's own request, various instructions which comprise the "Book of Considerations," the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the Church ought to commence with the sanctity of the Pope. Temporal matters are merely accessories, the principals according to Bernard's work were piety, and meditation which was to precede action. McManners (1990) p.210. Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, had adopted the teachings of the Petrobrusians, followers of Peter of Bruys and spread them in a modified form after Peter's death. Henry of Lausanne's followers became known as Henricians. In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard traveled in Southern France. McManners (1990) p.211. His preaching, aided by his ascetic looks and simple attire, helped doom the new sects. Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian faiths began to die out by the end of that year.Soon afterwards, Henry of Lausanne was arrested, brought before the Bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. He also preached against the Cathars. Second Crusade (1146-49) News came at this time from the Holy Land that alarmed Christendom. Christians had been defeated at the Siege of Edessa and most of the county had fallen into the hands of the Turks. Riley-Smith (1991) p.48 The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states were threatened with similar disaster. Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited aid from the Pope, and the King of France also sent ambassadors. The Pope commissioned Bernard to preach a Second Crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade. Durant (1950) p.594. Bernard of Clairvaux, true effigy by Georg Andreas Wasshuber (1650-1732). There was at first virtually no popular enthusiasm for the crusade as there had been in 1095. Bernard found it expedient to dwell upon the taking of the cross as a potent means of gaining absolution for sin and attaining grace. On 31 March, with King Louis present, he preached to an enormous crowd in a field at Vézelay. When Bernard was finished the crowd enlisted en masse; they supposedly ran out of cloth to make crosses. Bernard is said to have given his own outer garments to be cut up to make more. Unlike the First Crusade, the new venture attracted Royalty, such as Eleanor of Aquitaine, then Queen of France; Thierry of Alsace, Count of Flanders; Henry, the future Count of Champagne; Louis’ brother Robert I of Dreux; Alphonse I of Toulouse; William II of Nevers; William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey; Hugh VII of Lusignan; and numerous other nobles and bishops. But an even greater show of support came from the common people. Bernard wrote to the Pope a few days afterwards, "Cities and castles are now empty. There is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still living husbands." Bernard then passed into Germany, and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission. Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, received the cross from the hand of Bernard. Pope Eugenius came in person to France to encourage the enterprise. As in the First Crusade, the preaching inadvertently led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Rudolphe was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, and Speyer, with Rudolphe claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land. The Archbishop of Cologne and the Archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks and asked Bernard to denounce them. This he did, but when the campaign continued, Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person. He then found Rudolphe in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery. Durant (1950) p. 391. The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by the failure of the Second Crusade he had preached, the entire responsibility for which was thrown upon him. Bunson (1998) p. 130. He had accredited the enterprise by his reported miracles, but he had not guaranteed its success against the misconduct of those who participated in it. Lack of discipline and the over-confidence of the German troops, the intrigues of the Prince of Antioch and his niece Queen Eleanor, and finally the blunders of the Christian nobles, who failed at the siege of Damascus, appear to have been the cause of disaster. Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his "Book of Considerations." There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures. When his attempt to call a new crusade failed, he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether. Runciman (1952) pp. 232-234 and pg. 277. Final years (1149-53) Bernard receiving milk from the breast of the Virgin Mary. The scene is a legend which allegedly took place at Speyer Cathedral in 1146. The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Bernard of his own approaching end. The first to die was Suger in 1152, of whom Bernard wrote to Eugenius III, "If there is any precious vase adorning the palace of the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger". Conrad III and his son Henry died the same year. From the beginning of the year 1153, Bernard felt his death approaching. The passing of Pope Eugenius had struck the fatal blow by taking from him one whom he considered his greatest friend and consoler. Bernard died at age sixty-three on August 20, 1153, after forty years spent in the cloister. He was buried at the Clairvaux Abbey, but after its dissolution in 1792 by the French revolutionary government, his remains were translated to the Troyes Cathedral. Theology At the 800th anniversary of his death, Pope Pius XII issued an encyclical on Bernard, Doctor Mellifluus in which he labeled him "The Last of the Fathers." Bernard did not reject human philosophy which is genuine philosophy, which leads to God; he differentiates different kind of knowledge, the highest being theological. Three central elements of Bernard’s mariology are: how he explained the Virginity of Mary, the “Star of the Sea”, how the faithful should pray on the Virgin Mary, and how he relied on the Virgin Mary as Mediatrix. Legacy Bernard's theology and Mariology continue to be of major importance, particularly within the Cistercian and Trappist orders. His texts are prescribed readings in Cistercian congregations Bernard led to the foundation of 163 monasteries in different parts of Europe. At his death, they numbered 343. His influence led Pope Alexander III to launch reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law. Duffy (1997) p. 101. He was the first Cistercian monk placed on the calendar of saints and was canonized by Pope Alexander III January 18, 1174. Pope Pius VIII bestowed on him the title of Doctor of the Church. He is fondly remembered as the "Mellifluous Doctor," (the Honey-Sweet Doctor), for his eloquence. The Cistercians honour him as only the founders of orders are honoured, because of the widespread activity which he gave to the order. The works of Bernard are as follows: "De Gradibus Superbiae," his first treatise. Homilies on the Gospel "Missus est" written in 1120. "Apology to William of St. Thierry" against the claims of the monks of Cluny. "On the Conversion of Clerics," a book addressed to the young ecclesiastics of Paris written in 1122. "De Laudibus Novae Militiae," addressed to Hugues de Payens, first Grand Master and Prior of Jerusalem (1129). This is a eulogy of the military order instituted in 1118, and an exhortation to the knights to conduct themselves with courage in their several stations. "De amore Dei" wherein Bernard argues that the manner of loving God is to love without measure and gives the different degree of this love. "Book of Precepts and Dispensations" (1131), which contains answers to questions upon certain points of the Rule of St Benedict from which the abbot can, or cannot, dispense. "De Gratiâ et Libero Arbitrio" in which the Roman Catholic dogma of grace and free will was defended according to the principles of St Augustine. "Book of Considerations," addressed to Pope Eugenius III. "De Officiis Episcoporum," addressed to Henry, Archbishop of Sens. His sermons are also numerous: On Psalm 90, "Qui habitat," written about 1125. "On the Song of Songs." There are also 86 "Sermons for the Whole Year." 530 letters survive. Many letters, treatises, and other works, falsely attributed to him survive, such as the l'Echelle du Cloître, les Méditations, and l'Edification de la Maison intérieure. Saint Bernard's Prayer to the shoulder wound of Jesus is often published in Catholic prayer books. Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy" places him as the last guide for Dante, as he travels through the Empyrean. As the final guide, he represents the Contemplative Soul who is able to lead Dante to his viewing of God. Stained glass representing Bernard. Upper Rhine, ca. 1450. See also Prayer to the shoulder wound of Jesus Notes References External links Opera omnia Sancti Bernardi Claraevallensis The Complete Works of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, in Latin. Audio on the life of St. Bernard of Clairvaux from waysideaudio.com.

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Edward_Bulwer-Lytton

Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton PC (25 May, 1803–18 January, 1873), was an English novelist, poet, playwright, and politician. Lord Lytton was a florid, popular writer of his day, who coined such phrases as "the great unwashed", "pursuit of the almighty dollar", "the pen is mightier than the sword", and the infamous incipit "It was a dark and stormy night." He was the youngest son of General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk and Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth, Hertfordshire. He had two brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer (1799–1877) and Henry, afterwards Lord Dalling and Bulwer. Lord Lytton's original surname was Bulwer, the names 'Earle' and 'Lytton' were middle names. On 20 February 1844 he assumed the name and arms of Lytton by royal licence and his surname then became 'Bulwer-Lytton'. His widowed mother had done the same in 1811. His brothers were always simply surnamed 'Bulwer'. Life Lord Lytton's father died when he was four years old, after which his mother moved to London. A delicate and neurotic, but precocious, child, he was sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented until a Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, Ishmael and Other Poems. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, but moved shortly afterwards to Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for English verse. In the following year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, Weeds and Wild Flowers. He purchased a commission in the army, but sold it again without serving, and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his mother's wishes, Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802–1882). Upon their marriage, his mother withdrew his allowance, and he was forced to set to work seriously. His writing and his efforts in the political arena took a toll upon his marriage to Rosina, and they were legally separated in 1836. Three years later, she published a novel called Cheveley, or the Man of Honour, in which Lord Lytton (then still surnamed Bulwer) was bitterly caricatured. In June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly denounced him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but liberated a few weeks later. This was chronicled in her book A Blighted Life. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband’s character; she would outlive him by nine years. The English Rosicrucian society, founded in 1867 by Robert Wentworth Little, claimed Lord Lytton as their 'Grand Patron', but Lord Lytton wrote a letter to the society complaining that he was 'extremely surprised' by their use of the title, as he had 'never sanctioned such'. R. A. Gilbert, 'The Supposed Rosy Crucian Society', in Caron et. al. (eds.), Ésotérisme, Gnoses et Imaginaire Symbolique, Leuven: Peeters, 2001, p. 399. Nevertheless, a number of esoteric groups have continued to claim Bulwer-Lytton as their own, chiefly because some of Lord Lytton's writings—such as the 1842 book Zanoni—have recourse to Rosicrucian and assorted esoteric notions. According to the Fulham Football Club, he once resided in the original Craven Cottage, today the site of their stadium. Political career Lord Lytton began his career as a follower of Jeremy Bentham. In 1831 he was elected member for St Ives in Cornwall, after which he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in Parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the Reform Bill, and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His influence was perhaps most keenly felt when, on the Whigs’ dismissal from office in 1834, he issued a pamphlet entitled A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis. Lord Melbourne, then Prime Minister, offered him a lordship of the admiralty, which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author. In 1838, then at the height of his popularity, he was created a baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. In 1841, he left Parliament and spent some years in continental travel, reentering the political field in 1852; this time, having differed from the policy of Lord John Russell over the Corn Laws, he stood for Hertfordshire as a Conservative. Lord Lytton held that seat until 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton, of Knebworth in the County of Hertford. In 1858 he entered Lord Derby's government as Secretary of State for the Colonies, thus serving alongside his old friend Disraeli. In the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. He took a proprietary interest in the development of the Crown Colony of British Columbia and wrote with great passion to the Royal Engineers upon assigning them their duties there. The former HBC Fort Dallas at Camchin, the confluence of the Thompson and Fraser Rivers, was renamed in his honour by Governor Sir James Douglas in 1858 as Lytton, British Columbia. Literary career Lord Lytton's literary career began in 1820, with the publication of his first book of poems, and spanned much of the nineteenth century. He wrote in a variety of genres, including historical fiction, mystery, romance, the occult, and science fiction. 1849 printing of Pelham with Hablot K. Browne (Phiz) frontispiece: Pelham's electioneering visit to the Revd. Combermere St Quintin, who is surprised at dinner with his family. In 1828 he attracted general attention with Pelham, a humorous, intimate study of the dandyism of the age which kept gossips busy in identifying characters with public figures of the time. A highly melodramatic sub-plot is interwoven. By 1833, he had reached the height of his popularity with Godolphin, followed by The Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834), The Last Days of Pompeii (1834), Rienzi: Last of the Tribunes (1835), and Harold: Last of the Saxon Kings (1848). The Last Days of Pompeii was inspired by the painting on the same subject by Russian painter Karl Briullov (Carlo Brullo) which Bulwer-Lytton saw in Milan. He also wrote The Haunted and the Haunters (1857), also known as The House and the Brain, included by Isaac Asimov in his anthology Tales of the Occult (1989, ed. Prometheus, ISBN 0-87975-531-8). Pelham had been partly inspired by Benjamin Disraeli's first novel Vivian Grey. Lord Lytton was an admirer of Benjamin’s father Isaac D’Israeli, himself a noted literary figure, and had corresponded with him. Lord Lytton and D'Israeli began corresponding themselves in the late 1820s, and met for the first time in March 1830, when D'Israeli dined at Lord Lytton’s house. Also present that evening were Charles Pelham Villiers and Alexander Cockburn. Although young at the time, Villiers went on to an exceptionally long parliamentary career, while Cockburn became Lord Chief Justice of England in 1859. He penned many other works, including The Coming Race (also reprinted as Vril: The Power of the Coming Race), which drew heavily on his interest in the occult and contributed to the birth of the science fiction genre. Some believe the book helped to inspire Nazi mysticism, and it has contributed to Hollow Earth theory. Unquestionably, its story of a subterranean race of men waiting to reclaim the surface is one of the early science fiction novels. His play, Money, was produced at Prince of Wales's Theatre in 1872. Legacy Bulwer-Lytton pioneered a style of writing that, while very popular in his days, is considered overly florid and excessively embellished. Yet this presents a challenge for writers around the world to duplicate his feat. His name lives on in the annual Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest, in which contestants have to supply terrible openings of imaginary novels, inspired by his novel Paul Clifford, which opens with the famous words:“It was a dark and stormy night” or to give the sentence in full:“It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents—except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness.” Entrants in the contest seek to capture the rapid changes in point of view, the florid language, and the atmosphere of the full sentence. The shorter form of the opening sentence was popularized by the Peanuts comic strip, in which it usually began Snoopy's sessions with the typewriter. It is also the first sentence of Madeleine L'Engle’s Newbery Medal–winning novel A Wrinkle in Time. Lord Lytton's most famous quotation is "the pen is mightier than the sword", although in the original piece the phrase is led with the phrase "beneath the rule of men entirely great", in the play Richelieu. He also gave the world the memorable phrase “pursuit of the almighty dollar”. Finally, he is widely credited for "the great unwashed". Unfortunately, many citations claim The Last Days of Pompeii as their source, but perusal of the original work indicates that this is not the case. However, the term "the Unwashed" with the same meaning, appears in The Parisians—"He says that Paris has grown so dirty since the 4 September, that it is only fit for the feet of the Unwashed." "The Parisians", though, was published only in 1872, while William Makepeace Thackeray's novel "Pendennis" (1850) uses the phrase ironically, implying it is of much earlier origin. Several of Bulwer-Lytton's novels were made into operas, one of which (Rienzi, der Letzte der Tribunen, by Richard Wagner) eventually became considerably more famous than the novel on which it was based. Leonora by William Henry Fry, the first opera composed in the United States of America, is from Lord Lytton's novel The Lady of Lyons. In 1831 Lord Lytton undertook the editorship of the New Monthly but resigned the following year. In 1841, he started the Monthly Chronicle, a semi-scientific magazine. During his career he wrote poetry, prose, and stage plays; his last novel was Kenelm Chillingly, which was in course of publication in Blackwood’s Magazine at the time of his death in 1873. His works of fiction and non-fiction were translated in his day and since then into many languages, including German, Norwegian, Swedish, French, Finnish, and Spanish. His book 'Ernest Maltravers' was the first complete novel from the west to be translated into Japanese in [1878]. Children He and Rosina Doyle Wheeler had two children: Lady Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton (17 June, 1828–29 April, 1848). (Edward) Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton (8 November, 1831–24 November, 1891). Viceroy of British India from 1876 to 1880. Other Lord Lytton is buried in Westminster Abbey. After his death, the incomplete work of history, Athens: Its Rise and Fall was published. Works by Edward Bulwer-Lytton Novels Pelham (1828) The Disowned (1829) Devereux (1829) Paul Clifford (1830) Eugene Aram (1832) Godolphin (1833) Falkland (1834) The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) Rienzi (1835) The Student (1835) Ernest Maltravers (1837) Alice (1838) Night and Morning (1841) Zanoni (1842) The Last of the Barons (1843) Lucretia (1846) Harold, or The Last of the Saxon Kings (1848) The Caxtons (1849) My Novel (1853) What Will He Do With It? (1859) A Strange Story (1862) The Coming Race (1871) Kennelm Chillingly (1873) Plays The Lady of Lyons (1838) Richelieu (1839) Money (1840) See also Hollow earth theory References Further reading Christensen, Allan Conrad. Edward Bulwer-Lytton: The Fiction of New Regions, Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 1976. ISBN 0820303879. Christensen, Allan Conrad, ed. The Subverting Vision of Bulwer Lytton: Bicentenary Reflections, Newark, Delaware: The University of Delaware Press, 2004. ISBN 0874138566. Escott, T. H. S. Edward Bulwer, First Baron Lytton of Knebworth; a Social, Personal, and Political Monograph. London: George Routledge & Sons, 1910. Mitchell, L. G. Bulwer Lytton: The Rise and Fall of a Victorian Man of Letters. London; New York: Hambledon and London: Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. ISBN 1852854235. External links Sources Works by Edward Bulwer-Lytton at Internet Archive Other Edward George Earl Bulwer-Lytton (1803–73) Dickens or Bulwer? A quiz to tell the difference between their prose. John S. Moore's essay on Bulwer-Lytton |-

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Bluetongue_disease

Bluetongue disease or catarrhal fever is a non-contagious, insect-borne viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and less frequently of cattle, goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries and antelope. It is caused by the Bluetongue virus. There are no reports of human transmission. Although the tongues of human patients with some types of heart disease may be blue, this sign is not related to bluetongue disease. Pathogen and vector Bluetongue virus particle Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV), of the genus Orbivirus, is a member of the Reoviridae family. There are 24 serotypes. It is transmitted by a midge, Culicoides imicola and other culicoids. Bluetongue virus Bluetongue virus causes serious disease in livestock (sheep, goats, cattle and deer). Partly due to this BTV has been in the forefront of molecular studies for last three decades and now represents one of the best understood viruses at the molecular and structural levels. BTV, like the other members of the family is a complex non-enveloped virus with seven structural proteins and a RNA genome consisting of 10 double-stranded (ds) RNA segments of different sizes. Data obtained from studies over a number of years have defined the key players in BTV entry, replication, assembly and exit and have increasingly found roles for host proteins at each stage. Specifically, it has been possible to determine the complex nature of the virion through 3D structure reconstructions (diameter ~ 800 Å); the atomic structure of proteins and the internal capsid (~ 700 Å, the first large highly complex structure ever solved); the definition of the virus encoded enzymes required for RNA replication; the ordered assembly of the capsid shell and the protein sequestration required for it; and the role of host proteins in virus entry and virus release. These areas are important for BTV replication but they also indicate the pathways that may be used by related viruses, which include viruses that are pathogenic to man and animals, thus providing the basis for developing strategies for intervention or prevention. BTV is the type species of the genus Orbivirus within the family Reoviridae. The Reoviridae family is one of the largest families of viruses and includes major human pathogens (e.g., rotavirus) as well as other vertebrate, plant and insect pathogens. Like the other members of the family, Orbiviruses which encompass, besides BTV, the agents causing African horse sickness (AHSV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer (EHDV), have the characteristic double-stranded and segmented features of their RNA genomes. However, unlike the mammalian reoviruses, Orbiviruses comprising 14 serogroups, are vectored to a variety of vertebrates by arthropod species (e.g., gnats, mosquitoes and ticks) and replicate in both hosts. BTV, the etiological agent of Bluetongue disease of animals, is transmitted by Culicoides species. In sheep BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats, cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (e.g., blesbuck, white-tailed deer, elk, pronghorn antelope, etc.). The disease was first described in the late 18th century and was believed for many decades to be confined to Africa. However, to date BTV has been isolated in many tropical, subtropical and temperate zones and 24 serotypes have been identified from different parts of the world. Due to its economic significance BTV has been the subject of extensive molecular, genetic and structural studies. As a consequence it now represents one of the best characterised viruses. Unlike the reovirus and rotavirus particles, the mature BTV particle is relatively fragile and the infectivity of BTV is lost easily in mildly acidic conditions. BTV virions (550S) are architecturally complex structures composed of 7 discrete proteins that are organised into two concentric shells, the outer and inner capsids, and a genome of 10 dsRNA segments. The outer capsid, which is composed of two major structural proteins (VP2 and VP5), is involved in cell attachment and virus penetration during the initial stages of infection. Shortly after infection, BTV is uncoated, i.e. VP2 and VP5 are removed, to yield a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis. Current Research Bluetongue virus (BTV) is well characterized both genetically (the sequence was completed in 1989) and structurally. Understanding of the molecular biology of the virus and mapping the role of each protein in virus life cycle has benefited significantly through the availability of recombinant BTV proteins and sub-viral particles. In addition the structure of BTV proteins, core and virionparticles have contributed greatly to understanding the mechanism of protein–protein interaction in the virus assembly pathway of BTV and other orbiviruses. Most importantly, information gained from these studies has laid sound foundation for the generation of safe BTV vaccines with the possibility of use in animals in the near future. Latterly, studies have concentrated on the fundamental mechanisms that are used by the virus to invade, replicate in and escape from susceptible host cells. Progress has been made in understanding the structure and entry of intact virus particles, the role of each enzymatic protein in the transcription complex, the critical interactions that occur between the viral non-structural proteins and viral RNA and the role of cellular proteins in non-enveloped virus egress. Despite these advances, some critical questions remain unanswered for the BTV life cycle and a more complete understanding of the interactions between the virus and the host cell is required for these to be addressed. For example, although progress has been made in the identification of signals for the recruitment of BTV RNA segments into the virion assembly site in the host cell cytoplasm, it has not been possible yet to determine how exactly each genome segment is packaged into the progeny virus. It is also not apparent when and how these genome segments wrap around the polymerase complex once the RNA has been recruited. One of the major drawbacks of research with BTV and other members of Reoviridae has been the lack of availability of a suitable system for genetic manipulation of the virus. This has been a major obstacle in understanding the replication processes of these viruses. However, one of the recent developments in the field of BTV research has been to rescue live virus from transfection of BTV transcripts. There is no doubt that this will be soon extended to establish in vitro manipulative genetic system and will be utilized to address some of these remaining questions. Very little is known of the intracellular trafficking of newly generated virions although there are some indications of involvement of the cytoskeleton, intermediate filaments and vimentin during BTV morphogenesis. Host–virus interactions during virus trafficking will be one of the future areas needing intense attention. Recent work has revealed unexpected and striking parallels between the entry and release pathways of BTV and pathways involved in entry and release of enveloped viruses. These parallels may be the result of an enveloped ancestor virus or because there are a limited number of cellular pathways that can be useful for the egress of large protein complexes from cells. It is notable that the NS3 glycoprotein of BTV is an integral membrane protein that is functionally involved in virus egress by bridging between the outer capsid protein VP2 and the cellular export machinery. Although no cell-free enveloped form of BTV has been isolated, budding of BTV particles from infected cells at the plasma membrane are quite apparent. The exact role of NS3 in this process and the role of host proteins (Annexin II and p11, Tsg101 and MVB) and their contribution in the release of non-enveloped viruses, such as BTV, remains to be clarified. Epidemiology Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the USA, Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Europe. Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors. Bluetongue has been spreading northward since October 1998, perhaps as a result of global warming, which may promote viral survival and vector longevity during milder winters. A significant contribution to the northward spread of Bluetongue disease has been the ability of Culicoides obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the disease, both of which are spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector which is limited to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats North through global warming. In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and Luxembourg. In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border. In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare breeds farm near Ipswich, Suffolk. Since then the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain. By October 2007 bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland and the first outbreak in Denmark was reported. Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark - EU http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL13660817 . In fall of 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne, as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls. Norway saw its first finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an immune response to bluetongue. Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-Agder. Although the disease is not a threat to humans the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in the UK are cattle, goats and, especially, sheep. Infection of the fetus A puzzling aspect of the spread of serotype 8 BTV in northern Europe is the overwintering of the disease. Animals will recover between the end of the midge season in autumn and the beginning in spring, so it is believed that the virus somehow survives in overwintering midges. Researchers at the Institute for Animal Health (UK) has however offered an alternative hypothesis. Bluetongue virus might survive the winter within fetuses (Press release, 5. March 2008) Three cows that had recovered from bluetongue last Autumn, were exported from Holland to Northern Ireland in January 2008. In February, these cows gave birth to calves that were found to be carriers of the disease. If BTV is capable of transplacental infection of the ruminant fotus, this would be a plausible way for it to overwinter. Midges will then spread the disease from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection. Based on this finding, it is advised to pay special attention to newborn animals in an effort to eradicate the disease. It was previously believed that only special lab-raised BTV were capable of transplacental infection. Experiments on sheep in the 1970s "Bluetongue's winter warmer", New Scientist, 15 March 2008, Vol 197, No 2647, p6 showed that such infection would result in abortion or weak or deformed offspring, with some offspring carrying the virus in their bloodstream. Such damage to the offspring was also seen for the calves born in Northern Ireland. Symptoms Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal symptoms may be prominent, with nasal discharge and stertorous respiration. Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives bluetongue the nickname "The Dancing Disease". Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is observed in severely affected animals. Not all animals develop symptoms, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months. The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all symptoms usually develop within a month. The mortality rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent. Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976, ISBN 090102810X In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep. R. Jensen and B.L. Swift Diseases of sheep; Lea and Febiger, 1982, Philadelphia. ISBN 0812108361. Treatment and prevention There is no efficient treatment. Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the midge vector, including inspection of aircraft. However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges. The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites. BlueTongue practical prevention advice . Control by trapping midges and removing their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped. Farmers Weekly Vaccine Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available against these serotypes. However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep, serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). Related diseases African horse sickness is related to Bluetongue and is spread by the same midges (Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the infected horses during an epidemic. The Merck Veterinary Manual - African Horse Sickness - Clinical Findings and Lesions . Adverse reactions to the Bluetongue 8 Vaccine have been reported in Scotland by The Scottish Farmer References See also Animal viruses Double-stranded RNA viruses External links Introduction to disease in the Merck Veterinary Manual Bluetongue page from OIE Bluetongue UK government page from Defra Bluetonge entry from Animal Viruses Molecular Biology book Bluetongue page on Warmwell.com Practical advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock Takamatsu, H., Mellor, P. S., et al. (2003). A possible overwintering mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect vector. Journal of General Virology 84: 227-235. News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the UK from the Farmers Guardian

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André_the_Giant

André René Roussimoff (May 19, 1946 – January 27, 1993), best known as André the Giant, was a French professional wrestler and actor. His great size was a result of acromegaly, and led to his being dubbed "The Eighth Wonder of the World." In the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), Roussimoff briefly held the WWF Championship. In 1993, he was the first inductee into the WWE Hall of Fame. Early life André René Roussimoff was born in Coulommiers, France, of Bulgarian and Polish descent. He was the third of five children. As a child, he was referred to by his parents as Dédé and showed no signs of the size that he would reach. Roussimoff was a good student but left school after 8th grade because he did not feel that it was important enough to have a high school education to live and work on a farm that was not his own. As an adolescent, he worked on the farm, completed an apprenticeship in woodworking, then worked in a factory that manufactured engines for hay balers, but none of these jobs brought him any satisfaction. Professional wrestling career Training Roussimoff was discovered by Lord Alfred Hayes, a wrestling promoter, and left home as a teenager to become a wrestler in Paris. He worked as a mover by day and trained in the ring at night—though few wrestlers were willing to train with anyone so large and strong. In 1964, Édouard Carpentier, a well-known French wrestler, agreed to train with him. Roussimoff was billed as "Géant Ferré", the name of a legendary French lumberjack, and quickly made a name for himself. For the next few years, he wrestled in arenas and carnivals in Europe, New Zealand, and Africa. In 1969, Carpentier offered to bring Roussimoff to North America, but he had already signed to wrestle in International Pro Wrestling in Japan, where he was billed as "Monster Roussimoff". After wrestling in Japan, Roussimoff followed Carpentier to Montreal, Canada, where he was an immediate success. However, promoters eventually ran out of plausible opponents to fight him and, as his novelty wore off, gate receipts dwindled. Desperate, Carpentier reached out to Vincent J. McMahon and his son, Vince McMahon, Jr. for help. They suggested for Roussimoff a travel-intensive schedule so he would not wear out his welcome in any one area. Roussimoff also competed throughout various territories. World Wrestling Federation Face Run (1973-1987) On March 26, 1973, André made his WWF debut as a "face", defeating Buddy Wolfe in New York's Madison Square Garden. He was billed early in his career at a height of and , this was enlarged in the early 1970s to with a weight that ranged from . His actual height is contested, and there has been much speculation and debate over the issue. Jim Duggan and Bobby Heenan maintain that his kayfabe height was correct. Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer claims André was measured at 6 ft 9 ¾ in 1974 by a French athletic commission; Meltzer also estimated André at 6 ft 11 ½ inches. Wrestling journalist Mike Mooneyham claims André was at his peak. The Los Angeles Times, Sunday, Mar. 7, 1993 André article by Chris Dufresne states that they received a phone call, from France, at the Ellerbe ranch. The voice insisted there was not a crematorium large enough to handle The Giant, who was 6 feet 10 and 555 pounds when he died. By the time the chairman of the (renamed) World Wrestling Federation, Vincent K. McMahon, began to expand his promotion to the national level in the early 1980s, André wrestled exclusively for WWF in the USA, while still holding international engagements. André was mentioned in the 1974 Guinness Book of World Records as the highest paid wrestler in history up to that time. He had earned $400,000 in one year alone during the early 1970s. André was one of WWF's most beloved "babyfaces" throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. As such, a legend insisted that he was never defeated for 15 years by pinfall or submission prior to WrestleMania III. This, however, is not true. André actually had lost cleanly in matches outside of the parameters of WWF; a pinfall loss in Mexico to El Canek in 1984 and in Japan a submission loss to Antonio Inoki in 1986, as well as a controversial no-contest finish against Akira Maeda, who used heel shoot-style tactics to nullify André's considerable size advantage. He also went sixty-minute time limit draws with the two other major world champions of the day, Harley Race and Nick Bockwinkel. One of André's feuds pitted him against the Mongolian terror Killer Khan, who was managed by Freddie Blassie. According to the storyline, Khan had broken André's ankle during a match in Rochester, New York by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his knee-drop. After a stay at Beth-Israel Hospital in Boston, André returned with payback on his mind. On November 14, 1981 at the Philadelphia Spectrum, André exacted revenge by destroying Killer Khan in what was billed as a "Mongolian Stretcher Match", in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher. In reality, André had snapped his ankle getting out of bed one morning. The injury and subsequent rehabilitation was worked into the existing André/Khan storyline. Another feud involved a man who considered himself to be "the true giant" of wrestling: Big John Studd. Throughout the early to mid-1980s, André and Studd fought all over the world, battling to try and determine who the real giant of wrestling was. In December 1984, Studd took the feud to a new level, when he and partner Ken Patera knocked out André during a televised tag team match and proceeded to cut off André's hair. André had the last laugh at the first WrestleMania on March 31, 1985 at Madison Square Garden. André conquered Studd in a $15,000 Body Slam Challenge. After slamming Studd, he attempted to give the $15,000 prize to the fans, before having the bag stolen from him by his future manager Bobby "The Brain" Heenan. The following year, at WrestleMania 2 on April 7, 1986, André continued to display his dominance by winning a twenty-man battle royal that featured top NFL stars and wrestlers. André last eliminated Bret Hart to win the contest. Afterward, André continued his feud with Studd and King Kong Bundy. André was suspended after a no-show; he returned under a mask as "The Giant Machine" part of a team with "Big Machine" (Robert Windham) and "Super Machine" (Bill Eadie) (The Machines gimmick was copied from New Japan Pro Wrestling character "Super Strong Machine", played by Japanese wrestler Junji Hirata). Soon afterwards, Giant Machine disappeared, and André was reinstated, to the approval of Bobby "The Brain" Heenan. Heel Run (1987-1990) Feuding Hulk Hogan and WWF Champion André was turned heel in 1987 so that he could face Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship in the main event of WrestleMania III. In early 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three years. André came out to congratulate him. Shortly afterward, André was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being "undefeated in WWF for fifteen years." In actuality, André had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in WWF but had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring. Hogan came out to congratulate André and ended up being the focal point of the interview. A visibly annoyed André walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. Then, on an edition of "Piper's Pit", Hogan was confronted by Bobby Heenan. Heenan announced that his new protege was André, who then challenged Hogan to a title match at WrestleMania III, ripping the t-shirt and crucifix from Hogan. At WrestleMania, he was billed at 520 pounds, and the stress of that immense weight on his bones and joints resulted in constant pain. After recent back surgery, he was also wearing a brace underneath his wrestling singlet. Hogan won the match after dropping André with a body slam, followed by Hogan's running leg drop finisher. Years later, Hogan claimed that André was so heavy, he felt more like 700 pounds, and that he actually tore his latissimus dorsi muscle slamming him. Another famous story about the match is that no one knew if André would lose the match. André had agreed to lose the match some time before, mostly for health reasons, though he almost pinned Hogan (albeit unintentionally) in the early goings of the match. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the first time that Hogan had successfully bodyslammed André in a WWF match. A then-heel Hogan bodyslammed a then-face André early in a match in Hamburg, Pennsylvania on September 13, 1980, though André was much lighter and more athletic at the time. Hulk Hogan: The Ultimate Anthology DVD. This, of course, back in the territorial days of wrestling three years before WWF began its national expansion (André had also previously allowed Harley Race, Kamala, and Stan Hansen to slam him). By the time WrestleMania III had rolled around, the WWF had gone national, giving more meaning to the André-Hogan match that took place then. The feud between André and Hogan simmered during the summer of 1987, even as Roussimoff's health declined. The feud would begin heating up again when each wrestler was named the captain of rival teams at the inaugural Survivor Series event. André's team won the main event after André pinned Bam Bam Bigelow. In the meantime, "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase failed to persuade Hogan to sell him the WWF World Championship. After failing to defeat Hogan in a subsequent series of matches, DiBiase turned to André to win it for him. Acting as his hired gun, André won the WWF title from Hogan on February 5, 1988 in a match where it was later revealed appointed referee Dave Hebner was "detained backstage", and a replacement who DiBiase paid to get plastic surgery to look like Dave (in reality, his twin brother Earl Hebner), made a three count on Hogan while his shoulders were off the mat. After winning, André "sold" the title to DiBiase; the transaction was declared invalid by then-WWF President Jack Tunney and the title was vacated. This was shown on WWF's NBC program The Main Event. At WrestleMania IV, André and Hulk Hogan fought to a double disqualification in a WWF title tournament match (with the idea in the storyline saying that André was again working on DiBiase's behalf in giving DiBiase a clearer path in the tournament). Afterward, André and Hogan's feud died down after a steel cage match held at WrestleFest on July 31, 1988 in Milwaukee. He and DiBiase also wrestled Hogan and Randy "Macho Man" Savage in the main event of SummerSlam; the DiBiase-André team lost, despite apparently having referee Jesse "the Body" Ventura on their side. WrestleMania VI; The Colossal Connection André's next major feud was against Jake "The Snake" Roberts. In this storyline, it was said André was deathly afraid of snakes, something Roberts exposed on Saturday Night's Main Event when he threw his snake, Damien, on the frightened André; as a result, André suffered a kayfabe mild heart attack and vowed revenge. During the next few weeks, Roberts frequently walked to ringside during André's matches, causing him to run from the ring in fright (since he knew what was inside the bag). Throughout their feud (which culminated at WrestleMania V), Roberts constantly used Damien to gain a psychological edge over the much larger and stronger André. During the late summer and fall of 1989, André engaged in a brief feud with then-Intercontinental champion The Ultimate Warrior, where the younger Warrior regularly squashed the aging André. Earlier in 1989, André and the returning Big John Studd reprized their feud, this time with Studd as a face and André as the heel. André won the World Tag Team Championship with his partner Haku (known collectively as The Colossal Connection) from Demolition on December 13, 1989. Managed by Bobby Heenan, they lost their titles at WrestleMania VI back to Demolition on April 1, 1990. After the match, a furious Heenan slapped André; he responded by knocking Heenan out, much to the delight of the fans. André went into the match as a heel, and left as a face. Sporadic appearances André continued to make appearances in the WWF throughout 1990 and 1991, including coming to the aid of The Big Bossman in his WrestleMania VII match against Mr. Perfect. His last major appearance was at SummerSlam in 1991, where he seconded The Bushwhackers in their match against The Natural Disasters. He also made an appearance later in the year to help The British Bulldog who had just won a Battle Royal in London. Japan and WCW "Japan-U.S. wrestling summit" held in Tokyo Dome performance offered the tag team of "André the Giant and Giant Baba" on April 13, 1990. The team of "André and Baba" semi-won the championship with World's Strongest Tag Team League that All Japan Pro Wrestling had held in 1991. Afterward, he went back to Japan, this time for All Japan Pro Wrestling. His last U.S. television appearance was in a brief interview on World Championship Wrestling's Clash of the Champions XX special that aired on TBS on September 2, 1992. Legacy Largely to honor André the Giant, the then-World Wrestling Federation created the WWF Hall of Fame later in 1993 and made him the first inductee. André's face was immortalized among the skater and graffiti sub-cultures by graphic designer Shepard Fairey. Andre the Giant Has a Posse was a street art campaign based on a design by Shepard Fairey created in 1986 in Charleston, South Carolina. Distributed by the skater community, the André stickers began showing up in nearly every big city across the U.S.A. Later, when Fairey was a student at the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), he released his manifesto. At the time Fairey declared the campaign to be "an experiment in phenomenology." Threat of a lawsuit from Titan Sports, Inc. in 1998 Shepard Fairey interview in Tattoo Magazine, 1999. spurred Fairey to stop using the trademarked name André the Giant, and to create a more iconic image of the wrestler's face. Over time the artwork has been reused in a number of ways and has become a worldwide movement, following in the footsteps of the image of J. R. "Bob" Dobbs of Church of the SubGenius http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,995817,00.html and World War II icon "Kilroy Was Here". André was the inspiration for the 1998 film My Giant, written by his friend Billy Crystal, whom he had met during the filming of The Princess Bride. Paul Wight, better known as The Big Show and the most similar in body structure to André than any other wrestler since André's death, was originally billed as the son of André the Giant during his stint in WCW (when he was known as simply The Giant) despite no biological relation. While also suffering from acromegaly, unlike André, Wight did get surgery on his pituitary gland in the early 1990s, which successfully halted the progress of his condition. Former wrestler Giant González is currently suffering from similar problems that André had near the end of his life. André is quoted and impersonated in the comedy film I Love You, Man. André is the subject of a song by Welsh singer/songwriter Harry Harris (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NoPtI3ekooA&feature=channel_page) Other media He branched out into acting in the 1970s and 1980s, making his acting debut playing a Sasquatch ("Bigfoot") on the 1970s television series The Six Million Dollar Man. He went on to appear in other television shows, including The Greatest American Hero, B.J. and the Bear, and The Fall Guy Towards the end of his career, André starred in several movies most notably as Fezzik (his favorite role) in the 1987 film — The Princess Bride. He had an uncredited appearance in the 1984 film — Conan the Destroyer, as Dagoth, the resurrected horned giant god who is killed by Conan (Arnold Schwarzenegger). In his final film, he appeared in something of a cameo role as a circus giant in the comedy Trading Mom, which was not released until the year after his death. He also participated in an episode of Zorro. On January 25, 2005 WWE released André The Giant, a DVD focusing on the career of André. The DVD is a reissue of the out-of-print André The Giant VHS made by Coliseum Video in 1985, with commentary by Michael Cole and Tazz replacing Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse Ventura's commentary on his WrestleMania battle with Big John Studd, with an option to hear no commentary at all. The video is hosted by Lord Alfred Hayes. Later matches, including André's battles against Hulk Hogan while a heel, are not included on this DVD. André: Heart of the Giant is a movie about André's life and struggles in and out of the wrestling ring. Actors will play real life wrestlers, managers, promoters, and legends. André: Heart of the Giant (2007) IMDB. Personal life Roussimoff had one daughter, Robin Christensen, who was born in 1979. The disease that granted him his immense size also began to take its toll on his body. By the late 1980s, André was in constant, near-crippling pain, and his heart struggled to pump blood throughout his massive body. In the A&E documentary, Arnold Skaaland mentions how André wished he could see a Broadway play. Arnold offered to buy tickets, but André then passed up the opportunity, citing how he was too big for the seats and that people behind him would not be able to see. This was cited as a principal reason for why André frequented taverns more than anywhere else. In the A&E Biography episode, Arnold Skaaland tells the story of when André was in a bar one night, four men came up to him and began harassing him about his size. At first, André attempted to avoid confrontation, but eventually he proceeded to chase the hecklers until they locked themselves in their car. André then grabbed the car and turned the car over with the four people trapped inside. André was never arrested for the incident, presumably since local police officers had a hard time believing four inebriated men's story about an angry giant having overturned their car. He has been unofficially crowned "The Greatest Drunk on Earth" for once consuming 119 12-ounce beers in 6 hours. The MadConomist On an episode of WWE's Legends of Wrestling, Mike Graham claimed that André once drank 157 12 ounce beers in one sitting, which was confirmed by Dusty Rhodes. In her autobiography, The Fabulous Moolah alleges that André drank 127 beers and passed out in a hotel bar in Reading, Pennsylvania, and because the staff could not move him, they had to leave him there until he regained consciousness. André was arrested by the Linn County, Iowa sheriff in August 1989 and charged with assault after the 540-pound wrestler allegedly roughed up a local TV cameraman. The Smoking Gun. Death André died in his sleep on January 27, 1993, in a Paris hotel room. He was in Paris to attend the funeral for his father. Andre the Giant, 46, Professional Wrestler (Obituary) New York Times, January 31, 1993. André's body was cremated in accordance with his wishes and his ashes scattered at his ranch in Ellerbe, North Carolina. http://www.wral.com/news/local/video/4797970/ WRAL News, Raleigh, NC. Finishing and signature moves Elbow drop pin Kneeling belly to belly piledriver Single underhook or double underhook suplex Sitdown splash Standing splash André places the opponent in a standing headscissors and then jumps up and down, aggravating the opponent's neck Bear hug Big boot Body slam Chokehold, sometimes while using the strap of his singlet Gorilla press slam Headbutt Repeated hip attacks to a cornered opponent Samoan drop Managers Bobby Heenan Frank Valoi Lou Albano K.Y. Wakamatsu Ted DiBiase Nicknames "The 8th Wonder of the World" "Tiant" "The Immovable Object" Championships and accomplishments Championship Wrestling from Florida NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes International Pro Wrestling IWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Michael Nader NWA Tri-State NWA United States Tag Team Championship (Tri-State version) (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum (Class of 2002) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1977, 1982) PWI Match of the Year (1981) vs. Killer Khan on May 2 PWI Match of the Year (1988) vs. Hulk Hogan at The Main Event PWI Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1988) PWI Editor's Award (1993) PWI ranked him #3 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003 Stampede Wrestling Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame World Championship Wrestling (Australia) NWA Austra-Asian Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ron Miller World Wrestling Federation WWF Championship (1 time) WWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Haku WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1993) Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards Feud of the Year (1981) vs. Killer Khan Most Embarrassing Wrestler (1989) Worst Feud of the Year (1984) vs. Big John Studd Worst Feud of the Year (1989) vs. The Ultimate Warrior Worst Worked Match of the Year (1987) vs. Hulk Hogan at WrestleMania III Worst Worked Match of the Year (1989) vs. The Ultimate Warrior on October 31 Worst Tag Team (1990, 1991) with Giant Baba Worst Wrestler (1989, 1991, 1992) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996) Filmography Casse tête chinois pour le judoka (1967) The Six Million Dollar Man - "The Secret of Bigfoot I and II" (1976), Bigfoot B. J. and the Bear - "Snow White and the Seven Lady Truckers" (1981), Unnamed Character The Greatest American Hero - "Heaven Is in Your Genes" (1983), Monster André makes an appearance in "The Goonies 'R' Good Enough" music video by Cyndi Lauper, along with several other 80s icon wrestlers like Rowdy Roddy Piper. Conan the Destroyer (1984), Dagoth (uncredited) Micki + Maude (1984), Himself I Like to Hurt People (1985), Himself The Princess Bride (1987), Fezzik The Mommy Market (1994), Circus Giant References External links AndreTheGiant.com (Official Website) WWE Hall of Fame Profile Andre's Online World of Wrestling Profile Wrestling Museum Biography Memphis Wrestling History

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Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)

In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian H is the observable corresponding to the total energy of the system. It is a Hermitian matrix, that, when multiplied by the column vector representing the state of the system, gives a vector representing to the total energy of the system. As with all observables, the spectrum of the Hamiltonian is the set of possible outcomes when one measures the total energy of a system. Like any other self-adjoint operator, the spectrum of the Hamiltonian can be decomposed, via its spectral measures, into pure point, absolutely continuous, and singular parts. The pure point spectrum can be associated to eigenvectors, which in turn are the bound states of the system. The absolutely continuous spectrum corresponds to the free states. The singular spectrum comprises physically impossible outcomes. For example, consider the finite potential well, which admits bound states with discrete negative energies and free states with continuous positive energies. Schrödinger equation The Hamiltonian generates the time evolution of quantum states. If is the state of the system at time t, then . where is the reduced Planck constant . This equation is known as the Schrödinger equation. (It takes the same form as the Hamilton-Jacobi equation, which is one of the reasons H is also called the Hamiltonian.) Given the state at some initial time (t = 0), we can integrate it to obtain the state at any subsequent time. In particular, if H is independent of time, then . Note: In introductory physics literature, the following is often taken as an assumption: The eigenkets (eigenvectors) of H, denoted (using Dirac bra-ket notation), provide an orthonormal basis for the Hilbert space. The spectrum of allowed energy levels of the system is given by the set of eigenvalues, denoted {Ea}, solving the equation: . Since H is a Hermitian operator, the energy is always a real number. From a mathematically rigorous point of view, care must be taken with the above assumption. Operators on infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces need not have eigenvalues (the set of eigenvalues does not necessarily coincide with the spectrum of an operator). However, all routine quantum mechanical calculations can be done using the physical formulation. Similarly, the exponential operator on the right hand side of the Schrödinger equation is sometimes defined by the power series. One might notice that taking polynomials of unbounded and not everywhere defined operators may not make mathematical sense, much less power series. Rigorously, to take functions of unbounded operators, a functional calculus is required. In the case of the exponential function, the continuous, or just the holomorphic functional calculus suffices. We note again, however, that for common calculations the physicist's formulation is quite sufficient. By the *-homomorphism property of the functional calculus, the operator is a unitary operator. It is the time evolution operator, or propagator, of a closed quantum system. If the Hamiltonian is time-independent, {U(t)} form a one parameter unitary group (more than a semigroup); this gives rise to the physical principle of detailed balance. Energy eigenket degeneracy, symmetry, and conservation laws In many systems, two or more energy eigenstates have the same energy. A simple example of this is a free particle, whose energy eigenstates have wavefunctions that are propagating plane waves. The energy of each of these plane waves is inversely proportional to the square of its wavelength. A wave propagating in the x direction is a different state from one propagating in the y direction, but if they have the same wavelength, then their energies will be the same. When this happens, the states are said to be degenerate. It turns out that degeneracy occurs whenever a nontrivial unitary operator U commutes with the Hamiltonian. To see this, suppose that |a> is an energy eigenket. Then U|a> is an energy eigenket with the same eigenvalue, since Since U is nontrivial, at least one pair of and must represent distinct states. Therefore, H has at least one pair of degenerate energy eigenkets. In the case of the free particle, the unitary operator which produces the symmetry is the rotation operator, which rotates the wavefunctions by some angle while otherwise preserving their shape. The existence of a symmetry operator implies the existence of a conserved observable. Let G be the Hermitian generator of U: It is straightforward to show that if U commutes with H, then so does G: Therefore, In obtaining this result, we have used the Schrödinger equation, as well as its dual, Thus, the expected value of the observable G is conserved for any state of the system. In the case of the free particle, the conserved quantity is the angular momentum. Hamilton's equations Hamilton's equations in classical Hamiltonian mechanics have a direct analogy in quantum mechanics. Suppose we have a set of basis states , which need not necessarily be eigenstates of the energy. For simplicity, we assume that they are discrete, and that they are orthonormal, i.e., Note that these basis states are assumed to be independent of time. We will assume that the Hamiltonian is also independent of time. The instantaneous state of the system at time t, , can be expanded in terms of these basis states: where The coefficients an(t) are complex variables. We can treat them as coordinates which specify the state of the system, like the position and momentum coordinates which specify a classical system. Like classical coordinates, they are generally not constant in time, and their time dependence gives rise to the time dependence of the system as a whole. The expectation value of the Hamiltonian of this state, which is also the mean energy, is where the last step was obtained by expanding in terms of the basis states. Each of the an(t)'''s actually corresponds to two independent degrees of freedom, since the variable has a real part and an imaginary part. We now perform the following trick: instead of using the real and imaginary parts as the independent variables, we use an(t) and its complex conjugate an*(t). With this choice of independent variables, we can calculate the partial derivative By applying Schrödinger's equation and using the orthonormality of the basis states, this further reduces to Similarly, one can show that If we define "conjugate momentum" variables πn'' by then the above equations become which is precisely the form of Hamilton's equations, with the s as the generalized coordinates, the s as the conjugate momenta, and taking the place of the classical Hamiltonian. See also Hamiltonian mechanics

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Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Eastern_Orthodox)

''For the 8th Catholic Ecumenical Council, see Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic) The Fourth Council of Constantinople of 879-880 is the Eighth Ecumenical Council for Eastern Orthodox Christians. Photios, a noble layman, had been appointed Patriarch of Constantinople but deposed by a Council of Constantinople called in 869 by Emperor Basil I the Macedonian and Pope Adrian II. "Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Called in 879, this Greek Fourth Council of Constantinople, held after Photios had been reinstated on order of the Emperor, annulled the earlier one. "Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Today, the Roman Catholic Church recognizes the council in 869-870 as "Constantinople IV", while the Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize the councils in 879-880 as "Constantinople IV" and revere Photios as a saint. At the time that these councils were being held, this division was not yet clear. These two councils represent a break between East and West. The previous seven ecumenical councils are recognized as ecumenical and authoritative by both Greek-literate Eastern Christians and Latin-literate Western Christians. This division led eventually to the East-West Schism of 1054. Photius In 858, Photius, a noble layman from a local family, was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople, "Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 a position of authority rivaling that of the Roman Pope. Emperor Michael III had deposed the previous patriarch, Ignatius. "Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Ignatius refused to abdicate, setting up a power struggle between the Emperor and the Pope. "Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 In 867, another council in Constantinople deposed the pope, declared him anathema, and excommunicated him. "Photius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 In addition Roman claims of Papal primacy and the Filioque clause were condemned [claim lacks source, missing reference]. The Council of 879-880 After the death of Ignatius in 877, Photius mounted the See of Constantinople for a second time. A Council, comprising the representatives of all the five patriarchates, including that of Rome (all in all 383 bishops), was called in 879 and reinstated Photius as Ecumenical Patriarch. The council also condemned any alteration whatsoever to the original Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, thereby condemning the addition of the Filioque clause to the creed as heretical "The Union: a method of Pope-centrist ecumenism" at www.pravoslavie.ru "Moscow-Bari-Rome" at www.pravoslavie.ru — a view strongly espoused by Photius in his polemics against Rome. Late on, Roman Catholics came to separate the two issues and insist on the theological orthodoxy of the clause. According to Philip Schaff, "To the Greek acts was afterwards added a (pretended) letter of Pope John VIII to Photius, declaring the Filioque to be an addition which is rejected by the church of Rome, and a blasphemy which must be abolished calmly and by, degrees." Whether and how far the council was confirmed by Pope John VIII is also a matter of dispute: The council was held in the presence of papal legates, who approved of the proceedings, Roman Catholic historian Francis Dvornik argues that Pope accepted the acts of the council and annulled those of the Council of 869-870. Other Roman Catholic historians, such as Warren Carroll, dispute this view, arguing that the pope rejected the council. Philipp Schaff opines that the Pope, deceived by his legates about the actual proceedings, first applauded the Emperor but later denounced the council. Philip Schaff, Conflict of the Eastern and Western Churches In any case, the Pope de facto accepted the reinstatement of Photius as Patriarch. However later, in the wake of further conflicts between East and West in the 11th century, the council was repudiated. This council has been hailed by Orthodox Christians as the "Eighth Ecumenical Council" and is referred to as such in the Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs of 1848. But it has not been universally accepted as ecumenical, though it is held in high esteem at least as a local council and is referred to as the First-and-Second Council by Byzantine canonists John Zonaras, Theodore Balsamon, Matthew Blastaris and others. The status of Photius as a Saint Photius is now considered a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church; in part for having refused to acquiesce to the decision of the council of 869-870 and to what the Eastern Orthodox consider to have been overweening monarchical aspirations on the part of Pope. Notes External links Philip Schaff's Church History: Conflict of the Eastern and Western Churches Catholic Encyclopedia: Fourth Council of Constantinople (on the Council of 869) Legion of Mary, Eight Ecumenical Council (on the Council of 869) George Dion Dragas. The Eighth Ecumenical Council: Constantinople IV (879/880) and the Condemnation of the Filioque Addition and Doctrine (An Eastern Orthodox perspective on the Council of 879) T. R. Valentine, The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils (An Eastern Orthodox perspective on the Council of 879) The First-Second Council from the Rudder

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Moving_Picture_Experts_Group

The Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) was formed by the ISO to set standards for audio and video compression and transmission. Its first meeting was in May 1988 in Ottawa, Canada. As of late 2005, MPEG has grown to include approximately 350 members per meeting from various industries, universities, and research institutions. MPEG's official designation is ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29 WG11. Overview thumb | right | Compression methodology The MPEG compression methodology is considered asymmetric in that the encoder is more complex than the decoder. John Watkinson, The MPEG Handbook, p.1 The encoder needs to be algorithmic or adaptive whereas the decoder is 'dumb' and carries out fixed actions. This is considered advantageous in applications such as broadcasting where the number of expensive complex encoders are small but the number of simple inexpensive decoders is large. This approach of the ISO to standardization in MPEG is considered novel because it is not the encoder which is standardized; instead, the way in which a decoder shall interpret the bitstream is defined. A decoder which can successfully interpret the bitstream is said to be compliant. The advantage of standardizing the decoder is that over time encoding algorithms can improve yet compliant decoders will continue to function with them. The MPEG standards give very little information regarding structure and operation of the encoder and implementers can supply encoders using proprietary algorithms. John Watkinson, The MPEG Handbook, p.2 This gives scope for competition between different encoder designs which means that better designs can evolve and users will have greater choice because of different levels of cost and complexity can exist in a range of coders yet a compliant decoder will operate with them all. MPEG also standardizes the protocol and syntax under which it is possible to combine or multiplex audio data with video data to produce a digital equivalent of a television program. Many such programs can be multiplexed and MPEG defines the way in which such multiplexes can be created and transported. The definitions include the metadata used by decoders to demultiplex correctly. John Watkinson, The MPEG Handbook, p.3 Standards The MPEG standards consist of different Parts. Each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification. Understanding MPEG-4, p.78 The standards also specify Profiles and Levels. Profiles are intended to define a set of tools that are available, and Levels define the range of appropriate values for the properties associated with them. MPEG has standardized the following compression formats and ancillary standards: MPEG-1: The first compression standard for audio and video. It was basically designed to allow moving pictures and sound to be encoded into the bitrate of a Compact Disc. To meet the low bit requirement, MPEG-1 downsamples the images, as well as uses picture rates of only 24-30 Hz, resulting in a moderate quality. It includes the popular Layer 3 (MP3) audio compression format. MPEG-2: Transport, video and audio standards for broadcast-quality television. MPEG-2 standard was considerably broader in scope and of wider appeal – supporting interlacing and high definition. MPEG-2 is considered important because it has been chosen as the compression scheme for over-the-air digital television ATSC, DVB and ISDB, digital satellite TV services like Dish Network, digital cable television signals, SVCD, and DVD. The MPEG Handbook, p.4 MPEG-3: Developments in standardizing scalable and multi-resolution compression which would have become MPEG-3 were ready by the time MPEG-2 was to be standardized; hence, these were incorporated into MPEG-2 and as a result there is no MPEG-3 standard. MPEG-3 is not to be confused with MP3, which is MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3. MPEG-4: MPEG-4 uses further coding tools with additional complexity to achieve higher compression factors than MPEG-2. The MPEG Handbook, pp.4-5 In addition to more efficient coding of video, MPEG-4 moves closer to computer graphics applications. In more complex profiles, the MPEG-4 decoder effectively becomes a rendering processor and the compressed bitstream describes three-dimensional shapes and surface texture. MPEG-4 also provides Intellectual Property Management and Protection (IPMP) which provides the facility to use proprietary technologies to manage and protect content like digital rights management. Understanding MPEG-4, p.83 Several new higher-efficiency video standards (newer than MPEG-2 Video) are included (an alternative to MPEG-2 Video), notably: MPEG-4 Part 2 (or Advanced Simple Profile) and MPEG-4 Part 10 (or Advanced Video Coding or H.264). MPEG-4 Part 10 may be used on HD DVD and Blu-ray discs, along with VC-1 and MPEG-2. In addition, the following standards, while not sequential advances to the video encoding standard as with MPEG-1 through MPEG-4, are referred to by similar notation: MPEG-7: A multimedia content description standard. MPEG-21: MPEG describes this standard as a multimedia framework. Moreover, relatively more recently than other standards above, MPEG has started following international standards; each of the standards holds multiple MPEG technologies for a way of application. For example, MPEG-A includes a number of technologies on multimedia application format. Official MPEG Web Site MPEG-A: Multimedia application format. MPEG-B: MPEG systems technologies. MPEG-C: MPEG video technologies. MPEG-D: MPEG audio technologies. MPEG-E: Multimedia Middleware. See also Audio codec Video codec Video quality Video compression Pro-MPEG Notes External links Official MPEG web site MPEG.ORG MPEG Industry Forum (MPEGIF) MPEG Books

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Niels_Bohr

Niels Henrik David Bohr (; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in Copenhagen. He was also part of the team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912, and one of their sons, Aage Niels Bohr, grew up to be an important physicist who, like his father, received the Nobel prize, in 1975. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential physicists of the 20th century. Murdoch, Dugald (2000) "Bohr" in Newton-Smith, N. H. (ed.) A Companion to the Philosophy of Science. Great Britain: Blackwell Publishers, p. 26. ISBN 0-631-23020-3. Biography Early years Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1885. His father, Christian Bohr, a devout Lutheran, was professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen (it is his name which is given to the Bohr shift or Bohr effect), while his mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles. His brother was Harald Bohr, a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played on the Danish national team. Niels Bohr was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played a number of matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub. In 1903 Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University, initially studying philosophy and mathematics. In 1905, prompted by a gold medal competition sponsored by the Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, he conducted a series of experiments to examine the properties of surface tension, using his father's laboratory in the university, familiar to him from assisting there since childhood. His essay won the prize, and it was this success that decided Bohr to abandon philosophy and adopt physics. As a student under Christian Christiansen he received his doctorate in 1911. As a post-doctoral student, Bohr first conducted experiments under J. J. Thomson at Trinity College, Cambridge. He then went on to study under Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester in England. On the basis of Rutherford's theories, Bohr published his model of atomic structure in 1913, introducing the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the atom's nucleus, the chemical properties of the element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits. Bohr also introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, emitting a photon (light quantum) of discrete energy. This became a basis for quantum theory. Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Nørlund had six children. Two died young, and most of the others went on to lead successful lives. One, Aage Niels Bohr, also became a very successful physicist; like his father, he won a Nobel Prize in 1975. Physics In 1916, Niels Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen. With the assistance of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, he succeeded in founding the Institute of Theoretical Physics in 1921, of which he became its director. In 1922, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them." Bohr's institute served as a focal point for theoretical physicists in the 1920s and '30s, and most of the world's best known theoretical physicists of that period spent some time there. Niels Bohr as a young man. Exact date of photo not known.Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein debating quantum theory at Paul Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925). Bohr also conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed as having several contradictory properties. For example, physicists currently conclude that light behaves either as a wave or a stream of particles depending on the experimental framework — two apparently mutually exclusive properties — on the basis of this principle. Bohr also found philosophical applications for this daringly original principle. Albert Einstein much preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics (to which Max Planck and Einstein himself had contributed). He and Bohr had good-natured arguments over the truth of this principle throughout their lives (see Bohr–Einstein debates). Werner Heisenberg worked as an assistant to Bohr and university lecturer in Copenhagen from 1926 to 1927. It was in Copenhagen, in 1927, that Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg was later to be head of the German atomic bomb project. In 1941, during the German occupation of Denmark in World War II, Bohr was visited by Heisenberg in Copenhagen (see section below). In 1943, shortly before he was to be arrested by the German police, Bohr escaped to Sweden, and then traveled to London. Atomic research Niels Bohr worked at the top-secret Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico, U.S., on the Manhattan Project, where, according to Richard Feynman, he was known by the assumed name of Nicholas Baker for security reasons. His role in the project was important and was a knowledgeable consultant or "father confessor" on the project. He was concerned about a nuclear arms race, and is quoted as saying, "That is why I went to America. They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb." Bohr believed that atomic secrets should be shared by the international scientific community. After meeting with Bohr, J. Robert Oppenheimer suggested Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Russians in the hope of speeding up its results. Roosevelt suggested Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval. Winston Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: "It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes." Rhodes (1986:528-538) After the war Bohr returned to Copenhagen, advocating the peaceful use of nuclear energy. When awarded the Order of the Elephant by the Danish government, he designed his own coat of arms which featured a taijitu (symbol of yin and yang) and the Latin motto contraria sunt complementa: opposites are complementary. He died in Copenhagen in 1962. He is buried in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen. Contributions to physics The Bohr model of the atom, the theory that electrons travel in discrete orbits around the atom's nucleus. The shell model of the atom, where the chemical properties of an element are determined by the electrons in the outermost orbit. The correspondence principle, the basic tool of Old quantum theory. The liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus. Identified the isotope of uranium that was responsible for slow-neutron fission - 235U. Rhodes (1986:282-88) Much work on the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. The principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed as having several contradictory properties. Kierkegaard's influence on Bohr It is generally accepted that Bohr read the 19th century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. Richard Rhodes argues in The Making of the Atomic Bomb that Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard via the philosopher Harald Høffding, who was strongly influenced by Kierkegaard and who was an old friend of Bohr's father. In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard's Stages on Life's Way as a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, "It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better.... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read." Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some "disagreement with [Kierkegaard's ideas]." Given this, there has been some dispute over whether Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science. David Favrholdt Favrholdt, David. Niels Bohr’s Philosophical Background. Copenhagen: Munksgaard (1992): pp. 42-63. argues that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work; taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value, while Jan Faye Faye, Jan. "Niels Bohr: His Heritage and Legacy." Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers (1991). endorses the opposing point of view by arguing that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Mark Richardson, et al. Religion & Science: History, Method, Dialogue. Routledge 1996, pg.289 Relationship with Heisenberg Bohr and Werner Heisenberg enjoyed a strong mentor/protégé relationship up to the onset of World War II. Heisenberg had made Bohr aware of his talent during a lecture in 1922 in Göttingen. During the mid-1920s, Heisenberg worked with Bohr at the institute in Copenhagen. Heisenberg, like most of Bohr's assistants, learned Danish. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle was developed during this period, as was Bohr's complementarity principle. By the time of World War II, the relationship became strained; this was in part because Bohr, with his partially-Jewish heritage, remained in occupied Denmark, while Heisenberg remained in Germany and became head of the German nuclear efforts. Heisenberg made a now-famous visit to Bohr in September/October 1941, and during a private moment, it seems that he began to address nuclear energy and morality as well as the war effort. Neither Bohr nor Heisenberg spoke about it in any detail or left written records of this part of the meeting, and they were alone and outside. Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating that conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints in any direction. While some suggest that the relationship became strained at this meeting, other evidence shows that the level of contact had been reduced considerably for some time already. Heisenberg himself suggested that the fracture occurred later. In correspondence to his wife, Heisenberg described the final visit of the trip: "Today I was once more, with Weizsaecker, at Bohr's. In many ways this was especially nice, the conversation revolved for a large part of the evening around purely human concerns, Bohr was reading aloud, I played a Mozart Sonata (A-Major)." Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main figure of the meeting was actually Weizsäcker who tried to persuade Bohr to mediate for peace between Great Britain and Germany. Tube Alloys "Tube Alloys" was the code-name for the British nuclear weapon program. The British intelligence services inquired about Bohr's availability for work or insights of particular value. Bohr's reply made it clear that he could not help. This reply, like his reaction to Heisenberg, made sure that, if Gestapo intercepted anything attributed to Bohr it would simply point to no particularly relevant knowledge regarding nuclear energy, as it stood in 1941. This does not exclude the possibility that Bohr privately did make calculations going further than his work in 1939 with Wheeler. After leaving Denmark in the dramatic day and night (October 1943) when most Jews were able to escape to Sweden due to a series of very exceptional circumstances (see Rescue of the Danish Jews), Bohr was quickly asked, again, to join British efforts, and he was flown to the UK for that purpose. He was evacuated from Stockholm in 1943 in an unarmed De Havilland Mosquito bomber (carried in an improvised cabin in the bomb bay) sent by the RAF. The flight almost ended in tragedy as Bohr did not don his oxygen equipment as instructed, and passed out. He would have died had not the pilot, surmising from Bohr's lack of response to intercom communication that he had lost consciousness, descended to a lower altitude for the remainder of the flight. Bohr's comment was that he had slept like a baby for the entire flight. As part of the UK team on "Tube Alloys" Bohr was also included at Los Alamos. Oppenheimer credited Bohr warmly for his guiding help during certain discussions among scientists there. Discreetly, he met President Franklin D. Roosevelt and later Winston Churchill to warn against the perilous perspectives that would follow from separate development of nuclear weapons by several powers rather than some form of controlled sharing of the basic scientific knowledge, which would spread quickly in any case. Only in the 1950s, after the immense surprise that the Soviets could and did in fact develop the weapons independently, was it possible to create the International Atomic Energy Agency along the lines of Bohr's old suggestion. Speculation In 1957, while the author Robert Jungk was working on the book Brighter Than a Thousand Suns, Heisenberg wrote to Jungk explaining that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr his view that scientists on either side should help prevent development of the atomic bomb, that the German attempts were entirely focused on energy production, and that Heisenberg's circle of colleagues tried to keep it that way. However, Heisenberg acknowledged that his cryptic approach of the subject had so alarmed Bohr that the discussion failed. Heisenberg nuanced his claims, though, and avoided the implication that he and his colleagues had purposely sabotaged the bomb effort. However, this nuance was lost in Jungk's original publication of the book, which strongly implied that the German atomic bomb project was rendered purposely stillborn by Heisenberg. When Bohr saw Jungk's erroneous depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he disagreed wholeheartedly. He drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that while Heisenberg had indeed discussed the subject of nuclear weapons in Copenhagen, Heisenberg had never alluded to the fact that he might be resisting efforts to build such weapons. Bohr dismissed the idea of any pact as an after-the-fact construction. Michael Frayn's play Copenhagen, which was performed in London (for five years), Copenhagen, Gothenburg, Rome, Athens (Greece), Geneva and on Broadway in New York, explores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr. Frayn points in particular to the onus of being one of the few, or the first one, to understand what it would mean in practice to create a nuclear weapon. Open World Bohr advocated informing the Soviet authorities that the Atom Bomb would soon be in use. In 1944 he obtained an audience with Winston Churchill, who became worried about whether Bohr was a security risk. Niels Bohr’s mission for an ‘open world’ accessed 15 November 2008 In 1950 he addressed an 'Open Letter' to the United Nations. To the United Nations by Niels Bohr accessed 15 November 2008 Legacy In 1965, three years after Bohr's death, the Institute of Physics at the University of Copenhagen changed its name to the Niels Bohr Institute. The Bohr models semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with a postage stamp depicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels: . Bohrium (a chemical element, atomic number 107) is named in honour of Niels Bohr. Hafnium, another chemical element, whose properties were predicted by Niels Bohr, was named by him after Hafnia, Copenhagen's Latin name. Asteroid 3948 Bohr is named after him. The Centennial of Bohr's birth was commemorated in Denmark on 3 October 1985 with a postage stamp depicting Bohr with his wife Margrethe. In 1997 the Danish National Bank started circulating the danish five-hundred-kroner bill with the portrait of Niels Bohr smoking a pipe. Further reading Primary 1913. "On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules," Philosophical Magazine 26 (Series 6): 1-25. The landmark paper laying the Bohr model of the atom and molecular bonding. 1999. Causality and Complementarity: Epistemological Lessons of Studies in Atomic Physics. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 1-881987-13-2. The 1949–50 Gifford lectures. 1987 (1958). Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 0-91802452-8. Seven essays written 1933-57. 1958 ed., Wiley Interscience. Secondary Niels Bohr Collected Works 13-Volume Limited Edition Set, General Editor, Finn Aaserud; ISBN 978-0-444-53286-2 Niels Bohr: The Man, His Science, and the World They Changed, by Ruth Moore; ISBN 0-262-63101-6 Niels Bohr's Times, In Physics, Philosophy and Polity, by Abraham Pais; ISBN 0-19-852049-2 Niels Bohr: His Life and Work As Seen by His Friends and Colleagues, edited by Stefan Rozental, John Wiley & Sons, 1964. Suspended In Language: Niels Bohr's Life, Discoveries, And The Century He Shaped by Jim Ottaviani (graphic novel); ISBN 0-9660106-5-5 Harmony and Unity : The Life of Niel's Bohr, by Niels Blaedel; ISBN 0-910239-14-2 Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume, edited by A. P French and P.J. Kennedy. ISBN 0-674-62415-7 Copenhagen Michael Frayn ISBN 0 413 72490 5 Faust in Copenhagen: A Struggle for the Soul of Physics by Gino Segre; ISBN 0-670-03858-X See also Quantum mechanics Bohr model Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics Stefan Rozental (research assistant to Bohr in Copenhagen) References External links Niels Bohr Collected Works. Niels Bohr on the 500 Danish Kroner banknote. Encyclopaedia Britannica article on Niels Bohr Niels Bohr Archive Nobel Foundation: Niels Bohr Annotated bibliography for Niels Bohr from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Quantum Chemistry I Lecture - Bohr's Model of the Atom The Bohr-Heisenberg meeting in September 1941 Werner Heisenberg Ausstellung: Vom Frieden zum Krieg: Kernphysik und Kernenergie Oral History interview transcript with Niels Bohr 31 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives Short video documentary about Niels Bohr be-x-old:Нільс Бор

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Charles_Robert_Malden

Charles Robert Malden (August 9, 1797 – May 23, 1855), was a 19th century British naval officer, surveyor and educator. Discoverer of Malden Island in the central Pacific, which is named in his honour. Founder of the Windlesham House School at Brighton, England. Malden was born in Putney, Surrey, son of Jonas Malden, a surgeon. He entered British naval service at the age of 11 on 22 June 1809. He served nine years as a volunteer 1st class, midshipman, and mate, including one year in the English Channel and Bay of Biscay (1809), four years at the Cape of Good Hope and in the East Indies (1809-14), two and a half years on the North American and West Indian stations (1814-16), and a year and a half in the Mediterranean (1817-18). He was present at the capture of Mauritius and Java, and at the battles of Baltimore and New Orleans. He passed the examination in the elements of mathematics and the theory of navigation at the Royal Naval College on 2-4 September 1816, and became a 1st Lieutenant on 1 September 1818. In eight years of active service as an officer, he served two and a half years in a surveying ship in the Mediterranean (1818-21), one and a half years in a surveying sloop in the English Channel and off the coast of Ireland (1823-24), and one and a half years as Surveyor of the frigate Blonde during a voyage (1824-26) to and from the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). In Hawaii he discovered and surveyed harbours which, he noted, were "said not to exist by Captains Cook and Vancouver." On the return voyage he discovered and explored uninhabited Malden Island in the central Pacific on 30 July 1825. After his return he left active service but remained at half pay. He served for several years as hydrographer to King William IV. Malden married Frances Cole, daughter of Rev. William Hodgson Cole, rector of West Clandon and Vicar of Wonersh, near Guildford, Surrey, on 8 April 1828. He became the father of seven sons and a daughter. From 1830-36 he took pupils for the Royal Navy at Ryde, Isle of Wight. He purchased the school of Henry Worsley at Newport, Isle of Wight, in December 1836, reopened it as a preparatory school on 20 February 1837, and removed it to Montpelier Road in Brighton in December 1837. He built the Windlesham House School at Brighton in 1844, and conducted the school until his death there in 1855.

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Castle_of_the_Winds

Castle of the Winds (CotW) is a tile-based roguelike computer game for Windows 3.x. It was developed by SaadaSoft and published by Epic MegaGames in . "Playing Catch Up: Castle of the Winds' Rick Saada" from Gamasutra Release history The game is composed of two parts: A Question of Vengeance, released as shareware, and Lifthransir's Bane, sold commercially. A combined license for both parts was also sold. In 1998, the game's author, Rick Saada, decided to distribute the entirety of Castle of the Winds free of charge, but did not release the source code. The Saada Homepage. Retrieved on December 23 2007. Gameplay The game differs from most roguelikes in a number of ways. Its interface is mouse-dependent, but supports keyboard shortcuts (such as 'g' to get an item). Castle of the Winds also allows the player to restore saved games after dying. Magic The game favors the use of magic in combat, as spells are the only weapons that work from a distance. The player character automatically gains a spell with each experience level, and can permanently gain others using corresponding books, until all thirty spells available are learned. There are two opposing pairs of elements: cold vs. fire and lightning vs. acid/poison. Spells are divided into six categories: attack, defense, healing, movement, divination, and miscellaneous. Items Castle of the Winds possesses an inventory system that limits a player's load based on weight and bulk, rather than by number of items. It allows the character to use different containers, including packs, belts, chests, and bags. Other items include weapons, armor, protective clothing, purses, and ornamental jewellery. Almost every item in the game can be normal, cursed, or enchanted, with curses and enchantments working in a manner similar to NetHack. Although items do not break with use, they may already be broken or rusted when found. Most objects that the character currently carries can be renamed. Time The game tracks how much time has been spent playing the game. Although story events are not triggered by the passage of time, it does determine when merchants rotate their stock. Victorious players are listed as "Valhalla's Champions" in the order of time taken, from fastest to slowest. If the player dies, they are still put on the list, but are categorized as "Dead", with their experience point total listed as at the final killing blow. The amount of time spent also determines the difficulty of the last boss. Plot Although secondary to its hack and slash gameplay, Castle of the Winds has a plot loosely based on Norse mythology, told with setting changes, unique items, and occasional passages of text. The player begins in a tiny hamlet, near which he used to live. His farm has been destroyed and his godparents killed. After clearing out an abandoned mine, the player finds a scrap of parchment that reveals the death of the player's godparents as having been ordered. The player then returns to the hamlet to find it pillaged, and decides to travel to Bjarnarhaven. Once in Bjarnarhaven, the player explores the levels beneath a nearby fortress, eventually facing Hrungnir, the Hill Giant Lord, the one responsible for ordering the player's godparents death. Hrungnir carries the Enchanted Amulet of Kings. Upon activating the amulet, the player is informed of his past by his dead father, after which the player is transported to the town of Crossroads, and Part I ends. The game can be imported or started over in Part II. The town of Crossroads is run by a Jarl who at first does not admit the player, but later provides advice and two enchanted items. The player then enters the nearby ruined titular Castle of the Winds. There the player meets his deceased grandfather, who instructs him to venture into the dungeons below, defeat Surtur, and reclaim his birthright. Venturing deeper, the player encounters monsters run rampant, a desecrated crypt, a necromancer, and the installation of various special rooms for elementals. The player eventually meets and defeats the Wolf-Man leader, Bear-Man leader, the four Jotun kings, a Demon Lord, and finally Surtur. Upon defeating Surtur, the player seats themselves upon the throne, completing the game. Graphics All terrain tiles, some landscape features, all monsters and objects, and some spell/effect graphics take the form of Windows 3.1 icons. Multi-tile graphics, such as ball spells and town buildings, are bitmaps included in the executable file. No graphics use colors other than the Windows-standard 16-color palette, plus transparency. They exist in monochrome versions as well, meaning that the game will display well on monochrome monitors. The map view is identical to the playing-field view, except for scaling to fit on one screen. A simplified map view is available to improve performance on slower computers. The latter functionality also presents a cleaner display, as the aforementioned scaling routine does not always work correctly. References External links The Saada Homepage — the game's creator. A full-game download is available. The Temple of Odin, with downloads and information about the game. Castle of the Winds Forum, featuring a message board for remake projects

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Cracking_joints

Cracking joints is the occurrence of moving one's joints such that they produce a sharp sound, likened to cracking or popping, etc. The most common form of this occurs during deliberate knuckle cracking, a process different from snapping one's fingers. It is possible to crack many other joints, such as those between the back and neck vertebrae, wrists, elbows, shoulders, toes, knees, jaws, and the Achilles tendon area. Causes To deliberately produce the clicking sounds, many people bend their fingers into unusual positions. These positions are usually ones that their own muscles are unable to achieve, and which are not commonly experienced in everyday use. For example, bending a finger backwards away from the palm (into extension), pulling them away from the hand (distraction), compressing a finger knuckle toward the palm (into flexion), or twisting a finger about (torsion). The snapping of tendons or scar tissue over a prominence (as in snapping hip syndrome) can also generate a loud snapping or popping sound. Source The physical mechanism is as yet unproven, but suggested hypotheses include: Cavitation within the joint—small cavities of partial vacuum form in the fluid and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp sound. This explains the popping that can occur in any joint, such as during spinal manipulation. Synovial fluid cavitation is the most likely theory and substantial evidence exists in support of it. Cracking your knuckles releases gases from the joints. (Discussed in detail below.) Rapid stretching of ligaments. Intra-articular (within-joint) adhesions being broken. Of these hypotheses perhaps the most popular is cavitation. When a manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave the solution creating a bubble or cavity, which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a "clicking" sound. This process is known as cavitation. The contents of the resultant gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide. The effects of this process will remain for a period of time known as the "refractory period", which can range from a few seconds to some hours while it is slowly reabsorbed back into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity may be associated with an increased tendency to cavitate. Repercussions The long-term consequences of this practice have not been studied thoroughly, and the scientific evidence is inconclusive. The common parental advice "cracking your knuckles gives you arthritis" is not supported by any evidence, but habitual knuckle crackers are more likely to have hand swelling and lower grip strength attributed to stretched tendons. It is unknown whether these effects are caused by knuckle cracking or if knuckle cracking is a symptom, as it relieves excess pressure in joints. References

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Erwin_Rommel

Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel () (15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) (known as the "Desert Fox", Wüstenfuchs, ), was perhaps the most famous German Field Marshal of World War II. He was a highly decorated officer in World War I, awarded the Pour le Mérite for his exploits on the Italian front. In World War II he further distinguished himself as the commander of the "Ghost Division" during the 1940 invasion of France. However, it was his masterful leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign that established the legend of the Desert Fox. He is thought by many to have been the most skilled commander of desert warfare in the war. Hakim, War, Peace and all that Jazz, p. He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion in Normandy. Rommel is considered to have been a chivalrous and humane military officer, in contrast with many other figures of Nazi Germany. His famous Afrikakorps was not accused of any war crimes. Indeed, soldiers captured during his Africa campaign were reported to have been largely treated humanely. Furthermore, orders to kill captured Jewish soldiers and civilians out of hand in all theatres of his command were defiantly ignored. He was suspected of involvement in the failed July 20 Plot of 1944 to kill Adolf Hitler. Because of his great prestige, he was allowed to commit suicide. Early life and career Rommel was born in Heidenheim, Germany, approximately from Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg (then part of the German Empire). He was baptised on 17 November 1891. He was the second of four children of a Protestant headmaster of the secondary school at Aalen—Prof. Erwin Rommel the elder (1860–1913) and Helene von Luz, a daughter of a prominent local dignitary—who had two other sons, Karl and Gerhard, and a daughter, Helene. Later, recalling his childhood, Rommel wrote that "my early years passed very happily." At the age of 14, Rommel and a friend built a full-scale glider that was able to fly short distances. Young Erwin considered becoming an engineer and would throughout his life display extraordinary technical aptitude; however, because of his father, young Rommel joined the local 124th Württemberg Infantry Regiment as an officer cadet in 1910 and, shortly after, was sent to the Officer Cadet School in Danzig. He graduated on 15 November 1911 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in January 1912. While at Cadet School, early in 1911, Erwin Rommel met his future wife, 17-year-old Lucia Maria Mollin (commonly called Lucie) (b. June 6, 1894 in Danzig; d. September 26, 1971 in Stuttgart). They married on November 27, 1916, in Danzig, and on December 24, 1928 had a son, Manfred, who would later become the mayor of Stuttgart. After having met Lucie, some historians suspect that Rommel also had an affair with Walburga Stemmer in 1913, and that relationship produced a daughter named Gertrud. Bierman and Smith, p. 56 World War I During World War I, Rommel fought in France, as well as in Romania (see: Romanian Campaign) and Italy (see: Italian Campaign), initially as a member of the 6th Württemberg Infantry Regiment, and through most of the war in the Württemberg Mountain Battalion of the élite Alpenkorps. While serving with that unit, he gained a reputation for making quick tactical decisions and taking advantage of enemy confusion. He was wounded three times and awarded the Iron Cross; First and Second Class. Rommel also received Prussia's highest medal, the Pour le Mérite, after fighting in the mountains of west Slovenia – Battles of the Isonzo – Soca front. The award came as a result of the Battle of Longarone, and the capture of Mount Matajur, Slovenia, and its defenders, numbering 150 Italian officers, 9,000 men, and 81 pieces of artillery. His battalion used chemical warfare gas during the battles of the Isonzo and also played a key role in the victory of the Central Powers over the Italian Army at the Battle of Caporetto. Interestingly, Rommel for a time served in the same infantry regiment as Friedrich Paulus. While fighting at Isonzo, Rommel was taken prisoner by the Italians. He escaped his captors, and, with the help of fluency in the Italian language and other skills, he was back behind the German lines within two weeks. Later, when the German and Italian armies were allied during the Second World War, Rommel tempered his initial disdain of Italian soldiers when he realised that their lack of success in battle was principally due to poor leadership and equipment, which when overcome, easily made them equal to German forces. Current Biography 1942, pp701–04. See also: http://www.storico.org/Rommel.htm Inter-war years After the war, Rommel held battalion commands and was an instructor at the Dresden Infantry School from 1929 to 1933, and the Potsdam War Academy from 1935 to 1938. Rommel's war diaries, Infanterie greift an (Infantry Attacks), published in 1937, became a highly regarded military textbook, and attracted the attention of Adolf Hitler, who placed him in charge of the War Ministry liaison with the Hitler Jugend'''s (Hitler Youth), Headquarters of Military Sports, the Hitler Jugend branch involved with paramilitary activities, primarily terrain exercises and marksmanship. Rommel applied himself energetically to the new task. The army provided instructors to the Hitler Jugend Rifle School in Thuringia, which in turn supplied qualified instructors to the HJ's regional branches. In 1937, Rommel conducted a tour of HJ meetings and encampments, and delivered lectures on German soldiering while inspecting facilities and exercises. Simultaneously he was pressuring Baldur von Schirach, the Hitler Jugend leader, to accept an agreement expanding the army's involvement in Hitler Jugend training. Schirach interpreted this as a bid to turn the Hitler Jugend into an army auxiliary, a "junior army," in his words. He refused, and denied Rommel, whom he had come to dislike personally, apparently out of envy for his "real soldier"'s appeal to the youngsters, access to the Hitler Jugend. An army-Hitler Jugend agreement was concluded, but on a far more limited scope than Rommel had sought; cooperation was restricted to the army providing personnel to the Rifle School, much to the army's chagrin. By 1939, the Hitler Jugend had 20,000 rifle instructors. Simultaneously, Rommel retained his place at Potsdam. In his class, Rommel was awarded the highest war ribbons for excellent performance. In 1938, Rommel, now a colonel, was appointed Kommandant (commander) of the War Academy at Wiener Neustadt (Theresian Military Academy). Here he started his follow-up to Infantry Attacks, Panzer greift an (Tank Attacks, sometimes translated as The Tank In Attack). Rommel was removed after a short time however, to take command of Adolf Hitler's personal protection battalion (FührerBegleitbataillon), assigned to protect him in the special railway train (Führersonderzug) used during his visits to occupied Czechoslovakia and Memel. It was at this period that he met and befriended Joseph Goebbels, the Reich's minister of propaganda. Goebbels became a fervent admirer of Rommel and later ensured that Rommel's exploits were celebrated in the media. World War II Poland 1939 Rommel continued as Führerbegleitbataillon commander during the Polish campaign, often moving up close to the front in the Führersonderzug, and seeing much of Hitler. After the Polish defeat, Rommel returned to Berlin to organize the Führer's victory parade, taking part himself as a member of Hitler's entourage. During the Polish campaign Rommel was asked to intervene on behalf of one of his wife's relatives, a Polish priest who had been arrested. He has been criticised for not doing enough on the man's behalf, though he did apply to the Gestapo for information, only to be, inevitably, brushed off with the reply that no information on the man existed. France 1940 Panzer commander Rommel asked Hitler for command of a panzer division and, on 6 February 1940, only three months before the invasion, Rommel was given command of the 7.Panzer-Division, for Fall Gelb ("Case Yellow"), the invasion of France and the Low Countries. They were also known as the "Ghost Division" because of their constant unexpected attacks. This string-pulling provoked resentment among fellow officers. The Chief of Army Personnel had rejected Rommel's request on the grounds of him having no experience with armour, instead suggesting he was more suitable for commanding a mountain division lacking a commander. Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 39 Rommel had, however, emphasized the use of mobile infantry, and had come to recognize the great usefulness of armoured forces in Poland. He set about adapting himself and learning the techniques of armoured warfare rapidly and with great enthusiasm. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 6. Invasion of France On 10 May 1940 a part of XV Corps under General Hoth, advanced into Belgium to proceed to the Meuse river near the Walloon municipality of Dinant. At the Meuse 7th Panzer was held up due to the bridge having been destroyed and determined sniper and artillery fire from the Belgian defenders. The Germans lacked smoke grenades so Rommel, having assumed personal command of the crossing, ordered a few nearby houses to be set on fire to conceal the attack. The German Panzergrenadiers crossed the river in rubber boats, with Rommel leading the second wave. von Luck. Panzer Commander. p. 38 The Division dashed further inland, always spurred on by Rommel, and far in front of any friendly forces. Rommel's technique of pushing forward boldly, ignoring risks to his flanks and rear and relying on the shock to enemy morale to hinder attacks on his vulnerable flanks, paid large dividends during his rapid march across France. Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 44 When encountering resistance, Rommel would simply order his tanks forward, all guns blazing, relying on the shock of the sudden assault to force the enemy to surrender. This method offset the disadvantage the German tanks had in terms of armour and low-calibre guns, often causing large formations of enemy heavy tanks to simply give up a fight they would otherwise have had a good chance of winning. Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 45 This approach, although it saved lives on both sides by avoiding prolonged engagements, did cause mishaps. On one occasion his tanks, following this tactic, closed with a convoy of French trucks and fired into them only to realise that the trucks were acting as ambulances ferrying wounded from the front. Battle of Arras By 18 May the Division had captured Cambrai but here Rommel's advance was checked briefly. His Chief of Staff, still with the unmotorized part of the Division in Belgium and not having received radio reports from Rommel, had written off Rommel and his combat group as lost and so had not arranged for fuel to be sent up. Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 50 There was a degree of controversy over this issue with Rommel furious with what he perceived as a negligent attitude on the part of his supply officers, whereas his Chief of Staff was critical of Rommel's failure to keep his staff officers up to speed on his actions. On 20 May Rommel's tanks reached Arras. Here he wanted to cut off the British Expeditionary Force from the coast and Hans von Luck, commanding the reconnaissance battalion of the Division, was tasked with forcing a crossing over the La Bassée canals near the city. Supported by Stuka dive bombers, the unit managed to force a crossing. The British launched a counterattack (the Battle of Arras) on 21 May with Matilda tanks, and the Germans found their 3.7 cm guns useless against the heavy armour. A battery of 88 mm guns had to be brought up to deal with the threat, with Rommel personally directing the fire. After Arras, Hitler ordered his tanks to hold their positions, while the British, in Operation Dynamo, evacuated their troops at Dunkirk and the 7th Panzer Division was given a few days of much needed rest. On 26 May 7 Panzer continued its advance and it reached Lille on 27 May. For the assault on the town, General Hoth placed his other tank division, 5th Panzer Division under Rommel's command to the chagrin of its commander, General Max von Hartlieb. Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 51 The same day Rommel received news that he had been awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, the first divisional commander to be so honoured during the campaign. This award, which had been secured for Rommel at Hitler's behest, caused more animosity among fellow officers who were critical of Rommel's close relationship with Hitler. They believed that this was further "evidence" that Hitler seemed to give Rommel preferential treatment. On 28 May, while making the final push into Lille, and far in front of friendly forces, 7th Panzer came under heavy fire from French artillery. Rommel drove his forces on, capturing Lille,trapping half of the French First Army and preventing their retreat to Dunkirk. After this coup, Rommel's forces were again given time to rest. English Channel coast Rommel, resuming his advance on 5 June, drove for the River Seine to secure the bridges near Rouen. Advancing in two days, the Division reached Rouen, only to find the bridges destroyed. On 10 June Rommel reached the coast near Dieppe, sending his "Am at coast" signal to the German HQ. On 15 June 7th Panzer started advancing on Cherbourg. On 17 June the Division advanced , and on 18 June the town was captured. The Division then proceeded towards Bordeaux, but stopped when the armistice was signed on 21 June. In July the Division was sent to the Paris area to start preparations for Operation Seelöwe, the planned invasion of Britain. The preparations were half-hearted however, as it became clearer and clearer that the Luftwaffe would not be able to secure air superiority over the Royal Air Force. Ghost Division7. Panzer-Division was later nicknamed Gespenster-Division (the "Ghost Division"), due to the speed and surprise it was consistently able to achieve, to the point that even the German High Command at times lost track of where it was. It also set the record for the longest thrust in one day by tanks up to that point, covering nearly . Rommel received both applause and criticism for his tactics during the French campaign. Many, like General Georg Stumme, who had previously commanded 7th Panzer Division, were impressed with the speed and success of Rommel's drive, others were more reserved, some out of envy, others because they felt Rommel took needless risks. Hermann Hoth publicly expressed praise for Rommel's achievements but he did have private reservations saying, in a confidential report, that Rommel should not be given command over a corps unless he gained "greater experience and a better sense of judgment." Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 55 Hoth also accused Rommel of an unwillingness to acknowledge the contributions of others to his victories. The Fourth Army's commander, General Günther von Kluge, also criticised Rommel for falsely claiming all the glory for his achievements. Rommel did not, Kluge felt, acknowledge the contribution of the Luftwaffe and Rommel's manuscript describing his campaign in France misrepresented the advances of neighbouring units to elevate the achievements of his own dazzling advances. Kluge also cited the complaint by General Hartlieb that Rommel had misappropriated the 5th Panzer's bridging tackle on 14 May after his own supplies had run out in order to cross the Meuse, delaying 5th Panzer Division for several hours. Irving, The Trail of the Fox, p. 56 Rommel had repeated this procedure on 27 May at the River Scarpe crossing. North Africa 1941–1943 Rommel's reward for his success was to be promoted and appointed commander of the 5th Light Division (later reorganised and redesignated 21.Panzer-Division) and of the 15.Panzer-Division which, as the Deutsches Afrikakorps,() were sent to Libya in early 1941 in Operation Sonnenblume to aid the demoralised Italian troops which had suffered a heavy defeat from British Commonwealth forces in Operation Compass. It was in Africa where Rommel achieved his greatest fame as a commander. First Axis offensive The Western Desert area, showing Rommel's first offensive 24 March 1941 – 15 June 1941. His campaign in North Africa earned Rommel the nickname "The Desert Fox." On 6 February 1941 Rommel was ordered to lead the Afrika Korps, sent to Libya to help shore up the Italian forces which had been driven back during Operation Compass launched by British Commonwealth forces under Major-General Richard O'Connor during December 1940. Initially ordered to assume a defensive posture and hold the front line, the Axis High Command had slated a limited offensive towards Agedabia and Benghazi for May, planning then to hold the line between those cities. Rommel argued that such a limited offensive would be ineffective as the whole of Cyrenaica would have to be captured if the front lines were to be held. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 106 The task of even holding the remaining Italian possessions seemed daunting, as the Italians had only 7,000 troops remaining in the area after O'Connor's successful capture of 130,000 prisoners and almost 400 tanks during the previous three months of advance. Windrow. Rommel's Desert Army, p. 9. On 24 March 1941 Rommel launched a limited offensive with only the 5th Light Division supported by two Italian divisions. This thrust was to be minor, in anticipation of Rommel receiving the 15th Panzer Division in May. The British, who had been weakened by troops being withdrawn to fight in the Battle of Greece, fell back to Mersa el Brega and started constructing defensive works. Rommel decided to continue the attack against these positions in order to prevent the British from building up the fortifications. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 107 After a day of fierce fighting, the Germans prevailed and the advance continued as Rommel disregarded holding off the attack on Agedabia until May. The British Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command, General Archibald Wavell, overestimating the strength of the Axis forces and, already apprehensive about the extent of his advances during the previous winter, ordered a withdrawal from Benghazi in early April to avoid being cut off by Rommel's thrust. Rommel, seeing the British reluctance to fight a decisive action, decided on a bold move: the seizure of the whole of Cyrenaica, despite having only light forces. He ordered the Italian Ariete armoured division to pursue the retreating British, while the 5th Light Division was to move on Benghazi. Generalmajor Johannes Streich, the 5th Light Division's commander, protested this order on the grounds of the state of his vehicles but Rommel brushed the objections aside because, in his words, "One cannot permit unique opportunities to slip by for the sake of trifles." Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 110 The Italian Commander-in-Chief, General Italo Gariboldi, tried repeatedly to halt Rommel's advance but was unable to contact him. Windrow. Rommel's Desert Army, p. 10. After Benghazi had been secured following the British withdrawal, Cyrenaica as far as Gazala was captured by 8 April. This was despite fervent protests from Italian GHQ, which felt Rommel was going beyond his orders, especially since he was supposedly under Italian command. Rommel had received orders from the German High Command that he was not to advance past Maradah, but he turned a blind eye to this as well as protests from some of his staff and divisional commanders. He believed he was grasping a great possibility to largely destroy the Allied presence in North Africa and capture Egypt. Rommel decided to keep up the pressure on the retreating British and launched an outflanking offensive on the important port of Tobruk Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 121 during which he managed to capture on 9 April the Military Governor of Cyrenaica, Lieutenant-General Philip Neame as well as O'Connor, who at this time was his advisor. With Italian forces attacking along the coast, Rommel decided to sweep around to the south and attack the harbour from the south-east with the 5th Light Division, hoping to trap the bulk of the enemy force there. This outflanking could not be carried out as rapidly as was necessary due to logistical problems from lengthening supply lines and spoiling flank attacks from Tobruk, so Rommel's plan failed. By 11 April, the envelopment of Tobruk was complete, and the first attack was launched. Other forces continued pushing east, reaching Bardia and securing the whole of Libya by 15 April. Siege of Tobruk The following Siege of Tobruk lasted 240 days, with the garrison consisting of the Australian 9th Division under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead and reinforced by all the British troops who had withdrawn to the port city, bringing the defenders to a total of 25,000. Impatient to secure success, Rommel launched repeated, small-scale attacks. These were easily defeated by the defenders. Rommel would later criticise the Italian High Command for failing to provide him with the blueprints of the port's fortifications (which the Italians had built before the war), but this was due to his surprising advance so far beyond the agreed point, hardly allowing them time to produce the plans. Reflecting on this period, General Heinrich Kirchheim, the then commander of the 5th Light Division, said: "I do not like to be reminded of that time because so much blood was needlessly shed." Kirchheim had been reluctant to launch further attacks on Tobruk, as the cost of earlier assaults was very high. Rommel's Africa tunic (Deutsches Panzermuseum Munster) Rommel remained wishfully positive that success was imminent. In his memoirs he later claimed that he immediately realised that the enemy was determined to cling to Tobruk, however this seems to be in doubt. In a letter to his wife dated 16 April, Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 126 he wrote that the enemy was already abandoning the town by sea and he remained confident that the enemy were not going to defend the town until well into April. Irving. Trail of the Fox, p. 84. In reality the ships arriving at the port were not evacuating the defenders but unloading supplies and even some reinforcements. A letter of his, written on 21 April, Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 129 suggests that he was beginning to realise this while the arrival of the Italian blueprints of fortifications provided further grounds for discouragement. Nonetheless Rommel continued to insist that success was imminent. His relations with his subordinate commanders were at their nadir at this point, especially with Streich who was openly critical of Rommel's decisions and refused to assume any responsibility for the attacks. Rommel began holding a series of courts-martial, though ultimately he signed almost none of the verdicts. This state of affairs led Army Chief Walther von Brauchitsch to write to him that instead of making threats and requesting the replacement of officers who "hitherto had excelled in battle", rather "... a calm and constructive debate might bring better results". Rommel remained unmoved. At this point Rommel requested reinforcements for a renewed attack but the High Command, then completing preparations for Operation Barbarossa, could not spare any. Chief of Staff General Franz Halder, when he had also told Rommel, before the latter left for Africa, that a larger force could not be logistically sustained, Rommel had responded "that's your pigeon". Now Halder sarcastically commented: "now at last he is constrained to state that his forces are not sufficiently strong to allow him to take full advantage of the 'unique opportunities' offered by the overall situation. That is the impression we have had for quite some time over here." Irving. Trail of the Fox, p. 90. Angry that his order not to advance beyond Maradah had been disobeyed and alarmed at mounting losses, Halder, never an admirer of Rommel, dispatched Friedrich Paulus to (in Halder's words) "head off this soldier gone stark mad". Irving. Trail of the Fox, p. 92. Upon arrival on 27 April Paulus was initially convinced to authorise yet another attack on Tobruk. Back in Berlin Halder wrote "in my view it is a mistake" but deferred to Paulus. When the attack, launched on 4 May, seemed to turn into a disaster Paulus intervened and ordered it halted. In addition he now forbade Rommel from committing forces into any new attack on Tobruk and further ordered that the attacks were to halt until regrouping was completed. No new assault was to take place without OKH's specific approval. Rommel was furious with what he perceived as the lack of fighting spirit in his commanders and Italian allies. However, on the insistence of Paulus and Halder, he held off further attacks until the detailed plans of the Tobruk defences could be obtained, the 15th Panzer Division could be brought up to support the attack and more training of his troops in positional warfare could be conducted, Windrow. Rommel's Desert Army. For Streich however it was too late. He was transferred from command of 15th Panzer Division. When he met Rommel for the last time as he was taking his leave, Rommel told him that he had been "too concerned for the well-being of your troops"; Streich shot back: "I can recognise no greater words of praise", and a new quarrel ensued. After the decision was made to hold off attacks on Tobruk for an indefinite period, Rommel set about creating defensive positions, with Italian infantry forces holding Bardia, the Sollum-Sidi Omar line and investing Tobruk. The mobile German and Italian formations were held in reserve to fight any British attacks from Egypt. To this end, Halfaya Pass was secured, the high water mark of Rommel's offensive. An elaborately prepared great assault was scheduled for 21 November 1941, but this attack never took place. Whereas the defenders of Tobruk could be supplied by sea, the logistical problems of the Afrika Korps greatly hampered its operations and a concentrated counter-attack southwards by the besieged Allies might have succeeded in reaching El Adam and severed the lines of communication and supply of the Axis forces at Bardia, Sollum and Halfya covering the Egyptian border. General Morshead, however, was misled by intelligence overestimates of the German forces investing Tobruk and so no major action was attempted. General Wavell made two unsuccessful attempts to relieve Tobruk (Operation Brevity (launched on 15 May) and Operation Battleaxe) (launched on 15 June). Both operations were easily defeated as they were hastily prepared, partly due to Churchill's impatience for speedy action. During Brevity the important Halfaya Pass was briefly recaptured by the British, but lost again on 27 May. Battleaxe resulted in the loss of 87 British for 25 German tanks, in a four day battle raging on the flanks of the Sollum and Halfaya Passes, with the British being unable to take these well fortified positions. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 146 In August Rommel was appointed commander of the newly created Panzer Group Africa. His previous command, the Afrika Korps comprising the 15th Panzer Division and the 5th Light Division, which by then had been redesignated 21st Panzer Division, was put under command of Generalleutnant Ludwig Crüwell, with Fritz Bayerlein as chief of staff. In addition to the Afrika Korps, Rommel's Panzer Group had the 90th Light Division and six Italian divisions, the Ariete and Trieste Divisions forming the Italian XX Motorized Corps, three infantry divisions investing Tobruk, and one holding Bardia. Operation Crusader Allied counter offensive Following the costly failure of Battleaxe, Wavell was replaced by Commander-in-Chief India, General Claude Auchinleck. The Allied forces were reorganised and strengthened to two corps, XXX and XIII, as the British Eighth Army under the command of Alan Cunningham. Auchinleck, having 770 tanks and 1,000 aircraft to support him, launched a major offensive to relieve Tobruk (Operation Crusader) on 18 November 1941. Rommel had two armoured divisions, the 15th and 21st with 260 tanks, the 90th Light Infantry division, and three Italian corps, five infantry and one armoured division with 154 tanks, with which to oppose him. The Eighth Army deeply outflanked the German defences along the Egyptian frontier with a left hook through the desert, and reached a position from which they could strike at both Tobruk and the coastal road, the "Via Balbia". Auchinleck planned to engage the Afrika Korps with his armored division, while XXX Corps assaulted the Italian positions at Bardia, encircling the troops there. The British operational plan had one major flaw. When XXX corps reached the area of Qabr Salih, it was assumed that the Afrika Korps would move eastward and accept battle, allowing the British to surround them with the southerly armour thrust. Rommel, however, did not find it necessary to do as the British planned, instead attacking the southern armored thrust at Sidi Rezegh. Stegman, p. 729 Rommel was faced with the decision of whether to go through with the planned late May attack on Tobruk, trusting his screening forces to hold off the advancing British, or to reorient his forces to hit the British columns approaching. He considered the risks too great if he chose to attack Tobruk, and so called off this attack. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 159 The British armoured thrusts were largely defeated by fierce resistance from antitank positions and German and Italian tanks. The Italian Ariete Armoured Division was forced to give ground while inflicting losses on the advancing British at Bir el Gobi, whereas the 21st Panzer Division checked the attack launched against them and counterattacked on Gabr Saleh. Over the next two days the British continued pressing the attack, sending their armored brigades into the battle in a piecemeal fashion, von Mellenthin, Panzer Battles, p. 76. while Rommel, aware of his numerical inferiority, launched a concentrated attack on 23 November with all his armour. 21st Panzer Division held defensively at Sidi Rezegh, while 15th Panzer Division and the Italian Ariete Division attacked the flanks and enveloped the British armour. During this battle, among the biggest armored battles of the North African campaign, the British tanks were surrounded, with about two-thirds destroyed and the survivors having to fight themselves out of the trap and head south to Gabr Saleh. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 162 Rommel's counterattacks On 24 November Rommel, wanting to exploit the halt of the British offensive, counterattacked into the British rear areas in Egypt with the intention of exploiting the disorganisation and confusion in the enemy's bases and cutting their supply lines. Rommel considered the other, more conservative, course of action of destroying the British forces halted before Tobruk and Bardia too time consuming. Fritz Bayerlein in Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 165 Rommel knew his forces were incapable of driving such an effort home, but believed that the British, traumatised by their recent debacle, would abandon their defences along the border at the appearance of a German threat to their rear. Stegman, General Cunningham did, as Rommel had hoped, decide to withdraw the Eighth Army to Egypt, but Auchinleck arrived from Cairo just in time to cancel the withdrawal orders. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 166 The German attack, which began with only 100 operational tanks remaining, von Mellenthin, Panzer Battles, p. 88 stalled as it outran its supplies and met stiffening resistance. The counterattack was criticised by the German High Command and some of his staff officers as too dangerous with Commonwealth forces still operating along the coast east of Tobruk, and a wasteful attack as it bled his forces, in particular his remaining tank force. Among the Staff officers who were critical was Friedrich von Mellenthin, who said that "Unfortunately, Rommel overestimated his success and believed the moment had come to launch a general pursuit.". In Rommel's favour, the attack very nearly succeeded, with the British Eighth Army commander ordering a withdrawal, and only Auchinleck's timely intervention prevented this. Tobruk relieved, Axis retirement to El Agheila While Rommel drove into Egypt, the remaining Commonwealth forces east of Tobruk threatened the weak Axis lines there. Unable to reach Rommel for several days, Rommel's Chief of Staff, Oberstleutnant Westphal, ordered the 21st Panzer Division withdrawn to support the siege of Tobruk. On 27 November the British attack on Tobruk linked up with the defenders, and Rommel, having suffered losses that could not easily be replaced, had to concentrate on retrieving and regrouping the divisions that had attacked into Egypt. By 6 December the Afrika Korps had averted the danger, and on 7 December Rommel fell back to a defensive line at Gazala, just west of Tobruk, all the while under heavy attacks from the RAF. The Italian forces at Bardia and on the Egyptian border were now cut off from the retreating Axis. The Allies, briefly held up at Gazala, kept up the pressure to some degree, although they were almost as exhausted and disorganised as Rommel's force, von Mellenthin, Panzer Battles, p. 99. and Rommel was forced to retreat all the way back to the starting positions he had held in March, reaching El Agheila on 30 December. His main concern during his withdrawal was being flanked to the south, so the Afrika Korps held the south flank during the retreat. The Allies followed, but never attempted a southern flanking move to cut off the retreating troops as they had done in 1940. The German-Italian garrison at Bardia surrendered on 2 January 1942. Recapture of Gazala On 5 January 1942 the Afrika Korps received 55 tanks and new supplies and Rommel started planning a counterattack. On 21 January the attack was launched, which mauled the Allied forces, costing them some 110 tanks and other heavy equipment. The Axis forces retook Benghazi on 29 January, Timimi on 3 February, and the Allies pulled back to the Tobruk area and commenced building defensive positions at Gazala. During the confusion caused by the Crusader operation, Rommel and his staff found themselves behind Allied lines several times. On one occasion, he visited a New Zealand Army field hospital that was still under Allied control. "[Rommel] inquired if anything was needed, promised the British [sic] medical supplies and drove off unhindered." Fritz Bayerlein, The Rommel Papers, Chapter 8. Eventually, Rommel did supply the medical unit with some medical equipment. Second German offensive: Battle of Gazala Camouflaged PzKmpw III command vehicle. In desert position some 45 kilometres west of Gazala. Following General Kesselring's successes in creating local air superiority and suppressing the Malta defenders in April 1942, an increased flow of vital supplies reached the Panzer Armee Afrika. Previously it had been receiving about a third of its needed supplies for several months. With his forces thus strengthened, Rommel began planning a major push for the summer. He felt the very strong British positions around Gazala could be outflanked, and he could then drive up behind them and destroy them. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.195 The British were planning a summer offensive of their own and their dispositions were more suited for an attack rather than a defence. The British had 900 tanks in the area, 200 of which were new Grant tanks, whereas Rommel's Panzer Army Africa commanded a mere 320 German, 50 of which were the obsolete Panzer II model, and 240 Italian tanks, which were no better than the Panzer IIs. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.196 Therefore Rommel had to rely predominantly on 88 mm guns to destroy the British heavy tanks, but even these were in short supply. In infantry and artillery Rommel found himself vastly outnumbered also, with many of his units under-strength following the campaigns of 1941. In contrast to the previous year, the Axis had more-or-less air parity. On 26 May 1942 Rommel's army attacked in a classic outflanking Blitzkrieg operation in the Battle of Gazala. His Italian infantry assaulted the Gazala fortifications head on, with some armour attached to give the impressions that this was the main assault, while all his motorized and armoured forces outflanked the positions to the south. On the following morning Rommel cut through the flank and attacked north, but throughout the day a running armour battle occurred, where both sides took heavy losses. The attempted encirclement of the Gazala position failed and the Germans lost a third of their heavy tanks. Renewing the attack on the morning of 28 May, Rommel concentrated on encircling and destroying separate units of the British armour. Heavy British counterattacks forced Rommel to assume a defensive posture and not pursue his original plan of a dash north for the coast. On 30 May he attacked eastwards to link with elements of Italian X Corps which had cleared a path through the Allied minefields to establish a line of supply. On 2 June 90th Light Division and the Trieste Division surrounded and reduced the Allied strongpoint at Bir Hakeim, capturing it on 11 June. With his communications and the southern strongpoint of the British line thus secured, Rommel attacked north again, forcing the British back, relying on the minefields of the Gazala lines to protect his left flank. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.217 On 14 June the British began a headlong retreat eastwards, the so-called "Gazala Gallop", to avoid being completely cut off. On 15 June Axis forces reached the coast eliminating any escape for the Commonwealth forces still occupying the Gazala positions. With this task completed, Rommel set off in pursuit of the retreating Allied formations, aiming to capture Tobruk while the enemy was confused and disorganised. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.224 Tobruk, isolated and alone, was now all that stood between the Axis and Egypt. The defenders were the 2nd South African Infantry Division and some disorganised units recovering from the Gazala battle. On 21 June, after a swift, coordinated and fierce combined arms assault, the city surrendered along with its 33,000 defenders, including most of the South African 2nd Division. Only at the fall of Singapore, earlier that year, had more British Commonwealth troops been captured. Hitler made Rommel a Field Marshal for this victory. Drive for Egypt Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, with his aides during the desert campaign. 1942 Rommel determined to press the attack on Mersa Matruh despite the heavy losses he had suffered at Gazala and Tobruk. He also wanted to prevent the British from establishing a new frontline, and felt the weakness of the British formations had to be exploited by a thrust into Egypt. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.233 This decision met with some criticism, as an advance into Egypt meant a significant lengthening of the supply lines. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.234 It also meant that a proposed attack on Malta would have to wait, as the Luftwaffe would be required to support Rommel's drive eastwards. Kesselring strongly disagreed with Rommel's decision, and went as far as threatening to withdraw his aircraft to Sicily. von Mellenthin, Panzer Battles, p. 150. Hitler agreed to Rommel's plan, despite protest from Italian HQ and some of his staff officers, seeing the potential for a complete victory in Africa. von Mellenthin, Panzer Battles, p. 152. Rommel, apparently aware of his growing reputation as a gambler, defended his decision by claiming that merely to hold the lines at Sollum would confer upon the British a distinct advantage, in that they could more easily outflank the positions at Sollum and the overseas supply lines would still have to be routed via Tripoli unless he secured a front further east. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 235 On 22 June Rommel continued his offensive eastwards and initially little resistance was encountered. Apart from fuel shortages, the advance continued until Mersa Matruh was encircled on 26 June, surrounding four infantry divisions. One of the divisions managed to break out during the night, and over the next two days some elements of the remaining three divisions also slipped away. The fortress fell on 29 June, yielding enormous amounts of supplies and equipment, in addition to 6,000 POWs. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.239 On 25 June Auchinleck had assumed direct command of Eighth Army and decided to form his main defensive line at El Alamein, where the proximity to the south of the Qattara Depression created a relatively short line to defend which could not be outflanked to the south because of the impossibility of moving armour into and through the depression. Rommel continued his march eastwards, but with the supply situation steadily worsening and his men exhausted after five weeks of constant warfare, the offensive on El Alamein seemed in doubt. On 1 July the First Battle of El Alamein started, but after almost a month of inconclusive fighting both sides, completely exhausted, dug in, halting Rommel's drive eastwards. This was a serious blow to Rommel who had hoped to drive his advance into the open desert beyond El Alamein where he could conduct a mobile defence. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.254 The Eighth Army suffered higher casualties in the fighting around El Alamein, some 13,000, compared with Axis losses of 7,000 men, 1,000 of which were Germans, but Rommel could afford the losses to a much lesser degree. Allied attack: Second Battle of El Alamein Summer standoff After the stalemate at El Alamein, Rommel hoped to go on the offensive again before massive amounts of men and material could reach the British Eighth Army. Allied forces from Malta were, however, intercepting his supplies at sea and the Desert Air Force kept up a relentless campaign against Axis supply vessels in Tobruk, Bardia and Mersa Matruh. Most of the supplies reaching the Axis troops still had to be landed at Benghazi and Tripoli and the enormous distances supplies had to travel to reach the forward troops, meant that a rapid resupply and reorganisation of the Axis army could not be done. Further hampering Rommel's plans was the fact that the Italian divisions received priority on supplies, with the Italian authorities shipping material for the Italian formations at a much higher rate than for those of German formations. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.267 It seems the Italian HQ was uneasy with Rommel's ambitions and wanted their own forces, whom they at least had some control over, resupplied first. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p.268 The British, themselves preparing for a renewed drive, replaced C-in-C Auchinleck with General Harold Alexander. The Eighth Army also got a new commander, Bernard Montgomery. They received a steady stream of supplies, and were able to reorganise their forces. In late August they received a large convoy, carrying over 100,000 tons of supplies, and Rommel, learning of this, felt that time was running out. Rommel decided to launch an attack, with the 15th and 21st Panzer Division, 90th Light Division and the Italian XX Motorized Corps in a drive through the southern flank of the El Alamein lines. The terrain here was without any easily defensible features and so open to attack. Montgomery and Auchinleck before him had realised this threat and the main defences for this sector had been set up behind the El Alamein line, along the Alam El Halfa Ridge, where any outflanking thrust could be more easily met from overlooking defensive positions. Battle of Alam El Halfa The Battle of Alam el Halfa was launched on 30 August, with Rommel's forces driving through the south flank. After passing the El Alamein line to the south, Rommel drove north at the Alam el Halfa Ridge, just as Montgomery had anticipated. Under heavy fire from British artillery and aircraft, and in the face of well prepared positions that Rommel could not hope to outflank due to lack of fuel, the attack stalled. By 2 September, Rommel realized the battle was unwinnable, and decided to withdraw. Carver, El Alamein p.67 Montgomery had prepared to pursue the Germans but in the afternoon of 2 September, he gave Corps commander Brian Horrocks clear orders to allow the enemy to retire. This was for two reasons: to preserve his own strength and to allow the enemy to observe, and be misled by, the dummy preparations for an attack in the area. Lewin, Rommel as Military Commander, p. 160 Nevertheless, Montgomery was keen to inflict casualties on the enemy and orders were given for the as yet inexperienced 2nd New Zealand Division, positioned to the north of the retreating Axis forces, and 7th Armoured Division to attack on 3 September. The attack was repelled, however, by a fierce rearguard action by the 90th Light Division and Montgomery called off further action to preserve his strength. Carver, El Alamein p.70 On 5 September Rommel was back where he had started, with only heavy losses to show for it. Rommel had 2,940 casualties, lost 50 tanks, a similar number of guns and perhaps worst of all 400 trucks, vital for supplies and movement. The British losses, except tank losses of 68, were much less, further adding to the numerical inferiority of Panzer Army Afrika. The Desert Air Force inflicted the highest proportions of damage to Rommel's forces. He now realized the war in Africa was unwinnable without more air support which was impossible since the Luftwaffe was already stretched to breaking point on other fronts. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 286 Second Battle of El Alamein El Alamein 1942: British Matilda tanks move forward at Tobruk. In September British raiding parties attacked important harbours and supply points. The flow of supplies successfully ferried across the Mediterranean had fallen to a dismal level. Some two-thirds of the supplies embarked for Africa were destroyed at sea. In addition, Rommel's health was failing and he took sick leave in Italy and Germany from late September. Thus he was not present when the Second Battle of El Alamein began on 23 October 1942. Although he returned immediately, it took him two vital days to reach his HQ in Africa. The defensive plan at El Alamein was more static in nature than Rommel preferred, but with shortages of motorized units and fuel, he had felt it was the only possible plan. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 298 The defensive line had strong fortifications and was protected with a large minefield which in turn was covered with machine guns and artillery. This, Rommel hoped, would allow his infantry to hold the line at any point until motorized and armoured units in reserve could move up and counterattack any Allied breaches. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 299 General Georg Stumme was in command in Rommel's absence but during the initial fighting he died of a heart attack. This paralyzed the German HQ until General Ritter von Thoma took command. After returning, Rommel learned that the fuel supply situation, critical when he left in September, was now disastrous. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 305 Counterattacks by the 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions on 24 October and 25 October had incurred heavy tank losses due to the intensity of the British artillery and air attack. Rommel's main concern was to counterattack in full force and throw the British out of the defensive lines which in his view the only chance the Axis had of avoiding defeat. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 306 The counterattack was launched early on 26 October but the British units that had penetrated the defensive line held fast on Kidney Ridge. The Allies continued pushing hard with armoured units to force the breakthrough, but the defenders' fire destroyed many tanks, leading to doubts among the officers in the British armoured brigades about the chances of clearing a breach. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 307 Montgomery, seeing his armoured brigades losing tanks at an alarming rate, stopped major attacks until 2 November when he launched Operation Supercharge and achieved a penetration of the line. Rommel immediately counterattacked with what tanks he had available in an attempt to encircle the pocket during 2 November, but the heavy Allied fire stopped the attempt. By this time Panzer Army Africa had only one-third of its initial strength remaining, with only 35 tanks left operational, virtually no fuel or ammunition and with the British in complete command of the air, Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 319 yet the British armour had been fought to a standstill, having taken murderous losses with some armoured brigades reporting losses of 75%. Rommel's retreat On 3 November Montgomery found it impossible to renew his attack, and he had to wait for more reinforcements to be brought up. This lull was what Rommel needed for his withdrawal, which had been planned since 29 October, when Rommel determined the situation hopeless. At midday, however, Rommel received the infamous "victory or death" stand fast order from Hitler. Although this order demanded the impossible and virtually ensured the destruction of Panzer Army Africa, Rommel could not bring himself to disobey a direct order from his Führer. The Axis forces held on desperately. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 322 On 4 November Montgomery renewed the attack with fresh forces, and with almost 500 tanks against the 20 or so remaining to Rommel. By midday the Italian XX Motorized Corps was surrounded, and several hours later was completely destroyed. This left a 20 km gap in Rommel's line, with British armoured and motorized units pouring through, threatening the entire Panzer Army Africa with encirclement. At this point Rommel could no longer uphold the no retreat order and ordered a general retreat. Early on 5 November he received authorization by Hitler to withdraw, 12 hours after his decision to do so—but it was far too late, with only remnants of his army streaming westwards. Most of his unmotorized forces (the bulk of the army) were caught. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 326 Part of the Panzer Army Africa escaped from El Alamein but this remnant took heavy losses from constant air attacks. Despite urgings from Hitler and Mussolini, the Panzer Army did not turn to fight, except for brief holding actions, but withdrew under Allied pressure all the way to Tunisia. However, the retreat was conducted most skilfully, employing scorched earth tactics and leaving behind booby traps making the task of the pursuers very difficult. The Allied forces had great numerical superiority and air supremacy, while most of Rommel's remaining divisions were reduced to combat groups. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 342–357 End of Africa campaigns A Tiger I tank, captured by American forces in Tunisia in 1943. Having reached Tunisia Rommel launched an attack against the U.S. II Corps which was threatening to cut his lines of supply north to Tunis. Rommel inflicted a sharp defeat on the American forces at the Kasserine Pass in February. Rommel immediately turned back against the British forces, occupying the Mareth Line (old French defences on the Libyan border). But Rommel could only delay the inevitable. At the end of January 1943, the Italian General Giovanni Messe had been appointed the new commander of Rommel's Panzer Army Africa while Rommel had been at Kasserine, which was renamed the Italo-German Panzer Army (in recognition of the fact that it consisted of one German and three Italian corps). Though Messe replaced Rommel, he diplomatically deferred to him, and the two coexisted in what was theoretically the same command. On 23 February Armeegruppe Afrika was created with Rommel in command. It included the Italo-German Panzer Army under Messe (renamed 1st Italian Army) and the German 5th Panzer Army in the north of Tunisia under General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim. The last Rommel offensive in North Africa was on 6 March 1943, when he attacked Eighth Army at the Battle of Medenine. The attack was made with 10th, 15th, and 21st Panzer Divisions. Warned by ULTRA intercepts, Montgomery deployed large numbers of anti-tank guns in the path of the offensive. After losing 52 tanks, Rommel called off the assault. On 9 March he handed over command of Armeegruppe Afrika to General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim and left Africa, because of health reasons, never to return. On 13 May 1943, General Messe surrendered the remnants of Armeegruppe Afrika to the Allies. Some historians contrast Rommel's withdrawal to Tunisia against Hitler's wishes with Friedrich Paulus's obedience of orders to have the German Sixth Army stand its ground at the Battle of Stalingrad which resulted in its annihilation. Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, appointed overall Axis commander in North Africa, saw things differently. He believed the withdrawals, some of which were carried out against his orders, unnecessary and ruinous since they brought forward British airfields ever closer to the port of Tunis. As far as he was concerned, Rommel was an insubordinate defeatist and string-puller. The increasingly acrimonious relations between the two did nothing to enhance performance. Role of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) in North Africa Axis The Axis had some major SIGINT successes in North Africa. They intercepted the reports of the U.S. military attaché in Egypt, who was briefed by the British on their forces and plans. Intercepted Communications for Field Marshal Erwin Rommel » HistoryNet Some authorities believe this information explains much of Rommel's success. In addition, the Afrika Korps had a Radio Intercept Section (RIS) attached to its HQ. The RIS monitored radio communications among British units. The British were very "gabby", and most of this chatter was in clear, allowing the Germans to identify British units and deployments. During the first Battle of El Alamein, a British counter-attack reached the HQ. The RIS was wiped out in the fighting, with much of their files captured. This alerted the British to the problem, and they tightened up on radio chatter. The loss of this source is also considered an important factor in Rommel's later lack of success. von Mellenthin, Panzer Battles, p. Allies Allied codebreakers read much enciphered German message traffic, especially that encrypted with the Enigma machine. This ULTRA intelligence included daily reports from Africa on the numbers and condition of Axis forces. It also included information about Axis supply shipments across the Mediterranean. This information enabled the weak Allied air and naval forces there to intercept and destroy much of these shipments. To protect the source of the intelligence (ULTRA), Allied air and naval forces were forbidden to destroy the convoys carrying war supplies to North Africa until a flyover to "discover" the convoy was arranged and completed. France 1943–1944 The inglorious end of the North African campaign meshed poorly with the Nazi propaganda machine's relentless portrayal of Rommel as an unbeatable military genius. This opened in Berlin the awkward question of precisely what use now to make of the erstwhile Desert Fox. Back in Germany he was for some time virtually "unemployed". On 23 July 1943 he moved to Greece as commander of Army Group E to defend the Greek coast against a possible Allied landing that never happened, and which the Germans were led to expect due to the elaborate British deception plan known as "Operation Mincemeat" - only to return to Germany two days later upon the overthrow of Mussolini. On 17 August 1943 Rommel moved his headquarters from Munich to Lake Garda as commander of a new Army Group B created to defend northern Italy. After Hitler gave General Albert Kesselring sole Italian command, on 21 November, Rommel moved Army Group B to Normandy in France with responsibility for defending the French coast against the long anticipated Allied invasion. He was dismayed by the lack of completed works and the slow building pace and feared he had just months before an invasion. Rommel reinvigorated the fortification effort along the Atlantic coast. The Commander-in-Chief West, Gerd von Rundstedt, expected the Allies to invade in the Pas-de-Calais because it was the shortest crossing from Britain and the nearest point to Germany. Hitler's HQ, although agreeing with this assessment, also considered a landing at Normandy as a possibility. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 510 Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 332. Rommel, believing that Normandy was indeed a likely landing ground, argued that it did not matter to the Allies where they landed, just that the landing was successful. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 510 Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 326. He therefore toured the Normandy defenses extensively in January and February 1944. He ordered millions of mines laid and thousands of tank traps and obstacles set up on beaches and throughout the countryside, including in fields suitable for glider aircraft landings, the so-called Rommelspargel ("Rommel's asparagus"). Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 327. After his battles in North Africa, Rommel concluded that during the Allied offensive any German tank movement would be nearly impossible due to overwhelming Allied air superiority. He argued that the tank forces should be dispersed in small units and kept in heavily fortified positions as close to the front as possible, so they would not have to move far and en masse when the invasion started. Liddell Hart. The Rommel Papers, p. 508 He wanted the invasion stopped right on the beaches. However, von Rundstedt felt that there was no way to stop the invasion near the beaches due to the equally overwhelming firepower of the Allied navies. He felt the tanks should be formed into large units well inland near Paris where they could allow the allies to extend into France and then cut off the Allied troops. Other renowned Panzer commanders such as Heinz Guderian agreed with von Rundstedt. Panzer Group West commander Geyr von Schweppenburg strongly disagreed with Rommel, wanting the armour placed far inland. When asked to pick a plan, Hitler vacillated. In late April, he ordered them placed in the middle, far enough inland to be useless to Rommel but not far enough for von Rundstedt. Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 345. Rommel did move some of the armoured formations under his command as far forward as possible, ordering General Erich Marcks, commanding the 84th Corps defending the Normandy section, to move his reserves into the frontline. The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for D-Day (see Operation Fortitude), giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais. Although Hitler himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most Wehrmacht commanders in France also started believing in a Pas-de-Calais landing. Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 347. Rommel concentrated fortification building in the River Somme estuary and let the work in Normandy lag. By D-Day on 6 June 1944 virtually all German officers, including Hitler's staff, firmly believed that Pas-de-Calais was going to be the invasion site. Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 354. During the confusing opening hours of D-Day, the German command structure in France was in disarray. Rommel, along with several other important officers, was on leave. Irving. The Trail of the Fox, p. 362. Several tank units, notably the 12th SS Panzer Division and Panzer Lehr, were close enough to the beaches to create serious havoc. The absence of Rommel and continued confusion in the army and theater HQs led to hesitation in releasing the armoured reserves to Normandy when they might be needed to meet a second invasion further north. Facing only small-scale German attacks, the Allies quickly secured a beachhead. Rommel personally oversaw the bitter fighting around Caen where only the determined defence of Kampfgruppe von Luck prevented a British breakout on the first day. Here, again, the on-site commanders were denied freedom of action and the Germans did not launch a concentrated counterattack until mid-day on 6 June. The Allies pushed ashore and expanded their beachhead despite the best efforts of Rommel's troops. By mid-July the German position was crumbling. On 17 July 1944 Rommel's staff car was strafed and he was hospitalised with major head injuries. Plot against Hitler There had always been opposition to Hitler in conservative circles and in the Army, the Schwarze Kapelle, but Hitler's dazzling successes in 1938-1941 stifled it. However, after the Russian campaign failed, and the Axis suffered more defeats, the opposition underwent a revival. Rommel was not part of this movement. He was never contacted by any of the ringleaders. He was known, however, to have become very critical of the Nazi regime and to be disillusioned with Hitler. At the same time his record in Africa made him very popular and respected with the German people. Dr. Carl Goerdeler, the civilian head of the Resistance, included Rommel on a list of figures to be brought into a post-Hitler government as a possible future President of Germany. After the failed bomb attack of July 20 many conspirators were arrested and the dragnet expanded to anyone even suspected of participating. Rommel was identified in Goerdeler's list and other documents as a potential supporter and an acceptable military leader to be placed in a position of responsibility should their coup succeed. Still, no evidence directly linked Rommel to the plot. Nazi party officials in France, however, reported that, while hospitalized, Rommel extensively and scornfully criticized Nazi incompetence and crimes. Bormann was certain of Rommel's involvement, but Goebbels was not. Unfortunately for Rommel, the 'Court of Military Honour' that was to decide whether or not to hand him over to Roland Freisler's People's Court included two men with whom Rommel had crossed swords before, Guderian and von Rundstedt. The Court decided that Rommel should be handed over to the People's Court, a drumhead organization which always decided in favour of the prosecution. A memorial at the site of Field Marshall Erwin Rommel's suicide outside of the town of Herrlingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany (west of Ulm). The true extent of Rommel's knowledge of or involvement with the plot is still unclear, but the general consensus among many historians is that he at least knew of it, even if he wasn't directly involved. After the war, however, his wife (among others) maintained that Rommel had been against the plot, at least against the assassination of Hitler, as a civil war might have exploded in Germany and Austria and Hitler would have become a martyr for a lasting cause. Hans Speidel, Invasion 1944 (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1950), pp. 68, 73. Rommel's death Because of Rommel's popularity with the German people and possibly because he had been one of Hitler's favourites and one of Germany's most successful battlefield commanders, he was approached at his home by Wilhelm Burgdorf and Ernst Maisel on 14 October 1944. Burgdorf offered him a choice from Field Marshal Keitel: he could face the People's Court and potential persecution of his family and the arrest of his staff, or choose to commit suicide quietly. In the latter case, the government would assure his family pension payments and a state funeral claiming he had died a hero. Burgdorf had brought a capsule of cyanide for the occasion. After a few minutes' thought alone, Rommel announced that he chose to end his own life and explained his decision to his wife and son. Carrying his field marshal's baton, Rommel went to Burgdorf's Opel, driven by SS Master Sergeant Heinrich Doose, and was driven out of the village. Doose walked away from the car leaving Rommel with Maisel. Five minutes later Burgdorf gestured to the two men to return to the car, and Doose noticed that Rommel was slumped over. Doose, while sobbing, replaced Rommel's fallen cap on his head. Ten minutes later the group phoned Rommel's wife to inform her that Rommel was dead. Manfred Rommel, Nuremberg testimony Irving The Trail of the Fox, But there also exists an alternate theory about the German Commander's death—that Rommel was given a choice to face the People's Court or to be shot by the German police. Rommel chose the latter because, as he explained to his wife and son, it would be better to die immediately with honour rather than die after facing national humiliation at the People's Court. He was then taken to a secret place in or around Berlin where he was shot by two Gestapo officials. He was then hailed as a national hero who died as a result of sustaining injuries. William Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Touchstone Edition) (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), pp. 1078-1080 (esp. p. 1078). Rommel's grave After the war, an edited version of his diary was published as The Rommel Papers. He is the only member of the Third Reich establishment to have a museum dedicated to him. His grave can be found in Herrlingen, a short distance west of Ulm. The official story of Rommel's death, as initially reported to the general public, stated that Rommel had either suffered a heart attack Marshall, p189, The Rommel Murder or succumbed to his injuries Ryan, A Bridge Too Far, p. 43 from the earlier strafing of his staff car. To further strengthen the story, Hitler ordered an official day of mourning in commemoration and Rommel was buried with full military honours. Hitler sent Field Marshal von Rundstedt as his representative at Rommel's funeral. Rommel had specified that no political paraphernalia were to be displayed on his corpse, but the Nazis made sure he was fully festooned with swastikas. Rommel as military commander Rommel has been hailed as a brilliant tactician and competent strategist Liddell Hart, The Rommel Papers but certainly not without flaws. Contemporaries who had to work with him under adversity often had very few kind words to say about him and his abilities. Following Paulus' return from his inspection of Rommel's doings in North Africa and also considering the reports submitted by Alfred Gause, Halder concluded: "Rommel's character defects make him very hard to get along with but no one cares to come out in open opposition because of his brutality and the backing he has at top level." Others mentioned his leadership style, which expected much of his commanders, while not being open to criticism or objections. He had little patience for sub-commanders who did not do their jobs properly. Only three weeks after assuming command of the 7th Panzer Division in February 1940, Rommel found a battalion commander performing below par and had the man relieved of command and sent on his way in 90 minutes. Irving, Trail of the Fox, p. 42. This management style would certainly send a signal that he demanded the utmost of his men, but it was bound to create a feeling of resentment among some of his officers. F. W. von Mellenthin, who served on Rommel's staff during the Africa campaign, wrote that Rommel took great chances on several occasions, gambling entire battles on decisions made almost on the spur of the moment and with incomplete information. He cited Rommel's counterattack during Operation Crusader as just one such instance. Others who served under him in Africa, most notably General Fritz Bayerlein, said he took risks but only after carefully weighing the potential dangers and rewards. Liddell Hart The Rommel Papers, p. 165 Rommel himself was aware of his growing reputation as a gambler and added careful notes in his papers explaining and defending his actions, especially concerning his decision to drive into Egypt during the 1942 Summer Offensive. Liddell Hart, The Rommel Papers, p. 235. While some aggressive subordinates, like Hans von Luck, praised his leadership from the front, Mellenthin questioned this leadership style as it often led to disinvolvement of his staff officers in the fight instead of their maintaining an overview of the situation. His consequential long absences from HQ also meant that subordinates had to make decisions without consulting Rommel, leading to confusion. von Mellenthin. Panzer Battles, p. 58. In France, Rommel's aggressive drive through the French and British lines, disregarding the safety of his flanks and rear, succeeded to a remarkable degree. His bold attacks often caused larger enemy formations to surrender but his aggressiveness did cause resentment among fellow officers, however, who felt he at times acted too recklessly and failed to keep his sub-commanders and colleague commanders properly informed of his intentions. He was also criticized for claiming too much of the glory himself, neglecting support from other elements of the Wehrmacht and downplaying other units' achievements. Rommel won many battles in Africa in 1941 and 1942 against British forces that always outnumbered him and generally had better supply lines, through aggressive action. On several occasions he violated direct orders not to attack. But his eagerness to drive for Egypt, when the necessary logistical support was lacking, meant that these drives ultimately failed with great losses. Rommel perceived "unique opportunities" in capturing Egypt and perhaps the Middle East. This result would definitely have had a huge impact on the course of the war, but his grand vision was never supported by Hitler nor the General Staff in Berlin to the extent that Rommel desired. Nevertheless, he received all the troops that the African theater could support, despite the pressing need for them on the Eastern Front. His forces also got more support and equipment than other formations of similar size and importance, such as an unusually large number of motor vehicles. Rommel himself only belatedly acknowledged that his continual supply problems were not the result of intransigence or slacking by the Italians, who handled the transshipment of his supplies, but were a result of his aggressive actions in overextending his lines of communication. In his analysis of the logistical aspects of the North African Campaign, military historian Martin van Creveld wrote: Given that the Wehrmacht was only partly motorized and unsupported by a really strong motor industry; that the political situation necessitated the carrying of much useless Italian ballast; that the capacity of the Libyan ports was so small, the distances to be mastered so vast; it seems clear that, for all of Rommel's tactical brilliance, the problem of supplying an Axis force for an advance into the Middle East was insoluble. ... Rommel's repeated defiance of his orders and attempts to advance beyond a reasonable distance from his bases, however, was mistaken and should never have been tolerated. van Creveld, Martin Supplying War p.201 British General Harold Alexander commanded Allied forces in the Middle East facing Rommel in Egypt (from August 1942) and later commanded 18th Army Group in Tunisia. In his official despatch on the campaign in Africa, he wrote of Rommel : Sir David Hunt, one of Alexander's intelligence officers, expressed the view in his own book that: During the siege of Tobruk, Rommel launched frequent costly attacks during the first month of the siege. The level of losses incurred caused Rommel to have several arguments with his unit commanders, and also with the German High Command. Indeed, some sources indicate that Chief of Staff Halder had to send Friedrich Paulus to Africa to rein Rommel in, although Rommel himself maintained he had realized the futility of further attacks on the fortress on his own accord. Popular perception Rommel was in his lifetime extraordinarily well known not only by the German people but also by his adversaries. Popular stories of his chivalry and tactical prowess earned him the respect of many opponents, including Claude Auchinleck, Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, and Bernard Montgomery (who named a dog after him). Rommel, for his part, was complimentary towards and respectful of his foes. Hitler considered Rommel among his favorite generals. The Afrika Korps were never accused of any war crimes, and Rommel himself referred to the fighting in North Africa as Krieg ohne Hass — war without hate. Numerous examples exist of Rommel's chivalry towards Allied POWs, such as his defiance of Hitler's infamous Commando Order following the capture of Lt. Roy Woodridge and Lt. George Lane as part of Operation Fortitude, as well as his refusal to comply with an order from Hitler to execute Jewish POWs. During Rommel's time in France, Hitler ordered him to deport the Jews in France; Rommel disobeyed the order. Several times he wrote letters protesting the treatment of the Jews. When British Major Geoffrey Keyes was killed during a failed commando raid to kill or capture Rommel behind German lines, Rommel ordered him buried with full military honours. Also, during the construction of the Atlantic Wall, Rommel directed that French workers were not to be used as slaves but were to be paid for their labour. Bryan Mark Rigg (in Hitler's Jewish Soldiers [Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002, ISBN 0-7006-1358-7], pp. 40, 103, 131-132, 314) details several specific instances of Rommel's declination to go along with the Nazi antisemitic policy and consequent orders. His military colleagues also played their part in perpetuating his legend. His former subordinate Kircheim, though privately critical of Rommel's performance, nonetheless explained: "thanks to propaganda, first by Goebbels, then by Montgomery, and finally, after he was poisoned (sic), by all former enemy powers, he has become a symbol of the best military traditions. ...Any public criticism of this legendary personality would damage the esteem in which the German soldier is held" Erwin Rommel's death mask (Deutsches Panzermuseum Munster) After the war, when Rommel's alleged involvement in the plot to kill Hitler became known, his stature was enhanced greatly among the former Allied nations. Rommel was often cited in Western sources as a general who, though a loyal German, was willing to stand up to the evil that was Hitler. The release of the film The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel (1951) helped enhance his reputation as one of the most widely known and well-regarded leaders in the German Army. In 1970 a Lütjens-class destroyer was named the FGS Rommel in his honour. Characterization in fiction He has been portrayed by: Erich von Stroheim in the 1943 film Five Graves to Cairo James Mason in both the 1951 The Desert Fox and the 1953 The Desert Rats Werner Hinz in 1962's The Longest Day Christopher Plummer in 1966's Night of the Generals Karl Michael Vogler in the 1970 Patton. Wolfgang Preiss in the 1971 Raid on Rommel Robert Culp in the 1985 TV movie (based upon the novel of the same name) The Key to Rebecca Hardy Krüger in the 1988 television mini-series War and Remembrance Michael York in the 1990 TV movie Night of the Fox Helmut Griem in the 1990 television movie The Plot to Kill Hitler Brian Jackson in the 2007 short film Patricide Rommel features in the following: In Philip K. Dick's alternative history novel The Man in the High Castle, Rommel is the Nazi-appointed president of the United States of America in the early 1960s. In Douglas Niles's and Michael Dobson's alternative history novel Fox on the Rhine (ISBN 0-8125-7466-4), Hitler is killed by the bomb plot of 20 July 1944. This leads to Rommel's survival, and a different quick offensive strike. This is repelled and the book ends with his surrender to the Americans and British, in the belief that the Germans would be better off with the Western powers than with the Soviets. Fox on the Rhine was followed by a sequel, Fox at the Front (ISBN 0-641-67696-4). In Donna Barr's novel Bread and Swans, the historical Rommel shares his concerns and career with a fictitious younger brother, Pfirsich, also known as The Desert Peach. Both Rommels also appear as focal characters of Barr's long-running comic strip series about "The Peach". In Harry Turtledove's Timeline-191 an American officer named Irving Morrel shares many similarities with Rommel. In Steven Pressfield's Killing Rommel, featuring a fictionalized account of a patrol of the LRDG during the North African Campaign of World War II. In the anime Mobile Suit Gundam SEED and its sequel Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny the character of Andrew Waltfeld was based heavily on Rommel. Quotations about Rommel The British Parliament considered a censure vote against Winston Churchill following the surrender of Tobruk. The vote failed, but in the course of the debate, Churchill stated: "We have a very daring and skillful opponent against us, and, may I say across the havoc of war, a great general."Churchill again, on hearing of Rommel's death: "He also deserves our respect, because, although a loyal German soldier, he came to hate Hitler and all his works, and took part in the conspiracy to rescue Germany by displacing the maniac and tyrant. For this, he paid the forfeit of his life. In the sombre wars of modern democracy, there is little place for chivalry." Theodor Werner was an officer who, during World War I, served under Rommel: "Anybody who came under the spell of his personality turned into a real soldier. He seemed to know what the enemy were like and how they would react."British General Claude Auchinleck, one of Rommel's opponents in Africa, in a letter to his field commanders: "There exists a real danger that our friend Rommel is becoming a kind of magical or bogey-man to our troops, who are talking far too much about him. He is by no means a superman, although he is undoubtedly very energetic and able. Even if he were a superman, it would still be highly undesirable that our men should credit him with supernatural powers" and he ended the memo with the line "I am not jealous of Rommel''." Medals and Decorations Württembergische Goldene Verdienstmedaille on 25 February 1915 Military Merit Order Fourth Class with Swords Military Merit Order Second Class Württembergischer Friedrich Order with Swords First Class Military Merit Order on 8 April 1915 Military Merit Cross III. Klasse Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class on 30 September 1914 Iron Cross (1914) 1st Class on 22 March 1915 Pour le Mérite on 10 December 1917 Wound Badge (1918) in Silver in 1918 Cross of Honor in 1934 Sudetenland Medal (invasion of the Wehrmacht in the Sudetenland) Memel Medal Service award IV. bis I. Stufe Iron Cross 2nd Class on 17 May 1940 Iron Cross 1st Class am 21 May 1940 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds Ritterkreuz on 27 Mai 1940 Oak Leaves on 20 März 1941 Swords on 20 Januar 1942 Diamonds on 11 März 1943 Wound Badge in Gold on 7 August 1944 Panzer Badge in Sukver Gold Medal of Military Valor in Silver on 22 April 1941 Colonial Order of the Star of Italy on 28 April 1942 Militärorden von Savoyen – Großoffizierskreuz – Mid-1942 Romanian Order of Michael the Brave 3rd und 2nd Class on 12 July 1944 Mentioned twice on the Wehrmachtbericht (26 June 1942 und 10 September 1943) Dates of Ranks Fähnrich – 19. July 1910 Leutnant – 27. January 1912 Oberleutnant – 18. September 1915 Hauptmann - 18. October 1918 Major – 1. April 1932 Oberstleutnant – 1. October 1933 Oberst – 1. October 1937 Generalmajor – 1. August 1939 Generalleutnant – 9. February 1941 General der Panzertruppe – 1. July 1941 Generaloberst – 24. January 1942 Generalfeldmarschall – 21. June 1942 See also Blitzkrieg North African Campaign Western Desert Campaign Wehrmacht List of German military units of World War II Hans-Jürgen von Arnim Afrika Korps Panzer Army Africa László de Almásy References Notes footnotes citations Sources Rommel's Battlefields in Libya Today Libya's General Suleiman Obaidy's Web site (rommelinlibya.com)showing modern day photographs of Rommel's Battlefields in Libya today. External links The Forced Suicide of Field Marshall Rommel, 1944 Erwin Rommel—The Idol German Documentary Who Was Erwin Rommel? Post detailing Rommel's life Rommel: The Trail of the Fox The Real Rommel—Channel 4's Portrait Erwin Rommel Jewish Virtual Library Videoclips of Rommel and his funeral Rommel in Libya AFRIKAKORPS.org/AANA Research Group Afrikakorps History Panzer-Armee "AFRIKA" Kommandeurs Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross Holders: North Africa Rommel's Kampfstaffel

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Haggai

Russian icon of the prophet Haggai, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Russia). Haggai (Hebrew: חַגַּי, Ḥaggay or "Hag-i", Greek: Αγγαίος) was one of the twelve minor prophets and the author of the Book of Haggai. His name means "my feast". He was the first of three prophets (with Zechariah, his contemporary, and Malachi, who lived about one hundred years later), whose ministry belonged to the period of Jewish history which began after the return from captivity in Babylon. Scarcely anything is known of his personal history. He may have been one of the captives taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. He began his ministry about sixteen years after the return of the Jews to Judah (ca. 520 BCE). The work of rebuilding the temple had been put to a stop through the intrigues of the Samaritans. After having been suspended for eighteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of Haggai and Zechariah. They exhorted the people, which roused them from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of a change in the policy of the Persian government under Darius the Great. The name Haggai, with various vocalizations, is also found in the Book of Esther, as a eunuch servant of the Queen. Liturgical commemoration On the liturgical calendar followed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, Haggai is commemorated as a saint and prophet. His feast day is December 16 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, December 16 currently falls on December 29 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is also commemorated, in common with the other righteous persons of the Old Testament, on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord). Haggai is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. See also Book of Haggai References External links Prophet Haggai Orthodox icon and synaxarion

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Metastability

A metastable system with a weakly stable state (1), an unstable transition state (2) and a strongly stable state (3) Metastability is a general scientific concept which describes states of delicate equilibrium. A system is in a metastable state when it is in equilibrium (not changing with time) but is susceptible to fall into lower-energy states with only slight interaction. It is analogous to being at the bottom of a small valley when there is a deeper valley close by - a local stability of a system at a local (but not global) minimum of a potential. Almost any system can demonstrate metastability, but it is most prevalent in systems of weakly interacting particles in physics and chemistry. Often, the weak interaction between particles is the only energy barrier that must be overcome for the system to reach a lower-energy state. In phases of matter Metastable phases of matter include those which are supercooled or superheated. For example, supercooled water can exist in liquid form at temperatures below freezing, and will remain there until external interaction (vibration or introduction of a seed particle) causes the water to crystallize. In aggregate matter Small avalanches demonstrate metastability at Mount Baker Ski Area. Sandpiles are one system which can exhibit metastability if a steep slope or tunnel is present. Sand grains form a pile due to friction. It is possible for an entire large sand pile to reach a point where it is stable, but the addition of a single grain causes large parts of it to collapse. The avalanche is a well-known problem with large piles of snow and ice crystals on steep slopes. In dry conditions, snow slopes act similar to sandpiles. An entire mountainside of snow can suddenly slide due to the presence of a skier, or even a loud noise or vibration. In electronic circuits Metastability in electronics is usually seen as a problem. A changing circuit is supposed to "settle" into one of a small number of desired states, but if the circuit is vulnerable to metastability, it can get "stuck" in an undesirable state. In computational neuroscience Metastability in the brain is a phenomenon which is being studied in computational neuroscience to elucidate how the human mind recognizes patterns. The term "metastability" here is used rather loosely. There is no "lower energy" state, but there are semi-transient signals in the brain which persist for a while and are different than the usual equilibrium state. In chemical systems In chemistry, a system of atoms or molecules involving a change in phase of matter, crystal structure, or chemical bond can be in a metastable state, which lasts for a relatively long period of time. Molecular vibrations due to heat make chemical species at the energetic equivalent of the top of a round hill very short-lived. Metastable states that persist for many seconds (or years) are found in energetic valleys which are not the lowest possible valley (point 1 in illustration). For example, diamond is a metastable form of carbon at standard temperature and pressure. It can be converted to graphite (plus leftover kinetic energy), but only after overcoming an activation energy - an intervening hill. Martensite is a metastable phase used to control the hardness of most steel. The bonds between the building blocks of polymers such as DNA, RNA and proteins are also metastable. Being "stuck" in a thermodynamic trough without being at the lowest energy state is known as being "kinetically persistent". The particular "motion" or "kinetics" of the atoms involved has resulted in getting "stuck", despite there being preferable (lower-energy) alternatives. The stability or metastability of a given molecule depends in part on its environment, including temperature, pressure, and the presence of catalysts or seed crystals (in the case of a solid state system). The presence of a liquid layer can help facilities transitions between crystal states. The difference between producing a stable vs. metastable entity can have important consequences. For instances, having the wrong crystal polymorph can result in failure of a drug while in storage between manufacture and administration. Process Chemistry in the Pharmaceutical Industry. Kumar G. Gadamasetti, editor. 1999, p. 375-78 Reaction intermediates are very short-lived, and are actually thermodynamically unstable rather than "metastable". The IUPAC recommends referring to these as "transient" rather than "metastable". IUPAC Gold Book Non-equilibrium thermodynamics includes the study of chemical systems which are in unstable states. Metastability is also used to refer to specific situations in mass spectrometry IUPAC Gold Book - metastable ion inmass spectrometry and spectrochemistry IUPAC Gold Book - metastable state inspectrochemistry . In nuclear physics An atomic nucleus can achieve a number of different energetic states, known as nuclear isomers. Some of these states are metastable, meaning that there can be relatively long-lived nuclei of the same isotope in different energetic states. In quantum mechanics Systems which are described by quantum mechanics may possess metastable states. In this case, the metastable state may decay to a global minimum state via quantum mechanical effects (e.g. tunnelling). See also Metastasis (Xenakis composition), a musical composition Hysteresis References

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DanceWriting

Valerie Sutton and DanceWriting of the pose DanceWriting is a form of dance notation. Developed in 1972 by Valerie Sutton, it is part of a greater body of work called MovementWriting or the International Movement-Writing Alphabet. DanceWriting uses figurative and abstract symbols on a five-line staff (the Western music notation staff). DanceWriting was first developed in 1966, when Sutton was only 15, training as a professional ballet dancer. She invented a stick figure notation for her own personal use. Four years later she went to Copenhagen, Denmark to train with the Royal Danish Ballet. Over the next two years she applied her system to recording the historic ballet steps of the Royal Danish Ballet, which were in danger of being forgotten from lack of recording. The first DanceWriting textbook, Sutton Movement Shorthand, The Classical Ballet Key, Key One, was produced in December, 1973. Within a year, it became outdated as Sutton improved her system. In the fall of 1974, by special invitation, she taught her system to the members of the RDB. External links DanceWriting MovementWriting A collection of dance poses with sign writing (under construction)

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NYSE_MKT

NYSE Amex Equities, formerly known as the American Stock Exchange (AMEX) is an American stock exchange situated in New York. AMEX was a mutual organization, owned by its members. Until 1953 it was known as the New York Curb Exchange. On January 17, 2008 NYSE Euronext announced it would acquire the American Stock Exchange for $260 million in stock. On October 1, 2008, NYSE Euronext completed acquisition of the American Stock Exchange. Before the closing of the acquisition, NYSE Euronext announced that the Exchange will be integrated with Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed NYSE Alternext U.S. In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was again rebranded to NYSE Amex Equitties. History The Exchange traces its roots back to colonial times, when stock brokers created outdoor markets in New York City to trade new government-issued securities. The AMEX started out in 1842 as such a market at the curbstone on Broad Street near Exchange Place. The curb brokers gathered around the lamp posts and mail boxes, resisting wind and weather, putting up lists of stocks for sale. As trading activity increased so did the volume of the transactions; the shouting reached such a high level that stock hand signals had to be introduced so that the brokers could continue trading over the din. In 1921 the market was moved indoors into the building at 86 Trinity Place, Manhattan, where it still resides. The hand signals remained in place for decades even after the move, as a convenient means of communication. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978. and Market AMEX's core business has shifted over the years from stocks to options and Exchange-traded funds, although it continues to trade small to mid-size stocks. An effort in the mid-1990s to initiate an Emerging Company Marketplace ended in failure, as the reduced listing standards (beyond the existing lenient AMEX standards) caused penny stock promoters to move their scams to a national exchange. In the mid 1990s the exchange was dogged by allegations of trading scandals, which were highlighted by BusinessWeek in 1999. The American Stock Exchange: Scandal on Wall Street In 1998, the American Stock Exchange merged with the National Association of Securities Dealers (operators of NASDAQ) to create "The Nasdaq-Amex Market Group" where AMEX is an independent entity of the NASD parent company. After tension between the NASD and AMEX members, the latter group bought out the NASD and acquired control of the AMEX in 2004. Out of the three major American stock exchanges, the AMEX is known to have the most liberal policies concerning company listing, as most of its companies are generally smaller compared to the NYSE and NASDAQ. The Amex also specialises in the trading of ETFs, and hybrid/structured securities. The majority of U.S. listed ETFs are traded at the AMEX including the SPDR and most Powershares. In 2006, the AMEX attempted to popularize an American implementation of the Canadian income trust model. Listed Equity Income Hybrid Securities, (more commonly known as Income Deposit Securities) listed on the AMEX are B & G Foods Holding Corp. (BGF), Centerplate, Inc. (CVP), Coinmach Service Corp. (DRY), and Otelco Inc. (OTT). Recently Coinmach Service Corp, has been attempting to restructure itself away from being an income trust. As of 31 December 2007, the AMEX had 592 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of $258 billion. American Stock Exchange Page via Wikinvest The AMEX also produces stock market indices; perhaps the most notable of these is an index of stocks of internet companies now known as the Inter@ctive Week Internet Index. Recently, the AMEX has also developed a unique set of indices known as Intellidexes, which attempt to gain alpha by creating indices weighted on fundamental factors. The AMEX Composite, a value-weighted index of all stocks listed on the exchange, established a record monthly close of 2,069.16 points on November 30, 2006. Located near the World Trade Center, the operation of the AMEX was temporarily affected by the September 11 attacks. The Exchange's operations were temporarily shifted to the Philadelphia Stock Exchange. The volume of trading is significantly reduced every year on the Jewish holiday Yom Kippur. Hours The exchange's normal trading sessions are from 9:30am to 4:00pm on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the Exchange in advance. Market Hours, American Stock Exchange via Wikinvest See also List of stock exchanges New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) Stock exchange Economy of New York City Further reading References External links American Stock Exchange website Canadian Stock Exchange Information Database

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Chaos_Computer_Club

The Chaos Computer Club (CCC) is one of the biggest and most influential hacker organizations. The CCC is based in Germany and other German-speaking countries and currently has over 4,000 members. The CCC describes itself as "a galactic community of life's beings, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information…." In general, the CCC stands up for more transparency in governments, freedom of information and a human right to communication. Supporting the principles of the hacker ethic, the club also fights for free access to computers and technological infrastructure for everybody. History The CCC was founded in Berlin on September 12, 1981 at the Kommune 1's table in the rooms of the newspaper Die Tageszeitung by Wau Holland and others in anticipation of the prominent role that information technology would play in the way people live and communicate. The CCC became world famous when they drew public attention to the insecurity of the German Bildschirmtext computer network by causing it to debit a bank in Hamburg DM 134,000 in favor of the club. The money was returned the next day in front of the press. Prior to the incident, the system provider had publicly failed to react to proof of the insecurity provided by the CCC, claiming to the public that their system was safe. Bildschirmtext was the biggest commercially available online system targeted at the general public in its region at that time, run and heavily advertised by the German telecommunications agency (Deutsche Bundespost) which also strived to keep up-to-date alternatives out of the market. In 1989, the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to make international headlines. A group of German hackers led by Karl Koch (who was loosely affiliated with the CCC) was arrested for breaking into US government and corporate computers and selling operating-system source code to the Soviet KGB. Several of the CCC's early exploits are also documented in a paper , written by Digital Equipment Corporation's lead European Investigator of the CCC's activities in the 1980s and 1990s. These include the CCC protests against French nuclear tests and members of the CCC involved with the German Green Party. The CCC is more widely known for its public demonstrations of security risks. In 1996, CCC members demonstrated an attack against Microsoft's ActiveX technology, changing personal data in a Quicken database from the outside. In April 1998, the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of a GSM customer card, breaking the COMP128 encryption algorithm, at that time used by many GSM SIMs. CCC | CCC klont D2 Kundenkarte In 2001, the CCC celebrated its twentieth birthday with an interactive light installation dubbed Project Blinkenlights that turned the building Haus des Lehrers in Berlin into a giant computer screen. A follow up installation (dubbed "Arcade") at the Bibliothèque nationale de France was the world's biggest light installation ever. In March 2008, the CCC acquired and published the fingerprints of German Minister of the Interior Wolfgang Schäuble. The magazine also included the fingerprint on a film that readers could use to fool fingerprint readers. CCC publishes fingerprints of Wolfgang Schäuble, the German Home Secretary, Heise Online, published 2008-03-31, accessed 2008-04-17 This was done to protest the use of biometric data in German identity devices such as e-passports. CCC publiziert die Fingerabdrücke von Wolfgang Schäuble [Update] - heise Security Later in October 2008, CCC's Project Blinkenlights went to Toronto, Canada with project Stereoscope. http://blinkenlights.net/stereoscope Events CCC 2003 camp near Berlin The CCC hosts the annual Chaos Communication Congress, Europe's biggest hacker congress, with up to 4,500 participants. Every four years, the Chaos Communication Camp is the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide. The CCC currently preparing a new yearly conference called SIGINT that will be held in Cologne, Germany. Members of the CCC also participate in various technological and political conferences around the planet. Publications The CCC publishes the quarterly magazine Datenschleuder ("data catapult"), and the CCC in Berlin also produces a monthly radio show called Chaosradio which picks up various technical and political topics in a two-hour talk radio show. The program is aired on a local radio station named Fritz. There is also a podcast spin-off named "Chaosradio Express," an international podcast called "Chaosradio International," and other radio programs offered by some regional Chaos Groups. Members Famous members are co-founder Wau Holland and Andy Müller-Maguhn, who was a member of the ICANN board of directors for Europe until 2002. See also Metalab Vienna 2600: The Hacker Quarterly CULT OF THE DEAD COW Hack-Tic L0pht NYC Resistor Phrack 23 List of public domain name servers External links CCC homepage Project Blinkenlights homepage Chaosradio Homepage Hack In The Box (HITB) CONTINUITY 06 References

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Deutsches_Institut_für_Normung

Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN; in English, the German Institute for Standardization) is the German national organization for standardization and is that country's ISO member body. DIN and mini-DIN connectors, as well as DIN rails are several examples of older DIN standards that are today used around the world. However, there are currently around thirty thousand DIN Standards, covering almost all fields of technology. One of the earliest, and surely the most well-known, is DIN 476, the standard that introduced the A-series paper sizes in 1922. This was later adopted as international standard ISO 216 in 1975. DIN is a registered association (e.V.), founded in 1917, originally as Normenausschuss der deutschen Industrie (NADI, Standardisation Committee of German Industry). In 1926 the NADI was renamed Deutscher Normenausschuss (DNA, German Standardisation Committee) in order to indicate that standardization now covered many fields, not just industrial products. In 1975 the DNA was finally renamed DIN. Its headquarters is in Berlin. Since 1975 it has been recognized by the German government as the national standards body and represents German interests at international and European level. The acronym DIN is often wrongly expanded as Deutsche Industrienorm (German industry standard). This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as NADI. The NADI indeed published their standards as DI-Norm (Deutsche Industrienorm, German industry standard). E.g. the first published standard in 1918 was 'DI-Norm 1' (about taper pins). Many people still wrongly associate DIN as an abbreviation for the old DI-Norm naming of standards. DIN standard designation The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number): DIN # is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status. E DIN # is a draft standard and DIN V # is a preliminary standard. DIN EN # is used for the German edition of European standards. DIN ISO # is used for the German edition of ISO standards. DIN EN ISO # is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard. Example of DIN standards See also the list of DIN standards. DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216) DIN 946: Determination of coefficient of friction of bolt/nut assemblies under specified conditions. DIN 1451: typeface used by German railways and on traffic signs DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles See also Standard data model List of standards topics List of electronics topics Film speed Austrian Standards Institute External links DIN home page (bilingual) DIN home page (English version)

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Demographics_of_Gibraltar

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Gibraltar, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Overview The demographics of Gibraltar reflects Gibraltarians' racial and cultural fusion of the many European immigrants who came to The Rock over three hundred years. They are the descendants of economic migrants that came to Gibraltar after the majority of the Spanish population left in 1704. The few Spaniards who remained in Gibraltar in August 1704 were augmented by others who arrived in the fleet with Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, possibly some two hundred in all, mostly Catalans. By 1753 Genoese, Maltese, and Portuguese people formed the majority of this new population. Other groups include Minorcans (forced to leave their homes when Minorca was returned to Spain in 1802), Sardinians, Sicilians and other Italians, French, Germans, and the British. Immigration from Spain and intermarriage with Spaniards from the surrounding Spanish towns was a constant feature of Gibraltar's history until General Francisco Franco closed the border with Gibraltar, cutting off many Gibraltarians from their relatives on the Spanish side of the frontier. The Spanish socialist government reopened the land frontier, but other restrictions remain in place. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 28,895 (Jan 2008 est.) Population age 0-14 years: 17.2% (male 2,460; female 2,343) 15-64 years: 66.3% (male 9,470; female 9,070) 65 years and over: 16.5% (male 2,090; female 2,534) (2007 est.) Intute World Guide - Gibraltar. Sex ratio At birth: 1.06 males/female 0-14 years: 1.05 males/female 15-64 years: 1.44 males/female 65 years and over: 0.825 males/female total population: 1.005 males/female (2007 est.) Changing population Population growth rate The population growth rate for Gibraltar is 0.129% (2007 est.) (world growth rate at 2006 is 1.14%). Gibraltar also saw migration of 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population. (2007 est.) The median age is: total: 40.3 years male: 39.8 years female: 40.7 years (2008 est.) Life expectancy total population: 79.93 years male: 77.05 years female: 82.96 years (2007 est.) Fertility 1.65 children born/woman (2007 est.) Births 10.69 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Deaths 9.4 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Infant mortality total: 4.98 deaths/1,000 live births male: 5.54 deaths/1,000 live births female: 4.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) Nationality noun: Gibraltarian(s) adjective: Gibraltar Gibraltarian 83.22%, Other British 9.56%, Moroccan 3.50%, Spanish 1.19%, Other EU 1.00%, Other 1.54%. (2001 census) Census of Gibraltar 2001. Ethnic groups Gibraltarian British (of mixed Genoese Italian, Maltese, Portuguese and Andalusian Spanish descent), other British, Moroccan and Indian. Religions Roman Catholic 78.09%, Church of England 6.98%, Other Christian 3.21%, Muslim 4.01%, Jewish 2.12%, Hindu 1.79%, other or unspecified 0.94%, none 2.86% (2001 census) Languages English (used in schools and for official purposes), Spanish. Most Gibraltarians converse in Llanito, an Andalusian Spanish based creole. It consists of an eclectic mix of Andalusian Spanish and British English as well as languages such as Maltese, Portuguese, Italian of the Genoese variety and Haketia. Among more educated Gibraltarians, it also typically involves code-switching to English. Arabic is spoken by the Moroccan community, just like Hindi and Sindhi is spoken by the Indian community of Gibraltar. Maltese is still spoken by some families of Maltese descent. Literacy definition: NA total population: above 80% male: NA% female: NA% Educational attainment in Gibraltar Rank Proportion (%) of pupilsachieving 5 or moreGCSE's (Grades A-C)by religion 1 Hindu 79% 2 Jewish 76% 3 All other religions 68% 4 National average 66% 5 Christian 66% 6 None 64% 7 Muslim 44% Rank Percentage of people ofworking age with a degreeby national origin 1 Indian 71% 2 British 26% 3 Other EU 24% 4 All other national origins 24% 5 National average 23% 6 Gibraltarian 23% 7 Spanish 16% 8 Moroccan 14% Crime rate Total crimes (per capita) by national origin Moroccan 9.4 per 100 people Gibraltarian 6.3 per 100 people UK British 6.3 per 100 people National average 6.3 per 100 people Other EU 5.8 per 100 people Other national origins 5.4 per 100 people Indian 1.6 per 100 people A total of 2,093 criminal offences were recorded in Gibraltar during 2005/2006. Indians had a significantly lower crime rate in 2005/2006 than all other national origins in Gibraltar at 1.69 crimes per 100 Indian people. The crimes per 100 population in Gibraltar now stands at 6.3. The crime rate for Gibraltarians and Moroccans has risen from 6.1 and 9.36 per 100 people in 2004/2005 to its current levels. Notes References Government of Gibraltar website See also

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Functional_group

Benzyl acetate has an ester functional group (in red), an acetyl moiety (circled with green) and a benzyl alcohol moiety (circled with orange). In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of. Compendium of Chemical Terminology (IUPAC "Gold Book") http://goldbook.iupac.org/F02555.html However, its relative reactivity can be modified by nearby functional groups. The word moiety is often used synonymously to "functional group", but according to the IUPAC definition, a moiety is a half of a molecule including substructures of functional groups. For example, an ester is divided into an alcohol and an acyl moiety, but has an ester functional group. Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent alkanes generates a powerful systematic nomenclature for naming organic compounds. The non-hydrogen atoms of functional groups are always associated with each other and with the rest of the molecule by covalent bonds. When the group of atoms is associated with the rest of the molecule primarily by ionic forces, the group is referred to more properly as a polyatomic ion or complex ion. And all of these are called radicals, by a meaning of the term radical that predates the free radical. The first carbon atom after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the alpha carbon; the second, beta carbon, the third, gamma carbon, etc. If there is another functional group at a carbon, it may be named with the Greek letter, e.g. the gamma-amine in gamma-aminobutanoic acid is on the third carbon of the carbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group. Synthetic chemistry Organic reactions are facilitated and controlled by the functional groups of the reactants. Alkyls are generally unreactive and difficult to get to react selectively at the desired positions, with few exceptions. In contrast, unsaturated carbon functional groups, and carbon-oxygen and carbon-nitrogen functional groups have a more diverse array of reactions that are also selective. It may be necessary to create a functional group in the molecule to make it react. For example, to synthesize iso-octane (8-carbon) from the unfunctionalized alkane isobutane (4-carbon), isobutane is first dehydrogenated into isobutene. This contains the alkene functional group and can now dimerize with another isobutene to give iso-octene, which is hydrogenated to octane. Functionalization Functionalization is the addition of functional groups onto the surface of a material by chemical synthesis methods. The functional group added can be subjected to ordinary synthesis methods to attach virtually any kind of organic compound onto the surface. Functionalization is employed for surface modification of industrial materials in order to achieve desired surface properties such as water repellent coatings for automobile windshields and non-biofouling, hydrophilic coatings for contact lenses. Additionally, functional groups are used to covalently link functional molecules to the surface of chemical and biochemical devices such as microarrays and microelectromechanical systems. Catalysts can be attached to a material that has been functionalized. For example, silica is functionalized with an alkyl silicone, where the alkyl contains an amine functional group. A ligand such as an EDTA fragment is synthesized onto the amine, and a metal cation is complexed into the EDTA fragment. The EDTA is not adsorbed onto the surface, but connected by a permanent chemical bond. Functional groups are also used to covalently link molecules such as fluorescent dyes, nanoparticles, proteins, DNA, and other compounds of interest for a variety of applications such as sensing and basic chemical research. Table of common functional groups The following is a list of common functional groups. In the formulas, the symbols R and R' usually denote an attached hydrogen, or a hydrocarbon side chain of any length, but may sometimes refer to any group of atoms. Hydrocarbons Functional groups that vary based upon the number and order of π bonds impart different chemistry. Each listing below contains C-H bonds, but each one differs in type (and scope) of reactivity. Chemical class Group Formula Structural Formula Prefix Suffix Example Alkane Alkyl RH Alkyl alkyl- -ane methaneEthane Alkene Alkenyl R2C=CR2 Alkene alkenyl- -ene ethyleneEthylene(Ethene) Alkyne Alkynyl RC≡CR' Alkyne alkynyl- -yne acetyleneAcetylene(Ethyne) Benzene derivative Phenyl RC6H5RPh Phenyl phenyl- -benzene CumeneCumene(2-phenylpropane) Toluene derivative Benzyl RCH2C6H5RBn Benzyl benzyl- 1-(substituent)toluene Benzyl bromideBenzyl bromide(1-Bromotoluene) There are also a large number of branched or ring alkanes that have specific names, e.g. tert-butyl, bornyl, cyclohexyl, etc. Groups containing halogens Haloalkanes are a class of molecule that is defined by a carbon-halogen bond. This bond can be relatively weak (in the case of an iodoalkane) or quite stable (as in the case of a fluoroalkane). In general, with the exception of fluorinated compounds, haloalkanes readily undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions or elimination reactions. The substitution on the carbon, the acidity of an adjacent proton, the solvent conditions, etc. all can influence the outcome of the reactivity. Chemical class Group Formula Structural Formula Prefix Suffix Example haloalkane halo RX Halide group halo- alkyl halide ChloroethaneChloroethane(Ethyl chloride) fluoroalkane fluoro RF Fluoro group fluoro- alkyl fluoride FluoromethaneFluoromethane(Methyl fluoride) chloroalkane chloro RCl Chloro group chloro- alkyl chloride ChloromethaneChloromethane(Methyl chloride) bromoalkane bromo RBr Bromo group bromo- alkyl bromide BromomethaneBromomethane(Methyl bromide) iodoalkane iodo RI Iodo group iodo- alkyl iodide IodomethaneIodomethane(Methyl iodide) Groups containing oxygen Compounds that contain C-O bonds each possess differing reactivity based upon the location and hybridization of the C-O bond, owing to the electron-withdrawing effect of sp² hybridized oxygen and the donating effects of sp³ hybridized oxygen. Chemical class Group Formula Structural Formula Prefix Suffix Example Acyl halide Haloformyl RCOX Acyl halide haloformyl- -oyl halide Acetyl chlorideAcetyl chloride(Ethanoyl chloride) Alcohol Hydroxyl ROH Hydroxyl hydroxy- -ol methanolMethanol Ketone Carbonyl RCOR' Ketone keto-, oxo- -one ButanoneMethyl ethyl ketone(Butanone) Aldehyde Aldehyde RCHO Aldehyde aldo- -al acetaldehydeAcetaldehyde(Ethanal)Carbonate Carbonate ester ROCOOR Carbonate alkyl carbonate Carboxylate Carboxylate RCOO− Carboxylate Carboxylate carboxy- -oate Sodium acetateSodium acetate(Sodium ethanoate) Carboxylic acid Carboxyl RCOOH Carboxylic acid carboxy- -oic acid Acetic acidAcetic acid(Ethanoic acid) Ether Ether ROR' Ether alkoxy- alkyl alkyl ether Diethyl etherDiethyl ether(Ethoxyethane) Ester Ester RCOOR' Ester alkyl alkanoate Ethyl butyrateEthyl butyrate(Ethyl butanoate) Hydroperoxide Hydroperoxy ROOH Hydroperoxy hydroperoxy- alkyl hydroperoxide Methyl ethyl ketone peroxideMethyl ethyl ketone peroxide Peroxide Peroxy ROOR Peroxy peroxy- alkyl peroxide Di-tert-butyl peroxideDi-tert-butyl peroxide Groups containing nitrogen Compounds that contain Nitrogen in this category may contain C-O bonds, such as in the case of amides. Chemical class Group Formula Structural Formula Prefix Suffix Example Amide Carboxamide RCONR2 Amide carboxamido- -amide acetamideAcetamide(Ethanamide) Amines Primary amine RNH2 Primary amine amino- -amine methylamineMethylamine(Methanamine) Secondary amine R2NH Secondary amine amino- -amine dimethylamineDimethylamine Tertiary amine R3N Tertiary amine amino- -amine trimethylamineTrimethylamine 4° ammonium ion R4N+ Quaternary ammonium cation ammonio- -ammonium cholineCholine Imine Primary ketimine RC(=NH)R' Imine imino- -imine Secondary ketimine RC(=NR)R' | Imine | imino- || -imine | |- | Primary aldimine | RC(=NH)H | Imine | imino- || -imine | |- | Secondary aldimine | RC(=NR')H | Imine | imino- || -imine | |- | Imide || Imide | RC(=O)NC(=O)R' | Imide | imido- | -imide |- | Azide | Azide | RN3 | Organoazide | azido- || alkyl azide | Phenyl azidePhenyl azide(Azidobenzene) |- | Azo compound | Azo(Diimide) | RN2R' | Azo.pngl | azo- || -diazene | Methyl orangeMethyl orange(p-dimethylamino-azobenzenesulfonic acid) |- | rowspan="2" | Cyanates | Cyanate || ROCN | Cyanate | cyanato- | alkyl cyanate |Methyl cyanate |- | Isocyanide || RNC | Isocyanide | isocyano- | alkyl isocyanide | |- | rowspan="2" | Isocyanates | Isocyanate || RNCO | Isocyanate | isocyanato- | alkyl isocyanate | Methyl isocyanateMethyl isocyanate |- | Isothiocyanate || RNCS | Isothiocyanate | isothiocyanato- | alkyl isothiocyanate | Allyl isothiocyanateAllyl isothiocyanate |- | Nitrate || Nitrate | RONO2 | Nitrate | nitrooxy-, nitroxy- || alkyl nitrate | Amyl nitrateAmyl nitrate(1-nitrooxypentane)|- | Nitrile || Nitrile | RCN | Nitrile | cyano- || alkanenitrile alkyl cyanide | BenzonitrileBenzonitrile(Phenyl cyanide)|- | Nitrite || Nitrosooxy | RONO | Nitrite | nitrosooxy- || alkyl nitrite | Amyl nitriteIsoamyl nitrite(3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane)'' Nitro compound Nitro RNO2 Nitro nitro-   NitromethaneNitromethane Nitroso compound Nitroso RNO Nitroso nitroso-   NitrosobenzeneNitrosobenzene Pyridine derivative Pyridyl RC5H4N 4-pyridyl group 3-pyridyl group 2-pyridyl group 4-pyridyl(pyridin-4-yl) 3-pyridyl(pyridin-3-yl) 2-pyridyl(pyridin-2-yl) -pyridine NicotineNicotine Groups containing phosphorus and sulfur Compounds that contain sulfur and phosphorus exhibit unique chemistry due to their ability to form more bonds than nitrogen and oxygen, their lighter analogues on the periodic table. Chemical class Group Formula Structural Formula Prefix Suffix Example Phosphine Phosphino R3P A tertiary phosphine phosphino- -phosphane MethylpropylphosphaneMethylpropylphosphane Phosphodiester Phosphate HOPO(OR)2 Phosphodiester phosphoric acid di(substituent) ester di(substituent) hydrogenphosphate DNA Phosphonic acid Phosphono RP(=O)(OH)2 Phosphono group phosphono- substituent phosphonic acid Benzylphosphonic acidBenzylphosphonic acid Phosphate Phosphate ROP(=O)(OH)2 Phosphate group phospho- Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphateGlyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Sulfide or thioether RSR' Sulfide group di(substituent) sulfide Dimethyl sulfideDimethyl sulfide Sulfone Sulfonyl RSO2R' Sulfonyl group sulfonyl- di(substituent) sulfone Dimethyl sulfoneDimethyl sulfone(Methylsulfonylmethane) Sulfonic acid Sulfo RSO3H Sulfonyl group sulfo- substituent sulfonic acid Benzenesulfonic acidBenzenesulfonic acid Sulfoxide Sulfinyl RSOR' Sulfinyl group sulfinyl- di(substituent) sulfoxide Diphenyl sulfoxideDiphenyl sulfoxide Thiol Sulfhydryl RSH Sulfhydryl mercapto-, sulfanyl- -thiol EthanethiolEthanethiol(Ethyl mercaptan) Thiocyanate Thiocyanate RSCN Thiocyanate thiocyanato- alkyl thiocyanate Disulfide Disulfide RSSR' Disulfide alkyl alkyl disulfide Diphenyl disulfideDiphenyl disulfide1,2-diphenyldisulfane Other For a list of all functional groups: :Category:Functional groups References External links IUPAC Blue Book (organic nomenclature) IUPAC ligand abbreviations (pdf) Organic Chemistry Help: Functional Groups Flashcards

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Corporation

A corporation is a legal entity separate from the persons that form it. In British tradition it is the term designating a body corporate, where it can be either a corporation sole (an office held by an individual natural person, which is a legal entity separate from that person) or a corporation aggregate (involving more persons). In American and, increasingly, international usage, the term denotes a body corporate formed to conduct business, and this meaning of corporation is discussed in the remaining part of this entry (the limited company in British usage). Corporations exist as a product of corporate law, and their rules balance the interests of the shareholders that invest their capital and the employees who contribute their labor. People work together in corporations to produce value and generate income. In modern times, corporations have become an increasingly dominant part of economic life. People rely on corporations for employment, for their goods and services, for the value of the pensions, for economic growth and social development. The defining feature of a corporation is its legal independence from the people who create it. If a corporation fails, shareholders normally only stand to lose their investment (and possibly, in the unusual case where the shares are not fully paid up, any amount outstanding on them - and not even that in the case of a No liability company), and employees will lose their jobs, but neither will be further liable for debts that remain owing to the corporation's creditors unless they have separately varied this, e.g. with personal guarantees. This rule is called limited liability, and it is why the names of corporations in the UK end with "Ltd." (or some variant like "Inc." and "plc"). Despite not being natural persons, corporations are recognized by the law to have rights and responsibilities like actual people. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, e.g. South African Constitution Art.8, especially Art.(4) and they may be responsible for human rights violations. Phillip I. Blumberg, The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) has a very good discussion of the controversial nature of additional rights being granted to corporations. Just as they are "born" into existence through its members obtaining a certificate of incorporation, they can "die" when they lose money into insolvency. Corporations can even be convicted of criminal offences, such as fraud and manslaughter. e.g. Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 Five common characteristics of the modern corporation, according to Harvard University Professors Hansmann and Kraakman are... delegated management, in other words, control of the company placed in the hands of a board of directors limited liability of the shareholders (so that when the company is insolvent, they only owe the money that they subscribed for in shares) investor ownership, which Hansmann and Kraakman take to mean, ownership by shareholders. Hansmann et al., The Anatomy of Corporate Law (2004) Ch.1, p.2; See also, C. A. Cooke, Corporation, Trust and Company: A Legal History, (1950). separate legal personality of the corporation (the right to sue and be sued in its own name) transferrable shares (usually on a listed exchange, such as the London Stock Exchange, New York Stock Exchange or Euronext in Paris) Ownership of a corporation is complicated by increasing social and economic interdependence, as different stakeholders compete to have a say in corporate affairs. In most developed countries excluding the English speaking world, company boards have representatives of both shareholders and employees to "codetermine" company strategy. Calls for increasing corporate social responsibility are made by consumer, environmental and human rights activists, and this has led to larger corporations drawing up codes of conduct. In Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States, corporate law has not yet stepped into that field, and its building blocks remain the study of corporate governance and corporate finance. Corporations' history 1/8 share of the Stora Kopparberg mine, dated June 16 1288. The word "corporation" derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a "body of people". Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of legal rights were found in ancient Rome, and the Maurya Empire in ancient India. Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005). The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope and the City of London Corporation. The point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden, obtained a charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1347. Many European nations chartered corporations to lead colonial ventures, such as the Dutch East India Company or the Hudson's Bay Company, and these corporations came to play a large part in the history of corporate colonialism. During the period of colonial expansion in the seventeenth century, the true progenitors of the modern Corporation emerged as the "chartered company". Acting under a charter sanctioned by the Dutch monarch, the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), or the Dutch East India Company, defeated Portuguese forces and established itself in the Moluccan Islands in order to profit from the European demand for spices. Investors in the VOC were issued paper certificates as proof of share ownership, and were able to trade their shares on the original Amsterdam stock exchange. Shareholders are also explicitly granted limited liability in the company's royal charter. Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998). In the late seventeenth century, Stewart Kyd, the author of the first treatise on corporate law in English, defined a corporation as, "a collection of many individuals united into one body, under a special denomination, having perpetual succession under an artificial form, and vested, by policy of the law, with the capacity of acting, in several respects, as an individual, particularly of taking and granting property, of contracting obligations, and of suing and being sued, of enjoying privileges and immunities in common, and of exercising a variety of political rights, more or less extensive, according to the design of its institution, or the powers conferred upon it, either at the time of its creation, or at any subsequent period of its existence." A Treatise on the Law of Corporations, Stewart Kyd (1793-1794) Mercantilism A bond issued by the Dutch East India Company, dating from 1623, for the amount of 2,400 florins Labelled by both contemporaries and historians as "the grandest society of merchants in the universe", the British East India Company would come to symbolize the dazzlingly rich potential of the corporation, as well as new methods of business that could be both brutal and exploitive. John Keay, The Honorable Company: A History of the English East India Company (MacMillan, New York 1991). On 31 December 1600, the English monarchy granted the company a fifteen-year monopoly on trade to and from the East Indies and Africa. By 1611, shareholders in the East India Company were earning an almost 150% return on their investment. Subsequent stock offerings demonstrated just how lucrative the Company had become. Its first stock offering in 1613-1616 raised ₤418,000, and its first offering in 1617-1622 raised ₤1.6 million. Ibid. at 113. In the United States, government chartering began to fall out of vogue in the mid-1800s. Corporate law at the time was focused on protection of the public interest, and not on the interests of corporate shareholders. Corporate charters were closely regulated by the states. Forming a corporation usually required an act of legislature. Investors generally had to be given an equal say in corporate governance, and corporations were required to comply with the purposes expressed in their charters. Many private firms in the 19th century avoided the corporate model for these reasons (Andrew Carnegie formed his steel operation as a limited partnership, and John D. Rockefeller set up Standard Oil as a trust). Eventually, state governments began to realize the greater corporate registration revenues available by providing more permissive corporate laws. New Jersey was the first state to adopt an "enabling" corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state. The Law of Business Organizations Delaware followed, and soon became known as the most corporation-friendly state in the country after New Jersey raised taxes on the corporations, driving them out. New Jersey reduced these taxes after this mistake was realized, but by then it was too late; even today, most major public corporations are set up under Delaware law. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, government policy on both sides of the Atlantic began to change, reflecting the growing popularity of the proposition that corporations were riding the economic wave of the future. In 1819, the U.S. Supreme Court granted corporations a plethora of rights they had not previously recognized or enjoyed. Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. 518 (1819). Corporate charters were deemed "inviolable," and not subject to arbitrary amendment or abolition by state governments. Id. at 25. The Corporation as a whole was labeled an "artificial person," possessing both individuality and immortality. Id. at 45. At around the same time as the above events were occurring in the United States, British legislation was similarly freeing the corporation from the shackles of historical restrictions. In 1844 British Parliament passed the Joint Stock Companies Act, which allowed companies to incorporate without a royal charter or an additional act of Parliament. Sean M. O'Connor, Be Careful What You Wish For: How Accountants and Congress Created the Problem of Auditor Independence, 45 B.C.L. Rev. 741, 749 (2004). Ten years later, England enshrined into law the preeminent hallmark of modern corporate law - the concept of limited liability. Acting in response to increasing pressure from newly emerging capital interests, Parliament passed the Limited Liability Act of 1855, which established the principle that any corporation could enjoy limited legal liability on both contract and tort claims simply by registering as a "limited" company with the appropriate government agency. Limited Liability Act, 18 & 19 Vict., ch. 133 (1855)(Eng.), cited in Paul G. Mahoney, Contract or Concession? An Essay on the History of Corporate Law, 34 Ga. L. Rev. 873, 892 (2000). This revolutionary switch from unlimited to limited liability prompted a writer for the English periodical Economist to write in 1855 that "never, perhaps, was a change so vehemently and generally demanded, of which the importance was so much overrated." Graeme G. Acheson & John D. Turner, The Impact of Limited Liability on Ownership and Control: Irish Banking, 1877-1914, School of Management and Economics, Queen's University of Belfast, available at . The glaring inaccuracy of the second part of this judgment was recognized by the same magazine more than seventy-five years later, when it claimed that, "[t]he economic historian of the future . . . may be inclined to assign to the nameless inventor of the principle of limited liability, as applied to trading corporations, a place of honour with Watt and Stephenson, and other pioneers of the Industrial Revolution." Economist, December 18, 1926, at 1053, as quoted in Majoney, supra, at 875. Modern corporations By the end of the nineteenth century the forces of limited liability, state and national deregulation, and vastly increasing capital markets had come together to give birth to the corporation in its modern-day form. For a comparison of the differences between the "Classic Corporation" (before 1860) and the "Modern Corporation" (after 1900), see Ted Nace, Gangs of America: The Rise of Corporate Power and the Disabling of Democracy 71 (Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., San Francisco 2003). The well-known Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad decision began to influence policymaking. The decline of restrictions on mergers and acquisitions encouraged a wave of corporate consolidation: from 1898 to 1904, 1,800 U.S. corporations were consolidated into 157. Id. The modern corporate era had begun. The 20th century saw a proliferation of enabling law across the world, which helped to drive economic booms in many countries before and after World War I. Starting in the 1980s, many countries with large state-owned corporations moved toward privatization, the selling of publicly owned services and enterprises to corporations. Deregulation -- reducing the regulation of corporate activity—often accompanied privatization as part of an ideologically laissez-faire policy. Another major postwar shift was toward the development of conglomerates, in which large corporations purchased smaller corporations to expand their industrial base. Japanese firms developed a horizontal conglomeration model, the keiretsu, which was later duplicated in other countries as well. Corporate law The existence of a corporation requires a special legal framework and body of law that specifically grants the corporation legal personality, and typically views a corporation as a fictional person, a legal person, or a moral person (as opposed to a natural person). As such, corporate statutes typically give corporations the ability to own property, sign binding contracts, pay taxes in a capacity that is separate from that of its shareholders (who are sometimes referred to as "members". According to Lord Chancellor Haldane, "...a corporation is an abstraction. It has no mind of its own any more than it has a body of its own; its active and directing will must consequently be sought in the person of somebody who is really the directing mind and will of the corporation, the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation." Lennard's Carrying Co Ltd v Asiatic Petroleum Co Ltd [1915] AC 705 The legal personality has two economic implications. First it grants creditors priority over the corporate assets upon liquidation. Second, corporate assets cannot be withdrawn by its shareholders, nor can the assets of the firm be taken by personal creditors of its shareholders. The second feature requires special legislation and a special legal framework, as it cannot be reproduced via standard contract law. Hansmann et al., The Anatomy of Corporate Law, pg 7. The regulations most favorable to incorporation include: Limited liability Unlike in a partnership or sole proprietorship, shareholders of a modern business corporation have "limited" liability for the corporation's debts and obligations. A leading case in common law is Salomon v. Salomon & Co. [1897] AC 22. As a result, their potential losses cannot exceed the amount which they contributed to the corporation as dues or paid for shares. Limited liability regulations enable corporations to socialize their costs for the primary benefit of shareholders. The economic rationale for this lies in the fact that it allows anonymous trading in the shares of the corporation by virtue of eliminating the corporation's creditors as a stakeholder in such a transaction. Without limited liability, a creditor would probably not allow any share to be sold to a buyer of at least equivalent creditworthiness as the seller. Limited liability further allows corporations to raise tremendously more funds for enterprises by combining funds from the owners of stock. Limited liability reduces the amount that a shareholder can lose in a company. This in turn greatly reduces the risk for potential shareholders and increases both the number of willing shareholders and the amount they are likely to invest. Perpetual lifetime Another favorable regulation, the assets and structure of the corporation exist beyond the lifetime of any of its shareholders, bondholders, or employees. This allows for stability and accumulation of capital, which thus becomes available for investment in projects of a larger size and over a longer term than if the corporate assets remained subject to dissolution and distribution. This feature also had great importance in the medieval period, when land donated to the Church (a corporation) would not generate the feudal fees that a lord could claim upon a landholder's death. In this regard, see Statute of Mortmain. It is important to note that the "perpetual lifetime" feature is an indication of the unbounded potential duration of the corporation's existence, and its accumulation of wealth and thus power. (In theory, a corporation can have its charter revoked at any time, putting an end to its existence as a legal entity. However, in practice, dissolution only occurs for corporations that request it or fail to meet annual filing requirements.) Ownership and control Persons and other legal entities composed of persons (such as trusts and other corporations) can have the right to vote or share in the profit of corporations. In the case of for-profit corporations, these voters hold shares of stock and are thus called shareholders or stockholders. When no stockholders exist, a corporation may exist as a non-stock corporation, and instead of having stockholders, the corporation has members who have the right to vote on its operations. Voting members are not the only members of a "Corporation." The members of a non-stock corporation are identified in the Articles of Incorporation and the titles of the member classes may include "Trustee," "Active," "Associate," and/or "Honorary." However, each of these listed in the Articles of Incorporation are members of the "Corporation." The Articles of Incorporation may define the "Corporation" by another name, such as "The ABC Club, Inc." and, in which case, the "Corporation" and "The ABC Club, Inc." or just "The Club" are considered synomounous and interchangeable as they may appear elsewhere in the Articles of Incorporation or the By-Laws. If the non-stock corporation is not operated for profit, it is called a not-for-profit corporation. In either category, the corporation comprises a collective of individuals with a distinct legal status and with special privileges not provided to ordinary unincorporated businesses, to voluntary associations, or to groups of individuals. For the purposes of the next few paragraphs, the term "members" will be used to refer to stockholders of a stock corporation and members of a non-stock corporation. There are two broad classes of corporate governance forms in the world. In most of the world, control of the corporation is determined by a board of directors which is elected by the shareholders. In some jurisdictions, such as Germany, the control of the corporation is divided into two tiers with a supervisory board which elects a managing board. Germany is also unique in having a system known as co-determination in which half of the supervisory board consists of representatives of the employees. The CEO, president, treasurer, and other titled officers are usually chosen by the board to manage the affairs of the corporation. In addition to the influence of shareholders, corporations can be controlled (in part) by creditors such as banks. In return for lending money to the corporation, creditors can demand a controlling interest analogous to that of a member, including one or more seats on the board of directors. In some jurisdictions, such as Germany and Japan, it is standard for banks to own shares in corporations whereas in other jurisdictions such as the United States and the United Kingdom banks are prohibited from owning shares in external corporation. Members of a corporation (except for non-profit corporations) are said to have a "residual interest." Should the corporation end its existence, the members are the last to receive its assets, following creditors and others with interests in the corporation. This can make investment in a corporation risky; however, a diverse investment portfolio minimizes this risk. In addition, shareholders receive the benefit of limited liability regulations, making shareholders liable for only the amount they contributed. This only applies in the case of for-profit corporations; non-profits are not allowed to have residual benefits available to the members. Formation Historically, corporations were created by special charter of governments. Today, corporations are usually registered with the state, province, or national government and become regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. As part of this registration, it must in many cases be required to designate the principal address of the corporation as well as a registered agent (a person or company that is designated to receive legal service of process). As part of the registration, it may also be required to designate an agent or other legal representative of the corporation depending on the filing jurisdiction. Generally, a corporation files articles of incorporation with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create bylaws that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions. The law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation operates will regulate most of its internal activities, as well as its finances. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is often required to register with other governments as a foreign corporation, and is almost always subject to laws of its host state pertaining to employment, crimes, contracts, civil actions, and the like. Naming Corporations generally have a distinct name. Historically, some corporations were named after their membership: for instance, "The President and Fellows of Harvard College." Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to their membership. In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers based on their Provincial Sales Tax registration number (e.g., "12345678 Ontario Limited"). In most countries, corporate names include the term "Corporation", or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity (e.g. "Incorporated" or "Inc." in the United States), or the limited liability of its members (e.g. "Limited" or "Ltd."). These terms vary by jurisdiction and language. In some jurisdictions they are mandatory, and in others they are not. The U.S. state of California is an example of a jurisdiction that does not require corporations to indicate corporate status in their names, except for close corporations. The drafters of the 1977 revision of the California General Corporation Law considered the possibility of forcing all California corporations to have a name indicating corporate status, but decided against it because of the huge number of corporations that would have had to change their names, and the lack of any evidence that anyone had been harmed in California by entities whose corporate status was not immediately apparent from their names. However, the 1977 drafters were able to impose the current disclosure requirement for close corporations. See Harold Marsh, Jr., R. Roy Finkle, Larry W. Sonsini, and Ann Yvonne Walker, Marsh's California Corporation Law, 4th ed., vol. 1 (New York: Aspen Publishers, ), 5-15 — 5-16. Their use puts all persons on constructive notice that they have to deal with an entity whose liability remains limited, in the sense that it does not reach back to the persons who constitute the entity; one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls at the time one obtains a judgment against it. Certain jurisdictions do not allow the use of the word "company" alone to denote corporate status, since the word "company" may refer to a partnership or to a sole proprietorship (in United States usage, but not generally in British usage), or even, archaically, to a group of not necessarily related people (for example, those staying in a tavern). Unresolved issues The nature of the corporation continues to evolve in response to new situations as existing corporations promote new ideas and structures, the courts respond, and governments issue new regulations. A question of long standing is that of diffused responsibility. For example, if a corporation is found liable for a death, how should culpability and punishment for it be allocated among shareholders, directors, management and staff, and the corporation itself? See corporate liability, and specifically, corporate manslaughter. The law differs among jurisdictions, and is in a state of flux. Some argue that shareholders should be ultimately responsible in such circumstances, forcing them to consider issues other than profit when investing, but a corporation may have millions of small shareholders who know nothing about its business activities. Moreover, traders — especially hedge funds — may turn over shares in corporations many times a day. See, for example, the Ontario's Environmental Protection Act. The issue of corporate repeat offenders (see H. Glasbeak, "Wealth by Stealth: Corporate Crime, Corporate Law, and the Perversion of Democracy" (Between the Lines Press: Toronto 2002) raises the question of the so-called "death penalty for corporations." CorpWatch : The Death Penalty for Corporations Comes of Age Types of corporations For a list of types of corporation and other business types by country, see Types of business entity. Most corporations are registered with the local jurisdiction as either a stock corporation or a non-stock corporation. Stock corporations sell stock to generate capital. A stock corporation is generally a for-profit corporation. A non-stock corporation does not have stockholders, but may have members who have voting rights in the corporation. Some jurisdictions (Washington, D.C., for example) separate corporations into for-profit and non-profit, as opposed to dividing into stock and non-stock. For-profit and non-profit In modern economic systems, conventions of corporate governance commonly appear in a wide variety of business and non-profit activities. Though the laws governing these creatures of statute often differ, the courts often interpret provisions of the law that apply to profit-making enterprises in the same manner (or in a similar manner) when applying principles to non-profit organizations — as the underlying structures of these two types of entity often resemble each other. Closely held and public The institution most often referenced by the word "corporation" is a public or publicly traded corporation, the shares of which are traded on a public stock exchange (e.g., the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq in the United States) where shares of stock of corporations are bought and sold by and to the general public. Most of the largest businesses in the world are publicly traded corporations. However, the majority of corporations are said to be closely held, privately held or close corporations, meaning that no ready market exists for the trading of shares. Many such corporations are owned and managed by a small group of businesspeople or companies, although the size of such a corporation can be as vast as the largest public corporations. Closely held corporations do have some advantages over publicly traded corporations. A small, closely held company can often make company-changing decisions much more rapidly than a publicly traded company. A publicly traded company is also at the mercy of the market, having capital flow in and out based not only on what the company is doing but the market and even what the competitors are doing. Publicly traded companies also have advantages over their closely held counterparts. Publicly traded companies often have more working capital and can delegate debt throughout all shareholders. This means that people invested in a publicly traded company will each take a much smaller hit to their own capital as opposed to those involved with a closely held corporation. Publicly traded companies though suffer from this exact advantage. A closely held corporation can often voluntarily take a hit to profit with little to no repercussions (as long as it is not a sustained loss). A publicly traded company though often comes under extreme scrutiny if profit and growth are not evident to stock holders, thus stock holders may sell, further damaging the company. Often this blow is enough to make a small public company fail. Often communities benefit from a closely held company more so than from a public company. A closely held company is far more likely to stay in a single place that has treated them well, even if going through hard times. The shareholders can incur some of the damage the company may receive from a bad year or slow period in the company profits. Workers benefit in that closely held companies often have a better relationship with workers. In larger, publicly traded companies, often when a year has gone badly the first area to feel the effects are the work force with lay offs or worker hours, wages or benefits being cut. Again, in a closely held business the shareholders can incur this profit damage rather than passing it to the workers. Closely held businesses are also often known to be more socially responsible than publicly traded companies. The affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations have the burden of complying with additional securities laws, which (especially in the U.S.) may require additional periodic disclosure (with more stringent requirements), stricter corporate governance standards, and additional procedural obligations in connection with major corporate transactions (e.g. mergers) or events (e.g. elections of directors). A closely held corporation may be a subsidiary of another corporation (its parent company), which may itself be either a closely held or a public corporation. Mutual benefit corporations A mutual benefit nonprofit corporation is a corporation formed in the United States solely for the benefit of its members. An example of a mutual benefit nonprofit corporation is a golf club. Individuals pay to join the club, memberships may be bought and sold, and any property owned by the club is distributed to its members if the club dissolves. The club can decide, in its corporate bylaws, how many members to have, and who can be a member. Generally, while it is a nonprofit corporation, a mutual benefit corporation is not a charity. Because it is not a charity, a mutual benefit nonprofit corporation cannot obtain 501(c)(3) status. If there is a dispute as to how a mutual benefit nonprofit corporation is being operated, it is up to the members to resolve the dispute since the corporation exists to solely serve the needs of its membership and not the general public. Official website of the Secretary of State, for the (United States) state of Vermont Corporations globally Following on the success of the corporate model at a national level, many corporations have become transnational or multinational corporations: growing beyond national boundaries to attain sometimes remarkable positions of power and influence in the process of globalizing. The typical "transnational" or "multinational" may fit into a web of overlapping shareholders and directorships, with multiple branches and lines in different regions, many such sub-groupings comprising corporations in their own right. Growth by expansion may favor national or regional branches; growth by acquisition or merger can result in a plethora of groupings scattered around and/or spanning the globe, with structures and names which do not always make clear the structures of shareholder ownership and interaction. In the spread of corporations across multiple continents, the importance of corporate culture has grown as a unifying factor and a counterweight to local national sensibilities and cultural awareness. Australia In Australia corporations are registered and regulated by the Commonwealth Government through the Australian Securities and Investments Commission. Corporations law has been largely codified in the Corporations Act 2001. Brazil In Brazil there are many different types of corporations ("sociedades"), but the two most common ones commercially speaking are: (i) "sociedade limitada", identified by "Ltda." after the company's name, equivalent to the British limited company, and (ii) "sociedade anônima" or "companhia", identified by "SA" or "Companhia" in the company's name, equivalent to the British public limited company. The "Ltda." is mainly governed by the new Civil Code, enacted in 2002, and the "SA" by the Law 6.404 dated 15 December 1976. Canada In Canada both the federal government and the provinces have corporate statutes, and thus a corporation may have a provincial or a federal charter. Many older corporations in Canada stem from Acts of Parliament passed before the introduction of general corporation law. The oldest corporation in Canada is the Hudson's Bay Company; though its business has always been based in Canada, its Royal Charter was issued in England by King Charles II in 1670, and became a Canadian charter by amendment in 1970 when it moved its corporate headquarters from London to Canada. Federally recognized corporations are regulated by the Canada Business Corporations Act. German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein recognize two forms of corporation: the Aktiengesellschaft (AG), analogous to public corporations in the English-speaking world, and the Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH), similar to (and an inspiration for) the modern limited liability company. Italy The Italian Republic recognizes three types of company with limited liability: "S.r.l", or "Società a responsabilità limitata" (a private limited company), "S.p.A" or "Società per Azioni" (a joint-stock company, similar to a Public Limited Company in the United Kingdom), and "S.a.p.a" ("Società in Accomandita per Azioni"). The latter is a hybrid form that involves two categories of shareholders, some with and some without limited liability, and is rarely used in practice. Japan In Japan, both the state and local public entities under the Local Autonomy Law (prefectures and municipalities) are considered to be . Non-profit corporations may be established under the Civil Code. The term is used to refer to business corporations. The predominant form is the kabushiki kaisha (株式会社), used by public corporations as well as smaller enterprises. Mochibun kaisha (持分会社), a form for smaller enterprises, are becoming increasingly common. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, 'corporation' most commonly refers to a body corporate formed by Royal Charter or by statute, of which few now remain. The BBC is the oldest and best known corporation within the UK that is still in existence. Others, such as the British Steel Corporation, were privatized in the 1980s. In the private sector, corporations are referred to in law as companies, and are regulated by the Companies Act 2006 (or the Northern Ireland equivalent). The most common type of company is the private limited company ("Limited" or "Ltd."). Private limited companies can either be limited by shares or by guarantee. Other corporate forms include the public limited company ("PLC") and the unlimited company. United States Several types of corporations exist in the United States. Generically, any business entity that is recognized as distinct from the people who own it (i.e., is not a sole proprietorship or a partnership) is a corporation. This generic label includes entities that are known by such legal labels as ‘association’, ‘organization’ and ‘limited liability company’, as well as corporations proper. Only a company that has been formally incorporated according to the laws of a particular state is called ‘corporation’. American corporations can be either profit-making companies or non-profit entities. Tax-exempt non-profit corporations are often called “501(c)3 corporation”, after the section of the Internal Revenue Code that addresses their tax exemption. Corporations are created by filing the requisite documents with a particular state government. The process is called “incorporation,” referring to the abstract concept of clothing the entity with a "veil" of artificial personhood (embodying, or “corporating” it, ‘corpus’ being the Latin word for ‘body’). Only certain corporations, including banks, are chartered. Others simply file their articles of incorporation with the state government as part of a registration process. The federal government can only create corporate entities pursuant to relevant powers in the U.S. Constitution. For example, Congress has constitutional power to regulate banking, so it has power to charter federal banks. Once incorporated, the corporation has artificial personhood everywhere it may operate, until such time as the corporation may be dissolved. A corporation that operates in one state while being incorporated in another is a “foreign corporation.” This label also applies to corporations incorporated outside of the United States. Foreign corporations must usually register with the secretary of state’s office in each state to lawfully conduct business in that state. A corporation is legally a citizen of the state (or other jurisdiction) in which it is incorporated (except when circumstances direct the corporation be classified as a citizen of the state in which it has its head office, or the state in which it does the majority of its business). Corporate business law differs from state to state, and many prospective corporations choose to incorporate in a state whose laws are most favorable to its business interests. Many large corporations are incorporated in Delaware, for example, without being physically located there because that state has very favorable corporate tax and disclosure laws. Companies set up for privacy or asset protection often incorporate in Nevada, which does not require disclosure of share ownership. Many states, particularly smaller ones, have modeled their corporate statutes after the Model Business Corporation Act, one of many model sets of law prepared and published by the American Bar Association. As juristic persons, corporations have certain rights that attach to natural purposes. The vast majority of them attach to corporations under state law, especially the law of the state in which the company is incorporated – since the corporations very existence is predicated on the laws of that state. A few rights also attach by federal constitutional and statutory law, but they are few and far between compared to the rights of natural persons. For example, a corporation has the personal right to bring a lawsuit (as well as the capacity to be sued) and, like a natural person, a corporation can be libeled. But a corporation has no constitutional right to freely exercise its religion because religious exercise is something that only "natural" persons can do. That is, only human beings, not business entities, have the necessary faculties of belief and spirituality that enable them to possess and exercise religious beliefs. Harvard College (a component of Harvard University), formally the President and Fellows of Harvard College (also known as the Harvard Corporation), is the oldest corporation in the western hemisphere. Founded in 1636, the second of Harvard’s two governing boards was incorporated by the Great and General Court of Massachusetts in 1650. Significantly, Massachusetts itself was a corporate colony at that time – owned and operated by the Massachusetts Bay Company (until it lost its charter in 1684) - so Harvard College is a corporation created by a corporation. Many nations have modeled their own corporate laws on American business law. Corporate law in Saudi Arabia, for example, follows the model of New York State corporate law. In addition to typical corporations in the United States, the federal government, in 1971 passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which authorized the creation of 12 regional native corporations for Alaska Natives and over 200 village corporations that were entitled to a settlement of land and cash. In addition to the 12 regional corporations, the legislation permitted a thirteenth regional corporation without a land settlement for those Alaska Natives living out of the State of Alaska at the time of passage of ANCSA. Corporate taxation In many countries corporate profits are taxed at a corporate tax rate, and dividends paid to shareholders are taxed at a separate rate. Such a system is sometimes referred to as "double taxation", because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution to this (as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems) is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit which addresses the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is therefore effectively only taxed at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend. In other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (e.g. in the US) or shareholders are taxed directly on the corporation's profits and dividends are not taxed (e.g. S corporations in the US). Criticisms of Corporations Granting a collectivist entity the rights and privileges of a person can be problematic in a democratic society, as it threatens to undermine the fundamental principle of equality by creating a unique class of persons with unprecedented access to financial resources, limited legal accountability, and virtual immortality. Moreover, unlike real individuals, who function with the guidance of complex moral guidelines, possess a sensitivity to social norms and mores, and who presumably seek to co-exist peacefully with their neighbors, corporations exist solely to consolidate wealth and accumulate power. In allowing the judicial system to aid corporations in accumulating profit, the state has essentially agreed to use its own resources (i.e. those of the people) to support corporations' efforts to accumulate more wealth into the hands of fewer people. N. Resnikoff (2007) Corporations Versus Democracy. The Nation. http://www.thenation.com/doc/20071022/resnikoff As Adam Smith pointed out in the Wealth of Nations, when ownership is separated from management (i.e. the actual production process required to obtain the capital), the former will inevitably begin to neglect the interests of the latter, creating dysfunction within the company. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations 741 (Clarendon, Oxford 1776). Some maintain that recent events in corporate America may serve to reinforce Smith's warnings about the dangers of legally-protected collectivist hierarchies. The fall of the Enron corporation stemmed largely from the company's attempt to create new energy trading markets, and its strategy of trading paper wealth in order to maintain the appearance of profitability. For a thorough analysis of Enron's missteps and ultimate destruction, see Kurt Eichenwald, Conspiracy of Fools (Broadway Books, New York 20050. Other business entities Almost every recognized type of organization carries out some economic activities (e.g. the family). Other organizations that may carry out activities that are generally considered to be business exist under the laws of various countries. These include: Consumers' cooperative Limited company (Ltd.) Limited liability company (LLC) Limited liability limited partnership (LLLP) Limited liability partnership (LLP) Limited partnership (LP) Low-profit limited liability company (L3C) Not-for-profit corporation Partnership Sole proprietorship Trust company, Trust law See also Alaska Native Corporation Anti-corporate activism Blocker corporation Bylaw Commercial law Community interest company Company (law) Conglomerate (company) Cooperative Corporate governance Corporate haven Corporate Watch Corporate welfare Corporatism Delaware corporation Finance capitalism Guild Incorporation (business) List of strikes Megacorporation (fictional) Military-industrial complex Multinational corporation Organizational culture Preferred stock Professional corporation (PC or P.C.) Public limited company (PLC) Registered Agent Shelf Corporation Stock certificates The Corporation − a documentary focusing on surge of corporate power in our society over the last two centuries Unlimited liability corporation When Corporations Rule the World Footnotes References A.B. DuBois, The English Business Company after the Bubble Act, , (1938) A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law Bishop Hunt, The Development of the Business Corporation in England (1936) Blumberg, Phillip I., The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) Bromberg, Alan R. Crane and Bromberg on Partnership. 1968. Bruce Brown, The History of the Corporation (2003) C. A. Cooke, Corporation, Trust and Company: A Legal History, (1950) Charles Freedman, Joint-stock Enterprise in France, : From Privileged Company to Modern Corporation (1979) Conard, Alfred F. Corporations in Perspective. 1976. Dignam, A and Lowry, J (2006) Company Law, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-928936-3*Ernst Freund, The Legal Nature of the Corporation, (1897) Edwin Merrick Dodd, American Business Corporations until 1860, With Special Reference to Massachusetts, (1954) John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge. The Company: a Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. New York: Modern Library. 2003. Frederick Hallis, Corporate Personality: A Study in Jurisprudence (1930) Hessen, Robert. In Defense of the Corporation. Hoover Institute. 1979. ISBN -X John P. Davis, Corporations (1904) John William Cadman, The Corporation in New Jersey: Business and Politics, , (1949) Joseph S. Davis, Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations (1917) Klein and Coffee. Business Organization and Finance: Legal and Economic Principles. Foundation. 2002. ISBN -X Radhe Shyam Rungta, The Rise of the Business Corporation in India, 1851–1900, (1970) Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Corporate Life in Ancient India, (1920) Robert Charles Means, Underdevelopment and the Development of Law: Corporations and Corporation Law in Nineteenth-century Colombia, (1980) Sobel, Robert. The Age of Giant Corporations: a Microeconomic History of American Business. (1984) Thomas Owen, The Corporation under Russian Law, : A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy (1991) W. R. Scott, Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720 (1912) Further reading Low, Albert, 2008. "Conflict and Creativity at Work: Human Roots of Corporate Life, Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 9781845192723 External links US Corporate Law at Wikibooks US Corporate Law an Audio from a talk about the history of corporations and the English Law by Barrister Daniel Bennett

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Benzodiazepine

The benzodiazepine () class of psychoactive drugs have varying sedative, hypnotic (sleep inducing), anxiolytic (antianxiety), anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic properties. These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal, and for medical or dental procedures. Benzodiazepines vary in their elimination half-life, being categorized as either short-acting, intermediate-acting or long-acting. Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia. Longer-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of anxiety. The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach; it was introduced to the market in 1960 and was quickly followed by diazepam (Valium). The therapeutic properties are mediated via the enhancing the effect of neurotransmitter GABA at GABAA receptors, which results in a depressant or calming effect of the central nervous system. The benzodiazepines replaced the barbiturates as the most commonly prescribed sedative hypnotics. However, the benzodiazepines are now beginning to be replaced by the nonbenzodiazepines, especially in the treatment of insomnia. Benzodiazepines are generally safe and effective in the short-term, although cognitive impairments or paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur. Their use in the longer term is not recommended due to their propensity to cause tolerance, physical dependence, addiction and a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of use. Benzodiazepines are also major drugs of abuse. Other drawbacks from long term use of benzodiazepines include their propensity to cause or worsen sleep problems, cognitive deficits, depression, anxiety and panic attacks as well as agoraphobia. The elderly are at an increased risk of suffering from the adverse effects of benzodiazepines. There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy; much of this surrounds whether they are associated with major malformations in a small number of babies. Benzodiazepines are not major teratogens, but they can cause neonatal withdrawal effects. Benzodiazepines are often taken in overdoses, but are considered to be much less toxic in overdose than their predecessors, the barbiturates. When benzodiazepines are combined with other central nervous system depressants such as alcohol or opiates, the potential for overdose greatly increases. This is particularly problematic in the drug misusing community. History The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was synthesized in 1955 by Leo Sternbach while working at Hoffmann–La Roche on the development of tranquilizers. Pharmacological properties of many compounds prepared initially were disappointing, and Sternbach abandoned the project. Two years later, in April 1957 during a spring cleaning in the lab, his co-worker, Earl Reeder noticed a "nicely crystalline" compound left over from the discontinued project. This compound, which later was named chlordiazepoxide, had not been tested in 1955 because of Sternbach's "involvement with other problems". Expecting the pharmacology results to be negative and then hoping to publish the chemistry part of their work, researchers submitted it for a standard battery of animal tests. Unexpectedly, the compound showed very strong sedative, anticonvulsant and muscle relaxant effects. The impressive clinical results and the favorable attitude of the FDA led to the speedy introduction of chlordiazepoxide to the US market in 1960 under the brand name Librium. Following chlordiazepoxide, diazepam hit the market in 1963 under the brand name Valium, and for a while Librium and Valium were the two most commercially successful drugs. The introduction of benzodiazepine sedative hypnotics led to a fall in barbiturate prescriptions and by the 1970s benzodiazepines had largely replaced the older drugs. It is estimated that in 1977 the United States consumers took about 8000 tons of benzodiazepines. The benzodiazepines were initially greeted with hope and optimism by the medical profession but gradually concerns emerged, in particular the risk of dependence came to be realized in the 1980s leading them to be regarded unpopularly. Benzodiazepines have a unique history, at least in the UK, in that they were responsible for the largest ever class action lawsuit involving 14,000 patients and 1800 law firms against the drugs manufacturers, alleging that they knew of the dependence potential of benzodiazepines but intentionally withheld this information from doctors. At the same time there were 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities also being sued by patients to recover damages they incurred as a result of benzodiazepine dependence and withdrawal. This led to some doctors requiring a signed consent form from their patients and recommendations that all patients are adequately warned of the dependence and withdrawal problems before starting benzodiazepines. The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached conclusion, collapsing due to legal aid being withdrawn and allegations of conflicts of interest of consultant psychiatrists who were case experts. The benzodiazepine litigation led to changes in the British law making class action law suits more difficult. A newer class of drugs called the nonbenzodiazepines (also sometimes referred to as Z-drugs) are now beginning to replace the benzodiazepines, particularly in the treatment of insomnia. Although they are molecularly distinct, nonbenzodiazepines work on benzodiazepine receptors and have similar risks and benefits to those of their predecessors. Therapeutic uses Benzodiazepines possess sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic (antianxiety), anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic actions, which are useful in a variety of indications such as alcohol dependence, seizures, anxiety, panic, agitation and insomnia. Most are administered orally; however, administration can also be given intravenously, intramuscularly or rectally. Benzodiazepines have a number of therapeutic uses, are well-tolerated and are generally safe and effective drugs in the short-term for a wide range of conditions. Benzodiazepines are commonly divided into three groups by their half-lives: Type Half-life Notes Examples Short-acting compounds less than 12 hours They have few residual effects if taken before bedtime, but rebound insomnia may occur and they might cause wake-time anxiety. Daytime withdrawal symptoms are also a problem with prolonged usage of short-acting benzodiazepines, including daytime anxiety. Alprazolam, Midazolam, Oxazepam, Triazolam Intermediate-acting compounds 12–24 hours They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic. (Rebound insomnia, however, is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate-acting benzodiazepines than longer acting benzodiazepines.) Lorazepam, Bromazepam, Estazolam, Temazepam Long-acting compounds greater than 24 hours They have a risk of accumulation in the elderly and in individuals with severely impaired liver function, but they have a reduced severity of rebound effects and withdrawal. Clonazepam, Diazepam, Flurazepam, Chlordiazepoxide Alcohol dependence Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome, particularly for preventing or treating seizures and delirium. The most commonly used in the management of alcohol withdrawal are diazepam (Valium) and chlordiazepoxide (Librium). Their long half-life makes withdrawal smoother and rebound withdrawal symptoms less likely to occur. Oxazepam or lorazepam are often used in patients at risk of drug accumulation, particularly the elderly and those with cirrhosis because of their shorter half life. Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption, and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures. However, the shorter acting benzodiazepines may be less effective than longer acting ones in reducing alcohol withdrawal symptoms, and may lead to break through seizures. They are thus not recommended for outpatient detoxification. The patient is also more prone to rebound effects if they are not tapered after alcohol detoxification. Seizures Main anticonvulsant benzodiazepines clobazam clonazepam clorazepate diazepam lorazepam midazolam Benzodiazepines are potent anticonvulsants and are usually the drugs of choice in the treatment of acute seizures including status epilepticus however, not all seizure types respond effectively to benzodiazepines. For example, seizures caused by theophylline respond poorly to benzodiazepines but effectively to barbiturates. When used to control acute seizures, benzodiazepines are usually administered intravenously, intramuscularly, orally or sometimes rectally especially in children where intravenous administration is more difficult. Oral administration may not always be possible because a person having convulsions may be unable to swallow medication. Nasal or buccal midazolam is also an effective administration route which can be given in hospital or administered in the home environment. The most commonly-used benzodiazepines for seizure control are lorazepam and diazepam. Lorazepam given intravenously is the benzodiazepine of first choice in the hospital setting. A meta-analysis of 11 clinical trials concluded that lorazepam was superior to diazepam and phenytoin in treating status epilepticus due to its more prolonged anticonvulsant effect. Benzodiazepines are sometimes used as add-ons to other therapies for refractory epilepsies. Though the effectiveness of long-term prophylactic use of benzodiazepines for seizure disorders is limited due to a high risk of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of benzodiazepines. Clonazepam can be used for the treatment of tonic–clonic or partial seizures and clobazam is licensed for the adjunctive treatment of epilepsy. Discontinuation of benzodiazepines or barbiturates after long term use requires additional caution in epileptics to because of the risks of rebound seizures as well as a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. The time needed to withdraw can take up to six months or longer. Anxiety, panic and agitation Main anxiolytic benzodiazepines alprazolam bromazepam chlordiazepoxide clonazepam clorazepate diazepam lorazepam medazepam nordazepam oxazepam prazepam As they possess anti-anxiety properties, benzodiazepines can be useful for the short-term treatment of severe anxiety. Tolerance can develop to their anxiolytic effects, and there is also a risk of dependence. These factors limit their long term use in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Other problems associated with long term use include psychomotor impairment, cognitive and memory impairments, and a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome upon discontinuation of benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are often prescribed long term for anxiety disorders, despite certain antidepressants and the anticonvulsant drug pregabalin being recommended as first line treatment options. Their effectiveness is questioned for this indication and is not recommended by current guidelines. Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally for the treatment of anxiety; however, very occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks. Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by hallucinogen intoxication. Benzodiazepines are occasionally prescribed for panic disorder. There are no controlled clinical trials to demonstrate whether efficacy is maintained and not lost due to tolerance. Limited data from longitudinal studies have suggested benefit from long term benzodiazepines in panic disorder. Benzodiazepines can be very useful in the short-term treatment of acute psychosis such as schizophrenia or mania, bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of lithium or neuroleptics (antipsychotics) take effect. They are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual in a psychiatric emergency and may, if required, be given via an intramuscular injection. Lorazepam is the benzodiazepine most commonly used but clonazepam is also sometimes used. Insomnia Main hypnotic benzodiazepines brotizolam estazolam flunitrazepam flurazepam flutoprazepam loprazolam lormetazepam nimetazepam nitrazepam temazepam triazolam Hypnotic benzodiazepines are prescribed for the short-term management of severe or debilitating insomnia. Hypnotic benzodiazepines have strong sedative effects, are typically the most rapid-acting benzodiazepines and have strong receptor affinity. Longer-acting benzodiazepines, such as nitrazepam or quazepam, have side-effects that may persist into the next day, whereas the more intermediate-acting benzodiazepines (for example, temazepam or loprazolam) may have less "hangover" effects the next day. The risks of tolerance and dependence with long term use of benzodiazepines for insomnia limits their use long term. Preferably they should be prescribed for only a few days at the lowest effective dose and avoided altogether wherever possible in the elderly. It has been argued that long term use of benzodiazepine hypnotics and overprescribing of these drugs represents an unjustifiable risk to the individual and to public health. Other indications Benzodiazepines can be very useful in intensive care to sedate patients receiving mechanical ventilation, or those in extreme distress or severe pain. Caution should be exercised in this situation due to the occasional scenario of respiratory depression and benzodiazepine overdose treatment facilities should be available. Benzodiazepines are effective as premedication before surgery. Administered a couple of hours before surgery, benzodiazepines bring about anxiety relief and also produce amnesia. Amnesia can be useful in this situation, as patients will not be able to remember any unpleasantness from surgery. Diazepam or temazepam can be utilized in patients who are particularly anxious about dental procedures for example those with dental phobia. Benzodiazepines are well known for their strong muscle-relaxing properties and can be useful in the treatment of muscle spasms caused by tetanus. Stiff person syndrome which is a neurological disorder characterized by severe muscle stiffness can be treated with benzodiazepines. Eclampsia is also responsive to benzodiazepines but is not as effective as intravenous magnesium. Veterinary practice Benzodiazepines are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions involving animals. As in humans, their usefulness comes from their tranquilizing, muscle relaxing, aggression inhibiting and anxiolytic properties. Benzodiazepines are used before surgery as premedication for muscular relaxation and during surgery in combination with other general anesthetic drugs such as ketamine. They are effective in controlling tremors, seizures and epilepsy. Midazolam can also be used along with other drugs in the sedation and capture of wild animals. Contraindications and interactions Contraindications The following are some important contraindications or situations where extreme caution should be exercised when prescribing benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are contraindicated in patients with neuromuscular respiratory weakness including myasthenia gravis and patients with respiratory depression because benzodiazepines can worsen the condition. Benzodiazepines are contraindicated in pregnancy and in breast feeding mothers. Benzodiazepines are also contraindicated in patients with chronic psychosis, acute pulmonary insufficiency, sleep apnoea syndrome, severe liver impairment. Benzodiazepines should not be used for chronic psychosis, phobic, obsessional states. Caution is required in individuals with a history of drug or alcohol abuse, personality disorders, porphyria, elderly and debilitated (lower dose) and in those with renal impairment. Prolonged use should be avoided and abrupt withdrawal thereafter. Caution is required if used in patients with depressive mood disorders such as major depression as benzodiazepines can worsen depression and thus may precipitate suicidal tendencies. If used they should not be used alone to treat major depression. Individuals with a history of physical dependence on benzodiazepines or other cross tolerant drugs such as other GABAergic sedative hypnotic drugs including alcohol should generally avoid benzodiazepines as there is a risk of rapid reinstatement of dependency. Interactions Individual benzodiazepines may have different interactions, and depending on their metabolism pathway they can be roughly divided into two groups. The largest group consists of benzodiazepines that are metabolized by cytochrome enzymes and possess significant potential for interactions with other drugs. The other group includes lorazepam, oxazepam and temazepam that are metabolized through glucoronidation, and generally their drug interactions are minimal. Taking benzodiazepines with alcohol, opioids and other central nervous system depressants potentiates their action. This often results in increased sedation, impaired motor coordination, suppressed breathing and other adverse effects and may potentially be lethal. Antacids may slow down absorption of some benzodiazepines; however, this effect is marginal and inconsistent. Oral contraceptives, some antibiotics, antidepressants, antifungal agents and other drugs inhibit cytochrome enzymes in the liver. They reduce the rate of elimination of many benzodiazepines leading to possibly excessive drug accumulation and increased side effects. St John's wort, antibiotic rifampicin and anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin induce cytochrome enzymes, accelerate elimination of many benzodiazepines and decrease their action. Side effects The most common side effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle-relaxing action. They include drowsiness, dizziness, decreased alertness, concentration and coordination. This may result in ataxia, falls and injuries, particularly in the elderly. Benzodiazepines adversely affect cognition; they interfere with the formation and consolidation of memories of the new material and may induce complete anterograde amnesia. Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect. An emergence of depression and paradoxical side reactions of disinhibition have been observed. Benzodiazepines impair driving skills and increase the risk of road traffic accidents. Less common side effects include upset stomach, blurred vision, headache, confusion, changes in heart rate, euphoria, hypotension, dissociation or depersonalization, nightmares, chest pain, vision changes and very rarely jaundice. Paradoxical reactions Multiple cases of paradoxical reactions such as aggression, violence, impulsivity, irritability and suicidal behavior have been described in the literature. These reactions are explained as consequences of disinhibition that is of loss of control over socially unacceptable behavior. Disinhibition often occurs when benzodiazepines are taken by individuals who have a borderline personality disorder or consumed with alcohol or in high doses. It is possible that oxazepam has a lower rate of disinhibition reactions than other benzodiazepines. In controlled trials, the disinhibition reactions were monitored only in clinical trials of alprazolam and were observed in 10–20% of the treated patients. Benzodiazepines can sometimes cause a paradoxical worsening of EEG readings in patients with seizure disorders. Paradoxical reactions may occur in any individual on commencement of therapy but may be morre common in certain groups of patients e.g., alcoholics, children and individuals with certain psychiatric disorders. Paradoxical rage reactions due to benzodiazepines occur as a result of a partial deterioration from consciousness, which generates automatic behaviors, anterograde amnesia and uninhibited aggression. These aggressive reactions may be caused by a disinhibiting serotonergic mechanism. Physical dependence and withdrawal Diazepam 2 mg and 5 mg diazepam tablets, which are commonly used in the treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal. Long-term benzodiazepine usage, in general, leads to some form of tolerance and/or drug dependence with the appearance of a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome when the benzodiazepines are stopped or the dose is reduced. Long-term use of benzodiazepines can cause a range of health problems in a proportion of people. The long-term effects of benzodiazepines include impaired concentration and memory, sleep problems, depression, anxiety and panic attacks as well as agoraphobia. Use of high doses (or high potency benzodiazepines) and those with a shorter half life increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome. Use of other cross tolerant sedative hypnotics, e.g., barbiturates or alcohol are additive and thus also contribute to the severity of the withdrawal syndrome. Withdrawal from chronic benzodiazepine use is usually beneficial due to improved health such as cognition and functioning with possible benefits in employment status. Abrupt withdrawal can be hazardous, therefore a gradual withdrawal is recommended. The opinion on the time needed to complete withdrawal differs but ranges from 4 weeks to several years. Aiming for within 6 months has been suggested. However, due to individual variability some people may require longer than 6 months to complete withdrawal with some people requiring a year or more to complete withdrawal. Factors effecting the rate of withdrawal include severity of physical dependence, dose and length of use, type of benzodiazepine used, social and environmental factors as well as psychological and possibly genetic factors. Thus the rate of withdrawal can vary quite significantly and needs to be customized to the needs of the individual person. Benzodiazepine dependence often occurs as a result of medical use but may also occur as a result of illicit misuse. Withdrawal effects may linger for many months or sometimes for a year or more after cessation of benzodiazepines. The withdrawal symptoms may include anxiety, irritability, sweating, tremor, sleep disorders, depersonalization, derealization, hypersensitivity to stimuli, abnormal sensation of movement and less commonly depression, suicidal behavior, psychosis, seizures and delirium tremens. Approximately 10% of patients will experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome. Protracted withdrawal symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub acute level of severity. It is not known definitively whether such symptoms persisting long after withdrawal are related to true pharmacological withdrawal or whether they are due to structural neuronal damage as result of chronic use of benzodiazepines or withdrawal. Nevertheless such symptoms do typically gradually lessen as the months and years go by eventually disappearing altogether. Withdrawal management Benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms occur when benzodiazepine dosage is reduced in people who are physically dependent on benzodiazepines. Abrupt or over-rapid dosage reduction can produce severe withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms may also occur during a very gradual and slow dosage reduction but are typically less severe. Withdrawal symptoms may persist as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome for many months after cessation of benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepine withdrawal is best managed by transferring the physically-dependent patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam because it has the longest half-life of all of the benzodiazepines and is available in low-potency, 2-mg tablets, which can be quartered for small dose reductions. A further benefit of diazepam is that it is available in liquid form which allows for even smaller reductions if problems occur getting off the last few mgs. The speed of benzodiazepine reduction regimes varies from person to person, but is usually done in 10% (of daily dose) stepped reductions. A slow withdrawal, under medical supervision by a physician that is knowledgeable about the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, with the patient in control of dosage reductions coupled with reassurance that withdrawal symptoms are temporary, has been found to produce the highest success rates. The withdrawal syndrome can usually be avoided or minimized by use of a long half-life benzodiazepine such as diazepam (Valium) or chlordiazepoxide (Librium) and a very gradually tapering off the drug over a period of months, or even up to a year or more, depending on the dosage and degree of dependency of the individual. A slower withdrawal rate significantly reduces the intensity of withdrawal symptoms. In fact, some people feel better and more clear-headed as the dose gradually gets lower, so withdrawal from benzodiazepines is not necessarily an unpleasant event. People that report severe experiences from benzodiazepine withdrawal have almost invariably withdrawn or been withdrawn too quickly. Use in special populations Pregnancy International statistics show that 3.5% of women consume psychotropic drugs during pregnancy and of that 3.5% up to 85% report using benzodiazepines making benzodiazepines the most commonly prescribed psychotropic drug consumed during pregnancy. Around 0.4% of all pregnancies are to women who have used benzodiazepines chronically throughout their pregnancy. Long term use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy or breast feeding is contraindicated. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has categorized benzodiazepines into either category D or category X benzodiazepines meaning potential for harm in humans has been demonstrated. Use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy may result in a neonatal withdrawal syndrome, including irritability, hyperactivity, disturbed sleep pattern, high-pitched crying, tremor, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss and failure to gain weight. Other neonatal withdrawal symptoms include; hypertonia, hyperreflexia, restlessness, abnormal sleep patterns, jerking of the extremities, bradycardia, cyanosis, suckling difficulties, apnea, risk of aspiration of feeds and growth retardation. The neonatal withdrawal syndrome may last from a few days to several months. Tapering down the dose of the benzodiazepine during pregnancy may lessen the severity of the neonatal withdrawal syndrome. Acute doses of benzodiazepines during labor may additionally lead to floppy infant syndrome. A small study linked benzodiazepines to a number of adverse effects in the newborn including low birth weight, which normalized by 10 months and small head circumference which was still present at 18 months. Possible but uncertain teratogenic effects include, abortion, malformation, intrauterine growth retardation, functional deficits, carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. If used in pregnancy, benzodiazepines which have a better and longer safety record such as diazepam or chlordiazepoxide are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines such as alprazolam or triazolam. Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child. Discontinuing benzodiazepines or antidepressants abruptly due to concerns of teratogenic effects of the medications has a high risk of causing serious complications and therefore is not recommended. Sudden withdrawal of benzodiazepines or antidepressants has a high risk of causing extreme withdrawal symptoms including suicidal ideation and a severe rebound effect of the underlying mental health disorder, if present. One study reported that one third of mothers who suddenly discontinued or very rapidly tapered their medications became acutely suicidal due to "unbearable symptoms". Spontaneous abortions may also result from abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications including benzodiazepines. The study reported that physicians in general are not aware of the severe consequences of abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications such as benzodiazepines or antidepressants. Elderly Benzodiazepines are generally not recommended for the elderly due to a range of adverse effects. Long term use of benzodiazepines in the elderly can induce a pharmacological syndrome which includes a wide range of physiological and neuropsychological symptoms which can be mistaken for the effects of old age. A large cohort study found that benzodiazepine use is associated with a significantly higher incidence of hip fracture. Benzodiazepines of a short half-life are as likely to be associated with hip fracture as long-acting benzodiazepines. Because hip fractures are a frequent cause of disability and death in the elderly, efforts have been underway to reduce benzodiazepine prescribing in the elderly. A review of the literature from between 1975 and 2005 found that medical papers consistently report increased risk of falls and fractures in the elderly. Benzodiazepine hypnotics produce also the most significant effects on body sway. Newer hypnotics (e.g., zaleplon and zolpidem) do not seem to cause such profound effects as benzodiazepines on the elderly. Still, a law introduced in New York State reducing benzodiazepine use by 60% did not result in a measurable decrease in hip fractures. This suggests that any effect of benzodiazepines on fracture rate may be non-significant and more important factors predict fracture rate such as osteoporosis rather than benzodiazepine induced falls. Use of other psychotropic drugs which are often prescribed in combination with benzodiazepines particularly SSRI antidepressants may also effect fracture rate. Benzodiazepines cause an increased morbidity in the elderly which results in an increased use of healthcare services due to the adverse effects of benzodiazepines. The elderly are more sensitive to benzodiazepines and are at an increased risk of dependence. Up to 10% of hospital admissions of the elderly are because of benzodiazepines. The elderly are more sensitive to the intellectual and cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines including amnesia, diminished short-term recall and increased forgetfulness. Chronic use of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine dependence in the elderly can resemble dementia, depression or anxiety syndromes, which worsens with longer-term use of benzodiazepines. The success of gradual-tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people. Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses. Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms in dementia but there is little evidence demonstrating their effectiveness and limited information on their safety. Benzodiazepines are one of the most common causes of drug induced dementia effecting up to 10 percent of patients attending memory clinics. Other drugs commonly associated with drug induced dementia include antihypertensives and anticholinergic drugs. A past history of benzodiazepine use and withdrawal may also predict dementia but the literature is conflicting and inconclusive. The long-term use of benzodiazepines or the nonbenzodiazepines in management of insomnia in the elderly lacks an evidence base and has been historically discouraged for reasons that include concerns about potential adverse drug effects for example cognitive impairment including anterograde amnesia, daytime sedation, motor incoordination, increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls. The long-term effectiveness is unproven and the safety of long-term use of these agents is unknown. More research is needed to evaluate the long-term effects of treatment and the most appropriate management strategy for elderly people who have chronic insomnia. There is however, significant evidence of the effectiveness and long term effectiveness of non-drug treatments for insomnia in adults, including the elderly but these interventions are underused. Nonbenzodiazepine sedative-hypnotics compared with benzodiazepines offer few, if any, significant clinical advantages in efficacy or tolerability in elderly persons. Melatonin agonists, such as ramelteon are more suitable for the management of chronic insomnia in elderly people. Pharmacology Chemistry The core chemical structure of "classical" benzodiazepine drugs is a fusion between the benzene and diazepine ring systems. Many of these drugs contain the 5-phenyl-1H-benzo[e][1,4]diazepin-2(3H)-one substructure (see figure to the right). ; CAS registry number: ; other names: Ro 05-2921, dechlorodemethyldiazepam. Benzodiazepines are structurally similar to several groups of drugs, some of which share similar pharmacological properties, including the quinazolinones, hydantoins, succinimides, oxazolidinediones, barbiturates and glutarimides. Mechanism of action GABAA receptor activation Benzodiazepines produce a range of effects due to depressing of the central nervous system via modulation the GABAA receptor, the most prevalent inhibitory receptor in the brain. The subset of GABAA receptors that also bind benzodiazepines are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors (BzR). The GABAA receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits, most commonly two α's, two β's and one γ (α2β2γ). For each subunit, many subtypes exist (α1-6, β1-3 and γ1-3). GABAA receptors that are made up of different combinations of subunit subtypes have different properties, different distributions in the brain and different activities relative to pharmacological and clinical effects. Benzodiazepines bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits on the GABAA receptor. Benzodiazepine binding also requires that alpha subunits contain a histidine amino acid residue, (i.e., α1, α2, α3 and α5 containing GABAA receptors). For this reason, benzodiazepines show no affinity for GABAA receptors containing α4 and α6 subunits, which contain an arginine instead of a histidine residue. Other sites on the GABAA receptor also bind neurosteroids, barbiturates and certain anesthetics. Individual types of subunits are expressed more densely in certain brain regions and thus modulation of certain subunits produces certain therapeutic as well as adverse effects of benzodiazepines. The α4 and α6 are expressed in very low numbers in the brain. Once bound to the benzodiazepine receptor the benzodiazepine ligand locks the benzodiazepine receptor into a conformation in which it has a much higher affinity for the GABA neurotransmitter. This increases the frequency of opening of the associated chloride ion channel and hyperpolarizes the membrane of the associated neuron. This potentiates the inhibitory effect of the available GABA, leading to sedatory and anxiolytic effects. As mentioned above, different benzodiazepines can have different affinities for BzRs made up of different collection of subunits. For instance, benzodiazepines with high activity at the α1 (temazepam, triazolam, nitrazepam, etc) are associated with stronger hypnotic effects, whereas those with higher affinity for GABAA receptors containing α2 and/or α3 subunits (diazepam, clonazepam, bromazepam, etc) have good anti-anxiety activity. Some compounds lie somewhere between being full agonists and neutral antagonists and are termed either partial agonists or partial antagonists. There has been interest in partial agonists for the BzR, with evidence that complete tolerance may not occur during chronic use, with continued anxiolytic properties, reduced sedation, dependence and withdrawal problems. PBR modulation The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with peripheral benzodiazepine receptors. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBRs) are present in peripheral nervous system tissues, glial cells and to a lesser extent the central nervous system. These peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are not coupled (or "attached") to GABAA receptors. They modulate the immune system and are involved in the response of the body to injury. Adenosine reuptake inhibition Finally, benzodiazepines also function as weak adenosine reuptake inhibitors. It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action. Overdose The use of Flumazenil is controversial following benzodiazepine overdose. Taken alone, benzodiazepines rarely cause severe complications in overdose, and deaths after hospital admission are rare. However, combining these drugs with alcohol or opiates is particularly dangerous and may lead to coma and death. The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity since they produce varying levels of sedation in overdose, with oxazepam being least toxic and least sedative, and temazepam most toxic and most sedative in overdose. Temazepam is more frequently involved in drug-related deaths causing more deaths per million than other benzodiazepines in an Australian study. A reversal agent for benzodiazepines exists, flumazenil (Anexate). Its use as an antidote in an overdose however is controversial. Numerous contraindications to its use exist. It is contraindicated in patients who are on long term benzodiazepines, those who have ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an arrhythmia, and in those with abnormal vital signs. One study found that only 10% of the patient population presenting with a benzodiazepine overdose are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil. Drug misuse Benzodiazepines are used recreationally. Benzodiazepine use is widespread among amphetamine users, with those that use amphetamines and benzodiazepines having greater levels of mental health problems and social deterioration. Benzodiazepine injectors are almost four times more likely to inject using a shared needle than non-benzodiazepine-using injectors. It has been concluded in various studies that benzodiazepine use causes greater levels of risk and psycho-social dysfunction among drug misusers. Those who use stimulant and depressant drugs are more likely to report adverse reactions from stimulant use, more likely to be injecting stimulants and more likely to have been treated for a drug problem than those using stimulant but not depressant drugs. Mortality is higher among poly-drug misusers that also use benzodiazepines. Heavy alcohol use also increases mortality among poly-drug users. Drug misusers addicted to benzodiazepines develop a high degree of tolerance, coupled with dosage escalation, often increasing their dosage to very high levels. Long-term use of benzodiazepines has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms. Tolerance and dependence to benzodiazepines develops rapidly, with a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome after as little as 3 weeks of continuous use. Benzodiazepines and in particular temazepam, are sometimes used intravenously, which if done incorrectly, or in an unsterile manner, or by using shared syringes and needles can lead to medical complications including abscesses, cellulitis, thrombophlebitis, arterial puncture, deep vein thrombosis, hepatitis B and C, HIV or AIDS, overdose and gangrene. Benzodiazepines are also sometimes misused intranasally which may have additional health consequences. Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program. Additional drugs, such as antianxiety drugs like buspirone or β blockers and carbamazepine, should not be added into the withdrawal program unless there is a specific indication for their use. Drug-related crime Problem benzodiazepine use can be associated with drug-related crime. In a survey of police detainees carried out by the Australian Government, both legal and illegal users of benzodiazepines were found to be more likely to have lived on the streets, less likely to have been in full time work and more likely to have used heroin or methamphetamines in the past 30 days from the date of taking part in the survey. Benzodiazepine users were also more likely to be receiving illegal incomes and more likely to have been arrested or imprisoned in the previous year. Benzodiazepines were sometimes reported to be used alone, but most often formed part of a poly drug-using problem. Female users of benzodiazepines were more likely than men to be using heroin, whereas male users of benzodiazepines were more likely to report amphetamine use. Benzodiazepine users were more likely than non-users to claim government financial benefits and benzodiazepine users who were also poly-drug users were the most likely to be claiming government financial benefits. Those who reported using benzodiazepines alone were found to be in the mid range when compared to other drug using patterns in terms of property crimes and criminal breaches. Of the detainees reporting benzodiazepine use, one in five reported injection use, mostly of illicit temazepam, with some who reported injecting prescribed benzodiazepines. Injection was a concern in this survey due to increased health risks. The main problems highlighted in this survey were concerns of dependence, the potential for overdose of benzodiazepines in combination with opiates and the health problems associated with injection of benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are also sometimes used for criminal purposes such as to rob a victim or to incapacitate a victim in cases of drug assisted rape. However, alcohol is more commonly involved than benzodiazepines in such cases. Temazepam use was particularly associated with violent or disorderly behaviours and contact with the police in a 1997 study of young single homeless people in Scotland. Legal status In the United States, benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act, even when not on the market (for example, nitrazepam and bromazepam). Flunitrazepam is subject to more stringent regulations in certain states and temazepam prescriptions require specially coded pads in certain states. In Canada, all benzodiazepines are in Schedule IV of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. In the United Kingdom, the benzodiazepines are Schedule IV controlled drugs, except for flunitrazepam, temazepam and midazolam, which are Schedule III controlled drugs and carry stronger penalties for possession and trafficking. In the Netherlands, since October 1993, benzodiazepines are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law. A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines. In East Asia and Southeast Asia, temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted. In certain countries, triazolam, flunitrazepam, flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees. In Hong Kong all benzodiazepines were reclassified as dangerous drugs and are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. Previously only brotizolam, flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs. Internationally, flunitrazepam is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. References Further reading

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chapter:1 ordinance:1 previously:1 internationally:1 convention:1 reference:1 far:1 |@bigram psychoactive_drug:1 sedative_hypnotic:7 muscle_relaxant:4 muscle_spasm:2 chlordiazepoxide_librium:4 diazepam_valium:3 gabaa_receptor:12 cognitive_impairment:2 benzodiazepine_withdrawal:12 withdrawal_syndrome:15 depression_anxiety:3 anxiety_panic:4 adverse_effect:6 neonatal_withdrawal:5 barbiturate_benzodiazepine:1 la_roche:1 commercially_successful:1 benzodiazepine_benzodiazepine:6 benzodiazepine_dependence:4 alcohol_dependence:2 administer_orally:2 withdrawal_symptom:14 status_epilepticus:2 administer_intravenously:1 intravenous_administration:1 meta_analysis:1 clinical_trial:3 add_ons:1 tonic_clonic:1 benzodiazepine_barbiturate:1 anxiety_disorder:2 panic_disorder:2 intramuscular_injection:1 mechanical_ventilation:1 neurological_disorder:1 anxiolytic_property:2 contraindicate_patient:3 myasthenia_gravis:1 breast_feeding:2 renal_impairment:1 mood_disorder:1 suicidal_tendency:1 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American_submarine_NR-1

The Deep Submergence Vessel NR-1 is a unique US Navy nuclear-powered ocean engineering and research submarine. It was built by the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics at Groton, Connecticut. It was launched on 25 January 1969, completed its initial sea trials 19 August 1969, and is homeported at Naval Submarine Base New London. Casually known as "Nerwin", NR-1 was never officially named or commissioned. The United States Navy is allocated a specific number of warships by the U.S. Congress. Admiral Hyman Rickover not only avoided using one of those allocations, but he also wanted to avoid the oversight that a warship receives from various bureaus. History NR-1's missions have included search, object recovery, geological survey, oceanographic research, and installation and maintenance of underwater equipment. NR-1's unique capability to remain at one site and completely map or search an area with a high degree of accuracy has been a valuable asset on several occasions. NR-1 under way, with a Royal Navy Type 23 frigate in the background Following the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986, NR-1 was used to search for, identify, and recover critical parts of the Challenger craft. Because it can remain on the sea floor without resurfacing frequently, NR-1 was a major tool for searching deep waters. NR-1 remained submerged and on station even when heavy weather and rough seas hit the area and forced all other search and recovery ships into port. In 1995, Dr. Robert Ballard used the NR-1 and her support ship, the Carolyn Chouest, to explore the wreck of the HMHS Britannic, the sister ship of the RMS Titanic, which struck a mine and sank off the coast of Greece while serving as a hospital ship during WWI. On 25 February 2007, NR-1, towed by Carolyn Chouest, arrived in Galveston, Texas, in preparation for an expedition to survey the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary and other sites in the Gulf of Mexico. The NR-1 was deactivated on 21 November, 2008 at the USN submarine base at Groton, Connecticut. Deep-diving NR-1 wraps up its 40-year career Capabilities The NR-1 performs underwater search and recovery, oceanographic research missions and installation and maintenance of underwater equipment, to a depth of almost half a nautical mile. Its features include extending bottoming wheels, three viewing ports, exterior lighting, television and still cameras for color photographic studies, an object recovery claw, a manipulator that can be fitted with various gripping and cutting tools and a work basket that can be used in conjunction with the manipulator to deposit or recover items in the sea. Surface vision is provided by a television periscope permanently installed on a fixed mast in her sail area. Ducted thrust is visible at the stern of the NR-1 as it maneuvers NR-1 has sophisticated electronics, computers and sonar systems that aid in navigation, communications, and object location and identification. It can maneuver or hold a steady position on or close to the seabed or underwater ridges, detect and identify objects at a considerable distance, and lift objects off the ocean floor. NR-1 is equipped with two electric-motor driven propellers and its maneuverability is enhanced by four ducted thrusters, two in the front and two in the rear. The vehicle has diving planes mounted on the sail, and a conventional rudder. NR-1 can travel submerged at approximately four knots for long periods, limited only by consumable supplies (primarily food). It can study and map the ocean bottom, including temperature, currents, and other information for military, commercial and scientific uses. Its nuclear propulsion provides independence from surface support ships and essentially unlimited endurance. NR-1 is generally towed to and from remote mission locations by an accompanying surface tender, which is also capable of conducting research in conjunction with the submarine. NR-1's current mothership is the MV Carolyn Chouest, which provides towing, communications, berthing and direct mission support for all NR-1 operations. An extremely versatile platform, she is an indispensable member of the NR-1 deep submergence team. The NR-1 command is manned with thirty-five Navy personnel and ten civilian contractor personnel. NR-1 itself carries as many as thirteen persons (crew and specialists) at one time, including three of the four assigned officers (the Operations Officer rides on the Carolyn Chouest). All personnel that crew NR-1 are nuclear trained and specifically screened and interviewed by the Director, Navy Nuclear Propulsion Program, Admiral Kirkland H. Donald. Notes External links US Navy Study of the NR-1 History of the NR-1 What it was like to dive on the NR-1 - including sounds and pictures recorded during the dive

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Constructible_number

A point in the Euclidean plane is a constructible point if, given a fixed coordinate system (or a fixed line segment of unit length), the point can be constructed with unruled straightedge and compass. A complex number is a constructible number if its corresponding point in the Euclidean plane is constructible from the usual x- and y-coordinate axes. It can then be shown that a real number is constructible if and only if, given a line segment of unit length, a line segment of length |r | can be constructed with compass and straightedge. John A. Beachy, William D. Blair; Abstract Algebra; Definition 6.3.1 It can also be shown that a complex number is constructible if and only if its real and imaginary parts are constructible. The set of constructible numbers can be completely characterized in the language of field theory: the constructible numbers form the smallest field extension of the rational numbers which is closed under square root and complex conjugation. This has the effect of transforming geometric questions about compass and straightedge constructions into algebra. This transformation leads to the solutions of many famous mathematical problems, which defied centuries of attack. Geometric definitions The geometric definition of a constructible point is as follows. First, for any two distinct points P and Q in the plane, let L(P, Q ) denote the unique line through P and Q, and let C (P, Q ) denote the unique circle with center P, passing through Q. (Note that the order of P and Q matters for the circle.) By convention, L(P, P ) = C (P, P ) = {P }. Then a point Z is constructible from E, F, G and H if either Z is in the intersection of L(E, F ) and L(G, H ), where L(E, F ) ≠ L(G, H ); Z is in the intersection of C (E, F ) and C (G, H ), where C (E, F ) ≠ C (G, H ); Z is in the intersection of L(E, F ) and C (G, H ). Since the order of E, F, G, and H in the above definition is irrelevant, the four letters may be permuted in any way. Put simply, Z is constructible from E, F, G and H if it lies in the intersection of any two distinct lines, or of any two distinct circles, or of a line and a circle, where these lines and/or circles can be determined by E, F, G, and H, in the above sense. Now, let A and A′ be any two distinct fixed points in the plane. A point Z is constructible if either Z = A; Z = A′; there exist points P1, ..., Pn , with Z = Pn , such that for all j ≥ 1, Pj + 1 is constructible from points in the set {A, A′, P1, ..., Pj }. Put simply, Z is constructible if it is either A or A′, or if it is obtainable from a finite sequence of points starting with A and A′, where each new point is constructible from previous points in the sequence. For example, the center point of A and A′ is defined as follows. The circles C (A, A′) and C (A′, A) intersect in two distinct points; these points determine a unique line, and the center is defined to be the intersection of this line with L(A, A′). Transformation into algebra All rational numbers are constructible, and all constructible numbers are algebraic numbers. Also, if a and b are constructible numbers with b ≠ 0, then and a/b are constructible. Thus, the set K of all constructible complex numbers forms a field, a subfield of the field of algebraic numbers. Furthermore, K is closed under square roots and complex conjugation. These facts can be used to characterize the field of constructible numbers, because, in essence, the equations defining lines and circles are no worse than quadratic. The characterization is the following: a complex number is constructible if and only if it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of quadratic extensions, starting with the rational field Q. More precisely, z is constructible if and only if there exists a tower of fields where z is in Kn and for all 0 ≤ j < n, the dimension [Kj + 1 : Kj ] = 2. Impossible constructions The algebraic characterization of constructible numbers provides an important necessary condition for constructibility: if z is constructible, then it is algebraic, and its minimal irreducible polynomial has degree a power of 2, or equivalently, the field extension Q(z)/Q has dimension a power of 2. One should note that it is true, (but not obvious to show) that the converse is false — this is not a sufficient condition for constructibility. However, this defect can be remedied by considering the normal closure of Q(z)/Q. The non-constructibility of certain numbers proves the impossibility of certain problems attempted by the philosophers of ancient Greece. In the following chart, each row represents a specific ancient construction problem. The left column gives the name of the problem. The second column gives an equivalent algebraic formulation of the problem. In other words, the solution to the problem is affirmative if and only if each number in the given set of numbers is constructible. Finally, the last column provides the simplest known counterexample. In other words, the number in the last column is an element of the set in the same row, but is not constructible. Construction problemAssociated set of numbersCounterexampleDoubling the cube is not constructible, because its minimal polynomial (field theory) has degree 3 over QTrisecting the angle is not constructible, because has minimal polynomial of degree 3 over QSquaring the circle is not constructible, because it is not algebraic over QConstructing all regular polygons is not constructible, because 7 is not a Fermat prime See also Computable number Definable real number Compass and straightedge constructions Notes References Constructible Numbers at Cut-the-knot

Constructible_number |@lemmatized point:17 euclidean:2 plane:4 constructible:32 give:5 fix:2 coordinate:2 system:1 fixed:1 line:10 segment:3 unit:2 length:3 construct:2 unruled:1 straightedge:4 compass:4 complex:6 number:23 correspond:1 usual:1 x:1 ax:1 show:3 real:3 r:1 john:1 beachy:1 william:1 blair:1 abstract:1 algebra:3 definition:4 also:3 imaginary:1 part:1 set:6 completely:1 characterize:2 language:1 field:10 theory:2 form:2 small:1 extension:3 rational:3 close:2 square:2 root:2 conjugation:2 effect:1 transform:1 geometric:3 question:1 construction:5 transformation:2 lead:1 solution:2 many:1 famous:1 mathematical:1 problem:6 defy:1 century:1 attack:1 follow:2 first:1 two:5 distinct:5 p:11 q:11 let:3 l:8 denote:2 unique:3 c:9 circle:8 center:3 pass:1 note:3 order:2 matter:1 convention:1 z:15 e:9 f:9 g:9 h:9 either:3 intersection:5 since:1 irrelevant:1 four:1 letter:1 may:1 permute:1 way:1 put:2 simply:2 lie:2 determine:2 sense:1 exist:2 pn:2 j:2 pj:2 obtainable:1 finite:2 sequence:2 start:2 new:1 previous:1 example:1 define:3 intersect:1 algebraic:6 b:3 thus:1 k:2 subfield:1 furthermore:1 fact:1 use:1 essence:1 equation:1 bad:1 quadratic:2 characterization:2 following:2 top:1 tower:2 precisely:1 kn:1 n:1 dimension:2 kj:2 impossible:1 provide:2 important:1 necessary:1 condition:2 constructibility:3 minimal:3 irreducible:1 polynomial:3 degree:3 power:2 equivalently:1 one:1 true:1 obvious:1 converse:1 false:1 sufficient:1 however:1 defect:1 remedied:1 consider:1 normal:1 closure:1 non:1 certain:2 prove:1 impossibility:1 attempt:1 philosopher:1 ancient:2 greece:1 chart:1 row:2 represent:1 specific:1 left:1 column:4 name:1 second:1 equivalent:1 formulation:1 word:2 affirmative:1 finally:1 last:2 simple:1 known:1 counterexample:1 element:1 problemassociated:1 numberscounterexampledoubling:1 cube:1 qtrisecting:1 angle:1 qsquaring:1 qconstructing:1 regular:1 polygon:1 fermat:1 prime:1 see:1 computable:1 definable:1 reference:1 cut:1 knot:1 |@bigram compass_straightedge:3 abstract_algebra:1 straightedge_construction:2 z_constructible:6 irreducible_polynomial:1 regular_polygon:1 cut_knot:1

Florence

Florence (Italian: Firenze /fiˈrɛnʦe/, Old Italian: Fiorenza, Latin: Florentia) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany and has a population of 364,779 (696,767 in the urban area ). The city lies on the River Arno and is known for its history and its importance in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, especially for its art and architecture. A centre of medieval European trade and finance, the city is often considered the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance; in fact, it has been called the Athens of the Middle Ages. Profs. Spencer Baynes, L.L.D., and W. Robertson Smith, L.L.D., Encyclopaedia Britannica. Akron, Ohio: The Werner Company, 1907: p.675 It was long under the de facto rule of the Medici family. From 1865 to 1870 the city was also the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The historic centre of Florence continues to attract millions of tourists each year and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. History Florence was originally established by Julius Caesar in 59 BC as a settlement for his veteran soldiers. It was named Florentia ('the flourishing') and built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated at the Via Cassia, the main route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. The Emperor Diocletian made Florentia the seat of a bishopric around the beginning of the 4th century AD. In the ensuing two centuries, the city experienced turbulent periods of Ostrogothic rule, during which the city was often troubled by warfare between the Ostrogoths and the Byzantines, which may have caused the population to fall to as few as 1,000 living persons. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century. Conquered by Charlemagne in 774, Florence became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to grow again and commerce prospered. In 854, Florence and Fiesole were united in one county. Margrave Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca at about 1000 AD. This initiated the Golden Age of Florentine art. In 1013, construction began on the Basilica di San Miniato al Monte. The exterior of the baptistry was reworked in Romanesque style between 1059 and 1128. This period also saw the eclipse of Florence's formerly powerful rival Pisa (defeated by Genoa in 1284 and subjugated by Florence in 1406), and the exercise of power by the mercantile elite following an anti-aristocratic movement, led by Giano della Bella, that resulted in a set of laws called the Ordinances of Justice (1293). Of a population estimated at 80,000 before the Black Death of 1348, about 25,000 are said to have been supported by the city's wool industry: in 1345 Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool combers (ciompi), who in 1378 rose up in a brief revolt against oligarchic rule in the Revolt of the Ciompi. After their suppression, Florence came under the sway (1382-1434) of the Albizzi family, bitter rivals of the Medici. Cosimo de' Medici was the first Medici family member to essentially control the city from behind the scenes. Although the city was technically a democracy of sorts, his power came from a vast patronage network along with his alliance to the new immigrants, the gente nuova. The fact that the Medici were bankers to the pope also contributed to their rise. Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero, who was shortly thereafter succeeded by Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo in 1469. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli. Lorenzo was also an accomplished musician and brought some of the most famous composers and singers of the day to Florence, including Alexander Agricola, Johannes Ghiselin, and Heinrich Isaac. By contemporary Florentines (and since), he was known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent" (Lorenzo il Magnifico). Following the death of Lorenzo Garcia in 1492, he was succeeded by his son Piero II. When the French king Charles VIII invaded northern Italy, Piero II chose to resist his army. But when he realized the size of the French army at the gates of Pisa, he had to accept the humiliating conditions of the French king. These made the Florentines rebel and they expelled Piero II. With his exile in 1494, the first period of Medici rule ended with the restoration of a republican government. During this period, the Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola had become prior of the San Marco monastery in 1490. He was famed for his penitential sermons, lambasting what he viewed as widespread immorality and attachment to material riches. He blamed the exile of the Medicis as the work of God, punishing them for their decadence. He seized the opportunity to carry through political reforms leading to a more democratic rule. But when Savonarola publicly accused Pope Alexander VI of corruption, he was banned from speaking in public. When he broke this ban, he was excommunicated. The Florentines, tired of his extreme teachings, turned against him and arrested him. He was convicted as a heretic and burned at the stake on the Piazza della Signoria on 23 May, 1498. A second individual of unusual insight was Niccolò Machiavelli, whose prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as a legitimisation of political expediency and even malpractice. Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the Florentine Histories, the history of the city. Florentines drove out the Medici for a second time and re-established a republic on May 16, 1527. Restored twice with the support of both Emperor and Pope, the Medici in 1537 became hereditary dukes of Florence, and in 1569 Grand Dukes of Tuscany, ruling for two centuries. In all Tuscany, only the Republic of Lucca (later a Duchy) and the Principality of Piombino were independent from Florence. The extinction of the Medici dinasty and the accession in 1737 of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's temporary inclusion in the territories of the Austrian crown. It became a secundogeniture of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, who were deposed for the Bourbon-Parma in 1801 (themselves deposed in 1807), restored at the Congress of Vienna; Tuscany became a province of the United Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital in 1865, and in an effort to modernise the city, the old market in the Piazza del Mercato Vecchio and many medieval houses were pulled down and replaced by a more formal street plan with newer houses. The Piazza (first renamed Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele II, then Piazza della Repubblica, the present name) was significantly widened and a large triumphal arc was constructed at the west end. This development is largely regarded as a disaster and was only prevented from continuing by the efforts of several British and American people living in the city. A museum recording the destruction stands nearby today. The country's first capital city was superseded by Rome six years later, after the withdrawal of the French troops made its addition to the kingdom possible. A very important role is played in these years by the famous café of Florence Giubbe Rosse from its foundation until the present day. "Non fu giammai così nobil giardino/ come a quel tempo egli è Mercato Vecchio / che l'occhio e il gusto pasce al fiorentino", claimed Antonio Pucci in the 14th century, "Mercato Vecchio nel mondo è alimento./ A ogni altra piazza il prego serra". The area had decayed from its original medieval splendor. After doubling during the 19th century, Florence's population tripled in the 20th with the growth of tourism, trade, financial services and industry. During World War II the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943-1944) and was declared an open city. The Allied soldiers who died driving the Germans from Tuscany are buried in cemeteries outside the city (Americans about 9 kilometres (6 mi) south of the city[3], British and Commonwealth soldiers a few kilometers east of the center on the right bank of the Arno[4]). In 1944, the retreating Germans decided to blow up the bridges along the Arno linking the district of Oltrarno to the rest of the city, thus making it difficult for the British troops to cross. However, at the last moment Hitler ordered that the Ponte Vecchio must not be blown up, as it was too beautiful. Instead an equally historic area of streets directly to the south of the bridge, including part of the Corridoio Vasariano, was destroyed using mines. Since then the bridges have been restored exactly to their original forms using as many of the remaining materials as possible, but the buildings surrounding the Ponte Vecchio have been rebuilt in a style combining the old with modern design. Shortly before leaving Florence, as they knew that they would soon have to retreat the Germans murdered many freedom fighters and political opponents publicly, in streets and squares including Piazza Santo Spirito. In November 1966, the Arno flooded parts of the center, damaging many art treasures. There was no warning from the authorities who knew the flood was coming, except a phone call to the jewelers on the Ponte Vecchio. Around the city there are tiny placards on the walls noting where the flood waters reached at their highest point. Geography Florence lies in a sort of basin among the Senese Clavey Hills, particularly the hills of Careggi, Fiesole, Settignano, Arcetri, Poggio Imperiale and Bellosguardo. The Arno river and three other minor rivers flow through it. Climate Although usually said to have a Mediterranean climate, under the Köppen climate classification Florence is sometimes classified as having a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa). It has hot, humid summers with little rainfall and cool, damp winters. Due to being surrounded by hills in a river valley, Florence can be hot and humid from June to August. Because of the lack of a prevailing wind, summer temperatures are higher than along the coast. The rain which does fall in summer is convectional. Relief rainfall dominates in the winter, with some snow. The highest officially recorded temperature was 42.6°C in July 1983, the lowest was -23°C on January 10, 1985. Landmarks Panoramic nightview of Florence. Florence Cathedral. Piazza San Giovanni Republic Square Liberty Square Florence is known as the “cradle of Renaissance” (la culla del Rinascimento) for its monuments, churches and buildings. The best-known site and crowning architectural jewel of Florence is the domed cathedral of the city, Santa Maria del Fiore, known as The Duomo. The magnificent dome was built by Filippo Brunelleschi. The nearby Campanile (partly designed by Giotto) and the Baptistery buildings are also highlights. Both the dome itself and the campanile are open to tourists and offer excellent views; The dome, 600 years after its completion, is still the largest dome built in brick and mortar in the world. Ross King,Brunelleschi's Dome, The Story of the great Cathedral of Florence, Penguin, 2001 In 1982, the historic center of Florence (Italian: centro storico di Firenze) was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO for the importance of its cultural heritages. The center of the city is contained in medieval walls that were built in the 14th century to defend the city after it became famous and important for its economic growth. At the heart of the city in Piazza della Signoria is Bartolomeo Ammanati's Fountain of Neptune (1563-1565), which is a masterpiece of marble sculpture at the terminus of a still functioning Roman aqueduct. The Arno River, which cuts through the old part of the city, is as much a character in Florentine history as many of the people who lived there. Historically, the locals have had a love-hate relationship with the Arno — which alternated from nourishing the city with commerce, and destroying it by flood. One of the bridges in particular stands out as being unique — The Ponte Vecchio (Old Bridge), whose most striking feature is the multitude of shops built upon its edges, held up by stilts. The bridge also carries Vasari's elevated corridor linking the Uffizi to the Medici residence (Palazzo Pitti). Although the original bridge was constructed by the Etruscans, the current bridge was rebuilt in the 14th century It is the only bridge in the city to have survived World War II intact. The church of San Lorenzo contains the Medici Chapel, the mausoleum of the Medici family - the most powerful family in Florence from the 15th to the 18th century. Nearby is the Uffizi Gallery, one of the finest art museums in the world - founded on a large bequest from the last member of the Medici family. The Uffizi itself is located at the corner of Piazza della Signoria, a site important for being the centre of Florence civil life and government for centuries (Signoria Palace is still home of the community government): the Loggia dei Lanzi was the set of all the public ceremonies of the republican government. Many well known episodes of history of art and political changes were staged here, such as: In 1301, Dante was sent into Exile from here (a plaque on one of the walls of the Uffizi commemorates the event). 26 April 1478 Jacopo de'Pazzi and his retainers try to raise the city against the Medici after the plot known as The congiura dei Pazzi (The Pazzi conspiracy) who murdered Giuliano di Piero de' Medici and wounded his brother Lorenzo; the Florentines seized and hanged all the members of the plot that could be apprehended from the windows of the Palace. In 1497, it was the location of the Bonfire of the Vanities instigated by the Dominican friar and preacher Girolamo Savonarola On the 23 May 1498 the same Savonarola and two followers were hanged and burnt at the stake (a round plate in the ground commemorates the very spot were he was hanged) In 1504, Michelangelo's David (now replaced by a reproduction as the original was moved indoors to the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno), was installed in front of the Palazzo della Signoria (also known as Palazzo Vecchio). It is still the setting for a number of statues by other sculptors such as Donatello, Giambologna, Ammannati and Cellini, although some have been replaced with copies to preserve the priceless originals. In addition to the Uffizi, Florence has other world-class museums. The Bargello concentrates on sculpture, containing many priceless works of art created by such sculptors as Donatello, Giambologna, and Michelangelo. The Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno (often simply called the Accademia) collection's highlights are Michelangelo's David and his unfinished Slaves. Across the Arno is the huge Palazzo Pitti containing part of the Medici family's former private collection. In addition to the Medici collection the palace's galleries contain a large number of Renaissance works, including several by Raphael and Titian as well as a large collection of modern art, costumes, cattiages, and porcelain. Adjoining the Palace are the Boboli Gardens, elaborately landscaped and with many interesting sculptures. The Santa Croce basilica, originally a Franciscan foundation, contains the monumental tombs of Galileo, Michelangelo, Machiavelli, Dante (actually a cenotaph), and many other notables. Other important basilicas and churches in Florence include Santa Maria Novella, San Lorenzo, Santo Spirito and the Orsanmichele, and the Tempio Maggiore Great Synagogue of Florence. Florence has been the setting for numerous works of fiction and movies, including the novels and associated films Hannibal, Tea with Mussolini and A Room with a View. Demographics The Cathedral, called "il Duomo" from the Latin word domus, house, for house of God, not because of the dome. The population of the city proper is 365,744 (2008-11-30), while Eurostat estimates that 696,767 people live in the urban area of Florence. The Metropolitan Area of Florence, Prato, and Pistoia, constituted in 2000 over an area of roughly 4,800 square kilometers, is home to 1.5 million people. Within Florence proper, 46.8% of the population was male in 2007 and 53.2% were female. Minors (children aged 18 and younger) totalled 14.10 percent of the population compared to pensioners, who numbered 25.95 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Florence resident is 49 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Florence grew by 3.22 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The current birth rate of Florence is 7.66 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2006, 90.45% of the population was Italian. An estimated 60,000 Chinese live in the city. Chinese immigrants to Italy build no ordinary Chinatown, Chicago Tribune, January 1, 2009 The largest immigrant group came from other European countries (mostly from Albania and Romania): 3.52%, East Asia (mostly Chinese and Filipino): 2.17%, the Americas: 1.41%, and North Africa (mostly Moroccan): 0.9%. Economy Uffizi. Tourism is the most significant industry within the centre of Florence. On any given day between April and October, the local population is greatly outnumbered by tourists from all over the world. The Uffizi and Accademia museums are regularly sold out of tickets, and large groups regularly fill the basilicas of Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella, both of which charge for entry. Florence being historically the first home of Italian fashion (the 1951-1953 soirées held by Giovanni Battista Giorgini are generally regarded as the birth of the Italian school as opposed to french haute couture) is also home to the legendary Italian fashion establishment Salvatore Ferragamo, notable as one of the oldest and most famous Italian fashion houses. Many others, most of them now located in Milan, were founded in Florence. Gucci, Prada, Roberto Cavalli, and Chanel have large offices and stores in Florence or its outskirts. Food and wine have long been an important staple of the economy. Florence is the most important city in Tuscany, one of the great wine-growing regions in the world. The Chianti region is just south of the city, and its Sangiovese grapes figure prominently not only in its Chianti Classico wines but also in many of the more recently developed Supertuscan blends. Within twenty miles (32 km) to the west is the Carmignano area, also home to flavorful sangiovese-based reds. The celebrated Chianti Rufina district, geographically and historically separated from the main Chianti region, is also few miles east of Florence. More recently, the Bolgheri region (about southwest of Florence) has become celebrated for its "Super Tuscan" reds such as Sassicaia and Ornellaia. winepros.com.au. Culture Arts Florence keeps an exceptional artistic heritage. Cimabue and Giotto, the fathers of Italian painting, lived in Florence as well as Arnolfo and Andrea Pisano, renewers of architecture and sculpture; Brunelleschi, Donatello and Masaccio forefathers of the Renaissance, Ghiberti and the Della Robbias, Filippo Lippi and Angelico; Botticelli, Paolo Uccello and the universal genius of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Art in Florence http://www.learner.org/interactives/renaissance/florence_sub2.html Renaissance Artists http://library.thinkquest.org/2838/artgal.htm Their works, together with those of many other generations of artists up to the artists of our century, are gathered in the several museums of the town: the Uffizi, the most selected gallery in the world, the Palatina gallery with the paintings of the "Golden Ages". The Bargello Tower with the sculptures of the Renaissance, the museum of San Marco with Angelico's works, the Academy, the chapels of the Medicis , Buonarroti' s house with the sculptures of Michelangelo, the following museums: Bardini, Horne, Stibbert, Romano, Corsini, The Gallery of Modern Art, The museum of the Opera del Duomo, the museum of Silverware and the museum of Precious Stones. Great monuments are the landmarks of Florentine artistic culture: the Baptistry with its mosaics; the Cathedral with its sculptures, the medieval churches with bands of frescoes; public as well as private palaces: Palazzo Vecchio, Palazzo Pitti, Palazzo Medici Riccardi, Palazzo Davanzati; monasteries, cloisters, refectories; the "Certosa". In the archeological museum includes documents of Etruscan civilization. In fact the city is so rich in art that some first time visitors experience the Stendhal syndrome as they encounter its art for the first time. Auxologia: Graziella Magherini: La Sindrome di Stendhal (book) (excerpts in Italian) Language Florentine (fiorentino), spoken by inhabitants of Florence and its environs, is a Tuscan dialect and an immediate parent language to modern Italian. (Many linguists and scholars of Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch consider standard Italian to be, in fact, modern Florentine.) Its vocabulary and pronunciation are largely identical to standard Italian, though the hard c between two vowels (as in ducato) is pronounced as a fricative , similar to an English h. This gives Florentines a distinctive and highly recognizable accent (the so-called gorgia toscana). Other traits include using a form of the subjunctive mood last commonly used in medieval times, a frequent usage of the modern subjunctive instead of the present of standard Italian, and a reduced pronunciation of the definite article, instead of "il". Cuisine Traditional crostini toscani. Florentine food grows out of a tradition of peasant eating rather than rarefied high cooking. The vast majority of dishes are based on meat. The whole animal was traditionally eaten; various kinds of tripe, (trippa) and (lampredotto) were once regularly on the menu and still are sold at the remaining food carts stationed throughout the city. Antipasti include crostini toscani, sliced bread rounds topped with a chicken liver-based pâté, and sliced meats (mainly prosciutto and salami, often served with melon when in season). The typically saltless Tuscan bread, obtained with natural levain frequently features in Florentine courses, especially in its famous soups, ribollita and pappa al pomodoro, or in the salad of bread and fresh vegetables called panzanella that is served in summer. The most famous main course is the bistecca alla fiorentina, a large (the customary size should weigh around 1200 grams - "40 oz.") - the "date" steak - T-bone steak of Chianina beef cooked over hot charcoal and served very rare with its more recently derived version, the tagliata, sliced rare beef served on a bed of arugula, often with slices of Parmesan cheese on top. Most of these courses are generally served with local olive oil, also a prime product enjoying a worldwide reputation. Historical evocations Scoppio del Carro Scoppio del Carro. The Scoppio del Carro (“Explosion of the Cart”) is a celebration of the First Crusade. During the day of Easter, a cart, which the Florentines call the Brindellone and which is led by four white oxen, is taken to Piazza del Duomo between the Baptistry of St. John the Baptist (Battistero di San Giovanni) and the Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore). The cart is connected by a rope to the interior of the church. Near the cart there is a model of a dove which, according to legend, is a symbol of good luck for the city: at the end of the Easter's Mass the dove emerges from the nave of the Duomo and ignites the fireworks on the cart. Calcio Storico Calcio Storico Fiorentino (“Historic Florentine Football”), sometimes called Calcio in costume, is a traditional sport, regarded as a forerunner of soccer, though the actual gameplay most closely resembles rugby. The event originates from the Middle Ages, when the most important Florentine nobles amused themself playing while wearing magnificent costumes. The most important match was played on 17 February 1530, during the siege of Florence. That day Papal troops besiged the city while the Florentines, with contempt of the enemies, decided to play the game notwithstanding the situation. The game is played in the Piazza di Santa Croce. A temporary arena is constructed, with bleachers and a sand-covered playing field. A series of matches are held between four teams representing each quartiere (quarter) of Florence during late June and early July. Calcio Storico Fiorentino (Official Site), (Italian). There are four teams: Azzurri (light blue), Bianchi (white), Rossi (red) and Verdi (green). The Azzurri are from the quarter of Santa Croce, Bianchi from the quarter of Santo Spirito, Verdi are from San Giovanni and Rossi from Santa Maria Novella. Transportation Inside Santa Maria Novella railway station. The principal public transport network within the city is run by the ATAF and Li-nea bus company, with tickets available at local tobacconists, bars, and newspaper stalls. Individual tickets or a pass called the Carta Agile with multiple rides (10 or 21) may be used on buses. Once on the bus, tickets must be stamped (or swiped for the Carta Agile) using the machines on board unlike the train tickets which must be validated before boarding. The main bus station is next to Santa Maria Novella train station. Trenitalia runs trains between the railway stations within the city, and to other destinations around Italy and Europe. The central station, Santa Maria Novella Station, is located about NW of Piazza del Duomo. There is also another important station, Campo Di Marte, but it is not as well-known as Santa Maria Novella; most bundled routes are Firenze-Pisa, Firenze-Viareggio and Firenze-Arezzo (along the main line to Rome). Other local railways connect Florence with Borgo San Lorenzo and Siena. Long distance buses are run by the SITA, Copit, CAP and Lazzi companies. The transit companies also accommodate travellers from the Amerigo Vespucci Airport, which is five kilometers (3.1 mi) west of the city center, and which has scheduled services run by major European carriers such as Air France and Lufthansa. The centre of the city is closed to through-traffic, although buses, taxis and residents with appropriate permits are allowed in. This area is commonly referred to the ZTL (Zona Traffico Limitato), which is divided into five subsections. Residents of one section, therefore, will only be able to drive in their district and perhaps some surrounding ones. Cars without permits are allowed to enter after seven-thirty at night, or before seven-thirty in the morning. The rules shift somewhat unpredictably during the tourist-filled summers, putting more restrictions on where one can get in and out. Due to the high level of air pollution and traffic in the city, an urban tram network called the TramVia is currently under construction in the City. http://www.tramvia.fi.it tramvia.fi.it It will run from Scandicci to the southwest through the western side of the city, cross the river Arno at the Cascine Park and arrive to the main station of Santa Maria Novella. Two other lines are in the final design phase. Administration Tribunal The current Mayor of Florence is Leonardo Domenici (elected in June 1999) who in February 2008 sued Wikipedia for reporting that his wife is on the board of directors of a company that manages parking in Florence. "The Mayor of Florence Wikipedia Complaint" from Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera Twinning Sister cities include: Asmara, Eritrea. Athens, Greece. Beirut, Lebanon. Budapest, Hungary. Sydney, Australia. Dresden, Germany. {{cite web|url=http://www.dresden.de/en/02/11/c_03.php|title=Dresden - Partner Cities|publisher=© 2008 Landeshauptstadt Dresden|accessdate=2008-12-29}} Saint Petersburg, Russia. El Aaiún, Morocco. Fes, Morocco. Gaziantep, Turkey. Gemlik, Turkey. Granada, Spain. Isfahan, Iran. Istanbul, Turkey. Kassel, Germany. Kiev, Ukraine. Kraków, Poland. Kuwait City, Kuwait. Kyoto, Japan. Malmö, Sweden. Nablus, West Bank. Nanjing, China. Nazareth, Israel. Philadelphia, United States. Providence, United States. Reims, France. Riga, Latvia. Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom. {{cite web |url=http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk/internet/city_living/CEC_twin_and_partner_cities |title=Edinburgh - Twin and Partner Cities |accessdate=2008-12-21 |publisher=© 2008 The City of Edinburgh Council, City Chambers, High Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1YJ Scotland}} </small> Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Cambridge, United States. "A Message from the Peace Commission: Information on Cambridge's Sister Cities," February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-12. Richard Thompson. "Looking to strengthen family ties with 'sister cities'," Boston Globe, October 12, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-12. Tirana, Albania. Turku, Finland. Valladolid, Spain. Voždovac, Serbia. Yerevan, Armenia. Notable residents Niccolò Machiavelli. Bust of Lorenzo de' Medici by Andrea del Verrocchio. Leonardo da Vinci Sir Harold Acton, author and aesthete. Leone Battista Alberti, polymath. Dante Alighieri, poet. Giovanni Boccaccio, poet. Sandro Botticelli, painter. Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 19th century English poets. Filippo Brunelleschi, architect. Michelangelo Buonarroti, sculptor, painter, also famous for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and David. Roberto Cavalli, fashion designer. Enrico Coveri, fashion designer. Leonardo da Vinci, polymath, famous for his Mona Lisa and other paintings, inventions, and scientific experiments. Giotto di Bondone, early 14th century painter, sculptor and architect. Donatello, sculptor. Oriana Fallaci, journalist and author. Salvatore Ferragamo, fashion designer and "shoemaker to the stars". Frescobaldi Family, notable bankers and wine producers. Galileo Galilei, Italian physicist, astronomer, and philosopher. Lorenzo Ghiberti, sculptor. Guccio Gucci, founder of the Gucci label. Niccolò Machiavelli, poet, philosopher and political thinker, author of The Prince and The Discourses. Masaccio, painter. Medici family. Antonio Meucci, inventor of the telephone. Florence Nightingale, pioneer of modern nursing, and a noted statistician. Raphael, painter. Girolamo Savonarola Giorgio Vasari, painter, architect, and historian. Amerigo Vespucci, explorer and cartographer, namesake of the Americas. See also Buildings and structures in Florence Chancellor of Florence Florentine School Guilds of Florence Hexadecimal time:  The meridian of Florence, situated at 11° 15' East of Greenwich, is defined as the new hexadecimal prime meridian. Historical states of Italy List of Florentine churches Stendhal syndrome University of Florence European University Institute References Florence Museums Overview (in eng) Travel-To-Florence.com Ferdinand Schevill, History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence References Chaney, Edward(2003), A Traveller's Companion to Florence. Primary sources Niccolò Machiavelli. Florentine Histories numerous editions External links Florence Overview be-x-old:Флярэнцыя

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Ghost_in_the_Shell

is a Japanese post-cyberpunk manga created by Masamune Shirow, and first published in 1989 in Young Magazine. A collected edition was released in 1991; a sequel, Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface, was released in 2002; and a serialized manga, Ghost in the Shell 1.5: Human-Error Processor, was released in 2003, which contained material left out of the sequel. The manga series has been adapted into three anime films, Ghost in the Shell, Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence, and Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Solid State Society; two anime television series, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex and Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex 2nd GIG; and three video games: one PlayStation game, one PlayStation 2 game, and one PlayStation Portable game. The films and anime were produced by Production I.G.. Setting Cyborg shell Ghost in the Shell is a futuristic police thriller dealing with the exploits of the cyborg Motoko Kusanagi, a member of a covert operations division of the Japanese National Public Safety Commission known as Section 9. The unit specializes in fighting technology-related crimes. Kusanagi may be named after one of the three Imperial Regalia of Japan, and Shirow makes reference to them at the end of the second manga. Although supposedly equal to all other members, Kusanagi fills the leadership role in the team, and is usually referred to as "the Major" due to her past rank in the Japanese Self-Defense Forces. She is capable of superhuman feats, and bionically specialized for her job — her body is almost completely mechanized; only her brain and a segment of her spinal cord remain organic. The setting of Ghost in the Shell is cyberpunk or postcyberpunk, similar to that of William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy. Kusanagi and her colleagues face external threats and also suffer internal conflict over their own natures. Characters Media Manga A continuation of the first manga can be found in the second manga series entitled Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface. Ghost in the Shell 1.5: Human-Error Processor includes a series of stories originally intended to be serialized in the initial print of Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface. Films The manga was first adapted into a theatrical anime film adaptation in 1995, entitled Ghost in the Shell, directed by Mamoru Oshii. The film was followed by a theatrical film sequel, Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence, produced in 2004, which was also directed by Oshii and places the character of Batou in the lead role. Both were based on storylines from the first manga. A third film, Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. Solid State Society, was created after the anime series and directed by Kenji Kamiyama, premiering on the SKY Perfect satellite television network on September 1, 2006. Solid State Society is a sequel to the anime series storyline, and so takes place in a separate continuity. It does not connect with either of Oshii's works. The original film was redone in 2008, updating the computer graphics and re-recording the sound in 6.1 surround sound. The new version premiered on the 12th of July 2008 in Japan. Anime News Network, Anime News Network, article on 2.0 version As of 2008, DreamWorks acquired the rights to produce a live-action film adaptation of the original manga with Steven Spielberg. So far, Avi Arad and Steven Paul are confirmed producers; Jamie Moss will be adapting the manga into a screenplay. Variety Report, Variety Magazine, Linked Article. The live-action film is set to be released in 2011. Anime series The series has been adapted into two anime series. Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex was written and directed by Kenji Kamiyama and produced by Production I.G, airing on Animax from 1 October 2002 to 25 March 2003 with a total of 26 episodes. Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG followed Stand Alone Complex as the second season, also written and directed by Kenji Kamiyama and produced by Production I.G. 2nd GIG aired on Animax from 1 January 2004 to 8 January 2005, with a total of 26 episodes. Novels After the Long Goodbye: Written by Masaki Yamada is a prequel to Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence. The Lost Memory, Revenge of the Cold Machines and White Maze: A trilogy of novels written by Junichi Fujisaku set in the Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex sub-universe. Video games A PlayStation game was released in 1997, developed by Exact and published by THQ. A second game bearing the anime TV series title Stand Alone Complex was released in November 2004 on PlayStation 2, developed by SCEJ and Cavia and published by Bandai. A game of the same name developed by G-Artists and published by Bandai was released in 2005 for PlayStation Portable, but this is a sequel to the PlayStation 2 game, with a completely different storyline, setting and gameplay. Chronology The films and TV series are set in alternate universes, with the original Ghost in the Shell film taking place in 2029, and Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence in 2032. The anime series, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex and Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG, are set in the years 2030 and 2032, respectively. The third film, Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. Solid State Society, which follows up on many of the events that ended the second season, occurs two years after said events, based on comments made by characters in the film, which would place Solid State Society in the year 2034. Impact and influence Major Kusanagi using thermal-optical camouflage (from Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex) The Wachowski brothers, makers of the Matrix trilogy, have commented on the influence of Ghost in the Shell in an interview. Interview with the Wachowski Brothers, Warner Brothers Studios, Official Website. Producer Joel Silver also stated in an interview on the Animatrix DVD that he was shown the Ghost in the Shell movie during a pitch from the Wachowski brothers to indicate the style and look of the film they wanted for The Matrix. Academic influence Ghost in the Shell was analyzed together with William Gibson's book Neuromancer in chapter 4 "Orienting the Future" of Wendy Hui Kyong Chun's book "Control and Freedom - Power and Paranoia in the Age of Fiber Optics" (2006, The MIT Press). She looks at the aspect of high-tech Orientalism put forth in both works. References External links Ghost in the Shell (manga) at the Anime News Network Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex (TV) at the Anime News Network Production I.G — Production I.G official English website Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex official website Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex official English website

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Ciconiiformes

White Storks (Ciconia ciconia) like most of their relatives build large nests in high places. Traditionally, the order Ciconiiformes has included a variety of large, long-legged wading birds with large bills: storks, herons, egrets, ibises, spoonbills, and several others. However recent DNA evidence might suggest that every member, except storks, are more related the Pelecaniformes, and thus belong to that group. "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History". Shannon J. Hackett, et al. Science 320, 1763 (2008). Ciconiiformes are known from the Late Eocene. They occur in most of the warmer regions of the world and tend to live in drier habitats than the very similar herons, spoonbills, and ibises; they also lack the powder down that those groups use to clean off fish slime. Storks have no syrinx and are mute, giving no bird call; bill-clattering is an important mode of stork communication at the nest. Many species are migratory. Most storks eat frogs, fish, insects, earthworms, and small mammals. There are 19 living species of storks in six genera. Storks tend to use soaring, gliding flight, which conserves energy. Soaring requires thermal air currents. Ottomar Anschütz's famous 1884 album of photographs of storks inspired the design of Otto Lilienthal's experimental hang gliders of the late 19th century. Storks are heavy, with wide wingspans: the Marabou Stork, with a wingspan of 3.2 m (10.5 ft), joins the Andean Condor in having the widest wingspan of all living land birds. Their nests are often very large and may be used for many years. Some have been known to grow to over 2 m (6 ft) in diameter and about 3 m (10 ft) in depth. Storks were once thought to be monogamous, but this is only partially true. They may change mates after migrations, and may migrate without a mate. They tend to be attached to nests as much as partners. Storks' size, serial monogamy, and faithfulness to an established nesting site contribute to their prominence in mythology and culture. Taxonomic issues with Ciconiiformes Following the development of research techniques in molecular biology in the late 20th century, in particular methods for studying DNA-DNA hybridisation, a great deal of new information has surfaced, much of it suggesting that many birds, although looking very different from one another, are in fact more closely related than was previously thought. Accordingly, the radical and influential Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy greatly enlarged the Ciconiiformes, adding many more families, including most of those usually regarded as belonging to the Sphenisciformes (penguins), Gaviiformes (divers), Podicipediformes (grebes), Procellariiformes (tubenosed seabirds), Charadriiformes, (waders, gulls, terns and auks), Pelecaniformes (pelicans, cormorants, gannets and allies), and the Falconiformes (diurnal birds of prey). The flamingo family, Phoenicopteridae, is related, and is sometimes classed as part of the Ciconiiformes. However, morphological evidence suggests that the traditional Ciconiiformes should be split between two lineages, rather than expanded, although some non-traditional Ciconiiformes may be included in these two lineages. The exact taxonomic placement of New World Vultures remains unclear. Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World Vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world and are not closely related. Just how different the two families are is currently under debate, with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures belong in Ciconiiformes. Sibley, Charles G. and Burt L. Monroe. 1990. Distribution and Taxonomy of the Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04969-2. Accessed 2007-04-11. More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World Vultures Sibley, Charles G., and Jon E. Ahlquist. 1991. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Accessed 2007-04-11. or place them in their own order, Cathartiformes. Ericson, Per G. P.; Anderson, Cajsa L.; Britton, Tom; Elżanowski, Andrzej; Johansson, Ulf S.; Kallersjö, Mari; Ohlson, Jan I.; Parsons, Thomas J.; Zuccon, Dario & Mayr, Gerald (2006): Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biology Letters online: 1-5. PDF preprint Electronic Supplementary Material (PDF) The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World Vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis, but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible. Remsen, J. V., Jr.; C. D. Cadena; A. Jaramillo; M. Nores; J. F. Pacheco; M. B. Robbins; T. S. Schulenberg; F. G. Stiles; D. F. Stotz & K. J. Zimmer. 2007. A classification of the bird species of South America. South American Classification Committee. Retrieved on 2007-10-15 Some official bodies have adopted the proposed Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy almost entirely, however a more common approach worldwide has been to retain the traditional groupings, and modify rather than replace them in the light of new evidence as it comes to hand. The family listing here follows this more conservative practice. Bird taxonomy has been in a state of flux for some years, and it is reasonable to expect that the large differences between different classification schemes will continue to gradually resolve themselves as more evidence becomes available. Recently a DNA study found that the families Ardeidae, Balaenicipitidae, Scopidae and the Threskiornithidae belong to the Pelecaniformes. This would make Ciconiidae the only group. Painted Stork, Mycteria leucocephala Black-necked Stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Marabou Stork, Leptoptilos crumeniferus Distinct and possibly widespread by the Oligocene, like most families of aquatic birds storks seem to have arisen in the Paleogene, maybe 40-50 million years ago (mya). For the fossil record of living genera, documented since the Middle Miocene (about 15 mya) at least in some cases, see the genus articles. Though some storks are highly threatened, no species or subspecies are known to have gone extinct in historic times. A Ciconia bone found in a rock shelter on Réunion island was probably of a bird taken there as food by early settlers; no known account mentions the presence of storks on the Mascarene Islands. Living storks Order Ciconiiformes Family Ciconiidae Genus Mycteria Milky Stork, Mycteria cinerea Yellow-billed Stork, Mycteria ibis Painted Stork, Mycteria leucocephala Wood Stork, Mycteria americana Genus Anastomus Asian Openbill Stork, Anastomus oscitans African Openbill Stork, Anastomus lamelligerus Genus Ciconia Abdim's Stork, Ciconia abdimii Woolly-necked Stork, Ciconia episcopus Storm's Stork, Ciconia stormi Maguari Stork, Ciconia maguari Oriental Stork, Ciconia boyciana (formerly in C. ciconia) White Stork, Ciconia ciconia Black Stork, Ciconia nigra Genus Ephippiorhynchus Black-necked Stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Saddle-billed Stork, Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis Genus Jabiru Jabiru, Jabiru mycteria Genus Leptoptilos Lesser Adjutant, Leptoptilos javanicus Greater Adjutant, Leptoptilos dubius Marabou Stork, Leptoptilos crumeniferus Fossil storks Genus Palaeoephippiorhynchus (Early Oligocene of Fayyum, Egypt) Genus Grallavis (Early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, France, and Djebel Zelten, Libya) - may be same as Prociconia Ciconiidae gen. et sp. indet. (Ituzaingó Late Miocene of Paraná, Argentina) Tarsometatarsus fragments somewhat similar to Mycteria: Cione et al. (2000), Noriega & Cladera (2005) Ciconiidae gen. et sp. indet. (Puerto Madryn Late Miocene of Punta Buenos Aires, Argentina) Specimen MEF 1363: Incomplete skeleton of a large stork somewhat similar to Jabiru but apparently more plesiomorphic: Noriega & Cladera (2005) Genus Pelargosteon (Early Pleistocene of Romania) Genus Prociconia (Late Pleistocene of Brazil) - may belong to modern genus Jabiru or Ciconia Ciconiidae gen. et sp. indet. - formerly Aquilavus/Cygnus bilinicus (Early Miocene of Břešťany, Czechia) cf. Leptoptilos gen. et sp. indet. - formerly L. siwalicensis (Late Miocene? - Late Pliocene of Siwalik, India) Specimens BMNH 39741 (holotype, left proximal tarsometatarsus) and BMNH 39734 (right distal tibiotarsus). Similar to Ephippiorhynchus and Leptoptilos, may be from a small female of Leptoptilos falconeri, from L. dubius, or from another species: Louchart et al. (2005) Ciconiidae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Pleistocene of San Josecito Cavern, Mexico) Distal radius of a mid-sized Ciconia or smallish Mycteria: Steadman et al. (1994) The fossil genera Eociconia (middle Eocene of China) and Ciconiopsis (Deseado Early Oligocene of Patagonia, Argentina) are often tentatively placed with this family. A "ciconiiform" fossil fragment from the Touro Passo Formation found at Arroio Touro Passo (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil) might be of the living Wood Stork M. americana; it is at most of Late Pleistocene age, a few 10.000s of years old Schmaltz Hsou (2007) . Etymology The modern English word can be traced back to Proto-Germanic *sturkaz. Nearly every Germanic language has a descendant of this proto-language word to indicate the (White) stork. Related names also occur in many Eastern European, especially Slavonic languages, originating as Germanic loanwords. According to the New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, the Germanic root is probably related to the modern English "stark", in reference to the stiff or rigid posture of a European species, the White Stork. A non-Germanic word linked to it may be Greek torgos ("vulture"). In some West Germanic languages cognate words of a different etymology exist. They originate from *uda-faro, uda being related to water meaning something like swamp or moist area and faro being related to fare, so *uda-faro being he who walks in the swamp. In later times this name was reanalyzed as *ōdaboro, ōda "fortune, wealth" + boro "bearer" meaning he who brings wealth adding to the myth of storks as maintainers of welfare and bringing the children: In Estonian, "stork" is toonekurg, which is derived from toonela (underworld in Estonian folklore) + kurg (crane). It may seem to not make sense to associate the now-common White Stork with death, but at the times they were named, the now-rare Black Stork was probably the more common species. Symbolism of storks Childbirth Woman defending herself against child-bearing stork. Postcard, c.1900. In Western culture the White Stork is a symbol of childbirth. In Victorian times the details of human reproduction were difficult to approach, especially in reply to a younger child's query of "Where did I come from?"; "The stork brought you to us" was the tactic used to avoid discussion of sex. This habit was derived from the once popular superstition that storks were the harbingers of happiness and prosperity, and possibly from the habit of some storks of nesting atop chimneys, down which the new baby could be imagined as entering the house. The image of a stork bearing an infant wrapped in a sling held in its beak is common in popular culture. The small pink or reddish patches often found on a newborn child's eyelids, between the eyes, on the upper lip, and on the nape of the neck are sometimes still called "stork bites". In fact they are clusters of developing veins that often soon fade. The stork's folkloric role as a bringer of babies and harbinger of luck and prosperity may originate from the Netherlands and Northern Germany, where it is common in children's nursery stories. In popular culture Baby-bearing stork in Buster Brown cartoon In Walt Disney's fourth classic Dumbo, the stork (more generally "Mr. Stork") delivers babies to their animal mothers. At the beginning of the film, he delivers Dumbo to Mrs. Jumbo. He is voiced by Sterling Holloway. Several Warner Bros. cartoons — including Stork Naked and Apes of Wrath — cast a stork as a perpetually drunken employee of a baby-delivery service. Always losing his cargo en route to the intended recipients, the stork would find a replacement (always the wrong species) and deliver it to his clients. The stork was a bit player in these shorts, appearing at only the beginning and the end (where he returns to correct his mistake); the rest of the cartoons played out the interaction between the parents and the mismatched "child" they attempted to raise. Friedwald & Beck (1981) Vlasic uses this child-bearing stork as a mascot in North America for its brand of pickles, merging the stork-baby mythology with the notion that pregnant women have an above-average appetite for pickles. The Bible mentions the stork in as a bird that should not be eaten. In a parody of the Intelligent Design-promoting film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, ethologist Richard Dawkins assails the "theory" that storks deliver babies, saying: "I'd like to put what I call the 'ultimate stork theory.' It's all very well to say that the stork delivers the baby, but who delivers the stork? The joke is a reference to Occam's Razor, "beings must not be multiplied beyond necessity," invoked to point out the infinite regress implied by Intelligent Design arguments. Regional symbolism The white stork is the symbol of The Hague in the Netherlands, where about 25 percent of European storks breed, and may be also used as a symbol of Poland, where the majority of the remainder breed (35%). It is also a symbol of the region of Alsace in eastern France. It is also the national bird of Belarus. In Vietnam, the stork symbolize the strenuousness of poor Vietnamese farmers and the diligence of Vietnamese women. Mythology of storks Storks nesting near Aveiro, Portugal. A White Stork in flight in Spain. If not otherwise indicated, these usually refer to the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia). The motto "Birds of a feather flock together" is appended to Aesop's fable of the farmer and the stork his net caught among the cranes that were robbing his fields of grain. The stork vainly pleaded to be spared, being no crane. The Hebrew word for stork - "Hasida" (חסידה) was equivalent to "devotee" (namely a devout, God-fearing, religiously observant or righteous, pious and kind woman); it is in fact the female form of the word "Hasid" (חסיד) which became identitied with the Hassidic movement of Judaism. And the care of storks for their young, in their highly visible nests, made the stork a widespread emblem of parental care. It was widely noted in ancient natural history that a stork pair will be consumed with the nest in a fire, rather than fly and abandon it. In Greek mythology, Gerana was an Æthiope, the enemy of Hera, who changed her into a stork, a punishment Hera also inflicted on Antigone, daughter of Laomedon of Troy (Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.93). Stork-Gerana tried to abduct her child, Mopsus. This accounted, for the Greeks, for the mythic theme of the war between the pygmies and the storks. In popular Western culture, there is a common image of a stork bearing an infant wrapped in cloths held in its beak; the stork, rather than absconding with the child Mopsus, is pictured as delivering the infant, an image of childbirth. An ancient etymology about the Pelasgians, ancient pre-Hellenic inhabitnats of Greece, links pelasgos to pelargos "stork", and postulates that the Pelasgians were migrants like storks, possibly from Egypt, where they nest. Strabo refers to this in Geography Book V, Section II, Part 4. Aristophanes deals effectively with this etymology in his comedy the Birds. One of the laws of "the storks" in the satirical cloud-cuckoo-land (punning on the Athenian belief that they were originally Pelasgians) is that grown-up storks must support their parents by migrating elsewhere and conducting warfare. Line 1355 and following. The stork is alleged in folklore to be monogamous although in fact this monogamy is serial monogamy, the pair bond lasting one season (see above). For Early Christians the stork became an emblem of a highly respected white marriage, that is, a chaste marriage. This symbolism endured to the seventeenth century, as in Henry Peacham's emblem book Minerva Britanna (1612) (see link). In Norse mythology, Hoenir gives to mankind the spirit gift, the óðr that includes will and memory and makes us human (see Rydberg link). Hoenir's epithets langifótr "long-leg" and aurkonungr "mire-king" identify him possibly as a kind of stork. Such a Stork King figures in northern European myths and fables. However, it is possible that there is confusion here between the White Stork and the more northerly-breeding Common Crane, which superficially resembles a stork but is completely unrelated. In rural Denmark, it means bad luck if a stork builds a nest on your roof; it means, that someone in the house will die before the end of the year. Though "Stork" is rare as an English surname, the Czech surname "Čapek" means "little stork". In Bulgarian folklore, the stork is a symbol of the coming spring (as this is the time when the birds return to nest in Bulgaria after their winter migration) and in certain regions of Bulgaria it plays a central role in the custom of Martenitsa: when the first stork is sighted it is time to take off the red-and-white Martenitsa tokens, for spring is truly come. For the Chinese, the stork was able to snatch up a worthy man, like the flute-player Lan Ts'ai Ho, and carry him to a blissful life. In Ancient Egypt the Saddle-billed Stork was associated with the human ba; they had the same phonetic value. The ba was the unique individual character of each human being: a stork with a human head was an image of the ba-soul, which unerringly migrates home each night, like the stork, to be reunited with the body during the Afterlife. A series of sightings of a mysterious pterodactyl-like creature in South Texas' Rio Grande Valley in the 1970s has been attributed to an errant jabiru that become lost during a migratory flight and wound up in an unfamiliar region, or an Ephippiorhynchus stork escaped from captivity (see Big Bird). Footnotes References (2000): Miocene vertebrates from Entre Ríos province, eastern Argentina. [English with Spanish abstract] In: : El Neógeno de Argentina. INSUGEO Serie Correlación Geológica 14: 191-237. PDF fulltext (1981): The Warner Brothers Cartoons. Scarecrow Press Inc., Metuchen, N.J.. ISBN 0-8108-1396-3 (2005): A large extinct marabou stork in African Pliocene hominid sites, and a review of the fossil species of Leptoptilos. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 50(3): 549–563. PDF fulltext (2005): First Record of Leptoptilini (Ciconiiformes: Ciconiidae) in the Neogene of South America. Abstracts of Sixth International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution: 47. PDF fulltext (2007): O estado atual do registro fóssil de répteis e aves no Pleistoceno do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil ["The current state of the fossil record of Pleistocene reptiles and birds of Rio Grande do Sul"]. Talk held on 2007-JUN-20 at Quaternário do RS: integrando conhecimento, Canoas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. PDF abstract (1994): New Information on the Late Pleistocene Birds from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Condor 96(3): 577-589. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext External links 24 h Camera Live 24h camera from Stork's nest in Poland Scott MacDonald, "The Stork" emblematic uses Storks Image documentation Stork family Live webcam image from Hungary. Please allow a few seconds to download. Stork videos on the Internet Bird Collection Sister project links

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Aston_Martin

Aston Martin Lagonda Limited is a British manufacturer of luxury sports cars, based in Gaydon, Warwickshire. The company name is derived from the name of one of the company's founders, Lionel Martin, and from the Aston Hill speed hillclimb near Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire From 1994 until 2007 Aston Martin was part of the Ford Motor Company, becoming part of the company's Premier Automotive Group in 2000. On 12 March 2007, it was purchased for £479 million (US$848 million) by a joint venture company, co-owned by Investment Dar and Adeem Investment of Kuwait and English businessman John Sinders. BBC News Article Ford retained a US$77 million stake in Aston Martin, valuing the company at US$925 million. History Foundation Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford. The two had joined forces as Bamford & Martin the previous year to sell cars made by Singer from premises in Callow Street, London where they also serviced GWK and Calthorpe vehicles. Martin raced specials at Aston Hill near Aston Clinton, and the pair decided to make their own vehicles. The first car to be named Aston Martin was created by Martin by fitting a four-cylinder Coventry-Simplex engine to the chassis of a 1908 Isotta-Fraschini. They acquired premises at Henniker Place in Kensington and produced their first car in March 1915. Production could not start because of the outbreak of World War I, and Martin joined the Admiralty and Bamford the Royal Army Service Corps. All machinery was sold to the Sopwith Aviation Company. Aston Martin Mk II 1935 Aston Martin 2-Litre 2/4-Seater Sports 1937 Inter war years After the war the company was refunded at Abingdon Road, Kensington and a new car designed to carry the Aston-Martin name. Bamford left in 1920 and the company was revitalised with funding from Count Louis Zborowski. In 1922, Bamford & Martin produced cars to compete in the French Grand Prix, and the cars set world speed and endurance records at Brooklands. Three works Team Cars with 16 valve twin cam engines were built for racing and record breaking: chassis number 1914, later developed as the Green Pea; chassis number 1915, the Razor Blade record car; and chassis number 1916, later developed as the Halford Special. Approximately 55 cars were built for sale in two configurations, long chassis and short chassis. The company went bankrupt in 1924 and was bought by Lady Charnwood, who put her son John Benson on the board. The company failed again in 1925 and the factory closed in 1926, with Lionel Martin leaving. Later that year, Bill Renwick, Augustus (Bert) Bertelli and a number of rich investors, including Lady Charnwood, took control of the company and renamed it Aston Martin Motors, and moved it to the former Whitehead Aircraft Limited works in Feltham. Renwick and Bertelli had been in partnership some years and had developed an overhead cam 4 cylinder engine, using Renwick's patented combustion chamber design, and had tested it in an Enfield Allday chassis. It was the only 'Renwick and Bertelli' motor car made. It was known as 'Buzzbox' and survives to this day. They had planned to sell this engine to motor manufacturers, but having heard that the Aston Martin car was no longer in production they realised that they could capitalise on the reputation of the Aston Martin name (what we would now call the brand) to give themselves a head start in the production of a completely new car. Between the years 1926 and 1937 Bertelli was the technical director of Aston Martin, and the designer of all subsequent Aston Martin cars during this period, these being known as the 'Bertelli cars'. They included the 1 1/2 litre 'T-type', the 'International, the 'Le Mans, the 'MKII' its racing derivative the 'Ulster, and the 2 litre 15/98 and its racing derivative the 'Speed Model'. Mostly open two seater sports cars and mostly bodied by Bert Bertelli's brother Enrico (Harry)a small number of long chassis four seater tourers, dropheads and saloons were also produced. Bertelli was very keen to race his cars and he was a very competent driver. One of the very few motor manufacturers to actually sit in and race the cars he designed and built, the competition no doubt 'improved the breed' and the 'LM' team cars were very successful in national and international motor racing including at Le Mans and the Mille Miglia. Financial problems reappeared in 1932 and the company was rescued by L. Prideaux Brune who funded it for the following year before passing the company on to Sir Arthur Sutherland. In 1936, the company decided to concentrate on road cars. Car production had always been on a small scale and until the advent of World War II halted work only about 700 had been made. During the war years aircraft components were made. The David Brown era 1958 Aston Martin DB Mark III In 1947, David Brown Limited bought the company under the leadership of managing director Sir David Brown—its "post-war saviour". David Brown also acquired Lagonda that year, and both companies shared resources and workshops. In 1955, David Brown bought the Tickford coachbuilding company and its site at Tickford Street in Newport Pagnell, and that was the beginning of the classic series of cars bearing the initials "DB". In 1950, the company announced the DB2, followed by the racing DB3 in 1957 and the Italian-styled 3.7 L DB4 in 1958. All the cars established a good racing pedigree for the firm, but the DB4 was the key to establishing the company's reputation, which was cemented by the famous DB5 in 1963. The company continued developing the "grand touring" style with the DB6 (1965–70), the DBS, and the DBS V8 (1967–72). 1970s - Changing ownership Despite the cars' appreciation in value, the company was often financially troubled. In 1972, it was sold to a company called Company Developments Ltd., backed by a Birmingham-based consortium, and chaired by Chartered Accountant and company director William Willson, (MBE). The company was resold in 1975 to North American businessmen Peter Sprague and George Minden. The new owners pushed the company into modernising its line, producing the V8 Vantage in 1977, the convertible Volante in 1978, and the one-off William Towns-styled Bulldog in 1980. Towns also styled the futuristic new Lagonda saloon, based on the V8 model. In 1980 Aston-Martin had plans, which did not materialize, to buy MG, which they would have utilized as a sister marque, probably building smaller sports cars. Ideas were plotted to design a new model and they revealed to the press their approach to an 'updated' '1981' model MGB. As worldwide sales of Aston Martin shrank to three per week, chairman Alan Curtis together with fellow shareholders American Peter Sprague and Canadian George Minden, had almost chosen to shut down the production side of the business and concentrate on service and restoration. Curtis attended the 1980 Pace sponsored Stirling Moss benefit day at Brands Hatch, and met fellow Farnham resident Victor Gauntlett. 1980s - Victor Gauntlett Gauntlett bought a 10% stake in Aston Martin for £500,000 via Pace Petroleum in 1980, with Tim Hearley of CH Industrials taking a similar share. Pace and CHI took over as joint 50/50 owners at the beginning of 1981, with Gauntlett as executive chairman. Gauntlett also led the sales team, and after some development and a lot of publicity when it became the world’s fastest 4-seater production car, was able to sell with success the Aston Martin Lagonda into Persian Gulf states, particularly Oman, Kuwait and Qatar. Understanding it would take some time to develop new Aston Martin products, they bought Tickford to develop automotive products for other companies. Products included a Tickford Austin Metro, a Tickford Ford Capri and even Tickford train interiors, particularly on the Jaguar XJS. Pace continued sponsoring racing events, and now sponsored all Aston Martin Owners Club events, taking a Tickford engined Nimrod Group C car owned by AMOC President Viscount Downe, which came third in the Manufacturers Championship in both 1982 and 1983. It also finished seventh in the 1982 24 Hours of Le Mans race. However, sales of production cars were now at an all time low of 30 cars produced in 1982. As trading became tighter in the petroleum market, and Aston Martin was requiring more time and money, Gauntlett agreed to sell Hays/Pace to the Kuwait Investment Office in September 1983. As Aston Martin required greater investment, he also agreed to sell his share holding to American importer and Greek shipping tycoon Peter Livanos, who invested via his joint venture company with Nick and John Papanicalou, ALL Inc. Gauntlett remained chairman of the AML company 55% owned by ALL, with Tickford a 50/50 venture between ALL and CHI. The uneasy relationship was ended when ALL exercised options to buy a larger share in AML; CHI's residual shares were exchanged for CHI's complete ownership of Tickford, which retained development of existing Aston Martin projects. In 1984, Titan the main shipping company of the Papanicolaou’s was in trouble, so Livanos's father George bought out the Papanicolaou's shares in ALL, while Gauntlett again became a shareholder with a 25% holding in AML. The deal valued Aston Martin/AML at £2 million, the year it built its 10,000th car. Although as a result Aston Martin had to make 60 members of the workforce redundant, Gauntlett bought a stake in Italian styling house Zagato, and resurrected its collaboration with Aston Martin. Aston Martin V8 Vantage from The Living Daylights In 1986, Gauntlett negotiated the return of fictional British secret agent James Bond to Aston Martin. Cubby Broccoli had chosen to recast the character using actor Timothy Dalton, in an attempt to re-root the Bond-brand back to a more Sean Connery-like feel. Gauntlett supplied his personal pre-production Vantage for use in the filming of "The Living Daylights," and sold a Volante to Broccoli for use at his home in America. Gauntlett turned down the role of a KGB colonel in the film, however: "I would have loved to have done it but really could not afford the time." TLD - Press (Allies/MI6) - thegoldengun.co.uk Although the company was doing well, Gauntlett knew it needed extra funds to survive in the long term. In May 1987, Gauntlett and Prince Michael of Kent were staying at the home of Contessa Maggi, the wife of the founder of the original Mille Miglia, while watching the revival event. Another house guest was Walter Hayes, vice-President of Ford of Europe. Despite problems over the previous acquisition of AC Cars, Hayes saw the potential of the brand and the discussion resulted in Ford taking a share holding in September 1987. ClassicInside - The ClassicDriver Newsletter In 1988, having produced some 5,000 cars in 20 years, a revived economy and successful sales of limited edition Vantage, and 52 Volante Zagato coupes at £86,000 each; the company finally retired the ancient V8 and introduced the Virage range - the first new Aston launched in 20 years. Although Gauntlett was contractually to stay as chairman for two years, his racing interests took Aston back into sports car racing in 1989 with limited European success. However, with engine rule changes for the 1990 season and the launch of the new Aston Martin Volante model, Ford provided the limited supply of Cosworth engines to the Jaguar cars racing team. As the "small Aston" DB7 would require a large engineering input, Ford agreed to take full control of Aston Martin, and Gauntlett handed over the company chairmanship to Hayes in 1991. Keeping the best of British running - smh.com.au In 1992, the Vantage version was announced, and the following year the company renewed the DB range by announcing the DB7. The Ford era Ford placed Aston in the Premier Automotive Group, substantially invested in new manufacturing and quickly ramped up production. In 1994, Ford opened a new factory at Banbury Road in Bloxham. In 1995, the company produced a record 700 vehicles. Until the Ford era cars had been produced by hand coachbuilding craft methods, such as the English wheel. In 1998 the 2,000th DB7 was built, and in 2002 the 6,000th, exceeding production of all previous DB models. The DB7 range was boosted by the addition of V12 Vantage models in 1999, and in 2001 the company introduced the V12-engine Vanquish. At the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan in 2003, Aston Martin introduced the AMV8 Vantage concept car. Expected to have few changes before its introduction in 2005, the Vantage brought back the classic V8 engine to allow the company to compete in a larger market. 2003 also saw the opening of the Gaydon factory, the first purpose-built factory in Aston Martin's history. Also introduced in 2003 was the DB9 coupé, which replaced the ten-year-old DB7. A convertible version of the DB9, the DB9 Volante, was introduced at the 2004 Detroit Auto Show. In 2006, the V8 Vantage sports car entered production at the Gaydon factory, joining the DB9 and DB9 Volante. In December 2003 Aston Martin announced it would return to motor racing in 2005. A new division was created, called Aston Martin Racing, which became responsible, together with Prodrive, for the design, development, and management of the DBR9 program. The DBR9 competes in the GT class in sports car races, including the world-famous 24 Hours of Le Mans. Sale by Ford In 2006, under mounting financial pressure, an internal review of costs and realisable value on investment led Ford to consider divesting itself of parts of its Premier Automotive Group. After suggestions of selling Jaguar Cars, Land Rover or Volvo Cars, Ford appointed UBS AG to sell Aston Martin by auction. At the end of August 2006, Ford announced that it would be willing to sell all or part of Aston Martin. Bill Ford said: "As part of our on going strategic review, we have determined that Aston Martin may be an attractive opportunity to raise capital and generate value". motorauthority.com The first round of the auction closed on 30 November 2006. One of the four survivors was Syrian-born billionaire Simon Halabi, Syrian in last four for Aston Martin - Times Online while the Australian bid included James Packer, Australia's second richest man. Packer sets his cap at Aston Martin - Telegraph The German auto newspaper Autobild reported on 2 February 2007 that the luxury goods conglomerate LVMH had bought the company for an undisclosed sum. The paper cited "anonymous, but well-placed sources" with the information. It was later reported by Autocar magazine that LVMH had denied the news as "rubbish". 2007 - A new era begins On 12 March 2007 a consortium led by Prodrive chairman David Richards purchased Aston Martin for £475m/$848m. 00-Heaven! Bond's Car British Again |Sky News|Home Prodrive has no financial involvement in the deal. Ford will keep a stake in the company (valued at £ 40 million / $ 70 million). The consortium also consisted of John Sinders, an Aston Martin collector; and two Kuwaiti investment companies, Investment Dar and Adeem Investment Co. On 19 July 2007 the last car, a Vanquish S, was produced at the Newport Pagnell plant. Nearly 13,000 cars had been made there since 1955. All production was concentrated at Gaydon, with the old premises in Tickford Street remaining in Aston Martin ownership as the restoration and service department. Aston Martin has also boosted its worldwide appeal by opening more dealers in Europe, as well as branches in China for the first time in its 93 year history in Beijing and Shanghai. This has brought their dealership programme to 120 dealers in 28 countries. On 1 September 2008, Aston Martin announced the revival of the Lagonda marque. A concept will be shown in 2009, coinciding with the brand's 100th anniversary. The first production cars should come in 2012. In December 2008, Aston Martin announced that it would cut its 1850 workforce by 600. 2009 - Return to Le Mans In January 2009 it was announced that the company was entering the 2009 Le Mans 24 Hours race as a factory team in the prestigious LMP1 division. After competing throughout the 2008 season with a Lola B08/60 LMP1 Coupe under the Charouz Racing banner, Aston Martin will use a slightly modified Lola LMP1 design for their programme. Three Lola-Aston Martins have been entered in the 2009 Le Mans 24 Hours by Aston Martin but only two have been confirmed with sponsorship. Aston Martin will also compete in the complete Le Mans series with the Lola-Aston Martin LMP cars, starting at Barcelona in early April. The programme got off to an unfortunate start at the pre season Paul Ricard test on March 8 when Tomas Enge destroyed the 007 car in an accident. Aston Martin Racing have subsequently taken delivery of a new Lola to replace the written off chassis. Aston Martins in film and culture Author Ian Fleming gave his James Bond hero a DB III in the seventh novel, Goldfinger. A long association between 007 and the marque began on screen with the silver DB5 that appears in Goldfinger (1964) and Thunderball (1965). This was James Bond's company car, and in GoldenEye (1995) and Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) appeared to have become his private car. In On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969) a metallic-green DBS appears at the beginning and end of the movie. After an interlude with Lotus, Aston Martins were again used: a charcoal-grey V8 Volante and Vantage in The Living Daylights (1987). After switching to BMW for several films, the Vanquish appeared in Die Another Day (2002). In Casino Royale (2006), James Bond drives both the classic DB5 which becomes his personal vehicle after winning a poker game, and the new DBS which is revealed to be his new company car in Quantum of Solace (released in cinemas on October 31 2008) A Bahama Yellow Aston Martin DBS is driven by Sir Roger Moore in the 1971 TV series The Persuaders!. A DBS V8 was to be used in the series, however no V8 car was ready, so a six-cylinder DBS was modified to look like a V8 for use in the show.. Models Aston Martin's model naming can be confusing to the uninitiated. In general, high performance models use the Vantage name, while convertibles are called Volante. The current V8 and V12 Vantage series is an exception to this however, as it is a range of its own rather than a higher performance version of another car. Pre-war cars 1921-1925 Aston Martin Standard Sports 1927-1932 Aston Martin First Series 1929-1932 Aston Martin International 1932-1932 Aston Martin International Le Mans 1932-1934 Aston Martin Le Mans 1933-1934 Aston Martin 12/50 Standard 1934-1936 Aston Martin Mk II 1934-1936 Aston Martin Ulster 1936-1938 Aston Martin 2 litre Speed 1937-1939 Aston Martin 15/98 1939-1939 Aston Martin 2 litre C-Type Post-war Sports and GT cars 1948–1950 Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1) 1950–1953 Aston Martin DB2 1953–1957 Aston Martin DB2/4 1957–1959 Aston Martin DB Mark III 1958–1963 Aston Martin DB4 1961–1963 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato 1963–1965 Aston Martin DB5 1965–1969 Aston Martin DB6 1967–1972 Aston Martin DBS 1969–1989 Aston Martin V8 1977–1989 Aston Martin V8 Vantage 1986–1990 Aston Martin V8 Zagato 1989–2000 Aston Martin Virage 1989–1996 Aston Martin Virage/Virage Volante 1993–2000 Aston Martin Vantage 1996–2000 Aston Martin V8 Coupe/V8 Volante 1993–2003 Aston Martin DB7/DB7 Vantage 2002–2004 Aston Martin DB AR1 2001–2007 Aston Martin V12 Vanquish 2004–2007 Aston Martin V12 Vanquish S 2004– Aston Martin DB9 2005– Aston Martin V8 and V12 Vantage 2007– Aston Martin DBS V12 Other 1944 Aston Martin Atom (concept) 1961–1964 Lagonda Rapide 1976–1989 Aston Martin Lagonda 1980 Aston Martin Bulldog (concept) 1993 Lagonda Vignale (concept) 2008– Aston Martin Rapide 2007 Aston Martin V12 Vantage RS (concept) 2008 Aston Martin Vanquish S Current models V8 Vantage, V8 Vantage Roadster & V12 Vantage RS Aston Martin DB9 & DB9 Volante Aston Martin DBS V12 Future models Rapide - Addition to the range in 2009 - a long, 4-seater Grand Tourer A DBX model was mentioned on the call announcing the sale of Aston Martin to the consortium led by David Richards and CEO, Ulrich Bez. No further details were provided. The DBX was later revealed to be a possible new flagship for Aston Martin based on the Zagato to compete against the Mercedes McLaren SLR, with speed over and a V12 mid engine tuned to produce 700 bhp. Auto Express: "Aston Martin's Future is now X-rated". This is now most likely the newly revealed Aston Martin One-77. Home page of Aston Martin One-77. Aston Martin V12 Vantage RS (600bhp) - Announced at the official opening of Aston Martin's first-ever dedicated design centre in Gaydon, Warwickshire, on Tuesday 11 December 2007. Race cars Aston Martin's 1959 24 Hours of Le Mans winning DBR1. A Group C Nimrod NRA/C2 which used Aston Martin's V8 engines in the 1980s. Part of Aston Martin's current racing program, Charouz Racing System competes with sports prototype powered by an Aston Martin V12 See also: List of Formula One constructors, Aston Martin Racing Whole race cars (post-war) Aston Martin DB3 (1950-1953) Aston Martin DB3S (1953-1956) Aston Martin DBR1 (1956-1959) Aston Martin DBR2 (1957-1958) Aston Martin DBR3 (1958) Aston Martin DBR4 (1959) Aston Martin DBR5 (1960) Aston Martin DP212 (1962) Aston Martin DP214 (1963) Aston Martin DP215 (1963) Aston Martin RHAM/1 (1976-1979) Aston Martin AMR1 (1989) Aston Martin AMR2 (never raced) Aston Martin DBR9 (2005-) Aston Martin DBRS9 (2005-) Aston Martin V8 Vantage N24 (2006-) Aston Martin V8 Vantage Rally GT (2006-) Aston Martin V8 Vantage GT2 (2008-) Aston Martin DBR1-2 (2009-) Engine supply only Cooper-Aston Martin (1963) Lola T70-Aston Martin (1967) Nimrod NRA/C2-Aston Martin (1982-1984) EMKA C84/1-Aston Martin (1984-1985) Cheetah G604-Aston Martin Lola B08/60-Aston Martin (2008-) Complete Formula One World Championship results (key) Year Chassis Engine Tyres Driver 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Points WCC 1959 Aston Martin DBR4 Aston Martin L6 ? MON 500 NED FRA GBR GER POR ITA USA 0 5th Roy Salvadori Ret 6 6 Ret Carroll Shelby Ret Ret 8 10 1960 Aston Martin DBR4Aston Martin DBR5 Aston Martin L6 ? ARG MON 500 NED BEL FRA GBR POR ITA USA 0 8th Roy Salvadori DNP Ret Maurice Trintignant 11 See also Aston Martin Owners Club Notes External links Aston Martin - Official Aston Martin Site Aston Martin Racing - Official Company Site Aston Martin Owners Club- Official Aston Martin Owners Club

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Enigma_machine

The plugboard, keyboard, lamps, and finger-wheels of the rotors emerging from the inner lid of a three-rotor German military Enigma machine Enigma in use, 1943 An Enigma machine is any of a family of related electro-mechanical rotor machines used for the encryption and decryption of secret messages. The first Enigma was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I. This model and its variants were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries — most notably by Nazi Germany before and during World War II. A range of Enigma models was produced, but the German military model, the Wehrmacht Enigma, is the version most commonly discussed. The machine has become notorious because Polish mathematicians-cryptographers and then Allied cryptographers were able to cryptanalyze, and thus decrypt, a vast number of messages which had been enciphered using the Enigma. The intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed ULTRA by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort. The exact influence of ULTRA is debated, but an oft-repeated assessment is that decryption of German ciphers hastened the end of the European war by two years. Kahn (1991). Bletchley Park veteran and historian F.H. Hinsley is often cited as an authority for the two-year estimate, yet his assessment in Codebreakers is much less definitive: "Would the [Soviets] meanwhile have defeated Germany, or Germany the Soviets, or would there have been stalemate on the eastern fronts? What would have been decided about the atom bomb? Not even counter-factual historians can answer such questions. They are questions which do not arise, because the war went as it did. But those historians who are concerned only with the war as it was must ask why it went as it did. And they need venture only a reasonable distance beyond the facts to recognise the extent to which the explanation lies in the influence of Ultra." F.H. Hinsley, "Introduction: The Influence of Ultra in the Second World War," Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park, edited by F.H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 12–13. Though the Enigma cipher had cryptographic weaknesses, in practice it was only in combination with other factors (procedural flaws, operator mistakes, occasional captured hardware and key tables, etc.) that those weaknesses allowed Allied cryptographers to cryptanalyze so many messages. Kahn (1991), Hinsley and Stripp (1993). Description Enigma wiring diagram showing current flow. The "A" key is encoded to the "D" lamp. D yields A, but A never yields A; this property was due to patented feature unique to the Enigmas, and could be exploited by cryptanalysts in some situations. The scrambling action of the Enigma rotors are shown for two consecutive letters. Current is passed into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, and out through the rotors again. The greyed-out lines are some other possible paths within each rotor; these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other. Letter A encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to G, and then to C. This is because the right hand rotor has stepped, sending the signal on a completely different route; eventually other rotors will also step with a key press. Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine was a combination of mechanical and electrical systems. The mechanical mechanism consisted of a keyboard; a set of rotating disks called rotors arranged adjacently along a spindle; and a stepping mechanism to turn one or more of the rotors with each key press. The exact mechanism varies slightly from model to model, but the most common form was for the right-hand rotor to step once with every key stroke, and for the other rotors to step occasionally. The continual movement of the rotors results in a different cryptographic substitutions after each key press. The mechanical parts act in such a way as to form a varying electrical circuit; the actual letter substitution is indicated electrically. When a key is pressed, the circuit is completed; current flows through the various components in their current configuration and ultimately lights one of the display lamps, indicating the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting ANX..., the operator would first press the A key, and the Z lamp might light, so Z would be the first letter of the ciphertext. The operator would next press N, and then X in the same fashion, and so on. To illustrate the detailed operation of Enigma, please refer to the wiring diagram to the left. To simplify the example, only four components of a complete Enigma machine are shown. In reality, there are 26 lamps and keys, several plugs (varied with model) and rotor wirings inside the rotors (at least three were installed). Current flowed from the battery (1) through a depressed bi-directional letter-switch (2) to the plugboard (3). The plugboard allows rewiring of some letter connections between the keyboard (2) and the fixed entry wheel (4). Next, the current wends through the -- unused in this instance, so shown closed -- plug (3) via the entry wheel (4) through the wiring of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four (Kriegsmarine M4 and Abwehr variants) installed rotors (5), and enters the reflector (6). The reflector returns the current, via an entirely different path, through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), proceeding through plug 'S' connected with a cable (8) to plug 'D', and another bi-directional switch (9) to light the appropriate lamp. Rijmenants, Dirk; Technical details of the Enigma machine Cipher Machines & Cryptology The repeated changes of electrical paths through an Enigma, because of the rotation of the rotors (which cause the pin contacts to change with each letter typed), implemented a polyalphabetic encryption which provided Enigma's high security. Rotors The Enigma rotor assembly. In the Wehrmacht Enigma variant, the three installed movable rotors are sandwiched between two fixed wheels: the entry wheel on the right and the reflector (here marked "B") on the left. The rotors (alternatively "wheels" or "drums"—Walzen in German) formed the heart of an Enigma machine. Each rotor was a disc approximately 10 cm in diameter made from hard rubber or bakelite with brass spring-loaded pins on one face arranged in a circle; on the other side are a corresponding number of circular electrical contacts. The pins and contacts represent the alphabet—typically the 26 letters A–Z (this will be assumed for the rest of this description). When the rotors were mounted side-by-side on the spindle, the pins of one rotor rest against the contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, 26 wires connected each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. Most of the rotors were identified by Roman numerals and each issued copy of rotor I was wired identically to all others. The same was true of the special thin beta and gamma rotors used in the M4 naval variant. Three Enigma rotors and the shaft on which they are placed when in use. By itself, a rotor performed only a very simple type of encryption—a simple substitution cipher. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter E might be wired to the contact for letter T on the opposite face, and so on. The Enigma's complexity, and cryptographic security, came from using several rotors in series -- usually three or four -- and the regular stepping movement of the rotors, thus implementing a poly-alphabetic substitution cipher. When placed in an Enigma, each rotor can be set to one of 26 possible positions. When inserted, it can be turned by hand using the grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal Enigma cover when closed. So that the operator can know the rotor's position, each had an alphabet tyre (or letter ring) attached to the outside of the rotor disk, with 26 characters (typically letters); one of these could be seen through the window, thus indicating the rotational position of the rotor. In early Enigma models, the alphabet ring was fixed to the rotor disk. An improvement introduced in later variants was the ability to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the rotor disk. The position of the ring was known as the Ringstellung ("ring setting"), and was a part of the initial setting of an Enigma prior to an operating session. In modern terms it was a part of the session key. The rotors each contained a notch (more than one for some rotors) which was used to control rotor stepping. In the military variants, the notches are located on the alphabet ring. The Army and Air Force Enigmas were used with several rotors; when first issued, there were only three. On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for insertion in the machine for a particular operating session. Rotors were marked with Roman numerals to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single notches located at different points on the alphabet ring. This variation was probably intended as a security measure, but ultimately allowed the Polish Clock Method and British Banburismus attacks. The Naval version of the Wehrmacht Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services. At first, six, then seven and finally eight. The additional rotors were marked VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches cut into them at N and A, resulting in a more frequent turnover. The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) machine accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner one and by adding a special, also thin, fourth rotor. That fourth rotor was one of two types, "Beta" or "Gamma", and never stepped, but it could be manually placed in any of its 26 possible positions. Stepping motion Stepping motion of the Enigma. To avoid merely implementing a simple (and easily breakable) substitution cipher, every key press caused one or more rotors to step and so changed the substitution alphabet used for encryption. This ensured the cryptographic substitution would be different at each new rotor position, producing a formidable polyalphabetic substitution cipher. The most common arrangement used a ratchet and pawl mechanism. Each rotor had a ratchet with 26 teeth and, every time a key was pressed, each of the pawls corresponding to a particular rotor would move forward in unison, trying to engage with a ratchet, thus stepping the attached rotor once. A thin metal ring attached to each rotor upon which the pawl rode, normally prevented this. As this ring rotated with its rotor, a notch machined into it would eventually align itself with the pawl, allowing it to drop into position, engage with the ratchet, and advance the rotor. The first rotor, having no previous rotor (and therefore no notched ring controlling a pawl), stepped with every key press. The five basic rotors (I–V) had one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII had two notches. The position of the notch on each rotor could be adjusted. If this were all the Enigma machine did, rotor one would step 26 times for every step of rotor two and rotor two 26 times for every step of rotor three. However, the design also included a feature known as "double-stepping". This was enabled due to each pawl being aligned with both the ratchet of its rotor and the rotating notched ring of the neighbouring rotor. If a pawl was allowed to engage with a ratchet through alignment with a notch, as it moved forward it would push against both the ratchet and the notch, advancing both rotors at the same time. In a three-rotor machine the double-stepping would affect rotor two only. This, if in moving forward allowed the ratchet of rotor three to be engaged, would move again on the subsequent keystroke, thus resulting in two consecutive steps. Rotor two also pushes rotor one forward after 26 of its steps, but as rotor one moves forward with every keystroke anyway, there is no double-stepping. David Hamer, "Enigma: Actions Involved in the ‘Double-Stepping’ of the Middle Rotor," Cryptologia, 21(1), January 1997, pp. 47–50, Online version (zipped PDF) This double stepping caused the rotors to deviate from odometer style regular motion. With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine had a period of 26 × 25 × 26 = 16,900 (not 26 × 26 × 26 because of the double stepping of the second rotor.) Historically, messages were limited to a few hundred letters, and so there was no chance of repeating any net combined rotor position during a single message session, and so cryptanalysts were denied a valuable clue to the substitution used. To make room for the Naval fourth rotors -- "Beta" and "Gamma", introduced in 1942 -- the reflector was changed, by making it much thinner. The special fourth rotors fit into the space made available. No changes were made to rest of the mechanism, which eased the changeover to the new mode of operation. Since there were only three pawls, the fourth rotor never stepped, but could be manually set into one of its 26 possible positions. When pressing a key, the rotors stepped before the electrical circuit is connected. Entry wheel The entry wheel (Eintrittswalze in German), or entry stator, connects the plugboard, if present, or otherwise the keyboard and lampboard, to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to the security, it proved an obstacle in the progress of Polish cryptanalyst Marian Rejewski during his deduction of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on the keyboard: QA, WB, EC and so on. However, the military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: AA, BB, CC etc. It took an inspired piece of guesswork for Rejewski to realise the modification. Reflector With the exception of the early models A and B, the last rotor came before a "reflector" (German: Umkehrwalze, meaning "reversal rotor"), a patented feature distinctive of the Enigma family amongst the various rotor machines designed in the period. The reflector connected outputs of the last rotor in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route. The reflector ensured that Enigma is self-reciprocal: conveniently, encryption was the same as decryption. However, the reflector also gave Enigma the property that no letter ever encrypted to itself. This was a severe conceptual flaw and a cryptological mistake subsequently exploited by codebreakers. In the commercial Enigma model "C", the reflector could be inserted in one of two different positions. In Model D the reflector could be set in 26 possible positions, although it did not move during encryption. In the Abwehr Enigma, the reflector stepped during encryption in a manner like the other wheels. In the German Army and Air Force Enigma, the reflector was fixed and did not rotate; there were four versions. The original version was marked A, and was replaced by Umkehrwalze B on 1 November 1937. A third version, Umkehrwalze C was used briefly in 1940, possibly by mistake, and was solved by Hut 6. Philip Marks, "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part I", Cryptologia 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141 The fourth version, first observed on 2 January 1944 had a rewireable reflector, called Umkehrwalze D, allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings. Plugboard The plugboard (Steckerbrett) was positioned at the front of the machine, below the keys. When in use, there were up to 13 connections. In the above photograph, two pairs of letters have been swapped (S-O and J-A). The plugboard (Steckerbrett in German) permitted variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid). It was introduced on German Army versions in 1930, and was soon adopted by the Navy as well. The plugboard contributed a great deal to the strength of the machine's encryption: more than an extra rotor would have done. Enigma without a plugboard—"unsteckered" Enigma—can be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques are generally defeated by the addition of a plugboard, and Allied cryptanalysts resorted to special machines to solve it. A cable placed onto the plugboard connected letters up in pairs, for example, E and Q might be a "steckered" pair. The effect was to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator presses E, the signal was diverted to Q before entering the rotors. Several such steckered pairs, up to 13, might be used at one time. However, normally only 10 pairs were used at any one time. Current flowed from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeded to the entry-rotor or Eintrittswalze. Each letter on the plugboard had two jacks. Inserting a plug disconnected the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable was inserted into another letter's jacks, thus switching the connections of the two letters. The Schreibmax was a printing unit which could be attached to the Enigma, removing the need for laboriously writing down the letters indicated on the light panel. Accessories The Enigma Uhr attachment A feature that was used on the M4 Enigma was the Schreibmax, a little printer which could print the 26 letters on a small paper ribbon. This did away with the need for a second operator to read the lamps and write the letters down. The Schreibmax was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel. To install the printer, the lamp cover and all light bulbs had to be removed. Besides its convenience, it could improve operational security; the printer could be installed remotely such that the signal officer operating the machine no longer had to see the decrypted plaintext information. Another accessory was the remote lamp panel. If the machine was equipped with an extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. There was a lamp panel version that could be connected afterwards, but that required, just as with the Schreibmax, that the lamp panel and lightbulbs be removed. The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted plaintext without the operator seeing it. In 1944 the Luftwaffe introduced an extra plugboard switch, called the Uhr (clock). There was a little box, containing a switch with 40 positions. It replaced the default plugs. After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator turned the switch into one of the 40 positions, each position producing a different combination of plug wiring. Most of these plug connections were, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise. In one switch position, the Uhr did not swap any letters, but simply emulated the 13 stecker wires with plugs. Mathematical description The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of permutations. Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let denote the plugboard transformation, denote that of the reflector, and denote those of the left, middle and right rotors respectively. Then the encryption can be expressed as . After each key press, the rotors turn, changing the transformation. For example, if the right hand rotor is rotated positions, the transformation becomes , where is the cyclic permutation mapping A to B, B to C, and so forth. Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as and rotations of and . The encryption transformation can then be described as . Operation In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings as well as a number of auxiliary documents. The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate and more secure than the procedures used in other services. The Navy codebooks were also printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were at risk of being seized by the enemy. The above codebook was taken from captured U-boat U-505. In German military usage, communications were divided up into a number of different networks, all using different settings for their Enigma machines. These communication nets were termed "keys" at Bletchley Park, and were assigned codenames, such as "Red", "Chaffinch" and "Shark". Each unit operating on a network was assigned a settings list for its Enigma for a period of time. For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver had to set up their Enigma in the same way; the rotor selection and order, the starting position and the plugboard connections must be identical. All these settings (together the key in modern terms) must have been established beforehand, and were distributed in codebooks. An Enigma machine's initial state, the cryptographic key, has several aspects: Wheel order (Walzenlage)—the choice of rotors and the order in which they are fitted. Initial position of the rotors—chosen by the operator, different for each message. Ring settings (Ringstellung)—the position of the alphabet ring relative to the rotor wiring. Plug settings (Steckerverbindungen)—the connections of the plugs in the plugboard. In very late versions, the wiring of the reconfigurable reflector. Enigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an opponent, although in practice there was considerable effort to keep the wiring secret. If the wiring is secret, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around 10114 (approximately 380 bits); with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around 1023 (76 bits). Users of Enigma were confident of its security because of the large number of possibilities; it was not then feasible for an adversary to even begin to try every possible configuration in a brute force attack. Indicators Most of the keys were kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. However, a different initial rotor position was chosen for each message, a concept similar to an initialisation vector in modern cryptography, because if a number of messages are sent encrypted with identical or near-identical settings a cryptanalyst, with several messages "in depth", might be able to attack the messages using frequency analysis. The starting position was transmitted just before the ciphertext. The exact method used was termed the "indicator procedure"—weak indicator procedures allowed the initial breaks into Enigma. Figure 2. With the inner lid down, the Enigma was ready for use. The finger wheels of the rotors protruded through the lid, allowing the operator to set the rotors, and their current position—here RDKP—was visible to the operator through a set of windows. One of the earliest indicator procedures was used by Polish cryptanalysts to make the initial breaks into the Enigma. The procedure was for the operator to set up his machine in accordance with his settings list, which included a global initial position for the rotors (Grundstellung—"ground setting"), AOH, perhaps. The operator turned his rotors until AOH was visible through the rotor windows. At that point, the operator chose his own, arbitrary, starting position for that particular message. An operator might select EIN, and this became the "message settings" for that encryption session. The operator then typed EIN into the machine, twice, to allow for detection of transmission errors. The results were an encrypted indicator—the EIN typed twice might turn into XHTLOA, which would be transmitted along with the message. Finally, the operator then spun the rotors to his message settings, EIN in this example, and typed the plaintext of the message. At the receiving end, the operation was reversed. The operator set the machine to the initial settings and typed in the first six letters of the message (XHTLOA). In this example, EINEIN emerged on the lamps. By moving his rotors to EIN, the receiving operator then typed in the rest of the ciphertext, deciphering the message. The weakness in this indicator scheme came from two factors. First, use of a global ground setting—this was later changed so the operator selected his initial position to encrypt the indicator, and sent the initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was a serious security flaw. The message setting was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. This security problem enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932. However, from 1940 on, the Germans changed the procedures to increase the security. During World War II, codebooks were only used each day to set up the rotors, their ring settings and the plugboard. For each message, the operator selected a random start position, let's say WZA, and a random message key, perhaps SXT. He moved the rotors to the WZA start position and encoded the message key SXT. Assume the result was UHL. He then set up the message key, SXT, as the start position and encrypted the message. Next, he transmitted the start position, WZA, the encoded message key, UHL, and then the ciphertext. The receiver set up the start position according to the first trigram, WZA, and decoded the second trigram, UHL, to obtain the SXT message setting. Next, he used this SXT message setting as the start position to decrypt the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message settings. Rijmenants, Dirk; Enigma message procedures Cipher Machines & Cryptology This procedure was used by Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe only. The Kriegsmarine procedures on sending messages with the Enigma were far more complex and elaborate. Prior to encryption with the Enigma, the message was encoded using the Kurzsignalheft code book. The Kurzsignalheft contained tables to convert sentences into four-letter groups. A great many choices were included, e.g. logistic matters such as refueling and rendezvous with supply ships, positions and grid lists, harbor names, countries, weapons, weather conditions, enemy positions and ships, date and time tables. Another codebook contained the Kenngruppen and Spruchschlüssel: the key identification and message key. Rijmenants, Dirk; Kurzsignalen on German U-boats Cipher Machines & Cryptology Abbreviations and guidelines The Army Enigma machine used only the 26 alphabet characters. Signs were replaced by rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced by an X. The X was generally used as point or full stop. Some signs were different in other parts of the armed forces. The Wehrmacht replaced a comma by ZZ and the question sign by FRAGE or FRAQ. The Kriegsmarine, however, replaced the comma by Y and the question sign by UD. The combination CH, as in "Acht" (eight) or "Richtung" (direction) were replaced by Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three and four zeros were replaced by CENTA, MILLE and MYRIA. The Wehrmacht and the Luftwaffe transmitted messages in groups of five characters. The Kriegsmarine, using the four rotor Enigma, had four-character groups. Frequently used names or words were to be varied as much as possible. Words like Minensuchboot (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT, MMMBOOT or MMM354. To make cryptanalysis harder, more than 250 characters in one message were forbidden. Longer messages were divided into several parts, each using its own message key. For more details see Tony Sale's translations of "General Procedure" and "Officer and Staff procedure". History and development of the machine Far from being a single design, there are numerous models and variants of the Enigma family. The earliest Enigma machines were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the various branches of the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of changes in order to increase its security. In addition, a number of other nations either adopted or adapted the Enigma design for their own cipher machines. A selection of seven Enigma machines and paraphernalia exhibited at the USA's National Cryptologic Museum. From left to right, the models are: 1) Commercial Enigma; 2) Enigma T; 3) Enigma G; 4) Unidentified; 5) Luftwaffe (Air Force) Enigma; 6) Heer (Army) Enigma; 7) Kriegsmarine (Naval) Enigma—M4. Commercial Enigma Scherbius's Enigma patent—, granted in 1928. On 23 February 1918 German engineer Arthur Scherbius applied for a patent for a cipher machine using rotors and, with E. Richard Ritter, founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither was interested. They then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors. Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine—Enigma model A—which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1923 and 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a typewriter. It measured 65×45×35 cm and weighed about 50 kg. A model B was introduced, and was of a similar construction. While bearing the Enigma name, both models A and B were quite unlike later versions: they differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector. The reflector—an idea suggested by Scherbius's colleague Willi Korn—was first introduced in the Enigma C (1926) model. The reflector is a key feature of the Enigma machines. A rare 8-rotor printing Enigma. Model C was smaller and more portable than its predecessors. It lacked a typewriter, relying instead on the operator reading the lamps; hence the alternative name of "glowlamp Enigma" to distinguish from models A and B. The Enigma C quickly became extinct, giving way to the Enigma D (1927). This version was widely used, with examples going to Sweden, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, Spain, United States, and Poland. Military Enigma Enigma in use on the Russian front The Navy was the first branch of the German military to adopt Enigma. This version, named Funkschlüssel C ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926. Kahn, 1991, pp. 39–41, 299 The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters—A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü—which were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZU ordering. Ulbricht, 2005, p.4 The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter X wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted. Stripp, 1993 Three rotors were chosen from a set of five Kahn, 1991, pp. 40, 299 and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ. Bauer, 2000, p. 108 The machine was revised slightly in July 1933. Hinsley and Stripp, 1993, plate 3 By 15 July 1928, Kahn, 1991, pp. 41, 299 the German Army (Reichswehr) had introduced their own version of the Enigma—the Enigma G, revised to the Enigma I by June 1930. Deavours and Kruh, 1985, p. 97 Enigma I is also known as the Wehrmacht, or "Services" Enigma, and was used extensively by the German military services and other government organisations (such as the railways Michael Smith Station X, four books (macmillan) 1998, Paperback 2000, ISBN 0-7522-7148-2, Page 73 ), both before and during World War II. The major difference between Enigma I and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing the cryptographic strength of the machine. Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector, and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings. The machine measured 28×34×15 cm (11"×13.5"×6") and weighed around 12 kg (26 lbs). By 1930, the Army had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications. Kahn, 1991, p. 43 The Navy eventually agreed and in 1934 Kahn (1991, p. 43) says August 1934. Kruh and Deavours (2002, p. 15) say October 2004. brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated Funkschlüssel M or M3. While the Army used only three rotors at that time, for greater security the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five. Deavours and Kruh, 1985, p. 98 In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five. In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight. In August 1935, the Air Force also introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications. A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as "Triton", or "Shark" to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor. There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the Enigma II. In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communications, but that it was soon withdrawn from use after it was found to be unreliable and to jam frequently. Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 28. The Abwehr used the Enigma G (the Abwehr Enigma). This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter which incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the "counter machine" or the Zählwerk Enigma. Other countries also used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as "Navy Cipher D"; the Spanish also used commercial Enigma during their Civil War. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard. The Swiss used a version of Enigma called model K or Swiss K for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to the commercial Enigma D. The machine was broken by a number of parties, including Poland, France, Britain and the United States (the latter codenamed it INDIGO). An Enigma T model (codenamed Tirpitz) was manufactured for use by the Japanese. The Enigma wasn't perfect, especially after the Allies got hold of it, thus allowing the Allies to decode the German messages, which proved vital in the Battle of the Atlantic. It has been estimated that 100,000 Enigma machines were constructed. Bauer, 2000, p. 112 After the end of the Second World War, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to a number of developing countries. Surviving Enigma machines U.S. Enigma replica on display at the National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, USA. The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown considerably and a number of Enigmas are on public display in museums in the U.S. and Europe. The Deutsches Museum in Munich has both the three and four-wheel German military variants, as well as several older civilian versions. A functional Enigma is on display in the NSA's National Cryptologic Museum at Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at encrypting messages and deciphering code. The Armémuseum in Stockholm in Sweden currently has an Enigma on display. There are also examples at the Computer History Museum in the United States, at Bletchley Park in the United Kingdom, at Polish Army Museum in Poland at the Australian War Memorial, and in foyer of the Defence Signals Directorate, both located at Canberra in Australia, as well as a number of other locations in Germany, the U.S., the UK and elsewhere. The now-defunct San Diego Computer Museum had an Enigma in its collection, which has since been given to the San Diego State University Library. A number are also in private hands. Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices of US$20,000 are not unusual. Hamer, David; Enigma machines - known locations* Hamer, David; Selling prices of Enigma and NEMA - all prices converted to US$ Replicas of the machine are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various computer software simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues. A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000. In September, a man identifying himself as "The Master" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatened to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer. Shortly afterwards the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, but three rotors were missing. In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning The Sunday Times to arrange the return of the missing parts. The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley Park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison after admitting handling the stolen machine and demanding ransom for its return, although he maintained that he was acting as an intermediary for a third party. BBC News | UK | Man jailed over Enigma machine Yates was released from prison after serving three months. In October 2008 the Spanish daily newspaper El País reported that 28 Enigma machines were discovered by chance in an attic of the Army headquarters in Madrid during inventory taking. These machines helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War because although the British code breaker Alfred Dilwyn Knox broke the code generated by Franco's Enigma machines in 1937, this information was not passed to the Republicans and they never managed to decipher any of the messages generated by these machines. The Nationalist government continued to use Enigma machines into the 1950s and eventually purchased 50 of them. Some of the original 28 machines are now on display in the Spanish military museums. Graham Keeley. Nazi Enigma machines helped General Franco in Spanish Civil War The Times 24 October 2008. p 47 Enigma derivatives A Japanese Enigma clone, codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers. Tatjana van Vark's Enigma-inspired rotor machine. The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, and a number of other rotor machines are derived from it. The British Typex was originally derived from the Enigma patents; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. Owing to the need for secrecy about its cipher systems, no royalties were paid for the use of the patents by the British government. A Japanese Enigma clone was codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers. Little used, it contained four rotors mounted vertically. In the U.S., cryptologist William Friedman designed the M-325, a machine similar to Enigma in logical operation, although not in construction. A unique rotor machine was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark. This unusual device was inspired by Enigma but makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation to be used; each rotor contains 509 parts. van Vark, Tatjana The coding machine Fiction The play Breaking the Code, by Hugh Whitemore, is about the life and death of Alan Turing, who was the central force in breaking the Enigma in Britain during World War II. Turing was played by Derek Jacobi, who also played Turing in a 1996 television adaptation of the play. The television adaptation is generally available (though currently only on VHS). Although it is a drama and thus takes artistic license, it is nonetheless a fundamentally accurate account. It contains a two-minute, stutteringly-nervous speech by Jacobi that comes very close to encapsulating the entire Enigma codebreaking effort. Robert Harris' 1995 novel Enigma is set against the backdrop of World War II Bletchley Park and cryptologists working to read Naval Enigma in Hut 8. The book, with substantial changes in plot, was made into the 2001 film Enigma, directed by Michael Apted and starring Kate Winslet and Dougray Scott. The film has been criticized for many historical inaccuracies, including neglect of the role of Poland's Biuro Szyfrów in breaking the Enigma cipher and showing the British how to do it. The film instead gratuitously makes a Pole the villain, who seeks to betray the secret of Enigma decryption. An earlier Polish film dealing with Polish aspects of the subject was the superficial 1979 Sekret Enigmy (The Enigma Secret). Sekret Enigmy (Film 1979) Internet Movie Database Wolfgang Petersen's 1981 film Das Boot includes an Enigma machine which is evidently a four-rotor Kriegsmarine variant. It appears in many scenes, which probably capture well the flavour of day-to-day Enigma use aboard a World War II U-Boat. Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon prominently features the Enigma machine and efforts by British and American cryptologists to break variants of it, and portrays the German U-boat command under Karl Dönitz using it in apparently deliberate ignorance of its having been broken. In the comedy war film All the Queen's Men (2001, starring Matt LeBlanc and Eddie Izzard), four World War II Allied soldiers are parachuted into Germany, where, dressed as women, they attempt to steal an Enigma machine. They eventually learn that the Allies already had the machine and that the mission was a ruse intended to mislead the Germans into thinking that Enigma was a closed book to the Allies. See also Cryptanalysis of the Enigma Geheimschreiber Lorenz cipher Siemens and Halske T52 SIGABA Typex Notes References Bauer, F. L. (2000). Decrypted Secrets (Springer, 2nd edition). ISBN 3-540-66871-3 Hamer, David H.; Sullivan, Geoff; Weierud, Frode (July 1998). "Enigma Variations: an Extended Family of Machines", Cryptologia, 22(3). Online version (zipped PDF). Stripp, Alan. "The Enigma Machine: Its Mechanism and Use" in Hinsley, F. H.; and Stripp, Alan (editors), Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park (1993), pp. 83–88. Kahn, David (1991). Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boats Codes, 1939-1943 ISBN 0 395 42739 8. Kozaczuk, Władysław, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, MD, University Publications of America, 1984, ISBN 0-89093-547-5. Kozaczuk, Władysław. The origins of the Enigma/ULTRA Kruh, Louis; Deavours, Cipher (2002). "The Commercial Enigma: Beginnings of Machine Cryptography", Cryptologia, 26(1), pp. 1–16. Online version (PDF) Marks, Philip; Weierud, Frode (January 2000). "Recovering the Wiring of Enigma's Umkehrwalze A", Cryptologia 24(1), pp55–66. Smith, Michael (1998). Station X (Macmillan) ISBN 0-7522-7148-2 Ulbricht, Heinz. Die Chiffriermaschine Enigma — Trügerische Sicherheit: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Nachrichtendienste, PhD Thesis, 2005. Online version. Further reading Calvocoressi, Peter. Top Secret Ultra. Baldwin, new edn 2001. 978-0-947712-36-5 Cave Brown, Anthony. Bodyguard of Lies, 1975. A journalist's sensationalist best-seller that purported to give a history of Enigma decryption and its effect on the outcome of World War II. Worse than worthless on the seminal Polish work that made "Ultra" possible. See Richard Woytak, prefatory note (pp. 75–76) to Marian Rejewski, "Remarks on Appendix 1 to British Intelligence in the Second World War by F.H. Hinsley," Cryptologia, vol. 6, no. 1 (January 1982), pp. 76–83. Garliński, Józef Intercept, Dent, 1979. A superficial, sometimes misleading account of Enigma decryption before and during World War II, of equally slight value as to both the Polish and British phases. See Richard Woytak and Christopher Kasparek, "The Top Secret of World War II," The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 98–103 (specifically, about Garliński, pp. 101–3). Herivel, John. Herivelismus and the German military Enigma. Baldwin, 2008. 978-0-947712-46-4 Keen, John. Harold 'Doc' Keen and the Bletchley Park Bombe. Baldwin, 2003. 978-0-947712-42-6 Large, Christine. Hijacking Enigma, 2003, ISBN 0-470-86347-1. Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part I", Cryptologia 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141. Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part II", Cryptologia 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177–212. Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part III", Cryptologia 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296–310. Perera, Tom. The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, ISBN 1-890024-06-6 sample pages Rejewski, Marian. "How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the Enigma," Annals of the History of Computing 3, 1981. This article is regarded by Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing's biographer, as "the definitive account" (see Hodges' Alan Turing: The Enigma, Walker and Company, 2000 paperback edition, p. 548, footnote 4.5). Quirantes, Arturo. "Model Z: A Numbers-Only Enigma Version", Cryptologia 28(2), April 2004. Ulbricht, Heinz. Enigma Uhr, Cryptologia, 23(3), April 1999, pp. 194–205. Welchman, Gordon. The Hut Six Story: breaking the Enigma codes. Baldwin, new edition, 1997. 978-0-947712-34-1 External links Several images of Enigma Detailed photos of various Enigma models and parts Cipher Machines & Cryptology Historical and technical details on the Enigma Enigma M3 Simulator Frode's CryptoCellar various Enigma documents and Breaking Wehrmacht Ciphers Bletchley Park National Code Center Home of the British codebreakers durings the Second World War Enigma and the Bombe Graham Ellsbury's pages on the breaking of Enigma Pictures of a four-rotor naval enigma, including Flash (SWF) views of the machine The origins of the Enigma/ULTRA by Dr. Wladyslaw Kozaczuk Enigma Pictures and Demonstration by NSA Employee at RSA Enigma simulation in HTML/Javascript

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Loonie

The Canadian 1 dollar coin (commonly called Loonie) is a gold-coloured, bronze-plated, one-dollar coin introduced in 1987. It bears images of a common loon, a well-known Canadian bird, on the reverse, and of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse. The design for the coin was meant to be a voyageur theme, similar to the country's previous one dollar/silver dollar coin, but the master dies were lost by the courier service while in transit to the Royal Canadian Mint in Winnipeg. In order to avoid possible counterfeiting, a different design was used. Snopes: Loonie Design The coin has become the symbol of its currency. Newspapers often discuss the rate at which the loonie is trading against the United States "greenback". The nickname loonie ( in French) became so widely recognized that on March 15, 2006 the Royal Canadian Mint secured the rights to the name "Loonie". Canadian Intellectual Property Office record The coin — an 11-sided polygon — is made of Aureate, a bronze-electroplated nickel combination. The total composition of the coin is 91.5% nickel and 8.5% bronze. The bronze is about 88% copper and 12% tin. Public reaction The coin was released on 30 June 1987. The $1 note remained in issue and in circulation along with the coin for the next two years, until the note was finally withdrawn on 30 June 1989. http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/banknotes/general/character/1969-79_1.html Bank of Canada: 1973 issue $1 note. The coin has been met with a general public acceptance. The town of Echo Bay, Ontario, home of loonie designer Robert-Ralph Carmichael, has erected an enormous loonie in his honour along the highway — similar to Sudbury's 'Big Nickel'. Commemorative editions The design has been changed several times for commemorative editions: YearThemeArtistMintageSpecial notes1992125th Anniversary of the Confederation Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 60th Anniversary Edition, p. 174 Rita Swanson23,010,000showing children and the Parliament Building. The regular loon design was also minted that year bearing the double date "1867-1992".1994Remembrance Design Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 60th Anniversary Edition, p. 175 RCM Staff15,000,000image of the National War Memorial in Ottawa1995Peacekeeping Monument J.K. Harman, R.G. Enriquez, C.H. Oberlander, Susan Taylor41,813,100 (see note)Included in 1995 Loon Mintage2004OLYMPIC Lucky Loonie Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 60th Anniversary Edition, p. 177 R.R. Carmichael6,526,0001st Lucky Loonie.2005Terry Fox Stan Witten12,909,000 2006 Royal Canadian Mint Annual Report, p. 46 Fox is the first Canadian citizen to be featured on a circulated Canadian coin. There are versions that exist without grass on the reverse of the coin. 2006OLYMPIC Lucky LoonieJean-Luc Grondin2,145,000 2nd Lucky Loonie.2008OLYMPIC Lucky LoonieJean-Luc Grondin10,000,000 3rd Lucky Loonie.2009Montreal Canadiens Centennial LoonieSusanna Blunt10,000,000 To Commemorate the 100th anniversary celebration of the Montreal Canadiens professional hockey team. Circulated only in the province of Quebec at Metro(c) Grocery Stores.2010OLYMPIC Lucky LoonieN/AN/A4th Lucky Loonie. Specimen set variant dollars The big loonie in Echo Bay, ON YearThemeArtistMintageIssue price200215th Anniversary Loonie Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 60th Anniversary Edition, p. 315 Dora de Pédery-Hunt67,672$39.952004Jack Miner Bird Sanctuary Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 62nd Edition, p. 236 Susan Taylor46,493$39.952005Tufted Puffin Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 62nd Edition, p. 237 N/A39,818$39.95 2006Snowy Owl Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 62nd Edition, p. 238 Glen Loates39,935$44.952007Trumpeter SwanKerri Burnett40,000$45.95 First strikes YearThemeMintageIssue Price2005Common Loon1,944$14.952005Terry Fox 19,949$14.952006Lucky Loonie20,010$15.952006With New Mint Mark5,000$29.95 The lucky loonie In recent years, the golden-coloured loonie became associated with Canada's winning hockey and curling teams and has been viewed as a good-luck charm in international competition. The legend began during the 2002 Winter Olympics, when a Canadian icemaker for the ice surfaces in the ice hockey tournament, Trent Evans, had buried a loonie under centre ice. Do you believe in luck? Discover the Lucky Loonie from the Royal Canadian Mint The original reason for placing the loonie was to assist in the puck-drop: the centre ice at Salt Lake was emblazoned with a large logo, and was missing the customary circle used by the referee and face-off players as a target for the puck - so he needed to add some kind of a dot as a puck target that would not stand out, and a loonie buried under the ice served well. Both the men's and women's hockey teams would win gold in the tournament, the men's 50 years to the day after their last gold medal victory. Following the Games, Team Canada executive director Wayne Gretzky recovered the coin and gave it to the Hockey Hall of Fame. A loonie was also used at the IIHF World Hockey Championships between Canada and Sweden on May 11, 2003. This lucky loonie is known affectionately as the Helsinki Loonie. It was hidden surreptitiously before the Gold-Medal hockey game and saw Team Canada to victory. After forward Anson Carter scored against Swedish goaltender Mikael Tellqvist in overtime to win the World Hockey Championship for Canada, Team Canada officials admitted they had placed a Loonie in the padding beneath the crossbar of the Swedish net. Hockey Hall of Fame - 1st Annual Hockey hall of Fame Game The legend is also prevalent in curling, as the Kevin Martin rink at the 2002 Winter Olympics had won silver medals on a sheet with silver-coloured quarters underneath the surface. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, the Canadian icemakers in the curling tournament buried two loonies, one at each end of the sheet — coincidentally, Brad Gushue would win the gold medal there. In the same Olympics, the icemakers at the hockey tournament announced that they would not bury a loonie under the ice. The men's team finished out of the medals while the women's team won gold. This legend is kept alive by the Royal Canadian Mint, which has since issued specially-designed "Lucky Loonies" for each year the summer and winter Olympics Games are held. Two new Olympic-themed loonies are due to be released in commemoration of the 2010 Winter Olympics being held in Vancouver-Whistler. An episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine ("Blaze of Glory") also made mention of a lucky loonie – although the episode's air date (12 May 1997) predates the more-recent Olympic tradition, making it impossible for the scriptwriter to have intended a connection between the fictional coin and its real-world counterpart. The character, Michael Eddington, had a family heirloom in the form of a 22nd century Canadian one dollar coin that he called his "lucky loonie". Team Russia has also made use of the lucky loonie - in the IIHF world championships in the year 2008 the coin was buried by Alexander Ovechkin at the centre of the ice and then dug out after Russia beat Canada 5 - 4 in overtime. In the 2006 Stanley Cup Finals, the Edmonton Oilers were said to have a lucky loonie buried at centre ice of the home arena of the opposing Carolina Hurricanes in Raleigh, North Carolina. However, during a practice before game 7 of the series, the Carolina players discovered and removed the loonie and the Oilers lost the championship in that final game. References External links Multimedia CBC Archives News item talking about the introduction of the Loonie. The loonie's American trade secret revealed Loonie 20 years old Web The chemistry of the loonie Snopes: A loon appears on Canada's one-dollar coin because the original dies, featuring a different design, were lost in transit. Loonie at centre ice

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El_Niño

Average circulation in the south Pacific Ocean El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Niño) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. The Pacific ocean signatures, El Niño and La Niña are important temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean. The name El Niño, from the Spanish for "the little boy", refers to the Christ child, because the phenomenon is usually noticed around Christmas time in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of South America. La Niña, similarly, means "the little girl". These effects were first described in 1923 by Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker from whom the Walker circulation, an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon, takes its name. The atmospheric signature, the Southern Oscillation (SO) reflects the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. The most recent occurrence of El Niño started in September 2006 and lasted until early 2007. From June 2007 on, data indicated a weak La Niña event, strengthening in early 2008 and weakening in late 2008, with a forecast return to neutral conditions in 2009. ENSO is associated with floods, droughts, and other disturbances in a range of locations around the world. These effects, and the irregularity of the ENSO phenomenon, makes predicting it of high interest. Significant advances in the predictability of ENSO were contributed by Stephen Zebiak and Mark Cane. ENSO is the most prominent known source of inter-annual variability in weather and climate around the world (about 3 to 8 years), though not all areas are affected. ENSO has signatures in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. During major warm events, El Niño warming extends over much of the tropical Pacific and becomes clearly linked to the intensity of the Southern Oscillation. While ENSO effects are basically in phase between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, ENSO effects in the Atlantic Ocean lag behind those in the Pacific by 12 to 18 months. Many of the countries most affected by ENSO are developing countries that are largely dependent upon their agricultural and fishery sectors for food supply, employment, and foreign exchange. New capabilities to predict the onset of ENSO events can have global socio-economic impacts. While ENSO is a natural part of the Earth's climate, an important concern is whether its intensity or frequency may change as a result of global warming. Low-frequency variability has been evidenced; interdecadal modulation of ENSO from the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) or the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) might exist. This could explain the so-called protracted ENSO of the early 1990s. El Niño and La Niña Normal Pacific pattern. Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward west. Cold water upwells along South American coast. (NOAA / PMEL / TAO) El Niño Conditions. Warm water pool approaches South American coast. Absence of cold upwelling increases warming. La Niña Conditions. Warm water is further west than usual. El Niño and La Niña are officially defined as sustained sea surface temperature anomalies of magnitude greater than 0.5°C across the central tropical Pacific Ocean. When the condition is met for a period of less than five months, it is classified as El Niño or La Niña conditions; if the anomaly persists for five months or longer, it is classified as an El Niño or La Niña episode. Historically, it has occurred at irregular intervals of 2-7 years and has usually lasted one or two years. The first signs of an El Niño are: Rise in surface pressure over the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, and Australia Fall in air pressure over Tahiti and the rest of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean Trade winds in the south Pacific weaken or head east Warm air rises near Peru, causing rain in the northern Peruvian deserts Warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific. It takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific. El Niño's warm current of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the Humboldt Current, also known as the Peru Current, which support great populations of food fish. In most years the warming lasts only a few weeks or a month, after which the weather patterns return to normal and fishing improves. However, when El Niño conditions last for many months, more extensive ocean warming occurs and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious. During non-El Niño conditions, the Walker circulation is seen at the surface as easterly trade winds which move water and air warmed by the sun towards the west. This also creates ocean upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador and brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks. The western side of the equatorial Pacific is characterized by warm, wet low pressure weather as the collected moisture is dumped in the form of typhoons and thunderstorms. The ocean is some 60 cm higher in the western Pacific as the result of this motion. In the Pacific, La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific, compared to El Niño, which is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the same area. Atlantic tropical cyclone activity is generally enhanced during La Niña. The La Niña condition often follows the El Niño, especially when the latter is strong. Regional impacts of warm ENSO episodes (El Niño). Regional impacts of cold ENSO episodes. (La Niña) In summary: In a 'normal' year a Walker Loop exists whereby there is an East-West circulation in low latitudes between South America and East Australia. Warm surface waters are pushed into the West Pacific causing low pressure and so higher rainfall here. Over the coast of South America sea surface temps are lower and so high pressure and drier conditions are present. Every 4-7 years and lasting for up to 2 years there is a shift in the temperature structure of the Pacific Ocean resulting in warmer waters along the coast of South America. The low pressure produced weakens the trade wind circulation and causes high rainfall along the west coast of South America and much drier conditions than usual in the Western Pacific. This is known as the El Niño phenomenon. For completion, the reversal of this is La Niña which creates particularly cold water along the South American coast. This is defined by stronger trade winds and cold, nutrient rich water occupying most of the tropical Pacific Ocean. As a result rain is abundant over South East Asia. (Harris, 2009) Wider effects of El Niño conditions Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean. The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet summers (December-February) along the coasts of northern Peru and Ecuador, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. The effects during the months of February, March and April may become critical. Southern Brazil and northern Argentina also experience wetter than normal conditions but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central Chile receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Altiplano is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia and Central America. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of Southeast Asia and Northern Australia, increasing bush fires and worsening haze and decreasing air quality dramatically. Drier than normal conditions are also generally observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales and eastern Tasmania from June to August. West of the Antarctic Peninsula, the Ross, Bellingshausen, and Amundsen Sea sectors have more sea ice during El Niño. The latter two and the Weddell Sea also become warmer and have higher atmospheric pressure. In North America, typically, winters are warmer than normal in the upper Midwest states, the Northeast, and Canada, while central and southern California, northwest Mexico and the southwestern U.S., are wetter and cooler than normal. Summer is wetter in the intermountain regions of the U.S. The Pacific Northwest states, on the other hand, tend to experience dry but foggy winters and warm, sunny and precocious springs during an El Niño. During a La Niña, by contrast, the Midwestern U.S. tends to be drier than normal. El Niño is associated with increased wave-caused coastal erosion along the US Pacific Coast and decreased hurricane activity in the Atlantic, especially south of 25º N; this reduction is largely due to stronger wind shear in the tropics. Finally, East Africa, including Kenya, Tanzania and the White Nile basin experiences, in the long rains from March to May, wetter than normal conditions. There also are drier than normal conditions from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Botswana. Western Hemisphere Warm Pool Study of climate records has found that about half of the summers after an El Niño have unusual warming in the Western Hemisphere Warm Pool (WHWP). This affects weather in the area and seems to be related to the North Atlantic Oscillation. Atlantic effect An effect similar to El Niño sometimes takes place in the Atlantic Ocean, where water along equatorial Africa's Gulf of Guinea becomes warmer and eastern Brazil becomes cooler and drier. This is related to El Niño's effect on the Walker circulation over South America, which causes the easterly trade winds in the western Atlantic Ocean region to strengthen. Cases of double El Niño events have been linked to severe famines related to the extended failure of monsoon rains, as in the book Late Victorian Holocausts. Non-climate effects Along the west coast of South America, El Niño reduces the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large fish populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the fertilizer industry. East Pacific fishing The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events. The world's largest fishery collapsed due to overfishing during the 1972 El Niño Peruvian anchoveta reduction. During the 1982-83 event, jack mackerel and anchoveta populations were reduced, scallops increased in warmer water, but hake followed cooler water down the continental slope, while shrimp and sardines moved southward so some catches decreased while others increased. Horse mackerel have increased in the region during warm events. Shifting locations and types of fish due to changing conditions provide challenges for fishing industries. Peruvian sardines have moved during El Niño events to Chilean areas. Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for self-employed fishermen and industrial fleets. The ENSO variability may contribute to the great success of small fast-growing species along the Peruvian coast, as periods of low population removes predators in the area. Similar effects benefit migratory birds which travel each spring from predator-rich tropical areas to distant winter-stressed nesting areas. There is some evidence that El Niño activity is correlated with incidence of red tides off the Pacific coast of California. It has been postulated that a strong El Niño led to the demise of the Moche and other pre-Columbian Peruvian cultures. A recent study of El Niño patterns suggests that the French Revolution was caused in part by the poor crop yields of 1788-89 in Europe, resulting from an unusually strong El-Niño effect between 1789-93. La Niña Sea surface skin temperature anomalies in November 2007 showing La Niña conditions La Niña is the name for the cold phase of ENSO, during which the cold pool in the eastern Pacific intensifies and the trade winds strengthen. The name La Niña originates from Spanish, meaning "the little girl", analogous to El Niño meaning "the little boy". It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño. Effects of La Niña Regional impacts of La Niña. La Niña causes mostly the opposite effects of El Niño, for example, El Niño would cause a wet period in the Midwestern U.S., while La Niña would typically cause a dry period in this area. Recent occurrences There was a strong La Niña episode during 1988-1989. La Niña also formed in 1995, from 1998-2000, and a minor one from 2000-2001. Recently, there was a moderate La Niña, which began developing in mid-2007. The NOAA confirmed that a moderate La Niña developed in their November El Niño/Southern Oscillation Diagnostic Discussion, and that it would likely continue into 2008. According to NOAA, "Expected La Niña impacts during November – January include a continuation of above-average precipitation over Indonesia and below-average precipitation over the central equatorial Pacific. For the contiguous United States, potential impacts include above average precipitation in the Northern Rockies, Northern California, and in southern and eastern regions of the Pacific Northwest. Below-average precipitation is expected across the southern tier, particularly in the southwestern and southeastern states." In March 2008, La Niña caused a drop in sea surface temperatures over Southeast Asia by an amount of 2°C. It also caused heavy rains over Malaysia, Philippines and Indonesia. ENSO and global warming A few years ago, attribution of recent changes (if any) in ENSO or predictions of future changes were very weak. More recent results tend to suggest that the projected tropical warming may follow a somewhat El Niño-like spatial pattern, without necessarily altering the variability about this pattern, while the ENSO cycle may be minimally shortened. Causes of El Niño The mechanisms that cause an El Niño event are still being investigated due to the difficulties in establishing clear patterns that allow reliable forecasts. As the phenomenon is located near the equator, events in both hemispheres may have an effect, and since weather events (made up of changeable wind directions) show some chaotic tendencies, the onset of El Niño-events reflects this. Long-range forecasts remain tentative for this reason. Major theories Jacob Bjerknes in 1969 suggested that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the Walker circulation and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west. The result is increasingly warm water toward the east. Wyrtki in 1975 proposed that increased trade winds could build up the western bulge of warm water, and any sudden weakening in the winds would allow that warm water to surge eastward. However, there was no such buildup preceding the 1982-83 event. Recharge oscillator: Several mechanisms have been proposed where warmth builds up in the equatorial area, then is dispersed to higher latitudes by an El Niño event. The cooler area then has to "recharge" warmth for several years before another event can take place. Western Pacific oscillator: In the western Pacific, several weather conditions can cause westerly wind anomalies. For example, cyclones north and south of the equator force west-to-east winds between. Such wind may counteract the typical easterly flows across the Pacific and create a tendency toward continuing the eastward motion. A weakening in the westward currents at such a time may be the final trigger needed to shift into an El Niño. Equatorial Pacific Ocean may tend to be near El Niño conditions, with several random variations affecting behavior. Weather patterns from outside the area or volcanic events may be some such factors. The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is an important source of variability that can contribute to a more rapid evolution toward El Niño conditions through related fluctuations in low-level winds and precipitation over the western and central equatorial Pacific. Eastward-propagating oceanic Kelvin waves can be produced by MJO activity. The MJO may in turn be influenced by a developing El Niño, leading to a positive feedback. Adams, Mann and Ammann, using statistical analysis of paleoclimatic records, that a volcanic event in the tropics tilts the climate into a state where El Niño-like conditions are favored. (This is caused by the volcano's effect on solar radiation reaching the surface, not by the heat of the eruption itself.) Australian geologist Ian Plimer has stated that El Niño is caused by earthquake activity and volcanic activity in the mid-ocean ridges. http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21542564-421,00.html History of the theory The first mention of the term "El Niño" to refer to climate occurs in 1892, when Captain Camilo Carrillo told the Geographical society congress in Lima that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas. However, even before then the phenomenon was of interest because of its effects on biological productivity, with its effects on the guano industry. Normal conditions along the west Peruvian coast are a cold southerly current (the Humboldt Current) with upwelling water; the upwelling nutrients lead to great oceanic productivity; the cold currents leads to very dry conditions on land. Similar conditions exist elsewhere (California Current; Benguela Current off South Africa; West Australia Current). Thus the replacement of this with warmer northerly water leads to lower biological productivity in the ocean, and more rainfall — often flooding — on land; the connection with flooding was reported in 1895 by Pezet and Eguiguren. Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was much interest in forecasting climate anomalies (for food production) in India and Australia. Charles Todd, in 1893, suggested that droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time; Norman Lockyer noted the same in 1904. In 1924 Gilbert Walker (for whom the Walker circulation is named) first coined the term "Southern Oscillation". For most of the twentieth century, El Niño was thought of as a largely local phenomenon. The major 1982-83 El Niño lead to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community. The 1998 El Niño event caused an estimated 16% of the world’s reef systems to die. Since then, mass coral bleaching has become common worldwide, with all regions having suffered ‘severe bleaching’. History of the phenomenon ENSO conditions seem to have occurred at every two to seven years for at least the past 300 years, but most of them have been weak. Major ENSO events have occurred in the years 1790-93, 1828, 1876-78, 1891, 1925-26, 1982-83, and 1997-98. Also, there is evidence for strong El Niño events during the early Holocene. Recent El Niños have occurred in 1986-1987, 1991-1992, 1993, 1994, 1997-1998, 2002-2003, 2004-2005 and 2006-2007. The El Niño of 1997-1998 was particularly strong and brought the phenomenon to worldwide attention. The event temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5°C, compared to the usual increase of 0.25°C associated with El Niño events. The period from 1990-1994 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession (but were generally weak). There is some debate as to whether global warming increases the intensity and/or frequency of El Niño episodes. (see also the ENSO and Global Warming section above). Southern Oscillation The Southern Oscillation is an oscillation in air pressure between the tropical eastern and western Pacific Ocean waters. The strength of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The SOI is a record of the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the normalized surface air pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. Australian Bureau of Meteorology El Niño episodes, which are associated with negative values of the SOI, are usually accompanied by sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, a decrease in the strength of the Pacific trade winds, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. Conversely, La Niña episodes are associated with positive values of the SOI and are accompanied by stronger Pacific trade winds and warmer sea temperatures to the north of Australia. Waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean become cooler during this time. Related images See also Indian Ocean Dipole Madden-Julian oscillation Pacific Decadal Oscillation References Data sources Linear correlation to US climate from the U.S. National Climatic Data Center. Values of the Southern Oscillation Index. Further reading External links Economic Costs of El Niño / La Niña and Economic Benefits from Improved Forecasting from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative El Niño and La Niña from the 1999 International Red Cross World Disasters Report by Eric J. Lyman. ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) ENSO events 1951 - present La Niña episodes in the Tropical Pacific List of El Niño and La Niña events since 1950 NOAA announces 2004 El Niño NOAA El Niño Page Ocean Motion: El Niño SOI (Southern Oscillation Index) The Climate of Peru The El Niño Story The El Niño Theme Page Explains El Niño and La Niña, provides real time data, forecasts, animations, FAQ, impacts and more. be-x-old:Эль Ніньё

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Spectroscopy

Animation of the dispersion of light as it travels through a triangular prism Spectroscopy was originally the study of the interaction between radiation and matter as a function of wavelength (λ). In fact, historically, spectroscopy referred to the use of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g. by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any measurement of a quantity as function of either wavelength or frequency. Thus it also can refer to a response to an alternating field or varying frequency (ν). A further extension of the scope of the definition added energy (E) as a variable, once the very close relationship E = hν for photons was realized (h is the Planck constant). A plot of the response as a function of wavelength—or more commonly frequency—is referred to as a spectrum; see also spectral linewidth. Spectrometry is the spectroscopic technique used to assess the concentration or amount of a given species. In those cases, the instrument that performs such measurements is a spectrometer or spectrograph. Spectroscopy/spectrometry is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the identification of substances through the spectrum emitted from or absorbed by them. Spectroscopy/spectrometry is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most large telescopes have spectrometers, which are used either to measure the chemical composition and physical properties of astronomical objects or to measure their velocities from the Doppler shift of their spectral lines. Classification of methods Extremely high resolution spectrum of the Sun showing thousands of elemental absorption lines (Fraunhofer lines) Nature of excitation measured The type of spectroscopy depends on the physical quantity measured. Normally, the quantity that is measured is an intensity, either of energy absorbed or produced. Electromagnetic spectroscopy involves interactions of matter with electromagnetic radiation, such as light. Electron spectroscopy involves interactions with electron beams. Auger spectroscopy involves inducing the Auger effect with an electron beam. In this case the measurement typically involves the kinetic energy of the electron as variable. Mass spectrometry involves the interaction of charged species with magnetic and/or electric fields, giving rise to a mass spectrum. The term "mass spectroscopy" is deprecated, for the technique is primarily a form of measurement, though it does produce a spectrum for observation. This spectrum has the mass m as variable, but the measurement is essentially one of the kinetic energy of the particle. Acoustic spectroscopy involves the frequency of sound. Dielectric spectroscopy involves the frequency of an external electrical field Mechanical spectroscopy involves the frequency of an external mechanical stress, e.g. a torsion applied to a piece of material. Measurement process Most spectroscopic methods are differentiated as either atomic or molecular based on whether or not they apply to atoms or molecules. Along with that distinction, they can be classified on the nature of their interaction: Absorption spectroscopy uses the range of the electromagnetic spectra in which a substance absorbs. This includes atomic absorption spectroscopy and various molecular techniques, such as infrared spectroscopy in that region and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the radio region. Emission spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a substance radiates (emits). The substance first must absorb energy. This energy can be from a variety of sources, which determines the name of the subsequent emission, like luminescence. Molecular luminescence techniques include spectrofluorimetry. Scattering spectroscopy measures the amount of light that a substance scatters at certain wavelengths, incident angles, and polarization angles. The scattering process is much faster than the absorption/emission process. One of the most useful applications of light scattering spectroscopy is Raman spectroscopy. Common types Absorption Absorption spectroscopy is a technique in which the power of a beam of light measured before and after interaction with a sample is compared. When performed with tunable diode laser, it is often referred to as Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS). It is also often combined with a modulation technique, most often wavelength modulation spectrometry (WMS) and occasionally frequency modulation spectrometry (FMS) in order to reduce the noise in the system. Fluorescence Spectrum of light from a fluorescent lamp showing prominent mercury peaks Fluorescence spectroscopy uses higher energy photons to excite a sample, which will then emit lower energy photons. This technique has become popular for its biochemical and medical applications, and can be used for confocal microscopy, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, and fluorescence lifetime imaging. X-ray When X-rays of sufficient frequency (energy) interact with a substance, inner shell electrons in the atom are excited to outer empty orbitals, or they may be removed completely, ionizing the atom. The inner shell "hole" will then be filled by electrons from outer orbitals. The energy available in this de-excitation process is emitted as radiation (fluorescence) or will remove other less-bound electrons from the atom (Auger effect). The absorption or emission frequencies (energies) are characteristic of the specific atom. In addition, for a specific atom small frequency (energy) variations occur which are characteristic of the chemical bonding. With a suitable apparatus, these characteristic X-ray frequencies or Auger electron energies can be measured. X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy is used in chemistry and material sciences to determine elemental composition and chemical bonding. X-ray crystallography is a scattering process; crystalline materials scatter X-rays at well-defined angles. If the wavelength of the incident X-rays is known, this allows calculation of the distances between planes of atoms within the crystal. The intensities of the scattered X-rays give information about the atomic positions and allow the arrangement of the atoms within the crystal structure to be calculated. Flame Liquid solution samples are aspirated into a burner or nebulizer/burner combination, desolvated, atomized, and sometimes excited to a higher energy electronic state. The use of a flame during analysis requires fuel and oxidant, typically in the form of gases. Common fuel gases used are acetylene (ethyne) or hydrogen. Common oxidant gases used are oxygen, air, or nitrous oxide. These methods are often capable of analyzing metallic element analytes in the part per million, billion, or possibly lower concentration ranges. Light detectors are needed to detect light with the analysis information coming from the flame. Atomic Emission Spectroscopy - This method uses flame excitation; atoms are excited from the heat of the flame to emit light. This method commonly uses a total consumption burner with a round burning outlet. A higher temperature flame than atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA) is typically used to produce excitation of analyte atoms. Since analyte atoms are excited by the heat of the flame, no special elemental lamps to shine into the flame are needed. A high resolution polychromator can be used to produce an emission intensity vs. wavelength spectrum over a range of wavelengths showing multiple element excitation lines, meaning multiple elements can be detected in one run. Alternatively, a monochromator can be set at one wavelength to concentrate on analysis of a single element at a certain emission line. Plasma emission spectroscopy is a more modern version of this method. See Flame emission spectroscopy for more details. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (often called AA) - This method commonly uses a pre-burner nebulizer (or nebulizing chamber) to create a sample mist and a slot-shaped burner which gives a longer pathlength flame. The temperature of the flame is low enough that the flame itself does not excite sample atoms from their ground state. The nebulizer and flame are used to desolvate and atomize the sample, but the excitation of the analyte atoms is done by the use of lamps shining through the flame at various wavelengths for each type of analyte. In AA, the amount of light absorbed after going through the flame determines the amount of analyte in the sample. A graphite furnace for heating the sample to desolvate and atomize is commonly used for greater sensitivity. The graphite furnace method can also analyze some solid or slurry samples. Because of its good sensitivity and selectivity, it is still a commonly used method of analysis for certain trace elements in aqueous (and other liquid) samples. Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy - This method commonly uses a burner with a round burning outlet. The flame is used to solvate and atomize the sample, but a lamp shines light at a specific wavelength into the flame to excite the analyte atoms in the flame. The atoms of certain elements can then fluoresce emitting light in a different direction. The intensity of this fluorescing light is used for quantifying the amount of analyte element in the sample. A graphite furnace can also be used for atomic fluorescence spectroscopy. This method is not as commonly used as atomic absorption or plasma emission spectroscopy. Plasma Emission Spectroscopy In some ways similar to flame atomic emission spectroscopy, it has largely replaced it. Direct-current plasma (DCP) A direct-current plasma (DCP) is created by an electrical discharge between two electrodes. A plasma support gas is necessary, and Ar is common. Samples can be deposited on one of the electrodes, or if conducting can make up one electrode. Glow discharge-optical emission spectrometry (GD-OES) Inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) (LIBS), also called Laser-induced plasma spectrometry (LIPS) Microwave-induced plasma (MIP) Spark or arc (emission) spectroscopy - is used for the analysis of metallic elements in solid samples. For non-conductive materials, a sample is ground with graphite powder to make it conductive. In traditional arc spectroscopy methods, a sample of the solid was commonly ground up and destroyed during analysis. An electric arc or spark is passed through the sample, heating the sample to a high temperature to excite the atoms in it. The excited analyte atoms glow emitting light at various wavelengths which could be detected by common spectroscopic methods. Since the conditions producing the arc emission typically are not controlled quantitatively, the analysis for the elements is qualitative. Nowadays, the spark sources with controlled discharges under an argon atmosphere allow that this method can be considered eminently quantitative, and its use is widely expanded worldwide through production control laboratories of foundries and steel mills. Visible Many atoms emit or absorb visible light. In order to obtain a fine line spectrum, the atoms must be in a gas phase. This means that the substance has to be vaporised. The spectrum is studied in absorption or emission. Visible absorption spectroscopy is often combined with UV absorption spectroscopy in UV/Vis spectroscopy. Although this form may be uncommon as the human eye is a similar indicator, it still proves useful when distinguishing colours. Ultraviolet All atoms absorb in the Ultraviolet (UV) region because these photons are energetic enough to excite outer electrons. If the frequency is high enough, photoionization takes place. UV spectroscopy is also used in quantifying protein and DNA concentration as well as the ratio of protein to DNA concentration in a solution. Several amino acids usually found in protein, such as tryptophan, absorb light in the 280 nm range and DNA absorbs light in the 260 nm range. For this reason, the ratio of 260/280 nm absorbance is a good general indicator of the relative purity of a solution in terms of these two macromolecules. Reasonable estimates of protein or DNA concentration can also be made this way using Beer's law. Infrared Infrared spectroscopy offers the possibility to measure different types of inter atomic bond vibrations at different frequencies. Especially in organic chemistry the analysis of IR absorption spectra shows what type of bonds are present in the sample. It is also an important method for analysing polymers and constituents like fillers, pigments and plasticizers. Near Infrared (NIR) The near infrared NIR range, immediately beyond the visible wavelength range, is especially important for practical applications because of the much greater penetration depth of NIR radiation into the sample than in the case of mid IR spectroscopy range. This allows also large samples to be measured in each scan by NIR spectroscopy, and is currently employed for many practical applications such as: rapid grain analysis, medical diagnosis pharmaceuticals/medicines J. Dubois, G. Sando, E. N. Lewis, Near-Infrared Chemical Imaging, A Valuable Tool for the Pharmaceutical Industry, G.I.T. Laboratory Journal Europe, No. 1-2, 2007 , biotechnology, genomics analysis, proteomic analysis, interactomics research, inline textile monitoring, food analysis and chemical imaging/hyperspectral imaging of intact organisms http://www.malvern.com/LabEng/products/sdi/bibliography/sdi_bibliography.htm E. N. Lewis, E. Lee and L. H. Kidder, Combining Imaging and Spectroscopy: Solving Problems with Near-Infrared Chemical Imaging. Microscopy Today, Volume 12, No. 6, 11/2004. Near Infrared Microspectroscopy, Fluorescence Microspectroscopy,Infrared Chemical Imaging and High Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Analysis of Soybean Seeds, Somatic Embryos and Single Cells., Baianu, I.C. et al. 2004., In Oil Extraction and Analysis., D. Luthria, Editor pp.241-273, AOCS Press., Champaign, IL. Single Cancer Cell Detection by Near Infrared Microspectroscopy, Infrared Chemical Imaging and Fluorescence Microspectroscopy.2004.I. C. Baianu, D. Costescu, N. E. Hofmann and S. S. Korban, q-bio/0407006 (July 2004) , plastics, textiles, insect detection, forensic lab application, crime detection, various military applications, and so on. Raman Raman spectroscopy uses the inelastic scattering of light to analyse vibrational and rotational modes of molecules. The resulting 'fingerprints' are an aid to analysis. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) CARS is a recent technique that has high sensitivity and powerful applications for in vivo spectroscopy and imaging C.L. Evans and X.S. Xie.2008. Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Microscopy: Chemical Imaging for Biology and Medicine., doi:10.1146/annurev.anchem.1.031207.112754 Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry, 1: 883-909. . Nuclear magnetic resonance Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analyzes the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei to determine different electronic local environments of hydrogen, carbon, or other atoms in an organic compound or other compound. This is used to help determine the structure of the compound. Photoemission Mössbauer Transmission or conversion-electron (CEMS) modes of Mössbauer spectroscopy probe the properties of specific isotope nuclei in different atomic environments by analyzing the resonant absorption of characteristic energy gamma-rays known as the Mössbauer effect. Other types Acoustic spectroscopy Auger Spectroscopy A method used to study surfaces of materials on a micro-scale. It is often used in connection with electron microscopy. Cavity ring down spectroscopy Circular Dichroism spectroscopy Dielectric spectroscopy Force spectroscopy Fourier transform spectroscopy An efficient method for processing spectra data obtained using interferometers. Nearly all infrared spectroscopy (Such as FTIR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are based on Fourier transforms. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) Hadron spectroscopy Studies the energy/mass spectrum of hadrons according to spin, parity, and other particle properties. Baryon spectroscopy and meson spectroscopy are both types of hadron spectroscopy. Inelastic electron tunnelling spectroscopy (IETS) Uses the changes in current due to inelastic electron-vibration interaction at specific energies which can also measure optically forbidden transitions. Inelastic neutron scattering Like Raman spectroscopy, but with neutrons instead of photons. Mechanical spectroscopy Involves interactions with macroscopic vibrations, such as phonons. An example is acoustic spectroscopy, involving sound waves. Neutron spin echo spectroscopy Measures internal dynamics in proteins and other soft matter systems Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Photoacoustic spectroscopy Measures the sound waves produced upon the absorption of radiation. Photothermal spectroscopy Measures heat evolved upon absorption of radiation. Raman optical activity spectroscopy Exploits Raman scattering and optical activity effects to reveal detailed information on chiral centers in molecules. Terahertz spectroscopy Uses wavelengths above infrared spectroscopy and below microwave or millimeter wave measurements. Time-resolved spectroscopy Spectroscopy of matter in situations where the properties are changing with time. Thermal infrared spectroscopy Measures thermal radiation emitted from materials and surfaces and is used to determine the type of bonds present in a sample as well as their lattice environment. The techniques are widely used by organic chemists, mineralogists, and planetary scientists. Background subtraction Background subtraction is a term typically used in spectroscopy when one explains the process of acquiring a background radiation level (or ambient radiation level) and then makes an algorithmic adjustment to the data to obtain qualitative information about any deviations from the background, even when they are an order of magnitude less decipherable than the background itself. Background subtraction can effect a number of statistical calculations (Continuum, Compton, Bremsstrahlung) leading to improved overall system performance. References Cited See also Absorption cross section Astronomical spectroscopy Atomic spectroscopy Nuclear magnetic resonance 2D-FT NMRI and Spectroscopy Near infrared spectroscopy Coherent spectroscopy Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy Deep-level transient spectroscopy EPR spectroscopy Gamma spectroscopy Metamerism (color) Rigid rotor Rotational spectroscopy Saturated spectroscopy Scanning tunneling spectroscopy Scattering theory Spectral power distributions Spectral reflectance Spectrophotometry Spectroscopic notation Spectrum analysis Vibrational spectroscopy Vibrational circular dichroism spectroscopy Joseph von Fraunhofer Robert Bunsen Gustav Kirchhoff External links History of Spectroscopy Chemometric Analysis for Spectroscopy The Science of Spectroscopy - supported by NASA, includes OpenSpectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit A Short Study of the Characteristics of two Lab Spectroscopes NIST government spectroscopy data Potentiodynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

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Hymenoptera

Hymenoptera is one of the larger orders of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. The name refers to the membranous wings of the insects, and is derived from the Ancient Greek ὑμήν (humen): membrane and πτερόν (pteron): wing. The hindwings are connected to the forewings by a series of hooks called hamuli. Females typically have a special ovipositor for inserting eggs into hosts or otherwise inaccessible places. The ovipositor is often modified into a stinger. The young develop through complete metamorphosis — that is, they have a worm-like larval stage and an inactive pupal stage before they mature (See holometabolism). Evolution Hymenoptera originated in the Triassic, the oldest fossils belonging to the family Xyelidae. Social hymenopterans appeared during the Cretaceous. The evolution of this group has been intensively studied by A. Rasnitsyn, M. S. Engel, G. Dlussky, and others. Anatomy Hymenoptera are medium to large insects, usually with two pairs of wings. Their mouthparts are adapted for chewing, with well-developed mandibles. Many species have further developed the mouthparts into a lengthy proboscis, with which they can drink liquids, such as nectar. They have large compound eyes, and typically three ocelli. The forward margin of the hindwing bears a number of hooked bristles, or "hamuli", which lock onto the forewing, keeping them held together. The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side, but the largest wasps may have a considerable number, keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly. Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects, especially in the smaller species. In the more primitive hymenoptera, the ovipositor is bladelike, and adapted for slicing plant tissues. In the majority, however, it is modified for piercing, and, in some cases, is several times the length of the body. In some species, the ovipositor has become modified as a stinger, and the eggs are laid from the base of the structure, rather than from the tip, which is used only to inject venom. The stinger is typically used to immobilise prey, but in some wasps and bees may be used in defence. The larvae of the more primitive hymenoptera resemble caterpillars in appearance, and like them, typically feed on leaves. They have large chewing mandibles, three thoracic limbs, and, in most cases, a number of abdominal prolegs. Unlike caterpillars, however, the prolegs have no grasping spines, and the antennae are reduced to mere stubs. The larvae of other hymenoptera, however, more closely resemble maggots, and are adapted to life in a protected environment. This may be the body of a host organism, or a cell in a nest, where the adults will care for the larva. Such larvae have soft bodies with no limbs. They are also unable to defecate until they reach adulthood, presumably to avoid contaminating their environment, having an incomplete digestive tract. Sex determination Among the hymenopterans, sex is determined by the number of chromosomes an individual possesses. Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent's respective gametes), and so develop into diploid females, while unfertilized eggs only contain one set (from the mother), and so develop into haploid males; the act of fertilization is under the voluntary control of the egg-laying female. This phenomenon is called haplodiploidy. Note, however, that the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination may be more complex than simple chromosome number. In many Hymenoptera, sex is actually determined by a single gene locus with many alleles. In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male instead. This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives. Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee and wasp species. One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of eusociality within this order. Diet Different species of hymenoptera show a wide range of feeding habits. The most primitive forms are typically herbivorous, feeding on leaves or pine needles. Stinging wasps are predators, and will provision their larvae with immobilised prey, while bees feed on nectar and pollen. A number of species are parasitoid as larvae. The adults inject the eggs into a paralysed host, which they begin to consume after hatching. Some species are even hyperparasitoid, with the host itself being another parasitoid insect. Habits intermediate between those of the herbivorous and parasitoid forms are shown in some hymenopterans, which inhabit the galls or nests of other insects, stealing their food, and eventually killing and eating the occupant. Classification Symphyta The suborder Symphyta includes the sawflies, horntails, and parasitic wood wasps. The group may be paraphyletic, as it has been suggested that the family Orussidae may be the group from which the Apocrita arose. They have an unconstricted junction between the thorax and abdomen, and the larvae of free-living forms are herbivorous, have legs, prolegs (on every segment, unlike Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)), and ocelli. Apocrita The wasps, bees, and ants together make up the suborder Apocrita, characterized by a constriction between the first and second abdominal segments called a wasp-waist (petiole), also involving the fusion of the first abdominal segment to the thorax. Also, the larvae of all Apocrita do not have legs, prolegs, or ocelli. References External links General Hymenoptera ForumGerman and International Hymenoptera Information System (German) Hymenoptera of North America - large format reference photographs, descriptions, taxonomy International Society of Hymenopterists Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society (UK) Ants Photo Gallery (RU) Fossil insects in Russia International Palaeoentomological Society Sphecos Forum for Aculeate Hymenopterra Hymenoptera images on MorphBank, a biological image database Systematics Hymenopteran Systematics Hymenoptera Online 1000+ images Regional Lists Insetos do Brasil New Zealand Hymenoptera Waspweb Afrotropical Hymenoptera Excellent images

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Bistability

Balls marked "1" and "3" are in the two stable positions Something that is bistable can be resting in two states. In physics, for an ensemble of particles, the bistability comes from the fact that its free energy has three critical points. Two of them are minima and the last is a maximum. By mathematical arguments, the maximum must lie between the two minima. By default, the system state will be in either of the minima states, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy. The maximum can be visualised as a barrier. A transition from one state of minimal free energy requires some form of activation energy to penetrate the barrier (compare activation energy and Arrhenius equation for the chemical case.) After the barrier has been reached, the system will relax into the next state of lowest energy again. The time it takes is usually attributed the relaxation time. (There might be uncertainty as to which state will be the new one, but it is often well defined in the situation.) Optical bistability is an attribute of certain optical devices where two resonant transmissions states are possible and stable, dependent on the input. See also ferroelectric, ferromagnetic, hysteresis, bistable perception astable multivibrator, monostable multivibrator. Schmidt trigger strong Allee effect Multistable perception describes the spontaneous or exogenous alternation of different percepts in face of the same physical stimulus. IMOD a bistable reflective display technology found in mirasol displays by Qualcomm External links http://www.answers.com/topic/optical-bistability

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Ernst_Haeckel

Ernst Haeckel. Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (February 16, 1834 – August 9, 1919), "Ernst Haeckel — Britannica Concise" (biography), Encyclopædia Britannica Concise, 2006, Concise. Britannica.com webpage: CBritannica-Haeckel. also written von Haeckel, was an eminent German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician, professor and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including phylum, phylogeny, ecology and the kingdom Protista. Haeckel promoted and popularized Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the controversial recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarizes its species' entire evolutionary development, or phylogeny. The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures (see: Kunstformen der Natur, "Artforms of Nature"). As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträtsel (1895–1899, in English, The Riddle of the Universe, 1901), the genesis for the term "world riddle" (Welträtsel); and Freedom in Science and Teaching Freedom in Science and Teaching. German 1877, English 1879, ISBN 1410211754. to support teaching evolution. In the United States, Mount Haeckel, a summit in the Eastern Sierra Nevada, overlooking the Evolution Basin, is named in his honor, as is another Mount Haeckel, a summit in New Zealand; and the asteroid 12323 Häckel. The Ernst Haeckel house ("Villa Medusa") in Jena, Germany contains a historic library. Life Sea anemones from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (Artforms of Nature) of 1904. Ernst Haeckel: Christmas of 1860 (age 26) Ernst Haeckel was born on February 16, 1834, in Potsdam (then part of Prussia). "Ernst Haeckel" (article), German Wikipedia, October 26, 2006, webpage: DE-Wiki-Ernst-Haeckel: last paragraph of "Leben" (Life) section. In 1852, Haeckel completed studies at Cathedral High School (Domgymnasium) of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and with anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858). In 1857, Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine (M.D.), and afterwards he received a license to practice medicine. The occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel, after contact with suffering patients. Haeckel studied under Carl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years, earning a doctorate in zoology, before becoming a professor of comparative anatomy at the University of Jena, where he remained 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Between 1859 and 1866, Haeckel worked on many invertebrate groups, including radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms). During a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. Haeckel named thousands of new species from 1859 to 1887. "Rudolf Steiner and Ernst Haeckel" (colleagues), Daniel Hindes, 2005, DefendingSteiner.com webpage: Steiner-Haeckel. From 1866 to 1867, Haeckel made an extended journey to the Canary Islands and during this period, met with Charles Darwin, in 1866 at Down House in Kent, Thomas Huxley and Charles Lyell. In 1867, he married Agnes Huschke. Their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869, he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Dalmatia, and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, and to Greece. Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical church. Haeckel's wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and Ernst Haeckel became substantially more frail, with a broken leg (thigh) and broken arm. He sold the mansion Medusa ("Villa Medusa") in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation. Ernst Haeckel died on August 9, 1919. Politics Haeckel's political beliefs were influenced by his affinity for the German Romantic movement coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that racial characteristics were acquired through interactions with the environment and that phylogeny directly followed ontogeny. He believed the social sciences to be instances of "applied biology". Most of these arguments have been shown to be over-generalizations at best and flatly incorrect at worst in modern biology and social studies. "Ernst Haeckel" (biography), UC Berkeley, 2004, webpage: BerkeleyEdu-Haeckel. "First World War" Haeckel was the first person known to use the term "First World War". Shortly after the start of the war Haeckel wrote: Indianapolis Star, September 20, 1914 The "European War" became known as "The Great War", and it was not until 1931, with the beginning realization that another global war might be possible, that there is any other recorded use of the term "First World War". Research Haeckel (left) with Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai, his assistant, in the Canaries, 1866. Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of evolutionary theory, and he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work on radiolaria, many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found. He was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed many now ubiquitous terms including "phylum", "phylogeny", "ecology" ("oekologie"), and proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866. His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur (Art forms of nature). Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in a Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarckism). Ruse, M. 1979. The Darwinian Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Haeckel advanced a version of the earlier "recapitulation theory", previously set out by Étienne Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Geoffroy including Robert Edmond Grant, which proposed a link between ontogeny (development of form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". His concept of recapitulation has been disputed in the form he gave it (now called "strong recapitulation"). "Strong" recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of the ancestors, while "weak" recapitulation means that what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic development process. Richardson and Keuck, (Biol. Review (2002), 77, pp. 495–528) show that it is a simplification to suppose that Haeckel held the recapitualtion theory in its strong form. They quote Haeckel as saying "If [recapitulation] was always complete, it would be a very easy task to construct whole phylogeny on the basis of ontogeny. ... There is certainly, even now, a number of lower vertebarte animals (e.g. some Anthozoa and Vermes) where we are authorised to interpret each embrylogical form directly as the historical representation or portrait-like silhouette of an extinct ancestral form. But in a great majority of animals, including man, this is not possible because the infinitely varied conditions of existence have led the embryonic forms themselves to be changed and to partly lose their original condition (Haeckel, 1903: pp. 435–436)" He supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and the theory is now considered an oversimplification of quite complicated relationships. Haeckel introduced the concept of "heterochrony", which is the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution. Haeckel was a flamboyant figure. He sometimes took great (and non-scientific) leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time that Darwin first published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), no remains of human ancestors had yet been found. Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and described these theoretical remains in great detail. He even named the as-of-yet unfound species, Pithecanthropus alalus, and charged his students to go find it. (Richard and Oskar Hertwig were two of Haeckel's many important students.) One student did find the remains: a young Dutchman named Eugene Dubois went to the East Indies and dug up the remains of Java Man, the first human ancestral remains ever found. These remains originally carried Haeckel's Pithecanthropus label, though they were later reclassified as Homo erectus. Polygenism and racism The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz, which presented human races as separately created species, was rejected by Charles Darwin, who argued for the monogenesis of the human species and the recent African origin of modern humans. In contrast to most of Darwin's supporters, Haeckel put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen, which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and, under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved — in a kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance — as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. From this Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the most potential formed human species with the most potential, led by the Semitic and Indo-Germanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore. As Haeckel stated: Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1868), p. 511; quoted after Robert J. Richards, "The linguistic creation of man: Charles Darwin, August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and the Missing Link in Nineteenth-Century Evolutionary Theory". We must mention here one of the most important results of the comparative study of languages, which for the Stammbaum of the species of men is of the highest significance, namely that human languages probably had a multiple or polyphyletic origin. Human language as such probably developed only after the species of speechless Urmenschen or Affenmenschen had split into several species or kinds. With each of these human species, language developed on its own and independently of the others. At least this is the view of Schleicher, one of the foremost authorities on this subject.… If one views the origin of the branches of language as the special and principal act of becoming human, and the species of humankind as distinguished according to their language stem, then one can say that the different species of men arose independently of one another. Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the multi-regional hypothesis, which until the 1990s remained in contention with developments of Darwin's hypothesis of a recent African origin of modern humans. The multiregional view then fell from favour, and Darwin's view has more recently been validated by the decipherment of the human genome. Haeckel did not hesitate to apply the hypothesis of polygenism to the diversity of human groups in the most heavy-handed way, becoming a leading apologist of scientific racism, stating for instance: The History of Creation, 6th edition (1914), volume 2, page 429. The Caucasian, or Mediterranean man (Homo Mediterraneus), has from time immemorial been placed at the head of all the races of men, as the most highly developed and perfect. It is generally called the Caucasian race, but as, among all the varieties of the species, the Caucasian branch is the least important, we prefer the much more suitable appellation proposed by Friedrich Müller, namely, that of Mediterranese. For the most important varieties of this species, which are moreover the most eminent actors in what is called "Universal History," first rose to a flourishing condition on the shores of the Mediterranean.… This species alone (with the exception of the Mongolian) has had an actual history; it alone has attained to that degree of civilization which seems to raise men above the rest of nature. "Infamous" embryo drawings Romanes (1892) copy of Haeckel's controversial embryological drawings. Haeckel's embryos were shown on a black background, with lighter shading in the figures: It is claimed Haeckel emphasised the similarities unduly. It has been claimed (Richardson 1998, Richardson and Keuck 2002) that some of Haeckel's embryo drawings of 1874 were fabricated. Michael K. Richardson. 1998. "Haeckel's embryos continued." Science 281:1289, quoted in NaturalScience.com webpage Re: Ontogeny and phylogeny: A Letter from Richard Bassetti; Editor's note. "While some criticisms of the drawings are legitimate, others are more tenditious", Richardson and Keuck "Haeckel's ABC of evolution and development", Biol. Rev. (2002), 77, pp. 495–528. Quoted from p. 495. There were multiple versions of the embryo drawings, and Haeckel rejected the claims of fraud but did admit one error which he corrected. It was later said that "there is evidence of sleight of hand" on both sides of the feud between Haeckel and Wilhelm His, Sr.. Richardson & Keuck 2001. See for example, their Fig. 7, showing His's drawing of the forelimb of a deer embryo developing a clef, compared with a similar drawing (Sakurai, 1906) showing the forelimb initially developing as a digital plate with rays. Richardson & Keuck say "Unfortunately His's embryos are mostly at later stages than the nearly identical early stage embryos illustrated by Haeckel [top row of Haeckel's drawing]. Thus they do not inform the debate and may themselves be disingenuous.", p. 518. The controversy involves several different issues (see more details at: recapitulation theory). Some creationists have claimed that Darwin relied on Haeckel's embryo drawings as proof of evolution "Darwin relied on the work of German biologist Ernst Haeckel ... Darwin based his inference of common ancestry on the belief that the earliest stages of embryo development are the most similar. Haeckel's drawings, however, entirely omit the earliest stages ...", Jonathan Wells, Survival of the Fakest, The American Spectator, December 2000–January 2001. Note however, Darwin (1871) credits Huxley with the idea of comparing the embryos and quoted a statement by T. Huxley, that it is "quite in the later stages of development that the young human being presents marked differences from the young ape ..." (from Huxley's Man’s Place in Nature, 1863, p. 67). Note the subtle difference between Huxley’s claim — the final stages are most different — and what has been said Darwin relied on via Haeckel – that the earliest stages are the most similar. "The Controversy over Evolution in Biology Textbooks" (Texas, Textbooks and Evolution), Dr. Raymond G. Bohlin (President), Probe Ministries, 2003, Probe.org webpage: ProbeOrg-Textbook-Controversy: mentions Haeckel drawings. "Haeckel's embryos" (of drawings, with detailed quotes by Haeckel & others), Tony Britain, 2001, AntiEvolution.org webpage: AE-myths. to support their argument that Darwin's theory is therefore illegitimate and possibly fraudulent. This claim ignores the fact that Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, and The Descent of Man in 1871, whereas Haeckel's embryo drawings did not appear until 1874 (8 species). In The Descent of Man Darwin used only two embryo drawings, neither taken from Haeckel. Darwin's footnote to Fig. 1 in The Descent of Man (1871) reads "The human embryo (upper fig.) is from Ecker, 'Icones Phys.,' 1851–1859, tab. xxx. fig. 2. This embryo was ten lines in length, so that the drawing is much magnified. The embryo of the dog is from Bischoff, 'Entwicklungsgeschichte des Hunde-Eies,' 1845, tab. xi. fig. 42 B. This drawing is five times magnified, the embryo being 25 days old. The internal viscera have been omitted, and the uterine appendages in both drawings removed. I was directed to these figures by Prof. Huxley, from whose work, 'Man's Place in Nature,' the idea of giving them was taken. Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his 'Schöpfungsgeschichte.' " Note that Darwin mentions the scale of his drawings, whereas Haeckel has been charged with making all his embryos the same size as a deceptive move. Similarly Darwin mentions what is missing (internal viscera and uterine appendages), whereas Haeckel did not. , text available at Talk Reason. Awards He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908. Publications Kunstformen — plate 72: Muscinae Kunstformen — plate 96: Chaetopoda Darwin’s 1859 book On the Origin of Species had immense popular influence, but although its sales exceeded its publisher's hopes it was a technical book rather than a work of popular science: long, difficult and with few illustrations. One of Haeckel's books did a great deal to explain his version of "Darwinism" to the world. It was a bestselling, provocatively illustrated book in German, titled Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, published in Berlin in 1868, and translated into English as The History of Creation in 1876. It was frequently reprinted until 1926. Haeckel argued that human evolution consisted of precisely 22 phases, the 21st — the "missing link" — being a halfway step between apes and humans. He even formally named this missing link Pithecanthropus alalus, translated as "ape man without speech." (The missing link was what the Dutchman Eugène Dubois, discoverer of Homo erectus, would later resolve to find.) Haeckel's entire literary output was extensive, working as a professor at the University of Jena for 47 years, and even at the time of the celebration of his 60th birthday at Jena in 1894, Haeckel had produced 42 works with nearly 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific memoirs and illustrations. "Biography of Ernst Heinrich Haeckel, 1834–1919" (article), Missouri Association for Creation, Inc., based on 1911 Britannica, webpage: Gennet-Haeckel: life, career & beliefs. Haeckel's monographs include: Radiolaria (1862) Siphonophora (1869) Monera (1870) Calcareous Sponges (1872) As well as several Challenger reports: Deep-Sea Medusae (1881) Siphonophora (1888) Deep-Sea Keratosa (1889) Radiolaria (1887) — illustrated with 140 plates and enumerating over four thousand (4000) new species. Among his many books, Ernst Haeckel wrote: General Morphology (1866) Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1868) — in English The History of Creation (1876; 6th ed.: New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1914, 2 volumes) Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre (1877), in English, Freedom in Science and Teaching, a reply to a speech in which Virchow objected to the teaching of evolution in schools, on the grounds that evolution was an unproven hypothesis. Die systematische Phylogenie (1894) — "Systematic Phylogeny", which has been considered as his best book Anthropogenie (1874, 5th and enlarged edition 1903) — dealing with the evolution of man Die Welträthsel (1895–1899), also spelled Die Welträtsel ("world-riddle") — in English The Riddle of the Universe, 1901 Über unsere gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen (1898) — translated into English as The Last Link, 1808 Der Kampf um den Entwickelungsgedanken (1905) — English version, Last Words on Evolution, 1906 Die Lebenswunder (1904) — English "Wonder of Life", a supplement to the Riddle of the Universe Books of travel: Indische Reisebriefe (1882) — "Travel notes of India" Aus Insulinde: Malayische Reisebriefe (1901) — "Travel notes of Malaysia"), the fruits of journeys to Ceylon and to Java Kunstformen der Natur (1904) — Artforms of Nature, with plates representing detailed marine animal forms Wanderbilder (1905) — "Travel Images", with reproductions of his oil-paintings and water-color landscapes. See also Alfred Ploetz — on eugenics and racial hygiene Alternative taxonomical classification Embryology Francis Galton List of wildlife artists Proteus (2004 film), an animated documentary by David Lebrun, largely focussing on Ernst Haeckel Notes References Ernst Haeckel, Freedom in Science and Teaching (1879), reprint edition, University Press of the Pacific, February 2004, paperback, 156 pages, ISBN 1-4102-1175-4. Ernst Haeckel, The History of Creation (1868), translated by E. Ray Lankester, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1883, 3rd edition, Volume 1. Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur ("Artforms of Nature"), 1904, (from series published 1899–1904): over 100 detailed, multi-color illustrations of animals and sea creatures. Ernst Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe (Die Weltraetsel, 1895–1899), Publisher: Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1992, reprint edition, paperback, 405 pages, illustrated, ISBN 0-87975-746-9. Richard Milner, The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search for Its Origins, Henry Holt, 1993. Robert J. Richards, The Tragic Sense of Life: Ernst Haeckel and the Struggle over Evolutionary Thought, University of Chicago Press, 2008. Michael K. Richardson, "Haeckel's embryos continued" (article), Science Volume 281:1289, 1998. Richardson, M. K. & Keuck, G. (2001) "A question of intent: when is a 'schematic' illustration a fraud?," Nature 410:144 (vol. 410, no. 6825, page 144), March 8, 2001. Richardson, M. K. & Keuck, G. (2002) Haeckel's ABC of evolution and development Biological Reviews (2002), 77: 495–528 M. Ruse, The Darwinian Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979. Further reading Di Gregorio, Mario A. From here to eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005, ISBN 3525569726 Haeckel, Ernst, Art Forms from the Ocean: The Radiolarian Atlas of 1862, Prestel Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-7913-3327-5. . Richardson, Michael K., "Haeckel, embryos, and evolution," Science Vol. 280, no. 5366 (May 15, 1998) p. 983, 985–986. External links Marine Biological Laboratory Library — An exhibition of material on Haeckel, including background on many Kunstformen der Natur plates University of California, Berkeley — Ernst Haeckel biography Ernst Haeckel – Evolution's controversial artist. A slide-show essay about Ernst Haeckel. Kunstformen der Natur, Wikimedia Commons: over 100 detailed animal drawings. Kunstformen der Natur, scanned (from biolib.de Stuebers Online Library) PNG alpha-transparencies of Haeckel's "Kustformen der natur" Proteus — An animated documentary film on the life and work of Ernst Haeckel Ernst Haeckel Haus and Ernst Haeckel Museum in Jena

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André_Gide

André Paul Guillaume Gide () (22 November 1869—19 February 1951) was a French author and winner of the Nobel Prize in literature in 1947. Gide's career ranged from its beginnings in the symbolist movement, to the advent of anticolonialism between the two World Wars. Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation between the two sides of his personality, split apart by a straight-laced education and a narrow social moralism. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritan constraints, and gravitates around his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, even to the point of owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is informed by the same ethos, as suggested by his repudiation of communism after his 1936 voyage to the USSR. Early life Gide was born in Paris, France on 22 November 1869, in a middle-class Protestant family. His father was a Paris University professor of law and died in 1880. His uncle was the political economist Charles Gide. Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel, The Notebooks of Andre Walter (French: Les Cahiers d'André Walter), in 1891. In 1893 and 1894 Gide traveled in northern Africa. Gide realized he was homosexual after an encounter with a boy prostitute in North Africa. If It Die: Autobiographical Memoir by Andre Gide (first edition 1920) (Vintage Books 1935 translated by Dorothy Bussy: "but when Ali - that was my little guide's name - led me up among the sandhills, in spite of the fatigue of walking in the sand, I followed him; we soon reached a kind of funnel or crater, the rim of which was just high enough to command the surrounding country". . ."As soon as we got there, Ali flung the coat and rug down on the sloping sand; he flung himself down too, and stretched on his back". . ."I was not such a simpleton as to misunderstand his invitation". . ."I seized the hand he held out to me and tumbled him on to the ground."[p.251] He befriended Oscar Wilde in Paris, and in 1895 Gide and Wilde met in Algiers. There, Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but, in fact, Gide had already discovered this on his own. Out of the past, Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the present (Miller 1995:87) If It Die: Autobiographical Memoir by Andre Gide (first edition 1920) (Vintage Books 1935 translated by Dorothy Bussy: "I should say that if Wilde had begun to discover the secrets of his life to me, he knew nothing as yet of mine; I had taken care to give him no hint of them, either by deed or word." . . ."No doubt, since my adventure at Sousse, there was not much left for the Adversary to do to complete his victory over me; but Wilde did not know this, nor that I was vanquished beforehand or, if you will". . ."that I had already triumphed in my imagination and my thoughts over all my scruples."[p.286]) The middle years In 1895, after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he became mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy. In 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brelade's Bay and lived there while residing in Jersey. This period, from 1901-1907, is commonly seen as a period of apathy and unsettlement in his life. In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine Nouvelle Revue Française (The New French Review) Nobel Prize Biography . In 1916, Marc Allégret, 16, became his lover. He was the son of Elie Allegret, best man at Gide's wedding. Of Allegret's five children, André Gide adopted Marc. The two eloped to London, in retribution for which his wife burned all his correspondence, "the best part of myself," as he was later to comment. In 1918, he met Dorothy Bussy, who was his friend for over thirty years and who would translate many of his works into English. In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for writers like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of Corydon (1924) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work. In 1923, he conceived a daughter, Catherine, with Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a much younger woman, who was the daughter of his closest woman friend Maria Monnom, the wife of the Belgian neo-impressionist painter Théo van Rysselberghe. This would cause the only crisis in the long-standing and intense friendship between the two men. Gide had known Elisabeth since childhood. This was possibly his only sexual liaison with a woman and was brief in the extreme, but Catherine became his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" (French: the White Lady). She eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (she had adjoining apartments built for each of them on the rue Vavin). She worshipped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship. Gide's legal wife Madeleine died in 1938. Later he used the background of his unconsummated marriage in his novel Et Nunc Manet in Te. In 1924, he published an autobiography, If the seed dies (French: Si le grain ne meurt). After 1925, he began to demand more humane conditions for criminals. Africa From July 1926 to May 1927, he travelled through the French Equatorial Africa colony with his lover Marc Allégret. He went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Oubangui-Chari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroun before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called Travels in the Congo (French: Voyage au Congo) and Return from Chad (French: Retour du Tchad). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the Large Concessions regime (French: régime des Grandes Concessions), i.e. a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to French companies and where these companies could exploit all of the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related for instance how natives were forced to leave their village during several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to slavery. The book had important influence on anti-colonialism movements in France and helped re-evaluate the impact of colonialism. Voyage au Congo suivi du Retour du Tchad, in Lire, July-August 1995 Russia During the 1930s, he briefly became a communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined the Communist Party). As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of communism, he was invited to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. The tour disillusioned him and he subsequently became quite critical of Soviet Communism. This criticism of Communism caused him to lose socialist friends, especially when he made a clean break with it in Retour de L'U.R.S.S. in 1936. He was also a contributor to The God That Failed. The 1940s Gide left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gide died on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the Index of Forbidden Books in 1952. Andre Gide Biography | (1869-1951) (André Gide Biography) Partial list of works André Gide "The reading by Emile Verhaeren" (detail), pointillist painting by Théo van Rysselberghe Les cahiers d'André Walter - 1891 Le traité du Narcisse - 1891 Les poésies d'André Walter - 1892 Le voyage d'Urien - 1893 La tentative amoureuse - 1893 Paludes - 1895 Réflexions sur quelques points de littérature - 1897 Les nourritures terrestres - 1897 Feuilles de route 1895-1896 - 1897 El Hadj Le Prométhée mal enchaîné - 1899 Philoctète - 1899 Lettres à Angèle - 1900 De l'influence en littérature - 1900 Le roi Candaule - 1901 Les limites de l'art - 1901 L'immoraliste - 1902 (translated by Richard Howard as The Immoralist) Saül - 1903 De l'importance du public - 1903 Prétextes - 1903 Amyntas - 1906 Le retour de l'enfant prodigue - 1907 Dostoïevsky d'après sa correspondence - 1908 La porte étroite - 1909 (translated as Strait Is the Gate) Oscar Wilde - 1910 Nouveaux prétextes - 1911 Charles-Louis-Philippe - 1911 C. R. D. N. - 1911 Isabelle - 1911 Bethsabé - 1912 Souvenirs de la Cour d'Assises - 1914 Les caves du Vatican - 1914 (translated as Lafcadio's Adventures) La marche Turque - 1914 La symphonie pastorale - 1919 Corydon - 1920 Numquid et tu . . .? - 1922 Dostoïevsky - 1923 Incidences - 1924 Caractères - 1925 Les faux-monnayeurs - 1925 (translated as The Counterfeiters - 1927) Si le grain ne meurt - 1926 (translated as If It Die) Le journal des faux-monnayeurs - 1926 Dindiki - 1927 Voyage au Congo - 1927 Le retour de Tchad - 1928 L'école des femmes - 1929 Essai sur Montaigne - 1929 Un esprit non prévenu - 1929 Robert - 1930 La séquestrée de Poitiers - 1930 L'affaire Redureau - 1930 Œdipe - 1931 Perséphone - 1934 Les nouvelles nourritures - 1935 Geneviève - 1936 Retour de l'U. R. S. S. - 1936 Retouches â mon retour de l'U. R. S. S. - 1937 Notes sur Chopin - 1938 Journal 1889-1939 - 1939 Découvrons Henri Michaux - 1941 Thésée - 1946 Le retour - 1946 Paul Valéry - 1947 Le procès - 1947 L'arbitraire - 1947 Eloges - 1948 Littérature engagée - 1950 References See also Colonialism List of books portraying paedophilia or sexual abuse of minors External links Center for Gidian Studies Amis d'André Gide in French period newspaper articles on Gide interface in French Andre Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901-7 Works by André Gide (public domain in Canada) be-x-old:Андрэ Жыд

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Charles_Sanders_Peirce

Charles Sanders Peirce ( purse "Peirce", in the case of C.S. Peirce, always rhymes with the English-language word "terse" and so, in most dialects, is pronounced exactly like the English-language word "purse": . See "Note on the Pronunciation of 'Peirce'", The Peirce [Edition] Project Newsletter, Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, Dec. 1994, Eprint. ) (September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American logician, mathematician, philosopher, and scientist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years. It is largely his contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics (and his founding of pragmatism) that are appreciated today. In 1934, the philosopher Paul Weiss called Peirce "the most original and versatile of American philosophers and America's greatest logician". Weiss, Paul (1934), "Peirce, Charles Sanders" in the Dictionary of American Biography. Arisbe Eprint. An innovator in mathematics, research methodology, philosophy of science, epistemology, and metaphysics, Peirce considered himself a logician first and foremost. He made major contributions to logic, but "logic" for him encompassed much of that which is now called epistemology and philosophy of science. He saw logic, in turn, as the formal branch of semiotics, of which he is a founder. As early as 1886 he saw that logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits, an idea used decades later to produce digital computers. Life Charles Peirce birthplace near Harvard Yard. Charles Sanders Peirce was the son of Sarah Hunt Mills and Benjamin Peirce, a professor of astronomy and mathematics at Harvard University, perhaps the first serious research mathematician in America. At 12 years of age, Charles read an older brother's copy of Richard Whately's Elements of Logic, then the leading English language text on the subject. Thus began his lifelong fascination with logic and reasoning. He went on to obtain the BA and MA from Harvard, and in 1863 the Lawrence Scientific School awarded him its first M.Sc. in chemistry. This last degree was awarded summa cum laude; otherwise his academic record was undistinguished. At Harvard, he began lifelong friendships with Francis Ellingwood Abbot, Chauncey Wright, and William James. One of his Harvard instructors, Charles William Eliot, formed an unfavorable opinion of Peirce. This opinion proved fateful, because Eliot, while President of Harvard 1869–1909 — a period encompassing nearly all of Peirce's working life — repeatedly vetoed having Harvard employ Peirce in any capacity. Peirce suffered all his life from what was then known as "facial neuralgia," a very painful nervous/facial condition. The biography by Joseph Brent Brent, Joseph (1998), Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life. Revised and enlarged edition, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. says that when in the throes of its pain "he was, at first, almost stupefied, and then aloof, cold, depressed, extremely suspicious, impatient of the slightest crossing, and subject to violent outbursts of temper." His condition would today be diagnosed as trigeminal neuralgia. Its consequences may have led to the social isolation which made the later years of his life so tragic. United States Coast Survey Between 1859 and 1891, Peirce was intermittently employed in various scientific capacities by the United States Coast Survey, where he enjoyed the protection of his highly influential father until the latter's death in 1880. This employment exempted Peirce from having to take part in the Civil War. It would have been very awkward for him to do so, as the Boston Brahmin Peirces sympathized with the Confederacy. At the Survey, he worked mainly in geodesy and in gravimetry, refining the use of pendulums to determine small local variations in the strength of Earth's gravity. The Survey sent him to Europe five times, the first in 1871, as part of a group dispatched to observe a solar eclipse. While in Europe, he sought out Augustus De Morgan, William Stanley Jevons, and William Kingdon Clifford, British mathematicians and logicians whose turn of mind resembled his own. From 1869 to 1872, he was employed as an Assistant in Harvard's astronomical observatory, doing important work on determining the brightness of stars and the shape of the Milky Way. (On Peirce the astronomer, see Lenzen's chapter in Moore and Robin, 1964.) In 1876 he was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1878, he was the first to define the meter as so many wavelengths of light of a certain frequency, the definition employed until 1983 (Taylor 2001: 5) Taylor, Barry N., ed. (2001), The International System of Units, NIST Special Publication 330. Washington DC: Superintendent of Documents. . During the 1880s, Peirce's indifference to bureaucratic detail waxed while the quality and timeliness of his Survey work waned. Peirce took years to write reports that he should have completed in mere months. Meanwhile, he wrote hundreds of logic, philosophy, and science entries for the Century Dictionary. See the Peirce Edition Project (PEP) on Peirce's contributions to the Century Dictionary at UQÀM (Université du Québec à Montréal) at http://www.pep.uqam.ca/index_en.pep . The Century Dictionary itself is available both online (at no charge) and on CD at http://www.global-language.com/century/ . In 1885, an investigation by the Allison Commission exonerated Peirce, but led to the dismissal of Superintendent Julius Hilgard and several other Coast Survey employees for misuse of public funds. In 1891, Peirce resigned from the Coast Survey, at the request of Superintendent Thomas Corwin Mendenhall. He never again held regular employment. Johns Hopkins University In 1879, Peirce was appointed Lecturer in logic at the new Johns Hopkins University. That university was strong in a number of areas that interested him, such as philosophy (Royce and Dewey did their PhDs at Hopkins), psychology (taught by G. Stanley Hall and studied by Joseph Jastrow, who coauthored a landmark empirical study with Peirce), and mathematics (taught by J. J. Sylvester, who came to admire Peirce's work on mathematics and logic). This nontenured position proved to be the only academic appointment Peirce ever held. Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts to obtain academic employment, grants, and scientific respectability were repeatedly frustrated by the covert opposition of a major American scientist of the day, Simon Newcomb. Peirce's ability to find academic employment may also have been frustrated by a difficult personality. Brent conjectures about various psychological and other difficulties. Peirce's personal life also handicapped him. His first wife, Harriet Melusina Fay, left him in 1875. He soon took up with a woman whose maiden name and nationality remain uncertain to this day (the best guess is that her name was Juliette Froissy and that she was French), but his divorce from Harriet became final only in 1883, after which he married Juliette. That year, Newcomb pointed out to a Johns Hopkins trustee that Peirce, while a Hopkins employee, had lived and traveled with a woman to whom he was not married. The ensuing scandal led to his dismissal. Just why Peirce's later applications for academic employment at Clark University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, University of Michigan, Cornell University, Stanford University, and the University of Chicago were all unsuccessful can no longer be determined. Presumably, his having lived with Juliette for years while still legally married to Harriet led him to be deemed morally unfit for academic employment anywhere in the USA. Peirce had no children by either marriage. Poverty In 1887 Peirce spent part of his inheritance from his parents to buy of rural land near Milford, Pennsylvania, land which never yielded an economic return. There he built a large house which he named "Arisbe" where he spent the rest of his life, writing prolifically, much of it unpublished to this day. His living beyond his means soon led to grave financial and legal difficulties. Peirce spent much of his last two decades unable to afford heat in winter, and subsisting on old bread kindly donated by the local baker. Unable to afford new stationery, he wrote on the verso side of old manuscripts. An outstanding warrant for assault and unpaid debts led to his being a fugitive in New York City for a while. Several people, including his brother James Mills Peirce and his neighbors, relatives of Gifford Pinchot, settled his debts and paid his property taxes and mortgage. Peirce did some scientific and engineering consulting and wrote a good deal for meager pay, mainly dictionary and encyclopedia entries, and reviews for The Nation (with whose editor, Wendell Phillips Garrison he became friendly). He did translations for the Smithsonian Institution, at its director Samuel Langley's instigation. Peirce also did substantial mathematical calculations for Langley's research on powered flight. Hoping to make money, Peirce tried inventing. He began but did not complete a number of books. In 1888, President Grover Cleveland appointed him to the Assay Commission. From 1890 onwards, he had a friend and admirer in Judge Francis C. Russell of Chicago, who introduced Peirce to Paul Carus and Edward Hegeler, the editor and the owner, respectively, of the pioneering American philosophy journal The Monist, which eventually published 14 or so articles by Peirce. He applied to the newly formed Carnegie Institution for a grant to write a book summarizing his life's work. The application was doomed; his nemesis Newcomb served on the Institution's executive committee, and its President had been the President of Johns Hopkins at the time of Peirce's dismissal. The one who did the most to help Peirce in these desperate times was his old friend William James, who dedicated his Will to Believe (1897) to Peirce, and who arranged for Peirce to be paid to give four series of lectures at or near Harvard (1898, 1903, 1907). Most important, each year from 1898 until his death in 1910, James would write to his friends in the Boston intelligentsia, asking that they make a financial contribution to help support Peirce. Peirce reciprocated by designating James's eldest son as his heir should Juliette predecease him. It has been said (Brent 1998:315–16, 374), that this was Peirce's motive for adding Santiago, 'Saint James' in Spanish, to his full name, but Peirce was mentioned in print as "Charles Santiago Peirce" in 1890, 1891, and 1892, years before James's publicizing him and helping him to get lectures and funds. See for example p. 65 of the Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, v. XXIV for 1892, published 1895. The claim of some connection between "Santiago" and William James goes back at least to William James's wife Alice, quoted in 1927 by F.C.S. Schiller on pp. 90-91 in "William James and the Making of Pragmatism" in The Personalist 8, April 1927. Joseph Brent (author of Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life, history professor emeritus, U District of Columbia) claimed to have found Peirce explaining his motive as gratitude to William James in MS 318, but other scholars don't find it there. That issue was raised at peirce-l in 2000, where Brent wrote on Sept. 6, 2000 and again on Sept. 7, 2000 that he clearly remembers some MS wherein Peirce says that he adopted "Santiago" in honor of James. (However, if Peirce did not adopt it for that reason, still possibly he retained and increasingly used during some later years for that reason.) In recent correspondence at peirce-l: Prof. Emeritus Joseph Ransdell writes that while he was a Columbia graduate student he noticed an 1890 listing of Peirce with "Santiago" in Schröder and pointed it out to some Peirce scholars; Prof. Jaime Nubiola, director of the Grupo de Estudios Peirceanos (GEP) at U Navarra, Spain, in turn writes that on p. 710 of Ernst Schroeder 1890 below "Peirce, Benjamin (gesprochen: Pörss)" is listed: "Peirce, Charles S(antiago)." and eleven quotations from his papers are included under that entry. Nubiola points out that the mathematician Ventura Reyes Prósper referred to Peirce's middle name as "Santiago" in letters and two papers (1891 and 1892) and wrote in a footnote to the 1892 paper: "Although it may seem strange, his first name is in English and his second is in Spanish; I do not know why." For the letters and papers, see Jaime Nubiola and Jesús Cobo, "The Spanish Mathematician Ventura Reyes Prósper and his connections with Charles S. Peirce and Christine Ladd-Franklin" (version 11-6-2000), Arisbe Eprint. In MS 1611 (1903), for manuscript directory and biographical dictionary of the Men of Science in the United States (see page at the Robin Catalogue), Peirce wrote: "(I am variously listed in print as Charles Santiago Peirce, Charles Saunders Peirce, and Charles Sanders Peirce. Under the circumstances a noncommittal S. suits me best)" (as quoted and sourced by Susan Howe, Pierce-Arrow, 1999, Google Book Search Beta Eprint, B&N Eprint, scroll down, click on "Features", scroll down). Peirce used "Santiago Sanders" — both middle names together — in The Monist, v. XVI, 1906, n. 1, "Mr. Peterson's Proposed Discussion", p. 151; v. XVI (misprinted "VI"), n. 4, "Prolegomena To an Apology For Pragmaticism", p. 546, and v. XVIII, 1908, n. 3, "Some Amazing Mazes (Conclusion), Explanation of curiosity the First", p. 461. Peirce died destitute in Milford, Pennsylvania, twenty years before his widow. Reception Bertrand Russell opined (1959:276), "Beyond doubt [...] he was one of the most original minds of the later nineteenth century, and certainly the greatest American thinker ever." (His Principia Mathematica does not mention Peirce, but Peirce's work was not widely known until after this was written.) A. N. Whitehead, while reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, was struck by how Peirce had anticipated his own "process" thinking. (On Peirce and process metaphysics, see the chapter by Lowe in Moore and Robin, 1964.) Karl Popper viewed Peirce as "one of the greatest philosophers of all times". Quoted by James Bird, A Giant's Voice from the Past, Times Higher Education Supplement, 8 Sept. 1989. Nevertheless, Peirce's accomplishments were not immediately recognized. His imposing contemporaries William James and Josiah Royce admired him, and Cassius Jackson Keyser at Columbia and C. K. Ogden wrote about Peirce with respect, but to no immediate effect. The first scholar to give Peirce his considered professional attention was Royce's student Morris Raphael Cohen, the editor of a 1923 anthology of Peirce's writings titled Chance, Love, and Logic and the author of the first bibliography of Peirce's scattered writings. John Dewey had had Peirce as an instructor at Johns Hopkins, and from 1916 onwards, Dewey's writings repeatedly mention Peirce with deference. His 1938 Logic: The Theory of Inquiry is Peircean through and through. The publication of the first six volumes of the Collected Papers (1931–35), the most important event to date in Peirce studies and one Cohen made possible by raising the needed funds, did not lead to an immediate outpouring of secondary studies. The editors of those volumes, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss, did not become Peirce specialists. Early landmarks of the secondary literature include the monographs by Buchler (1939), Feibleman (1946), and Goudge (1950), the 1941 Ph.D. thesis by Arthur W. Burks (who went on to edit volumes 7 and 8 of the Collected Papers), and the edited volume Wiener and Young (1952). The Charles S. Peirce Society was founded in 1946. Its Transactions, an academic journal specializing in Peirce, pragmatism, and American philosophy, has appeared since 1965. In 1949, while doing unrelated archival work, the historian of mathematics Carolyn Eisele (1902–2000) chanced on an autograph letter by Peirce. Thus began her 40 years of research on Peirce the mathematician and scientist, culminating in Eisele (1976, 1979, 1985). Beginning around 1960, the philosopher and historian of ideas Max Fisch (1900–1995) emerged as an authority on Peirce; Fisch (1986) reprints many of the relevant articles, including a wide-ranging survey (Fisch 1986: 422-48) of the impact of Peirce's thought through 1983. Peirce has come to enjoy a significant international following. There are university research centers devoted to Peirce studies and pragmatism in Brazil, Centro de Estudos Peirceanos (CeneP) (M. Lúcia Santaella-Braga, Pontificia Universidade Católica de São Paulo (PUC-SP), Brasil) Finland, Represented on the Internet by Commens: Virtual Centre for Peirce Studies at the University of Helsinki Germany, International Research Group on Abductive Inference at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main (Uwe Wirth, Alexander Roesler; Frankfurt, Germany). Theological Research Group in C.S.Peirce's Philosophy (Hermann Deuser, Justus-Liebig-Universität Geissen; Wilfred Haerle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany). Research Group on Semiotic Epistemology and Mathematics Education, Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik (Michael Hoffman, Michael Otte, Universität Bielefeld, Germany). France Institut de Recherche en Sémiotique, Communication et Éducation ([http://webup.univ-perp.fr/lsh/rch/semiotics/irsce/irsce.html L 'I.R.S.C.E])(Gérard Deledalle, Joëlle Réthoré, Université de Perpignan, France, 1974-2003) , Spain Grupo de Estudios Peirceanos GEP (Jaime Nubiola, University of Navarra, Spain) , and Italy Centro Studi Peirce, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy. Founded 1998 by Carlo Sini and Rossella Fabbrichesi. . His writings have been translated into several languages, including German, French, Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish. Since 1950, there have been French, Italian, Spanish and British Peirceans of note. For many years, the North American philosophy department most devoted to Peirce was the University of Toronto's, thanks in good part to the leadership of Thomas Goudge and David Savan. In recent years, American Peirce scholars have clustered at Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis, the home of the Peirce Edition Project, and the Pennsylvania State University. Robert Burch has commented on Peirce's current influence as follows: Currently, considerable interest is being taken in Peirce's ideas from outside the arena of academic philosophy. The interest comes from industry, business, technology, and the military; and it has resulted in the existence of a number of agencies, institutes, and laboratories in which ongoing research into and development of Peircean concepts is being undertaken. (Burch 2001/2006 Burch, Robert (2001), "Charles Sanders Peirce" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Revised, Summer 2006. .) Works Peirce's reputation rests largely on a number of academic papers published in American scholarly and scientific journals. These papers, along with a selection of Peirce's previously unpublished work and a smattering of his correspondence, fill the eight volumes of the Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP), published between 1931 and 1958, still in print. An important recent sampler of Peirce's philosophical writings is the two-volume The Essential Peirce (EP), 1992, 1998, in print. The first published sampler was the one-volume Chance, Love and Logic: Philosophical Essays, 1920, still in print. Other such single volumes were published in 1940, 1957, 1958, 1972, and 1994. The only full-length book that Peirce authored and saw published in his lifetime was Photometric Researches Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany. Google Book Search Beta Eprint, users outside the USA may not yet be able to gain full access. Internet Archive Eprint. (1878), a 181-page monograph on the applications of spectrographic methods to astronomy. Also published in book form was Peirce's 62-page Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives, Resulting from an Amplification of the Conceptions of Boole's Calculus of Logic The extraction was published by Welch, Bigelow, and Company for Harvard University (1870), title page via Google Books beta, users outside the USA may not yet be able to gain full access to the content. Reprinted (CP 3.45–149), (W 2:359–429). (1870) which was an extraction from Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 9 (1870), pp. 317–378. While at Johns Hopkins, he edited Studies in Logic (published 1883), containing chapters by himself and his graduate students. An abridged 23-page version of Peirce's syllabus for his 1903 Lowell Institute lectures was published as a pamphlet in 1903. A Syllabus of Certain Topics in Logic (1903), Alfred Mudge & Son, printers, Boston, 1903. See Robin Catalogue entry for MS 478, Eprint for description. He wrote papers and articles appearing in Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, The Monist, Popular Science Monthly, the American Journal of Mathematics, Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, The Nation, and elsewhere. Harvard University acquired the papers found in Peirce's study soon after his death, but did not microfilm them until 1964. Only after Richard Robin (1967) Robin, Richard S. (1967) Annotated Catalogue of the Papers of Charles S. Peirce. Amherst MA: University of Massachusetts Press. PEP Eprint. catalogued this Nachlass did it become clear that Peirce had left approximately 1650 unpublished manuscripts, totaling over 100,000 pages. "The manuscript material now (1997) comes to more than a hundred thousand pages. These contain many pages of no philosophical interest, but the number of pages on philosophy certainly number much more than half of that. Also, a significant but unknown number of manuscripts have been lost." — Joseph Ransdell, 1997, "Some Leading Ideas of Peirce's Semiotic", end note 2, 1997 light revision of 1977 version in Semiotica 19, 1977, pp. 157-178. Eisele (1976, 1985) published some of this work, but most of it remains unpublished. For more on the vicissitudes of Peirce's papers, see (Houser 1989 Houser, Nathan, "The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Peirce Papers", presented to the Fourth Congress of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, Perpignan, France, 1989. Published in Signs of Humanity, vol. 3., Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992, pp. 1259-1268. Eprint ). In 1976, many previously unpublished Peirce manuscripts on mathematical subjects, along with Peirce's important published mathematical articles, were collected in The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce (NEM), 4 volumes in 5. In 1977, Peirce's entire correspondence (1903–1912) with Victoria, Lady Welby was published in Semiotic and Significs, 2nd edition 2001; Peirce's other published correspondence is largely limited to the 14 letters included in volume 8 of the Collected Papers, and the 20-odd pre-1890 items included so far in the Writings. In 1975–1987, Peirce's more than 300 reviews and articles published 1869–1908 in The Nation were collected in Charles Sanders Peirce: Contributions to The Nation, 4 volumes. Auspitz has said Auspitz, Josiah Lee (1994), "The Wasp Leaves the Bottle: Charles Sanders Peirce", The American Scholar, v.63, n. 4, autumn, 602-618. Arisbe Eprint. , "The extent of Peirce's immersion in the science of his day is evident in his reviews in the Nation [...] and in his papers, grant applications, and publishers' prospectuses in the history and practice of science", referring latterly to the two-volume Historical Perspectives on Peirce's Logic of Science: A History of Science published in 1985. In 1992, Peirce's 1898 series of lectures, invited by William James, were collected in one place in Reasoning and the Logic of Things. In 1997, Peirce's 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" were published in Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking, a study edition of Peirce's lecture manuscripts which had been previously published in abridged form; the lectures now also appear in EP 2. Besides lectures during his years (1879–1884) as Lecturer in Logic at Johns Hopkins, he gave at least eight series of lectures, many now published; see Lectures by Peirce. The limited coverage, and defective editing and organization, of the Collected Papers led Max Fisch and others in the 1970s to found the Peirce Edition Project, whose mission is to prepare a more complete critical chronological edition, the Writings of Charles S. Peirce, A Chronological Edition (W). Only 6 out of a planned 30 volumes have appeared to date, but they cover the period from 1859–1890, when Peirce carried out much of his best-known work. W 8's publication is planned for spring 2010; and work continues on W 7, 9, and 11. List of major articles and lectures See Bibliography for extensive list of his works, along with links to many of them readable online. On a New List of Categories (Presented 1867, his seminal theory of three categories, see below.) Questions Concerning Certain Faculties Claimed for Man (1868) Some Consequences of Four Incapacities (1868. Rejects Cartesian foundationalism. Also argues that the general is real.) Grounds of Validity of the Laws of Logic: Further Consequences of Four Incapacities (1869) The Harvard lectures on British logicians (1869-1870) Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives (1870) Illustrations of the Logic of Science (1877–1878) (Pragmatism, below.) The Fixation of Belief (1877) How to Make Our Ideas Clear (1878) The Doctrine of Chances (1878) The Probability of Induction (1878) The Order of Nature (1878) Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis (1878) On the Algebra of Logic (1880) A Theory of Probable Inference. Note A: On a Limited Universe of Marks. Note B: The Logic of Relatives (1883) On Small Differences in Sensation (with Joseph Jastrow, 1884) On the Algebra of Logic: A Contribution to the Philosophy of Notation (presented 1884) A Guess at the Riddle (1887-88 MS) Trichotomic (1888 MS) The Monist Metaphysical Series (1891–1893) The Architecture of Theories (1891) The Doctrine of Necessity Examined (1892) The Law of Mind (1892) Man's Glassy Essence (1892) Evolutionary Love (1893) Immortality in the Light of Synechism (1893 MS) The Logic of Relatives (1894) The lectures on "Reasoning and the Logic of Things" in Cambridge, MA (1898, invited by William James) F.R.L. [First Rule of Logic] (1899 MS against barriers to inquiry, see below) Application of C. S. Peirce to the Executive Committee of the Carnegie Institution (1902) The Simplest Mathematics (1902 MS) The Harvard lectures on pragmatism (1903) The Lowell lectures and syllabus on topics of logic (1903) Kaina Stoicheia [New Elements] (1904 MS) What Pragmatism Is (1905) Issues of Pragmaticism (1905) Prolegomena To an Apology For Pragmaticism (1906) A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God (1908, outlines much of Peirce's philosophy) Mathematics Peirce regarded mathematics as prior not only to special sciences (of nature and mind) but also to philosophy, and as broadly divided into mathematics (1) of logic, (2) of discrete series, and (3) of pseudo-continuous series (as he called them, including the real numbers) and continuous series. He was active not only in various 'pure' areas, but also in probability and statistics. Mathematics of logic It may be added that algebra was formerly called Cossic, in English, or the Rule of Cos; and the first algebra published in England was called "The Whetstone of Wit", because the author supposed that the word cos was the Latin word so spelled, which means a whetstone. But in fact, cos was derived from the Italian, cosa, thing, the thing you want to find, the unknown quantity whose value is sought. It is the Latin caussa, a thing aimed at, a cause. ("Elements of Mathematics", MS 165 (c. 1895), NEM 2:50.) Peirce made a number of striking discoveries in foundational mathematics, nearly all of which came to be appreciated only long after his death. He: Discovered in 1880 "A Boolean Algebra with One Constant", 1880 MS, CP 4.12-20. how that which is now called Boolean algebra could be expressed by means of a single binary operation, either NAND or its dual, NOR. (See also De Morgan's Laws). This discovery anticipated Sheffer by 33 years. In Peirce (1881) Peirce, C. S. (1881), "On the Logic of Number", American Journal of Mathematics v. 4, pp. 85-95. Reprinted (CP 3.252-288), (W 4:299-309). Google Book Search Eprint.</ref> set out the now-classic axiomatization of natural number arithmetic, a few years before Dedekind and Peano did so. In the same paper Peirce introduced the first purely cardinal definition of a finite set See Shields, Paul (1997), "Peirce’s Axiomatization of Arithmetic", in Houser, Nathan Roberts, Don D., and Van Evra, James W. (eds.), Studies in the Logic of Charles S. Peirce. , by the property now called that of being "Dedekind-finite". Discovered, independently of Dedekind, an important formal definition of an infinite set, namely, as a set that can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with one of its proper subsets. In Peirce (1885), set out what can be read as the first (primitive) axiomatic set theory, anticipating Zermelo by about two decades. In 1918, the logician C. I. Lewis wrote, "The contributions of C.S. Peirce to symbolic logic are more numerous and varied than those of any other writer — at least in the nineteenth century." Lewis, Clarence Irving (1918), "Peirce", ch. 1, § 7, on pp. 79-106, in Lewis's A Survey of Symbolic Logic, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Internet Archive Eprint. Beginning with his first paper on the "Logic of Relatives" (1870), Peirce extended the theory of relations that Augustus De Morgan had just recently awakened from its Cinderella slumbers. Much of the actual mathematics of relations now taken for granted was "borrowed" from Peirce, not always with all due credit (Anellis 1995 Anellis, Irving H. (1995), "Peirce Rustled, Russell Pierced: How Charles Peirce and Bertrand Russell Viewed Each Other's Work in Logic, and an Assessment of Russell's Accuracy and Role in the Historiography of Logic", Modern Logic, 5, 270–328. Arisbe Eprint. ). Beginning in 1940, Alfred Tarski and his students rediscovered aspects of Peirce's larger vision of relational logic, developing the perspective of relational algebra. These theoretical resources gradually worked their way into applications, in large part instigated by the work of Edgar F. Codd, who happened to be a doctoral student of the Peirce editor and scholar Arthur W. Burks, on the relational model or the relational paradigm for implementing and using databases. In the four-volume work The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce (1976), mathematician and Peirce scholar Carolyn Eisele published a large number of Peirce's previously unpublished manuscripts on mathematical subjects, including the drafts for an introductory textbook, allusively titled The New Elements of Mathematics, that presented mathematics from a decidedly novel, if not revolutionary, standpoint. In 1902 Peirce applied to the newly established Carnegie Institution for aid "in accomplishing certain scientific work", presenting an "explanation of what work is proposed" plus an "appendix containing a fuller statement". These parts of the letter, along with excerpts from earlier drafts, can be found in NEM 4 (Eisele 1976). The appendix is organized as a "List of Proposed Memoirs on Logic", and No. 12 among the 36 proposals is titled "On the Definition of Logic", the earlier draft of which is quoted in full below. On Peirce and his contemporaries Ernst Schröder and Gottlob Frege, Hilary Putnam (1982) Putnam, Hilary (1982), "Peirce the Logician', Historia Mathematica 9, 290–301. Reprinted, pp. 252–260 in Hilary Putnam, Realism with a Human Face, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1990. Excerpt consisting of article's last five pages: Eprint. wrote that he found through research that, though Frege had priority by four years, it was Peirce and his student Oscar Howard Mitchell who effectively discovered the quantifier for the mathematical world. The main evidence for Putnam's claims is "On the Algebra of Logic: A Contribution to the Philosophy of Notation" Peirce, C.S. (1884-1885), "On the Algebra of Logic: A Contribution to the Philosophy of Notation", American Journal of Mathematics 7, two parts, first part published 1885, pp. 180–202. Presented, National Academy of Sciences, Newport, RI, 14–17 Oct 1884. Reprinted (CP 3.359–403), (W 5:162–190), (EP 1:225–228, in part). Eprint via Google Book Search Beta; users outside the USA may not yet be able to gain full access. (1885), published in the premier American mathematical journal of the day. Peano and Ernst Schröder, among others, cited this article and used or adapted Peirce's notations, which are a typographical variant of those currently used. Peirce apparently was ignorant of Frege's work, despite their rival achievements in logic, philosophy of language, and the foundations of mathematics. Peirce's other major discoveries in formal logic include: Distinguishing (Peirce, 1885) between first-order and second-order quantification. Seeing that Boolean calculations could be carried out by means of electrical switches, Letter, Peirce to A. Marquand, W 5:421–424 anticipating Claude Shannon by more than 50 years. Devising the existential graphs, a diagrammatic notation for the predicate calculus. These graphs form the basis of John F. Sowa's conceptual graphs and of Sun-Joo Shin's diagrammatic reasoning. A philosophy of logic, grounded in his categories and semiotic, can be extracted from Peirce's writings. This philosophy, as well as Peirce's logical work more generally, is exposited and defended in Hilary Putnam (1982); the Introduction in Houser et al. (1997) Houser, Nathan, Roberts, Don D., and Van Evra, James (eds., 1997), Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. ; and Dipert's chapter in Misak (2004) Misak, Cheryl J. (ed., 2004), The Cambridge Companion to Peirce, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK . Jean Van Heijenoort (1967) van Heijenoort, Jean (1967), "Logic as Language and Logic as Calculus," Synthese 17: 324–30. , Jaakko Hintikka in his chapter in Brunning and Forster (1997), and Geraldine Brady (2000) Brady, Geraldine (2000), From Peirce to Skolem: A Neglected Chapter in the History of Logic, North-Holland/Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam, Netherlands. divide those who study formal (and natural) languages into two camps: the model-theorists / semanticists, and the proof theorists / universalists. Hintikka and Brady view Peirce as a pioneer model theorist. On how the young Bertrand Russell, especially his Principles of Mathematics and Principia Mathematica, did not do Peirce justice, see Anellis (1995). Peirce's work on formal logic had admirers other than Ernst Schröder: The philosophical algebraist William Kingdon Clifford and the logician William Ernest Johnson, both British; The Polish school of logic and foundational mathematics, including Alfred Tarski; Arthur Prior, whose Formal Logic and chapter in Moore and Robin (1964) praised and studied Peirce's logical work. Logical graphs Logic of information .... The information of a term is the measure of its superfluous comprehension. That is to say that the proper office of the comprehension is to determine the extension of the term. For instance, you and I are men because we possess those attributes — having two legs, being rational, &tc. — which make up the comprehension of man. Every addition to the comprehension of a term lessens its extension up to a certain point, after that further additions increase the information instead. (C.S. Peirce, "The Logic of Science, or, Induction and Hypothesis" (1866), W 1:467.) Geometry and continuity Peirce produced a quincuncial projection of a sphere which kept angles true and resulted in less distortion of area than did other projections. Continuity, or synechism, is important, even crucial, in Peirce's philosophy. He worked long on the mathematics of continua and noted both that, in an 1882 paper, he anticipated Dedekind and that, unknowingly at the time, he was largely anticipated by Cantor; he held for many years that the real numbers constituted a pseudocontinuum and that a true continuum of instants was not a "multitude" (as he called it) or Cantorian aleph, that it had, within any lapse of time, room enough for any multitude howsoever great, and that it was the real subject matter of that which we now call topology. Peirce, C.S., "Analysis of the Methods of Mathematical Demonstration", Memoir 4, Draft C, Manuscript L75.90-102, see 99-100, Eprint and scroll down. In 1908 he gave up on that particular conception of continua. See "Peirce's Clarifications on Continuity" by Jérôme Havenel, Transactions Winter 2008 pp. 68-133. From p. 119: "It is on May 26, 1908, that Peirce finally gave up his idea that in every continuum there is room for whatever collection of any multitude. From now on, there are different kinds of continua, which have different properties." Probability and statistics Peirce held that science achieves statistical probabilities, not certainties, and that chance, a veering from law, is very real. He assigned probability to an argument’s conclusion rather than to a proposition, event, etc., as such. Most of his statistical writings promote the frequency interpretation of probability (objective ratios of cases), and many of his writings express skepticism about (and criticize the use of) probability when such models are not based on objective randomization. Peirce condemned the use of "certain likelihoods" even more strongly than he criticized Bayesian methods. Indeed Peirce used Bayesian inference in criticizing parapsychology. Though Peirce was largely a frequentist, his possible world semantics introduced the "propensity" theory of probability. Peirce (sometimes with Jastrow) investigated the probability judgments of experimental subjects, pioneering decision analysis. Peirce was one of the founders of statistics. He formulated modern statistics in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883). With a repeated measures design, he introduced blinded, controlled randomized experiments (before Fisher). He invented optimal design for experiments on gravity, in which he "corrected the means". He used logistic regression, correlation, and smoothing, and improved the treatment of outliers. He introduced terms "confidence" and "likelihood" (before Neyman and Fisher). (See the historical books of Stephen Stigler.) Philosophy It is not sufficiently recognized that Peirce’s career was that of a scientist, not a philosopher; and that during his lifetime he was known and valued chiefly as a scientist, only secondarily as a logician, and scarcely at all as a philosopher. Even his work in philosophy and logic will not be understood until this fact becomes a standing premise of Peircian studies. (Max Fisch, in (Moore and Robin 1964, 486). Peirce was a working scientist for 30 years, and arguably was a professional philosopher only during the five years he lectured at Johns Hopkins. He learned philosophy mainly by reading, each day, a few pages of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in the original German, while a Harvard undergraduate. His writings bear on a wide array of disciplines, including astronomy, metrology, geodesy, mathematics, logic, philosophy, the history and philosophy of science, linguistics, economics, and psychology. This work has become the subject of renewed interest and approval, resulting in a revival inspired not only by his anticipations of recent scientific developments but also by his demonstration of how philosophy can be applied effectively to human problems. Peirce's writings repeatedly refer to a system of three categories, named Firstness, Secondness, and Thirdness, devised early in his career in reaction to his reading of Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel. He later initiated the philosophical tendency known as pragmatism, a variant of which his life-long friend William James made popular. Peirce believed that any truth is provisional, and that the truth of any proposition cannot be certain but only probable. The name he gave to this state of affairs was "fallibilism". This fallibilism and pragmatism may be seen as playing roles in his work similar to those of skepticism and positivism, respectively, in the work of others. He divided philosophy into three areas, (1) Phenomenology (which he also called Phaneroscopy or Categorics), (2) Normative sciences (esthetics, ethics, and logic), and (3) Metaphysics; his views on them are discussed in order below. Theory of categories On May 14, 1867, the 27-year-old Peirce presented a paper entitled "On a New List of Categories" to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, which published it the following year. The paper outlined a theory of predication, involving three universal categories that Peirce would apply throughout philosophy and elsewhere for the rest of his life. Most students of Peirce will readily agree about their prevalence throughout his philosophical work. Peirce scholars generally regard the "New List" as foundational or breaking the ground for Peirce's "architectonic", his blueprint for a pragmatic philosophy. In the categories one will discern, concentrated, the pattern which one finds formed by the three grades of clearness in "How To Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878 foundational paper for pragmatism), and in numerous other trichotomies in his work. "On a New List of Categories" is cast as a Kantian deduction; it is short but dense and difficult to summarize. The following table is compiled from that and later works. +Peirce's Categories (technical name: the cenopythagorean categories "Minute Logic", CP 2.87, c.1902 and A Letter to Lady Welby, CP 8.329, 1904. Relevant quotes viewable at CDPT, under Categories, Cenopythagorean Categories ) Name: Typical characterizaton: As universe of experience: As quantity: Technical definition: Valence, "adicity":Firstness. Quality of feeling. Ideas, chance, possibility. Vagueness, "some". Reference to a ground (a ground is a pure abstraction of a quality). The ground blackness is the pure abstraction of the quality black which in turn amounts to which embodies blackness (in which phrase the quality is formulated as reference to the ground). The point is not merely noun (the ground) versus adjective (the quality), but whether we are considering the black(ness) as abstracted away from application to an object, or instead as so applied (for instance to a stove). Yet note that Peirce's distinction here is not that between a property-general and a property-individual (a trope). See "On a New List of Categories" (1867), in the section appearing in CP 1.551. Regarding the ground, cf. the Scholastic conception of a relation's foundation, Deely 1982, p. 61 (via Google Books, registration apparently not required)] Essentially monadic (the quale, in the sense of the such, A quale in this sense is a such, just as a quality is a suchness. Cf. under "Use of Letters" in §3 of Peirce's "Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives", Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. 9, pp. 317-78 (1870), separately reprinted (1870), from which see the relevant page via Google books, also reprinted in CP 3.63:Now logical terms are of three grand classes. The first embraces those whose logical form involves only the conception of quality, and which therefore represent a thing simply as “a —.” These discriminate objects in the most rudimentary way, which does not involve any consciousness of discrimination. They regard an object as it is in itself as such (quale); for example, as horse, tree, or man. These are absolute terms. But also see "Quale-Consciousness" (1898, in CP 6.222-237) which has the quality).Secondness. Reaction, resistance, (dyadic) relation. Brute facts, actuality, “this”. Singularity, discreteness. Reference to a correlate (by its relate). Essentially dyadic (the relate and the correlate).Thirdness. Representation. Habits, laws, necessity. Generality, continuity. Reference to an interpretant*. Essentially triadic (sign, object, interpretant*). *Note: An interpretant is an interpretation in the sense of the product of an interpretive process or the content of an interpretation. Esthetics and ethics Peirce did not write extensively in esthetics and ethics, but held that, together with logic in the broad sense, those studies constituted the normative sciences. He defined esthetics as the study of good and bad; and characterized the good as "the admirable". He held that, as the study of good and bad, esthetics is the study of the ends governing all conduct and comes ahead of other normative studies. See "Charles S. Peirce on Esthetics and Ethics: A Bibliography" by Kelly A. Parker, of the Department of Philosophy, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, USA in 1999. Peirce reserved the spelling "aesthetics" for the study of artistic beauty. Philosophy: Logic, or semiotic Logic as philosophical For Peirce, logic, as such, is a division of philosophy; is a normative science, after esthetics and ethics; and is "the art of devising methods of research" Quote from Peirce, C.S., 1882, "Introductory Lecture on the Study of Logic" delivered September 1882, Johns Hopkins University Circulars, vol. 2, no. 19, pp. 11-12, November 1892, Google Book Search Beta Eprint, users outside the USA may not yet be able to gain full access. Reprinted (EP 1:214-214; W 4:378-382; CP 7.59-76). . More generally, as inference, "logic is rooted in the social principle" "The Doctrine of Chances", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 604-615, 1878 (CP 2.645-668, W 3:276-290, EP 1:142-154). "...death makes the number of our risks, the number of our inferences, finite, and so makes their mean result uncertain. The very idea of probability and of reasoning rests on the assumption that this number is indefinitely great. .... ...logicality inexorably requires that our interests shall not be limited. .... Logic is rooted in the social principle." Peirce called (with no sense of deprecation) "mathematics of logic" much of the kind of thing which, in current research and applications, is called simply "logic". He was productive in both logic and its mathematics, which were connected deeply in his work and thought. Presuppositions of logic In his "F.R.L." [First Rule of Logic] (1899), he states that the first, and "in one sense, this sole", rule of reason is that, in order to learn, one needs to desire to learn and desire it without resting satisfied with that which one is inclined to think. Peirce (1899), "F.R.L." [First Rule of Logic], CP 1.135-140, Eprint So, the first rule is, to wonder. Peirce proceeds to a critical theme in the shaping of theories, not to mention associated practices: ...there follows one corollary which itself deserves to be inscribed upon every wall of the city of philosophy: Do not block the way of inquiry. Peirce adds, that method and economy are best in research but no outright sin inheres in trying any theory in the sense that the investigation via its trial adoption can proceed unimpeded and undiscouraged, and that "the one unpardonable offence" is a philosophical barricade against truth's advance, an offense to which "metaphysicians in all ages have shown themselves the most addicted". Peirce in many writings holds that logic precedes metaphysics (ontological, religious, and physical). See Classification of the sciences (Peirce). Peirce goes on to list four common barriers to inquiry: (1) Assertion of absolute certainty; (2) maintaining that something is absolutely unknowable; (3) maintaining that something is absolutely inexplicable because absolutely basic or ultimate; (4) holding that perfect exactitude is possible, especially such as to quite preclude unusual and anomalous phenomena. To refuse absolute certainty is the heart of fallibilism, which Peirce unfolds into refusals to set up any of the listed barriers. Peirce elsewhere argues (1897) that logic's presupposition of fallibilism leads at length to the view that chance and continuity are very real (tychism and synechism). For a fuller discussion by Peirce of fallibilism and its powerful ramifications, see "Fallibilism, Continuity, and Evolution", 1897, CP 1.141-175 (Eprint), which the Collected Papers’s editors placed directly after "F.R.L." (1899, CP 1.135-140). One might have thought that, as a whole, the topic belongs within theory of inquiry ("Methodeutic" or "Philosophical or Speculative Rhetoric"), his third department of logic; but the First Rule of Logic pertains to the mind's presuppositions in undertaking reason and logic, presuppositions, for instance, that there are truth and real things independent of what you or I think of them. Peirce offered a sophisticated definition of truth in tandem with his definition of the real, as presuppositions of reason, all by way of example in his exposition of pragmatic logical method. See Pragmaticism and also the many passages by Peirce quoted under "Truth" and "Real, Reality" at CDPT. He describes such ideas as, collectively, hopes which, in particular cases, one is unable seriously to doubt. Peirce (1902), The Carnegie Institute Application, Memoir 10, MS L75.361-362, Arisbe Eprint. Peirce's view that there is no way to conceive of the absolutely incognizable leads to his rejecting the conception (usually ascribed to Kant) of the unknowable thing-in-itself. Peirce's view that it is idle or counterproductive to start philosophy from paper doubts, make-believe doubts, leads to his rejection of Cartesian foundationalism Peirce, C.S. (1868), "Some Consequences of Four Incapacities", Journal of Speculative Philosophy vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 140–157. Reprinted CP 5.264–317, W 2:211–242 EP 1:28–55. Arisbe Eprint. and, along with his rejection of the unknowable thing-in-itself, to what he called critical common-sensism ("dismiss make-believes"), which he regarded as a prerequisite for Pragmatism. Peirce, C. S. (1905), "What Pragmatism Is", The Monist, vol. XV, no. 2, pp. 161-181, The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, IL. Reprinted CP 5.411-437. Arisbe Eprint Logic as formal semiotic Peirce's semiotic is philosophical logic studied in terms of signs and sign processes. Often using examples from common experience, Peirce defines and discusses things like assertions and interpretations in terms of philosophical logic rather than of psychology or social studies. In a formal vein, Peirce says: On the Definition of Logic. Logic is formal semiotic. A sign is something, A, which brings something, B, its interpretant sign, determined or created by it, into the same sort of correspondence (or a lower implied sort) with something, C, its object, as that in which itself stands to C. This definition no more involves any reference to human thought than does the definition of a line as the place within which a particle lies during a lapse of time. It is from this definition that I deduce the principles of logic by mathematical reasoning, and by mathematical reasoning that, I aver, will support criticism of Weierstrassian severity, and that is perfectly evident. The word "formal" in the definition is also defined. (Peirce, "Carnegie Application", NEM 4:54). Peirce called his general study of signs semiotic or semeiotic. Both terms are current in both singular and plural forms. Regarding the evolution of the word "semiotic" and its spellings, see Semeiotic#Literature. Peirce began writing on semiotic in the 1860s, around the time that he devised his system of three categories. From the beginning he based his semiotic on the understanding of a triadic sign relation. His 1907 definition of semiosis is "action, or influence, which is, or involves, a cooperation of three subjects, such as a sign, its object, and its interpretant, this tri-relative influence not being in any way resolvable into actions between pairs". Peirce 1907, CP 5.484. Reprinted (EP 2:411 in "Pragmatism," 398-433). Dynamics of inquiry Every mind which passes from doubt to belief must have ideas which follow after one another in time. Every mind which reasons must have ideas which not only follow after others but are caused by them. Every mind which is capable of logical criticism of its inferences, must be aware of this determination of its ideas by previous ideas. (Peirce, "On Time and Thought", W 3:68–69.) Throughout the 1860s, the young but rapidly maturing Peirce was busy establishing a conceptual base camp and a technical supply line for a lifetime's intellectual adventures. In the long view, among best titles for the story, it all seems to have something to do with the dynamics of inquiry. This broad subject area has a part given by nature and a part ruled by nurture. On first approach, one can see a question of articulation and a question of explanation: What is needed to articulate the workings of the active form of representation that is known as conscious experience? What is needed to account for the workings of the reflective discipline of inquiry that is known as science? The pursuit of these questions finds them entangled together and finally incomprehensible apart from each other, but for exposition's sake it is convenient to organize a study of Peirce's assault on the summa by following first the trails of thought that led him to develop a theory of signs ('semiotic'), and tracking next the ways of thinking that led him to develop within it a theory of inquiry, one that would be up to the task of saying 'how science works'. Opportune points of departure for exploring the dynamics of representation, such as led to Peirce's theories of inference and information, inquiry and signs, are those that he took for his own springboards. Perhaps the most significant influences radiate from points on parallel lines of inquiry in Aristotle's work, points where the intellectual forerunner focused on many of the same issues and even came to strikingly similar conclusions, at least about the best ways to begin. To keep on course to a more solid basis for understanding Peirce, it serves to consider the following loci in Aristotle: The basic terminology of psychology, in On the Soul. The founding description of sign relations, in On Interpretation; The differentiation of the genus of reasoning into three species of inference that are commonly translated into English as abduction, deduction, and induction, in the Prior Analytics. In addition to the three elements of inference, that Peirce would assay to be irreducible, Aristotle analyzed several types of compound inference, most importantly the type known as 'reasoning by analogy' or 'reasoning from example', employing for the latter description the Greek word 'paradeigma', from which we get our word 'paradigm'. Inquiry is a form of reasoning process; it institutes a specially conducted way, manner, style, or turn of thinking. Philosophers of the school that is commonly called 'pragmatic' hold with Peirce that "all thought is in signs", "To say, therefore, that thought cannot happen in an instant, but requires a time, is but another way of saying that every thought must be interpreted in another, or that all thought is in signs." Peirce, 1868, "Questions Concerning Certain Faculties Claimed for Man", Journal of Speculative Philosophy vol. 2 (1868), pp. 103-114. Reprinted (CP 5.213-263, the quote is from para. 253). Arisbe Eprint. where 'sign' is the word for the broadest conceivable variety of indices, semblances, signals, symbols, formulas, texts, and so on up the line, that might be imagined. Even intellectual concepts and mental ideas are held to be a special class of signs, corresponding to internal states of the thinking agent that both issue in and result from the interpretation of external signs. The subsumption of inquiry within reasoning in general and the inclusion of thinking within the class of sign processes let us approach the subject of inquiry from two different perspectives: The syllogistic approach treats inquiry as a species of logical process, and is limited to those of its aspects that can be related to the most basic laws of inference. The sign-theoretic approach views inquiry as a genus of semiosis, an activity taking place within the more general setting of sign relations and sign processes. The distinction between signs denoting and objects denoted is critical to the discussion of Peirce's theory of signs. Signs Sign relation Anything is a sign — not absolutely as itself, but instead in some relation or other. The sign relation is the key. It defines three roles encompassing (1) the sign, (2) the sign's subject matter, called its object, and (3) the sign's meaning or ramification as formed into a kind of effect called its interpretant (a further sign, for example a translation). It is an irreducible triadic relation, according to Peirce. The roles are distinct even when the things that fill those roles are not.Extension × intension = information. The triadic relation requires an understanding of relation as such. Two traditional approaches, necessary though insufficient, are the way of extension (a sign's objects, also called breadth or denotation) and the way of intension (a sign's meaning, also called depth, Comprehension, signification, or nowadays connotation). Peirce adds a third, the way of information, including change of information, in order to integrate the other two approaches into a unified whole. For example, if the total amount of information stays the same, then the more that a term signifies or 'intends' about things, the fewer become the things to which it 'extends' or applies. Peirce, C. S. (1867), "Upon Logical Comprehension and Extension", Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, pp. 416-432. Presented 13 November 1867. Reprinted (CP 2.391-426), (W 2:70-86, PEP Eprint). Determination. A sign depends on its object in such a way as to represent its object — the object determines the sign. A physically causal sense of this stands out especially when a sign consists in an indicative reaction. The interpretant depends likewise on both the sign and the object — the object determines the sign to determine the interpretant. It is not like a row of toppling dominoes, a succession of dyadic events; sign determination is triadic. For example, an interpretant does not merely represent something which represented an object; instead an interpretant represents something as a sign representing an object. It is an informational kind of determination, a rendering of something more determinately representative. See Peirce, C. S. (1868), "What Is Meant By 'Determined'", Journal of Speculative Philosophy v. 2, n. 3, pp. 190-191. Reprinted (CP 6.625-630), (W 2:155-157, PEP Eprint)." It is not strictly deterministic, and varies in measure, like an influence. Peirce defines sign, object, and interpretant by their (triadic) mode of determination, not by the idea of representation, since that is part of what is being defined. Peirce, C.S., "A Letter to Lady Welby" (1908), Semiotic and Significs, pp. 80-81: I define a Sign as anything which is so determined by something else, called its Object, and so determines an effect upon a person, which effect I call its Interpretant, that the latter is thereby mediately determined by the former. My insertion of "upon a person" is a sop to Cerberus, because I despair of making my own broader conception understood. Semiotic elements Peirce held there are exactly three basic elements in semiosis (sign action): A sign (or representamen "Representamen" (properly with the "a" long and stressed: ) is Peirce's adopted (not coined) technical term for the sign as covered in his theory. Peirce used the technical term in case a divergence should come to light between his theoretical version and the popular senses of the word "sign". He eventually stopped using "representamen". See EP 2:272-3 and Semiotic and Significs p. 193, quotes in Representamen at CDPT. ) represents, in the broadest possible sense of "represents". It is something interpretable as saying something about something. It is not necessarily symbolic, linguistic, or artificial. An object (or semiotic object) is a subject matter of a sign and an interpretant. It can be anything discussable or thinkable, a thing, event, relationship, quality, law, argument, etc., and can even be fictional, for instance Hamlet. Peirce (1909), A Letter to William James, EP 2:498, viewable at CDPT under Dynamical Object All of those are special or partial objects. The object most accurately is the universe of discourse to which the partial or special object belongs. Peirce (1909), A Letter to William James, EP 2:492, viewable at CDPT under "Object". For instance, a perturbation of Pluto's orbit is a sign about Pluto but ultimately not only about Pluto. An interpretant (or interpretant sign) is the sign's more or less clarified meaning or ramification, a kind of form or idea of the difference which the sign's being true or undeceptive would make. (Peirce's sign theory concerns meaning in the broadest sense, including logical implication, not just the meanings of words as properly clarified by a dictionary.) The interpretant is a sign (a) of the object and (b) of the interpretant's "predecessor" (the interpreted sign) as being a sign of the same object. The interpretant is an interpretation in the sense of a product of an interpretive process or a content in which an interpretive relation culminates, though this product or content may itself be an act, a state of agitation, a conduct, etc. Such is what is meant in saying that the sign stands for the object to the interpretant. Some of the understanding needed by the mind depends on familiarity with the object. In order to know what a given sign denotes, the mind needs some experience of that sign's object collaterally to that sign or sign system, and in that context Peirce speaks of collateral experience, collateral observation, collateral acquaintance, all in much the same terms.<ref>See pp. 404-409 in "Pragmatism", The Essential Peirce. Ten quotes on collateral observation from Peirce provided by Joseph Ransdell can be viewed here at peirce-l's Lyris archive. Note: Ransdell's quotes from the Collected Papers vol. 8, pp. 178-179, are also in The Essential Peirce, vol. 2, pp. 493-4, which gives their date as 1909; and his quote from Collected Papers, vol. 8, p. 183, is also in The Essential Peirce, vol. 2, pp. 495-6, which gives its date as 1909. The object determines (not in the deterministic sense, but in a sense of "specializes," bestimmt) the sign to determine another sign — the interpretant — to be related to the object as the sign is related to the object, hence the interpretant, fulfilling its function as sign of the object, determines a further interpretant sign. The process is logically structured to perpetuate itself, and is definitive of sign, object, and interpretant in general. For further discussion of sign, object, and interpretant, see Sign relations and the main article Semiotic elements and classes of signs (Peirce). Classes of signs Among Peirce's many sign typologies, three stand out, interlocked. They depend respectively on (I) the sign itself, (II) the sign's relation to its denoted object, and (III) the sign's relation to its object and to its interpretant. Additionally, each of the three typologies is a three-way division, a trichotomy, via Peirce's three phenomenological categories. One typology classifies the sign by the sign's own category. A second classifies the sign by the category of the sign's way of denoting its object. The third classifies the sign by the category which the sign's interpretant attributes to the sign's way of denoting the object. I. Qualisign, sinsign, legisign (also called tone, token, type, and also called potisign, actisign, famisign): This typology emphasizes the sign itself in terms of the phenomenological category which it embodies -- the qualisign is a quality, a possibility, a "First"; the sinsign is a reaction or resistance, a singular object, an actual event or fact, a "Second"; and the legisign is a habit, a rule, a representational relation, a "Third". II. Icon, index, symbol: This typology, the best known one, emphasizes the different ways in which the sign refers to its object -- the icon (also called semblance or likeness) by a quality of its own, the index by real connection to its object, and the symbol by a habit or rule for its interpretant. III. Rheme, dicisign, argument (also called sumisign, dicisign, suadisign, also seme, pheme, delome, and regarded as very broadened versions of the traditional term, proposition, argument): This typology emphasizes that which the interpretant represents to be the sign's way of referring to its object -- the rheme, for example a term, is a sign interpreted to represent its object in respect of quality; the dicisign, for example a proposition, is a sign interpreted to represent its object in respect of fact; and the argument is a sign interpreted to represent its object in respect of habit or law. This is the culminating typology of the three, where the sign is understood as a structural element of inference. Every sign falls under one class or another within (I) and within (II) and within (III). Thus each of the three typologies is a three-valued parameter for every sign. The three parameters are not independent of each other; many co-classifications aren't found, for reasons pertaining to the lack of either habit-taking or singular reaction in a quality, and the lack of habit-taking in a singular reaction. The result is not 27 but instead ten classes of signs fully specified at this level of analysis. Modes of inference Borrowing a brace of concepts from Aristotle, Peirce examined three basic modes of reasoning that play roles in inquiry, processes currently known as abductive, deductive, and inductive inference. Peirce also called abduction "retroduction" and, earliest of all, "hypothesis". He characterized it as guessing and as inference to the best explanation. Peirce sometimes expounded the modes of inference by transformations of the classical Barbara (AAA) syllogism, for example in "Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis" (1878, see CP 2:623). He does this by rearranging the rule (which serves as deduction's major premiss), the case (deduction's minor premiss), and the result (deduction's conclusion): Deduction. Rule: All the beans from this bag are white. Case: These beans are from this bag. Result: These beans are white. Induction. Case: These beans are [randomly selected] from this bag. Result: These beans are white. Rule: All the beans from this bag are white.Hypothesis (Abduction). Rule: All the beans from this bag are white. Result: These beans are white. Case: These beans are from this bag. Not quite satisfied, Peirce retracted in 1902 his 1883 attempt in "A Theory of Probable Inference" (Studies in Logic) to conceive of hypothetical inference as induction of characters of objects, and presented in 1903 the following logical form for abductive inference Relevant quotes available under Abduction at CDPT: On correction of "A Theory of Probable Inference", see the quotes from "Minute Logic", CP 2.102, c. 1902, and from the Carnegie Application (L75), 1902, Historical Perspectives on Peirce's Logic of Science v. 2, pp. 1031-1032. On new logical form for abduction, see the quote from "Harvard Lectures on Pragmatism", 1903, CP 5.189. See also Santaella, Lucia (c. 2004) "The Development of Peirce's Three Types of Reasoning: Abduction, Deduction, and Induction". Eprint. : The surprising fact, C, is observed; But if A were true, C would be a matter of course, Hence, there is reason to suspect that A is true. Note that the logical form does not also cover induction, since induction does not depend on surprise and does not introduce a new idea in its conclusion. Abduction seeks a hypothesis to account for facts; induction seeks facts to test a hypothesis. Peirce now regarded abduction as plainly preparatory to further study and inference. In his methodeutic or theory of inquiry (see below), Peirce discusses the three modes as coordinated to play essential roles in inquiry and science, with abduction generating a possible hypothesis to account for a surprising phenomenon, deduction clarifying the relevant necessary predictive consequences of the hypothesis, and induction testing the sum of the predictions against the sum of the data to show something actually in operation. "Deduction proves that something must be; Induction shows that something actually is operative; Abduction merely suggests that something may be." "Lectures on Pragmatism", 1903, CP 5.171. Pragmatism Peirce's recipe for pragmatic thinking, called both pragmatism and pragmaticism, is recapitulated in several versions of the so-called pragmatic maxim. Here is one of his more emphatic reiterations of it: <blockquote> Consider what effects that might conceivably have practical bearings you conceive the objects of your </em>conception</em> to have. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object. See p. 481 in Peirce, C. S. (1905), "Issues of Pragmaticism", The Monist, vol. 15, pp. 481-499, Google Book Search Beta Eprint, Internet Archive Eprint. Reprinted (CP 5.438-463, see 438), (Charles S. Peirce: Selected Writings, pp. 203-226) </blockquote> William James, among others, regarded two of Peirce's papers, "The Fixation of Belief" (1877) and "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878) as pragmatism's origin. Peirce conceived pragmatism as a method for clarifying the meaning of difficult ideas through application of the pragmatic maxim. He differed from William James and the early John Dewey, in some of their tangential enthusiasms, in being decidedly more rationalistic and realistic, in several senses of those terms, throughout the preponderance of his own philosophical moods. Peirce's pragmatism is a method of sorting out conceptual confusions by equating the meaning of any concept with the conceivable operational or practical consequences of whatever it is which the concept portrays. This pragmatism bears no resemblance to "vulgar" pragmatism, which misleadingly connotes a ruthless and Machiavellian search for mercenary or political advantage. Rather, Peirce's pragmatic maxim is the heart of his pragmatism as a method of experimentational mental reflection Peirce (1902), CP 5.13 note 1 arriving at conceptions in terms of conceivable confirmatory and disconfirmatory circumstances—a method hospitable to the generation of explanatory hypotheses, and conducive to the employment and improvement of verification See CP 1.34 Eprint (in "The Spirit of Scholasticism"), where Peirce attributes the success of modern science not so much to a novel interest in verification as to the improvement of verification. to test the truth of putative knowledge. As such a method, pragmatism leads beyond the usual duo of foundational alternatives, namely: Deduction from self-evident truths, or rationalism; Induction from experiential phenomena, or empiricism. His approach is distinct from foundationalism, empiricist or otherwise, as well as from coherentism, by the following three dimensions: Active process of theory generation, with no prior assurance of truth; Subsequent application of the contingent theory, aimed toward developing its logical and practical consequences; Evaluation of the provisional theory's utility for the anticipation of future experience, and that in dual senses of the word: prediction and control. Peirce's identification of these three dimensions serves to flesh out an approach to inquiry far more solid than the standard image of simple inductive generalization as describing a pattern observed in phenomena. Peirce's pragmatism was the first time the scientific method was proposed as an epistemology for philosophical questions. A theory that proves itself more successful than its rivals in predicting and controlling our world is said to be nearer the truth. This is an operational notion of truth employed by scientists. Peirce held, that the scientific method is the best for theoretical questions but not always better than tradition, instinct, etc., for time-sensitive practical questions, but will in the long run produce the most secure results on which action can ultimately be based. In "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Peirce discusses three grades of clearness of conception: 1. Clearness of the familiar conception. 2. Clearness as of a definition's parts, the clearness in virtue of which logicians call a concept or definition "distinct". 3. Clearness in virtue of clearness of conceivable consequences of the object as conceived of. Here he introduced that which he later called the Pragmatic Maxim. By way of example of how to clarify conceptions, he addresses truth and the real as questions of the presuppositions of reasoning in general. In clearness's second grade, he defines truth as a sign's correspondence to its object, and the real as the object of such correspondence, such that truth and the real are independent of that which you or I or any definite community of researchers think. Then in clearness's third grade (the pragmatic grade), he defines the truth as that which would be reached, sooner or later but still inevitably, by research adequately prolonged, such that the real does depend on that final opinion—a dependence to which he appeals in theoretical arguments elsewhere, for instance for the long-term validity of the rule of induction. "That the rule of induction will hold good in the long run may be deduced from the principle that reality is only the object of the final opinion to which sufficient investigation would lead", in Peirce, C. S. (1878 April), "The Probability of Induction", p. 718 in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 12, pp. 705-718. Reprinted (Chance, Love, and Logic, pp. 82-105), (CP 2.669-693), (Philosophical Writings of Peirce, pp. 174-189), (W 3:290-305), (EP 1:155-169). Internet Archive Popular Science Monthly 12. Peirce argues that even to argue against the independence and discoverability of truth and the real is to presuppose that there is, about that very question under argument, a truth with just such independence and discoverability. For more on Peirce's theory of truth, see the Peirce section in Pragmatic Theory of Truth. Peirce's pragmatism, as method and theory of definitions and the clearness of ideas, is a department within his theory of inquiry, See Joseph Ransdell's comments and his tabular list of titles of Peirce's proposed list of memoirs in 1902 for his Carnegie application, Eprint which he variously called "Methodeutic" and "Philosophical or Speculative Rhetoric". He applied his pragmatism as a method throughout his work. For further discussion see the main articles Pragmaticism and Pragmatic maxim. Theory of inquiry In The Fixation of Belief (1877), Peirce outlined four methods of inquiry and settling belief: (1) the method of tenacity (sticking with that which one is inclined to think), (2) the method of authority, (3) the method of congruity or the a priori or the dilettante or "what is agreeable to reason" (which leads to argumentation which gets finally nowhere), and (4) the method of science. Peirce held that, in practical affairs, slow and stumbling ratiocination is often dangerously inferior to instinct, sentiment, and tradition, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research, "Philosophy and the Conduct of Life", 1898, Lecture 1 of the Cambridge (MA) Conferences Lectures, published CP 1.616-48 in part and in Reasoning and the Logic of Things, Ketner (ed., intro.) and Putnam (intro., comm.), 105-22, reprinted in EP 2:27-41. which in turn should not be bound to the other methods and practical ends; yet what recommends scientific method above others finally is that it is deliberately designed to arrive, eventually, at the most secure beliefs, upon which the most successful actions can eventually be based. Peirce extracted the pragmatic model or theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic and refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address problems about the nature of scientific reasoning. Abduction, deduction, and induction do not make complete sense in isolation from each other but comprise a cycle understandable as a whole insofar as they collaborate toward the end of inquiry. In the pragmatic way of thinking in terms of conceivable consequences, every thing has a purpose, and a thing's purpose is the first thing that we should try to note about it. Inquiry's purpose is to reduce doubt and lead to a state of belief, which a person in that state will usually call 'knowledge' or 'certainty'. The three kinds of inference function systematically to reduce the uncertainties and difficulties that occasioned the inquiry, and thus, to the extent that inquiry succeeds, lead to an increase in the knowledge or skills, in other words an augmentation in the competence or performance of the agent or community engaged in the inquiry. For instance, abduction's purpose is to generate guesses that deduction can explicate and that induction can evaluate. This places mild but meaningful constraints of plausibility, practical testability, and so on, on the production of hypotheses, since it is not just any wild guess at explanation that submits itself to reason and bows out when defeated in a match with reality, and the logic of abduction gets involved with the economy of research. See MS L75.329-330, from Draft D of Memoir 27 of Peirce's application to the Carnegie Institution: Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the leading doctrine with reference to the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations. Likewise, each of the other types of inference realizes its purpose only in accord with its proper role in the whole cycle of inquiry. No matter how much it may be necessary to study these processes in abstraction from each other, the integrity of inquiry places strong limitations on the effective modularity of its principal components. The ensuing question, 'What sort of constraint, exactly, does pragmatic thinking of the end of inquiry place on our guesses?', is generally recognized as the problem of 'giving a rule to abduction'. Peirce's overall answer was the pragmatic maxim. In 1903 Peirce called the question of pragmatism "the question of the logic of abduction". Peirce, C. S. (1903), "Pragmatism -- The Logic of Abduction", CP 5.195-205, especially para. 196. Eprint. Peirce characterized the scientific method as follows: Peirce, C.S. (1908), "A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God", published in part, Hibbert Journal v. 7, 90-112, Hibbert Journal version, also at Internet Archive Eprint. Reprinted with one or another unpublished part in CP 6.452-485, Selected Writings pp. 358-379, EP 2:434-450, Peirce on Signs pp. 260-278. Eprint. 1. Abduction (or retroduction). Generation of explanatory hypothesis. From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, on the basis of tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis. Every inquiry, whether into ideas, brute facts, or norms and laws, arises in the effort to resolve the wonder of surprising observations in the given realm or realms. All explanatory content of theories is reached by way of abduction, the most insecure among modes of inference. Induction as a process is far too slow for that job, so economy of research demands abduction, whose modicum of success depends on one's being somehow attuned to nature, by dispositions learned and, some of them, likely inborn. Abduction has general inductive justification in that it works often enough and that nothing else works, at least not quickly enough when science is already properly rather slow, the work of indefinitely many generations. Given that abduction relies on inborn or developed instinct attuned to nature and is driven by the need to economize the inquiry process, its explanatory hypotheses should be optimally simple in the sense of "natural" (for which Peirce cites Galileo and which Peirce distinguishes from "logically simple"). Given that abduction is insecure guesswork, it should have consequences with conceivable practical bearing leading at least to mental tests, and, in science, lending themselves to scientific testing. 2. Deduction. Analysis of hypothesis and deduction of its consequences in order to test the hypothesis. Two stages: i. Explication. Logical analysis of the hypothesis in order to render it as distinct as possible. ii. Demonstration (or deductive argumentation). Deduction of hypothesis's consequence. Corollarial or, if needed, Theorematic. 3. Induction. The long-run validity of the rule of induction is deducible from the principle (presuppositional to reasoning in general) that the real "is only the object of the final opinion to which sufficient investigation would lead". In other words, if there were something to which an inductive process involving ongoing tests or observations would never lead, then that thing would not be real. Three stages: i. Classification. Classing objects of experience under general ideas. ii. Probation (or direct Inductive Argumentation): Crude (the enumeration of instances) or Gradual (new estimate of proportion of truth in the hypothesis after each test). Gradual Induction is Qualitative or Quantitative; if Quantitative, then dependent on measurements, or on statistics, or on countings. iii. Sentential Induction. "...which, by Inductive reasonings, appraises the different Probations singly, then their combinations, then makes self-appraisal of these very appraisals themselves, and passes final judgment on the whole result". Philosophy: Metaphysics In ontology, Peirce declared himself Scholastic Realist about generals early on. Eventually he embraced Scholastic Realism about modalities (possibility, necessity, etc.) as well, holding that the modalities are real and not mere functions of one's ignorance. Peirce believed in God, and characterized such belief as founded in an instinct explorable in musing over the worlds of ideas, brute facts, and evolving norms — and it is a belief in God not as an actual or existent being (in Peirce's sense of those words), but all the same as a real being. Peirce in his 1906 "Answers to Questions concerning my Belief in God", CP 6.495, Eprint, reprinted in part as "The Concept of God" in Philosophical Writings of Peirce, J. Buchler, ed., 1940, pp. 375-378:I will also take the liberty of substituting "reality" for "existence." This is perhaps overscrupulosity; but I myself always use exist in its strict philosophical sense of "react with the other like things in the environment." Of course, in that sense, it would be fetichism to say that God "exists." The word "reality," on the contrary, is used in ordinary parlance in its correct philosophical sense. [....] I define the real as that which holds its characters on such a tenure that it makes not the slightest difference what any man or men may have thought them to be, or ever will have thought them to be, here using thought to include, imagining, opining, and willing (as long as forcible means are not used); but the real thing's characters will remain absolutely untouched" In "A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God" (1908), Peirce sketches, for God's reality, an argument to a hypothesis of God as the Necessary Being, a hypothesis which he describes in terms of how it would tend to develop and become compelling in musement and inquiry by a normal person who is led, by the hypothesis, to consider as being purposed the features of the worlds of ideas, brute facts, and evolving norms, such that the thought of such purposefulness will "stand or fall with the hypothesis"; meanwhile, according to Peirce, the hypothesis, in supposing an "infinitely incomprehensible" being, starts off at odds with its own nature as a purportively true conception, and so, no matter how much the hypothesis grows, it both (A) inevitably regards itself as partly true, partly vague, and as continuing to define itself without limit, and (B) inevitably has God appearing likewise vague but growing, though God as the Necessary Being is not vague or growing; but the hypothesis will hold it to be more false to say the opposite, that God is purposeless. In physical metaphysics, Peirce held the view, which he called objective idealism, that "matter is effete mind, inveterate habits becoming physical laws". Peirce, "The Architecture of Theories", The Monist 1 (1891), pp. 161–176, see p. 170, via Google Books). Reprinted (CP 6.7–34) and (EP 1:285-297, see p. 293). Peirce asserted the reality of (1) chance (his tychist view), (2) mechanical necessity (anancist view), and (3) that which he called the law of love (agapist view). They embody his categories Firstness, Secondness, and Thirdness, respectively. He held that fortuitous variation (which he also called "sporting"), mechanical necessity, and creative love are the three modes of evolution (modes called "tychasm", "anancasm", and "agapasm" See "tychism", "tychasm", "tychasticism", and the rest, at the CDPT. ) of the universe and its parts. He found his conception of agapasm embodied in Lamarckian evolution; the overall idea in any case is that of evolution tending toward an end or goal, and it could also be the evolution of a mind or a society; it is the kind of evolution which manifests workings of mind in some general sense. He said that overall he was a synechist, holding with reality of continuity. Peirce, "Evolutionary Love", The Monist, vol. 3, pp. 176-200 (1893), published as the last paper in a series of five. Reprinted (CP 6.278-317), (EP 1:352-372). Arisbe Eprint Science of review Peirce outlined two fields, "Cenoscopy" and "Science of Review", both of which could be called "philosophy" and both of which included philosophy about science. Peirce distinguished First Philosophy as "Cenoscopy," placed it after mathematics and before special sciences (physical, chemical, biological, psychological, social) among the Sciences of Discovery, and included, within it, the general study of inquiry and scientific method. Cenoscopic philosophy concerns positive phenomena in general, does not rely on findings from special sciences, and is the kind discussed earlier in this article. Peirce distinguished Ultimate Philosophy as "Science of Review" or "Synthetic Philosophy", placed it between Science of Discovery and Practical Science, and characterized it as "...arranging the results of discovery, beginning with digests, and going on to endeavor to form a philosophy of science". His examples of Science of Review included Humboldt's Cosmos, Comte's Philosophie positive, and Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy. Peirce (1903), CP 1.182 Eprint and Peirce (1906) 'The Basis of Pragmaticism', EP 2:372-3, see Philosophy at CDPT. Peirce placed, within Science of Review, the work and theory of classifying the sciences (including mathematics and philosophy). His classifications, on which he worked for many years, draw on argument and wide knowledge, and are of interest both as a map for navigating his philosophy and as an accomplished polymath's survey of research in his time. Abbreviations CDPT = Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms. CP x.y = Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, volume x, paragraph y. EP x:y = The Essential Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings, volume x, page y. NEM x:y = The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce, volume x, page y. W x:y = Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, volume x, page y. For more information on editions, see References below, and also Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#Main editions. Notes Bibliography A large bibliography of works by Peirce and works about Peirce may be found at the above location, with many links to online texts by or about Peirce. Main editions (posthumous). Title links go to specific entries in the Peirce bibliography wiki for more details. (Separate link to Lady Welby wiki). Publisher links lead directly to the relevant catalog pages. (1931–58) Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, v. 1–6 Hartshorne and Weiss, eds., v. 7–8 Burks, ed. Harvard & InteLex CD-ROM. (1975–87) Charles Sanders Peirce: Contributions to The Nation, v. 1–4, Ketner and Cook, eds. O.p. except InteLex CD-ROM. (1976)      The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce, 4 volumes in 5, Eisele, ed. O.p. (1977)      Semiotic and Significs: The Correspondence between C. S. Peirce and Victoria Lady Welby, Hardwick, ed., with Cook. 2nd 2001. O.p. (1981–)    Writings of Charles S. Peirce, A Chronological Edition, v. 1–6, Peirce Edition Project (PEP), eds. 3/17/09: prices on most volumes cut by 70%–80%, I.U.P. catalog pages. (1985)      Historical Perspectives on Peirce's Logic of Science: A History of Science, v. 1–2 Eisele, ed. O.p. (1992)      Reasoning and the Logic of Things: The Cambridge Conference Lectures of 1898, Ketner, ed., & commentary by Putnam. Harvard. (1992–98) The Essential Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings, v. 1 Houser and Kloesel, eds. I.U.P., v. 2, PEP eds. I.U.P.. (1997)      Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism", Turisi, ed. SUNY. See also Logic, mathematics, statistics, philosophy, semiotics Continuous predicate Entitative graph Hypostatic abstraction Idea#Charles Sanders Peirce Laws of Form Likelihood function Logic of information Logical machine Logical matrix Mathematical psychology Normal distribution Peirce's law Phaneron Pragmatics Problem of universals#Peirce Quantification#History Relation algebra Rhema, Rheme Scottish School of Common Sense Sole sufficient operator Truth table Contemporaries associated with Peirce James Mark Baldwin Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Howland will forgery trial Christine Ladd-Franklin Allan Marquand George Herbert Mead The Metaphysical Club Ventura de los Reyes Prósper F.C.S. Schiller External links External links to biographical and overview articles at Arisbe, the Peirce Edition Project, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and elsewhere. Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway, Joseph Ransdell, ed. 95 online works by Peirce as of 2/17/09, with commentary. 100s of online papers on Peirce. Much else. Centro Studi Peirce (English), U. of Milan, Italy. Charles S. Peirce Society Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society. Quarterly journal of Peirce studies since spring 1965. Table of Contents of all issues. Charles S. Peirce Studies, Brian Kariger, ed. Commens: Virtual Centre for Peirce Studies, U. of Helsinki, Mats Bergman & Sami Paavola, eds. 24 papers by ten authors as of 1/31/09. Plus the Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms (CDPT) with Peirce's own definitions, often many per term across the decades. Digital Encyclopedia of Charles S. Peirce. João Queiroz and Ricardo Gudwin, eds., Brazil, in English. 84 authors listed, 51 papers online, more papers listed, as of 1/31/09. Existential Graphs, Jay Zeman, ed., U. of Florida. Includes works by Peirce. Grupo de Estudios Peirceanos, Jaime Nubiola, ed., U. of Navarra, Spain. Multilingual, many papers, bibliography, more. His Glassy Essence: Autobiography of Charles S. Peirce, Kenneth Laine Ketner Institute for Studies in Pragmaticism, Kenneth Laine Ketner, Clyde Hendrick, et al. International Research Group on Abductive Inference, Uwe Wirth and Alexander Roesler, eds. Uses frames. Click on link at bottom of its home page for English. Peirce Edition Project, Indiana U.-Purdue U. Indianapolis (IUPUI). Editors of the Writings of Charles S. Peirce v. 1–6 of a projected 30 and The Essential Peirce v. 2. Site has many study aids such as introductions to EP 1–2 and W 1–6, and the Robin Catalog of Peirce's manuscripts and letters. Most of Volume 2 readable online of Writings of Charles S. Peirce. Peirce Edition Project’s at Université du Québec à Montréal (UQÀM). Working on Peirce's contributions to the Century Dictionary. Peirce's Theory of Semiosis, Joseph Esposito. Free online course. Peirce's Existential Graphs, Fritjof Dau, Germany Pragmatism Cybrary, John R. Shook, ed. Semiotics according to Robert Marty, including 76 definitions of the sign by Peirce. An earlier version of this article, by Jaime Nubiola, was posted at Nupedia.

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List_of_freshwater_aquarium_fish_species

A vast number of species of fish have been successfully kept in the home aquarium. This list gives only some of the most commonly-kept species. Bichirs and reedfish Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksGray bichir Polypterus senegalus 35.5 Species Easy Predatory Ornate Bichir Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksReedfish Erpetoichthys calabaricus 40 Species Easy/Intermediate Nocturnal Catfish Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksArmored catfish including Aspidoras, Brochis, Callichthys, and Corydoras Aspidoras fuscoguttatus Aspidoras lakoi Aspidoras rochai Sixray corydoras, false corydoras Aspidoras pauciradiatus 2.8 Britski's catfish Corydoras britskii 8.9 Emerald catfish Corydoras splendens 5 - 10 Green spots on the gills are normal and do not indicate disease. Hognosed brochis Corydoras multiradiatus 6.6 Cascarudo Callichthys callichthys 20 Adolfo's catfish Corydoras adolfoi Banded corydoras Scleromystax barbatus 10 Masked corydoras Corydoras metae Barredtail corydoras Corydoras cochui Blackstripe corydoras Corydoras bondi Blacktop corydoras Corydoras acutus Blue corydoras Corydoras nattereri Bluespotted corydoras Corydoras melanistius Bronze corydoras Corydoras aeneus 6.35 - 7 The albino strain is common Corydoras atropersonatus Corydoras ehrhardti Corydoras evelynae Corydoras geoffroy Corydoras latus Corydoras loxozonus Corydoras nanus Corydoras narcissus Corydoras ornatus Corydoras osteocarus Corydoras polystictus Corydoras prionotos Corydoras semiaquilus Corydoras septentrionalis Corydoras simulatus Corydoras undulatus Dwarf corydoras Corydoras hastatus Elegant corydoras Corydoras elegans False network catfish Corydoras sodalis False spotted catfish Corydoras leucomelas Green gold catfish Corydoras melanotaenia Guapore corydoras Corydoras guapore Masked corydoras, bandit corydoras Corydoras metae 5 Mosaic corydoras, reticulated corydoras Corydoras haraldschultzi Mosaic corydoras, reticulated corydoras Corydoras reticulatus Panda corydoras Corydoras panda Pastaza corydoras Corydoras pastazensis Peppered corydoras Corydoras paleatus Pink corydoras Corydoras axelrodi Pygmy corydoras Corydoras pygmaeus Sailfin corydoras Corydoras macropterus Salt and pepper catfish Corydoras habrosus Schwartz's catfish Corydoras schwartzi Spotted corydoras, longnose corydoras Corydoras ambiacus Sterba's corydoras Corydoras sterbai Sychr's catfish Corydoras sychri Tailspot corydoras Corydoras caudimaculatus Threestripe corydoras, leopard catfishCorydoras trilineatus Xingu corydoras Corydoras xinguensis Armored suckermouth catfish (plecos)Bristlenose pleco, bushynose placo Ancistrus spp. the bristlenose genus has at least 59 identified species and many others yet to be named Gold nugget pleco Baryancistrus spp. many species exist but not yet officially identified; the three common aquarium species are known as L-018, L-081, and L-177 Whiptail catfish Rineloricaria spp. there are about 20 species of whiptail catfishTwig catfish Farlowella spp. there are at least 20 species in the twig catfish genusPanaque Panaque spp. Several species of panaque are popular aquarium fishPineapple pleco, orange cheek pleco Pseudorinelepis spp. there are 4 species in this genusCommon pleco, suckermouth catfish, Amazon sailfin catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis one of the several fish sold under this name; there is also an albino variation Common pleco, suckermouth catfish Hypostomus punctatus one of the several fish sold under this nameCommon pleco, suckermouth catfish Hypostomus plecostomus one of the several fish sold under this nameLeopard sailfin pleco, clown sailfin pleco Pterygoplichthys gibbiceps other related fish also share this common name Zebra pleco, L-046 Hypancistrus zebra Sailfin catfish Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus Golden dwarf sucker, golden oto Otocinclus affinis Zebra dwarf sucker, zebra oto Otocinclus cocama Airbreathing catfishWalking catfish Clarias batrachus albino form is common in the aquarium tradeBanjo catfishBanjo catfish Bunocephalus coracoideus Talking catfishStriped Raphael Platydoras costatus Spotted Raphael Agamyxis pectinifrons Squeakers and upside-down catfishCuckoo squeaker Synodontis multipunctatus Decorated squeaker Synodontis decorus Even-Spotted squeaker Synodontis petricola Featherfin squeaker Synodontis eupterus Lake Malawi syno Synodontis njassae Polka dot syno Synodontis angelicus Common syno, false upside down catfish Synodontis nigrita Upside-down catfish Synodontis nigriventris 9.6 (4") Community Prefers bottom feeding of Tubifex but main diet is algae. Shark catfishIridescent shark Pangasius hypophthalmus Community albino form is common in the aquarium trade Chao Phraya giant shark, Giant pangasius Pangasius sanitwongsei dwarf "balloon" form is available in the aquarium trade Sea catfishColombian shark catfish Arius seemanni Berney's shark catfish Arius berneyi Australian shark catfish Arius graeffei SheatfishGlass catfish Kryptopterus bicirrhis 10-12 (4-5"), 15 (6") in the wild. Needs to be kept in a group of 5 or more.Two spot glass catfish Ompok bimaculatus 45 (18") Looks very similar to Kryptopterus bicirrhis except the difference lies in the triangular dorsal fin of the Ompok in contrast to what looks like a small spine than a fin of the K. bicirrhis.Bagrid catfishesCrystal eyed catfish Hemibagrus wyckii 71 (28") This fish is highly aggressive and must be kept alone.Asian redtail catfish Hemibagrus wyckioides 130 (50") This fish is highly aggressive and must be kept alone. Horabagrus brachysoma 45 (18") Long-whiskered catfish Leiarius marmoratus 100 (39") Leiarius pictus 60 (24") Redtail catfish Phractocephalus hemioliopterus 120 (4') Spotted pimelodus, pictus, Pictus catfish Pimelodus pictus Tiger shovelnose catfish Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum 104 (3.4') This fish is easy to confuse with P. tigrinum.Tiger shovelnose catfish Pseudoplatystoma tigrinum 130 (4.3') This fish is easy to confuse with P. fasciatum. Characins and other characiformes Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksTetrasBlack phantom tetra Hyphessobrycon megalopterus 4.5 (1.75") Community Easy the black phantom tetra enjoy being in groups of 6 or more and a slightly shaded tank. Males may claim small territories and occasionally minor battles may occur. The Phantom tetra goes well with other tetras of similar size. They also prefer floating plants.Black neon tetra Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi 4 (1.6") Community Intermediate this fish is similar to the neon tetra other than coloration.Black tetra Gymnocorymbus ternetzi 5 (2") Community Easy a highly spirited fish that may occasionally chase its own species as well as harass slow moving fish with long fins. This fish is very hardy and can stand a variety of water qualities. Disease is not a big problem with the black tetra. The black tetra is also known as the black skirt tetra. The female black tetra is more robust and larger than the male.Bleeding heart tetra Hyphessobrycon erythrostigma 6.5 (2.5") Community Intermediate the bleeding heart tetra is distinguished by the small red spot on both sides of the fish. This fish is very prone to diseases, and can grow larger than most tetra species. It is not recommended for beginners.Bloodfin tetra Aphyocharax anisitsi 5 (2") Community Bucktooth tetra Exodon paradoxus 5 (2") will eat smaller fish and harass larger fishBuenos Aires tetra Hyphessobrycon anisitsi 7.5 (3") Easy Cardinal tetra Paracheirodon axelrodi 5 (2") Community Cave tetra, blind tetra Astyanax mexicanus 12 (4.7") Easy cave tetra is the blind cave form of the Mexican tetra. The blind cave tetra is easy to care for and is hardy. The fish is born with eyes, but they quickly deteriorate leaving behind two scars where the eyes once were. The blind tetra needs to be in a shoal in order to show peaceful behavior, and to prevent fin nipping. Despite their lack of eyes, the blind cave tetra can easily avoid other fish and obstacles in the tank. This tetra prefers low to moderate lighting. Congo tetra, Lufundi (native name) Phenacogrammus interruptus 7.5 (3") Community Intermediate Sufficiently peaceful for home aquariums, though it may bite fishes smaller than its size. It is more comfortable in indirect light. Over-head lighting is preferred and under no circumstances should light be directed at the front or rear glass.Emperor tetra Nematobrycon palmeri 5 (2") Easy Garnet tetra, pretty tetra Hemigrammus pulcher 6.5 (2.5") Community Glowlight tetra Hemigrammus erythrozonus 3.75 (1.5") Community Easy Green neon tetra Paracheirodon simulans 2.5 (1") Community Intermediate Lemon tetra Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis 5 (2") Neon tetra Paracheirodon innesi 3.75 (1.6") Community Easy the neon tetra is sensitive towards water quality and is susceptible to many freshwater diseases. However, the fish is very peaceful and will not attack another member of the tank. Females are larger than the males. Due to their small size, the neon tetra should not be kept with large fish. Neon tetras are also very delicate and any harassment they may receive can result in death. This can be prevented by putting them with other small community fish or fish known to ignore their tankmates. The neon tetra feels the most comfortable when in groups.Penguin tetra, blackline penguinfish Thayeria boehlkei 6.5 (2.5") Rummy-nose tetra Hemigrammus rhodostomus 5 (2") Community Intermediate Serpae tetra Hyphessobrycon serpae 4.5 (1.75") Community Easy this fish may nip the fins of slow moving fish or fish smaller than it. It is best put with other large tetras or with fish of similar size or larger.HatchetfishCommon hatchetfish Gasteropelecus sternicla Silver hatchetfish Gasteropelecus levis Marbled hatchetfish Carnegiella strigata 5 (2") Community Intermediate Peaceful and dwells at the top of the tank in schools. Rarely breeds in captivity. This powerful leaper can easily jump out of an aquarium, so keep only in a fully-covered tank.Black-winged hatchetfish Carnegiella marthae 4 (1.5") Community Intermediate Peaceful and dwells at the top of the tank in schools. The most hardy of all the hatchetfish, but not the most plentiful. Does not breed in captivity. This powerful leaper can easily jump out of an aquarium, so keep only in a fully-covered tank.Pencil fishesThree-lined pencilfish Nannostomus trifasciatus 5 (2") Community Intermediate Males defend small territories. Otherwise a peaceful, beautiful species.HeadstandersMarbled Headstander Abramites hypselonotus 13 (5") Community Intermediate Keep either one headstander or a group of seven or more as they will fight mongst themselves in small groups.Serrasalminae (pacus, piranhas, and silver dollars)Silver dollar Metynnis argenteus 15 (6") The name "silver dollar" may also refer to Metynnis hypsauchen, Metynnis maculatus, or other related fishes. It will chew and eat plants.Red bellied pacu Colossoma bidens 120 (48") Difficult the red bellied pacu is a close relative of the piranhas, but without the sharp teeth and the aggression. However, care should be taken if interacting physically with the pacu as their powerful jaws can crush human bone. The Pacu is a peaceful fish that requires at least a 750 litre (200 gallon) tank when fully mature. It is omnivorous and can be put with large cichlids, but avoid smaller fish. Despite their similar appearance to piranhas, the pacu is not suited to eat meat very well, as their natural diet of nuts suggests. Be aware that this fish can grow to 1.2 metres (four feet) and the owner must be prepared to house them in a very large tank if they wish to keep the fish (750 l/200 gal minimum). Also be aware that this fish grows very fast, and can grow as much as one foot in the first year. Cichlids Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksLake Malawi cichlids Sunshine peacock cichlid Aulonocara baenschi 15 (6") Copadichromis borleyi Eureka red peacock Aulonocara jacobfreibergi 15 (6") Spilo Champsochromis spilorhyncus 40 (16") Blue dolphin cichlid, lumphead cichlid Cyrtocara moorii 25 (10") Afra cichlid, dogtooth cichild Cynotilapia afra 10 (3.9") Mbuna Easy Rusty cichlid, lavender cichild Iodotropheus sprengerae 10 (4") Mbuna Fuelleborn's cichlid/Blue mbuna Labeotropheus fuelleborni 18 (7") Mbuna Electric yellow cichlid Labidochromis caeruleus 20 (8") Mbuna Easy Very active and entertaining fish, need many rock caves to allow establishment of territories, less aggressive than other mbunaMalawi eyebiter Dimidiochromis compressiceps Easy Hongi, Red-top kimpumpa Labidochromis sp. "Hongi" 13 (5") Mbuna Labidochromis sp. "Mbamba Bay" Labidochromis sp. "Mbamba Bay" 13 (5") Mbuna Auratus cichlid, Malawi golden cichlid Melanochromis auratus 10 (3.9") Easy Chipokee cichlid Melanochromis chipokae 12 (4.7") Mbuna Easy Blue johanni cichlid, Maingano Melanochromis cyaneorhabdos 10 (4") Mbuna Easy Very active and entertaining fish, need many rock caves to allow establishment of territoriesMelanochromis joanjohnsonae Melanochromis joanjohnsonae 10 (3.9") Mbuna Johanni cichlid Melanochromis johannii 10 (4.7") Mbuna Aurora Melanochromis aurora 10 (4") Mbuna Red zebra cichlid Metriaclima estherae 10 (4.7") Mbuna Easy Very active and entertaining fish, need many rock caves to allow establishment of territoriesCobalt blue cichlid, cobalt zebra cichlid Maylandia callainos 10 (4.7") Mbuna Easy Very active and entertaining fish, need many rock caves to allow establishment of territoriesKenyi cichlid Maylandia lombardoi 13 (5") Mbuna Fusco Nimbochromis fuscotaeniatus 25 (10") Livingston's cichlid Nimbochromis livingstonii 25 (9.8") Kaligono Nimbochromis polystigma 30 (12") Venustus cichlid, giraffe cichild Nimbochromis venustus 25 (10") Easy Red empress cichlid Protomelas taeniolatus 15 (5.9") Bumblebee cichlid, hornet cichlid Pseudotropheus crabro 15 (5.9") Mbuna Pseudotropheus acei Pseudotropheus acei 10 (4") Mbuna Saulosi Pseudotropheus saulosi 7.5 (3") Mbuna Malawi barracuda Rhampsochromis cf. macrophthalmus 23 (9") Tyrannochromis macrostoma 38 (15") Lake Tanganyika cichlidsBoulengerochromis microlepsis Boulengerochromis microlepsis 90 (36") The largest cichlidFrontosa cichild Cyphotilapia frontosa 40 (16") Cyathopharynx Not readily available in the aquarium trade. Variabilichromis Frontosa cichild Cyphotilapia gibberosa 40 (16") The frontosa have recently been broken up into three separate species. The gibberosa come from the southern part of the LakeFrontosa cichild Cyphotilapia sp. "North" 40 (16") This yet to be officially named species is intermediate in scale count between gibberosa and frontosa.Julie cichlid Julidochromis dickfeldi Masked Julie Julidochromis marlieri 15 (6") f / 10 (4") m Striking colorationJulie cichlid Julidochromis ornatus Julie cichlid Julidochromis regani 15 (6") f / 10 (4") m Julie cichlid Julidochromis transcriptus 10 (4") Striking colorationHerring/Sardine cichlid Cyprichromis Ectodus descampsii Chalinochromis Neolamprologus multifasciatus Neolamprologus multifasciatus 3.8 (1½") A small shell-dwelling cichlid from Lake Tanganyika. Distinguished from the similar L. similis by the lack of striping on the face]] Lamprologus ocellatus Lamprologus ocellatus 5 (2") Neolamprologus similis Neolamprologus similis 3.8 (1½") A small shell-dwelling cichlid from Lake Tanganyika. Very similar to N. multifsciatus but similis has striping from the body continue to the headLobochilotes labiatus Lobochilotes labiatus 40 (16") Lyretail cichlid, fairy cichlid Neolamprologus brichardi 10 (4") Lemon cichlid Neolamprologus leleupi 11.5 (4½") Featherfin Opthalmotilapia ventralis 15 (6") Petrochromis trewavasae Petrochromis trewavasae 20 (8") Petrochromis sp. "Zaire Texas" Petrochromis sp. "Zaire Texas" 18 (7") Simochromis pleurospilus Simochromis pleurospilus 10 (4") Tropheus duboisi Tropheus duboisi 13 (5") Males very aggressiveTropheus moorii Tropheus moorii 14 (5½") Easy Tropheus polli Tropheus polli 14 (5½") Lake Victoria cichlids Astatotilapia aenocolor 13 (5") Astatotilapia elegans 10 (4") Zebra obliquidens Astatotilapia latifasciata 11.5 (4½") Astatotilapia nubila Astatotilapia nubila 11.5 (4½") Astatotilapia piceatus 10 (4") Astatotilapia schubotziellus 10 (4") Haplochromis obliquedens Astatotilapia sp "Red Tail" 11.5 (4½") Astatotilapia sp. "Spot Bar" 13 (5") Hippo Point Salmon Ptyochromis sp. "Hippo Point Salmon" 14 (5½") Flameback Pundamilia nyererei 10 (4") Xystichromis phytophagus Xystichromis phytophagus 10 (4") Miscellaneous African cichlids (non-Rift Lake) African butterfly cichlid Anomalochromis thomasi Jewel cichlid, two-spotted jewel cichlid Hemichromis bimaculatus other hemichromis species are sometimes sold under the same name Steatocranus Lifalili jewel cichlid, blood-red jewel cichlid Hemichromis lifalili Kribensis, krib Pelvicachromis pulcher Easy Readily breed in aquariaZebra tilapia Tilapia buttikoferi Guenther's Mouthbrooder Chromidotilapia guentheri Allauad's haplo Astatoreochromis alluaudi Pale usisya aulonocara Aulonocara steveni Benthochromis tricoti Dwarf cichlids (apistogrammas, rams and others) Agassiz's dwarf cichlid Apistogramma agassizii Nannacara adoketa Yellow dwarf cichlid Apistogramma borellii Cockatoo dwarf cichlid Apistogramma cacatuoides Panda dwarf cichlid Apistogramma nijsseni Three-Stripe Dwarf Cichlid Apistogramma trifasciata Apistogramma eremnopyge Two-Stripe Dwarf Cichlid Apistogramma bitaeniata 7.5 (3") 40 litre (10 gallon) tank for one pair Intermediate Checkerboard Cichlid Dicrossus filamentosus Blue ram, German ram Mikrogeophagus ramirezi Bolivian ram Mikrogeophagus altispinosa Dwarf flag cichlid Laetacara curviceps American cichlids (cichlasomas, acaras, angelfish, discuses, and others) Midas cichild, red devil cichlid Amphilophus citrinellus Note that Amphilophus labiatus is also called red devil cichild poor man's tropheus Hypsophrys nematopus Red devil cichlid Amphilophus labiatus Firemouth cichlid Cichlasoma meeki Easy Typically medium aggressionJack Dempsey cichlid Cichlasoma octofasciatum Jaguar cichlid, managuense cichlid Cichlasoma managuense Easy Exceptionally beautiful adult colorationMayan cichlid Cichlasoma urophthalmus Convict cichlid Archocentrus nigrofasciatus Easy T-bar cichlid Archocentrus sajica Severum Heros severus the gold variety is more common than the natural green oneGreen terror Aequidens rivulatus Blue acara Aequidens pulcher Thread-finned acara Acarichthys heckelii Eartheater cichlid Geophagus altifrons Greenstreaked Eartheater,cupid cichlid Biotodoma cupido Keyhole cichlid Cleithracara maronii Angelfish Pterophyllum scalare 15 (6") Intermediate several color varieties; this species is the common angelfish in the aquarium trade. Angelfish can grow up to fifteen centimetres (six inches), and therefore should be housed in a large aquarium. Angelfish should be kept alone, or kept with three or more. This is because that if two are kept together, the larger fish will pick on the smaller fish. Angelfish are not as hardy as other cichlids and should not be kept with small fish such as neon tetras. However, just the opposite is true: Angelfish should not be kept with fish that may nip and annoy it such as some large tetras.Altum angelfish Pterophyllum altum Spotted angelfish Pterophyllum leopoldi Common discus, red discus Symphysodon discus 20 (8") Difficult various color varieties, the discus requires high water quality and a varied diet. Do not keep with fast fish as the discus is a slow eater and will not fight for food. Despite their beauty, the discus is one of the least hardy aquarium fishes available. This fish should only be kept by the experienced aquarium keeper.Blue discus, green discus Symphysodon aequifasciatus 20 (8") Difficult fancy hybrids of this species and Symphysodon discus can also be found in tradeChocolate cichlid Hypselecara temporalis Oscar Astronotus ocellatus 45 (18") has different varieties including long-fin, albino, golden, etc. The oscar cichlid is fast growing and can grow to a very large size when mature, and therefore should be housed in a large aquarium. The oscar can be messy to look after as they love to dig up plants and scoop up rocks. The oscar should be put with fish of similar size as they will eat any fish that can fit in their mouth. The oscar prefers to be with members of its own species, but this is not a necessity for its well being. The oscar is one of the more hardy cichlids, and can be put with other large cichlids, pacus, large plecos, large sharks, and other large fish.Uaru, waroo Uaru amphiacanthoides Peacock bass, butterfly peacock bass Cichla orinocensis Texas cichlid, Rio Grande cichlid Herichthys cyanoguttatus Easy Other cichlids Orange chromide Etroplus maculatus Blood parrot cichlid Flowerhorn cichlid Parachromis dovii Cyprinids Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksBarbsArulius barb Puntius arulius 12 (4.7") Bigspot barb, Duncker's barb Puntius dunckeri 13 (5") Peaceful when small but should not be kept with other species at adulthood.Black ruby barb Puntius nigrofasciatus 6.5 (2.5") Checker barb Puntius oligolepis 5 (2") Cherry barb Puntius titteya 4.8 (1.9") Community Easy very peaceful, and works well with white clouds and neon tetras Clipper barb Barbus callipterus 7.5 (3") Clown barb Puntius everetti 15 (6") Gold barb Puntius semifasciolatus 8 (3.1") Community Easy Golden barb Puntius gelius 5 (2") Greenstripe barb Puntius vittatus 5 (2") Melon barb Puntius fasciatus 15 (6") Onespot barb Puntius terio 15 (6") Pentazona barb, fiveband barb Puntius pentazona 5 (2") this species may be confused with tiger barb due to similaritiesPool barb Puntius sophore 18 (7") Partipentazona barb Puntius partipentazona 3.8 (1.5") Red line torpedo barb Puntius denisonii 15 (6") Rosy barb Puntius conchonius 13 (5") Community Easy Shortfin barb Barbus brevipinnis 4.6 (1.8") Sixband barb Puntius pentazona 5 (2") Spanner barb, t-barb Puntius lateristriga 20 (7.8") Spotted barb, common barb Puntius binotatus 19.5 (7.75") Spottedsail barb, dwarf barb Puntius phutunio 7.8 (3.1") Swamp barb Puntius chola 15 (6") Ticto barb Barbus ticto 10 (4") Tic-tac-toe barb Puntius stoliczkanus 5 (2") Tiger barb, sumatra barb Puntius tetrazona 7.5 (3") Community Easy There are many varieties as well as hybrids with other barbs. Good community schooling fish. They are fin nippers. Tinfoil barb Barbonymus schwanenfeldii 36 (14") Cold-water cyprinidsGoldfish Carassius auratus 15+ (6"+) Community Easy variations: Black Moor, Bubble Eye, Butterfly Tail, Calico, Celestial Eye, Comet, Common, Fantail, Lionchu, Lionhead, Oranda, Panda Moor, Pearlscale, Pompom, Ranchu, Ryukin, Shubunkin, Telescope eye, Veiltail, common carp Cyprinus carpio 30+ (12"+) Pond Easy the fancy variations of common carp are known as .White Cloud Mountain minnow Tanichthys albonubes 3.8 (1.5") Pond Easy lutino variety can also be found in the aquarium tradeCommon dace Leuciscus leuciscus 40 (16") Rosy red minnow, fathead minnow Pimephales promelas 5-7.5 (2"-3") Pond/Minnow Tank Easy sold as feeder fish; the gold variety known as "rosy red" is very commonSouthern redbelly dace Phoxinus erythrogaster 7.5-10 (3"-4") Pond/Minnow Tank Easy Danios and other danioninsBengal danio, Sind danio Danio devario Giant danio Devario aequipinnatus Malabar danio Devario malabaricus 11.5-14 (4,5-5,5") Community Easy Pearl danio Danio albolineatus 6.5 (2,6") Easy subspecies:blue-redstripe danio, Kedah danioQueen danio Devario regina Spotted danio Danio nigrofasciatus Turquoise danio Brachydanio kerri Zebra danio Brachydanio rerio 5 (2") Easy there are many variations of this fish: leopard danio,the spotted colour morph, and GloFish, the genetically modified fluorescent fish. RasborasHarlequin rasbora Trigonostigma heteromorpha 5 (2") Also known as Harlequin tetraBlackline rasbora, red-tailed rasbora Rasbora borapetensis Red-striped rasbora Rasbora pauciperforata 7.5 (3") Community Range: Sumatra; Temperature: 22 - 29 °C (72 - 85 °F)Volcano rasbora Rasbora vulcanus Other cyprinidsBala shark Balantiocheilus melanopterus Community Flying fox (fish) Epalzeorhynchos kalopterus this species may be sold as Siamese algae eaterRed-tailed black shark Epalzeorhynchos bicolor Red-finned shark Epalzeorhynchos frenatum albino variation availableCambodian log sucker, false Siamese algae eater Garra cambodgiensis this species may be sold as Siamese algae eaterChinese algae eater Gyrinocheilus aymonieri this species may be sold as Siamese algae eaterSiamese algae eater Crossocheilus siamensis many other cyprinids are sometimes mistakenly sold under this name Labyrinth fish Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksChocolate gourami Sphaerichthys osphromenoides 7 (2.75") Croaking gourami Trichopsis vittata 6.5 (2.5") Often confused with the pygmy gourami Dwarf gourami Colisa lalia 5 (2") Community Intermediate the dwarf gourami is perfect for small to mid sized aquariums as it will not grow as large as its larger relatives. A beautiful, peaceful gourami. Giant gourami Osphronemus goramy 10 (4") Occasionally, some other gouramis are also referred to as "giant gouramis" Paradise fish Macropodus opercularis 7.5 (3") One of the few freshwater aquarium fish that survive in cold water. Most common variety is the Blue Paradise. Pearl gourami Trichogaster leerii 11.5 (4.5") Pygmy gourami, Sparkling gourami Trichopsis pumila 3.8 (1.5") Often confused with the croaking gourami Kissing gourami Helostoma temminckii 15 (6") The pink variety is more popular than the natural green one. They are called Kissing Gouramis because the seem to pucker their lips outwards. they require aquarium salt in the water or hard water Moonlight gourami Trichogaster microlepis 15 (6") Snakeskin gourami Trichogaster pectoralis 20 (8") Three spot gourami Trichogaster trichopterus 10 (4") Various color varieties each given a different name (blue gourami, gold gourami, and opaline gourami) Siamese fighting fish Betta splendens 7.5 (3") Numerous color and fin pattern varieties. In the U.S., the fish is often called "betta", although this word is actually the name of the genus that includes more than 60 species other than the Siamese fighting fish. Multiple males in a tank will result in conflicts and possibly death. Females can be housed together in groups of 4+ in a tank, though they may become territorial and attack each other. Males have long flowing fins with vibrant colors, and females have shorter fins. This fish is best put with fish that do not nip fins, as the fins of the betta are easy to attack. They should also not be housed with other fish with long, flowing fins as the Betta may confuse it with another, and attack. Live-bearers Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksGuppies and molliesGuppy Poecilia reticulata 5 (2") Community Easy Many color and tail pattern varieties exist Endler's livebearer Poecilia wingei 3.8 (1.5") Community Black molly Poecilia sphenops Community Easy Sailfin molly Poecilia latipinna Community Easy Gold and silver varieties commonly found; also thrive in brackish waterPlaties and swordtailsSouthern platy Xiphophorus maculatus Community Easy Many color varieties existVariable platy Xiphophorus variatus Community Many color varieties exist Green swordtail Xiphophorus hellerii Community Easy Many color varieties exist Loaches and related cypriniforms Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksLoachesBengal loach Botia dario also known as the Queen loachBlue botia Yasuhikotakia modesta Burmese border loach Botia kubotai Clown loach Botia macracantha Clown loach has a sociable personality and should be kept in at least groups of 2. They may eat pond snails kept in aquariums.Dwarf loach Yasuhikotakia sidthimunki formerly named Botia sidthimunki Dojo loach, weather loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Horseface loach Acantopsis choirorhynchus Kuhli loach, coolie loach Pangio kuhlii a number of similar Pangio species are sold under the same nameLongnose loach Acantopsis octoactinotos Skunk loach Yasuhikotakia morleti formerly named Botia morletiYoyo loach Botia almorhae Zebra loach Botia striata Other related cypriniformsChinese high fin banded shark Myxocyprinus asiaticus 90+ (36"+) Goldfish/Large Pond Difficult the highfin shark is a truly unique fish. At youth, the shark has a high dorsal fin, a plump body, and radiant colors. However, as the fish matures, the characteristics of the fish changes drastically. The dorsal fin becomes shorter, the fish achieves a more cylindrical shape, and the color fades to a dark brown. The fish is not suitable for fish tanks because of the size it can grow to. The highfin cannot be housed with tropical fish due to their lower temperature preferences. The highfin prefers to be in a school, so more than one should be housed together. The "shark" is a peaceful fish, and will not openly attack others. Highfins are bottom dwellers and omnivorous. They will eat invertebrates and scrape algae off rocks.Chinese hillstream loach Beaufortia kweichowensis Neotropical electric fish Common name Taxonomy Picture Size Tank Type Care Level RemarksBlack ghost knifefish Apteronotus albifrons Not to be confused with the featherback "knifefish" of the Bonytongue group (see above) Brown ghost knifefish Apteronotus leptorhynchus Electric eel Electrophorus electricus Despite the name, this is not an "eel" but rather a huge knifefish; illegal to possess in some areas Pufferfish Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksFigure 8 pufferfish Tetraodon biocellatus 6 (2.4") Intermediate often sold as freshwater fish, but this species prefers brackish water Green spotted puffer Tetraodon nigroviridis 15 (6") Difficult often sold as freshwater fish, but this species actually thrives in brackish water and may even require saltwater when reaches adulthoodGiant freshwater pufferfish Tetraodon mbu 75 (30") Difficult This fish also occurs in estuaries.Dwarf pufferfish Carinotetraodon travancoricus 2.9 (1.18") Intermediate Congo pufferfish Tetraodon miurus 15 (6") Difficult Rainbowfish Common name Taxonomy Picture Size (cm) Tank Type Care Level RemarksSalmon-red rainbowfish Glossolepis incisus 13-15 (5-6") aka Red rainbowfishTami River rainbowfish Glossolepis pseudoincisus 7.5 (3") aka Millennium rainbowfishLake Wanam rainbowfish Glossolepis wanamensis 13-15 (5-6") aka Emerald rainbowfishThreadfin rainbowfish Iriatherina werneri Easy Threadfins have very tiny mouths and cannot compete well with other fish for food. Keep in species only tanks or with small pseudomugil (ie: gertrudae)New Guinea rainbowfish Melanotaenia affinis 13 (5") Boeseman's rainbowfish Melanotaenia boesemani 10-13 (4-5") Duboulayi's rainbowfish Melanotaenia duboulayi 13-15 (5-6") aka Crimson-Spotted rainbowfish Australian rainbowfish Melanotaenia fluviatilis 13-15 (5-6") Lake Kurumoi rainbowfish Melanotaenia parva 7.5-8 (3-3.25") aka Flame rainbowfish Neon rainbowfish Melanotaenia praecox 6-7.5 (2.5-3") Eastern rainbowfish Melanotaenia splendida splendida 13-15 (5-6") Spiny eels Common name Taxonomy Picture Size Tank Type Care Level RemarksFire eel Mastacembelus erythrotaenia Spotfinned spiny eel Macrognathus siamensis Tire track eel Mastacembelus armatus Lesser spiny eel ""Macrognathus aculeatus"" Gar Common name Taxonomy Picture Size Tank Type Care Level RemarksSpotted Gar Lepisosteus oculatus See also List of fish common names List of freshwater aquarium plant species List of freshwater aquarium amphibian species List of brackish aquarium fish species List of marine aquarium fish species The Aquarium Wiki Encyclopaedia List of Freshwater aquarium fish

List_of_freshwater_aquarium_fish_species |@lemmatized vast:1 number:2 specie:30 fish:78 successfully:1 keep:20 home:2 aquarium:26 list:7 give:2 commonly:2 kept:1 bichirs:1 reedfish:1 common:29 name:27 taxonomy:14 picture:14 size:21 cm:11 tank:30 type:14 care:16 level:14 remarksgray:1 bichir:2 polypterus:1 senegalus:1 easy:47 predatory:1 ornate:1 remarksreedfish:1 erpetoichthys:1 calabaricus:1 intermediate:16 nocturnal:1 catfish:36 remarksarmored:1 include:3 aspidoras:5 brochis:2 callichthys:3 corydoras:81 fuscoguttatus:1 lakoi:1 rochai:1 sixray:1 false:5 pauciradiatus:1 britski:1 britskii:1 emerald:2 splendens:2 green:8 spot:15 gill:1 normal:1 indicate:1 disease:4 hognosed:1 multiradiatus:2 cascarudo:1 adolfo:1 adolfoi:1 band:2 scleromystax:1 barbatus:1 mask:3 metae:2 barredtail:1 cochui:1 blackstripe:1 bondi:1 blacktop:1 acutus:1 blue:11 nattereri:1 bluespotted:1 melanistius:1 bronze:1 aeneus:1 albino:6 strain:1 atropersonatus:1 ehrhardti:1 evelynae:1 geoffroy:1 latus:1 loxozonus:1 nanus:1 narcissus:1 ornatus:2 osteocarus:1 polystictus:1 prionotos:1 semiaquilus:1 septentrionalis:1 simulatus:1 undulatus:1 dwarf:17 hastatus:1 elegant:1 elegans:2 network:1 sodalis:1 leucomelas:1 gold:7 melanotaenia:8 guapore:2 bandit:1 mosaic:2 reticulate:2 haraldschultzi:1 reticulatus:1 panda:4 pastaza:1 pastazensis:1 pepper:2 paleatus:1 pink:2 axelrodi:2 pygmy:3 pygmaeus:1 sailfin:6 macropterus:1 salt:2 habrosus:1 schwartz:1 schwartzi:1 longnose:1 ambiacus:1 sterba:1 sterbai:1 sychr:1 sychri:1 tailspot:1 caudimaculatus:1 threestripe:1 leopard:2 catfishcorydoras:1 trilineatus:1 xingu:1 xinguensis:1 armor:1 suckermouth:4 plecos:2 bristlenose:2 pleco:10 bushynose:1 placo:1 ancistrus:1 spp:6 genus:2 least:5 identified:1 many:14 others:4 yet:3 nugget:1 baryancistrus:1 exist:4 officially:2 identify:1 three:5 know:7 l:6 whiptail:2 rineloricaria:1 catfishtwig:1 farlowella:1 twig:1 genuspanaque:1 panaque:2 several:5 popular:2 fishpineapple:1 orange:2 cheek:1 pseudorinelepis:1 genuscommon:1 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Caravaggio

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, (29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610) was an Italian artist active in Rome, Naples, Malta and Sicily between 1593 and 1610. He was the first great representative of the Baroque school of painting, noted for his intensely emotional canvases and dramatic use of lighting. Getty profile, including variant spellings of the artist's name. He is widely considered one of the greatest painters in European history. Even in his own lifetime Caravaggio was considered enigmatic, fascinating, rebellious and dangerous. He burst upon the Rome art scene in 1600, and thereafter never lacked for commissions or patrons, yet he handled his success atrociously. An early published notice on him, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle three years previously, tells how "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him." Floris Claes van Dijk, a contemporary of Caravaggio in Rome in 1601, quoted in John Gash, "Caravaggio", p.13. The quotation originates in Karel van Mander's Het Schilder-Boek of 1604, translated in full in Howard Hibbard, "Caravaggio". The first reference to Caravaggio in a contemporary document from Rome is the listing of his name, with that of Prospero Orsi as his partner, as an 'assistente' in a procession in October 1594 in honour of St. Luke (see H. Waga "Vita nota e ignota dei virtuosi al Pantheon" Rome 1992, Appendix I, pp.219 and 220ff). The earliest informative account of his life in the city is a court transcript dated 11 July 1597 where Caravaggio and Prospero Orsi were witnesses to a crime near San Luigi de' Francesi. (See "The earliest account of Caravaggio in Rome" Sandro Corradini and Maurizio Marini, The Burlington Magazine, pp.25-28). In 1606 he killed a young man in a brawl and fled from Rome with a price on his head. In Malta in 1608 he was involved in another brawl, and yet another in Naples in 1609, possibly a deliberate attempt on his life by unidentified enemies. By the next year, after a relatively brief career, he was dead. Huge new churches and palazzi were being built in Rome in the decades of the late 16th and early 17th Centuries, and paintings were needed to fill them. The Counter-Reformation Church searched for authentic religious art with which to counter the threat of Protestantism, and for this task the artificial conventions of Mannerism, which had ruled art for almost a century, no longer seemed adequate. Caravaggio's novelty was a radical naturalism which combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of Tenebrism, the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value. Famous and extremely influential while he lived, Caravaggio was almost entirely forgotten in the centuries after his death, and it was only in the 20th century that his importance to the development of Western art was rediscovered. Despite this, his influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism, was profound. Andre Berne-Joffroy, Paul Valéry's secretary, said of him: "What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting." Quoted in Gilles Lambert, "Caravaggio", p.8. Caravaggio's influence can be seen directly or indirectly in the work of Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Bernini, and Rembrandt, and artists in the following generation heavily under his influence were called the "Caravaggisti" or "Caravagesques", as well as Tenebrists or "Tenebrosi" ("shadowists"). Biography The Crucifixion of Saint Peter, 1601. Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. Early life (1571–1592) Caravaggio was born in Milan, Confirmed by the finding of the baptism certificate from the Milanese parish of Santo Stefano in Brolo: Rai International Online. Traditionally it was believed that he was born in the Lombardy hill town of Caravaggio, hence his name. where his father, Fermo Merisi, was a household administrator and architect-decorator to the Marchese of Caravaggio. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a propertied family of the same district. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio in Lombardy to escape a plague which ravaged Milan. Caravaggio's father died there in 1577 and his mother in 1584. It is assumed that the artist grew up in Caravaggio, but his family kept up connections with the Sforza and with the powerful Colonna family, who were allied by marriage with the Sforzas, and destined to play a major role later in Caravaggio's life. In 1584 he was apprenticed for four years to the Lombard painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Caravaggio appears to have stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio area after his apprenticeship ended, but it is possible that he visited Venice and saw the works of Giorgione, whom Federico Zuccaro later accused him of imitating, Harris, p. 21. and Titian. He would also have become familiar with the art treasures of Milan, including Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, and with the regional Lombard art, a style which valued simplicity and attention to naturalistic detail and was closer to the naturalism of Germany than to the stylised formality and grandeur of Roman Mannerism. Rosa Giorgi, "Caravaggio: Master of light and dark - his life in paintings", p.12. Rome (1592–1600) Boy with a Basket of Fruit, c. 1593. Oil on canvas, 67 x 53 cm. Galleria Borghese, Rome. Caravaggio fled Milan for Rome in mid-1592 after "certain quarrels" and the wounding of a police officer. He arrived in Rome "naked and extremely needy ... without fixed address and without provision ... short of money." Quoted without attribution in Robb, p.35, apparently based on the three primary sources, Mancini, Baglione and Bellori, all of whom depict Caravaggio's early Roman years as a period of extreme poverty (see references below). A few months later he was performing hack-work for the highly successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Clement VIII's favourite painter, "painting flowers and fruit" Giovanni Pietro Bellori, Le Vite de' pittori, scultori, et architetti moderni, 1672: "Michele was forced by necessity to enter the services of Cavalier Giuseppe d'Arpino, by whom he was employed to paint flowers and fruits so realistically that they began to attain the higher beauty that we love so much today." in his factory-like workshop. Known works from this period include a small Boy Peeling a Fruit (his earliest known painting), a Boy with a Basket of Fruit, and the Young Sick Bacchus, supposedly a self-portrait done during convalescence from a serious illness that ended his employment with Cesari. All three demonstrate the physical particularity — one aspect of his realism — for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: the fruit-basket-boy's produce has been analysed by a professor of horticulture, who was able to identify individual cultivars right down to "... a large fig leaf with a prominent fungal scorch lesion resembling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)." Caravaggio's Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture (Jules Janick, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana) Caravaggio left Cesari in January 1594, determined to make his own way. His fortunes were at their lowest ebb, yet it was now that he forged some extremely important friendships, with the painter Prospero Orsi, the architect Onorio Longhi, and the sixteen year old Sicilian artist Mario Minniti. Orsi, established in the profession, introduced him to influential collectors; Longhi, more balefully, introduced him to the world of Roman street-brawls; and Minniti served as a model and, years later, would be instrumental in helping Caravaggio to important commissions in Sicily. Catherine Puglisi, "Caravaggio", p.79. Longhi was with Caravaggio on the night of the fatal brawl with Tomassoni; Robb, "M", p.341, believes that Minniti was as well. The Fortune Teller, his first composition with more than one figure, shows Mario being cheated by a gypsy girl. The theme was quite new for Rome, and proved immensely influential over the next century and beyond. This, however, was in the future: at the time, Caravaggio sold it for practically nothing. The Cardsharps — showing another unsophisticated boy falling the victim of card cheats — is even more psychologically complex, and perhaps Caravaggio's first true masterpiece. Like the Fortune Teller it was immensely popular, and over 50 copies survive. More importantly, it attracted the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte, one of the leading connoisseurs in Rome. For Del Monte and his wealthy art-loving circle Caravaggio executed a number of intimate chamber-pieces — The Musicians, The Lute Player, a tipsy Bacchus, an allegorical but realistic Boy Bitten by a Lizard — featuring Minniti and other adolescent models. The homoerotic ambience of Caravaggio's treatment of these works has been the centre of dispute among scholars and biographers since it was first raised in the later half of the 20th century, Donald Posner's "Caravaggio's Early Homo-erotic Works" (Art Quarterly 24 (1971), pp.301-26) was the first to broach the subject of Caravaggio's sexuality and its relationship to his art. Some biographers and commentators generally take a homoerotic content for granted, but the subject is complex. For a perceptive and well-sourced discussion, see Brian Tovar's "Sins Against Nature:: Homoeroticism and the epistemology of Caravaggio". For an opposing viewpoint, see Maurizio Calvesi's "Caravaggio" (ArtDossier 1986, in Italian) - Calvesi argues that the early work reflects the Del Monte's taste rather than Caravaggio's, in the era before the advent of the modern concept of the artist's right to self-expression. the critic Robert Hughes memorably described Caravaggio's boys as "overripe, peachy bits of rough trade, with yearning mouths and hair like black ice cream," Robert Hughes, "Master of Guesture", review of Metropolitan Museum of Art's Age of Caravaggio exhibition, Time magazine, March 11, 1985. The Cardsharps, c. 1594. Oil on canvas, 107 x 99 cm. Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas. The realism returned with Caravaggio's first paintings on religious themes, and the emergence of remarkable spirituality. The first of these was the Penitent Magdalene, showing Mary Magdalene at the moment when she has turned from her life as a courtesan and sits weeping on the floor, her jewels scattered around her. "It seemed not a religious painting at all ... a girl sitting on a low wooden stool drying her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?" Robb, p.79. Robb is drawing on Bellori, who praises Caravaggio's "true" colours but finds the naturalism offensive: "He (Caravaggio) was satisfied with [the] invention of nature without further exercising his brain." It was understated, in the Lombard manner, not histrionic in the Roman manner of the time. It was followed by others in the same style: Saint Catherine, Martha and Mary Magdalene, Judith Beheading Holofernes, a Sacrifice of Isaac, a Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy, and a Rest on the Flight into Egypt. The works, while viewed by a comparatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow-artists. But a true reputation would depend on public commissions, and for these it was necessary to look to the Church. Already evident was the intense realism or naturalism for which Caravaggio is now famous. He preferred to paint his subjects as the eye sees them, with all their natural flaws and defects instead of as idealised creations. This allowed a full display of Caravaggio's virtusoic talents. This shift from accepted standard practice and the classical idealism of Michelangelo was very controversial at the time. Not only was his realism a noteworthy feature of his paintings during this period, he turned away from the lengthy preparations traditional in central Italy at the time. Instead, he preferred the Venetian practice of working in oils directly from the subject - half-length figures and still life. One of the characteristic paintings by Caravaggio at this time which gives a good demonstration his virtuoso talent was his work, Supper at Emmaus from c.1600-1601. The Calling of Saint Matthew (1599-1600). Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. The beam of light, which enters the picture from the direction of a real window, expresses in the blink of an eye the conversion of St Matthew, the hinge on which his destiny will turn, with no flying angels, parting clouds or other artifacts. "Most famous painter in Rome" (1600–1606) In 1599, presumably through the influence of Del Monte, Caravaggio contracted to decorate the Contarelli Chapel in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. The two works making up the commission, the Martyrdom of Saint Matthew and Calling of Saint Matthew, delivered in 1600, were an immediate sensation. Caravaggio's tenebrism (a heightened chiaroscuro) brought high drama to his subjects, while his acutely observed realism brought a new level of emotional intensity. Opinion among Caravaggio's artist peers was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, notably his insistence on painting from life, without drawings, but for the most part he was hailed as a great artistic visionary: "The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this novelty, and the young ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles." Bellori. The passage continues: "[The younger painters] outdid each other in copying him, undressing their models and raising their lights; and rather than setting out to learn from study and instruction, each readily found in the streets or squares of Rome both masters and models for copying nature." Caravaggio went on to secure a string of prestigious commissions for religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture and death. For the most part each new painting increased his fame, but a few were rejected by the various bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had to be re-painted or find new buyers. The essence of the problem was that while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was seen by some as unacceptably vulgar. For an outline of the Counter-Reformation Church's policy on decorum in art, see Giorgi, p.80. For a more detailed discussion, see Gash, p.8ff; and for a discussion of the part played by notions of decorum in the rejection of "St Matthew and the Angel" and "Death of the Virgin", see Puglisi, pp.179-188. His first version of Saint Matthew and the Angel, featured the saint as a bald peasant with dirty legs attended by a lightly-clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and a second version had to be painted as The Inspiration of Saint Matthew. Similarly, The Conversion of Saint Paul was rejected, and while another version of the same subject, the Conversion on the Way to Damascus, was accepted, it featured the saint's horse's haunches far more prominently than the saint himself, prompting this exchange between the artist and an exasperated official of Santa Maria del Popolo: "Why have you put a horse in the middle, and Saint Paul on the ground?" "Because!" "Is the horse God?" "No, but he stands in God's light!" Quoted without attribution in Lambert, p.66. Death of the Virgin. 1601-1606.Louvre, Paris. Other works included Entombment, the Madonna di Loreto (Madonna of the Pilgrims), the Grooms' Madonna, and the Death of the Virgin. The history of these last two paintings illustrate the reception given to some of Caravaggio's art, and the times in which he lived. The Grooms' Madonna, also known as Madonna dei palafrenieri, painted for a small altar in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, remained there for just two days, and was then taken off. A cardinal's secretary wrote: "In this painting there are but vulgarity, sacrilege, impiousness and disgust...One would say it is a work made by a painter that can paint well, but of a dark spirit, and who has been for a lot of time far from God, from His adoration, and from any good thought..." The Death of the Virgin, then, commissioned in 1601 by a wealthy jurist for his private chapel in the new Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala, was rejected by the Carmelites in 1606. Caravaggio's contemporary Giulio Mancini records that it was rejected because Caravaggio had used a well-known prostitute as his model for the Virgin; Mancini: "Thus one can understand how badly some modern artists paint, such as those who, wishing to portray the Virgin Our Lady, depict some dirty prostitute from the Ortaccio, as Michelangelo da Caravaggio did in the Death of the Virgin in that painting for the Madonna della Scala, which for that very reason those good fathers rejected it, and perhaps that poor man suffered so much trouble in his lifetime." Giovanni Baglione, another contemporary, tells us it was due to Mary's bare legs Baglione: "For the [church of] Madonna della Scala in Trastevere he painted the death of the Madonna, but because he had portrayed the Madonna with little decorum, swollen and with bare legs, it was taken away, and the Duke of Mantua bought it and placed it in his most noble gallery." —a matter of decorum in either case. Caravaggio scholar John Gash suggests that the problem for the Carmelites may have been theological rather than aesthetic, in that Caravaggio's version fails to assert the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary, the idea that the Mother of God did not die in any ordinary sense but was assumed into Heaven. The replacement altarpiece commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, Carlo Saraceni), showed the Virgin not dead, as Caravaggio had painted her, but seated and dying; and even this was rejected, and replaced with a work which showed the Virgin not dying, but ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels. In any case, the rejection did not mean that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. The Death of the Virgin was no sooner taken out of the church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of Rubens, and later acquired by Charles I of England before entering the French royal collection in 1671. Amor Vincit Omnia. 1602-1603. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Caravaggio shows Cupid prevailing over all human endeavors: war, music, science, government. One secular piece from these years is Amor Victorious, painted in 1602 for Vincenzo Giustiniani, a member of Del Monte's circle. The model was named in a memoir of the early 17th century as "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist active in the period 1610-1625 and known as Cecco del Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'), While Gianni Papi's identification of Cecco del Caravaggio as Francesco Boneri is widely accepted, the evidence connecting Boneri to Caravaggio's servant and model in the early 1600s is circumstantial. See Robb, pp193-196. carrying a bow and arrows and trampling symbols of the warlike and peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and it is difficult to accept this grinning urchin as the Roman god Cupid – as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio's other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, is the intense yet ambiguous reality of the work: it is simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio's Virgins were simultaneously the Mother of Christ and the Roman courtesans who modeled for them. Alof de Wignacourt and his Page, 1607-1608 Louvre, Paris. St Jerome, 1607, Valletta St John's Co-Cathedral, Malta. Exile and death (1606–1610) Caravaggio led a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even in a time and place when such behavior was commonplace, and the transcripts of his police records and trial proceedings fill several pages. On 29 May 1606, he killed, possibly unintentionally, a young man named Ranuccio Tomassoni. The circumstances of the brawl and the death of Ranuccio Tomassoni remain mysterious. Several contemporary avvisi referred to a quarrel over a gambling debt and a tennis game, and this explanation has become established in the popular imagination. But recent scholarship has made it clear that more was involved. Good modern accounts are to be found in Peter Robb's "M" and Helen Langdon's "Caravaggio: A Life". An interesting theory relating the death to Renaissance notions of honour and symbolic wounding has been advanced by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon. 'Red-blooded Caravaggio killed love rival in bungled castration attempt' Previously his high-placed patrons had protected him from the consequences of his escapades, but this time they could do nothing. Caravaggio, outlawed, fled to Naples. There, outside the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities and protected by the Colonna family, the most famous painter in Rome became the most famous in Naples. His connections with the Colonnas led to a stream of important church commissions, including the Madonna of the Rosary, and The Seven Works of Mercy. In 1606, following the death of Tomassoni, he fled first to the Colonna estates south of Rome, then on to Naples where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, in whose husband's household Caravaggio's father had held a position, maintained a palace. Costanza's brother Ascanio was Cardinal-Protector of the Kingdom of Naples, another brother, Marzio, was an advisor to the Spanish Viceroy, and a sister was married into the important Neapolitan Carafa family - connections which might help explain the cornucopia of major commissions which fell into Caravaggio's lap in that city. Costanza's son Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Knight of Malta and general of the Order's galleys, appears to have facilitated his arrival in the island in 1607 and his escape the next year, and he stayed in Costanza's Neapolitan palazzo on his return there in 1609. These connections are treated in most biographies and studies - see, for example, Catherine Puglisi, "Caravaggio", p.258, for a brief outline. Helen Langdon, "Caravaggio: A Life", ch.12 and 15, and Peter Robb, "M", pp.398ff and 459ff, give a fuller account. Despite his success in Naples, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio left for Malta, the headquarters of the Knights of Malta, presumably hoping that the patronage of Alof de Wignacourt, Grand Master of the Knights, could help him secure a pardon for Tomassoni's death. De Wignacourt proved so impressed at having the famous artist as official painter to the Order that he inducted him as a knight, and the early biographer Bellori records that the artist was well pleased with his success. Major works from his Malta period include a huge Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (the only painting to which he put his signature) and a Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page, as well as portraits of other leading knights. Yet by late August 1608 he was arrested and imprisoned. The circumstances surrounding this abrupt change of fortune have long been a matter of speculation, but recent investigation has revealed it to have been the result of yet another brawl, during which the door of a house was battered down and a knight seriously wounded. The discovery of the evidence for this brawl was reported by Dr Keith Sciberras of the University of Malta, in "Frater Michael Angelus in tumultu: the cause of Caravaggio's imprisonment in Malta", The Burlington Magazine, CXLV, April 2002, pp.229-232, and "Riflessioni su Malta al tempo del Caravaggio", Paragone Arte, Anno LII N.629, July 2002, pp.3-20. Sciberras' findings are summarised online at Caravaggio.com. By December he had been expelled from the Order "as a foul and rotten member." This was the formal phrase used in all such cases. The senior knights of the Order convened on 1 December 1608 and, after verifying that the accused had failed to appear although summoned four times, voted unanimously to expel their putridum et foetidum ex-brother. Caravaggio was expelled, not for his crime, but for having left Malta without permission (i.e., escaping). The Raising of Lazarus (1609), Museo Regionale, Messina. Before the expulsion Caravaggio had escaped to Sicily and the company of his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married and living in Syracuse. Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour from Syracuse to Messina and on to the island capital, Palermo. In each city Caravaggio continued to win prestigious and well-paid commissions. Among other works from this period are a Burial of St. Lucy, a The Raising of Lazarus, and an Adoration of the Shepherds. His style continued to evolve, showing now friezes of figures isolated against vast empty backgrounds. "His great Sicilian altarpieces isolate their shadowy, pitifully poor figures in vast areas of darkness; they suggest the desperate fears and frailty of man, and at the same time convey, with a new yet desolate tenderness, the beauty of humility and of the meek, who shall inherit the earth." Langdon, p.365. Contemporary reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, sleeping fully armed and in his clothes, ripping up a painting at a slight word of criticism, mocking the local painters. Caravaggio displayed bizarre behaviour from very early in his career. Mancini describes him as "extremely crazy", a letter of Del Monte notes his strangeness, and Mario Minniti's 1724 biographer says that Mario left Caravaggio because of his behaviour. The strangeness seems to have increased after Malta. Susinno's early 18th century Le vite de' pittori Messinesi, "Lives of the Painters of Messina", provides several colourful anecdotes of Caravaggio's erratic behaviour in Sicily, and these are reproduced in modern full-length biographies such as Langdon and Robb. Bellori writes of Caravaggio's "fear" driving him from city to city across the island and finally, "feeling that it was no longer safe to remain", to Naples. Baglione says Caravaggio was being "chased by his enemy", but like Bellori does not say who this enemy was. After only nine months in Sicily Caravaggio returned to Naples. According to his earliest biographer he was being pursued by enemies while in Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under the protection of the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from the pope (now Paul V) and return to Rome. Baglione says that Caravaggio in Naples had "given up all hope of revenge" against his unnamed enemy. In Naples he painted The Denial of Saint Peter, a final John the Baptist (Borghese), and, his last picture, The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula. His style continued to evolve — Saint Ursula is caught in a moment of highest action and drama, as the arrow fired by the king of the Huns strikes her in the breast, unlike earlier paintings which had all the immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was much freer and more impressionistic. Had Caravaggio lived, something new would have come. The Denial of Saint Peter, c. 1610. Oil on canvas, 94 x 125 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. In the chiaroscuro a woman points two fingers at Peter while a soldier points a third. Caravaggio tells the story of Peter denying Christ three times with this symbolism. In Naples an attempt was made on his life, by persons unknown. At first it was reported in Rome that the "famous artist" Caravaggio was dead, but then it was learned that he was alive, but seriously disfigured in the face. He painted a Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid), showing his own head on a platter, and sent it to de Wignacourt as a plea for forgiveness. Perhaps at this time he painted also a David with the Head of Goliath, showing the young David with a strangely sorrowful expression gazing on the severed head of the giant, which is again Caravaggio's. This painting he may have sent to the unscrupulous art-loving cardinal-nephew Scipione Borghese, who had the power to grant or withhold pardons. According to a 17th century writer the painting the head of Goliath is a self-portrait of the artist, while David is il suo Caravaggino, "his little Caravaggio". This phrase is obscure, but it has been interpreted as meaning either that the boy is a youthful self-portrait, or, more commonly, that this is the Cecco who modelled for the Amor Vincit. The sword-blade carries an abbreviated inscription which has been interpreted as meaning Humility Conquers Pride. Attributed to a date in Caravaggio's late Roman period by Bellori, the recent tendency is to see it as a product on Caravaggio's second Neapolitan period. (See Gash, p.125). In the summer of 1610 he took a boat northwards to receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his powerful Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, gifts for Cardinal Scipione. A letter from the Bishop of Caserta in Naples to Cardinal Scipione Borghese in Rome, dated 29 July 1610, informs the Cardinal that the Marchesa of Caravaggio is holding two John the Baptists and a Magdalene which were intended for Borghese. These were presumably the price of Caravaggio's pardon from Borghese's uncle, the pope. What happened next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture. The bare facts are that on 28 July an anonymous avviso (private newsletter) from Rome to the ducal court of Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later another avviso said that he had died of fever. These were the earliest, brief accounts of his death, which later underwent much elaboration. No body was found. The avvisi placed Caravaggio's death at Porto Ercole while on his way from Naples to Rome. The letter from the Bishop of Caserta to Scipione Borghese on 29 July, one day after the first avviso, says that Caravaggio died "not in Procida but at Porto Ercole." The bishop goes on to deny an earlier (lost) report that Caravaggio had died in Procida, and to say that instead Caravaggio's boat had stopped in Palo, where he had been imprisoned; the boat had returned to Naples, and Caravaggio had bought his release and gone on to Porto Ercole, "perhaps walking", where he died. None of these are intelligible as landing places for a man on his way to Rome: Procida is an island near Naples, Palo was a garrison in the marshes near the mouth of the Tiber but not well connected to the city — Rome's port was at Civitavecchia, a little further north — and Porto Ercole lay a further hundred kilometres north of, and away from, Rome. See Robb, M, p.473ff. A poet friend of the artist later gave 18 July as the date of death, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a death notice showing that the artist died on that day of a fever in Porto Ercole, near Grosseto in Tuscany. There seems to be no later confirmation of this report. As an artist The Taking of Christ, 1602. National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin. Caravaggio's application of the chiaroscuro technique shows through on the faces and armour notwithstanding the lack of a visible shaft of light. The figure on the extreme right is a self portrait. The birth of Baroque Caravaggio "put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro." Lambert, p.11. Chiaroscuro was practiced long before he came on the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the technique definitive, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. With this came the acute observation of physical and psychological reality which formed the ground both for his immense popularity and for his frequent problems with his religious commissions. He worked at great speed, from live models, scoring basic guides directly onto the canvas with the end of the brush handle. The approach was anathema to the skilled artists of his day, who decried his refusal to work from drawings and to idealise his figures. Yet the models were basic to his realism. Some have been identified, including Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, both fellow artists, Mario appearing as various figures in the early secular works, the young Francesco as a succession of angels, Baptists and Davids in the later canvasses. His female models include Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, and Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" mentioned in court documents of the "artichoke" case Much of the documentary evidence for Caravaggio's life in Rome comes from court records; the "artichoke" case refers to an occasion when the artist threw a dish of hot artichokes at a waiter. as Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who appear as female religious figures including the Virgin and various saints. Robb, passim, makes a fairly exhaustive attempt to identify models and relate them to individual canvases. Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his final self-portrait being as the witness on the far right to the Martyrdom of Saint Ursula. Caravaggio's self-portraits run from the Sick Bacchus at the beginning of his career to the head of Goliath in the David with the Head of Goliath in Rome's Borghese Gallery. Previous artists had included self-portraits as onlookers to the action, but Caravaggio's innovation was to include himself as a participant. Supper at Emmaus, 1601. Oil on canvas, 139 x 195 cm. National Gallery, London. Caravaggio had a noteworthy ability to express in one scene of unsurpassed vividness the passing of a crucial moment. The Supper at Emmaus depicts the recognition of Christ by his disciples: a moment before he is a fellow traveler, mourning the passing of the Messiah, as he never ceases to be to the inn-keeper's eyes, the second after, he is the Saviour. In The Calling of St Matthew, the hand of the Saint points to himself as if he were saying "who, me?", while his eyes, fixed upon the figure of Christ, have already said, "Yes, I will follow you". With The Resurrection of Lazarus, he goes a step further, giving us a glimpse of the actual physical process of resurrection. The body of Lazarus is still in the throes of rigor mortis, but his hand, facing and recognizing that of Christ, is alive. Other major Baroque artists would travel the same path, for example Bernini, fascinated with themes from Ovid's Metamorphoses. The Caravaggisti Judith Beheading Holofernes 1598-1599. Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome. The installation of the St. Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate impact among the younger artists in Rome, and Caravaggism became the cutting edge for every ambitious young painter. The first Caravaggisti included Giovanni Baglione (although his Caravaggio phase was short-lived) and Orazio Gentileschi. In the next generation there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620, and ended up as court painter to Charles I in England. His daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was also close to Caravaggio, and one of the most gifted of the movement. Yet in Rome and in Italy it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of Annibale Carracci, blending elements from the High Renaissance and Lombard realism, which ultimately triumphed. Caravaggio's brief stay in Naples produced a notable school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto. The Caravaggisti movement there ended with a terrible outbreak of plague in 1656, but the Spanish connection – Naples was a possession of Spain – was instrumental in forming the important Spanish branch of his influence. A group of Catholic artists from Utrecht, the "Utrecht Caravaggisti", travelled to Rome as students in the first years of the 17th century and were profoundly influenced by the work of Caravaggio, as Bellori describes. On their return to the north this trend had a short-lived but influential flowering in the 1620s among painters like Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst, Andries Both and Dirck van Baburen. In the following generation the effects of Caravaggio, although attenuated, are to be seen in the work of Rubens (who purchased one of his paintings for the Gonzaga of Mantua and painted a copy of the Entombment of Christ), Vermeer, Rembrandt, and Velázquez, the last of whom presumably saw his work during his various sojourns in Italy. Death and rebirth of a reputation The Entombment of Christ (1602-1603). Pinacoteca Vaticana. Caravaggio's fame scarcely survived his death. His innovations inspired the Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. While he directly influenced the style of the artists mentioned above, and, at a distance, the Frenchmen Georges de La Tour and Simon Vouet, and the Spaniard Giuseppe Ribera, within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. The Baroque, to which he contributed so much, had evolved, and fashions had changed, but perhaps more pertinently Caravaggio never established a workshop as the Carracci's did, and thus had no school to spread his techniques. Nor did he ever set out his underlying philosophical approach to art, the psychological realism which can only be deduced from his surviving work. Thus his reputation was doubly vulnerable to the critical demolition-jobs done by two of his earliest biographers, Giovanni Baglione, a rival painter with a personal vendetta, and the influential 17th century critic Giovan Bellori, who had not known him but was under the influence of the French Classicist Poussin, who had not known him either but hated his work. Also see criticism by fellow Italian Vincenzo Carducci (living in Spain), who calls Caravaggio an "Antichrist" of painting with "monstrous" talents of deception. In the 1920s art critic Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's name once more to the foreground, and placed him in the European tradition: "Ribera, Vermeer, La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed without him. And the art of Delacroix, Courbet and Manet would have been utterly different". Roberto Longhi, quoted in Lambert, op. cit., p.15 The influential Bernard Berenson agreed: "With the exception of Michelangelo, no other Italian painter exercised so great an influence." Bernard Berenson, in Lambert, op. cit., p.8 Legacy The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist, 1608. Oratory of the St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta. Many large museums of art, for example those in Detroit and New York, contain rooms where dozens of paintings by as many artists display the characteristic look of the work of Caravaggio — nighttime setting, dramatic lighting, ordinary people used as models, honest description from nature. In modern times, painters like the Norwegian Odd Nerdrum and the Hungarian Tibor Csernus make no secret of their attempts to emulate and update him, and the contemporary American artist Doug Ohlson pays homage to Caravaggio's influence on his own work. Filmmaker Derek Jarman turned to the Caravaggio legend when creating his movie Caravaggio; and Dutch art forger Han van Meegeren used genuine Caravaggios when creating his ersatz Old Masters. Only about 80 works by Caravaggio survive. One, The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew, was recently authenticated and restored. It had been in storage in Hampton Court, mislabeled as a copy. At least a couple of his paintings have been or may have been lost in recent times. Richard Francis Burton writes of a "picture of St. Rosario (in the museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany), showing a circle of thirty men turpiter ligati" which is not known to have survived. Furthermore, the rejected version of The Inspiration of St. Matthew painting intended for the Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome was destroyed during the bombing of Dresden, though there are black and white photographs of the work. In recent years art critics and academics have debated the inference of homoeroticism within Caravaggio's art alongside questions of his own sexuality Herwarth Roettgen, Il Caravaggio, ricerche e interpretazione, Rome 1975; R. Longhi, ‘Novelletta del Caravaggio ‘’invertito’’, Paragone, March 1952, 62-4; Calvesi, ‘Caravaggio’, Art & Dossier, April 1986; Christopher Frommer, ‘Caravaggios frühwerk und der cardinal del Monte’, Storia dell’arte, 9-10 (1971): 5-29; Margaret Walters, The Male Nude, Harmondsworth, 1978: 188-189; Helen Langdon, Caravaggio; Robb, M . No consensus has been reached and any evidence is circumstantial and open to interpretation. Caravaggio may, or may not, have tailored some of his earlier commissions to an openly homosexual subculture in Rome that was personified in the figure Cardinal Del Monte. Despite this, interest has grown in Caravaggio as a 'gay icon' in recent years. Advocates include the American poet Thom Gunn who refers to the sensuousness of paintings in his poem, In Santa Maria del Popolo, as well as the British director Derek Jarman in his experimental film. Chronology of major works See also History of painting Western painting Footnotes References Primary sources The main primary sources for Caravaggio's life are: Giulio Mancini's comments on Caravggio in Considerazioni sulla pittura, c.1617-1621 Giovanni Baglione's Le vite de' pittori, 1642 Giovanni Pietro Bellori's Le Vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni, 1672 All have been reprinted in Howard Hibbard's "Caravaggio" and in the appendices to Catherine Puglisi's "Caravaggio", while Baglione's biography is available online (see External links section). Secondary sources John Denison Champlin and Charles Callahan Perkins, Ed. Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings Charles Scribner's Sons, New York (1885), p. 241 (available at the Harvard's Fogg Museum Library and scanned on Google Books) John Spike, with assistance from Michèle Kahn Spike, Caravaggio with Catalogue of Paintings on CD-ROM, Abbeville Press, New York (2001) ISBN 978-0-7892-0639-8 Pietro Koch, Caravaggio - The Painter of Blood and Darkness, Gunther Edition, (Rome - 2004) John Gash, Caravaggio, Chaucer Press, (2004) ISBN 1904449220) Rosa Giorgi, Caravaggio: Master of light and dark - his life in paintings, Dorling Kindersley (1999) ISBN 978-0-7894-4138-6 Howard Hibbard, Caravaggio (1983) ISBN 978-0-06-433322-1 Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-century Art & Architecture, Laurence King Publishing (2004), ISBN 1856694151. Helen Langdon, Caravaggio: A Life, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999 (original UK edition 1998) ISBN 978-0-374-11894-5 Gilles Lambert, Caravaggio, Taschen, (2000) ISBN 978-3-8228-6305-3 Alfred Moir, The Italian Followers of Caravaggio, Harvard University Press (1967) (ISBN not available) Catherine Puglisi, Caravaggio, Phaidon (1998) ISBN 978-0-7148-3966-0 Peter Robb, M, Duffy & Snellgrove, 2003 amended edition (original edition 1998) ISBN 978-1-876631-79-6 Maurizio Calvesi, Caravaggio, Art Dossier 1986, Giunti Editori (1986) (ISBN not available) Walter Friedlaender, Caravaggio Studies, Princeton: Princeton University Press 1955 Michael Kitson, The Complete Paintings of Caravaggio (London, Abrams, 1967, new edition Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1969 and 1986, ISBN 978-0297761082) External links Biography Caravaggio, The Prince of the Night "Caravaggio CV" - life of the artist with illustrations Articles and essays FBI Art Theft Notice for Caravaggio's Nativity Interview with Peter Robb, author of M Compare Rembrandt with Caravaggio. Caravaggio and the Camera Obscura interview with Caravaggio biographer, Francine Prose Caravaggio's incisions by Ramon van de Werken Caravaggio's use of the Camera Obscura: Lapucci Art works www.caravaggio-foundation.org 175 works by Caravaggio Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio WebMuseum, Paris webpage Caravaggio's EyeGate Gallery Podcasts smARThistory: Calling of Saint Matthew Music www.esposthumus.com

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Kate_Bush

Kate Bush (born Catherine Bush on 30 July 1958) is an English singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer. Her eclectic musical style and idiosyncratic lyrics have made her one of England's most successful solo female performers of the past 30 years, having sold over 20 million records worldwide. Bush was signed by EMI at the age of 16 after being recommended by Pink Floyd's David Gilmour. In 1978, at age 19, she topped the UK Singles Chart for four weeks with her debut song "Wuthering Heights", becoming the first woman to have a UK number-one with a self-written song. After her 1979 tour—the only concert tour of her career—Bush released the 1980 album Never for Ever, which made her the first British solo female artist to top the UK album charts, and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at no. 1. http://www.chartstats.com/albuminfo.php?id=5079 In 1987, she won a BRIT Award for Best British Female Solo Artist. She has released eight albums, three of which topped the UK Albums Chart, and has had UK top ten hit singles with "Wuthering Heights", "Running Up That Hill", "King of the Mountain", "Babooshka", "The Man with the Child in His Eyes", and "Don't Give Up". In 2002, her songwriting ability was recognised with an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music. In 2005, Bush released Aerial, her first album in 12 years. The album was a commercial success selling over 1,200,000 copies in the first five months after its release, and earned her a BRIT Award nomination for Best Album and another for Best Solo Female Artist. During the course of her career she has also been nominated for three Grammy Awards. Biography Early life Bush was born in Bexleyheath, Kent, to English physician Robert Bush and his Irish wife Hannah Daly. She was raised in their farmhouse in East Wickham, Kent, with her older brothers, John and Paddy. Bush came from an artistic background: her mother was a former Irish folk dancer, her father was an accomplished pianist, Paddy worked as a musical-instrument maker, and John was a poet and photographer. Both brothers were involved in the local folk music scene. Her family's musical influence inspired the young Kate to teach herself to play the piano at age 11. She soon began writing her own tunes and eventually added lyrics to them. Bush attended St. Joseph's Convent Grammar School (later the St Joseph's Campus of Bexley College) and a Catholic girls' school, on Woolwich Road in Abbey Wood, London, in the mid-1970s. During this time her family produced a demo tape with over 50 of her compositions which was turned down by record labels. David Gilmour of Pink Floyd received the demo from Ricky Hopper, a mutual friend of Gilmour and the Bush family. Impressed with what he heard, Gilmour helped Bush get a more professional-sounding demo tape recorded that would be more saleable to the record companies. The tape was produced by Gilmour's friend Andrew Powell, who would go on to produce Bush's first two albums. The tape was sent to EMI executive Terry Slater who would become famous for signing The Sex Pistols. Slater was impressed by the tape and signed her. At that time Pink Floyd was an important act to EMI. The British record industry was reaching a point of stagnation. Kate Bush: Enigmatic chanteuse as pop pioneer Progressive rock was very popular and visually-oriented rock performers were growing in popularity thus record labels looking for the next big thing were considering experimental acts. For the first two years of her contract, Bush spent more time on schoolwork than making an album. She left school after doing her mock A-levels and having gained ten GCE O-Level qualifications. In 2005, Bush stated in an interview with Mark Radcliffe on BBC Radio 2 that she believed EMI signed her before she was ready to make an album so that no other record company could offer her a contract. After the contract signing, EMI forwarded her a sizable advance which she used to enroll in interpretive dance classes taught by Lindsay Kemp, who was also a former teacher of David Bowie. Bush also wrote and made demos of close to 200 songs, a few of which today can be found on bootleg recordings and are known as the Phoenix Recordings. From March to August 1977, she fronted the KT Bush Band at public houses around London - specifically at the Rose of Lee public house (now Dirty South) in Lewisham. The other three band members were Del Palmer (bass), Brian Bath (guitar), and Vic King (drums). She began recording her first album in August 1977, although two tracks had been recorded during the summer of 1975. Wuthering Heights, The Kick Inside and Lionheart As part of her preparation for entering the studio, Bush toured pubs with the KT Bush Band. However, for her debut album The Kick Inside (1978) she was persuaded to use established session musicians, some of whom she would retain even after she had brought her bandmates back on board. Her brother Paddy Bush played the harmonica and mandolin, unlike on later albums where he would play more exotic instruments such as the balalaika and didgeridoo. Stuart Elliott played some of the drums and would become her main percussionist on subsequent albums, along with session drummer Charlie Morgan, who later went on to work regularly with Elton John. Preston Heyman was credited with some subsequent studio work but mostly performed on Bush's live tour of 1979. Bush released The Kick Inside when she was 19 years old, but some of the songs had been written when she was as young as 13. EMI originally wanted the more rock-oriented track "James and the Cold Gun" to be her debut single, but Bush insisted that it should be "Wuthering Heights". Even at this early stage of her career, she had gained a reputation for her determination to have a say in decisions affecting her work. "Wuthering Heights" topped the UK and Australian charts and became an international hit. Bush became the first woman to reach number one in the UK charts with a self-penned song. A second single, "The Man with the Child in His Eyes", reached number six on the UK charts. It also made it onto the American Billboard Hot 100 where it reached number 85 in early 1979, but it was Bush's only single to do so for nearly another seven years. "The Man with the Child in His Eyes" went on to win her an Ivor Novello Award in 1979 for Outstanding British Lyric. EMI capitalised on Bush's appearance by promoting the album with a poster of her in a tight pink top that emphasised her breasts. In an interview with NME magazine in 1982, Bush criticised the marketing technique, stating: "People weren't even generally aware that I wrote my own songs or played the piano. The media just promoted me as a female body. It's like I've had to prove that I'm an artist in a female body." In late 1978, EMI persuaded Bush to quickly record a follow-up album, Lionheart, to take advantage of the success of The Kick Inside. Bush has often expressed dissatisfaction with Lionheart, feeling that she needed more time to get it right. The album was rushed out of the studio in Nice on the French Riviera, making this her only album to be wholly recorded outside the UK. The album was produced by Andrew Powell, assisted by Bush. While it has its share of hits, most notably "Wow", it did not receive the same reception as her first album, reaching number six in the UK album charts. Lionheart is the first record on which her then-boyfriend Del Palmer worked as a bassist. Palmer went on to play bass or to engineer and record every album since. Bush was displeased with being rushed into making the second album. She set up her own publishing company, Kate Bush Music, and her own management company, Novercia, in order to maintain complete control over her work. The board of directors of these companies was herself and members of her family. Following the album's release, she was required by EMI to undertake heavy promotional work and an exhausting tour, the only one of her career. The tour, named The Tour of Life, began in April 1979 and lasted six weeks. Typical of her determination to have control, she was involved in every aspect of the show's production, choreography, set design, and staff recruitment. During the tour, Bush became the first singer to use a wireless headset radio microphone on stage, which allowed her to incorporate extensive dance routines into her live shows. However, Bush disliked the exposure and the celebrity lifestyle associated with promotional work, given that her main priority was making music. As she moved into producing her own work, Bush began a slow and steady withdrawal from public life. It was at this stage of her career that she developed her perfectionist approach, in which she spent long periods of time in the studio, only meeting the press when albums were released. Bush would disappear for up to four years while honing new material, which led to rumours in the press concerning her health or appearance. In the past, stories of weight gain or mental instability have been disproved by Bush's periodic reappearance. Never For Ever and The Dreaming Released in September 1980, Never for Ever saw Bush's second foray into production, co-producing with Jon Kelly. Her first time as a producer was on her Live On Stage EP, released after her tour the previous year. The first two albums had resulted in a definitive sound evident in every track, with orchestral arrangements supporting the live band sound. The range of styles on Never for Ever is much more diverse, veering from the straightforward rocker "Violin" to the wistful waltz of hit single "Army Dreamers". Never for Ever was the first Kate Bush album to feature synthesizers and drum machines, in particular the Fairlight CMI, to which she was introduced when providing backing vocals on Peter Gabriel's third album in early 1980. It was her first record to reach the top position in the UK album charts, also making her the first female British artist to achieve that status , and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at the top http://www.chartstats.com/albuminfo.php?id=5079 . The top-selling single from the album was "Babooshka", which reached number five in the UK singles chart. In November 1980, she released the Christmas single "December Will Be Magic Again", which reached number 29 in the UK charts. This was a stand-alone single not featured on any album and was recorded a year earlier, but was not ready in time for the Christmas market. September 1982 saw the release of The Dreaming, the first album Bush produced entirely by herself. It was also a major departure for Bush, being initially composed on rhythm machine rather than piano, with songs extensively revised and rebuilt in the studio, rather than merely arranged there. With her new-found freedom, she experimented with production techniques, creating an album that features a diverse blend of musical styles and is known for its near-exhaustive use of the Fairlight CMI. The Dreaming received a mixed critical reception in the UK at first. Many were baffled by the dense soundscapes Bush had created, and some critics accused the album of being over-produced. In a 1993 interview with Q, Bush stated: "That was my 'She's gone mad' album." However, the album was hailed as a "masterpiece" and a "musical tour-de-force" by critics in America, and the album became her first to enter the US charts, albeit only reaching number 157. Critical opinion has significantly changed over the years in the UK. where the album is now seen as a seminal and influential work. The album entered the UK album chart at no.3, but is to date her lowest selling album, garnering only a gold disc. "Sat in Your Lap" was the first single from the album to be released. It pre-dated the album by over a year and peaked at number 11 in the UK. The following singles fared much worse. The album's title track, featuring the talents of Rolf Harris and Percy Edwards, stalled at number 48, while the third single, "There Goes a Tenner", failed to chart at all, despite promotion from EMI and Bush. The track "Suspended in Gaffa" was released as a single in Europe, but not in the UK. Bush was in her early twenties when making the album and tended to look outside her own personal experience for sources of inspiration. She drew on old crime films for the track "There Goes A Tenner", a documentary about the war in Vietnam for "Pull Out The Pin", and the plight of Indigenous Australians for "The Dreaming". "Houdini" is about the magician's death, and "Get Out Of My House" was inspired by Stanley Kubrick's film of Stephen King's novel The Shining. The album does contain a few introspective songs. The lead single, "Sat In Your Lap", examines feelings of self-doubt versus burning self-confidence and the search for a balance between the two. "Leave It Open" speaks of the need to acknowledge and express the darker sides of one's personality within the greater context of maintaining an open mind. Hounds of Love Era and The Whole Story In August 1985, the NME featured Bush in a "Where Are They Now" article. Two days later, on The Wogan Show, the single "Running Up That Hill" was played for the first time. Considered by many reviewers to be her masterpiece, Hounds of Love (1985) is no less experimental than previous albums from a production standpoint. Because of the high cost of hiring studio space for her previous album, she built a private studio near her home, where she could work at her own pace. Hounds of Love ultimately topped the charts in the UK, knocking Madonna's Like a Virgin from the number one position. The album is split into two sides. The first side, Hounds of Love, contains five "accessible" pop songs (each examining a particular type of love), including the four singles "Running Up That Hill", "Cloudbusting", "Hounds of Love", and "The Big Sky". "Running Up That Hill" re-introduced Bush to American listeners and received considerable airplay at the time of its release. It expanded her small, but loyal, American fan base and climbed to number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 in November 1985. The second side of the album, The Ninth Wave, takes its name from a poem by Tennyson. Each of its tracks conveys the story of a woman who is lost at sea and facing the threat of drowning. The album earned Bush nominations for Best Female Solo Artist, Best Album, Best Single, and Best Producer at the 1986 BRIT Awards. In the same year, Bush and Peter Gabriel had a UK top ten hit with "Don't Give Up", and EMI released her "greatest hits" album, The Whole Story, for which she recorded the single "Experiment IV" and provided new vocals to "Wuthering Heights". Bush won the award for Best Female Solo Artist at the 1987 BRIT Awards. The Sensual World and The Red Shoes The increasingly personal tone of her writing continued on 1989's The Sensual World, with songs about unexpressed and unrequited love ("Love and Anger" and "Never Be Mine", respectively), the pressures on modern relationships ("Between a Man and a Woman"), and self-doubt and how it interfaces with parental comfort ("The Fog"). One of the quirkiest tracks on the album, touched by Bush's black humour, is "Heads We're Dancing", about a woman who dances all night with a charming stranger only to find out in the morning that he is Adolf Hitler. The title track drew its inspiration from James Joyce's novel Ulysses. Bush realised that the text from Molly Bloom's Soliloquy fitted the music she had created. When the Joyce estate refused to release the text, Bush wrote original lyrics that echo the original passage, as Molly steps from the pages of the book and revels in the real world. The songs "Deeper Understanding", "Never Be Mine", and "Rocket's Tail" all feature backing vocals by the Bulgarian vocal ensemble the Trio Bulgarka, "Between a man and a woman" features backing vocals by Breton folk-pop singer Alan Stivell, also playing the celtic harp. The Sensual World went on to become her biggest-selling album in the US, receiving an RIAA Gold certification four years after its release for 500,000 copies sold. In the United Kingdom album charts, it reached the number two position. In 1990, she sang and produced a cover of Alan Stivell's song Metig, for his "greatest hits" album Again. In 1991, Bush released a cover of Elton John's "Rocket Man", which reached number 12 in the UK singles chart and in 2007 was voted the greatest cover ever by readers of The Observer newspaper. The Red Shoes was released in November 1993. The Red Shoes features more high-profile cameo appearances than Bush's previous efforts, including contributions from composer and conductor Michael Kamen, comedian Lenny Henry, Prince, Eric Clapton, Gary Brooker of Procol Harum, Trevor Whittaker, and Jeff Beck also donated their talents to the recording. The album gave Bush her highest chart position in the US, reaching number 28, although the only song from the album to make the US singles chart was "Rubberband Girl", which peaked at number 88 in January 1994. The single fared better in Europe, breaking the top 20 in the UK and Ireland. The album reached number two in the UK. That same year, the film The Line, the Cross & the Curve, written and directed by Bush, and starring Bush and English actress Miranda Richardson, used six of the songs on the album. The initial plan had been to take the songs out on the road, and so Bush deliberately aimed for a live-band feel, with less of the studio trickery that had typified her last three albums and that would be difficult to recreate on stage. The result alienated some of her fan base, who enjoyed the intricacy of her earlier compositions, but others found a new complexity in the lyrics and the emotions they expressed. This was a troubled time for Bush. She had suffered a series of bereavements, including the loss of her favoured guitarist Alan Murphy, and, most painfully, her mother Hannah. Many of the people she lost are honoured in the ballad "Moments Of Pleasure", including Michael Powell (director of the film The Red Shoes), with whom she had discussed working shortly before his death. Her long-term romantic relationship with Del Palmer had also broken down, although the pair continued to work together. Return with Aerial and beyond After the release of The Red Shoes, Bush dropped out of the public eye for many years, although her name occasionally cropped up in the media with rumours of a new album release. Bush had originally intended to take one year off but despite working on material 12 years would pass before her next album release. The day I said sorry to Kylie, and other pop star encounters from the diary of DJ Mark Radcliffe Daily Mail 28 March, 2009 The press often viewed her as an eccentric recluse, sometimes drawing a comparison with Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens's Great Expectations. In reality, she was trying to give her young son a normal childhood, away from the world of show business and needed a quiet place for her creative process to function. In 1998, Bush gave birth to Albert, known as "Bertie", fathered by her guitarist and now-husband Danny McIntosh. On the few occasions she has spoken to the press since, she has made it clear that motherhood has made her extremely happy. After living for many years in a large and secluded Victorian house on Court Road, between Mottingham and Eltham in her native southeast London, the couple and their son presently have two homes: a £2.5 million house in Salcombe in the South Hams on the Devon coast and a mansion on an island on the Kennet and Avon canal at Sulhamstead in West Berkshire. . A proposed Marine Bill if passed would mandate an access corridor that would allow anyone to traverse part of her Devon property. Sir Henry Aubrey-Fletcher champions Kate Bush's cause The Telegraph 7 December, 2008 Bush's eighth studio album, Aerial, was released on double CD and vinyl in November 2005. The anticipation leading up to the album's release was immense, with press articles devoted to Bush being printed months before the album's release. Members of the press invited to hear the album for pre-release review purposes were subjected to searches for personal recording equipment, and the album itself was played to them from a sealed CD machine bolted to the floor. The first single from the album was "King of the Mountain". The track was played for the first time on BBC Radio 2 on 21 September 2005 and was made available for download on 27 September 2005. Aerial is one of Bush's most critically acclaimed albums. As on Hounds of Love (1985), the double album is split into two sections. The first disc, subtitled A Sea of Honey, features a set of unrelated themed songs, including "King of the Mountain"; "Bertie", a Renaissance-style ode to her son; and "Joanni", based on the story of Joan of Arc. In the song "π", Bush sings to its 137th decimal place, although for an unknown reason she omits the 79th to 100th decimal places. The piano and vocal piece "A Coral Room", which deals with the loss of Bush's mother and the passage of time, was hailed by sections of the British media as "stunning" in its simplicity, "profoundly moving", and one of the most beautiful pieces Bush has ever recorded. The second disc, subtitled A Sky of Honey, features thematically related songs linked by the presence of bird song. The album's cover art, which seems to show a mountain range at sunset over a sea, is in fact a waveform that represents birdsong. It also features her own "KT" symbol, which appears, slightly hidden, on several of her previous album covers, videos and promotional materials. All the pieces in this suite refer or allude to air or sky in their lyrical content. A Sky of Honey features Rolf Harris playing the didgeridoo on one track, as he did on the 1982 single "The Dreaming", and providing vocals on the track "The Painter's Link". Other artists making guest appearances on the album include Peter Erskine, Eberhard Weber, Lol Creme, and Gary Brooker. Two tracks feature string arrangements by the late Michael Kamen, performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra. "King of the Mountain" entered the UK Downloads Chart at number six on 17 October 2005, and by 30 October it had become Bush's third-highest-charting single ever in the UK, peaking at number four on the full chart. Aerial entered the UK Albums Chart at number three, selling more than 90,000 copies in its first week of release. In the US it entered at number 48 with over 23,000 copies sold. Within five months of its release, the album had sold more than 1.1 million copies worldwide. Bush herself carried out relatively little publicity for the album, only conducting a handful of magazine and radio interviews. Aerial earned Bush two nominations at the 2006 BRIT Awards, for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best British Album. In an interview with Weekend Australian, published in December 2005, Bush stated that Aerial was not meant to be her last work and that she wished to continue writing and recording music. On 13 March 2006, EMI re-released all Bush's previous albums, including her greatest hits album The Whole Story, on compact disc with cardboard cases made to look like the original vinyl pressings. In 2007, it was reported that Bush had met Placebo after they had recorded a cover of "Running up that Hill" and told them she liked their version. She sent what was described as a "very amusing" good luck message to BBC Radio 2 disc jockey Mark Radcliffe after his show moved to a new time slot and also wrote the foreword for the David Bowie Special Edition of Mojo magazine. That same year Bush recorded a song for the film adaptation of The Golden Compass entitled "Lyra", played over the end credits of the film. Musical style Her music has also been eclectic, utilizing various styles of music even within the same album. Her songs have spanned across genres as diverse as rock, pop, alternative, jazz, folk, ska, samba, and New Wave. Even in her earliest works where the piano was a primary instrument, Bush wove together many diverse influences, melding classical music, rock, and a wide range of ethnic and folk sources, and this has continued throughout her career. In an interview with Melody Maker magazine in 1977, she revealed that male artists had more influence on her work than females, stating: Every female you see at a piano is either Lynsey De Paul, or Carole King. And most male music—not all of it but the good stuff—really lays it on you. It really puts you against the wall and that's what I like to do. I'd like my music to intrude. Not many females succeed with that. The experimental nature of her music has led it to be described as a later, more technological, and more accessible manifestation of the British progressive rock movement that gave rise to the bands Genesis, Yes, King Crimson, and Pink Floyd. Like artists in the prog rock genre, Bush rejects the classic American style of making pop music, which was adopted by most UK pop artists. Influenced by the vocal style of the singer Bryan Ferry, Bush sings with an overtly English accent, and her lyrics tend to be more unusual and less clichéd than American-style pop lyrics, often employing historical or literary references. The musical instruments used in her songs and the way instruments are played commonly differs from the American norm. More than one reviewer has used the term "surreal" to describe much of her music. Many of her songs have a melodramatic emotional and musical surrealism that defies easy categorization. It has been observed that even the more joyous pieces are often tinged with traces of melancholy, and even the most sorrowful pieces have elements of vitality struggling against all that would oppress them. Bush is not afraid to tackle sensitive and taboo subjects. "The Kick Inside" is based on a traditional English folk song (The Ballad of Lucy Wan) about an incestuous pregnancy and a resulting suicide; "Kashka From Baghdad" is a song about a homosexual male couple; Out magazine listed two of her albums in their Top 100 Greatest Gayest albums list. 100 Greatest Gayest Albums 51-60 Out Magazine Top 100 Greatest Gayest albums 81-90 Out Magazine "The Infant Kiss" is a song about a haunted, unstable woman's almost pedophiliac infatuation with a young boy in her care (inspired by Jack Clayton's film The Innocents (1961), which had been based on Henry James's famous novella The Turn of the Screw); and "Breathing" explores the results of nuclear fallout from the perspective of an unborn child in the womb. Her lyrics have referenced a wide array of subject matter, often relatively obscure, such as Wilhelm Reich in "Cloudbusting" and G. I. Gurdjieff in "Them Heavy People", while "Deeper Understanding", from The Sensual World, portrays a person who stays indoors, obsessively talking to a computer and shunning human contact. Comedy is also a big influence on her and is a significant component of her work. She has cited Woody Allen, Monty Python, Fawlty Towers, and The Young Ones as particular favourites. Horror movies are another interest of Bush's and have influenced the gothic nature of several of her songs, such as "Get Out Of My House", inspired by Stanley Kubrick's The Shining, and "Hounds of Love", inspired by the 1957 horror movie Night Of The Demon. Her songs have occasionally combined comedy and horror to form dark humour, such as murder by poisoning in "Coffee Homeground", an alcoholic mother in "Ran Tan Waltz" and the upbeat "The Wedding List", a song inspired by François Truffaut's 1967 film of Cornell Woolrich's The Bride Wore Black about the death of a groom and the bride's subsequent revenge against the killer. Live performances Bush's only tour took place 2 April – 13 May 1979, after which she gave only the occasional live performance. Several reasons have been suggested as to why she abandoned touring, among them her reputed need to be in total control of the final product, which is incompatible with live stage performance, a rumour of a crippling fear of flying, and the suggestion that the death of 21-year-old Bill Duffield severely affected her. Duffield, her lighting director, was killed in an accident during her 2 April 1979 concert at Poole Arts Centre. Bush held a benefit concert on 12 May 1979, with Peter Gabriel and Steve Harley at London's Hammersmith Odeon for his family. Duffield would be honoured in two later songs: "Blow Away" on Never for Ever and "Moments of Pleasure" on The Red Shoes. Bush explained in a BBC Radio 2 interview with Mark Radcliffe that she actually enjoyed the tour but was consumed with producing her subsequent records. During the same period as her tour, she made numerous television appearances around the world, including Top of the Pops in the United Kingdom, Bios Bahnhof in Germany, and Saturday Night Live in the United States (with Paul Shaffer on piano). On 28 December 1979 BBC TV aired the Kate Bush Christmas Special. It was recorded in October 1979 at the BBC Studios in Birmingham, England. As well as playing songs from her first two albums, she played "December Will Be Magic Again", and "Violin" from her forthcoming album, Never for Ever. Peter Gabriel made a guest appearance to play "Here Comes the Flood", and a duet of Roy Harper's "Another Day" with Bush. In 1982 Bush participated in the first benefit concert in aid of The Prince's Trust alongside artists such as Madness, Midge Ure, Phil Collins, Mick Karn and Pete Townshend. On 25 April 1986 Bush performed live for British charity event Comic Relief, singing "Do Bears... ?", a humorous duet with Rowan Atkinson, and a rendition of "Breathing". Later in the year on 28 June 1986 she made a guest appearance to duet with Peter Gabriel on "Don't Give Up" at Earl's Court, London as part of his "So" tour. In March 1987, Bush sang "Running Up That Hill" at The Secret Policeman's Third Ball, with David Gilmour on guitar. On the 17th January 2002, Bush appeared with Gilmour singing the part of the doctor in "Comfortably Numb" at the Royal Festival Hall in London. Video projects Bush has appeared in many innovative music videos designed to accompany her singles releases. Among the best known are those for "Running Up That Hill", "Babooshka", "Breathing", "Wuthering Heights", "Them Heavy People", "The Man with the Child in His Eyes", which was the 55th video played on the first day of MTV, and "Cloudbusting", featuring actor Donald Sutherland, who made time during the filming of another project to take part in the video . EMI has released a few collections of her videos, including The Single File, Hair of the Hound, The Whole Story, and The Sensual World, as well as an abridged concert video of her 1979 tour Live at Hammersmith Odeon. In 1993, she directed and starred in the short film, The Line, the Cross & the Curve, a musical co-starring Miranda Richardson featuring music from Bush's album The Red Shoes, which was inspired by the classic movie of the same name. It was released on VHS in the UK in 1994 and also received a small number of cinema screenings around the world. Overall it was a critical failure. In recent interviews, Bush has said that she considers it a failure, and stated in 2001: "I'm very pleased with four minutes of it, but I'm very disappointed with the rest." . In a 2005 interview she went as far as to describe the film as "A load of bollocks" Mojo Magazine, page 81, October 2005 edition . In 1994, Bush provided the music used in series of psychedelic-themed television commercials for the soft drink Fruitopia that appeared in the United States. The same company aired the ads in the United Kingdom, but the British version featured Elizabeth Fraser of Cocteau Twins instead of Bush. Several collections of Bush's music videos have been released on VHS, most notably The Single File, which contained videos predating the Hounds of Love album; Hair of the Hound, containing videos concerning that album; and The Whole Story, a career video overview released in conjunction with the 1986 compilation album of the same title. In late 2006, a DVD documentary entitled Kate Bush Under Review was released by Sexy Intellectual, which included archival interviews with Bush, along with interviews with a selection of music historians and journalists (including Phil Sutcliffe, Nigel Williamson, and Morris Pert). The DVD also includes clips from several of Bush's music videos. As of 2008, a DVD collection of Bush's videography from 1978 to 2005 had yet to be released. On 2 December 2008 the DVD collection of the fourth season of Saturday Night Live including her performances was released. Saturday Night Live: Universal announces The complete 4th season TVonDVD.com 5 September 2008 A three DVD set of The Secret Policeman's Balls benefit concerts that includes Bush's performance was released on 27 January, 2009. Unveiling Britain's 'Secret' Home Media Magazine 5 December, 2008 Movie projects In 1990, Bush starred in the black comedy film Les Dogs, produced by The Comic Strip for BBC television. Beginning in 1982 on the UK's Channel 4, The Comic Strip Presents ... offered a series of comedy films featuring comedians including Rik Mayall, Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders, and Robbie Coltrane. The movies were usually written and produced by Peter Richardson, who often also acted. In Les Dogs, aired on 8 March 1990, Bush plays the bride Angela at a wedding set in a post-apocalyptic version of Britain. While Bush's is a silent presence in a wedding dress throughout most of the film, she does have several lines of dialogue with Peter Richardson in two dream sequences. In another Comic Strip Presents film, GLC, she produced the theme song "Ken" which includes a vocal performance by Bush. She also produced all the incidental music, which is synthesizer based. Bush wrote and performed the song "The Magician", in a fairground-like arrangement, for Menahem Golan's 1979 film The Magician of Lublin. http://www.faqs.org/faqs/music/kate-bush-faq/ In 1985, Bush contributed a darkly melancholic version of the Ary Barroso song "Brazil" to the soundtrack of the Terry Gilliam film Brazil. The track was scored and arranged by Michael Kamen. In 1986, she wrote and recorded "Be Kind To My Mistakes" for the Nicolas Roeg film Castaway. An edited version of this track was used as the B side to her 1989 single "This Woman's Work" and subsequently appeared the following year on one of the albums of B-sides included in her album box set, also entitled "This Woman's Work". In 1988, the song "This Woman's Work" was featured in the John Hughes film She's Having A Baby a year before a very slightly remixed version appeared on Bush's album The Sensual World. In 1999, Bush wrote and recorded a song for the Disney film Dinosaur, but the track was ultimately not included on the soundtrack. According to the winter 1999 issue of HomeGround, a Kate Bush fanzine, it was scrapped when Disney asked Bush to rewrite the song and Bush refused. The Man with the Child in His Eyes is on the soundtrack for the 2007 British romantic comedy film Starter for Ten. Starter For Ten Soundtrack CD: CD Universe Bush provided an original song, "Lyra", for the closing credits of the 2007 film The Golden Compass. The song is written and produced by Bush in her own studio and features the Magdalen College Choir. The title refers to Lyra Belacqua, the lead character in the film. Bush writing on her website called the trilogy "a masterpiece" and said she was "thrilled" to be asked to write the song. According to Del Palmer, Bush was asked to do the song on very short notice and the whole project was completed in 10 days. "Lyra" was nominated for the International Press Academy's Satellite Award for original song in a motion picture. Collaborations Bush provided vocals on two of Peter Gabriel's albums, including the hits "Games Without Frontiers" and "Don't Give Up", as well as "No Self-Control". Gabriel appeared on Bush's 1979 television special, where they sang a duet of Roy Harper's "Another Day". She has sung on two Roy Harper tracks, "You", on his 1979 album, "The Unknown Soldier", and "Once", the title track of his 1990 album. She has also sung on the title song of the 1986 Big Country album The Seer, the Midge Ure song "Sister and Brother" from his 1988 album Answers to Nothing, Go West's 1987 single "The King Is Dead" and two songs with Prince - "Why Should I Love You?", from her 1993 album The Red Shoes, and in 1996, the song "My Computer" from Prince's album Emancipation. In 1987, she sang a verse on the charity single "Let It Be" by Ferry Aid. She also sang a line on the charity single "Spirit of the Forest" by Spirit of the Forest in 1989. In 1995, Bush covered George Gershwin's "The Man I Love" for the tribute album The Glory of Gershwin. In 1996, Bush contributed a version of "Mná na hÉireann" (Irish for Women of Ireland) for the Anglo-Irish folk-rock compilation project Common Ground: The Voices of Modern Irish Music. Bush had to sing the song in Irish, which she learned to do phonetically. Artists that have contributed to Bush's own albums include Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, David Gilmour, Nigel Kennedy, Gary Brooker, and Prince. Bush provided backing vocals for a song that was recorded during the 1990’s entitled Wouldn't Change a Thing by Lionel Azulay the drummer with the original band that was later to become the KT Bush Band. The song which was engineered and produced by Del Palmer is available for download and will be on Azulay’s upcoming CD. Lionel Azulay MySpace Page Kate Bush News and Information 26 August 2008 Bush declined a request by Erasure to produce one of their albums because "she didn’t feel that that was her area". Erasure & Kate Bush: The Lost Collaboration The Quietus 4 March, 2009 Influence From the 1980s onward it has become almost standard for individualistic female singer-songwriters to be compared to Bush by the media. She has been noted as an influence on artists as diverse as Alexz Johnson, Antony and the Johnsons, Björk, Bloc Party, Coldplay, Goldfrapp Goldfrapp, Union Chapel, LondonNelly Furtado, Shepherd's Bush Empire, London The Independent 21 May, 2001 Goldfrapp Seventh Tree Review Dallas Observer 5 March, 2008 , Milla Jovovich, "Milla Jovovich Official Website" Joanna Newsom, Mylène Farmer, KT Tunstall, Lily Allen, Lily Allen MySpace Page Muse, Elisa, OutKast, PJ Harvey, Darren Hayes, Tori Amos. ,Little Boots Meet Little Boots Highland News 26 February, 2009 Little Boots tops music tips list BBC 9 January, 2009 Little Boots on her 'tour' of 33 festivals The Times 17 May, 2009 , Kate Nash Kate Nash: Biography , Florence and the Machine. BBC Sound of 2009: Florence and The Machine BBC 7 January, 2009 Exclusive: Florence and The Machine star vows to turn heads at Brits Glasgow Daily Record 30 January 2009 and Bat for Lashes Bat For Lashes / April 30, 2009 / New York (Bowery Ballroom) Billboard 1 May, 2009 Paula Cole, accepting the Best New Artist Grammy in 1996, named Bush as an influence. Ariel Pink wrote a tribute song for Kate titled "For Kate I Wait" on the album The Doldrums. George Michael chose "Army Dreamers" for his celebrity playlist on the iTunes website. The trip-hop artist Tricky has said about Bush: "I don't believe in God, but if I did, her music would be my bible". Even the iconoclastic punk rocker John Lydon, better known as Johnny Rotten of the Sex Pistols, has declared her work to be "fucking brilliant" and has labelled her "a true original". Rotten once wrote a song for her titled "Bird in Hand" about exploitation of parrots that Bush rejected. Rotten theorized that Bush thought the song was insulting references aimed at her. John Lydon - Bush Rejected Rotten's Song 12 May 2007 contactmusic.com Suede front-man Brett Anderson has stated that "Wuthering Heights" was the first single he ever bought and mentioned "And Dream of Sheep" in Suede's song "These are the Sad Songs". Marc Almond chose "Moments of Pleasure" as one of his 10 favourite songs on Radio 2 in June 2007, saying that the song had a profound influence on him when he was combating drug addiction in New York in the 1990s. In November 2006, the singer Rufus Wainwright named Bush as one of his top ten gay icons. Outside music, Bush has been an inspiration to several fashion designers, most notably Hussein Chalayan. Many artists around the world have recorded cover versions of Bush songs, including Charlotte Church, The Futureheads (who had a UK top ten hit with a cover of "Hounds of Love"), Placebo, Pat Benatar, Hayley Westenra, Jane Birkin, Natalie Cole, Ra Ra Riot Ra Ra Riot Navigates The Hype National Public Radio (United States) 29 August 2008 Are fresh-faced indie rockers Ra Ra Riot suspended in art-rock? Nashville Scene 10 December, 2008 ,Maxwell. Live Review: Maxwell. in T.O. Toronto Sun 13 October, 2008 and The Church The Church maps summer tour with new album in tow LiveDaily 15 April, 2009 Artists such as Tori Amos, Nolwenn Leroy (during her Histoires Naturelles Tour), Patrick Wolf and Happy Rhodes have covered her songs in live performances. Coldplay have said their track "Speed of Sound" was originally an attempt to re-create "Running Up That Hill". British folk singer Jim Moray references "And Dream of Sheep" in his self-penned track "Longing For Lucy" from his debut album Sweet England, singing 'Let me be weak...let me sleep...' [2:36]. The British dance act Utah Saints sampled a line from "Cloudbusting" for their single, "Something Good", which reached number four on the UK singles chart in 1992. Their remix "Something Good 08" reached number eight on the UK chart in February 2008. In 2009 John Forté a Grammy nominated musician whose jail sentence for a drug offense was commuted by President Bush released a hip hop version of Running Up That Hill. How I Fell in Love in Prison by John Forte for The Daily Beast 13 March, 2009 In December 2008, writer Paul Cornell stated, "The work of Kate Bush has been important to me, and influenced my writing, for many years now". Paul Cornell blog 18 December 2008 Discography Studio albums The Kick Inside (1978) Lionheart (1978) Never for Ever (1980) The Dreaming (1982) Hounds of Love (1985) The Sensual World (1989) The Red Shoes (1993) Aerial (2005) Compilation albums The Whole Story (1986) This Woman's Work (1990) See also List of Kate Bush awards References Further reading Cann, Kevin and Mayes, Sean, Kate Bush: A Visual Documentary Muskens, Helena; Racké, Quirine, Come Back Kate. Snow White Films. Involved TV Channel: NPS. 2007. 'I'm not some weirdo recluse' (The Guardian, 28 October 2005) This Bush's mission finally gets accomplished (National Post, 22 December 2005) Two Musicians who have worked with Bush describe her working style and non work personality The Illustrated Collector's Guide to Kate Bush, 2nd Edition, published by Collector's Guide Publishing. A complete guide to everything Kate Bush. Includes albums, CDs, DVDs, books and other collectibles. It's complete up to Aerial. Kate Bush: Performing and Creating Queer Subjectivities on Lionheart September 2006 PhD Thesis by Debi Withers External links Official site Kate Bush News & Information Gaffaweb Tribute Act

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Galvanization

Galvanization or galvanisation refers to any of several electrochemical processes named after the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani. Meanings Electricity Originally, galvanization was the administration of electric shocks (in the 19th century also termed Faradism, after Michael Faraday). It stemmed from Galvani's induction of twitches in severed frogs' legs, by his accidental generation of electricity. This archaic sense is the origin of the meaning of galvanic when meaning "affected/affecting, as if by a shock of electricity; startled". Its claims to health benefits have largely been disproven, except for some limited uses in psychiatry in the form of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Later the word was used for processes of electrodeposition. This remains a useful and broadly applied technology, but the term "galvanization" has largely come to be associated with zinc coatings, to the exclusion of other metals. Metal protection In current use, the term typically refers to hot-dip galvanizing, a metallurgical process that is used to coat steel or iron with zinc. This is done to prevent galvanic corrosion (specifically rusting) of the ferrous item; while it is accomplished by non-electrochemical means, it serves an electrochemical purpose. Hot-dip galvanized steel has been effectively used for more than 150 years. The value of hot-dip galvanizing stems from the relative corrosion resistance of zinc, which, under most service conditions, is considerably better than those of iron and steel. In addition to forming a physical barrier against corrosion, zinc, applied as a hot-dip galvanized coating, cathodically protects exposed steel. Furthermore, galvanizing for protection of iron and steel is favored because of its low cost, the ease of application, and the extended maintenance-free service that it provides. Note that exposed steel is painted (much in the same way as exposed aluminium flashings) to colour match the proposed scheme colour. History The process of galvanization was patented by Monsieur Stanislas Sorel, of Paris, France in December, 1837. Process for protecting articles made of Iron or Steel from oxidation." Specification of patent granted to M. Sorel, of Paris, France, December, 1837. Journal of the Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, Pa.), Published by Pergamon Press, 1838, via Google Book Search. Zinc coatings Zinc coatings prevent corrosion of the protected metal by forming a physical barrier, and by acting as a sacrificial anode if this barrier is damaged. When exposed to the atmosphere, zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide, which further reacts with water molecules in the air to form zinc hydroxide. Finally zinc hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to yield a thin, impermeable, tenacious and quite insoluble dull grey layer of zinc carbonate which adheres extremely well to the underlying zinc, so protecting it from further corrosion, in a way similar to the protection afforded to aluminium and stainless steels by their oxide layers. Hot dip galvanizing deposits a thick robust layer that may be more than is necessary for the protection of the underlying metal in some applications. This is the case in automobile bodies, where additional rust proofing paint will be applied. Here, a thinner form of galvanizing is applied by electroplating, called "electrogalvanization". The hot-dip process slightly reduces the strength of the base metal, which is a consideration for the manufacture of wire rope and other highly-stressed products. The protection provided by this process is insufficient for products that will be constantly exposed to corrosive materials such as salt water. For these applications, more expensive stainless steel is preferred. Nevertheless, most nails made today are electro-galvanized. As noted previously, both mechanisms are often at work in practical applications. For example, the traditional measure of a coating's effectiveness is resistance to a salt spray. Thin coatings cannot remain intact indefinitely when subject to surface abrasion, and the galvanic protection offered by zinc can be sharply contrasted to more noble metals. As an example, a scratched or incomplete coating of chromium actually exacerbates corrosion of the underlying steel, since it is less electrochemically active than the substrate. Galvanized surface with visible spangle The size of crystallites in galvanized coatings is an aesthetic feature, known as spangle. By varying the number of particles added for heterogeneous nucleation and the rate of cooling in a hot-dip process, the spangle can be adjusted from an apparently uniform surface (crystallites too small to see with the naked eye) to grains several centimeters wide. Visible crystallites are rare in other engineering materials. Protective coatings for steel constitute the largest use of zinc and rely upon the galvanic or sacrificial property of zinc relative to steel. Thermal diffusion galvanizing is a new "green" process which creates a zinc coating metallurgically similar to hot dip galvanizing. Instead of dipping parts in molten zinc, zinc is applied in a powder form with accelerator chemicals. The parts and the zinc compound are sealed in a drum which is rotated in an oven. Due to accelerator chemicals added to the zinc powder, the zinc/iron diffusion (alloying) takes place at a lower temperature than hot dip galvanizing, and results in a more uniform and wear resistant coating. The process also eliminates the need for hazardous caustic, acid, and flux baths required to prepare parts for hot dip galvanizing. The unique crystal structure formed by the process provides a strong bond with paint, powder coating, and rubber overmolding processes. Eventual corrosion Rusted corrugated steel roof Although galvanizing will inhibit attack of the underlying steel, rusting will be inevitable, especially if the local rainfall is at all acidic in nature. So for example, corrugated iron sheet roofing will start to degrade within a few years despite the protective action of the zinc coating. Marine environments also lower the lifetime of galvanized iron roofs and similar products, because the high electrical conductivity of sea water encourages and increases the rate of corrosion. Corrugated steel roofs can last for many years if further protected by a paint layer. Galvanized car frames may also be at risk, especially where road salting is used extensively. See also Corrugated galvanised iron Sendzimir process Sherardising References External links Life Program regarding liquid waste management in galvanic processes. American Galvanizers Association

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Merge_algorithm

__NOTOC__ Merge algorithms are a family of algorithms that run sequentially over multiple sorted lists, typically producing more sorted lists as output. This is well-suited for machines with tape drives. Use has declined due to large random access memories, and many applications of merge algorithms have faster alternatives when a random-access memory is available. The general merge algorithm has a set of pointers p0..n that point to positions in a set of lists L0..n. Initially they point to the first item in each list. The algorithm is as follows: While any of p0..n still point to data inside of L0..n instead of past the end: do something with the data items p0..n point to in their respective lists find out which of those pointers points to the item with the lowest key; advance one of those pointers to the next item in its list Pseudocode A simple non-recursive pseudocode implementation of merge with two lists might be written as follows: function merge(a, b) var list result var int i, j := 0 while (i < length(a)) and (j < length(b)) if a[i] = b[j] add a[i] to result // In case list a and b are identical, each holding only // one element, say x, this algorithm would output the list // consisting of a single x instead of the list holding two // x's which is at least counter-intuitive. i := i + 1 j := j + 1 else if a[i] < b[j] add a[i] to result i := i + 1 else add b[j] to result j := j + 1 while i < length(a) add a[i] to result i := i + 1 while j < length(b) add b[j] to result j := j + 1 return result Analysis Merge algorithms generally run in time proportional to the sum of the lengths of the lists; merge algorithms that operate on large numbers of lists at once will multiply the sum of the lengths of the lists by the time to figure out which of the pointers points to the lowest item, which can be accomplished with a heap-based priority queue in O(log n) time, for O(m log n) time, where n is the number of lists being merged and m is the sum of the lengths of the lists. When merging two lists of length m, there is a lower bound of 2m − 1 comparisons required in the worst case. The classic merge (the one used in merge sort) outputs the data item with the lowest key at each step; given some sorted lists, it produces a sorted list containing all the elements in any of the input lists, and it does so in time proportional to the sum of the lengths of the input lists. In parallel computing, arrays of sorted values may be merged efficiently using an all nearest smaller values computation. . Uses Merge can also be used for a variety of other things: given a set of current account balances and a set of transactions, both sorted by account number, produce the set of new account balances after the transactions are applied; this requires always advancing the "new transactions" pointer in preference to the "account number" pointer when the two have equal keys, and adding all the numbers on either tape with the same account number to produce the new balance. produce a sorted list of records with keys present in all the lists (equijoin); this requires outputting a record whenever the keys of all the p0..n are equal. similarly for finding the largest number on one tape smaller than each number on another tape (e.g. to figure out what tax bracket each person is in). similarly for computing set differences: all the records in one list with no corresponding records in another. insertion/update operations in search engines to produce an inverted index merging plays a central role in Dijkstra's functional programming technique for generating regular numbers Language support Few languages have built-in support for merging. An exception is C++'s STL: it has the function std::merge, which merges two sorted ranges of iterators, and std::inplace_merge, which merges two consecutive sorted ranges in-place. In addition, the std::list (linked list) class has its own merge method which merges another list into itself. The type of the elements merged must support the less-than (<) operator, or it must be provided with a custom comparator. Also, PHP has the array_merge() and array_merge_recursive() functions. Notes References Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 158–160 of section 5.2.4: Sorting by Merging. Section 5.3.2: Minimum-Comparison Merging, pp.197–207.

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