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Homomorphism

In abstract algebra, a homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic structures (such as groups, rings, or vector spaces). The word homomorphism comes from the Greek language: ὁμός (homos) meaning "same" and μορφή (morphe) meaning "shape". Note the similar root word ὅμοιος (homoios), meaning "similar," which is found in another mathematical concept, namely homeomorphisms. Definition and illustration Definition The definition of homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure under consideration. Particular definitions of homomorphism include the following: A group homomorphism is a homomorphism between two groups. A ring homomorphism is a homomorphism between two rings. A linear map is a homomorphism between two vector spaces. An algebra homomorphism is a homomorphism between two algebras. The common theme is that a homomorphism is a function between two algebraic objects that respects the algebraic structure. For example, a group is an algebraic object consisting of a set together with a single binary operation, satisfying certain axioms. If G and H are groups, a homomorphism from G to H is a function ƒ: G → H such that for any elements g1, g2 ∈ G, where ∗ denotes the respective binary operations (the first ∗ denoting the operation in G, and the second ∗ denoting the operation in H). When an algebraic structure includes more than one operation, homomorphisms are required to preserve each operation. For example, a ring possesses both addition and multiplication, and a homomorphism between two rings is a function such that for any elements r and s of the domain ring. In most contexts, a homomorphism will map identity elements to identity elements, inverse elements to inverse elements, and so forth. The notion of a homomorphism can be given a formal definition in the context of universal algebra, a field which studies ideas common to all algebraic structures. In this setting, a homomorphism ƒ: A → B is a function between two algebraic structures of the same type such that for each n-ary operation μ and for all elements a1,...,an ∈ A. Basic Examples The real numbers are a ring, having both addition and multiplication. The set of all 2 × 2 matrices is also a ring, using matrix addition and matrix multiplication. Define a function between these rings by where r is a real number. Then ƒ is a homomorphism of rings, since ƒ preserves both addition: and multiplication: For another example, the nonzero complex numbers form a group under the operation of multiplication, as do the nonzero real numbers. (Zero must be excluded from both groups since it does not have a multiplicative inverse, which is required for elements of a group.) Define a function ƒ from the nonzero complex numbers to the nonzero real numbers by That is, ƒ(z) is the absolute value (or modulus) of the complex number z. Then ƒ is a homomorphism of groups, since it preserves multiplication: Note that ƒ cannot be extended to a homomorphism of rings (from the complex numbers to the real numbers), since it does not preserve addition: Informal discussion Because abstract algebra studies sets with operations that generate interesting structure or properties on the set, the most interesting functions are those which preserve the operations. These functions are known as homomorphisms. For example, consider the natural numbers with addition as the operation. A function which preserves addition should have this property: f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b). For example, f(x) = 3x is one such homomorphism, since f(a + b) = 3(a + b) = 3a + 3b = f(a) + f(b). Note that this homomorphism maps the natural numbers back into themselves. Homomorphisms do not have to map between sets which have the same operations. For example, operation-preserving functions exist between the set of real numbers with addition and the set of positive real numbers with multiplication. A function which preserves operation should have this property: f(a + b) = f(a) * f(b), since addition is the operation in the first set and multiplication is the operation in the second. Given the laws of exponents, f(x) = ex satisfies this condition : 2 + 3 = 5 translates into e2 * e3 = e5. A particularly important property of homomorphisms is that if an identity element is present, it is always preserved, that is, mapped to the identity. Note in the first example f(0) = 0, and 0 is the additive identity. In the second example, f(0) = 1, since 0 is the additive identity, and 1 is the multiplicative identity. If we are considering multiple operations on a set, then all operations must be preserved for a function to be considered as a homomorphism. Even though the set may be the same, the same function might be a homomorphism, say, in group theory (sets with a single operation) but not in ring theory (sets with two related operations), because it fails to preserve the additional operation that ring theory considers. Relation to category theory Since homomorphisms are morphisms, the following specific kinds of morphisms defined in any are defined for homomorphisms as well. However, the definitions in category theory are somewhat technical. In the important special case of module homomorphisms, and for some other classes of homomorphisms, there are much simpler descriptions, as follows: An isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism. An epimorphism is a surjective homomorphism. A monomorphism (also sometimes called an extension) is an injective homomorphism. An endomorphism is a homomorphism from an object to itself. An automorphism is an endomorphism which is also an isomorphism. These descriptions may be used in order to derive several interesting properties. For instance, since a function is bijective if and only if it is both injective and surjective, a module homomorphism is an isomorphism if and only if it is both a monomorphism and an epimorphism. For endomorphisms and automorphisms, the descriptions above coincide with the category theoretic definitions; the first three descriptions do not. For instance, the precise definition for a homomorphism f to be iso is not only that it is bijective, and thus has an inverse f-1, but also that this inverse is a homomorphism, too. This has the important consequence that two objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned, if there is an isomorphism between them. Two such objects are said to be isomorphic. Actually, in the algebraic setting (at least within the context of universal algebra) this extra condition on isomorphisms is automatically satisfied. However, the same is not true for epimorphisms; for instance, the inclusion of Z as a (unitary) subring of Q is not surjective, but an epimorphic ring homomorphism Exercise 4 in section I.5, in Saunders Mac Lane, Categories for the Working Mathematician, ISBN 0-387-90036-5 . This inclusion thus also is an example of a ring homomorphism which is both mono and epi, but not iso. Relationships between different kinds of module homomorphisms. H = set of Homomorphisms, M = set of Monomorphisms, P = set of ePimorphisms, S = set of iSomorphisms, N = set of eNdomorphisms, A = set of Automorphisms. Notice that: M ∩ P = S, S ∩ N = A, (M ∩ N) \ A and (P ∩ N) \ A contain only homomorphisms from some infinite modules to themselves. Kernel of a homomorphism Any homomorphism f : X → Y defines an equivalence relation ~ on X by a ~ b if and only if f(a) = f(b). The relation ~ is called the kernel of f. It is a congruence relation on X. The quotient set X/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, i.e. [x] * [y] = [x * y]. In that case the image of X in Y under the homomorphism f is necessarily isomorphic to X/~; this fact is one of the isomorphism theorems. Note in some cases (e.g. groups or rings), a single equivalence class K suffices to specify the structure of the quotient; so we can write it X/K. (X/K is usually read as "X mod K".) Also in these cases, it is K, rather than ~, that is called the kernel of f (cf. normal subgroup, ideal). Homomorphisms of relational structures In model theory, the notion of an algebraic structure is generalized to structures involving both operations and relations. Let L be a signature consisting of function and relation symbols, and A, B be two L-structures. Then a homomorphism from A to B is a mapping h from the domain of A to the domain of B such that h(FA(a1,…,an)) = FB(h(a1),…,h(an)) for each n-ary function symbol F in L, RA(a1,…,an) implies RB(h(a1),…,h(an)) for each n-ary relation symbol R in L. In the special case with just one binary relation, we obtain the notion of a graph homomorphism. Homomorphisms and e-free homomorphisms in formal language theory Homomorphisms are also used in the study of formal languages. Seymour Ginsburg, Algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages, North-Holland, 1975, ISBN 0 7204 2506 9. Given alphabets and , a function h : → such that for all u and v in is called a homomorphism on . In homomorphisms on formal languages, the * operation is the Kleene star operation. The and are both concatenation, commonly denoted by juxtaposition. Let e denote the empty word. If h is a homomorphism on and for all in , then h is called an e-free homomorphism. See also continuous function diffeomorphism homomorphic secret sharing – a simplistic decentralized voting protocol morphism References A monograph available free online: Burris, Stanley N., and H.P. Sankappanavar, H. P., 1981. A Course in Universal Algebra. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-90578-2.

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Paul_Cohen_(mathematician)

Paul Joseph Cohen (April 2, 1934 – March 23, 2007 ) was an American mathematician best known for his proof of the independence of the continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice from Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the most widely accepted axiomatization of set theory. Early years Paul J. Cohen was born in Long Branch, New Jersey into a Jewish family. He graduated in 1950 from Stuyvesant High School in New York City. He then studied at Brooklyn College from 1950 to 1953 but left before receiving a bachelor's degree when he learned he could pursue graduate studies in Chicago with just two years of college under his belt. At the University of Chicago, he received his master's degree in 1954 and his PhD in 1958 under supervision of Antoni Zygmund. His doctoral thesis was Topics in the Theory of Uniqueness of Trigonometric Series. Paul J. Cohen (1958), Topics in the theory of uniqueness of trigonometrical series , http://www.lix.polytechnique.fr/Labo/Ilan.Vardi/cohen.ps Contributions to mathematics He is noted for inventing a technique called forcing which he used to show that neither the continuum hypothesis (CH) nor the axiom of choice can be proved from the standard Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms (ZF) of set theory. In conjunction with the earlier work of Gödel, this showed that both these statements are independent of ZF: they can be neither proved nor disproved from these axioms. In this sense CH is undecidable, and probably the most famous example of a natural statement independent from the conventional axioms of set theory. For his result on CH he won the Fields Medal in 1966 and the National Medal of Science in 1967; the 1966 Fields Medal continues to be the only Fields Medal to have been awarded for a work in mathematical logic. He was also awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize in analysis in 1964 for his paper "On a conjecture of Littlewood and idempotent measures". He was a professor at Stanford University, where he supervised Peter Sarnak's dissertation, among others. Angus MacIntyre of the University of London is reported as saying: "He was dauntingly clever, and one would have had to be naïve or exceptionally altruistic to put one's 'hardest problem' to the Paul I knew in the '60s." He went on to compare Cohen to Kurt Gödel, saying: "Nothing more dramatic than their work has happened in the history of the subject." Gödel himself wrote a letter to Cohen in 1963, a draft of which states "Let me repeat that it is really a delight to read your proof of the ind[ependence] of the cont[inuum] hyp[othesis]. I think that in all essential respects you have given the best possible proof & this does not happen frequently. Reading your proof had a similarly pleasant effect on me as seeing a really good play." Solomon Feferman, The Gödel Editorial Project: A synopsis p. 11. On the continuum hypothesis When studying the hypothesis, Cohen is quoted as saying that he "had the feeling that people thought the problem was hopeless since there was no new way of constructing models of set theory. Indeed,” he said in a 1985 interview, "they thought you had to be slightly crazy even to think about the problem." "A point of view which the author [Cohen] feels may eventually come to be accepted is that CH is obviously false. The main reason one accepts the axiom of infinity is probably that we feel it absurd to think that the process of adding only one set at a time can exhaust the entire universe. Similarly with the higher axioms of infinity. Now is the cardinality of the set of countable ordinals and this is merely a special and the simplest way of generating a higher cardinal. The set [the continuum] is, in contrast, generated by a totally new and more powerful principle, namely the power set axiom. It is unreasonable to expect that any description of a larger cardinal which attempts to build up that cardinal from ideas deriving from the replacement axiom can ever reach . Thus is greater than , where , etc. This point of view regards as an incredibly rich set given to us by one bold new axiom, which can never be approached by any piecemeal process of construction. Perhaps later generations will see the problem more clearly and express themselves more eloquently." An "enduring and powerful product" of Cohen's work on the Hypothesis, and one used by "countless mathematicians" is known as forcing and is used to construct mathematical models to test a given hypothesis for truth or falsehood. Shortly before his death, Paul Cohen gave a fascinating lecture describing his solution to the Continuum Hypothesis at the Gödel centennial conference, Vienna 2006. A video of this lecture is now available online. |Paul Cohen lecture video, six parts, Gödel Centennial, Vienna 2006 Notes Further reading Akihiro Kanamori, "Cohen and Set Theory", The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, Volume 14, Number 3, Sept. 2008. External links paulcohen.org - a commemorative website celebrating the life of Paul Cohen Stanford obituary

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BPP

The acronym BPP can stand for: Biophysical profile, a prenatal ultrasound evaluation of fetal wellbeing Bits per pixel, also known as color depth BPP, a class of decision problems in complexity theory BPP Professional Education , a professional education body based in the United Kingdom Black Panther Party, a Marxist organization in the United States based on the African American community Beam parameter product, a measure of laser beam quality Bekenntnisbruderschaft St. Peter und Paul, German Lutheran High Church brotherhood Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program British Peoples Party Bryant Park Project, a radio show on NPR Business Process Platform, an expression in computer technology Buakaw por Pramuk, a Thai Muay Thaifighter. a kind of medicine tablet with Bromopheniarmine, Phenylephrine and Phenylpropanelamine as its content. Bloembergen-Purcell-Pound theory of relaxation in nuclear magnetic resonance. Border Patrol Police - the Border Guard of Thailand Builders Pavement Plan a form filed with the New York City Department of Buildings North American Bird Phenology Program

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Looe_Island

Looe Island. Looe Island, also known as St George's Island, and historically St Michael's Island is a small island a mile from the mainland town of Looe in Cornwall, United Kingdom. According to local legend, Joseph of Arimathea landed here with the child Christ. History People have been coming to the island since the Iron Age. Evidence of early habitation includes pieces of Roman amphora as well as stone boat anchors http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/timeteam/2009/looe/index.html Time Team Site report . In the Dark Ages, the island was used a seat of early Christian settlement. There was a chapel and dwellings. In the later Medieval period, the island came under the control of Glastonbury Abbey. This continued until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 when it became property of the Crown. Through the 17th and 18th centuries the island was a popular haunt for smugglers avoiding the British government's revenue cutters out of Plymouth and Falmouth. In the 20th century, Looe island was owned (and inhabited) by two sisters, Babs and Evelyn Atkins, who wrote two books: We Bought An Island (1976, ISBN 0245529403) and its sequel Tales From Our Cornish Island (1986, ISBN 0245542655). They chronicle the purchase of the island and what it was like to live there. Evelyn died in 1997 at the age of 87; Babs continued to live on the island until her death in 2004, at the age of 86. On her death, the island was made a bequest to the Cornwall Wildlife Trust; it will be preserved as a nature reserve in perpetuity. Geography The island is an area outstanding natural beauty and a sanctuary for sea and woodland birds. It is about 22.5 acres (91,000 m²) in area and a mile (1.6 km) in circumference. The highest point is 47 m above sea level. The island, like much of the south west England, has a mild climate with frost and snow being rare. The island is normally accessible only by boat, but at low spring tides it is possible for the journey to be made by foot across the rocky sea floor. The island is open to day visitors during the summer. This is a non-profit making venture, the landing fees and other income being devoted to conserving the island's natural beauty and to providing facilities. Jetty cottage is used to accommodate visitors. Popular culture In 2008, Channel Four's archaeology series Time Team visited the island to carry out an investigation into its early Christian history. They excavated a Benedictine chapel that was built in 1139. References Further reading Island Life: A History of Looe Island, David Clensy, 2006. ISBN 978-1-4116-8917-8 We Bought an Island. Evelyn E. Atkins, 1976. ISBN 0-340-22688-9 The Looe Island Story: An Illustrated History of St. George's Island, Mike Dunn, 2006. ISBN 978-0954913724 External links Looe Island Website Smuggling history

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Glossolalia

Glossolalia is commonly called "speaking in tongues". For other uses of "speaking in tongues", see Speaking in Tongues (disambiguation)."Tongues" redirects here. For the body part, see Tongue, for other uses, see Tongue (disambiguation).Some uses of 'Glossolalia' (including here) refer to Xenoglossy, speaking in a natural language that was previously unknown to the speaker. Glossolalia or speaking in tongues is the vocalizing of fluent speech-like syllables, often as part of religious practice. Some consider these utterances to be meaningless, others consider them to be a holy language. That the phenomenon occurs is not disputed, but its explanation is highly controversial. This article attempts a balanced assessment of glossolalia by carefully proceeding from areas of agreement to areas of disagreement. Etymology: the origin of the term. Description: glossolalia has physical and psychological patterns that can be described. Material explanation: a physical or psychological explanation of glossolalia can be attempted. Spiritual explanation: some Christians believe that the most important explanation of glossolalia is that it is a work of the Holy Spirit. Biblical practice: there are a number of opinions among Christians as to what glossolalia meant in practice in the New Testament. Church practice: the Christian practice of glossolalia has varied since the New Testament era. Non-Christian practice: glossolalia has been practised outside Christianity. Etymology 'Glossolalia' is constructed from the Greek γλωσσολαλιά and that from γλῶσσα - glossa "tongue, language" and λαλεῖν (lalein) "to talk". 'Speaking in tongues' is the result of translating into English the two components of the same Greek word. The Greek expression (in various forms) appears in the New Testament in the books of Acts and 1 Corinthians. 'Speaking in tongues' has been used at least since the translation of the New Testament into Middle English in the Wycliffe Bible in the 14th century. See Mark 16:17 in the Wycliffe Bible Frederic William Farrar first used the word glossolalia in 1879. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed, 1989 Description Glossolalia is a material phenomenon which has physical and psychological patterns that can be described. Substantial scientific studies have been published that provide an objective description of the linguistics of glossolalic speech and the neural behaviour of the speakers. Linguistics of Pentecostal glossolalia William J. Samarin, a linguist from the University of Toronto, published a thorough assessment of Pentecostal glossolalia that became a classic work on its linguistic characteristics. William J. Samarin, Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972 His assessment was based on a large sample of glossolalia recorded in public and private Christian meetings in Italy, Holland, Jamaica, Canada and the USA over the course of five years; his wide range included the Puerto Ricans of the Bronx, the Snake Handlers of the Appalachians, and Russian Molokan in Los Angeles. Samarin found that glossolalic speech does resemble human language in some respects. The speaker uses accent, rhythm, intonation and pauses to break up the speech into distinct units. Each unit is itself made up of syllables, the syllables being formed from consonants and vowels taken from a language known to the speaker. It is verbal behavior that consists of using a certain number of consonants and vowels[...]in a limited number of syllables that in turn are organized into larger units that are taken apart and rearranged pseudogrammatically[...]with variations in pitch, volume, speed and intensity. William J. Samarin, Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, 120 [Glossolalia] consists of strings of syllables, made up of sounds taken from all those that the speaker knows, put together more or less haphazardly but emerging nevertheless as word-like and sentence-like units because of realistic, language-like rhythm and melody. Samarin, William J. 'Sociolinguistic vs. Neurophysiological Explanations for Glossolalia: Comment on Goodman’s Paper.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 11, 3: (1972a) 293–296. That the sounds are taken from the set of sounds already known to the speaker is confirmed by others: Felicitas Goodman found that the speech of glossolalists reflected the patterns of speech of the speaker's native language. Goodman, Felicitas D.: 'Phonetic Analysis of Glossolalia in Four Cultural Settings'. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 227–235. Samarin found that the resemblance to human language was merely on the surface, and so concluded that glossolalia is "only a facade of language". William J. Samarin, Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, 128 He reached this conclusion because the syllable string did not form words, the stream of speech was not internally organised, and - most importantly of all - there was no systematic relationship between units of speech and concepts. Humans use language to communicate, but glossolalia does not. Therefore he concluded that glossolalia is not "a specimen of human language because it is neither internally organized nor systematically related to the world man perceives". On the basis of his linguistic analysis, Samarin defined Pentecostal glossolalia as "meaningless but phonologically structured human utterance, believed by the speaker to be a real language but bearing no systematic resemblance to any natural language, living or dead". William J. Samarin, Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, p2 Practitioners of glossolalia may disagree with linguistic researchers and claim that they are speaking human languages (xenoglossia). For example Ralph Harris, in the work Spoken By the Spirit published by Radiant Life/GPH in 1973, describes seventy five occasions when glossolalic speech was understood by others. (Scientific research into such claims is documented in the article on xenoglossia.) Comparative linguistics Felicitas Goodman, a psychological anthropologist and linguist, studied a number of Pentecostal communities in the United States, Caribbean and Mexico; these included English, Spanish and Mayan speaking groups. She compared what she found with recordings of non-Christian rituals from Africa, Borneo, Indonesia and Japan. She took into account both the segmental structure (such as sounds, syllables, phrases) and the supra-segmental elements (rhythm, accent, intonation), and concluded that there was no distinction between what was practised by the Pentecostal Protestants and the followers of other religions. Goodman, Felicitas D., Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-Cultural Study in Glossolalia. Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1972 Neuroscience In 2006, the brains of a group of individuals were scanned while they were speaking in tongues. Activity in the language centers of the brain decreased, while activity in the emotional centers of the brain increased. There were no changes in any language areas, suggesting that glossolalia is not associated with usual language function. Other brain wave studies have also found that brain activity alters in glossolalia. e.g. (MS thesis) Material explanation Attempts to explain these physical and psychological patterns are made at two levels: material and spiritual. The spiritual explanation is discussed further below. A number of material explanations have been suggested, including mental illness, hypnosis, and learned behaviour. Mental illness As Pentecostalism expanded in the 20th century and attracted the attention of the wider world, psychologists initially thought of glossolalia in pathological terms, thinking that it was caused by mental illness. In 1927 George Cutten described tongues-speakers as people of low mental abilities. George Barton Cutten, Speaking with Tongues Historically and Psychologically Considered, Yale University Press, 1927. This explanation was effectively refuted in 1969 by a team from the University of Minnesota, who conducted an extensive study covering the United States, Mexico, Haiti and Colombia; they reached practitioners among Pentecostals, other Protestant groups, and Roman Catholics. Cutten's contentions concerning psychopathology, quoted and re-quoted through the years, have taken on an aura of fact among non-Pentecostal churchmen who are critical of the movement. His assumption that glossolalia is linked to schizophrenia and hysteria has not been supported by any empirical evidence. Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p213 Subsequent studies have confirmed this conclusion. A 2003 statistical study in the religious journal Pastoral Psychology concluded that, among the 991 male evangelical clergy sampled, glossolalia was associated with stable extroversion, and contrary to some theories, completely unrelated to psychopathology. Francis L.J. and Robbins M., Personality and Glossolalia: A Study Among Male Evangelical Clergy, Pastoral Psychology, Volume 51, Number 5, May 2003, pp. 391-396(6) Hypnosis Some kind of hypnosis or trance has often been suggested as the explanation for glossolalia. Much glossolalia takes place in heightened states, whether in Pentecostal Christian or non-Christian contexts. Goodman, Felicitas D., Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-Cultural Study in Glossolalia. University of Chicago Press, 1972. But glossolalia does not require a state of hypnosis or trance. An experiment was conducted in which 12 experienced glossolalists performed with eyes open and without accompanying kinetic activity (such as trembling or shaking) or any residual disorientation. Spanos, Nicholas P.; Hewitt, Erin C.: Glossolalia: 'A test of the 'trance' and psychopathology hypotheses.' Journal of Abnormal Psychology: 1979 Aug Vol 88(4) 427-434. Moreover glossolalia is not only displayed in group situations. The Minnesotan study found that "after the initial experience of glossolalia, most Pentecostals speak with tongues as frequently, if not more frequently, alone in private prayer", including some for the first time. Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p218 These findings rule out hypnosis by another, although self-hypnosis may play a part. A New Zealand researcher, Heather Kavan Kavan, Heather. ‘Glossolalia and Altered States of Consciousness in two New Zealand Religious Movements’. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 19, 2, (2004). 171-184. , found that whether a person experienced trance or hypnosis depended on the type of group with which they were affiliated. Kavan found that most New Zealand Pentecostals and Charismatics did not experience trance except during the baptism of the spirit. However, meditators in a yoga-based purification group experienced frequent intense trances, of which glossolalia was an occasional manifestation. Kavan suggested that there are two types of glossolalia—spontaneous and context-dependent—and the former is more likely to occur in groups that are radical, experiential and charismatically led. Learned behaviour The material explanation arrived at by a number of studies is that glossolalia is "learned behavior". Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p211 Samarin, William J., Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, quote on p73 What is taught is the ability to produce language-like speech. This is only a partial explanation, but it is a part that has withstood much testing. It is possible to train novices to produce glossolalic speech. One experiment with 60 undergraduates found that 20% succeeded after merely listening to a 60-second sample, and 70% succeeded after training: Our findings that glossolalia can be easily learned through direct instruction, along with demonstrations that tongue speakers can initiate and terminate glossolalia upon request and can exhibit glossolalia in the absence of any indexes of trance[...]support the hypothesis that glossolalia utterances are goal-directed actions rather than involuntary happenings. Spanos, Nicholas P.; Cross, Wendy P.; Lepage, Mark; Coristine, Marjorie: 'Glossolalia as learned behavior: An experimental demonstration.' Journal of Abnormal Psychology: 1986 Feb Vol 95(1) 21--23. That glossolalia can be learned is also seen in the traces left behind by teachers. An investigation by the Lutheran Medical Center in Brooklyn showed that the influence of a particular leader can shape a group's glossolalia: where certain prominent glossolalists had visited, whole groups of glossolalists would speak in his style of speech. John Kildahl and Paul Qualben, Final Progress Report, Glossolalia and Mental Health, 1966, unpublished. However, certain sounds have been found to predominate throughout the world, irrespective of teachers. The word ‘shunda’ and its variations ‘shunder’, ‘shonder’ and ‘shindir’ are prominent in samples through the United States, Wales and New Zealand. Kavan, Heather. (1995), Glossolalia and Altered States of Consciousness. Doctoral dissertation, Victoria University, New Zealand. Spiritual explanation In addition to the suggested material explanations, Christians believe that there can be a spiritual explanation of glossolalia: some (cessationists) limit this to the first century, others (glossolalists) apply this explanation today. Skeptics believe that there is no spiritual element to glossolalia. Glossolalists believe that the Pentecostal/Charismatic glossolalia practiced today is the 'speaking in tongues' described in the New Testament. They believe that it is a miraculous gift of the Spirit. While some Charismatics claim that these tongues are a real, unlearned language (i.e., xenoglossia) e.g. Grudem, Wayne. Systematic theology. IVP, 1994, p1070. Assemblies of God, 2000, The Baptism in the Holy Spirit: The Initial Experience and Continuing Evidences of the Spirit-Filled Life, p4. This is the official statement on the subject made by the General Presbytery of the Assemblies of God on August 11, 2000. , others - Pentecostals in particular, explain the activity as a 'language of the spirit', or a 'heavenly language', perhaps the language of angels. Grudem, W., 1994, Systematic Theology, IVP, p1072. Cessationists believe that the speaking in tongues practised today is simply the utterance of meaningless syllables, and that it is neither xenoglossia nor miraculous, but rather learned behavior, possibly self-induced. However, they believe that what the New Testament describes is xenoglossia, a miraculous gift of the Spirit through which the speaker could communicate in languages not previously studied. Skeptics agree with cessationists that the speaking in tongues practised today is learned and meaningless. They also reject New Testament descriptions of xenoglossia (speaking real, unlearned human languages) and miraculous glossolalia (speaking unlearned languages of the spirit as inspired by the Spirit of God) entirely as either fallacious or misinterpreted. Putman, W G. "Gift of Tongues". In New Bible Dictionary, 3rd edition, edited by I H. Marshall et al. 1996, 1195–1196. Biblical practice Glossolalia is believed by many Christians to have come into the Christian experience in the first century on the day of Pentecost after the Crucifixion of Jesus when "tongues of fire" appeared over the heads of the individuals in the "upper room" and they were said to speak in "unknown tongues as the spirit gave them utterance" (according to Acts, Ch. 2) (The book of Acts is found in the New Testament immediately after the Gospel of John and is considered to be the story of the very early church.) Many Christians, though certainly not all, believe that this was a miraculous gift of the Spirit. Some, probably most, Charismatics claim that these tongues are a real, unlearned, language (i.e., xenoglossia) e.g. Grudem, Wayne. Systematic theology. IVP, 1994, p1070. Assemblies of God, 2000, The Baptism in the Holy Spirit: The Initial Experience and Continuing Evidences of the Spirit-Filled Life, p4. This is the official statement on the subject made by the General Presbytery of the Assemblies of God on August 11, 2000. . Others - Pentecostals in particular, explain the activity as a 'language of the spirit', or a 'heavenly language', perhaps the language of angels. Grudem, W., 1994, Systematic Theology, IVP, p1072. These views are both drawn from the writings of St. Paul. Some believe that individuals speak different languages at different times, some believed to be human languages and others "angelic or heavenly languages." Personal Interview with Deborah Cox. Professor of Writing about the Bible as Literature. May 4, 2009. Lonestar College Library. Conroe, Texas, 77384 Glossolalia came to prominence again in modern times in the Azusa Street Revival of 1906 and in the subsequent growth of the Pentecostal movement. "Since then there have been a number of attempts to describe glossolalia in a systematic way. However, practitioners of glossolalia consider it a spiritual experience and tend to doubt the likelihood that it can be classified or proven by the scientific method." Deborah Cox. Professor of Writing about the Bible as Literature. May 4, 2009. Lonestar College Library. Conroe, Texas, 77384 Biblical references , : see with New Testament There are five places in the New Testament where speaking in tongues is referred to explicitly: Mark 16:17, which records the instructions of Christ to the apostles, including his description that "they will speak with new tongues" as a sign that would follow "them that believe" in him. Many scholars take Mk 16:8 as the original ending and believe the ending (Mk 16:9-20) was written later. (see Mark 16) Acts 2, which describes tongues-speaking occurring in Jerusalem at Pentecost. Acts 10:46, when the household of Cornelius in Caesarea spoke in tongues, and those present compared it to the tongues-speaking that occurred at Pentecost. Acts 19:6, when a group of approximately a dozen men spoke in tongues in Ephesus as they received the Holy Spirit while the apostle Paul laid his hands upon them. 1 Cor 14, where Paul discusses speaking in "various kinds of tongues" as part of his wider discussion of the gifts of the Spirit; his remarks shed some light on his own speaking in tongues as well as how the gift of speaking in tongues was to be used in the church. Other verses by inference may be considered to refer to 'speaking in tongues', such as Romans 8:26 and Jude 20. The biblical account of Pentecost in the second chapter of the book of Acts describes the sound of a mighty rushing wind and "divided tongues like fire" coming to rest on the apostles. The text further describes that "they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak in unknown languages." Glossolalists and cessationists both recognize this as xenoglossia, a miraculous ability that marked their baptism in the Holy Spirit. Something similar (although perhaps not xenoglossia) took place on at least two subsequent occasions, in Caesarea and Ephesus. The Apostle Paul instructed the church in Corinth about speaking in tongues in his discussion of the gifts of the Spirit in a letter to them. His purpose was to encourage them to value the gift, but not too highly; to practice it, but not abuse it. In the letter, Paul commands church brethren, "Do not forbid to speak in tongues" (1 Cor 14:39), while warning them that "all things must be done properly and in an orderly manner" He further expresses his wishes that those to whom he wrote "all spoke with tongues" (1 Cor 14:5) and claims himself to speak with tongues more than all of the church at Corinth combined ("I thank God I speak with tongues more than you all" 1 Cor 14:18). At the same time he argues that not everyone can speak in tongues (1 Cor 12:29) and discourages simultaneous speaking in tongues directed at people rather than God, lest unbelievers should think that the assembled believers were "mad" (1 Cor 14:23, 27). Tongues, says Paul, is speaking to God, rather than men ("in the Spirit he speaks mysteries" (1 Cor 14:2)). Paul claims that tongues-speaking edifies the person speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:4), that it is the action of a praying tongues-speaker's spirit (as opposed his or her understanding, see 1 Cor 14:14), and that praying in tongues serves both to bless God as well as to give thanks (1 Cor 14:16-17). However, he also expressed a preference for prophecy over tongues-speaking, unless [a tongues-speaker] interprets, so that the church may be edified(1 Cor 14:5). Paul also gave instructions that unless there was an interpreter of tongues present, believers should avoid directing their tongues toward other believers, and instead speak only to themselves and to God (1 Cor 14:27-28). Glossolalists and cessationists generally agree that the primary purpose of the gift of speaking in tongues was to mark the Holy Spirit being poured out. At Pentecost the Apostle Peter declared that this gift, which was making some in the audience ridicule the disciples as drunks, was the fulfilment of the prophecy of Joel which described that God would pour out his Spirit on all flesh (Acts 2:17). Assemblies of God, 2000, The Baptism in the Holy Spirit: The Initial Experience and Continuing Evidences of the Spirit-Filled Life, p1. This is the official statement on the subject made by the General Presbytery of the Assemblies of God on August 11, 2000. Despite these commonalities, there are significant variations in interpretation. Universal. The traditional Pentecostal view is that every Christian should expect to be baptized in the Holy Spirit, the distinctive mark of which is glossolalia. Assemblies of God, Statement of Fundamental Truths, Statements 7 and 8. While all agree that baptism in the Holy Spirit is integral to being a Christian, others believe that it is not separable from conversion and no longer marked by glossolalia. Pentecostals appeal to the declaration of the Apostle Peter at Pentecost, that "the gift of the Holy Spirit" was "for you and for your children and for all who are far off" (Acts 2:38-39). Cessationists reply that the gift of speaking in tongues was never for all (1 Cor 12:30). In response to those who say that the Baptism in the Holy Spirit is not a separate experience from conversion, Pentecostals appeal to the question asked by the Apostle Paul to the Ephesian believers "Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye believed?" (Acts 19:2). One gift. Different aspects of speaking in tongues appear in Acts and 1 Corinthians, such that the Assemblies of God declare that the gift in Acts "is the same in essence as the gift of tongues" in 1 Corinthians "but different in purpose and use". Assemblies of God, Statement of Fundamental Truths, Statement 8. This is the statement of "non-negotiable beliefs that all Assemblies of God churches adhere to". They distinguish between (private) speech in tongues when receiving the gift of the Spirit, and (public) speech in tongues for the benefit of the church. Others assert that the gift in Acts was "not a different phenomenon" but the same gift being displayed under varying circumstances. Grudem, Wayne. Systematic theology. IVP, 1994, p1073. The same description - 'speaking in tongues' - is used in both Acts and 1 Corinthians, and in both cases the speech is in an unlearned language. Direction. The New Testament describes tongues largely as speech addressed to God, but also as something that can potentially be interpreted into human language, thereby "edifying the hearers" (1 Cor 14:5,13). At Pentecost and Caesarea the speakers were praising God (Acts 2:11; 10:46). Paul referred to praying, singing praise, and giving thanks in tongues (1 Cor 14:14-17), as well as to the interpretation of tongues(1 Cor 14:5), and instructed those speaking in tongues to pray for the ability to interpret their tongues so others could understand them (1 Cor 14:13). While some limit speaking in tongues to speech addressed to God - "prayer or praise", Grudem, Wayne. Systematic theology. IVP, 1994, p1070 others claim that speech in tongues is revelation from God to the church, and when interpreted into human language by those embued with the gift of interpretation of tongues for the benefit of others present, may be considered equivalent to prophecy. Masters, Peter, and John C. Whitcomb. The charismatic phenomenon. Wakeman, 1988, p49. Music. Musical interludes of glossolalia are sometimes described as singing in the Spirit. Some hold that singing in the Spirit is identified with singing in tongues in , Donald A. Johns, in Zondervan Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, p788. Cited by Richard M. Riss in "Singing in the Spirit in the Holiness, Pentecostal, Latter Rain, and Charismatic Movements", paper delivered at a conference sponsored by the North American Renewal Service Committee, Orlando, July 28, 1995. which they hold to be "spiritual or spirited singing", as opposed to "communicative or impactive singing" which Paul refers to as "singing with the understanding". Delton L. Alford in Zondervan Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, p690. Cited by Riss, op. cit. Sign for unbelievers (1 Cor 14:22). Some assume that tongues are "a sign for unbelievers that they might believe", Assemblies of God, Holy Spirit Baptism: Frequently Asked Questions about Tongues, webpage, 26.08.08 and so advocate it as a means of evangelism. Others point out that Paul quotes Isaiah to show that "when God speaks to people in language they cannot understand, it is quite evidently a sign of God's judgment"; so if unbelievers are baffled by a church service they cannot understand because tongues are spoken without being interpreted, that is a "sign of God's attitude", "a sign of judgment". Grudem, Wayne. Systematic theology. IVP, 1994, p1075. Comprehension. Some say that speech in tongues was "not understood by the speaker" Grudem, Wayne. Systematic theology. IVP, 1994, p1070. Others assert that "the tongues-speaker normally understood his own foreign-language message". Masters, Peter, and John C. Whitcomb. The charismatic phenomenon. Wakeman, 1988, p106. This last comment seems to have been made by someone confusing the "gift of tongues" with the "gift of the interpretation of tongues, which is specified as a different gift in the New Testament, but one that can be given to a person who also has the gift of tongues. In that case, a person understands a message in tongues that he has previously spoken in an unkinown language." This is considered "not an uncommon phenomenon in charismatic churches." Deborah Cox. Professor of English 1302: Writing about the Bible as Literature. May 4, 2009. Lonestar College Library. Conroe, Texas, 77384 . Church practice A.D. 100 to 400 Twentieth-century Pentecostalism was not the earliest instance of "speaking in tongues" in church history, but earlier examples are few; it has never been regarded as orthodox until the rise of Pentecostalism. References to speaking in tongues by the Church fathers are rare. Aside from Irenaeus' 2nd-century reference to many in the church speaking all kinds of languages 'through the Spirit', and Tertullian's reference in 207 AD to the spiritual gift of interpretation of tongues being encountered in his day, there are no known first-hand accounts of glossolalia, and very few second-hand accounts. Benjamin B. Warfield, Counterfeit Miracles (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1918). "The writings of the so-called Apostolic Fathers contain no clear and certain allusions to miracle working or to the exercise of the charismatic gifts, contemporaneously with themselves." For further verification observe the nature of the Fathers' clearest allusions to the charismatic gifts, as laid out in the section. What we do have are general remarks that Christ had given the gifts of the Spirit to the church, and that the gifts in general remained in the church. For the prophetical gifts remain with us, even to this present time. (Justin Martyr, c.150) Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 82 Now, it is possible to see amongst us women and men who possess gifts of the Spirit of God. (Justin Martyr, c.150) Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 88. The Fathers also recount the lists of gifts of the Spirit recorded in the New Testament. This is He who places prophets in the Church, instructs teachers, directs tongues, gives powers and healings, does wonderful works, often discrimination of spirits, affords powers of government, suggests counsels, and orders and arranges whatever other gifts there are of charismata; and thus make the Lord’s Church everywhere, and in all, perfected and completed. (Novatian, c.200-c.258) Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity, Chapter 29. For God hath set same in the Church, first apostles…secondly prophets…thirdly teachers…next mighty works, among which are the healing of diseases… and gifts of either speaking or interpreting divers kinds of tongues. Clearly these are the Church’s agents of ministry and work of whom the body of Christ consists; and God has ordained them. (Hilary of Poitiers, 360) Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Vol 8 Chap 33 There is one instance of a Father apparently recording that he had heard some in the church speaking all kinds of languages through the Spirit: In like manner we do also hear many brethren in the Church, who possess prophetic gifts, and who through the Spirit speak all kinds of languages, and bring to light for the general benefit the hidden things of men, and declare the mysteries of God. (Irenaeus, c.180) Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book V, Chapter VI. Tertullian in an anti-heretical apologetic alludes to instances of the 'interpretation of tongues' as one among several examples of 'spiritual gifts' common enough in his day to be easily encountered and provide evidence that God was at work in the church: Let Marcion then exhibit, as gifts of his god, some prophets, such as have not spoken by human sense, but with the Spirit of God, such as have both predicted things to come, and have made manifest the secrets of the heart; let him produce a psalm, a vision, a prayer -- only let it be by the Spirit, in an ecstasy, that is, in a rapture, whenever an interpretation of tongues has occurred to him; let him show to me also, that any woman of boastful tongue in his community has ever prophesied from amongst those specially holy sisters of his. Now all these signs (of spiritual gifts) are forthcoming from my side without any difficulty, and they agree, too, with the rules, and the dispensations, and the instructions of the Creator; therefore without doubt the Christ, and the Spirit, and the apostle, belong severally to my God. Here, then, is my frank avowal for any one who cares to require it. (Tertullian, c.207) Tertullian, Against Marcion, Book V, Chapter VIII, . There were unorthodox movements that may have engaged in glossolalia. For example, Montanus was accused (by his opponents) of ecstatic speech that some have equated to glossolalia: He became possessed of a spirit, and suddenly began to rave in a kind of ecstatic trance, and to babble in a jargon, prophesying in a manner contrary to the custom of the Church which had been handed down by tradition from the earliest times. (Eusebius, d.c.339) Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, V,17,3 Their hostility to such a practice demonstrates that the mainstream (the anti-Montanists) regarded it as false, and would never have practised it. Indeed, "after the first or perhaps the second century, there is not record of it in any Orthodox source, and it is not recorded as occurring even among the great Fathers of the Egyptian desert, who were so filled with the Spirit of God they performed numerous astonishing miracles, including raising the dead". Fr. Seraphim Rose, Orthodoxy and the Religion of the Future, p.125. Chrysostom regarded the whole phenomenon of 'speaking in tongues' as not only something that was not practised in his own day, but was even obscure. This whole phenomenon [of speaking in tongues] is very obscure, but the obscurity is produced by our ignorance of the facts referred to and by their cessation, being such then as used to occur but now no longer take place. And why do they not happen now? Why look now, the cause too of the obscurity hath produced us again another question: namely, why did they then happen, and now do so no more? (Chrysostom, 344-407) Chrystostom, Homilies on First Corinthians, xxix, 1 Augustine of Hippo regarded speaking in tongues (that is, xenoglossia) as a gift for the apostolic church alone, and argued that this was evident from the fact that his contemporaries did not see people receiving that gift in their own day. In the earliest times, "the Holy Ghost fell upon them that believed: and they spake with tongues", which they had not learned, "as the Spirit gave them utterance". These were signs adapted to the time. For there behooved to be that betokening of the Holy Spirit in all tongues, to shew that the Gospel of God was to run through all tongues over the whole earth. That thing was done for a betokening, and it passed away. In the laying on of hands now, that persons may receive the Holy Ghost, do we look that they should speak with tongues? Or when he laid the hand on infants, did each one of you look to see whether they would speak with tongues, and, when he saw that they did not speak with tongues, was any of you so strong-minded as to say, These have not received the Holy Ghost; for, had they received, they would speak with tongues as was the case in those times? If then the witness of the presence of the Holy Ghost be not given through these miracles, by what is it given, by what does one get to know that he has received the Holy Ghost? Let him question his own heart. If he love his brother, the Spirit of God dwelleth in him. (Augustine of Hippo, 354-430) Augustine, Homilies on the Gospel of John 6:10, in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers [7:497-98] A.D. 400 to 1900 400s St. Patrick of Ireland (circa 387-493) in his "Confessio" called "The Confession of St. Patrick," records hearing a strange language being prayed by the Holy Spirit in a dream" St. Patrick says in his book: "And another night-- God knows, I do not, whether within me or beside me-- most words which I heard and could not understand, except at the end of the speech it was represented thus: 'He who gave his life for you, he it is who speaks within you.' And thus I awoke, joyful." Saint Patrick. Confessio, sections 24 and 25 (Compare this to what Saint Paul says in 1 Cor. 14:4.). Deborah Cox. Professor of English 1302 Writing about the Bible as Literature. May 4, 2009. Lonestar College Library. Conroe, Texas, 77384 'And on a second occasion I saw Him praying within me, and I was as it were, inside my own body , and I heard Him above me—that is, above my inner self. He was praying powerfully with sighs. And in the course of this I was astonished and wondering, and I pondered who it could be who was praying within me. But at the end of the prayer it was revealed to me that it was the Spirit. And so I awoke and remembered the Apostle's words: "Likewise the Spirit helps us in our weakness; for we know not how to pray as we ought. But the Spirit Himself intercedes for us with sighs too deep for utterance [Romans 8:26]." And again: "The Lord our advocate intercedes for us [Romans 8:27]." Quote ends here.(Confessio, sections 24 and 25) Some Charismatic Christians consider this a dream concerning the experience of speaking in tongues. Deborah Cox. Professor of English 1302: Writing about the Bible as Literature. May 4, 2009. Lonestar College Library. Conroe, Texas, 77384 1100s - Bernard of Clairvaux, commenting on Mark 16:17 ("they will speak in new tongues"), asked: "For who is there that seems to have these signs of the faith, without which no one, according to this Scripture, shall be saved?" Bernard, Serm. i. de Ascens., 2 He explained that these signs were no longer present because there were greater miracles - the transformed lives of believers. 1100s - Hildegard of Bingen is reputed to have spoken and sung in tongues. Her spiritual songs were referred to by contemporaries as "concerts in the Spirit." 1265 - Thomas Aquinas wrote about the gift of tongues in the New Testament, which he understood to be an ability to speak every language, given for the purposes of missionary work. He explained that Christ did not have this gift because his mission was to the Jews, "nor does each one of the faithful now speak save in one tongue"; for "no one speaks in the tongues of all nations, because the Church herself already speaks the languages of all nations". Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Question 176. 1300s - The Moravians are referred to by detractors as having spoken in tongues. John Roche, a contemporary critic, claimed that the Moravians "commonly broke into some disconnected Jargon, which they often passed upon the vulgar, 'as the exuberant and resistless Evacuations of the Spirit'" Stanley M. Burgess, "Medieval and Modern Western Churches," Initial Evidence, ed. Gary B. McGee (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 32 . 1600s - The French Prophets: The Camisards also spoke sometimes in languages that were unknown: "Several persons of both Sexes," James Du Bois of Montpellier recalled, "I have heard in their Extasies pronounce certain words, which seem'd to the Standers-by, to be some Foreign Language." These utterances were sometimes accompanied by the gift of interpretation exercised, in Du Bois' experience, by the same person who had spoken in tongues. John Lacy, A Cry from the Desert (London, 1708), p. 32) (The Charismatic Movement, 1975, Michael P. Hamilton, p 75) 1600s - Early Quakers, such as Edward Burrough, make mention of tongues speaking in their meetings: "We spoke with new tongues, as the Lord gave us utterance, and His Spirit led us" Epistle to the Reader by Edward Burrough, prefixed to George Fox, The Great Mystery of the Great ##### Unfolded and Antichrist's Kingdom Revealed Unto Destruction (London: Thomas Simmons, 1659), ISBN 0-404-09353-1 . 1817 - In Germany, Gustav von Below, an aristocratic officer of the Prussian Guard, and his brothers, founded a charismatic movement based on their estates in Pomerania, which may have included speaking in tongues. 1831 - The history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, also known as Mormons, contains extensive references to the phenomenon of speaking in tongues by Brigham Young, Joseph Smith and many others. http://www.frontiernet.net/~bcmmin/tongue1.htm http://www.mormonwiki.com/Speaking_in_Tongues 1800s - Edward Irving and the Catholic Apostolic Church. Edward Irving, a minister in the Church of Scotland, writes of a woman who would "speak at great length, and with superhuman strength, in an unknown tongue, to the great astonishment of all who heard, and to her own great edification and enjoyment in God" Edward Irving, "Facts Connected With Recent Manifestations of Spiritual Gifts," Frasers Magazine (Jan. 1832) . Irving further stated that "tongues are a great instrument for personal edification, however mysterious it may seem to us." 1800s Sidney Rigdon will have disagreements with Alexander Campbell regarding speaking in tongues. In 1830 leaves Campbell's movement and joins the Church of Christ (which will become the Latter Day Saint Tradition Churches). The Church of Christ embraces speaking in Tongues and the Interpretation of tongues. At the 1836 dedication of the Kirtland Temple the dedicatory prayer asks that God grant them the gift of tongues and at the end of the service Elder Young speaks in tongues, another elder interprets it and then gives his own exhortation in tongues. Many other worship experiences in the Kirtland Temple prior to and after the dedication included references to people speaking and interpreting tongues. In 1842 in describing the beliefs of the church Joseph Smith will identify a belief of the "gift of tongues" and "interpretation of tongues". 1901 to 1906 The modern Christian practice of glossolalia is often said to have originated around the beginning of the twentieth century in the United States. The city of Topeka, Kansas is often cited as the center of the Pentecostal movement and the resurgence of glossolalia in the Church. Charles Fox Parham, a holiness preacher and founder of Bethel Bible College in 1900, is given credit for being the one who influenced modern Pentecostalism. During what has been called a sermon by Parham, a bold student named Agnes Ozman asked him for prayer and the laying on of hands to specifically ask God to fill her with the Holy Spirit. This was the night of New Year's Eve, 1900. She became the first of many students to experience glossolalia, coincidentally in the first hours of the twentieth century. Parham followed within the next few days, and before the end of January 1901, glossolalia was being discussed in newspapers as a sign of the second advent of Pentecost. Parham now found himself as the leader of the movement and traveled to church meetings around the country to preach [in the terminology of that era] about holiness, divine healing, healing by faith, the laying on of hands and prayer, sanctification by faith, and the signs of baptism of the Holy Ghost and Fire, the most prominent being speaking in tongues. http://www.originalapostolicfaith.org/1900AFRVol2No3.pdf The Apostolic Faith, Volume 2, No. 3, January 1, 1900. Our History God's Generals | Christian History Word of the outpouring of the Spirit spread to other Holiness congregations. Parham wrote, studied, traveled, preached, and taught about glossolalia for the next few years. Parham and others who believed in or manifested tongues were persecuted from both inside and outside of the church. In 1905, he opened a Bible school in Houston. It was there that William J. Seymour became indoctrinated. It is notable that Seymour was black, and Parham was white. It is further notable that Seymour did not speak in tongues while in Houston. When Seymour was invited to speak in Los Angeles about the baptism of the Holy Spirit in February 1906, he accepted. His first speaking engagement was met with dispute, primarily because he preached about "tongues" being a primary indication of the baptism of the Spirit, yet he did not himself speak in tongues. It was not until April that his preaching and teaching about glossolalia paid dividends, first to a man named Edward Lee, and later to Seymour. Similar to the experience of Parham in 1901, Seymour's students received the ability to speak in tongues a few days before he did. Headline about the "Weird babel of tongues" and other behavior at Azusa Street, from a 1906 Los Angeles Times newspaper. By May 1906, indeed only one month after the Great San Francisco Earthquake which was seen as an "act of God", Seymour was leading a major movement of the Spirit known as the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles. It has been characterized as an inter-denominational, inter-racial, inter-sex Pentecostal revival during a time in the United States in which women and non-whites were not afforded the same civil rights as white men. People from many denominations and races gathered daily to see and hear, to preach and pray, to sing and shout, and to speak in new tongues. Newspapers, clearly biased against the movement, reported the happenings as a wild and weird group of mostly "colored" people acting as if they were pretty disturbed, exhibiting behavior unheard of in most Protestant churches of the time: intense shouting, vigorous jerking, dancing, passing out, crying, howling, emotional outbursts, and speaking gibberish. Many religious leaders in Los Angeles and other places were quick to disparage the goings on at Azusa Street, informing their flocks that the new Pentecostal movement was (at worst) sensational, Satanic, Spiritualism, and (at best) too overly focused on the Holy Spirit instead of Jesus Christ. The matter of glossolalia was then (as it is now) hotly debated within the Church as being either heresy or exemplary and necessary for a spiritual rebirth in Jesus Christ. Witnesses at the Azusa Street Revival wrote of seeing fire resting on the heads of participants, miraculous healings in the meetings, and incidents of speaking in tongues being understood by native speakers of the language. According to the first issue of William Seymore's newsletter, "The Apostolic Faith," from 1906: Parham and his early followers believed that speaking in tongues was xenoglossia, and some followers traveled to foreign countries and tried to use the gift to share the Gospel with non-English-speaking people. These attempts consistently resulted in failure and many of Parham's followers rejected his teachings after being disillusioned with their attempts to speak unlearned foreign languages. Despite these setbacks, belief in xenoglossia persisted into the latter half of the twentieth century among Pentecostal groups. Faupel, D. William. GLOSSOLALIA AS FOREIGN LANGUAGE: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EARLY TWENTIETH-CENTURY PENTECOSTAL CLAIM. 1906 to present The revival at Azusa Street lasted until around 1915. But from it grew many new Protestant splinter groups and denominations, as people visited the services in Los Angeles and took their new found beliefs to communities around the US and abroad. Many denominations rejected the doctrines of Parham and Seymour, while some denominations adopted them in one form or another. Baptism of the Holy Spirit was a doctrine that was embraced by the Assemblies of God (est. 1914) and Pentecostal Church of God (est. 1919) and others. Glossolalia became entrenched into the doctrines of many Protestant sects and denominations in the twentieth century. The later Charismatic movement was heavily influenced by the Azusa Street Revival and Pentecostalism's glossolalia. Some Christians practice glossolalia as a part of their private devotions; some accept and sometimes promote the use of glossolalia within corporate worship. This is particularly true within the Pentecostal and Charismatic traditions. Both Pentecostals and Charismatics believe that the ability to speak in tongues, and sometimes the utterance itself, is a supernatural gift from God. On singing in the Spirit, Donald Hustad describes a pattern observed in Pentecostal and Charismatic churches in which, during worship, someone begins to utter musical sounds, which may or may not have recognizable words. Other members of the congregation join in and, although there is no particular effort to match the pitch or the words, the overall effect is harmonious. "It is as if the strings of a huge Aeolian harp have been set in motion by the wind of the Holy Spirit. The strangely-beautiful sound rises in volume, lasts for a longer or shorter period, and then gradually dies away." Donald Hustad, "The Historical Roots of Music in the Pentecostal and Neo-Pentecostal Movements", The Hymn: A Journal Of Congregational Song 38 (January 1987), p7. Cited by Richard M. Riss in "Singing in the Spirit in the Holiness, Pentecostal, Latter Rain, and Charismatic Movements", paper delivered at a conference sponsored by the North American Renewal Service Committee, Orlando, July 28, 1995. Three different manifestations or forms of glossolalia can be identified in Charismatic / Pentecostal belief. The "sign of tongues" refers to xenoglossia, wherein one speaks a foreign language he has never learned. The "gift of tongues" or "giving a tongue" refers to a glossolalic utterance by an individual and addressed to a congregation of, typically, other believers. This utterance is believed to be inspired directly by the Holy Spirit and requires a natural language interpretation, made by the speaker or another person if it is to be understood by others present. Lastly "praying in the spirit" is typically used to refer to glossolalia as part of personal prayer. The discussion regarding tongues has permeated many branches of the Protestantism, particularly since the widespread Charismatic Movement in the 1960s. Many books have been published either defending Example: Christenson, Laurence, Speaking in tongues : and its significance for the church, Minneapolis, MN : Dimension Books, 1968. or attacking Example: Gromacki, Robert Glenn, The modern tongues movement, Nutley, N.J. : Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., 1973, ISBN 0875523048 (Originally published 1967) the practice. The issue has sometimes been a contributing factor in splits within local churches and in larger denominations. The controversy over tongues is part of the wider debate between conservative, evangelical Christians whose approach to the Christian Scriptures requires addressing the texts that endorse glossolalia. Within that debate are continuationists who believe that glossolalia has a role to play in contemporary Christian practice and cessationalists and dispensationalists who believe that all miraculous gifts, including glossolalia, were featured only in the time of the early Church. Non-Christian practice Christians who practice glossolalia believe it to have begun as a gift confirming the presence of the Holy Spirit at the time of Acts Chapter 2 in the New Testament. Often called "Charismatic Christians" (charisma = gift), these individuals usually believe that the glossolalia practiced by Non-Christian groups is not the same as the "speaking in tongues" that occurs in Christian groups. Other religious groups been observed to practice some form of theopneustic glossolalia. It is perhaps most commonly in Paganism, Shamanism, and other mediumistic religious practices. Fr. Seraphim Rose: Orthodoxy and the Religion of the Future, St Herman Press Glossolalia was exhibited by the renowned ancient Oracle of Delphi, whereby a priestess of the god Apollo (called the Pythia) speaks in unintelligible utterances, supposedly through the spirit of Apollo in her. The Jewish religion has various citations of unintelligible speech beginning with the verse in Psalms 81:5 - "The evidence was put in 'Jehoseph' when going forth on the land of Egypt: A language I did not know I will hear." The Talmud explains that Joseph was taught to understand all 70 tongues at the night of New Year's Eve, before receiving rule over Egypt under Pharoe. [Rosh Hashana 18a, Sotah 41a] Sfat Lo Yadaati Eshma (Hebrew) On the Psalms citation. Glossolalia has even been postulated as an explanation for the Voynich manuscript. Various rituals and references exist about prayer of people not familiar with the holy language, and the importance of prayers said by people who only know how to mumble the words without understanding them. In the 17th century it was said in the name of the Baal Shem Tov upon hearing the prayer of someone who instead of praising God who blesses the years (HaShanim) praised God who blesses the women (HaNashim). He said that this person's prayers are the highest and holiest. There are various texts and sayings to be read during the Jewish traditional prayers, which are either unintelligible or purposefully said in Aramaic, so as to reach directly to God without intervention of the angels, who speak the holy language of Hebrew. Today there is a fringe group of Breslover Hasidim, colloquially known as Na Nachs, who believe in the importance of repeating the mantra, Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman (playing on the name and burial site of Rebbe Nachman of Breslov) for national and personal redemption. It is interesting to note the texts to be recited during the Shavuot celebrations (original ceremony of Pentecost) must be read in the original Hebrew directly from the Bible, even if the person reading it does not understand the meaning. Bikurim in Hebrew onlyDaf Hayomi outline Certain Gnostic magical texts from the Roman period have written on them unintelligible syllables such as "t t t t n n n n d d d d d..." etc. It is conjectured that these may be transliterations of the sorts of sounds made during glossolalia. The Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians also features a hymn of (mostly) unintelligible syllables which is thought to be an early example of Christian glossolalia. In the nineteenth century, Spiritism was developed by the work of Allan Kardec, and the phenomenon was seen as one of the self-evident manifestations of spirits. Spiritists argued that some cases were actually cases of xenoglossia (from Greek,xenos, stranger; and glossa, language. When one speaks in a language unknown to him). However, the importance attributed to it, as well as its frequency, has decreased significantly. Some present-day spiritists regard the phenomenon pointless, as it does not convey any intelligible message to those present. Glossolalia has also been observed in the Voodoo religion of Haiti, Tongue Speaking as well as in the Hindu Gurus and Fakirs of India. Sri Sri Anandamoyi Ma's Spiritual Heritage Orthodoxy and the Religion of the Future End notes References Further reading Mark J. Cartledge, ed. Speaking in Tongues: Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives. Paternoster, 2006. Dave Roberson -Vital Role of Praying in Tongues Dr. Joseph Kostelnik, Ph.D. Prayer in the Spirit: The Missing Link. Prophetic Voice Publications, 1981. See also Aphasia Asemic writing Biblical hermeneutics Charismatic movement Covenant theology Dispensationalism Dream speech Grammatical-historical Holiness movement Logorrhea Mystical language Pentecostalism Toronto Airport Christian Fellowship Toronto Blessing True Jesus Church The Revival Fellowship External links Glossolalia as Foreign Language by D. William Faupel Andrei Bely's Glossalolia {sic} with an English translation A Skeptic's Perspective The Skeptic's Dictionary on Glossolalia Catholic Encyclopedia: Gift of Tongues 1911encyclopedia.org: Gift of Tongues Speaking in Tongues by Linguist Karen Stollznow Glossolalia bible411.com Speaking in Tongues: Frequently Asked Questions by James H. Boyd Speaking in Tongues Understanding the Glossolalia of Hélène Smith, the Famous Spiritist Medium by Huub Engels

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multi_disciplinary:1 disciplinary_perspective:1 asemic_write:1 external_link:1

Edwin_Howard_Armstrong

Edwin Howard Armstrong (December 18, 1890 – January 31, 1954) was an American electrical engineer and inventor. Armstrong was the inventor of frequency modulation (FM) radio. Edwin Howard Armstrong was born in New York City, New York, in 1890. He studied at Columbia University and later became a professor there. He invented the regenerative circuit while he was an undergraduate and patented it in 1914, the super-regenerative circuit (patented 1922), and the superheterodyne receiver (patented 1918). There was a dispute regarding who invented superheterodyne radio. For example, Walter Schottky claimed that he had independently invented super heterodyne radio too. Work and patent disputes Many of Armstrong's inventions were ultimately claimed by others in patent lawsuits. In particular, the regenerative circuit, which Armstrong patented in 1914 as a "wireless receiving system," was subsequently patented by Lee De Forest in 1916; De Forest then sold the rights to his patent to AT&T. Between 1922 and 1934, Armstrong found himself embroiled in a patent war, between himself, RCA, and Westinghouse on one side, and De Forest and AT&T on the other. At the time, this action was the longest patent lawsuit ever litigated, at 12 years. Armstrong won the first round of the lawsuit, lost the second, and stalemated in a third. Before the Supreme Court of the United States, De Forest was granted the regeneration patent in what is today widely believed to be a misunderstanding of the technical facts by the Supreme Court. Tom Lewis, Empire of the air: the men who made radio. New York : E. Burlingame Books, 1991. FM radio Columbia's Philosophy Hall. Armstrong developed FM radio in its basement laboratory. Even as the regenerative-circuit lawsuit continued, Armstrong was working on another momentous invention. While working in the basement laboratory of Columbia's Philosophy Hall, he created wide-band frequency modulation radio (FM). Rather than varying the amplitude of a radio wave to create sound, Armstrong's method varied the frequency of the wave instead. FM radio broadcasts delivered a much clearer sound, free of static, than the AM radio dominant at the time. (Armstrong received a patent on wideband FM on December 26, 1933; his just rewards required much litigation at the end of his life, and beyond it.) Dana M. Raymond: Air War: Legal Battles Over FM Radio In 1922, John Renshaw Carson of AT&T, inventor of Single-sideband modulation (SSB modulation), had published a paper in the Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) arguing that FM did not appear to offer any particular advantage J.R. Carson, Notes on the theory of modulation, Proc. IRE, vol. 10, no. 1 (February 1922),pp. 57-64 . Armstrong managed to demonstrate the advantages of FM radio despite Carson's skepticism in a now-famous paper on FM in the Proceedings of the IRE in 1936 E.H. Armstrong, A method of reducing disturbances in radio signaling by a system of frequency modulation, Proc. IRE, vol. 24, no. 5 (May 1936),pp. 689-740. , which was re-printed in the August 1984 issue of Proceedings of the IEEE E.H. Armstrong, A method of reducing disturbances in radio signaling by a system of frequency modulation, Proc. IEEE, vol. 72, no. 8 (August 1984),pp. 1042-1062. . Today the consensus regarding FM is that narrow band FM is not so advantageous in terms of noise reduction, but wide band FM can bring great improvement in signal to noise ratio if the signal is stronger than a certain threshold. Hence Carson was not entirely wrong, and the Carson bandwidth rule for FM is still important today. Thus, both Carson and Armstrong ultimately contributed significantly to the science and technology of radio. The threshold concept was discussed by Murray G. Crosby (inventor of Crosby system for FM Stereo) who pointed out that for wide band FM to provide better signal to noise ratio, the signal should be above a certain threshold, according to his paper published in Proceedings of the IRE in 1937 M.G. Crosby, Frequency modulation noise characteristics, Proc. IRE, vol. 25, no. 4 (April 1937), pp. 472-514. . Thus Crosby's work supplemented Armstrong's paper in 1936. Armstrong conducted the first large scale field tests of his FM radio technology on the 85th floor of RCA's (Radio Corporation of America) Empire State Building from May 1934 until October 1935. However RCA had its eye on television broadcasting, and chose not to buy the patents for the FM technology. http://users.erols.com/oldradio/eha65.htm A June 17, 1936, presentation at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) headquarters made headlines nationwide. He played a jazz record over conventional AM radio, then switched to an FM broadcast. "[I]f the audience of 50 engineers had shut their eyes they would have believed the jazz band was in the same room. There were no extraneous sounds," noted one reporter. He added that several engineers described the invention "as one of the most important radio developments since the first earphone crystal sets were introduced." United Press report, "Radio Set-up Eliminates All Noise," Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 18, 1936, p1 In 1937, Armstrong financed construction of the first FM radio station, W2XMN, a 40 kilowatt broadcaster in Alpine, New Jersey. The signal (at 42.8 MHz) could be heard clearly 100 miles (160 km) away, despite the use of less power than an AM radio station. Current Biography 1940, pp.23-26. RCA began to lobby for a change in the law or FCC regulations that would prevent FM radios from becoming dominant. By June 1945, the RCA had pushed the FCC hard on the allocation of electromagnetic frequencies for the fledgling television industry. Although they denied wrongdoing, David Sarnoff and RCA managed to get the FCC to move the FM radio spectrum from (42-50 MHz), to (88-108 MHz), while getting new television channels allocated in the 40 MHz range. This single FCC action rendered all Armstrong-era FM receivers useless overnight, and protected RCA's AM-radio stronghold. Armstrong's radio network did not survive the frequency shift up into the high frequencies; most experts believe that FM technology was set back decades by the FCC decision. This change was strongly supported by AT&T, because loss of FM relaying stations forced radio stations to buy wired links from AT&T. Furthermore, RCA also claimed invention of FM radio and won its own patent on the technology. A patent fight between RCA and Armstrong ensued. RCA's momentous victory in the courts left Armstrong unable to claim royalties on any FM radios sold in the United States. The undermining of the Yankee Network and his costly legal battles brought ruin to Armstrong, by then almost penniless and emotionally distraught. Death Alone and depressed over the FM patent dispute, Armstrong, dressed in his coat and hat, jumped to his death from the thirteenth floor window of his New York City apartment on January 31, 1954. His suicide note to his wife said: "May God help you and have mercy on my soul". His widow Marion, who had been Sarnoff's secretary before marrying Armstrong, renewed the patent fight against RCA and finally prevailed. Legacy It took decades following Armstrong's death for FM broadcasting to meet and surpass the saturation of the AM band, and longer still for FM radio to become profitable for broadcasters. Armstrong was of the opinion that anyone who had actual contact with the development of radio understood that the radio art was the product of experiment and work based on physical reasoning, rather than on the mathematicians' calculations and formulae (known today as part of "mathematical physics"). Honors In 1917 Armstrong was the first recipient of the IRE's, now IEEE Medal of Honor. For his wartime work on radio the French government gave him the Legion of Honor in 1919. He received in 1942 the AIEEs Edison Medal "For distinguished contributions to the art of electric communication, notably the regenerative circuit, the superheterodyne, and frequency modulation". The ITU added him to its roster of great inventors of electricity in 1955. In 1980 he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, and was on a U.S. postage stamp in 1983. The Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame inducted him in 2000, "in recognition of his contributions and pioneering spirit that have laid the foundation for consumer electronics." Philosophy Hall, the Columbia building where Armstrong developed FM, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2003 in recognition of that fact. Armstrong's home in Yonkers also received a similar designation, but it was withdrawn when the house was later demolished. See also Armstrong oscillator — basic circuit for reception of AM radio signals Armstrong Tower — tall lattice tower built and used by Edwin Armstrong in 1938 Armstrong Phase Modulator Patents Armstrong received 42 patents in total; a selection are listed below: : "Electric Dynamo and Motor" : "Wireless Receiving System" : "Electric Wave Transmission" (Note: Co-patentee with Michael I. Pupin) : "Antenna with Distributed Positive Resistance" : "Method of Receiving High Frequency Oscillation" : "Selectively Opposing Impedance to Received Electrical Oscillations" (Note: Co-patentee with M. I. Pupin) : "Signaling System" : "Wireless Receiving System for Continuous Wave" : "Radio Signaling System" (Note: This is one of the patents issued for wideband FM in 1933.) : "Radiosignaling" (Note: This is one of the patents issued for wideband FM in 1933.) : "Radiosignaling" (Note: This is one of the patents issued for wideband FM in 1933.) Further reading Brodsky, Ira. "The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses" (Telescope Books, 2008) Lawrence Lessing, Man of High Fidelity: Edwin Howard Armstrong, Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company, 1956. Tom Lewis, Empire of the Air: the Men Who Made Radio, New York: HarperCollins: 1991. Empire of the Air was also the title of a related Ken Burns documentary which aired on PBS in 1992. Empire of the Air | PBS External links a Biography of Armstrong Photos and records relating to Edwin H. Armstrong, from the Houck Collection Katzdorn, Mike, "Edwin H. Armstrong" Halper, Donna, "Major Edwin Howard Armstrong" (Barry Mishkind website) Ammon, Richard T., "The Rolls Royce Of Reception : Super Heterodynes - 1918 to 1930". IEEE History Center's Edwin H. Armstrong : Excerpt from "The Legacy of Edwin Howard Armstrong," by J. E. Brittain Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 79, no. 2, February 1991 Hong, Sungook, "A History of the Regeneration Circuit: From Invention to Patent Litigation" University, Seoul, Korea (PDF) Who Invented the Superhetrodyne? The history of the invention of the superhetrodyne receiver and related patent disputes Yannis Tsividis, "Edwin Armstrong: Pioneer of the Airwaves", 2002. A profile on the web site of Columbia University, Armstong's alma mater References and notes

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Irina_Krush

Irina Krush (born December 24, 1983) is an American chess player and won U.S. Women's Chess Championship in 1998 and 2007. "Krush Wins Her Second Championship" Born in Odessa, USSR (now Ukraine), she is widely known for her series of chess training videos, the "Krushing Attacks" series. Krush learned to play chess at age five, emigrating with her parents to Brooklyn that same year (1989). At age 14 Krush won the 1998 US Women's Chess Championship to become the youngest U.S. Women's Champion ever. She holds the title of International Master (IM), a Woman Grandmaster (WGM), and has one of three tournament results (norms) necessary to qualify for the International Grandmaster (GM) title. On the October 2008 FIDE rating list for women, Krush has a FIDE rating of 2452, 34th best among active female players FIDE: Top 100 Women . Krush gained a measure of fame both inside and outside chess circles during the well-publicized "Kasparov versus the World" chess competition in 1999. Garry Kasparov played the white pieces and the Internet public, via a Microsoft host website, voted on moves for the black pieces, guided by the recommendations of Krush and three of her contemporaries, Etienne Bacrot, Elisabeth Pähtz and Florin Felecan. On the tenth move, Krush suggested a novelty, for which the World Team voted. Kasparov said later that he lost control of the game at that point, and wasn't sure whether he was winning or losing. Krush currently plays for the New York Knights in the U.S. Chess League, and both she and her husband Canadian Grandmaster Pascal Charbonneau have played in the United Kingdom league for Guildford-ADC. In 2006 they were students in Paris. She played on the U.S. team in the 38th Chess Olympiad. References External links Profile from uschessleague.com Statistics at ChessWorld.net Interview With Irina Krush Interview at 2009 US Championship

Irina_Krush |@lemmatized irina:2 krush:10 born:2 december:1 american:1 chess:9 player:2 win:4 u:6 woman:6 championship:4 second:1 odessa:1 ussr:1 ukraine:1 widely:1 know:1 series:2 training:1 video:1 krushing:1 attack:1 learn:1 play:5 age:2 five:1 emigrate:1 parent:1 brooklyn:1 year:1 become:1 young:1 champion:1 ever:1 hold:1 title:2 international:2 master:1 im:1 grandmaster:3 wgm:1 one:1 three:2 tournament:1 result:1 norm:1 necessary:1 qualify:1 gm:1 october:1 fide:3 rating:2 list:1 best:1 among:1 active:1 female:1 top:1 gain:1 measure:1 fame:1 inside:1 outside:1 circle:1 well:1 publicize:1 kasparov:3 versus:1 world:2 competition:1 garry:1 white:1 piece:2 internet:1 public:1 via:1 microsoft:1 host:1 website:1 vote:2 move:2 black:1 guide:1 recommendation:1 contemporary:1 etienne:1 bacrot:1 elisabeth:1 pähtz:1 florin:1 felecan:1 tenth:1 suggest:1 novelty:1 team:2 say:1 later:1 lose:2 control:1 game:1 point:1 sure:1 whether:1 currently:1 new:1 york:1 knight:1 league:2 husband:1 canadian:1 pascal:1 charbonneau:1 united:1 kingdom:1 guildford:1 adc:1 student:1 paris:1 olympiad:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 uschessleague:1 com:1 statistic:1 chessworld:1 net:1 interview:2 |@bigram fide_rating:2 garry_kasparov:1 chess_olympiad:1 external_link:1

Detroit_River

Landsat satellite photo, showing Lake Saint Clair (center), as well as St. Clair River connecting it to Lake Huron (to the north) and Detroit River connecting it to Lake Erie (to the south) The Detroit River is a river in the Great Lakes system, about 32 miles (51 km) long and 0.5 to 2.5 miles (1–4 km) wide. The name comes from French Rivière du Détroit, i.e. "River of the Strait". The name is a reference to the fact that the river connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie. However, it is not a strait by definition, since those lakes are at different elevations. The boundary between Canada and the United States of America passes through the river lengthwise, dividing the cities of Detroit, Michigan and Windsor, Ontario. This one of only a very few places in the lower 48 states where an area of Canada is south of an area in the United States. Another such place is Fort Erie, Ontario on the Niagara River south of Niagara Falls, New York. The Detroit river elevation is 579 feet (175 m) above sea level. Geography Tributaries Detroit River seen from Grosse Ile Township, MichiganWhile primarily a lake outlet, the Detroit River does have a few tributaries of its own which drain 2,000 square kilometers (772 sq mi). These include the Rouge River, Ecorse River, Conner Creek and Marsh Creek in the United States, and Turkey Creek, Little River and River Canard in Canada. Islands Islands in the Detroit River include Peche Island, Belle Isle, Zug Island, Fighting Island, Turkey Island, Grassy Island, Grosse Ile, and Bois Blanc (also known as Boblo) Island. The islands of the lower Detroit River are part of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge which is the only international wildlife preserve in North America. The Refuge includes islands, coastal wetlands, marshes, shoals, and waterfront lands along of the Detroit River and Western Lake Erie shoreline. Elevation The river drops three feet from 574 ft. at Lake St. Clair to 571 ft. at Lake Erie. History Detroit River during a winter day from Windsor, Ontario, looking at Detroit, Michigan. The recorded history of the Detroit River began with the arrival of the French voyageurs, the first non-natives to navigate the river and land on Detroit's shores. Canoes made of birch or elm bark were a common mode of travel across the river, although the pirogue and bateaux were also used. The War of 1812 was partially fought along the Detroit River front, and by 1850, the census showed 21,019 people populated Detroit. Ferries, schooners and steamboats were found traveling along the river. During the Civil War, the river was patrolled in case of a Confederate attack from the Canadian north. As commerce grew, Detroit was becoming the busiest port in the world, and was dubbed "the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth." 67,292,504 tonnage had passed through the Detroit River in 1907, compared with 18,727,230 through London, and 20,390,953 through New York City. From 1919 to 1933, when Prohibition outlawed the manufacture, distribution and purchase of alcoholic beverages in the United States, the Detroit River, Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River carried 75 percent of all liquor smuggled into the United States. It was known as "The Detroit-Windsor Funnel". Each winter during Prohibition, the local used car market (one of the only markets of its kind in the country at the time) would boom as would-be bootleggers purchased anything that would make it across the river. Parts and rusted bodies of Model T Fords and other Prohibition-era vehicles can still be found on the river bottom. These vehicles, often late at night, carried liquor across the frozen river. Sometimes, their heavy loads sent these cars and trucks crashing through the ice. Detroit Princess Riverboat. In March 2003, the Detroit Riverfront Conservancy was formed. The Conservancy is tasked with clean up and improvement of the Detroit riverfront from the Ambassador Bridge to the MacArthur Bridge. The central focus of the effort is the RiverWalk, which will be a riverfront pathway extending the entire between the two bridges. 75% of the east RiverWalk is expected to be completed by late 2007. Riverfront Conservancy FAQ page The Detroit River supplies the drinking water for over five million people. It was also designated an American Heritage River in 1998, and a Canadian Heritage River in 2003, the only river in North America to have dual designations. A shipping channel for the Great Lakes Waterway system is maintained in the river. The river flows past the American cities of Detroit, River Rouge, Ecorse, Wyandotte, Grosse Ile, Riverview, Trenton, and Gibraltar and the Canadian cities of Windsor, LaSalle, and Amherstburg. Vessels The Detroit River is a major transportation artery, as well as place of recreation for pleasure boaters. Bridges and crossings This is a list of bridges and other crossings of the Detroit River from Lake Erie upstream to Lake St. Clair. Crossing Carries Location CoordinatesWayne County BridgeTrenton, Michigan and Grosse Ile Township, MichiganGrosse Ile Toll BridgeRiverview, Michigan and Grosse Ile Township, MichiganDetroit-Windsor Truck FerryDetroit, Michigan and Windsor, OntarioAmbassador Bridge I-96 Highway 3Michigan Central Railway TunnelCanadian Pacific RailwayDetroit-Windsor Tunnel I-375 M-10Highway 3BMacArthur BridgeDetroit, Michigan and Belle Isle, Michigan See also Belle Isle Park Great Lakes Hart Plaza Lake Saint Clair (North America) List of Michigan rivers List of Ontario rivers Renaissance Center Detroit-Windsor Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival References External links Detroit Riverfront Conservancy Detroit River, Canadian Heritage River site Greater Detroit American Heritage River Initiative US EPA page on Detroit River Sea Grant Michigan

Detroit_River |@lemmatized landsat:1 satellite:1 photo:1 show:2 lake:16 saint:2 clair:8 center:2 well:2 st:6 river:48 connect:2 huron:1 north:5 detroit:33 erie:6 south:3 great:5 lakes:1 system:2 mile:2 km:2 long:1 wide:1 name:2 come:1 french:2 rivière:1 du:1 détroit:1 e:1 strait:2 reference:2 fact:1 connects:1 however:1 definition:1 since:1 different:1 elevation:3 boundary:1 canada:3 united:5 state:6 america:4 pass:2 lengthwise:1 divide:1 city:4 michigan:9 windsor:9 ontario:4 one:2 place:3 low:2 area:2 another:1 fort:1 niagara:2 fall:1 new:2 york:2 foot:2 sea:2 level:1 geography:1 tributary:2 see:2 grosse:5 ile:6 township:3 michiganwhile:1 primarily:1 outlet:1 drain:1 square:1 kilometer:1 sq:1 mi:1 include:3 rouge:2 ecorse:2 conner:1 creek:3 marsh:2 turkey:2 little:1 canard:1 island:9 islands:1 peche:1 belle:3 isle:3 zug:1 fight:2 grassy:1 bois:1 blanc:1 also:4 know:2 boblo:1 part:2 international:3 wildlife:2 refuge:2 preserve:1 coastal:1 wetland:1 shoal:1 waterfront:1 land:2 along:3 western:1 shoreline:1 drop:1 three:1 ft:2 history:2 winter:2 day:1 look:1 recorded:1 begin:1 arrival:1 voyageurs:1 first:1 non:1 native:1 navigate:1 shore:1 canoe:1 make:2 birch:1 elm:1 bark:1 common:1 mode:1 travel:2 across:3 although:1 pirogue:1 bateaux:1 use:1 war:2 partially:1 front:1 census:1 people:2 populated:1 ferry:1 schooner:1 steamboat:1 find:2 civil:1 patrol:1 case:1 confederate:1 attack:1 canadian:4 commerce:1 grow:1 become:1 busy:1 port:1 world:1 dub:1 commercial:1 artery:2 earth:1 tonnage:1 compare:1 london:1 prohibition:3 outlaw:1 manufacture:1 distribution:1 purchase:2 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 carry:3 percent:1 liquor:2 smuggle:1 funnel:1 local:1 used:1 car:2 market:2 kind:1 country:1 time:1 would:3 boom:1 bootlegger:1 anything:1 rusted:1 body:1 model:1 ford:1 era:1 vehicle:2 still:1 bottom:1 often:1 late:2 night:1 frozen:1 sometimes:1 heavy:1 load:1 send:1 truck:2 crash:1 ice:1 princess:1 riverboat:1 march:1 riverfront:5 conservancy:4 form:1 task:1 clean:1 improvement:1 ambassador:1 bridge:6 macarthur:1 central:2 focus:1 effort:1 riverwalk:2 pathway:1 extend:1 entire:1 two:1 east:1 expect:1 complete:1 faq:1 page:2 supply:1 drinking:1 water:1 five:1 million:1 designate:1 american:3 heritage:4 dual:1 designation:1 shipping:1 channel:1 waterway:1 maintain:1 flow:1 past:1 wyandotte:1 riverview:1 trenton:1 gibraltar:1 lasalle:1 amherstburg:1 vessel:1 major:1 transportation:1 recreation:1 pleasure:1 boater:1 crossing:2 list:3 upstream:1 cross:1 location:1 coordinateswayne:1 county:1 bridgetrenton:1 michigangrosse:1 toll:1 bridgeriverview:1 michigandetroit:1 ferrydetroit:1 ontarioambassador:1 highway:1 railway:1 tunnelcanadian:1 pacific:1 railwaydetroit:1 tunnel:1 bridgedetroit:1 park:1 hart:1 plaza:1 renaissance:1 freedom:1 festival:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 initiative:1 u:1 epa:1 grant:1 |@bigram st_clair:6 lake_huron:1 lake_erie:5 mile_km:2 windsor_ontario:2 niagara_fall:1 grosse_ile:5 square_kilometer:1 kilometer_sq:1 sq_mi:1 belle_isle:3 wildlife_refuge:1 erie_shoreline:1 alcoholic_beverage:1 detroit_windsor:2 detroit_riverfront:3 hart_plaza:1 external_link:1

List_of_Latin_words_with_English_derivatives

This is a list of Latin words with derivatives in English (and other modern languages). Note that ancient orthography did not distinguish between i and j or between u and v. Many modern works distinguish u from v but not i from j. In this article both distinctions are shown as they are helpful when tracing the origin of English words. See also Latin spelling and pronunciation. Nouns and adjectives The citation form for nouns (the one normally shown in Latin dictionaries) is the Latin nominative singular, but this typically does not exhibit the root form from which English nouns are generally derived. Latin Nouns and AdjectivesCitation formDeclining stemMeaningEnglish derivative acerbus acerb- bitter acerbic acetum acet- vinegar acetic aedificium aedifici-buildingedifice alacer alacr-quickalacrity albumalb-whitealbumaliusali- otheralienanimaanim-soul, lifeanimateannusann-yearannualaquaaqu-wateraquamarineaquaticaudaxaudac-brave, boldaudaciousaurisaur-earauralavisavi-birdavianaviarybellumbell-warbellicosebelligerencebonus– melior– optimusbon-– melior-– optim-good– better– bestbonusameliorateoptimumbōsbov-cowbovinecaniscan-dogcaninecervīxcervic-neckcervixcīviscivit-citizencivilcivilianclāviculaclavicul-little keyclavicleconiunxconiug-spouseconjugalcornucorn-hornunicorndeusde-goddeitydiēsdiē-daydietdiarydiscipulusdiscipul-studentdiscipledominusdomin-lorddominiondominatedomusdom-housedomaindomesticdomicile equus equ- horse equestrian falx falc- sickle falcate felinae felin- cat-like felinefēminafēmin-womanfemininefiliusfili-sonfilial finis fini- limit infinitefinal flos flor- flower floral folium foli- leaf foliofoliage forma form-form, shape, beautyform fors fort-luckfortuitous fortis fort-strengthfortitudefortifyfraterfratr-brotherfraternity frons front- forehead front frux frug- fruit frugal fumus fum- smoke fumegenusgen-birth, offspring, creationgenerationgenuinehomōhomin-man (human being)hominidignis-fireigniteinsulainsul-islandinsulatepeninsulainsulariūdexiūdic-judgejudgejudicialadjudicateiūsiūr-rightlawjusticejurisdictionlachrymalachrym-tearlachrymoselexlēg-lawlegallūnalūn-moonlunarlupuslup-wolflupinemagistermagistr-teachermagistratemagnus– mājor– maximusmagn-– mājor-– maxim-big– bigger – biggestmagnitudemajormaximum malus mal- badmalevolencemalicemanusmanu-handband of menmanualmaremar-seamarinemaritimemātermātr-mothermatronmaternalmoramor-delaymoratoriumnarratnarrat-tells, relatesnarratornarratenihilnihil-nothingnilnihilismannihilatenoxnoct-nightnocturnaloculusocul-eyeinoculateocularonusoner-loadexonerateonuspaterpatr-fatherpatronpaternalpatriarchpavimentumpaviment-groundpavementpenispen-tail, penis (slang)penispesped-footpedestrianpulcherpulchr-beautifulpulchrituderexrēg-kingregalrūsrūr-farmruralrusticsinistersinistr-leftsinisterterraterr-landterrainterrestrialundaund-waveundulateurbsurb-cityurbanUrsidaeurs-bearursinevehiculumvehicul-wagonvehicleveritasver-truthveracityverifyvillavill-country housevillagevillavirvir-man (male person)virilevulpinaevulp-foxvulpine Verbs In some Latin verbs, a preposition caused a vowel change in the root of the verb. For example, "capiō" becomes "incipio". Latin VerbsCitation formPresent stemPerfect stemParticipial stemMeaningTypical derivativeagōag-eg-āct-doagent, actionamōam-amav-amat-likeloveenamoraudiōaud-audiv-audit-hearaudiblecapiō-cipiōcap-cep--cip-capt--cept-takecapable, captiverecipient, receptioncēdōcēd- cess- yield, departrecede, recessioncogitōcogit-cogitav-cogitat-thinkpondercogitatecolligocolligerecollegicollectuscollectcollectclaudō-clūdōclaud--clūd- claus--clūs-closeconclude, conclusive clinō clin- clinat- lean recline cubō cub- cubat- lie incubator currō curr- cucurr- curs- run currentrecursion dō d- dat--dit- give adddativedoleō dol-doluidolit- grieve dolorcondolencedubitōdubit-dubitav-dubitat-doubtindubitableexcipioexcipereexcepiexceptusreceiveexceptfaciō-ficiōfac-fec--fic-fact--fect-makeeffective, factoryferōfer-tul-lāt-bringfertile, refer, relatefīgōfīg-fīx-fixcrucifixion fingōfing-fictfashion, inventfictiongradior-grediorgradi--gredi-gress--gress-nonestepingredient, progressivegustōgust-gustav-gustat-tastegustationiaciō-iciōiac-iec-(j)ic-jact--ject-throwprojectileinjectlaudōlaud-laudav-laudat-praiselaudlaudablelocōloc-locav-locat-placeputlocationlūdōlūd-lūs-playcollude, collusionmergōmerg-mers-dipemerge, immersemittōmitt-mīs-miss-sendcommit, missivemoveōmov-mov-mot-movemovemotormotivemotionnascornascinatusnoneto be bornnatalprenatalnecōnec-necav-necat-deadnecrophilia, necrophilianōscō-gnōscōnōsc--gnōsc-nosc-nōt--gnōt-, -gnit-knownotablecognitivenuntiōnunt-nuntiav-nuntiat-bring news of, announceannouncepetōpet-petiv-petit-seekattackpetulantpōnōpōn-posu-posit-putcomponent, position portō portat- carry deportpremō-primōprem-press-press-pushpressure, oppresspugnōpugn-pugnav-pugnat-fightpugnaciousputōput-putav-putat-thinkcomputeputativerelinquōrelinqu-reliqu-relict-abandonrelinquishrideō ris-laugh, smilederideridiculousrumpōrump-rup-rupt-breakrupture, interruptsciōsc-sciv-scit-knowsciencescrībōscrīb-scrips-scrīpt-writescripturesedeōsed-sed-sess-sitsedentarysedimentsequorseq-secut- sumfollowsequencesumes-fu-futur-beessence, future veniō ven- vent- come convene, preventionvertōvert-vers-vers-turnreverse, revert, versionvideōvidē-vid-vīs-seevisionvivōviv-vix-vict-livevivacityvolōvell-volu- wishvolitionbenevolentmalevolentvolvōvolv- volūt-rollrevolve, revolution voveō vov- vot- vow votive Prepositions used to form compound words <tr> Latin Preposition<tr> Latin wordMeaningPrefix<tr> <td>ad<td>to, toward<td>ad-<tr> <td>a<td>to, toward<td>a-<tr> <td>cum<td>with, together<td>con-, com-, col-<tr> <td>dē<td>down from, about<td>de-<tr> <td>ē, ex<td>out of<td>ex, e-, ec-<tr> <td>in<td>in, into<td>in-, im-, il-<tr> <td>inter<td>between<td>inter-, intel-<tr> <td>juxtā<td>near, close to<td>juxtā<tr> <td>ob<td>in front of, on account of<td>ob-, oc-<tr> <td>prae<td>before<td>prae-(pre-)<tr> <td>re<td>again, back<td>re-, red-<tr> <td>sē<td>away from<td>se-<tr> <td>per<td>through<td>per-<tr> <td>prō<td>for, in front of, on behalf of<td>pro-<tr> <td>post<td>after, behind<td>post-<tr> <td>sub<td>under<td>sub-, sus-, suc-<tr> <td>super<td>above, on top of<td>super-<tr> <td>trāns<td>across<td>trans- <td>ultra<td>beyond<td>ultra- Other parts of speech Latin word meaning Example derivativespaenealmostpenultimate, peninsulaprimofirstprime, primatesatisenough (of)satisfy See also Hybrid word Classical compound Dog Latin Greek and Latin roots in English Latin Latinism Latin influence in English List of Greek words with English derivatives List of Latin phrases List of French phrases List of Greek phrases List of German expressions in English Wiktionary:Transwiki:List of German words and phrases French phrases used by English speakers Wiktionary:Transwiki:List of Spanish expressions in common English Living Latin New Latin Interlingua External links Latin terms used by the Legion of Mary The New Perseus Search Engine/Word Study Tool The Old Persus Latin Morphology Tool Online Etymology Dictionary (English) The Latin Lexicon - Word Study Tool

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dogcaninecervīxcervic:1 neckcervixcīviscivit:1 citizencivilcivilianclāviculaclavicul:1 little:1 keyclavicleconiunxconiug:1 spouseconjugalcornucorn:1 hornunicorndeusde:1 goddeitydiēsdiē:1 daydietdiarydiscipulusdiscipul:1 studentdiscipledominusdomin:1 lorddominiondominatedomusdom:1 housedomaindomesticdomicile:1 equus:1 equ:1 horse:1 equestrian:1 falx:1 falc:1 sickle:1 falcate:1 felinae:1 felin:1 cat:1 like:1 felinefēminafēmin:1 womanfemininefiliusfili:1 sonfilial:1 finis:1 fini:1 limit:1 infinitefinal:1 flos:1 flor:1 flower:1 floral:1 folium:1 foli:1 leaf:1 foliofoliage:1 forma:1 shape:1 beautyform:1 fors:1 fort:2 luckfortuitous:1 fortis:1 strengthfortitudefortifyfraterfratr:1 brotherfraternity:1 frons:1 front:4 forehead:1 frux:1 frug:1 fruit:1 frugal:1 fumus:1 fum:1 smoke:1 fumegenusgen:1 birth:1 offspring:1 creationgenerationgenuinehomōhomin:1 man:2 human:1 hominidignis:1 fireigniteinsulainsul:1 islandinsulatepeninsulainsulariūdexiūdic:1 judgejudgejudicialadjudicateiūsiūr:1 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Atlanta_Braves

The Atlanta Braves are a professional baseball team based in Atlanta, Georgia. The Braves are a member of the Eastern Division of Major League Baseball's National League. From to the present, the Braves have played in Turner Field. The "Braves" name, which was first used in 1912, originates from a term for a Native American warrior. They are nicknamed "the Bravos", and often self-styled as "America's Team" in reference to the team's games being broadcast on the nationally available TBS until the 2008 season, gaining a wide fanbase. From 1991–2005 the Braves were one of the most successful franchises in baseball, winning division titles an unprecedented 14 consecutive times in that period "Braves have set lofty benchmark", MLB.com, September 13, 2006 (omitting the strike-shortened 1994 season in which there were no official division champions). The Braves won the NL West 1991-1993 and the NL East 1995-2005. The Braves advanced to the World Series five times in the 1990s, winning the title in 1995. Since their debut in the National League in 1876, the franchise has won 16 divisional titles, 17 National League pennants, as well as three World Series championships—in 1914 as the Boston Braves, in 1957 as the Milwaukee Braves, and in 1995 in Atlanta. The Braves are the only MLB franchise to have won the Series in three different home cities. One of the National League's two remaining charter franchises (the other being the Chicago Cubs), the club was founded in Boston, Massachusetts in as the Boston Red Stockings (not to be confused with the American League's Boston Red Sox or the NL Central's Cincinnati Reds). The team moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin in and became the Milwaukee Braves. In , the team moved to Atlanta. The team's tenure in Atlanta is famous for Hank Aaron's breaking Babe Ruth's career home run record in 1974. His record stood until . History Boston 1870–1913 1873 Boston Red Stockings team picture: finished first with a record of 43-16 The Cincinnati Red Stockings, established in 1869 as the first professional baseball team, voted to dissolve after the 1870 season. Player-manager Harry Wright then went to Boston, Massachusetts at the invitation of Boston Red Stockings founder Ivers Whitney Adams, with brother George and two other Cincinnati players, to form the nucleus of the Boston Red Stockings, a charter member of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players. The original Boston Red Stockings team and its successors can lay claim to being the oldest continuously playing team in American professional sports. Atlantabraves.com History (The only other team that has been organized as long, the Chicago Cubs, did not play for the two years following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.) Two young players hired away from the Forest City club of Rockford, Illinois, turned out to be the biggest stars during the NAPBBP years: pitcher Al Spalding (founder of Spalding sporting goods) and second baseman Ross Barnes. Led by the Wright brothers, Barnes, and Spalding, the Red Stockings dominated the National Association, winning four of that league's five championships. The team became one of the National League's charter franchises in 1876, sometimes called the "Red Caps" (as a new Cincinnati Red Stockings club was another charter member). Boston came to be called the Beaneaters in 1883, while retaining red as the team color. Although somewhat stripped of talent in the National League's inaugural year, Boston bounced back to win the 1877 and 1878 pennants. The Red Caps/Beaneaters were one of the league's dominant teams during the 19th century, winning a total of eight pennants. For most of that time, their manager was Frank Selee, the first manager not to double as a player as well. The 1898 team finished 102-47, a club record for wins that would stand for almost a century. Stars of those 1890s Beaneater teams included the "Heavenly Twins", Hugh Duffy and Tommy McCarthy, as well as "Slidin'" Billy Hamilton. The team was decimated when the American League's new Boston entry set up shop in 1901. Many of the Beaneaters' stars jumped to the new team, which offered contracts that the Beaneaters' owners didn't even bother to match. They only managed one winning season from 1900 to 1913, and lost 100 games five times. In 1907, the Beaneaters (temporarily) eliminated the last bit of red from their stockings because their manager thought the red dye could cause wounds to become infected (as noted in The Sporting News Baseball Guide during the 1940s when each team's entry had a history of its nickname(s). See details in History of baseball team nicknames). The American League club's owner, Charles Taylor, wasted little time in adopting Red Sox as his team's first official nickname (up to that point they had been called by the generic "Americans"). Media-driven nickname changes to the Doves in 1907 and the Rustlers in 1911 did nothing to change the National League club's luck. The team became the Braves for the first time in 1912. Their owner, James Gaffney, was a member of New York City's political machine, Tammany Hall, which used an Indian chief as their symbol. 1914: Miracle Two years later, the Braves put together one of the most memorable seasons in baseball history. After a dismal 4-18 start, the Braves seemed to be on pace for a last place finish. On July 4, 1914, the Braves lost both games of a doubleheader to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The consecutive losses put their record at 26-40 and the Braves were in last place, 15 games behind the league-leading New York Giants, who had won the previous three league pennants. After a day off, the Braves started to put together a hot streak, and from July 6 through September 5, the Braves went 41-12. 1914 Boston Braves Schedule by Baseball Almanac On September 7th and 8th, the Braves took 2 of 3 from the New York Giants and moved into first place. The Braves tore through September and early October, closing with 25 wins against 6 losses, while the Giants went 16-16. 1914 New York Giants Schedule by Baseball Almanac They are the only team to win a pennant after being in last place on the Fourth of July. They were in last place as late as July 18, but were close to the pack, moving into fourth on July 21 and second place on August 12. Cohen, Neft, Johnson and Deutsch, The World Series, The Dial Press, 1976. Despite their amazing comeback, the Braves entered the World Series as a heavy underdog to Connie Mack's Philadelphia A's. Nevertheless, the Braves swept the Athletics--the first unqualified sweep in the young history of the modern World Series (the 1907 Series had had one tied game)--to win the world championship. Meanwhile, Johnny Evers won the Chalmers Award. The Braves played the World Series (as well as the last few games of the 1914 season) at Fenway Park, since their normal home, the South End Grounds, was too small. However, the Braves' success inspired owner Gaffney to build a modern park, Braves Field, which opened in August 1915. It was the largest park in the majors at the time, with 40,000 seats and also a very spacious outfield. The park was novel for its time; public transportation brought fans right into the park. 1915–1953 After contending for most of 1915 and 1916, the Braves only twice posted winning records from 1917 to 1932. The lone highlight of those years came when Judge Emil Fuchs bought the team in 1923 to bring his longtime friend, pitching great Christy Mathewson, back into the game. However, Mathewson died in 1925, leaving Fuchs in control of the team. Fuchs was committed to building a winner, but the damage from the years prior to his arrival took some time to overcome. The Braves finally managed to compete in 1933 and 1934 under manager Bill McKechnie, but Fuchs' revenue was severely depleted due to the Great Depression. Looking for a way to get more fans and more money, Fuchs worked out a deal with the New York Yankees to acquire Babe Ruth, who had, ironically, started his career with the Red Sox. Fuchs made Ruth team vice president, and promised him a share of the profits. He was also granted the title of assistant manager, and was to be consulted on all of the Braves' deals. Fuchs even suggested that Ruth, who had long had his heart set on managing, could take over as manager once McKechnie stepped down--perhaps as early as 1936. At first, it looked like Ruth was the final piece team needed in 1935. On opening day, he had a hand in all of the Braves' runs in a 4-2 win over the Giants. However, that proved to be the only time the Braves were over .500 all year. Events went downhill quickly. While Ruth could still hit, he could do little else. He couldn't run, and his fielding was so terrible that three of the Braves' pitchers threatened to go on strike if Ruth were in the lineup. It soon became obvious that he was vice president and assistant manager in name only and Fuchs' promise of a share of team profits was hot air. In fact, Ruth discovered that Fuchs expected him to invest some of his money in the team. Seeing a franchise in complete disarray, Ruth retired on June 1--only six days after he clouted, in what remains one of the most memorable afternoons in baseball history, what turned out to be the last three home runs of his career. He'd wanted to quit as early as May 12, but Fuchs wanted him to hang on so he could play in every National League park. The Braves finished 38-115, the worst season in franchise history. Their .248 winning percentage is the third-worst in baseball history, and the second-worst in National League history (behind only the 1899 Cleveland Spiders). Fuchs lost control of the team in August 1935, and the new owners tried to change the team's image by renaming it the Boston Bees. This did little to change the team's fortunes. After five uneven years, a new owner, construction magnate Lou Perini, changed the nickname back to the Braves. He immediately set about rebuilding the team. World War II slowed things down a little, but the team rode the pitching of Warren Spahn to impressive seasons in 1946 and 1947. In 1948 the team won the pennant, behind the pitching of Spahn and Johnny Sain, who won 39 games between them. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September, Boston Post writer Gerald Hern wrote this poem about the pair: First we'll use Spahn then we'll use Sain Then an off day followed by rain Back will come Spahn followed by Sain And followed we hope by two days of rain. The poem received such a wide audience that the sentiment, usually now paraphrased as "Spahn and Sain and pray for rain", entered the baseball vocabulary. Ironically, in the 1948 season, the Braves actually had a better record in games that Spahn and Sain did not start than in games they did. (Other sources include pitcher Vern Bickford in the verse. It would be parodied over half a century later, as Boston Globe columnist Dan Shaughnessy would describe the Red Sox rotation, featuring Pedro Martinez and Derek Lowe, as "Martinez and Lowe and three days of snow.") The 1948 World Series, which the Braves lost in 6 games to the Indians, turned out to be the Braves' last hurrah in Boston. Amid four mediocre seasons, attendance steadily dwindled until, on March 13, 1953, Perini, who had recently bought out his original partners, announced he was moving the team to Milwaukee, where the Braves had their top farm club, the Brewers. Milwaukee had long been a possible target for relocation. Bill Veeck had tried to move his St. Louis Browns there earlier the same year (ironically, Milwaukee was the original home of that franchise), but his proposal had been voted down by the other American League owners. Milwaukee 1953–1965 Milwaukee Braves cap logo Milwaukee went wild over the Braves, who were welcomed as genuine heroes. The Braves finished 92-62 in their first season in Milwaukee, and drew a then-NL record 1.8 million fans. The success of the team was noted by many owners. Not coincidentally, the Philadelphia Athletics, St. Louis Browns, Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants would leave their original hometowns in the next five years. As the 1950s progressed, the reinvigorated Braves became increasingly competitive. Sluggers Eddie Mathews and Hank Aaron drove the offense (they would hit a combined 1,226 home runs as Braves, with 850 of those coming while the franchise was in Milwaukee), whilst Spahn, Lew Burdette and Bob Buhl anchored the rotation. In 1957, the Braves celebrated their first pennant in nine years spearheaded by Aaron's MVP season, as he led the National League in home runs and RBI. Perhaps the most memorable of his 44 round-trippers that season came on September 23, a two-run walk-off home run that gave the Braves a 4-2 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals and clinched the League championship. The team then went on to its first World Series win in over 40 years, defeating the New York Yankees of Berra, Mantle, and Ford in seven games. Burdette, the Series MVP, threw three complete game victories, giving up only two earned runs. In 1958, the Braves again won the National League pennant and jumped out to a three games to one lead in the World Series against New York once more, thanks in part to the strength of Spahn's and Burdette's pitching. But the Yankees stormed back to take the last three games, in large part to World Series MVP Bob Turley's pitching. The 1959 season saw the Braves finish the season in a tie with the Los Angeles Dodgers. Many residents of Chicago and Milwaukee were hoping for a Sox-Braves Series, as the cities are only about apart, but it was not to be because Milwaukee fell in a best-of-3 playoff with two straight losses to the Dodgers. The Dodgers would go on to defeat the Chicago White Sox in the World Series. Milwaukee Braves logo (1953-1956) The next six years were up-and-down for the Braves. The 1960 season featured two no-hitters by Burdette and Spahn, and Milwaukee finished seven games behind the Pittsburgh Pirates, who ultimately were to win the World Series that year, in second place. The 1961 season saw a drop in the standings for the Braves down to fourth, despite Spahn recording his 300th victory and pitching another no-hitter that year. Aaron hit 45 home runs in 1962, a Milwaukee career high for him, but this did not translate into wins for the Braves, as they finished fifth. The next season, Aaron again hit 44 home runs and notched 130 RBI, and Spahn was once again the ace of the staff, going 23-7. However, none of the other Braves produced at that level, and the team finished in the lower half of the league, or "second division", for the first time in its short history in Milwaukee. The Braves were somewhat mediocre as the 1960s began, but fattened up on the expansion New York Mets and Houston Colt .45s. To this day, the Milwaukee Braves are the only major league team who played more than one season and never had a losing record. Perini sold the Braves to a Chicago-based group led by William Bartholomay in 1962. The ink was barely dry on the deal when Bartholomay started shopping the Braves to a larger television market. Keen to attract them, the fast-growing city of Atlanta, led by Mayor Ivan Allen, constructed a new $18 million, 52,000-seat ballpark in less than one year, Atlanta Stadium, which was officially opened in 1965 in hopes of luring an existing major league baseball and/or NFL/AFL team. After the city failed to lure the Kansas City A's to Atlanta (the A's would move to Oakland in 1968), the Braves announced their intention to move to Atlanta for the 1965 season. However, an injunction filed in Wisconsin kept the Braves in Milwaukee for one final year. In 1966, the Braves completed the move to Atlanta. Eddie Mathews is the only Braves player to have played for the organization in all three cities that they have been based in. Mathews played with the Braves for their last season in Boston, the team's entire tenure in Milwaukee, and the Braves' first season in Atlanta. Atlanta 1966–1974 The Braves were a .500 team in their first few years in Atlanta; 85-77 in 1966, 77-85 in 1967, and 81-81 in 1968. The 1967 season was the Braves' first losing season since 1952, their last year in Boston. In 1969, with the onset of divisional play, the Braves won the first-ever National League West Division title, before being swept by the "Miracle Mets" in the National League Championship Series. They would not be a factor during the next decade, posting only two winning seasons between 1970 and 1981 - in some cases, fielding teams as bad as the worst Boston teams. In the meantime, fans had to be satisfied with the achievements of Hank Aaron. In the relatively hitter-friendly confines and higher-than-average altitude of Atlanta Stadium ("The Launching Pad"), he actually increased his offensive production. Atlanta also produced batting champions in Rico Carty (in 1970) and Ralph Garr (in 1974). In the shadow of Aaron's historical home run pursuit, was the fact that three Atlanta sluggers hit 40 or more home runs in 1973 -- Darrell Evans, Davey Johnson and, of course, Aaron. By the end of the 1973 season Aaron had hit 713 home runs, one short of Ruth's record. Throughout the winter he received racially motivated death threats, but stood up well under the pressure. The next season, it was only a matter of time before he set a new record. On April 4, opening day, he hit #714 in Cincinnati, and on April 8, in front of his home fans and a national television audience he finally beat Ruth's mark with a home run to left-center field off left-hander Al Downing of the Los Angeles Dodgers. In fact, until Barry Bonds eclipsed the 714 home runs hit by Babe Ruth, the top two home run hitters in Major League history had at one time been Braves. Henry Aaron spent most of his career as a Milwaukee and Atlanta Brave before asking to be traded to the Milwaukee Brewers, while Ruth finished his career as a Boston Brave. 1976–1977: Ted Turner buys the team In 1976 the team was purchased by media magnate Ted Turner, owner of superstation WTBS, as a means to keep the team (and one of his main programming staples) in Atlanta. The financially-strapped Turner used money already paid to the team for their broadcast rights as a down-payment. It was then that Atlanta Stadium was re-named Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium. Turner quickly gained a reputation as a quirky, hands-on baseball owner. On May 11, 1977, Turner appointed himself manager, but because MLB passed a rule in the 1950s barring managers from holding a financial stake in their teams, Turner was ordered to relinquish that position after one game (the Braves lost 2-1 to the Pittsburgh Pirates to bring their losing streak to 17 games). Turner used the Braves as a major programming draw for his fledgling cable network, making the Braves the first franchise to have a nationwide audience and fanbase. WTBS marketed the team as "The Atlanta Braves: America's Team", a nickname that still sticks in some areas of the country, especially the South. Among other things, in 1976 Turner suggested the nickname "Channel" for pitcher Andy Messersmith and jersey number 17, in order to promote the television station that aired Braves games. Major League Baseball quickly nixed the idea. 1978–1990 After three straight losing seasons, Bobby Cox was hired for his first stint as manager for the 1978 season. He promoted 22-year-old slugger Dale Murphy into the starting lineup. Murphy hit 77 home runs over the next three seasons but he struggled on defense, unable to adeptly play either catcher or first base. In 1980 Murphy was moved to center field and demonstrated excellent range and throwing ability, while the Braves earned their first winning season since 1974. Cox was fired after the 1981 season and replaced with Joe Torre, under whose leadership the Braves attained their first divisional title since 1969. Strong performances from Bob Horner, Chris Chambliss, pitcher Phil Niekro, and short relief pitcher Gene Garber helped the Braves, but no Brave was more acclaimed than Murphy, who won both a Most Valuable Player and a Gold Glove award. Murphy also won a Most Valuable Player award the following season, but the Braves began a period of decline that defined the team throughout the 1980s. Murphy, excelling in defense, hitting, and running, was consistently recognized as one of the league's best players, but the Braves averaged only 65 wins per season between 1985 and 1990. Their lowest point came in 1988, when they lost 106 games. The 1986 season saw the return of Bobby Cox as general manager. Also in 1986, the team stopped using their Native American-themed mascot, Chief Noc-A-Homa. 1991–2004: Successes and Stars Cox returned to the dugout as manager in the middle of the 1990 season, replacing Russ Nixon. The Braves finished the year with the worst record in baseball, at 65-97. They traded Dale Murphy to the Philadelphia Phillies after it was clear he was becoming a less dominant player. Pitching coach Leo Mazzone began developing young pitchers Tom Glavine, Steve Avery, and John Smoltz into future stars. That same year, the Braves used the number one overall pick in the Major League Baseball Draft to select Chipper Jones, who has become one of the best hitters in team history. Perhaps the Braves' most important move was not on the field, but in the front office. Immediately after the season, John Schuerholz was hired away from the Kansas City Royals as general manager. The following season, Glavine, Avery, and Smoltz would be recognized as the best young pitchers in the league, winning 52 games among them. Meanwhile, behind position players Dave Justice, Ron Gant and unexpected league Most Valuable Player and batting champion Terry Pendleton, the Braves overcame a 39-40 start, winning 55 of their final 83 games over the last three months of the season and edging the Los Angeles Dodgers by one game in one of baseball's more memorable playoff races. The "Worst to First" Braves, who had not won a divisional title since 1982, captivated the city of Atlanta (and the entire southeast) during their improbable run to the flag. They defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates in a very tightly contested seven-game NLCS only to lose the World Series, also in seven games, to the Minnesota Twins. The series, considered by many to be one of the greatest ever, was the first time a team that had finished last in its division one year went to the World Series the next; both the Twins and Braves accomplished the feat. Fans do the "Tomahawk Chop" During the Braves' rise to prominence in the early 1990s, their long-standing ethnic nickname came under much closer scrutiny, even being protested in Minneapolis when the Braves visited the Twins for Game 1 of the 1991 World Series. The team was especially criticized for selling plastic and foam tomahawks, encouraging the so-called "tomahawk chop" and the accompanying war cry emitted by the fans. When the team logos were painted on the field at the Metrodome, the tomahawk was omitted from the script "Braves" logo. The war cry and tomahawk chop are similar to what Florida State University fans do at their games. Deion Sanders, a former Braves outfielder who played both football and baseball at Florida State, is credited with bringing the chant and chop to Atlanta. Despite the 1991 World Series loss, the Braves' success would continue. In 1992 the Braves returned to the NLCS and once again defeated the Pirates in seven games, culminating in a dramatic game seven win. Francisco Cabrera's two-out single that scored David Justice and Sid Bream capped a three-run rally in the bottom of the ninth inning that gave the Braves a 3-2 victory. It was the first time in post season history that the tying and winning run had scored on a single play in the ninth inning. The Braves however lost the World Series to the Toronto Blue Jays. In 1993, the Braves signed Cy Young Award winning pitcher Greg Maddux from the Chicago Cubs, leading many baseball insiders to declare the team's pitching staff the best at that time. The 1993 team posted a franchise-best 104 wins after a dramatic pennant race with the San Francisco Giants, who won 103 games. The Braves needed a stunning 55-19 finish to edge out the Giants, who led the Braves by nine games in the standings as late as August 11. However, the Braves fell in the NLCS to the Philadelphia Phillies in a six-game upset. In 1994, in a realignment of the National League's divisions following the 1993 expansion, the Braves moved to the Eastern Division. The player's strike cut short the 1994 season, prior to the division championships, with the Braves six games behind the Montreal Expos with 48 games left to play. The Braves returned strong the following strike-shortened (teams played 144 games instead of the customary 162) year and beat the Cleveland Indians in the 1995 World Series. This squelched claims by many Braves critics that they were the "Buffalo Bills of Baseball" (January 1996 issue of Beckett Baseball Card Monthly). With this World Series victory, the Braves became the first team in Major League Baseball to win world championships in three different cities. With their strong pitching being a constant, the Braves would also appear in the 1996 and 1999 World Series (they lost both series to the New York Yankees, however), and had a streak of division titles from 1991 to 2005 (three in the Western Division and eleven in the Eastern) interrupted only in 1994 when the strike ended the season early. Pitching is not the only constant in the Braves organization — Cox is still the Braves' manager, while Schuerholz remained the team's GM until after the 2007 season when he was promoted to team president. Pendleton did not finish his playing career in Atlanta, but returned to the Braves system as the hitting coach. A 95-67 record in 2000 produced a ninth consecutive division title. However, a sweep at the hands of the St. Louis Cardinals prevented the Braves from reaching the NLCS. In 2001, Atlanta won the National League East division yet again, swept the NLDS against the Houston Astros, then lost to the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Championship Series four games to one. In 2002, 2003 and 2004, the Braves won their division again, but lost in the NLDS in all three years in the same fashion: 3 games to 2 to the San Francisco Giants, Chicago Cubs, and Houston Astros. Cy Young dominance Six National League Cy Young Awards in the 1990s were awarded to three Braves pitchers: In 1991, left-handed pitcher Tom Glavine received his first award. Right-handed pitcher Greg Maddux won three in a row with the Braves, from 1993 through 1995. His first award came in 1992 with the Cubs. In 1996, right-handed pitcher John Smoltz received his only Cy Young award. In 1998, Glavine won his second. 2005: A New Generation In 2005, the Braves won the Division championship for the fourteenth consecutive time from 1991 to 2005. Fourteen consecutive division titles stands as the record for all major league baseball. The 2005 title marked the first time any MLB team made the postseason with more than 4 rookies who each had more than 100 ABs (Wilson Betemit, Brian McCann, Pete Orr, Ryan Langerhans, Jeff Francoeur). Catcher Brian McCann, right fielder Jeff Francoeur, and pitcher Kyle Davies all grew up in the suburbs of Atlanta. The large number of rookies to debut in 2005 were nicknamed the "Baby Braves" by fans and became an Atlanta-area sensation, helping to lead the club to a record of 90-72. However, the season would end on a sour note as the Braves lost the National League Division series to the Astros in four games. In Game 4, with the Braves leading by 5 in the eighth inning, the Astros battled back with a Lance Berkman grand slam and a two-out, ninth inning Brad Ausmus home run off of Braves closer Kyle Farnsworth. The game didn't end until the 18th inning, becoming the longest game in playoff history at 5 hours 50 minutes. Chris Burke ended the marathon with a home run off of Joey Devine. After the 2005 season, the Braves lost their long-time pitching coach Leo Mazzone, who left to go to the Baltimore Orioles. Roger McDowell took his place in the Atlanta dugout. Unable to re-sign shortstop Rafael Furcal, the Braves acquired shortstop Edgar Rentería from the Boston Red Sox. In December 2005, team owner Time Warner, who inherited the Braves after purchasing TBS in 1996, announced it was placing the team for sale. Liberty Media began negotiations to purchase the team. 2006: Struggles In 2006, the Braves did not perform at the level they had grown accustomed to. Due to an offensive slump, injuries to their starting rotation, and subpar bullpen performances, the Braves compiled a 6-21 record for the month of June, the worst month ever in the city of Atlanta, and just percentage points better than the Boston Braves of May 1935 (4-20). The Braves made their move in July, going 14-10. However, the team remained in the bottom half of the NL East and trailed the Mets by a double-digit deficit for much of the season (13 games at the All-Star Break). However, despite their struggles, the Braves entered the break down by only six and a half games to the Dodgers for the NL Wild Card slot after winning seven of their last ten games. After the break, the Braves came out with their bats swinging, setting many franchise records. They won five straight, sweeping the Padres and taking two from the Cardinals, tallying a total of 65 runs in that span. The 65 runs in five games is the best by the franchise since 1897, when the Boston Beaneaters totaled 78, including 25 in one game and 21 in another, from May 31-June 3; the 2006 Braves also became the first team since the 1930 New York Yankees to score ten runs or more in five straight games. The Braves had a total of 81 hits during their five-game run and 98 hits in their last six games, going back to an 8-3 victory over Cincinnati on July 9, the last game before the All-Star break. Additionally, Chipper Jones was able to maintain a 20 game hitting streak and tie Paul Waner's 69 year old Major League record with a 14 game extra-base hit streak. (The Sporting News Baseball Record Book, 2007, p.29) The Braves made their first trade of the season on July 20 to shore up the bullpen, sending Class A Rome catcher Max Ramirez to Cleveland for closer Bob Wickman. He served as the Braves' closer for the remainder of the season, taking over for an embattled Jorge Sosa, who was subsequently traded on the July 31 trade deadline for St. Louis minor league pitcher Rich Scalamandre. On July 29, the Braves traded reserve third baseman/shortstop Wilson Betemit to the Los Angeles Dodgers for reliever Danys Baez and infielder Willy Aybar. The move came on the night that starting third baseman Chipper Jones went on the 15-day disabled list with a strained oblique muscle. With Betemit gone, the Atlanta called up infielder Tony Pena Jr. from AAA Richmond to supplement Pete Orr. Before the expansion of rosters on September 1, the Braves acquired Daryle Ward from the Washington Nationals for Class A Myrtle Beach pitcher Luis Atilano, in hopes that he would be a valuable pinch-hitter in the postseason. However, on September 18, the New York Mets' win over the Florida Marlins mathematically eliminated the Braves from winning the NL East, ending the Atlanta Braves eleven year reign over the NL East. On September 24, the Braves' loss to the Colorado Rockies mathematically eliminated the Braves from winning the NL Wild Card, making 2006 the first year that the Braves would not compete in the postseason since 1990, not counting the strike-shortened 1994 season. Also, a loss to the Mets on September 28 guaranteed the Braves their first losing season since 1990. Although the Braves won two of their last three games against the Astros, including rookie Chuck James besting Roger Clemens, Atlanta finished the season in third place, one game ahead of the Marlins, at 79-83. After the season, the Atlanta coaching staff underwent a few changes. Brian Snitker became the third base coach after Fredi Gonzalez left to become the manager for the Florida Marlins. Chino Cadahia replaced Pat Corrales as bench coach and former catcher Eddie Perez became the new bullpen coach, replacing Bobby Dews. Sale to Liberty Media In February 2007, after more than a year of negotiations, Time Warner agreed to a deal that would sell the Braves to Liberty Media Group (a company which owned a large amount of stock in Time Warner, Inc.), pending approval by 75 percent of MLB owners and the Commissioner of Baseball, Bud Selig. The deal included the exchange of the Braves, valued in the deal at $450 million, a hobbyist magazine publishing company, and $980 million cash, for 68.5 million shares of Time Warner stock held by Liberty Media, then worth approximately $1.48 billion. Team President Terry McGuirk anticipated no change in the current front office structure, personnel, or day-to-day operations of the Braves. Liberty Media is not expected to take any type of "active" ownership in terms of day to day operations. Braves' New World - Forbes Magazine On May 16, 2007, Major League Baseball's owners approved the sale of the Braves from Time Warner to Liberty Media. The Official Site of The Atlanta Braves: News: Atlanta Braves News 2007: More struggles The Braves made their first moves by re-signing Bob Wickman to a one year deal and picking up John Smoltz's option in September 2006. They traded starting pitcher Horacio Ramírez to the Seattle Mariners for pitcher Rafael Soriano, an American League reliever with a 2.20 ERA in 2006. They also denied arbitration to pitcher Chris Reitsma and second baseman Marcus Giles. The Braves signed utility-man Chris Woodward to fill a spot on the bench. The biggest trade in the offseason involved first baseman Adam LaRoche and a minor league player for Pittsburgh Pirates closer Mike González and a minor league infielder, Brent Lillibridge. Gonzalez, who converted 24 of 24 save opportunities in 2006, joined Soriano as a set up man for Wickman in the bullpen. The team then signed first baseman Craig Wilson to a one year deal to platoon with Scott Thorman. The Braves also had solid relievers in Macay McBride, Blaine Boyer, and Tyler Yates. In addition, the majority of the Braves' offense, which was second in the NL in runs scored in 2006, returned in 2007. However, Mike Hampton was sidelined for the entire 2007 season with yet another surgery. Mike González was later sidelined for the season while recovering from Tommy John surgery. The Braves' bullpen and offense came through in the clutch early on, helping the Braves to a 7-1 start, their best start since winning the World Series in 1995. The team finished April with a 16-9 record, but struggled during May, finishing 14-14. The Braves also struggled during interleague play, finishing with an NL-worst 4-11 record. On June 24, the Braves fell to .500 for the first time in the 2007 season, but rebounded by winning the next 5 games. On July 5, Chipper Jones surpassed Dale Murphy for the Atlanta club record of 372 home runs by belting two against the Los Angeles Dodgers. On July 31, 2007, the Braves finalized the deal to acquire slugger first baseman Mark Teixeira and LHP Ron Mahay from the Texas Rangers for catcher Jarrod Saltalamacchia and four minor-leaguers. The Braves also acquired Octavio Dotel from the Kansas City Royals for Kyle Davies and also traded LHP Wilfredo Ledezma and RHP Will Startup to the San Diego Padres for Royce Ring. On August 19, 2007 John Smoltz passed Phil Niekro for 1st place on the Braves' all-time strikeout list. Braves manager Bobby Cox broke the all-time MLB record for most career ejections by a manager in August 2007. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070814&content_id=2148876&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb "Cox breaks all-time ejections record"]. MLB.com After struggling during the second half of the 2007 season, Atlanta finished over .500 and missed the post season again. On October 12, 2007, John Schuerholz stepped down as General Manager to take over as team president. GM Schuerholz was Braves' guiding force - USATODAY.com Assistant GM Frank Wren took over as General Manager. 2008 In December 2007, the team announced it would not re-sign center fielder Andruw Jones (who later would sign with the Dodgers). Another major move was acquiring CF Gorkys Hernandez and RHP Jair Jurrjens from the Detroit Tigers in exchange for SS Edgar Rentería and cash considerations. Next, LHP Tom Glavine was signed to a one-year contract. They also acquired LHP Will Ohman and INF Omar Infante from the Cubs in exchange for RHP Jose Ascanio. The team's first new move for 2008 was acquiring OF Mark Kotsay from the A's (to replace Jones) in exchange for RHP Joey Devine, RHP Jamie Richmond and cash considerations. Days later, Wren traded Willy Aybar, outfielder Tom Lindsey, and infielder Chase Fontaine to the Rays in exchange for left-hand reliever Jeff Ridgway. Before the trade deadline the Braves traded 1B Mark Teixeira to the Los Angeles Angels for first baseman Casey Kotchman and minor league RHP Stephen Marek. Stark, Jayson. "Braves deal Teixeira to Angels for Kotchman, minor leaguer". ESPN, July 30, 2008. The Braves failed to make the playoffs for the third straight season. 2009 On December 4, 2008, the Atlanta Braves received Javier Vázquez and Boone Logan, while the Chicago White Sox received prospects catcher Tyler Flowers, shortstop Brent Lillibridge, third baseman Jon Gilmore and pitcher Santos Rodriguez. Bowman. Mark."Atlanta adds Vazquez to new-look staff, Braves complete deal for durable veteran starter, reliever Logan". mlb.com, December 4, 2008. On January 13, 2009, the Braves signed Japanese pitcher Kenshin Kawakami to a three-year deal, and two days later signed free agent pitcher Derek Lowe to a four-year contract. During the course of the offseason, the Braves signed veteran pitcher and former Brave Tom Glavine, while losing long-time Brave John Smoltz to the Boston Red Sox. On February 25, 2009, just before the start of spring training, Atlanta agreed to terms on a one-year contract with free-agent outfielder Garret Anderson. The additional outfield depth allowed the Braves to trade Josh Anderson to the Detroit Tigers for minor league pitcher Rudy Darrow on March 30, 2009. "Tigers acquire Josh Anderson from Atlanta Braves" MLB.com, March 30, 2009. Season records This list only covers the franchise's season-by-season results while in Atlanta. For a full season-by-season list, see Atlanta Braves season records. |- |colspan="6"|Atlanta Braves |- |1966 || 85 || 77 || 5th in NL || |- |1967 || 77 || 85 || 7th in NL || |- |1968 || 81 || 81 || 5th in NL || |- |1969 || 93 || 69 || 1st in NL West || Lost NLCS to New York Mets, 0-3. |- |1970 || 76 || 86 || 5th in NL West || |- |1971 || 82 || 80 || 3rd in NL West || |- |1972 || 70 || 84 || 4th in NL West || |- |1973 || 76 || 85 || 5th in NL West || |- |1974 || 88 || 74 || 3rd in NL West || |- |1975 || 67 || 94 || 5th in NL West || |- |1976 || 70 || 92 || 6th in NL West || |- |1977 || 61 || 101 || 6th in NL West || |- |1978 || 69 || 93 || 6th in NL West || |- |1979 || 66 || 94 || 6th in NL West || |- |1980 || 81 || 80 || 4th in NL West || |- |1981 || 50 || 56 || || |- |1982 || 89 || 73 || 1st in NL West || Lost NLCS to St. Louis Cardinals, 0-3. |- |1983 || 88 || 74 || 2nd in NL West || |- |1984 || 80 || 82 || 2nd in NL West || |- |1985 || 66 || 96 || 5th in NL West || |- |1986 || 72 || 89 || 6th in NL West || |- |1987 || 69 || 92 || 5th in NL West || |- |1988 || 54 || 106 || 6th in NL West || |- |1989 || 63 || 97 || 6th in NL West || |- |1990 || 65 || 97 || 6th in NL West || |- |1991 || 94 || 68 || 1st in NL West || Won NLCS vs Pittsburgh Pirates, 4-3. Lost World Series to Minnesota Twins, 3-4. |- |1992 || 98 || 64 || 1st in NL West || Won NLCS vs Pittsburgh Pirates, 4-3. Lost World Series to Toronto Blue Jays, 2-4. |- |1993 || 104 || 58 || 1st in NL West || Lost NLCS to Philadelphia Phillies, 2-4. |- |1994 || 68 || 46 || 2nd in NL East The 1994 Major League Baseball strike ended the season on August 11, as well as cancelling the entire postseason. The Braves were in second place in their division at the time of the strike. There was no championship, and the Braves' divisional win streak was not affected. The strike also caused the shortening of the 1995 season to 144 games. || No playoffs due to players' strike |- |1995 || 90 || 54 || 1st in NL East || Won NLDS vs Colorado Rockies, 3-1. Won NLCS vs Cincinnati Reds, 4-0. Won World Series vs Cleveland Indians, 4-2. |- |1996 || 96 || 66 || 1st in NL East || Won NLDS vs Los Angeles Dodgers, 3-0. Won NLCS vs St. Louis Cardinals, 4-3. Lost World Series to New York Yankees, 2-4. |- |1997 || 101 || 61 || 1st in NL East || Won NLDS vs Houston Astros, 3-0. Lost NLCS vs Florida Marlins, 2-4. |- |1998 || 106 || 56 || 1st in NL East || Won NLDS vs Chicago Cubs, 3-0. Lost NLCS vs San Diego Padres, 2-4. |- |1999 || 103 || 59 || 1st in NL East || Won NLDS vs Houston Astros, 3-1. Won NLCS vs New York Mets, 4-2. Lost World Series to New York Yankees, 0-4. |- |2000 || 95 || 67 || 1st in NL East || Lost NLDS to St. Louis Cardinals, 0-3. |- |2001 || 88 || 74 || 1st in NL East || Won NLDS vs Houston Astros, 3-0. Lost NLCS to Arizona Diamondbacks, 1-4. |- |2002 || 101 || 59 || 1st in NL East || Lost NLDS to San Francisco Giants, 2-3. |- |2003 || 101 || 61 || 1st in NL East || Lost NLDS to Chicago Cubs, 2-3. |- |2004 || 96 || 66 || 1st in NL East || Lost NLDS to Houston Astros, 2-3. |- |2005 || 90 || 72 || 1st in NL East || Lost NLDS to Houston Astros, 1-3. |- |2006 || 79 || 83 || 3rd in NL East || |- ||2007 || 84 || 78 || 3rd in NL East || | |- |2008 || 72 || 90 || 4th in NL East || |- |2009 || 24 || 24 || 3rd in NL East || |- !Totals (1871-2009) || 9926 || 9789 || || |- !Playoffs || 79 || 79 || || |- !Playoff Series || 14 || 17 || || 3 World Series Championships (1914, 1957, 1995) Year-by-Year Baseball History Uniforms The Braves currently have four uniforms. The first is a white home jersey with Braves written across the breastplate. The away jersey is gray with Atlanta written across the chest. These uniforms have been worn since 1987, and are similar to the uniforms the Braves wore from 1946 to 1963. Although the gray jersey is still listed as the official away jersey, throughout the 2009 season thus far, they have worn the dark blue jersey for more away games than the grays. Their alternate home jersey is a red jersey with Braves written across the chest. The red jerseys are only worn on Sunday home games, and they were worn the last time the Braves made the playoffs, in 2005. On opening night of the 2008 season against the Nationals, they debuted an alternate navy blue away jersey with Atlanta written in the same navy blue with white outline. There are three hats that the Braves wear; the standard game hat is one worn with the white home jerseys. It has a red brim and navy blue top with a white A on the front for Atlanta. The hat worn with the Red Jerseys is the same color scheme as the standard game hat but has a red A with a tomahawk across the A. The hat worn with the blue road jerseys and grey road jerseys has a navy blue top and brim with a white A on the front, similar to the team's away hat from 1966-1971. Quick facts The Atlanta Braves Spring Training game against the New York Mets in 2008. Founded: 1871 in Boston, Massachusetts as the Boston Red Stockings, a charter member of the National Association. The club became a charter member of the National League in 1876 and has remained in the league without a break since then. The Braves are the oldest continuously operating sports franchise in North American sports. Arguably, they can trace their ancestry to the original Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869-1870, baseball's first openly professional team. When the N.A. formed, Cincinnati's backers declined to field a team in the new league, and Red Stockings player-manager Harry Wright along with three of the best players from that team moved collectively to Boston and took the nickname with them. Formerly known as: Boston Braves (1912-1952), and Milwaukee Braves (1953-1965). Prior to 1912, the Boston team had several unofficial nicknames: "Red Stockings" and "Red Caps" in the 1870s and 1880s; "Beaneaters" in the 1890s and early 1900s; "Doves" (when the Dovey family owned the franchise, 1907-1910) and "Rustlers" (when William Russell owned the franchise, 1911). Following the 1935 season, after enduring bankruptcy and a series of poor seasons, new owner Bob Quinn asked a team of sportswriters to choose a new nickname, to change the team's luck. The sportswriters chose "Bees", which was adopted in 1936, though it never really caught on, with Quinn even refusing to use it, although their home uniforms in this interval were changed to feature a large block letter B ("bee"). The team dropped the nickname in 1941, using only the official name "Braves" from 1941 on. Ownership: Liberty Media Team Colors: Navy, Scarlet, White, Gold (1987 through present); Royal Blue, Red, White (1970 through 1986); Navy, Red, White (1966 through 1969) Logo design: The script word "Braves" above a tomahawk Team mottos: "Atlanta's Pastime Since 1966" and "Welcome to the Bigs." Spring Training Facility: The Ballpark at Disney's Wide World of Sports in Lake Buena Vista, Florida Playoff appearances (20): 1914, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1969, 1982, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 World Series Titles (3): 1914, 1957, 1995 National League Pennants Won (17): 1877, 1878, 1883, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1897, 1898, 1914, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1991, 1992, 1995, 1996, 1999 National Association pennants won (4): 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875 Official television stations: FSN South, SportSouth, WPCH-TV/Peachtree TV (Atlanta market, with simulcasts by CSS in the southeast US) Official radio station: WKLS-FM, WGST (AM) (flagship) Retired numbers Retired numbers at Turner Field As displayed at Turner Field: On April 5, 2009 it was announced that former Brave Greg Maddux's number 31 will be retired following a pre-game ceremony on July 17, 2009. Maddux's number will mark the sixth number to be retired by the franchise.. <b>DaleMurphyOF: 1976-90 ATL <b>PhilNiekroP: 1964-65 MILP: 1966-83,87 ATL <b>HankAaronOF: 1954-65 MILOF: 1966-74 ATL <b>WarrenSpahnP: 1942-52 BOSP: 1953-64 MIL <b>EddieMathews3B: 1952 BOS3B: 1953-65 MIL3B: 1966 ATLCoach 1971-72Manager: 1972-74 <b>JackieRobinsonRetired byMajor League Baseball Baseball Hall of Famers Boston Braves Earl Averill Dave Bancroft Dan Brouthers John Clarkson* Jimmy Collins Hugh Duffy* Johnny Evers Burleigh Grimes Billy HamiltonBilly Herman Rogers Hornsby Joe Kelley King Kelly Ernie Lombardi Rabbit Maranville Rube Marquard Tommy McCarthy Bill McKechnieJoe Medwick Kid Nichols* Jim O'Rourke Charley Radbourn Babe Ruth Frank Selee* Al Simmons George Sisler Casey StengelEd Walsh Lloyd Waner Paul Waner Vic Willis* George Wright Harry Wright Cy Young Milwaukee Braves Eddie MathewsRed SchoendienstEnos SlaughterWarren Spahn Atlanta Braves Hank Aaron Orlando CepedaPhil Niekro Gaylord PerryBruce Sutter Hoyt Wilhelm Affiliation according to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Names in Bold Inducted as Braves * Has no insignia on his cap or doesn't wear a cap due to either never wearing a cap, or playing at a time when caps bore no insignia. Current roster Minor league affiliates AAA: Gwinnett Braves, International League AA: Mississippi Braves, Southern League Advanced A: Myrtle Beach Pelicans, Carolina League A: Rome Braves, South Atlantic League Rookie: Danville Braves, Appalachian League Rookie: DSL Braves, Dominican Summer League Rookie: GCL Braves, Gulf Coast League Radio and television See also Braves TBS Baseball See also Atlanta Braves Radio Network After years of stability, the Braves have faced a period of transition in their radio and television coverage. The 2007 season was the last for Braves baseball on the TBS Superstation. TBS showed 70 games throughout the country, then cleared the decks to make way for a new national broadcast package that will begin in earnest with the 2007 postseason, and will expand to Sunday afternoon games in 2008. Chip Caray, one of the Braves' current broadcasters, is expected to call play-by-play for the national package, which will include the Division Series every season and alternating coverage of the American League Championship Series and National League Championship Series. Braves baseball has been seen on TBS since it was WTCG in 1971 and has been a cornerstone of the national superstation since it began in 1976. WPCH-TV/Peachtree TV, formerly WTBS Atlanta, will still carry Braves games after this point, but only in parts of the Southern United States. On DirecTV, channel 651 is used exclusively for Braves games produced by Peachtree TV, for viewers outside of its over-the-air coverage area. The Comcast/Charter Sports Southeast cable sports network will also simulcast these games on cable systems throughout Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and South Carolina, and outside of Metro Atlanta in Georgia. montgomeryadvertiser.com | Montgomery Advertiser After the 2004 season, longtime radio flagship station 750 WSB was replaced by WGST 640AM. Due to WGST's weak signal at night, which fails to cover the entire Atlanta metropolitan area, all games began to be simulcast on FM radio when the rights were transferred. The games first appeared on 96.1 WKLS (formerly "96rock") in 2005, but moved to country music station 94.9 WUBL ("94.9 The Bull") in 2007 after WKLS underwent a change in format from classic rock to active rock and became Project 9-6-1. The Atlanta Braves radio network currently serves 152 radio stations across the Southern United States, including 19 in Alabama, 5 in Florida, 71 in Georgia, 4 in Mississippi, 18 in North Carolina, 14 in South Carolina, 15 in Tennessee, 1 in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 2 in Virginia, and 2 in West Virginia. Atlanta Braves Radio Network.com In addition to Chip Caray, the other broadcasters are Mark Lemke, Joe Simpson, and Jon Sciambi. Don Sutton was released after the 2006 season and was a broadcaster with the Washington Nationals from 2007-2008, but he has since returned for the 2009 season. Longtime Braves voices Skip Caray and Pete Van Wieren were the primary play-by-play voices of Braves baseball until Skip's sudden death on August 3, 2008, http://www.sportingnews.com/yourturn/viewtopic.php?t=441791 and Van Wieren's retirement after the 2008 season. http://atlanta.braves.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20081021&content_id=3634597&vkey=news_atl&fext=.jsp&c_id=atl Van Wieren did all 162 regular season games on radio, and was working alongside Skip Caray until the latter's death. Chip Caray, Joe Simpson, Jon Sciambi and Mark Lemke have also teamed up with Van Wieren on radio broadcasts during 2007. Chip Caray works all games carried on Peachtree TV. Simpson is the color commentator for all games he does on TV. Jim Powell was hired as a radio broadcaster on January 21, 2009; Braves hope for Sutton return he was the Milwaukee Brewers radio broadcaster for 13 years. Sutton was released from the Nationals on January 27, 2009, and signed with the Braves later that day to join Powell on the radio. Sutton rejoins Braves’ broadcast team Braves games can also be seen on Fox Sports South and SportSouth (was Turner South). Jon Sciambi is the play-by-play announcer and Simpson is the color commentator. See also Atlanta Braves all-time roster Braves award winners and league leaders Braves statistical records and milestone achievements List of Atlanta Braves managers List of sports team names derived from Indigenous peoples Native American Mascot Controversy References External links Atlanta Braves — official website Team index page at Baseball Reference Milwaukee Braves informational website World Series Championship Navigation Boxes 19th Century Championship Navigation Boxes

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Dean_Kamen

Dean L. Kamen (born 5 April 1951) is an American entrepreneur and inventor from New Hampshire. Born in Rockville Centre, New York, he attended Worcester Polytechnic Institute, but dropped out before graduating. His father was Jack Kamen, an illustrator of Mad Magazine, Weird Science and other EC Comics. Career President Bill Clinton and Kamen in the White House, Kamen riding the iBOT Mobility System Inventions Kamen is probably best-known to the public for the product that eventually became known as the Segway PT, an electric, self-balancing human transporter with a complex, computer-controlled gyroscopic stabilization and control system. The device balances on two parallel wheels and is controlled by moving body weight. The machine's development was the object of much speculation and hype after segments of a book quoting Steve Jobs and other notable IT visionaries espousing its society-revolutionizing potential were leaked in December 2001. Kamen Stirling Generator 10 coupled to Water Still 12 (from US patent 7,340,879) Kamen has worked extensively on a project involving Stirling engine designs, attempting to create two machines; one that would generate power and one that would serve as a water purification system. He hopes the project will help improve living standards in developing countries. Kamen has a patent issued on his water purifier, , and other patents pending. Kamen is also the co-inventor of a compressed-air-powered device which would launch a human into the air in order to quickly launch SWAT teams or other emergency workers to the roofs of tall, inaccessible buildings. However, Kamen was already a successful and wealthy inventor, after inventing the AutoSyringe, a new type of mobile dialysis system for medical applications, the first insulin pump, and an all-terrain electric wheelchair known as the iBOT, using many of the same gyroscopic balancing technologies that later made their way into the Segway. FIRST In 1989, Kamen founded FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology), a robotics competition for high school students. In 2005, it held over 30 regional competitions and one international competition. In 2007, 37 competitions were held in places across the world such as Israel, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. Kamen remains the driving force behind the organization, providing over 2,500 high schools with the tools needed to learn valuable engineering skills. FIRST has gained a great deal of publicity from companies such as Autodesk, BAE Systems, Bausch and Lomb, CNN, General Motors, Google, Microsoft, Coca-Cola, Boston Gears, Motorola, Delphi, Kodak, Johnson and Johnson, Xerox, Harris, Underwriter's Laboratories, Microchip, Caterpillar as well as many Universities and colleges. FIRST has many competitions, including the JFLL (Junior FIRST Lego League) and the FLL (FIRST Lego League) for younger students, and the FTC (FIRST Tech Challenge) and the FRC (FIRST Robotics Competition) for high school aged students. Awards During his career Kamen has won numerous awards. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1997 for his biomedical devices and for making engineering more popular among high school students. Dean Kamen was awarded the National Medal of Technology in 2000 by then President Clinton for inventions that have advanced medical care worldwide. In April 2002, Kamen was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize for inventors, for his invention of the Segway and of an infusion pump for diabetics. In 2003 his "Project Slingshot," a cheap portable water purification system, was named a runner-up for "coolest invention of 2003" by Time magazine. In 2005 he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for his invention of the AutoSyringe. In 2006 Kamen was awarded the Global Humanitarian Action Award by the United Nations. Kamen received an honorary "Doctor of Engineering " degree from Kettering University in 2001, an honorary "Doctor of Science" degree from the University of Arizona on May 16th, 2009, and an honorary doctorate from the Wentworth Institute of Technology when he spoke at the college's centennial celebration in 2004, and other honorary doctorates from Bates College in 2007 [1], the Georgia Institute of Technology in 2008, the Illinois Institute of Technology in 2008 and Plymouth State University in May 2008. Personal life His primary residence is a hexagonal, shed style mansion he has dubbed Westwind, located in Bedford, New Hampshire, just outside of the larger city of Manchester. The house has at least four different levels and is very eclectically conceived, with such things as hallways resembling mine shafts, 1960s novelty furniture, a collection of vintage wheelchairs, spiral staircases and secret passages, an observation tower, a torture chamber, a fully-equipped machine shop, and a huge cast-iron steam engine which once belonged to Henry Ford built into the center atrium of the house (which is actually small in comparison), which Kamen has had converted into a Stirling engine-powered kinetic sculpture. Also on the property there is a softball field regularly used by the local police force. Kamen owns two helicopters, which he regularly uses to commute to work, and has a hangar built into the house as well. Neighbors complain of these helicopters, especially people on neighboring Olde English Road, waking them up on Saturday mornings. Iconoclasts (TV show), Season 2, Show #10. Isabella Rossellini and Dean Kamen November 16, 2006 He is the main subject of Code Name Ginger: the Story Behind Segway and Dean Kamen's Quest to Invent a New World, a nonfiction narrative book by journalist Steve Kemper published by Harvard Business School Press in 2003 (in paperback as Reinventing the Wheel). During 2007 at the FIRST Robotics competition held in Atlanta, Georgia, YouTube (which sponsors FIRST) co-founder Chad Hurley announced a competition for the teams to create a video in which they would describe what it takes to start a FIRST robotics team in an imaginative way. The prize for the winning team is a visit and guided tour of Dean Kamen's house and property. The competition is currently on-going and still taking submissions. His company, DEKA, annually creates intricate mechanical presents for him. Recently, the company created a robotic chess player, which is a mechanical arm attached to a chess board, as well as a vintage-looking computer with antique wood, and a converted typewriter as a keyboard. In addition, DEKA has recently received funding from DARPA to work on a brain-controlled prosthetic limb called the Luke Arm. Dean Kamen owns and pilots two Raytheon 390 Beechcraft Premier I jets. See also North Dumpling Island References External links Bio of Dean Kamen – from Wired Magazine Listen to the Dean Kamen interview on Radiophiles.org TED Talks: Dean Kamen on inventing and giving at TED in 2003 Kamen's biography at FIRST "Segway creator unveils his next act" - Dean Kamen aligning with Iqbal Quadir, the founder of Grameen Phone to bring remote villages electricity and cell phones Inventor Profile at National Inventors Hall of Fame Dean Kamen's US patents Speech by Dean Kamen at Bates College Commencement 2007 TED Talks: Dean Kamen previews a new prosthetic arm at TED in 2007 D:All Things Digital, May, 2008, video of Kamen on the topic of robotic prosthetics UK Daily Telegraph profile of Kamen by Adam Higginbotham

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Media_studies

Media studies is an academic discipline that deals with the content, history and effects of various media, in particular mass media. Media scholars vary in the theoretical and methodological focus they bring to mass media topics, including the media's political, social, economic and cultural roles and impact. Media studies draw on traditions from both the social sciences and the humanities, and overlap in interests with related disciplines like mass communication, communication, communication sciences and communication studies. Researchers develop and employ theories and methods from disciplines including cultural studies, rhetoric, philosophy, literary theory, psychology, political science, political economy, economics, sociology, social theory, art history and criticism, film theory, and information theory. Key themes In addition to the interdisciplinary nature of the academic field, popular understandings of media studies encompass: journalism mass communication media influence creative industries political economy cultural sociology Most production and journalism courses incorporate media studies content, but academic institutions often establish separate departments. Media studies students may see themselves as observers of media, not creators or practitioners. These distinctions vary across national boundaries. Separate strands exist within media studies, such as television studies. Film studies is often considered a separate discipline, though television and video games studies grew out of it, as made evident by the application of basic critical theories such as psychoanalysis, feminism and Marxism. Critical media theory looks at how the corporate ownership of media production and distribution affects society, and provides a common ground to social conservatives (concerned by the effects of media on the traditional family) and liberals and socialists (concerned by the corporatization of social discourse). The study of the effects and techniques of advertising forms a cornerstone of media studies. Contemporary media studies includes the analysis of new media with emphasis on the internet, video games, mobile devices, interactive television, and other forms of mass media which developed from the 1990s. Because these new technologies allow instant communication across the world (chat rooms and instant messaging, online video games, video conferencing), interpersonal communication is an important element in new media studies. It has been argued that media studies has not fully acknowledged the changes which the internet and digital interactive media have brought about, seeing these as an 'add-on'. David Gauntlett has argued for a 'Media Studies 2.0' which fully recognises the ways in which media has changed, and that traditional boundaries between 'audiences' and 'producers' has collapsed. Political communication and political economy From the beginning, media studies are closely related to politics and wars such as campaign research and war propaganda. Political communication mainly studies the connections among politicians, voters and media. It focused on the media effects. There are four main media influence theories: hypodermic needle model (1930s behaviorism), two-step flow model (Lazarsfeld, 1948), limited effects (Lang & Lang, 1953), and the spiral of silence (Noelle-Neumann, 1984). Also, many scholars studied the technique of political communication such as rhetoric, symbolism and etc. Much of this research has been developed in journals of mass communication and public opinion scholarship. In the last quarter century, political economy has played a major part in media studies literature. The theory gained notoriety in media studies particularly with the publication of Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky’s Manufacturing Consent, published in 1988. In the book, the authors discuss a theory of how the United States’ media industry operates, which they term a “propaganda model.” The model describes a “decentralized and non-conspiratorial market system of control and processing, although at times the government or one or more private actors may take initiatives and mobilize co-ordinated elite handling of an issue." (Herman, 2000) Media studies and media psychology An EdD concentration in Media Studies, grounded in Media Psychology and a PhD program in Media Psychology were launched at Fielding Graduate University in 2002 by Bernard Luskin. These programs advanced Media Studies in acknowledging the importance of human behavior. The PhD program in Media Psychology is the first in any university. History Media studies throughout the world Australia Media is studied as a broad subject in most states in Australia, with Victoria being a world leader in curriculum development. Media Studies was first developed as a study area in the early 1960s in Victorian universities. Film studies began in secondary schools in the mid 1960s and by the early 1970s Media Studies was being taught in secondary schools. Most notable in curriculum development at secondary level were Peter Greenaway, Peter Dodds, and Trevor Barr - who developed one of the first media text books 'Reflections of Reality'. Also notable was John Murray with 'The Box in the Corner', 'In Focus', and '10 Lessons in Film Appreciation' (1966). The subject became part of the Higher School Certificate in the 1980s and is currently a strong component of the Victorian Certificate of Education. The VCE course covers Unit 1 - Representation, Technologies of Representation, and New Media; Unit 2 - Media Production, Australian Media Organisations; Unit 3 - Narrative texts, Production Planning; Unit 4 - Production work, Social Values, and Media Influence. Media Studies also forms a major part of the Primary and junior Secondary curriculum and includes areas such as photography, print media, and television. Victoria has the leading Media body known as ATOM which also publishes Metro and Screen Education magazines. Other states that teach Media are South Australia, Western Australia, and Queensland. The subject does not appear to be taught in New South Wales. Germany In Germany two main streams of Media Studies can be identified. The first large flow of media studies based in humanities and cultural sciences as the Theater scholarship ("Theaterwissenschaft") and German language and literature studies widens since the 1960s. In this orientation, the Media studies in Germany today mainly developed and established. As one of the first publications to this new direction is by Helmut Kreuzer, published the study Literature Studies - Media Studies (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), summed up the units of the "Düsseldorfer Germanistentag" 1976. The second stream is comparable to Communication Studies. Pioneered by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in the 1940s this stream studies mass media, its institutions and its effects on society and individuals. Media studies is currently one of the most popular university courses in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead them to a career in TV or other media. This has led to widespread disillusionment, with students blaming the universities for offering highly theoretical course content. The universities maintain that practical journalistic training is not the aim of the academic studies they offer. Jan-Martin Wiarda: Medien-was?, Die Zeit, 19. May 2005. India The media industry is growing in India at the rate of 20 percent per annum. Together, entertainment and media form the country's sixth biggest industry, with 3.5 million people working in it. Within the next 4-5 years, the industry is expected to gross eighty thousand crores (800 billion rupees) annually. With a view to making the best use of communication facilities for information, publicity and development, the Government of India in 1962-63 sought the advice of the Ford Foundation/UNESCO team of internationally known mass communication specialists who recommended the setting up of a national institute for training, teaching and research in mass communication. New Zealand Media Studies in New Zealand can be regarded as a singular success, with the subject well-established in the tertiary sector (such as Screen and Media Studies at the University of Waikato; Media Studies, Victoria University of Wellington; Film, Television and Media Studies, University of Auckland; Media Studies, Massey University; Communication Studies, University of Otago). UK In the UK, media studies developed in the 1960s from the academic study of English, and from literary criticism more broadly. The key date, according to Andrew Crisell, is 1959: When Joseph Trenaman left the BBC's Further Education Unit to become the first holder of the Granada Research Fellowship in Television at Leeds University. Soon after in 1966, the Centre for Mass Communication Research was founded at Leicester University, and degree programmes in media studies began to sprout at polytechnics and other universities during the 1970s and 1980s. Media Studies is now taught all over the UK. The topics span from magazines to films. It is taught at GCSE and at A level, and the Scottish Qualifications Authority offers formal qualifications at a number of different levels. It is offered through a large area of exam boards including AQA and IGCSE. Some exam boards even award the student with a mark for writing their name on the paper. It is also taught at University level but for 'masters' the one mark policy does not apply. USA Mass communication, communication studies or simply communication may be more popular names than “media studies” for academic departments in the United States. However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media -- film, book publishing, video games, etc. The title “media studies” may be used alone, to designate film studies and rhetorical or critical theory, or it may appear in combinations like “media studies and communication” to join two fields or emphasize a different focus. Examples: Comparative Media Studies at MIT, Cinema and Media Studies at the University of Chicago, Rhetoric and Media Studies at Willamette University and Media Studies in Communication at Kennesaw State University. University of California, Berkeley has a long established and highly regarded interdisciplinary program formerly titled Mass Communications, which recently changed its name to Media Studies , dropping the pejorative connotations which accompany the term “Mass” in the former title. Until recently, Radford University in Virginia used the title “media studies” for a department that taught practitioner-oriented major concentrations in journalism, advertising, broadcast production and Web design. In 2008 those programs were combined with a previous department of communication to create a School of Communication. See also Anthropology of media Media ecology Mass media Mass communication Multimedia literacy Journalism Transparency (humanities) Media literacy Media education Media psychology Harold Innis's Time- and space-bias Marshall McLuhan's tetrad of media effects Mediatization (media) Media-system dependency Media echo chamber Narcotizing Dysfunction External links References

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Confucius

Confucius (), lit. "Master Kong," More commonly abbreviated to ; see Names section (traditionally September 28, 551 BC – 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher, whose teachings and philosophy have deeply influenced Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Taiwanese and Vietnamese thought and life. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism (法家) or Taoism (道家) during the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism (儒家). It was introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who was the first to Latinise the name as "Confucius." His teachings may be found in the Analects of Confucius (論語), a collection of "brief aphoristic fragments", which was compiled many years after his death. Modern historians do not believe that any specific documents can be said to have been written by Confucius, but for nearly 2,000 years he was thought to be the editor or author of all the Five Classics (五經) such as the Classic of Rites (禮記)(editor), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋) (author). Personal life and family According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 BC, in the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical movement. Confucius was born in or near the city of Qufu (曲阜), in the Chinese State of Lu (魯) (now part of Shandong Province). Early accounts say that he was born into a poor but noble family that had fallen on hard times. The Records of the Grand Historian (史記), compiled some four centuries later, indicate that the marriage of Confucius's parents did not conform to Li (禮) and therefore was a yehe (野合), or "illicit union", for when they got married, his father was a very old man and past proper age for marriage but his mother was only in her late teens. His father died when Confucius was three years old, and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy linked him to the growing class of shì (士), a class whose status lay between that of the old nobility and the common people, that comprised men who sought social positions on the basis of talents and skills, rather than heredity. As a child, Confucius was said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table. He married a young girl named Qi Quan (亓官) at 19 and she gave birth to their first child Kong Li (孔鯉) when he was 20. Confucius is reported to have worked as a shepherd, cowherd, clerk and book-keeper. His mother died when Confucius was 23, and he entered three years of mourning. Confucius is said to have risen to the position of Justice Minister (大司寇) in Lu at the age of 53. Temple Of Confucius, 2001 According to the Records of the Grand Historian, the neighboring state of Qi (齊) was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful. Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the Duke of Lu. The Duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was deeply disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the Duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving, so Confucius waited for the Duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the Duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized this pretext to leave both his post and the state of Lu. According to tradition, after Confucius's resignation, he began a long journey (or set of journeys) around the small kingdoms of northeast and central China, including the states of Wei (衞), Song (宋), Chen (陳) and Cai (蔡). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented. According to the Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals, when he was 68 Confucius returned home. The Analects pictures him spending his last years teaching disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics. Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 72 or 73. Teachings In the Analects (論語), Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He put the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (or learning) that opens the text. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master. Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society or establish a formalism of rites, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world, mostly through the old scriptures and by relating the moral problems of the present to past political events (like the Annals) or past expressions of feelings by common people and reflective members of the elite, preserved in the poems of the Book of Odes (詩經) . In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, all under Heaven, i.e. China) and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merit, not their parentage; these would be rulers devoted to their people, reaching for personal and social perfection. Such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules. One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. Because his moral teachings emphasise self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules, Confucius's ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more indirectly, through allusions, innuendo, and even tautology. This is why his teachings need to be examined and put into proper context in order to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote: 廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？”不問馬。 When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses. Analects X.11, tr. Arthur Waley The passage conveys the lesson that by not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated that a sage values human beings over property; readers of this lesson are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's, and to pursue ethical self-improvement if it would not. Confucius, an exemplar of human excellence, serves as the ultimate model, rather than a deity or a universally true set of abstract principles. For these reasons, according to many Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius's teaching may be considered a Chinese example of humanism. Perhaps his most famous teaching was the Golden Rule stated in the negative form, often called the silver rule: 子貢問曰、有一言、而可以終身行之者乎。子曰、其恕乎、己所 不欲、勿施於人。 Adept Kung asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'shu' [reciprocity]: never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself?" Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton Confucius's teachings were later turned into a very elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers who organised his teachings into the Analects. In the centuries after his death, Mencius (孟子) and Xun Zi (荀子) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. In time, these writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus known in the West as Confucianism. After more than a thousand years, the scholar Zhu Xi (朱熹) created a very different interpretation of Confucianism which is now called Neo-Confucianism, to distinguish it from the ideas expressed in the Analects. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China and Vietnam until the 1800s. Names Confucius (illustration from Myths & Legends of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner) Michele Ruggieri, and other Jesuits after him, while translating Chinese books into Western languages, translated 孔夫子 as Confucius. This Latinised form has since been commonly used in Western countries. In systematic Romanisations: Kǒng Fūzǐ (or Kǒng fū zǐ) in pinyin. K'ung fu-tzu in Wade-Giles (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze). Fūzǐ means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just "Master Kong", or Confucius, even in modern days. The character 'fu' is optional; in modern Chinese he is more often called Kong Zi. His actual name was 孔丘, Kǒng Qiū. Kǒng is a common family name in China. (In Wade-Giles translation by D. C. Lau, this name appears as Kung Ch'iu.) His courtesy name was 仲尼, Zhòng Ní. In 9 BC (first year of the Yuanshi period of the Han Dynasty), he was given his first posthumous name: 褒成宣尼公, Lord Bāochéngxūanni, which means "Laudably Declarable Lord Ni." His most popular posthumous names are 至聖先師,Zhìshèngxiānshī, meaning "The Former Teacher who Arrived at Sagehood" (comes from 1530, the ninth year of the Jianing period of the Ming Dynasty); 至聖, Zhìshèng, "the Greatest Sage"; 先師, Xiānshī, literally meaning "first teacher". It has been suggested that '先師' can be used, however, to express something like, "the Teacher who assists the wise to their attainment". He is also commonly known as 萬世師表，Wànshìshībiǎo, "the 10,000 Generation Model Teacher" in Chinese. Philosophy A portrait of Confucius, by Tang Dynasty artist Wu Daozi (680-740). Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism lacks an afterlife, its texts express complex and ambivalent views concerning deities, and it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of the soul. Confucius' principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and, according to later interpreters, of husbands by their wives), and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself" (similar to the Golden Rule). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. Because no texts survive that are demonstrably authored by Confucius, and the ideas associated with him most closely were elaborated in writings that accrued over the period between his death and the foundation of the first Chinese empire in 221 BC, many scholars are very cautious about attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. Ethics The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that lǐ originated from the heavens. Confucius's view was more nuanced. His approach stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history, with less emphasis on its connection with heaven. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ, though still linked to traditional forms of action, came to point towards the balance between maintaining these norms so as to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time, and are connected to the belief that training in the lǐ that past sages have devised cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts. In early Confucianism, yì (義) and lǐ are closely linked terms. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one based one's life upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good, an outcome of yì. This is doing the right thing for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity. Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. To cultivate one's attentiveness to rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat oneself. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. In this regard, Confucius articulated an early version of the Golden Rule: "What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm) Politics Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and people's natural morality, rather than by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: 1. "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) in the Great Learning (大學). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism. While he supported the idea of government by an all-powerful sage, ruling as an Emperor, probably because of the chaotic state of China at his time, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for according language with truth; thus honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. In discussing the relationship between a subject and his king (or a son and his father), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action. This was built upon a century after Confucius's death by his latter day disciple Mencius, who argued that if the king was not acting like a king, he would lose the Mandate of Heaven and be overthrown. Therefore, tyrannicide is justified because a tyrant is more a thief than a king. Other Confucian texts, though celebrating absolute rule by ethical sages, recognise the failings of real rulers in maxims such as, "An oppressive government is more feared than a tiger." Some well known Confucian quotes: "When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them." "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others" "With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and my crooked arm for a pillow - is not joy to be found therein? Riches and honors acquired through unrighteousness are to me as the floating clouds" Disciples and legacy Confucius' disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma. While relying heavily on Confucius' ethico-political system, two of his most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xun Zi (3rd century BC) underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in 223 BC when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Ssu, Prime Minister of the Qin Dynasty convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as counter to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Ssu had many Confucian scholars killed and their books burned - considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship. Under the succeeding Han Dynasty and Tang Dynasty, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Wudi, the works of Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BC which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th Century. As Moism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Lao-tzu, whose focus on more mystic ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. During the Song Dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200 CE) added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different, and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming Dynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control. In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Communist Party of China. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th Century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th Century. In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius," was named after the Chinese thinker. Quote: "Respect yourself and others will respect you."'Quote: "Today I have seen Lao-tzu and can only compare him to the dragon." This quote has been attributed by some scholars to a later student of Confucius as an attempt to create a meeting between Confucius and Lao-tzu which may never have occurred. Memorial ceremony of Confucius The Chinese have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li (周禮) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius' birth. This tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs where it is held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s, did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even communist party members may be found in attendance. In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomingtang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of memorial ceremony of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day does in the West. Influence in Asia and Europe "Life and works of Confucius", by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687. Confucius's works, words are studied by many scholars in many other Asian countries, such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam, etc. And many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year. The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China The first was Michele Ruggieri who had returned from China to Italy in 1588, and carried on translating in Latin Chinese classics, while residing in Salerno . Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687. "Windows into China", John Parker, p.25 It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. "Windows into China", John Parker, p.25, ISBN 0890730504 "The Eastern origins of Western civilization", John Hobson, p194-195, ISBN 0521547245 The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as was Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages. Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth Home town Soon after Confucius' death, Qufu, his hometown in the state of Lu and now in present-day Shandong Province, became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many Chinese people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In pan-China cultures, there are many temples where representations of the Buddha, Laozi and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies. In November 1966, during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, the Qufu Confucian monuments suffered much damage and 6000 artifacts were destroyed Wang Liang, "The Confucius Temple Tragedy of the Cultural Revolution," in Thomas A. Wilson, ed., On Sacred Grounds, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002). . The area was later restored. Descendants Confucius' descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis thirty-five times since Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke forty-two times from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Marquis Wenxuan" on Kong Sui of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Zhenzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zong of the 46th generation. Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Te-Chang died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, died in 1989. His grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, was born in 1975, the 79th lineal descendant, and his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. His sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman. Kong Demao, The House of Confucius (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1988). Confucius's family, the Kongs, has the longest recorded still extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation, Confucius family tree revision ends with 2 mln descendants has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, he has 2 million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated 3 million in all. Updated Confucius family tree has two million members Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China. In the 1300s, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today. One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s, and eventually settled in Taiwan. Because of the enormous interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project to test the DNA of known family members. DNA test to clear up Confucius confusion Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent is truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family will all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time. DNA Testing Adopted to Identify Confucius Descendants However, in 2009, the family authorities decided not to agree to DNA testing. Inheriting Confucius Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance,” he says. “It’s not just a scientific question." The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree. Confucius descendents say DNA testing plan lacks wisdom The fifth edition of the Confucius genealogy will be printed in 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC). Women are now included for the first time. Confucius family tree to record female kin See also Confucianism Neo-Confucianism New Confucianism Temple of Confucius Confucius Institute Confucius (film) References "Windows into China", John Parker, ISBN 0890730504 "The Eastern origins of Western civilization", John Hobson, ISBN 0521547245 Further reading Chin, Annping (2007). The Authentic Confucius: A Life of Thought and Politics. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-74-324618-7. Clements, Jonathan (2004). Confucius: A Biography. Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509-4775-6. Confucius. (1997). Lun yu, (In English The Analects of Confucius). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04019-4. Confucius. (2003). Confucius: Analects -- With Selections from Traditional Commentaries. Translated by E. Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published c. 551–479 BC) ISBN 0-87220-635-1. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia of Religion (Vol. C, pp 1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference USA. Herrlee Glessner Creel (1949). Confucius and the Chinese Way. (Reprinted numerous times by various publishers.) Mengzi (2006). Mengzi. Translation by B.W. Van Norden. In Philip J. Ivanhoe & B.W. Van Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-780-3. Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). Confucius and the Analects: New Essays. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513396-X. Wu, J. (1995a). "Confucius". In I. McGreal (ed.), Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam (pp 3–8). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270085-5 Wu. J. (1995b) "Mencius". In I. McGreal (ed.), Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam (pp 27–30). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270085-5 Confucius appears as one of the main characters in Gore Vidal's Creation (novel). The book gives a very sympathetic and human portrait of him and his times. External links Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects Confucian Analects (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation) 孔子世系 (Confucius' Genealogy) (in Traditional Chinese): a table shows the immediate ancestors and direct descendants of Confucius be-x-old:Канфуцый

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Lagrangian_point

A contour plot of the effective potential of a two-body system (the Sun and Earth here) due to gravity and the centrifugal force as viewed from the rotating frame of reference in which Sun and Earth remain stationary. Objects revolving with the same orbital period as the Earth will begin to move according to the contour lines showing equipotential surfaces. The arrows indicate the gradients of increasing potential around the five Lagrange points — toward or away from them, but at the points themselves these forces are balanced. The Lagrangian points (; also Lagrange point, L-point, or libration point), are the five positions in an orbital configuration where a small object affected only by gravity can theoretically be stationary relative to two larger objects (such as a satellite with respect to the Earth and Moon). The Lagrange points mark positions where the combined gravitational pull of the two large masses provides precisely the centripetal force required to rotate with them. They are analogous to geostationary orbits in that they allow an object to be in a "fixed" position in space rather than an orbit in which its relative position changes continuously. A more precise but technical definition is that the Lagrangian points are the stationary solutions of the circular restricted three-body problem. "Restricted Three-Body Problem", Science World. For example, given two massive bodies in circular orbits around their common center of mass, there are five positions in space where a third body, of comparatively negligible mass, could be placed which would then maintain its position relative to the two massive bodies. As seen in a rotating reference frame with the same period as the two co-orbiting bodies, the gravitational fields of two massive bodies combined with the centrifugal force are in balance at the Lagrangian points, allowing the third body to be stationary with respect to the first two bodies. "Lagrange Points" by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. History and concepts The three collinear Lagrange points were first discovered by Euler around 1750. In 1772, the Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange was working on the famous three-body problem when he discovered an interesting quirk in the results. Originally, he had set out to discover a way to easily calculate the gravitational interaction between arbitrary numbers of bodies in a system, because Newtonian mechanics concludes that such a system results in the bodies orbiting chaotically until there is a collision, or a body is thrown out of the system so that equilibrium can be achieved. The logic behind this conclusion is that a system with one body is trivial, as it is merely static relative to itself; a system with two bodies is very simple to solve for, as the bodies orbit around their common center of mass. However, once more than two bodies are introduced, the mathematical calculations become very complicated. A situation arises where you would have to calculate every gravitational interaction between every pair of objects at every point along its trajectory. Lagrange, however, wanted to make this simpler. He did so with a simple hypothesis: The trajectory of an object is determined by finding a path that minimizes the action over time. This is found by subtracting the potential energy from the kinetic energy. With this way of thinking, Lagrange re-formulated the classical Newtonian mechanics to give rise to Lagrangian mechanics. With his new system of calculations, Lagrange’s work led him to hypothesize how a third body of negligible mass would orbit around two larger bodies which were already in a near-circular orbit. In a frame of reference that rotates with the larger bodies, he found five specific fixed points where the third body experiences zero net force as it follows the circular orbit of its host bodies (planets). These points were named “Lagrangian points” in Lagrange's honor. It took over a hundred years before his mathematical theory was observed with the discovery of the Trojan asteroids in the 1900s at the Lagrange points of the Sun–Jupiter system. In the more general case of elliptical orbits, there are no longer stationary points in the same sense: it becomes more of a Lagrangian “area”. The Lagrangian points constructed at each point in time, as in the circular case, form stationary elliptical orbits which are similar to the orbits of the massive bodies. This is due to Newton's second law (), where p = mv (p the momentum, m the mass, and v the velocity) is invariant if force and position are scaled by the same factor. A body at a Lagrangian point orbits with the same period as the two massive bodies in the circular case, implying that it has the same ratio of gravitational force to radial distance as they do. This fact is independent of the circularity of the orbits, and it implies that the elliptical orbits traced by the Lagrangian points are solutions of the equation of motion of the third body. The Lagrangian points A diagram showing the five Lagrangian points in a two-body system with one body far more massive than the other (e.g. the Sun and the Earth). In such a system, L3–L5 will appear to share the secondary's orbit, although in fact they are situated slightly outside it. The five Lagrangian points are labeled and defined as follows: L1 The L1 point lies on the line defined by the two large masses M1 and M2, and between them. It is the most intuitively understood of the Lagrangian points: the one where the gravitational attraction of M2 partially cancels M1 gravitational attraction. Example: An object which orbits the Sun more closely than the Earth would normally have a shorter orbital period than the Earth, but that ignores the effect of the Earth's own gravitational pull. If the object is directly between the Earth and the Sun, then the effect of the Earth's gravity is to weaken the force pulling the object towards the Sun, and therefore increase the orbital period of the object. The closer to Earth the object is, the greater this effect is. At the L1 point, the orbital period of the object becomes exactly equal to the Earth's orbital period. The Sun–Earth L1 is ideal for making observations of the Sun. Objects here are never shadowed by the Earth or the Moon. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is stationed in a Halo orbit at L1, and the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is in a Lissajous orbit, also at the L1 point. The Earth–Moon L1 allows easy access to lunar and earth orbits with minimal change in velocity and would be ideal for a half-way manned space station intended to help transport cargo and personnel to the Moon and back. L2 A diagram showing the Sun–Earth L2 point, which lies well beyond the Moon's orbit around the Earth. The L2 point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the smaller of the two. Here, the gravitational forces of the two large masses balance the centrifugal force on the smaller mass. Example: On the side of the Earth away from the Sun, the orbital period of an object would normally be greater than that of the Earth. The extra pull of the Earth's gravity decreases the orbital period of the object, and at the L2 point that orbital period becomes equal to the Earth's. The Sun–Earth L2 is a good spot for space-based observatories. Because an object around L2 will maintain the same orientation with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and calibration are much simpler. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe is already in orbit around the Sun–Earth L2. The Planck satellite, Herschel Space Observatory, Gaia probe, and James Webb Space Telescope will be placed at the Sun–Earth L2. Earth–Moon L2 would be a good location for a communications satellite covering the Moon's far side. If the mass of the smaller object (M2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M1) then L1 and L2 are at approximately equal distances r from the smaller object, equal to the radius of the Hill sphere, given by: where R is the distance between the two bodies. This distance can be described as being such that the orbital period, corresponding to a circular orbit with this distance as radius around M2 in the absence of M1, is that of M2 around M1, divided by . Examples: Sun and Earth: 1,500,000 km from the Earth Earth and Moon: 61,500 km from the Moon L3 The L3 point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the larger of the two. Example: L3 in the Sun–Earth system exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little outside the Earth's orbit but slightly closer to the Sun than the Earth is. (This apparent contradiction is because the Sun is also affected by the Earth's gravity, and so orbits around the two bodies' barycenter, which is however well inside the body of the Sun.) At the L3 point, the combined pull of the Earth and Sun again causes the object to orbit with the same period as the Earth. The Sun–Earth L3 point was a popular place to put a "Counter-Earth" in pulp science fiction and comic books — though of course, once space based observation was possible via satellites and probes, it was shown to hold no such object. Actually, the Sun–Earth L3 is highly unstable, because the gravitational forces of the other planets outweigh that of the Earth (Venus, for example, comes within 0.3 AU of L3 every 20 months). L4 and L5 Gravitational accelerations at L4. The L4 and L5 points lie at the third corners of the two equilateral triangles in the plane of orbit whose common base is the line between the centers of the two masses, such that the point lies behind (L5) or ahead of (L4) the smaller mass with regard to its orbit around the larger mass. The reason these points are in balance is that, at L4 and L5, the distances to the two masses are equal. Accordingly, the gravitational forces from the two massive bodies are in the same ratio as the masses of the two bodies, and so the resultant force acts through the barycenter of the system; additionally, the geometry of the triangle ensures that the resultant acceleration is to the distance from the barycenter in the same ratio as for the two massive bodies. The barycenter being both the center of mass and center of rotation of the system, this resultant force is exactly that required to keep a body at the Lagrange point in orbital equilibrium with the rest of the system. (Indeed, the third body need not have negligible mass; the general triangular configuration was discovered by Lagrange in work on the 3-body problem.) L4 and L5 are sometimes called triangular Lagrange points or Trojan points. The name Trojan points comes from the Trojan asteroids at the Sun–Jupiter L4 and L5 points, which themselves are named after characters from Homer's Iliad (the legendary siege of Troy). Asteroids at the L4 point, which leads Jupiter, are referred to as the 'Greek camp', while at the L5 point they are referred to as the 'Trojan camp'. These asteroids are (largely) named after characters from the respective sides of the Trojan War. Examples: The Sun–Earth L4 and L5 points lie 60° ahead of and 60° behind the Earth as it orbits the Sun. They contain interplanetary dust. The Earth–Moon L4 and L5 points lie 60° ahead of and 60° behind the Moon as it orbits the Earth. They may contain interplanetary dust in what is called Kordylewski clouds. The Sun–Jupiter L4 and L5 points are occupied by the Trojan asteroids. Neptune has Trojan Kuiper Belt Objects at its L4 and L5 points. Saturn's moon Tethys has two much smaller satellites at its L4 and L5 points named Telesto and Calypso, respectively. Saturn's moon Dione has smaller moons Helene and Polydeuces at its L4 and L5 points, respectively. One version of the giant impact hypothesis suggests that an object named Theia formed at L4 or L5 and crashed into the Earth after its orbit destabilized, forming the moon. Stability The first three Lagrangian points are technically stable only in the plane perpendicular to the line between the two bodies. This can be seen most easily by considering the L1 point. A test mass displaced perpendicularly from the central line would feel a force pulling it back towards the equilibrium point. This is because the lateral components of the two masses' gravity would add to produce this force, whereas the components along the axis between them would balance out. However, if an object located at the L1 point drifted closer to one of the masses, the gravitational attraction it felt from that mass would be greater, and it would be pulled closer. (The pattern is very similar to that of tidal forces.) Although the L1, L2, and L3 points are nominally unstable, it turns out that it is possible to find stable periodic orbits around these points, at least in the restricted three-body problem. These perfectly periodic orbits, referred to as "halo" orbits, do not exist in a full n-body dynamical system such as the solar system. However, quasi-periodic (i.e. bounded but not precisely repeating) orbits following Lissajous curve trajectories do exist in the n-body system. These quasi-periodic Lissajous orbits are what all Lagrangian point missions to date have used. Although they are not perfectly stable, a relatively modest effort at station keeping can allow a spacecraft to stay in a desired Lissajous orbit for an extended period of time. It also turns out that, at least in the case of Sun–Earth L1 missions, it is actually preferable to place the spacecraft in a large amplitude (100,000–200,000 km) Lissajous orbit, instead of having it sit at the Lagrangian point, because this keeps the spacecraft off the direct Sun–Earth line, thereby reducing the impact of solar interference on the Earth–spacecraft communications links. Another interesting and useful property of the collinear Lagrangian points and their associated Lissajous orbits is that they serve as "gateways" to control the chaotic trajectories of the Interplanetary Transport Network. In contrast to the collinear Lagrangian points, the triangular points (L4 and L5) are stable equilibria (cf. attractor), provided that the ratio of M1/M2 is greater than 24.96. Actually The Lagrange Points – Neil J. Cornish with input from Jeremy Goodman This is the case for the Sun–Earth and, by a smaller margin, the Earth–Moon systems. When a body at these points is perturbed, it moves away from the point, but the Coriolis effect bends the object's path into a stable, kidney bean‐shaped orbit around the point (as seen in the rotating frame of reference). However, in the Earth–Moon case, the problem of stability is greatly complicated by the appreciable solar gravitational influence. Intuitive explanation This section non-mathematically (intuitively Tyson, Neil deGrasse, Death by Black Hole, ©2007, ISBN 9780393062243 ) explains the five Lagrangian points using the Earth–Moon system. Lagrangian points L2 through L5 only exist in rotating systems, as in the monthly orbiting of the Moon about the Earth. At these points, an outward (fictitious, as explained below) centrifugal force is balanced by the attractive gravitational forces of the Moon and Earth. Imagine a person using his hand to spin a stone at the end of a string. The string provides a tension force that continuously accelerates the stone towards the center. To an ant standing on the stone, however, it seems as if there is a force trying to fling him directly outward from the center. This apparent or fictitious force is called the centrifugal force. This same effect is present in the Earth–Moon system, where the role of the string is played by the summed (or net) effect of the two attractive gravities, and the stone is an asteroid or a spacecraft. The Earth–Moon system rotates about its combined center of mass, or barycenter. Because the Earth is much heavier than the Moon, this point is located within the Earth (about a thousand miles below the surface). Any object gravitationally held by the rotating Earth–Moon system will sense a centrifugal force directed away from the barycenter, in the same way as does the ant on the stone. Unlike the other Lagrangian points, L1 would exist even in a non-rotating (static or inertial) system. Rotation slightly pushes L1 away from the (lighter) Moon towards the (heavier) Earth. L1 is slightly unstable (see stability above) because drifting towards the Moon or Earth increases one gravitational attraction while decreasing the other, causing more drift. At Lagrangian points L2, L3, L4, and L5, a satellite feels an outward centrifugal force, away from the barycenter, that exactly balances the attractive gravity of the Earth and Moon. L2 and L3 are slightly unstable because small changes in satellite position more strongly affect gravity than the balancing centrifugal force. Stability at L4 and L5 depends crucially on the satellite being pulled in three different directions, namely the outward centrifugal force away from the barycenter, balancing the inward gravitational forces towards the Moon and Earth. The easiest way to understand the stability is that L1, and L2, and L3 positions are stable, but stable like a ball balanced on a pin. A soft breeze will toss it out of equilibrium. But the L4, and L5 positions are stable more like a ball at the bottom of a bowl. Small perturbations will move it out of place, but it will drift back to the bottom. Lagrangian point missions The Lagrangian point orbits have unique characteristics that have made them a good choice for performing some kinds of missions. These missions generally orbit the points rather than occupy them directly. Past and present missions Mission Lagrangian point Agency Status Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) Sun-Earth L1 NASA Operational Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) Sun-Earth L1 ESA, NASA Operational WIND Sun-Earth L1 NASA Operational Genesis Sun-Earth L1 NASA Mission ended, left L1 point International Sun/Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) Sun-Earth L1 NASA Original mission ended, left L1 point Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Sun-Earth L2 NASA OperationalSMART-1 Moon-Earth L1 (flyby) ESA Mission ended, deliberately crashed into moonSTEREO A & B Sun-Earth L4 & L5 NASA Launched 2006; passes through L4 and L5 points respectively, but does not actually orbit them.New Horizons Sun-Neptune L5 (flyby) NASA Launched; scheduled to arrive August 1, 2014Herschel and Planck Space Observatories Sun-Earth L2 ESA Launched 14 May 2009, ETA July 2009 Future and proposed missions Mission Lagrangian point Agency StatusDeep Space Climate Observatory Sun-Earth L1 NASA On hold Solar-C Sun-Earth L1 Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Possible mission after 2010James Webb Space Telescope Sun-Earth L2 NASA, ESA, Canadian Space Agency Scheduled to launch in June 2013 or laterCommunication satellite covering the far side of the Moon Earth–Moon L2 NASA Proposed in 1968 Space colonization and manufacturing Earth-Moon L4 or L5 L5 Society Proposed in 1974Solar shade Sun-Earth L1 - Various proposals Natural examples In the Sun–Jupiter system several thousand asteroids, collectively referred to as Trojan asteroids, are in orbits around the Sun–Jupiter L4 and L5 points. Recent observations suggest that the Sun–Neptune L4 and L5 points, known as the Neptune Trojans, may be very thickly populated, containing large bodies an order of magnitude more numerous than the Jupiter Trojans. Other bodies can be found in the Sun–Mars and Saturn–Saturnian satellite systems. There are no known large bodies in the Sun–Earth system's Trojan points, but clouds of dust surrounding the L4 and L5 points were discovered in the 1950s. Clouds of dust, called Kordylewski clouds, even fainter than the notoriously weak gegenschein, may also be present in the L4 and L5 of the Earth–Moon system. The Saturnian moon Tethys has two smaller moons in its L4 and L5 points, Telesto and Calypso. The Saturnian moon Dione also has two Lagrangian co-orbitals, Helene at its L4 point and Polydeuces at L5. The moons wander azimuthally about the Lagrangian points, with Polydeuces describing the largest deviations, moving up to 32 degrees away from the Saturn–Dione L5 point. Tethys and Dione are hundreds of times more massive than their "escorts" (see the moons' articles for exact diameter figures; masses are not known in several cases), and Saturn is far more massive still, which makes the overall system stable. Other co-orbitals The Earth's companion object 3753 Cruithne is in a relationship with the Earth which is somewhat Trojan-like, but different from a true Trojan. This asteroid occupies one of two regular solar orbits, one of them slightly smaller and faster than the Earth's orbit, and the other slightly larger and slower. The asteroid periodically alternates between these two orbits due to close encounters with Earth. When the asteroid is in the smaller, faster orbit and approaches the Earth, it gains orbital energy from the Earth and moves up into the larger, slower orbit. It then falls farther and farther behind the Earth, and eventually Earth approaches it from the other direction. Then the asteroid gives up orbital energy to the Earth, and drops back into the smaller orbit, thus beginning the cycle anew. The cycle has no noticeable impact on the length of the year, because Earth's mass is over 20 billion (2 × 1010) times more than 3753 Cruithne. Epimetheus and Janus, satellites of Saturn, have a similar relationship, though they are of similar masses and so actually exchange orbits with each other periodically. (Janus is roughly 4 times more massive but still light enough for its orbit to be altered.) Another similar configuration is known as orbital resonance, in which orbiting bodies tend to have periods of a simple integer ratio, due to their interaction. In fiction Lagrange points are often mentioned in science fiction (most often hard science fiction), but are rarely used as a plot device because Lagrange points are unfamiliar outside of the scientific or space-enthusiast community. L1 In Arthur Clarke's novel A Fall of Moondust, the station Lagrange II is situated at L1, and contributes vitally to locating Selene. In Arthur Clarke and Stephen Baxter's novel Sunstorm, the L1 point plays a crucial role in the building of a shield that has the purpose of saving Earth from a storm of energy from the Sun. In the Xbox video game Halo: Combat Evolved (2001) and sequel Halo 2 (2004), "Halo" ring worlds play key locations throughout the games. In Halo: CE and Halo 2, the Halo structures are in L1 Lagrange points between the gas giants Threshold and Substance, and their respective moons. In the Hugo Award-winning novel A Deepness in the Sky by Vernor Vinge, a temporary human habitat is built at the L1 point between the planet Arachna and its primary star, a highly variable dwarf called the On/Off Star. The planet on which Pitch Black is set receives continual daylight: an orrery depicts it at the apparent L1 point between one star and a pair of tightly orbiting stars, receiving periodic eclipses from a pair of gas giants occupying a wider orbit about L1 in the same plane. In Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn Trilogy, a ZTT jump drive cannot be used in a strong gravitational field. In the first book of the trilogy, The Reality Dysfunction, the main characters cannot escape from a gas giant's gravity well before their pursuers catch up with them. Instead, they race to the Lagrange point between the gas giant and one of its moons in order to activate their drive. Successful execution of this untried and reckless maneuver gains captain Joshua Calvert the nickname "LaGrange" Calvert. In the second book The Neutronium Alchemist, a visit is paid to the supposed home planet of the Kiint, Jobis, which features three moons orbiting the Lagrange One point, rotating around a common center. Robert L. Forward's novel Rocheworld concerns a double planet, called Roche and Eau, close enough to share an atmosphere. At certain times water flows through the L1 point from Eau to Roche. L2 See also: Lilith (hypothetical moon) In the TV series Quatermass II, the hostile aliens live on a small asteroid "no more than half a mile across" at a "theoretical point of equilibrium" on the dark side of the Earth, although neither L2 nor Lagrange are mentioned by name (the term "Bieber Variation" is used instead). In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode, "The Survivors", the Enterprise is surprised by an enemy ship that had been hiding in a Lagrange point. In the manga series Battle Angel Alita: Last Order, the ex-colony ship turned space station Leviathan 1 is at the L2 point in the Earth/Moon system. In John Varley's book Wizard, a religious group called the Coven set up a habitat at L2 to make themselves as remote as possible from the earth. L2 later slowly deteriorates into the space version of an unorganized shantytown as anyone with enough cash can set up a home there. "L2 became known as Sargasso Point to the pilots who carefully avoided it; those who had to travel through it called it the Pinball Machine, and they didn't smile." In Gundam 00 Lagrange-2 of the Earth-Moon system is the location of Veda. L3 See also: Counter-Earth In the third season of the TV series Lexx, the planets Fire and Water are found to reside in Earth's L3 point. John Norman's series takes place on a counter earth. In Mobile Suit Gundam 00, Celestial Being have established a base at Lagrange-3 of the Earth-Moon system. Here, they can make repairs as well as introduce new units. In Journey to the Far Side of the Sun, astronauts from earth find a mirror-image copy of the earth exactly on the opposite side of the sun. In the first season episode of Space 1999 "The Last Enemy" the crew of moonbase Alpha encounter two planets "Betha" and "Delta" in a typical "Lagrange L3" orbit. L4 In Larry Niven's novels The Integral Trees and The Smoke Ring, the L4 and L5 points of the Smoke Ring (a ring of breathable air and plant life orbiting a neutron star) have become gathering places for masses of water, living things, and human settlers. The eponymous interplanetary relay station in George O. Smith's "Venus Equilateral" stories was located in the L4 point of the Sun–Venus system. In the Xbox 360 game Mass Effect a group of inhabited space stations are situated at the L4 and L5 points. In John C. McLoughlin's novel 'The Helix and the Sword' L4 is the location of a key space station rumored to be inhabited by Ogres and Trolls who serve the Apolcalyptic Horseman of Pestilence. In Ben Bova's novel Colony, Island One is a space colony located at the Earth-Moon L4. This is because the colony's founder, Cyrus Cobb, found that L4 gave a better view of the moon than L5. L5 In Larry Niven's novels The Integral Trees and The Smoke Ring, the L4 and L5 points of the Smoke Ring (a ring of breathable air and plant life orbiting a neutron star) have become gathering places for masses of water, living things, and human settlers. The L5 Lagrange point is mentioned in L5: First City in Space, an early IMAX 3D movie. In William Gibson's novel Neuromancer, much of the action takes place in the L5 "archipelago", the location of many space stations. The planet Troas in the stories "Sucker Bait" by Isaac Asimov and "Question and Answer" by Poul Anderson was located in the L5 point of a fictional binary star system. The space station Babylon 5 is described to be located "at the L-5 point in a binary star system between a moon and a barren, lifeless planet." In his book "The High Frontier" Dr. Gerard O'Neill proposed the establishment of gigantic Space Islands in L5. The inhabitants of the L5 Society should convert Lunar material to huge solar power satellites. In Hideo Kojima's video game Policenauts, the setting of the game, an O'Neill model space colony, is located at the L5 Lagrange point. In Dan Simmons's novel The Rise of Endymion, the headquarters of the Pax Mercantilus is located at the L5 point of the planet Pacem, where CEO Kenzo Isozaki has a splendid view of the planet. In the novel Nature's End by Whitley Strieber and James Kunetka, a fictional future Russian Space Agency has established a colony at the L5 point in the Earth-Moon system appropriately named the "L5 Colony". Unspecified Lagrange points In most iterations of the Japanese anime meta-series Gundam, the Lagrange points are often used as points where humans have constructed space colonies. These depictions draw extensively from Gerard O'Neill's book The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space. The series Mobile Suit Gundam, Gundam Wing and Gundam SEED in particular contain themes of conflict between Earth and Lagrange point colonists. In the Starfire strategy game and the series of military science-fiction novels based on it, written by David Weber and Steve White, the warp points which allow starships to transit between solar systems without moving at faster-than-light speeds typically form at the Lagrange points. Lagrange points are famously mentioned in Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2010: Odyssey Two and the subsequent science fiction film 2010, where the Discovery spacecraft is located on a Lagrange point. The movie expands on this, claiming that Discovery is located at a point between Io and Jupiter, which would place it in the L1 point of the Jupiter–Io system. Lagrange points also play a role in the Larry Niven/Jerry Pournelle classic The Mote in God's Eye. In Robert Forward's Rocheworld, the locations for Lagrange points around a binary planet are discussed in contrast to typical system. In Iain M. Banks' The Algebraist, Lagrange points and their alternate forms are central to the plot as possible locations for wormholes. In the Independence War computer games, Lagrange points L4 and L5 are used as the only locations for jump-points. In the Battletech game series, a star's Nadir and Zenith are the standard hyperspace jump points for most interstellar spacecraft. Lagrange points (only the L1 point) are sometimes used to enter a system closer to planets, almost always for small-scale military or pirate operations due to the risk of catastrophic misjumps. In the Halo novels, the Lagrange points are the only places where a human ship can safely make a slipspace jump. In Halo, the namesake ring-world also occupies a Lagrange point between fictional planet Threshold, and its moon, Basis. In the PC video game Star Wars: X-Wing, Lagrange points are mentioned in the briefings of some missions that revolve around attacking objects placed at them. In the Robert A. Heinlein novel The Number of the Beast, two of the main characters engage in a discussion of adding planets to the solar system at Lagrange points. In the sci-fi series Stargate Atlantis, there was a defensive satellite located at a Lagrangian point in the solar system in which Atlantis was located. "The Siege", Stargate Atlantis. In 1991, Konami released a science fiction RPG for the NES in Japan called Lagrange Point. In the Robotech television series, an effect called an Orbital Warp Blast is created when a spaceship creates "a phenomenon known as the molecular vacuum" at a fictional "Lagrange Point 6, approximately 20,000 kilometers from Mars" (where one does not exist in the real world). In The Monkeys Thought 'Twas All In Fun by Orson Scott Card, a structure called the Trojan Object appears at L4 or L5. In the Star Trek novel The Abode of Life by Lee Correy, Captain Kirk states the planet Mercan has no Lagrangian points. In a parody of the science fiction comic Freefall, a character refers to a satellite bar located in "the Lagrange point" so that it's always Happy hour there. He then heads for the bar promising to be back before sunset (which never happens). Ken MacLeod's novel The Star Fraction mentions a collection of human habitats at the Earth-Sun Lagrange point, with semi-permanent residents. Implicitly, it is the L1 point which is referred to. In Vernor Vinge's novel Marooned in Realtime, the Earth-Moon Trojan points are used to store equipment for periods of millions of years. Related concepts In Larry Niven's novel Ringworld, the Puppeteers' "Fleet of Worlds" is arranged in a configuration (5 planets spaced at the points of a pentagon) called a Klemperer Rosette (misspelled "Kemplerer" in the novel). In actual fact, while it is an extension of the Lagrange concept to a special case N-body problem, and on the surface appears to be an extension of the L4 and L5 orbital mechanics, its stability is more akin to the L1, L2, and L3 positions. Considerable energy expenditure would be required to maintain it over time. See also Euler's three-body problem List of objects at Lagrangian points Lunar space elevator Home on Lagrange (The L5 Song) L5 Society Horseshoe orbit Hill sphere Notes and references Further reading Lagrange, J.-L. Essai sur le problème des trois corps, 1772. Prix de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de Paris, tome IX, in vol. 6 of Oeuvres de Lagrange (Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1873), 272–282. External links Explanation of Lagrange points – Prof. Neil J. Cornish A NASA explanation – also attributed to Neil J. Cornish Explanation of Lagrange points – Prof. John Baez Geometry and calculations of Lagrange points – Dr J R Stockton Locations of Lagrange points, with approximations – Dr. David Peter Stern An online calculator to compute the precise positions of the 5 Lagrange points for any 2-body system – Tony Dunn

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Bram_Stoker

Abraham "Bram" Stoker (8 November 1847–20 April 1912) was an Irish novelist and short story writer, best known today for his 1897 horror novel Dracula. During his lifetime, he was better known as the personal assistant of actor Henry Irving and business manager of the Lyceum Theatre in London, which Irving owned. Early life He was born in 1847 at 15 Marino Crescent, Clontarf, Dublin. Weston St. John Joyce: The Neighbourhood of Dublin, 3rd edition, 1920, Chapter 24 His parents were Abraham Stoker (1799–1876), from Dublin, and the feminist Charlotte Mathilda Blake Thornely (1818–1901), who came from Ballyshannon, County Donegal. Stoker was the third of seven children. His siblings were: Sir (William) Thornley Stoker, born in 1845; Mathilda, born 1846; Thomas, born 1850; Richard, born 1852; Margaret, born 1854; and George, born 1855 Abraham and Charlotte were members of the Church of Ireland Parish of Clontarf and attended the parish church with their children, who were baptised there. Stoker was bed-ridden until he started school at the age of seven, when he made a complete recovery. Of this time, Stoker wrote, "I was naturally thoughtful, and the leisure of long illness gave opportunity for many thoughts which were fruitful according to their kind in later years." He was educated in a private school run by the Rev. William Woods. Obituary, Irish Times, 23 April 1912 After his recovery, he grew up without further major health issues, even excelling as an athlete (he was named University Athlete) at Trinity College, Dublin, which he attended from 1864 to 1870. He graduated with honours in mathematics. He was auditor of the College Historical Society and president of the University Philosophical Society, where his first paper was on "Sensationalism in Fiction and Society". Early career While still a student he became interested in the theatre. Through the influence of a friend, Dr. Maunsell, he became the theatre critic for a newspaper, the Dublin Evening Mail, co-owned by the author of Gothic tales Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu. At a time when theatre critics were held in low esteem, he attracted notice by the quality of his reviews. In December 1876 he gave a favourable review of the actor Henry Irving's performance as Hamlet at the Theatre Royal in Dublin. Irving read the review and invited Stoker for dinner at the Shelbourne Hotel, where he was staying. After that they became friends. Stoker also wrote stories, and in 1872 "The Crystal Cup" was published by the London Society, followed by "The Chain of Destiny" in four parts in The Shamrock. In 1876, while employed as a civil servant in Dublin, Stoker wrote a non-fiction book (The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland, published 1879), which long remained a standard work on the subject. Bram Stoker's former home, Kildare Street, Dublin, Ireland. Lyceum Theatre and later career In 1878 Stoker married Florence Balcombe, daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel James Balcombe of 1 Marino Crescent, a celebrated beauty whose former suitor was Oscar Wilde Irish Times, 8 March 1882, page 5 . Stoker had known Wilde from his student days, having proposed him for membership of the university’s Philosophical Society while he was president. Wilde was upset at Florence's decision, but Stoker later resumed the acquaintanceship, and after Wilde's fall visited him on the Continent. The Stokers moved to London, where Stoker became acting-manager and then business manager of Irving's Lyceum Theatre, London, a post he held for 27 years. On 31 December 1879, Bram and Florence's only child was born, a son whom they christened Irving Noel Thornley Stoker. The collaboration with Irving was very important for Stoker and through him he became involved in London's high society, where he met, among other notables, James Abbott McNeill Whistler and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (to whom he was distantly related). Working for Irving, the most famous actor of his time, and managing one of the most successful theatres in London made Stoker a notable if very busy man. He was absolutely dedicated to Irving and his memoirs of Irving show how he idolised him. In London Stoker also met Hall Caine who became one of his closest friends and he dedicated Dracula to him. In the course of Irving's tours, Stoker got the chance to travel around the world though he never visited Eastern Europe, scene of part of his most famous novel. Stoker particularly enjoyed visits to the United States and Irving was very popular there. With Irving he was invited twice to the White House, and knew both William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Stoker was a great admirer of the country, setting two of his novels there and using Americans as characters, the most notable being Quincey Morris. He also got a chance to meet one of his literary idols Walt Whitman. The first edition cover of Dracula Writing Stoker supplemented his income by writing novels; the best known being the vampire tale Dracula which was published in 1897. Before writing Dracula, Stoker spent several years researching European folklore and stories of vampires. Dracula is an epistolary novel, written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the Whitby and London newspapers. Stoker's inspirations for the story, in addition to Whitby, may have included a visit to Slains Castle in Aberdeenshire, and a visit to the crypts of St. Michan's Church in Dublin. After Irving's death he managed productions at the Prince of Wales Theatre and was also on the staff of the Daily Telegraph, but he concentrated mainly on his writings. In 1906 he brought out his life of Irving, which proved very successful. Death After suffering a number of strokes Bram Stoker died at No 26 St George's Square in 1912. Some biographers attribute the cause of death to tertiary syphilis . He was cremated and his ashes placed in a display urn at Golders Green Crematorium. After Irving Noel Stoker's death in 1961, his ashes were added to that urn. The original plan had been to keep his parents' ashes together, but after Florence Stoker's death her ashes were scattered at the Gardens of Rest. To visit his remains at Golders Green, visitors must be escorted to the room the urn is housed in, for fear of vandalism. Beliefs and Philosophy Stoker was brought up as a Protestant, in the Church of Ireland. He was a strong supporter of the Liberal party. He took a keen interest in Irish affairs and was what he called a "philosophical Home Ruler", believing in Home Rule for Ireland brought about by peaceful means - but as an ardent monarchist he believed that Ireland should remain within the British Empire which he believed was a force for good. He was a great admirer of Prime Minister William Gladstone whom he knew personally, and admired his plans for Ireland Murray, Paul. From the Shadow of Dracula: A Life of Bram Stoker. 2004. . Stoker had a strong interest in science and medicine and a belief in progress. Some of his novels like The Lady of the Shroud (1909) can be seen as science fiction. Like many people of his time Stoker believed in the concept of scientific racism drawing on his belief in Phrenology and these fears form elements in novels like Dracula. This is also reflected in his interest in early theories of criminology - he read both Cesare Lombroso and Max Nordau and used them in Dracula. Stoker was also sexist by modern standards and strongly opposed to the idea of the New Woman and several of his novels use this as a theme with the danger of assertive woman represented by a Femme fatale. Stoker had an interest in the occult especially mesmerism, but was also wary of occult fraud and believed strongly that superstition should be replaced by more scientific ideas. In the mid 1890s, Stoker is rumoured to have become a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, though there is no concrete evidence to support this claim. One of Stoker's closest friends was J.W. Brodie-Innis, a major figure in the Order, and Stoker himself hired Pamela Coleman Smith, as an artist at the Lyceum Theater. Posthumous The short story collection Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories was published in 1914 by Stoker's widow Florence Stoker. The first film adaptation of Dracula was released in 1922 and was named Nosferatu. It was directed by Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau and starred Max Schreck as Count Orlock. Nosferatu was produced while Florence Stoker, Bram Stoker's widow and literary executrix, was still alive. Represented by the attorneys of the British Incorporated Society of Authors, she eventually sued the filmmakers. Her chief legal complaint was that she had been neither asked for permission for the adaptation nor paid any royalty. The case dragged on for some years, with Mrs. Stoker demanding the destruction of the negative and all prints of the film. The suit was finally resolved in the widow's favour in July 1925. Some copies of the film survived, however and the film has become well known. The first authorized film version of Dracula did not come about until almost a decade later when Universal Studios released Tod Browning's Dracula (1931 film) starring Bela Lugosi. Bibliography Novels Bram Stoker Commemorative Plaque, Whitby, England (2002) The Primrose Path (1875) The Snake's Pass (1890) The Watter's Mou' (1895) The Shoulder of Shasta (1895) Dracula (1897) Miss Betty (1898) The Mystery of the Sea (1902) The Jewel of Seven Stars (1903) The Man (aka: The Gates of Life) (1905) Lady Athlyne (1908) The Lady of the Shroud (1909) The Lair of the White Worm (1911) Short story collections Under the Sunset (1881), comprising eight fairy tales for children Snowbound: The Record of a Theatrical Touring Party (1908) Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories (1914), published posthumously by Florence Stoker Uncollected stories "Bridal of Dead" (alternate ending to The Jewel of Seven Stars) "Buried Treasures" "The Chain of Destiny" "The Crystal Cup" "The Dualitists; or, The Death Doom of the Double Born" "Lord Castleton Explains" (chapter 10 of The Fate of Fenella) "The Gombeen Man" (chapter 3 of The Snake's Pass) "In the Valley of the Shadow" "The Man from Shorrox" "Midnight Tales" "The Red Stockade" "The Seer" (chapters 1 and 2 of The Mystery of the Sea) Non-fiction The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland (1879) A Glimpse of America (1886) Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving (1906) Famous Impostors (1910) Bram Stoker's Notes for Dracula: A Facsimile Edition (2008) Bram Stoker Annotated and Transcribed by Robert Eighteen-Bisang and Elizabeth Miller, Foreword by Michael Barsanti. Jefferson NC & London: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-3410-7 Critical Works on Stoker William Hughes, Beyond Dracula (Palgrave, 2000) ISBN 0312231369 http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/victorian_studies/v044/44.2glover.html References and notes External links h2g2 article on Bram Stoker Bram Stoker's brief biography and works 20 Common Misconceptions and Other Miscellaneous Information The Stoker Dracula Organisation Gothic and Stoker Studies at Bath Spa University Online texts Bram Stoker Page Bram Stoker's Dracula full text.

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Dartmouth_College

Dartmouth College () is a private, coeducational university located in Hanover, New Hampshire. Incorporated as "Trustees of Dartmouth College," it is a member of the Ivy League and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. In addition to its undergraduate liberal arts program, Dartmouth has medical, engineering, and business schools, as well as 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences. With a total enrollment of 5,848, Dartmouth is the smallest school in the Ivy League. Established in 1769 by Congregational minister Eleazar Wheelock with funds largely raised by the efforts of Native American preacher Samson Occom, the College's initial mission was to acculturate and Christianize the Native Americans. After a long period of financial and political struggles, Dartmouth emerged from relative obscurity in the early twentieth century. In 2004, Booz Allen Hamilton selected Dartmouth College as a model of institutional endurance "whose record of endurance has had implications and benefits for all American organizations, both academic and commercial," citing Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward and Dartmouth's successful self-reinvention in the late 1800s. ; section on Dartmouth College footnoted to John R. Thelin, who also selected the University of Oxford for inclusion as a model of institutional endurance. Dartmouth alumni, from Daniel Webster to the many donors in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, have been famously involved in their college. Dartmouth is located on a rural 269-acre (1.1 km²) campus in the Upper Valley region of New Hampshire. Given the College's isolated location, participation in athletics and the school's Greek system is high. Dartmouth's 34 varsity sports teams compete in the Ivy League conference of the NCAA Division I. Students are also well-known for preserving a variety of strong campus traditions. History The Charter of Dartmouth College on display in Baker Memorial Library. The Charter was signed on December 13, 1769, on behalf of King George III of Great Britain. Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Puritan minister from Connecticut, who sought to establish a school to train Native Americans as missionaries. Wheelock's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment largely resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock's tutelage from 1743 to 1747 and later moved to Long Island to preach to the Montauks. Wheelock instituted Moor's Indian Charity School in 1755. The Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue school’s operations. To this end, Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money. Occom, accompanied by Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money in the dissenting churches of that nation. With the funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock. Although the fund provided Wheelock ample financial support for the Charity School, Wheelock had trouble recruiting Indians to the institution—primarily because its location was far from tribal territories. Receiving the best land offer from New Hampshire, Wheelock approached the Royal Governor of the Province of New Hampshire John Wentworth for a charter. Wentworth, acting in the name King George III of the United Kingdom, granted Dartmouth a royal charter on December 13, 1769, establishing the final colonial college and naming the institution after his English friend, William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth. Dartmouth's purpose, according to the original charter, was to provide for the Christianization, instruction, and education of "youth of the Indian Tribes in this land [...] and also of English youth and any others." Given the failure of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new College as one primarily for whites. Wheelock had established a collegiate department within Moor's Charity School in 1768. He moved the school to Hanover in 1770 where the College granted its first degrees in 1771. Occom, disappointed with Wheelock's departure from the school's original goal of Indian Christianization, went on to form his own community of New England Indians called Brothertown Indians in New York. In 1819, Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic Dartmouth College case, in which the State of New Hampshire's 1816 attempt to amend the College's royal charter to make the school a public university was challenged. An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the College buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817, though the College continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby. Daniel Webster, an alumnus of the class of 1801, presented the College's case to the Supreme Court of the United States, which found the amendment of Dartmouth's charter to be an illegal impairment of a contract by the state and reversed New Hampshire's takeover of the College. Webster concluded his peroration with the famous and frequently quoted words: "It is, Sir, as I have said, a small college. And yet there are those who love it." Lithograph of the President's House, Thornton Hall, Dartmouth Hall, and Wentworth Hall, circa 1834. Dartmouth emerged onto the national academic stage at the turn of the twentieth century. Prior to this period, the College had been relatively unknown and poorly funded. Under the presidency of William Jewett Tucker (1893–1909), Dartmouth underwent a major revitalization of facilities, faculty, and the student body, following large endowments such as the $10,000 given by Dartmouth alumnus and law professor John Ordronaux. Twenty new structures replaced antiquated buildings, while the student body and faculty both expanded threefold. Tucker is often credited for having "refounded Dartmouth" and bringing it into national prestige. Presidents Ernest Fox Nichols (1909–16) and Ernest Martin Hopkins (1916–45) continued Tucker's trend of modernization, further improving campus facilities and introducing selective admissions in the 1920s. John Sloan Dickey, serving as president from 1945 until 1970, strongly emphasized the liberal arts, particularly public policy and international relations. In 1970, longtime professor of mathematics and computer science John George Kemeny became president of Dartmouth. Kemeny presided over several major changes at the College. Dartmouth, previously serving as a men's institution, began admitting women as full-time students and undergraduate degree candidates in 1972 amid much controversy. At about the same time, the College adopted its "Dartmouth Plan" of academic scheduling, permitting the student body to increase in size within the existing facilities. During the 1990s, the College saw a major academic overhaul under President James O. Freedman and a controversial (and ultimately unsuccessful) 1999 initiative to encourage the school's single-sex Greek houses to go coed. The 2000s saw the commencement of the $1.3 billion Campaign for the Dartmouth Experience, the largest capital fundraising campaign in the College's history, which as of January 2008 has surpassed $1 billion and is on schedule to be completed before 2010. The mid- and late 2000s have also seen extensive campus construction, with the erection of two new housing complexes, full renovation of two dormitories, and a forthcoming dining hall, life sciences center, and visual arts center. Since the election of a number of petition elections to the Board of Trustees starting in 2004, the role of alumni in Dartmouth governance has been the subject of ongoing ideological conflict. Current president James Wright announced his retirement in February 2008, to be replaced by Harvard University professor and physician Jim Yong Kim on July 1, 2009. Presidents of Dartmouth Also see Ivy League Presidents. Reverend Eleazar Wheelock John Wheelock Reverend Francis Brown Reverend Daniel Dana Reverend Bennet Tyler Reverend Nathan Lord Reverend Asa Dodge Smith Reverend Samuel Colcord Bartlett Reverend William Jewett Tucker Ernest Fox Nichols Ernest Martin Hopkins John Sloan Dickey John G. Kemeny David T. McLaughlin James O. Freedman James Wright Jim Yong Kim Academics and administration Until it burned in 1904, Dartmouth Hall (first built in 1784) was the oldest building on Dartmouth's campus. (It was rebuilt the following year, shown here.) Dartmouth, a liberal arts institution, offers only a four-year Bachelor of Arts degree to undergraduate students. There are 39 academic departments offering 56 major programs, although students are free to design special majors or engage in dual majors. In 2008, the most popular majors were economics, government, history, psychological and brain sciences, English, biology, and engineering sciences. In order to graduate, a student must complete 35 total courses, eight to ten of which are typically part of a chosen major program. Other requirements for graduation include the completion of ten "distributive requirements" in a variety of academic fields, proficiency in a foreign language, and completion of a writing class or first-year seminar in writing. Many departments offer honors programs requiring students seeking that distinction to engage in "independent, sustained work," culminating in the production of a thesis. In addition to the courses offered in Hanover, Dartmouth offers 57 different off-campus programs, including Foreign Study Programs, Language Study Abroad programs, and Exchange Programs. Dartmouth also grants degrees in nineteen Arts & Sciences graduate programs. Furthermore, Dartmouth is home to three graduate schools: Dartmouth Medical School (established 1797), Thayer School of Engineering (1867)—which also serves as the undergraduate department of engineering sciences—and Tuck School of Business (1900). With these graduate programs, conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of "Dartmouth University"; however, because of historical and nostalgic reasons (such as Dartmouth College v. Woodward), the school uses the name "Dartmouth College" to refer to the entire institution. Dartmouth employs a total of 597 tenured or tenure-track faculty members, including the highest proportion of female tenured professors among the Ivy League universities. Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the Dartmouth Conferences, the Dartmouth Time Sharing System, Dartmouth BASIC, and Dartmouth ALGOL 30. As of 2005, sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $169 million. Dartmouth serves as the host institution of the University Press of New England, a university press founded in 1970 that is supported by a consortium of schools that also includes Brandeis University, the University of New Hampshire, Northeastern University, Tufts University and the University of Vermont. The Dartmouth Plan Baker Memorial Library at Dartmouth College Dartmouth functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. The Dartmouth Plan (or simply "D-Plan") is an academic scheduling system that permits the customization of each student's academic year. All undergraduates are required to be in residence for the fall, winter, and spring terms of their freshman and senior years, as well as the summer term of their sophomore year. During all other terms, students are permitted to choose between studying on-campus, studying at an off-campus program, or taking a term off for vacation, outside internships, or research projects. The typical course load is three classes per term, and students will generally enroll in classes for twelve total terms over the course of their academic career. The D-Plan was instituted in the early 1970s at the same time that Dartmouth began accepting female undergraduates. It was initially devised as a plan to increase the enrollment without enlarging campus accommodations, and has been described as "a way to put 4,000 students into 3,000 beds." Although new dormitories have been built since, the number of students has also increased and the D-Plan remains in effect and mainly unchanged. Admissions McNutt Hall, the location of the Department of Admissions & Financial Aid Dartmouth describes itself as "highly selective," ranked as the fifteenth "toughest to get into" school by The Princeton Review in 2007, and classified as "most selective" by U.S. News & World Report. For the class of 2012, 16,536 students applied for approximately 1,100 places, and only 13.2% of applicants were admitted. 93.4% of admitted students were ranked in the top 10% of their high school graduating class. 38.5% of admitted students were valedictorians and 11.3% were salutatorians. The mean SAT scores of admitted students by section were 726 for verbal, 731 for math, and 726 for writing. In 2007, Dartmouth was ranked eleventh among undergraduate programs at national universities by U.S. News & World Report. However, since Dartmouth is ranked in a category for national research universities, some have questioned the fairness of the ranking given the College's emphasis on undergraduate education. Dartmouth ranks number seven in the Wall Street Journal's ranking of top feeder schools. The 2006 Carnegie Foundation classification listed Dartmouth as the only majority-undergraduate, arts-and-sciences focused institution in the country that also had some graduate coexistence and very high research activity. Dartmouth meets 100% of students' demonstrated financial need in order to attend the College, and currently admits all students, including internationals, on a need-blind basis. Beginning in the 2008–2009 academic year, Dartmouth instituted a new financial aid policy extending need-blind admission to international students and replaced all student loans with scholarships and grants. Students from families with a combined annual income of less than $75,000 are not charged any tuition. Board of Trustees Dartmouth is governed by a Board of Trustees comprising the College president (ex officio), the state governor (ex officio), thirteen trustees nominated and elected by the board (called "charter trustees"), and eight trustees nominated by alumni and elected by the board ("alumni trustees"). The nominees for alumni trustee are determined by a poll of the members of the Association of Alumni of Dartmouth College, selecting from among names put forward by the Alumni Council or by alumni petition. Although the Board elected its members from the two sources of nominees in equal proportions between 1891 and 2007, the Board decided in 2007 to add several new members, all charter trustees. In the controversy that followed the decision, the Association of Alumni filed a lawsuit, although it later withdrew the action. In 2008, the Board added five new charter trustees. Campus Dartmouth College is situated in the rural town of Hanover, New Hampshire, located in the Upper Valley along the Connecticut River in New England. Its 269 acre (1.1 km²) campus is centered around a five-acre (two-hectare) "Green", a former field of pine trees cleared by the College in 1771. Dartmouth is the largest private landowner of the town of Hanover, and its total landholdings and facilities are worth an estimated $434 million. In addition to its campus in Hanover, Dartmouth owns 4,500 acres (18.2 km²) of Mount Moosilauke in the White Mountains Region Dartmouth Outing Guide p. 56. and a 27,000 acre (109 km²) tract of land in northern New Hampshire known as the Second College Grant. Dartmouth's campus buildings vary in age from Wentworth and Thornton Halls of the 1820s (the oldest surviving buildings constructed by the College) to new dormitories and mathematics facilities completed in 2006. Most of Dartmouth's buildings are designed in the Georgian American colonial style, a theme which has been preserved in recent architectural additions. The College has actively sought to reduce carbon emissions and energy usage on campus, earning it the grade of A- from the Sustainable Endowments Institute on its College Sustainability Report Card 2008. Academic facilities The Hopkins Center The College's creative and performing arts facility is the Hopkins Center for the Arts ("the Hop"). Opened in 1962, the Hop houses the College's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and faculty. The building was designed by the famed architect Wallace Harrison, who would later design the similar-looking façade of Manhattan's Metropolitan Opera House at the Lincoln Center. Its facilities include two theaters and one 900-seat auditorium. The Hop is also the location of all student mailboxes ("Hinman boxes") and the Courtyard Café dining facility. The Hop is connected to the Hood Museum of Art, arguably North America's oldest museum in continuous operation, and the Loew Auditorium, where films are screened. A view of the Sherman Fairchild Physical Science Center and Wheeler Hall from the tower of Baker Memorial Library In addition to its nineteen graduate programs in the arts and sciences, Dartmouth is home to three separate graduate schools. Dartmouth Medical School is located in a complex on the north side of campus and includes laboratories, classrooms, offices, and a biomedical library. The Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, located several miles to the south in Lebanon, New Hampshire, contains a 396-bed teaching hospital for the Medical School. The Thayer School of Engineering and the Tuck School of Business are both located at the end of Tuck Mall, west of the center of campus and near the Connecticut River. The Thayer School presently comprises two buildings; Tuck has six academic and administrative buildings, as well as several common areas. The two graduate schools share a library, the Feldberg Business & Engineering Library. Dartmouth's nine libraries are all part of the collective Dartmouth College Library, which comprises 2.48 million volumes and 6 million total resources, including videos, maps, sound recordings, and photographs. Its specialized libraries include the Biomedical Libraries, Evans Map Room, Feldberg Business & Engineering Library, Jones Media Center, Kresge Physical Sciences Library, Paddock Music Library, Rauner Special Collections Library, and Sherman Art Library. Baker-Berry Library is the main library at Dartmouth, comprising Baker Memorial Library (opened 1928) and Berry Library (opened 2000 ). Located on the northern side of the Green, Baker's tower is an iconic symbol of the College. Athletic facilities Memorial Field Dartmouth's original sports field was the Green, where students played cricket and old division football during the 1800s. Today, Dartmouth maintains more than a dozen athletic facilities and fields and has spent more than $70 million in facility improvements since 2000. Most of Dartmouth's athletic facilities are located in the southeast corner of campus. The center of athletic life is the Alumni Gymnasium, which includes the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool, a fitness center, a weight room, and a 1/13th-mile (123 m) indoor track. Attached to Alumni Gymnasium is the Berry Sports Center, which contains basketball and volleyball courts (Leede Arena), as well as the Kresge Fitness Center. Behind the Alumni Gymnasium is Memorial Field, a 15,000-seat stadium overlooking Dartmouth's football field and track. The nearby Thompson Arena, designed by Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi and constructed in 1975, houses Dartmouth's ice rink. Also visible from Memorial Field is the Nathaniel Leverone Fieldhouse, home to the indoor track. Dartmouth's other athletic facilities in Hanover include the Friends of Dartmouth Rowing Boathouse, located along the Connecticut River, the Hanover Country Club, Dartmouth's oldest remaining athletic facility (established in 1899), and the Corey Ford Rugby Clubhouse. The College also maintains the Dartmouth Skiway, a 100 acre (0.4 km²) skiing facility located over two mountains near the Hanover campus in Lyme Center, New Hampshire. Housing and student life facilities Lord Hall in the Gold Coast Cluster As opposed to ungrouped dormitories or residential colleges as employed at such institutions as Yale University, Dartmouth has nine residential communities located throughout campus. The dormitories vary in design from modern to traditional Georgian styles, and room arrangements range from singles to quads and apartment suites. Since 2006, the College has guaranteed housing for students during their freshman and sophomore years. More than 3,000 students elect to live in housing provided by College. Campus meals are served by Dartmouth Dining Services, which operates eleven dining establishments around campus. Four of them are located at the center of campus in Thayer Dining Hall. The Collis Center is the center of student life and programming, serving as what would be generically termed the "student union" or "campus center." It contains a café, study space, common areas, and a number of administrative departments, including the Academic Skills Center. Robinson Hall, next door to both Collis and Thayer, contains the offices of a number of student organizations including the Dartmouth Outing Club and The Dartmouth daily newspaper. Student life In 2006, The Princeton Review ranked Dartmouth third in its "Quality of Life" category, and sixth for having the "Happiest Students." Athletics and participation in the Greek system are the most popular campus activities; in all, Dartmouth offers more than 350 organizations, teams, and sports. The school is also home to a variety of longstanding traditions and celebrations. Student groups Robinson Hall houses many of the College's student-run organizations, including the Dartmouth Outing Club. The building is a designated stop along the Appalachian Trail. Dartmouth's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests. As of 2007, the College hosts eight academic groups, 17 cultural groups, two honor societies, 30 "issue-oriented" groups, 25 performing groups, 12 pre-professional groups, 20 publications, and 11 recreational groups. Notable student groups include the nation's largest and oldest collegiate outdoors club, the Dartmouth Outing Club, the outspoken and progressive Dartmouth Free Press, the controversial newspaper The Dartmouth Review, and The Dartmouth, arguably the nation's oldest university newspaper. The Dartmouth describes itself as "America's Oldest College Newspaper, Founded 1799." However, according to the 1928 Aegis yearbook, the daily newspaper is unrelated to a literary publication established under a different name in 1799. The Dartmouth as it currently exists was founded in 1839, and it calculates its present volume number from that year.</ref> Partially due to Dartmouth's rural, isolated location, the Greek system dating from the 1840s is one of the most popular social outlets for students. Dartmouth is home to 27 recognized Greek houses: 15 fraternities, nine sororities, and three coeducational organizations. As of 2007, over 60% of eligible students belong to a Greek organization; since 1987, students have not been permitted to join Greek organizations until their sophomore year. Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to desegregate fraternity houses in the 1950s, and was involved in the movement to create coeducational Greek houses in the 1970s. In the early 2000s, campus-wide debate focused on a Board of Trustees recommendation that Greek organizations become "substantially coeducational"; this attempt to the change the Greek system eventually failed. The College has an additional classification of social/residential organizations known as undergraduate societies. Athletics A Dartmouth varsity hockey game against Princeton at Thompson Arena Athletics are highly popular at Dartmouth: approximately 20% of students participate in a varsity sport, and nearly 80% participate in some form of club, varsity, intramural, or other athletics. As of 2007, Dartmouth College fields 34 intercollegiate varsity teams: 16 for men, 16 for women, and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs. Dartmouth's athletic teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I eight-member Ivy League conference; some teams also participate in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). As is mandatory for the members of the Ivy League, Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships. In addition to the traditional American team sports (football, basketball, baseball, and ice hockey), Dartmouth competes in many other sports including track and field, sailing, tennis, rowing, soccer, skiing, and lacrosse. The College also offers 26 club and intramural sports such as rugby, water polo, figure skating, volleyball, ultimate frisbee, and cricket, leading to a 75% participation rate in athletics among the undergraduate student body. The figure skating team has performed particularly well in recent years, winning the national championship in each of the past five consecutive seasons. In addition to the academic requirements for graduation, Dartmouth requires every undergraduate to complete a swim and three terms of physical education. Technology Students at a bank of Blitz terminals in Baker-Berry Library. Technology plays an important role in student life, as Dartmouth has been ranked as one of the technologically most advanced colleges in the world (as in Newsweek'''s 2004 ranking of "Hottest for the Tech-Savvy" and Yahoo!'s 1998 "Wired Colleges" list ). BlitzMail, the campus e-mail network, plays a tremendous role in social life, as students tend to use it for communication in lieu of cellular phones or instant messaging programs. Student reliance on BlitzMail (known colloquially as "Blitz," which functions as both noun and verb) is reflected by the presence of about 100 public computer terminals intended specifically for BlitzMail use. Since 1991, Dartmouth students have been required to own a personal computer. In 2001, Dartmouth became the first Ivy League institution to offer entirely ubiquitous wireless internet access. With over 1,400 access points, the network is available throughout all College buildings as well as in most public outdoor spaces. Other technologies being pioneered include College-wide Video-on-Demand and VoIP rollouts. Native Americans at Dartmouth The charter of Dartmouth College, granted to Eleazar Wheelock in 1769, proclaims that the institution was created "for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing and all parts of Learning ... as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences; and also of English Youth and any others." The funds for Dartmouth College were raised primarily by the efforts of a Native American named Samson Occom. Despite this initial mission, the College graduated only nineteen Native Americans during its first two hundred years. In 1970, the College established Native American academic and social programs as part of a "new dedication to increasing Native American enrollment." Since then, Dartmouth has graduated over 500 Native American students from over 120 different tribes, more than the other seven Ivy League universities combined. Traditions Snow sculpture at the 2004 Dartmouth Winter Carnival Dartmouth is well-known for its fierce school spirit and many traditions. The College functions on a quarter system, and one weekend each term is set aside as a traditional celebratory event, known on campus as "big weekends" or "party weekends". In the fall term, Homecoming (officially called Dartmouth Night) is marked by a bonfire on the Green constructed by the freshman class. Winter term is celebrated by Winter Carnival, a tradition started in 1911 by the Dartmouth Outing Club to promote winter sports. In the spring, Green Key is a weekend mostly devoted to campus parties and celebration. The summer term was formerly marked by Tubestock, an unofficial tradition in which the students used wooden rafts and inner tubes to float on the Connecticut River. Begun in 1986, Tubestock met its demise in 2006 when Hanover town ordinances and a lack of coherent student protest conspired to defeat the popular tradition. The class of 2008, during their summer term on campus in 2006, replaced the defunct Tubestock with Fieldstock. This new celebration includes a barbecue, live music, and the revival of the 1970s and 1980s tradition of racing homemade chariots around the Green. Unlike Tubestock, Fieldstock is funded and supported by the College. Another longstanding tradition is four-day, student-run Dartmouth Outing Club trips for incoming freshmen, begun in 1935. Each trip concludes at the Moosilauke Ravine Lodge. In 2006, 85% of freshman elected to participate. Insignia and other representations Motto and song Dartmouth's motto, chosen by Eleazar Wheelock, is "Vox Clamantis in Deserto". The Latin motto is literally translated as "The voice of one crying in the wilderness", but is more often rendered as "A voice crying in the wilderness", which attempts to translate the synecdoche of the phrase. The phrase appears five times in the Bible and is a reference to the College's location on what was once the frontier of European settlement. Richard Hovey's "Men of Dartmouth" was elected as the best of Dartmouth's songs in 1896, and became the school's official song in 1926. The song was retitled to "Alma Mater" in the 1980s when its lyrics were changed to refer to women as well as men. Seal Seal of Dartmouth College Dartmouth's 1769 royal charter required the creation of a seal for use on official documents and diplomas. The College's founder Eleazar Wheelock designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, a missionary society founded in London in 1701, in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education. Engraved by a Boston silversmith, the seal was ready by Commencement of 1773. The trustees officially accepted the seal on August 25, 1773, describing it as: On October 28, 1926, the trustees affirmed the charter's reservation of the seal for official corporate documents alone. The College Publications Committee commissioned noted typographer W. A. Dwiggins to create a line drawing version of the seal in 1940 that saw widespread use. Dwiggins' design was modified during 1957 to change the date from "1770" to "1769," to accord with the date of the College Charter. The trustees commissioned a new set of dies with a date of "1769" to replace the old dies, now badly worn after almost two hundred years of use. The 1957 design continues to be used under trademark number 2305032. Shield On October 28, 1926, the Trustees approved a "Dartmouth College Shield" for general use. Artist and engraver W. Parke Johnson designed this emblem on the basis of the shield that is depicted at the center of the original seal. This design does not survive. On June 9, 1944 the trustees approved another coat of arms based on the shield part of the seal, this one by Canadian artist and designer Thoreau MacDonald. That design was used widely and, like Dwiggins' seal, had its date changed from "1770" to "1769" around 1958. That version continues to be used under trademark registration number 3112676 and others. College designer John Scotford made a stylized version of the shield during the 1960s, but it did not see the success of MacDonald's design. The shield appears to have been used as the basis of the shield of Dartmouth Medical School, and it has been reproduced in sizes as small as a few nanometers across. The design has appeared on Rudolph Ruzicka's Bicentennial Medal (Philadelphia Mint, 1969) and elsewhere. Nickname, symbol, and mascot Keggy posing on the Dartmouth College Green with Baker Memorial Library in the background. Dartmouth has never had an official mascot. The nickname "The Big Green," originating in the 1860s, is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green ("Dartmouth Green") as the school's official color in 1866. Beginning in the 1920s, the Dartmouth College athletic teams were known by their unofficial nickname "the Indians," a moniker that probably originated among sports journalists. This unofficial mascot and team name was used until the early 1970s, when its use came under criticism. In 1974, the Trustees declared the "use of the [Indian] symbol in any form to be inconsistent with present institutional and academic objectives of the College in advancing Native American education." Some alumni and students, as well as the conservative student newspaper, The Dartmouth Review, have sought to return the Indian symbol to prominence, but no team has worn the symbol on its uniform in decades. Various student initiatives have been undertaken to adopt a new mascot, but none has become "official." One proposal devised by the College humor magazine the Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern was Keggy the Keg, an anthropomorphic beer keg who makes occasional appearances at College sporting events. Despite student enthusiasm for Keggy, the mascot has only received approval from the student government. In November 2006, student government attempted to revive the "Dartmoose" as a potential replacement amid renewed controversy surrounding the former Indian mascot. Alumni Dartmouth's alumni are known for their devotion to the College. In 2007, Dartmouth was ranked second only to Princeton University in the U.S. for alumni donation rates by U.S. News & World Report. According to a 2008 article in The Wall Street Journal, Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed. As of 2008, Dartmouth has graduated 238 classes of students and has over 60,000 living alumni in a variety of fields. Salmon P. Chase, class of 1826, was an American politician: Senator from Ohio, Governor of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury under Abraham Lincoln, and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, such as Massachusetts statesman Daniel Webster. Cabinet members of American presidents include Attorney General Amos T. Akerman, Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal, Secretary of Labor Robert Reich, former Secretary of the Treasury Henry Paulson, and the current Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner. C. Everett Koop was the Surgeon General of the United States under President Ronald Reagan. Two Dartmouth alumni have served as justices on the Supreme Court of the United States: Salmon P. Chase and Levi Woodbury. In literature and journalism, Dartmouth has produced eight Pulitzer Prize winners: Thomas M. Burton, Richard Eberhart, Robert Frost, Paul Gigot, Jake Hooker, Nigel Jaquiss, Martin J. Sherwin, and David K. Shipler. Other authors and media personalities include novelist/screenwriter Budd Schulberg, Dartmouth News, "Dartmouth acquires Budd Schulberg '36 papers" political analyst Dinesh D'Souza, radio talk show host Laura Ingraham, commentator Mort Kondracke, and journalist James Panero. Theodor Geisel, better known as children's author Dr. Seuss, was a member of the class of 1925. Dartmouth alumni in academia include Stuart Kauffman and Jeffrey Weeks, both recipients of MacArthur Fellowships (commonly called "genius grants"). Dartmouth has also graduated three Nobel Prize winners: Owen Chamberlain (Physics, 1959), K. Barry Sharpless (Chemistry, 2001), and George Davis Snell (Physiology or Medicine, 1980). Educators include the founding president of Vassar College Milo Parker Jewett, founder and first president of Bates College Oren B. Cheney, founder and first president of Kenyon College Philander Chase, first professor of Wabash College Caleb Mills, and former president of Union College Charles Augustus Aiken. Nine of Dartmouth's sixteen presidents were alumni of the College. Dartmouth alumni serving as CEOs or company presidents include Sandy Alderson (San Diego Padres), John Donahoe (eBay), Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. (IBM), Charles E. Haldeman (Putnam Investments), Donald J. Hall, Sr. (Hallmark Cards), Jeffrey R. Immelt (General Electric), Henry Paulson (Goldman Sachs), Grant Tinker (NBC), and Brian Goldner (Hasbro). In entertainment and television, Dartmouth is represented by Rachel Dratch, a cast member of Saturday Night Live, creator of Grey's Anatomy Shonda Rhimes, and the titular character of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, Fred Rogers. Other notable actors include Sarah Wayne Callies (Prison Break), Mindy Kaling (The Office), Emmy Award winner Michael Moriarty,, Andrew Shue of Melrose Place, Aisha Tyler of Friends and 24, and Connie Britton of Spin City, The West Wing, and Friday Night Lights. A number of Dartmouth alumni have found success in professional sports. In baseball, Dartmouth alumni include All-Star and three-time Gold Glove winner Brad Ausmus and All-Star Mike Remlinger. Professional football players include former Miami Dolphins quarterback Jay Fiedler, linebacker Reggie Williams, three-time Pro Bowler Nick Lowery, quarterback Jeff Kemp, and Tennessee Titans tight end Casey Cramer. Dartmouth has also produced a number of Olympic competitors. Adam Nelson has won silver medals in the shotput in the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the 2004 Athens Olympics to go along with his gold medal in the 2005 World Championship in Helsinki. Kristin King and Sarah Parsons were members of the United States' 2006 bronze medal-winning ice hockey team. Cherie Piper, Gillian Apps, and Katie Weatherston were among Canada's ice hockey gold medalists in 2006. Dick Durrance and Tim Caldwell competed for the United States in skiing in the 1936 and 1976 Winter Olympics, respectively. Arthur Shaw, Earl Thomson, Edwin Myers, Marc Wright, Adam Nelson, Gerald Ashworth, and Vilhjálmur Einarsson have all won medals in track and field events. In popular culture Dartmouth College has appeared in or been referenced by a number of popular media. The 1978 comedy film National Lampoon's Animal House was cowritten by Chris Miller '63, and is based loosely on a series of fictional stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth. In a CNN interview, John Landis said the movie was "based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth," Alpha Delta Phi. Dartmouth's Winter Carnival tradition was the subject of the 1939 film Winter Carnival starring Ann Sheridan. Darmouth College has been mentioned twice on the FOX animated sitcom, The Simpsons, and both times have been on season 11 episodes and have associated Dartmouth College with alcoholic consumption. On "Alone Again, Natura-Diddly", a Christian rock singer named Rachel Jordan sings that she "was drinking like a Dartmouth boy". In "Pygmoelian", during the Duff Days festival, Duffman introduces the trick-pouring contest by saying that it counts as course credit at Dartmouth College. In addition, Dartmouth has served as the alma mater for a number of fictional characters, including Stephen Colbert's fictional persona, Michael Corleone of The Godfather, Meredith Grey of Grey's Anatomy, Thomas Crown of The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), and Howie Archibald of Gossip Girl. The characters Evan and Fogell of the 2007 film Superbad were also slated to attend Dartmouth. In the vampire romance series Twilight'', main characters Bella Swan and Edward Cullen plan to go to Dartmouth as a ruse. Dr. Lawrence Kutner in the medical drama House also attended Dartmouth. The character Dan Rydell in the short lived series Sports Night was a Dartmouth alumni, a subject that is mentioned in numerous episodes. References Further reading Look, Likeness: examining the portraits of Félix de la Concha'' 2009 ArtsEditor.com article External links Dartmouth College Dartmouth College News Dartmo.: The Buildings of Dartmouth College

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Geography_of_the_Isle_of_Man

Satellite image The Isle of Man is an island in the Irish Sea, between Great Britain and Ireland in Western Europe, with a population of over 75,000. It is a British Crown dependency. It has a small islet, the Calf of Man, to its south. It is located at . Dimensions Area: total: 572 km² land: 572 km² water: 0 km² This makes it: slightly more than three times the size of Washington, DC slightly more than one third the size of Hertfordshire slightly smaller than Saint Lucia. Coast The Isle of Man has a coastline of 160 km, and claims 12 nm of exclusive fishing zone and of territorial waters. Raad ny Foillan long distance footpath runs 95 miles around the Manx coast. Climate The Isle of Man enjoys a temperate climate, with cool summers and mild winters. Average rainfall is high compared to the majority of the British Isles, due to its location to the western side of Great Britain and sufficient distance from Ireland for moisture to be accumulated by the prevailing south-westerly winds. Average rainfall is highest at Snaefell, where it is around 1900 mm a year. At lower levels it can fall to around 800 mm a year. Temperatures remain fairly cool, with the recorded maximum being 28.9 °C at Ronaldsway. The Isle of Man is known for its overcast skies and low levels of sunshine. Terrain A view up a glen with Snaefell at the headThe island's terrain is varied. There are two mountainous areas divided by a central valley which runs between Douglas and Peel. The highest point in the Isle of Man, Snaefell, is in the northern area and reaches 621m. The northern end of the island is a flat plain, consisting of glacial tills and marine sediments. To the south the island is more hilly, with distinct valleys. There is no land below sea level. Land Use Arable land: 9% Permanent crops: 0% Permanent pastures: 46% Forests and woodland: 6% Other: 39% (includes 25% mountain and heathland) Natural hazards and environmental issues There are few severe natural hazards, the most common being high winds, rough seas and dense fog. In recent years there has been a marked increase in the frequency of high winds, heavy rains, summer droughts and flooding both from heavy rain and from high seas. Snow fall has decreased significantly over the past century while temperatures are increasing year round with rainfall decreasing. Air pollution, marine pollution and waste disposal are issues in the Isle of Man. Global warming and a sea level rise potentially pose a great threat to the Isle of Man. All of the Island's towns are at threat from rising sea levels while the Northern Plain, a large, flat and low-lying plain composed of soft marine sediments and glacial material, which makes up about a quarter of the Island's landmass, is in danger of being lost to the sea over the next two centuries. The same is true for the considerably smaller Southern Plain surrounding the settlements of Castletown and Ballasalla and including Ronaldsway Airport. Protected Sites for Nature Conservation In order of importance, international first, non-statutory last. Ramsar Sites Ballaugh Curraghs (2006, 183.86 ha) Shares an identical boundary to the Ballaugh Curraghs ASSI. National Nature Reserves The Ayres (2000, 272 ha) Areas of Special Scientific Importance There are 14 ASSIs on the Isle of Man as of 01/01/09. The Ayres (1996, 272 ha) Ballaugh Curraghs (2005, 183.86 ha) Rosehill Quarry, Billown Dhoon Glen (2007) Jurby Airfield Glen Maye Derbyhaven, Langness, Sandwick Marine Nature Reserves None as of 30/01/2009, however there are Government plans for the first MNR to be designated by 2012. Areas of Special Protection Point of Ayre Bird Sanctuaries Calf of Man 616ac Tynwald Arboretum Nature Reserves and Wildlife Sites The Isle of Man now has forty-five non-statutory Wildlife Sites as of 30/01/09, covering approximately 195ha of land and an additional 10.5 km of inter-tidal coast. The Manx Wildlife Trust also manage 20 nature reserves. Ballachurry Ballalough Reedbeds 1.4ha Ballamooar Ballanette Barnell Reservoir Breagle Glen (0.75 ac) Clay Head Brooghs Close-e-Quayle Close Sartfield (31 ac) (part of the Ballaugh Curraghs Ramsar Site) Close Umpson Cooildarry Cronk-y-Bing Curragh Feeagh Curragh Kionedroghad 1ha Dalby Mountain & Fields 28ha Earystane Fell's Field Gob ny Silvas Goshen (28 ac)(part of Ballaugh Curraghs Ramsar Site) Glen Dhoo (24.5 ac) Lough Cranstal Miss Gyler's Meadow Moaney & Crawyn's Meadows The Purt/Glen Dhoo Marine No-take Zones Bradda Head Douglas Bay See also Environment of the Isle of Man Geology Demographics The island has a preliminary census estimated population of 79 805, as of September 2006. This is up on the government's last census in 2001, which recorded 76 315 people, itself a rise of 9.1% on the previous 1991 census. The island's largest town and administrative centre is Douglas, the population of which is 23 000, nearly a third of the entire population of the island. Neighbouring Onchan, Ramsey in the north, Peel in the west and the three southern ports of Castletown, Port Erin and Port St. Mary are the island's other main settlements. Almost all its population lives on or very near to the coast. See also Towns in the Isle of Man List of rivers in the Isle of Man Climate change and the Isle of Man References Isle of Man Government http://www.gov.im/dlge/enviro/climatechange.xml

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Ignoratio_elenchi

Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion Bishop Whately, cited by John Stuart Mill: A System of Logic. London Colchester 1959 (first: 1843), pp. 542 or irrelevant thesis) is the informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. "Ignoratio elenchi" can be roughly translated by ignorance of refutation, that is, ignorance of what a refutation is; "elenchi" is from the Greek έλεγχος, meaning an argument of disproof or refutation. Introduction to Logic: Ignoratio Elenchi (Some sources give by ignorance of the issues or even by ignoring the issues as a translation of ignoratio elenchi.) Aristotle believed that an ignoratio elenchi is a mistake made by a questioner while attempting to refute a respondent's argument. He called it an ignorance of what makes for a refutation. For Aristotle, then, ignoratio elenchi amounts to ignorance of logic. In fact, Aristotle goes so far as to say that all logical fallacies can be reduced to what he calls ignoratio elenchi. Modern use limits this term much more narrowly to the kind of mistake described in the first paragraph above. Red herring Similar to ignoratio elenchi, a red herring is an argument, given in reply, that does not address the original issue. Critically, a red herring is a deliberate attempt to change the subject or divert the argument. This is known formally in the English vocabulary as a digression which is usually denoted as "red herring". See also Enthymeme References External links Nizkor Project: Red Herring Fallacy Files: Red Herring The Phrase Finder: Red Herring Infidels.org: Ignoratio elenchi The Art of Controversy: Diversion (bilingual with the original German) by Arthur Schopenhauer Red herring in political speech

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Mahjong

A game of Mahjong being played in Hangzhou, China Mahjong (also called mah-jongg by the American association, Vietnamese: mạt chược) is a game for four players that originated in China. It was called 麻雀 in ancient China and the name is still in active use in Guangdong, Fujian, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Japan. Most Chinese, especially the Mandarin-speaking ones, however, now call the game . Mahjong involves skill, strategy, and calculation, as well as a certain degree of chance. Depending on the variation which is played, luck can be anything from a minor to a dominant factor in success. In Asia, mahjong is also popularly played as a gambling game. In the game, each player is dealt either thirteen or sixteen tiles in a hand (depending on the variation being played). On their turn, players draw a tile and discard one, with the goal of making four or five melds (also depending on the variation) and one pair, or "head". Winning comes "on the draw", by drawing a new or discarded tile that completes the hand. Thus a winning hand actually contains fourteen (or seventeen) tiles. History Mahjong in China One of the myths of the origin of Mahjong suggests that Confucius, Butler, Jonathan. The Tiles of Mah Jong. 1996. the great Chinese philosopher, had developed the game in about 500 BC. This assertion is likely to be apocryphal. According to this myth, the appearance of the game in the various Chinese states coincided with Confucius' travels at the time he was teaching his new doctrines. The three dragon (Cardinal) tiles also agree with the three Cardinal virtues bequeathed by Confucius. Hóng Zhōng (中 , lit. red middle) the Red, Fā Cái (發 , lit. prosperity) the Green, Bái Pi (白 , lit. white) the White represent Benevolence, Sincerity, and Filial piety respectively, again under this myth. Also, the myth claims that Confucius was fond of birds, which would explain the name "Mahjong" (maque 麻雀 = sparrow). However, there is no evidence of Mahjong's existence before the Taiping era in the 19th century, which eliminates Confucius as a likely inventor. Many historians believe it was based on a Chinese card game called Mǎdiào (馬弔) (also known as Ma Tiae, lit. Hanging Horse; or Yèzí (葉子), lit. Leaf) in the early Ming dynasty. Yèzí in Ming Dynasty Chinese only This game was played with 40 paper cards similar in appearance to the cards used in the game Ya Pei. These 40 cards, numbered 1 to 9 in four different suits along with four extra flower cards, are quite similar to the numbering of Mahjong tiles today. Although Mahjong only has three suits and, in effect, uses four packs of Ya Pei cards. There is still a healthy debate about who created the game. One theory is that Chinese army officers serving during the Taiping Rebellion created the game to pass the time. Another theory is that a noble living in the Shanghai area created the game between 1870 and 1875. Others believe that around 1850 in the city of Níngpō two brothers had created Mahjong from the earlier game of Mǎdiào. This traditional Chinese game was banned in its homeland in 1949, when the People's Republic of China was founded. The new Communist government forbade any gambling activities, which were regarded as symbols of capitalist corruption. After the Cultural Revolution, the game was revived, and once again Mahjong has become a favorite pastime of the Chinese, as well as in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and elsewhere. Mahjong in the Western world Students in the United States learning how to play Mahjong By 1895, Stewart Culin, an American anthropologist, wrote a paper in which Mahjong was mentioned. This is the first known written account of Mahjong in any language other than Chinese. By 1910, there were written accounts in many languages including French and Japanese. In 1920, Abercrombie & Fitch became the first ever American brand to introduce the game. , A&F Careers, History, "1920" It became a success in New York, and owner of the Company, Ezra Fitch, sent emissaries to Chinese villages to buy every set of Mahjong they could find. Abercrombie & Fitch sold a total of 12,000 sets. Later, an important English book was Joseph Park Babcock's Rules of Mah-Jongg, which, simplified in 1920, was simply known as the "red book". Although this was the earliest version of Mahjong that had been introduced to America, many of Babcock's simplifications were abandoned when the 1920s fad died out. The game was a sensation in America when it was imported from China in the 1920s, as the same Mahjong game took on a number of trademarked names, such as Pung Chow or the Game of Thousand Intelligences. "Mahjong nights" in America often involved dressing and decorating rooms in Chinese style. Bill Bryson, Made in America. Harper, 1996, ch. 16. Several hit songs were also recorded during the mahjong fad, most notably "Since Ma is Playing Mah Jong" by Eddie Cantor. Eddie Cantor and his Mahjong song American Mahjong, which was mainly played by Jewish women during the time, grew from this craze. By the 1930s, many revisions of the rules developed that were substantially different from Babcock's classical version (including some that were considered fundamentals in other variants, such as the notion of a standard hand). Standardization came with the formation of the National Mah Jongg League (NMJL) in 1937, along with the first American mahjong rulebook, Maajh: The American Version of the Ancient Chinese Game. While Mahjong was accepted by U.S. players of all ethnic backgrounds during the Babcock era, many consider the modern American version a Jewish game, Why are so many players of American mah-jongg Jewish? as many American Mahjong players are of Jewish descent. (Also, the NMJL was founded by Jewish players and considered a Jewish organization.) In addition, players usually use the American game as a family-friendly social activity, not as gambling. In recent years, a second more progressive organization has formed called The American Mah Jongg Association. They currently host tournaments all across North America with their signature event being at The Trump Taj Mahal in Atlantic City, NJ. British author Alan D. Millington revived the Chinese Classical game of the 1920s with his book, The Complete Book of Mah-jongg (1977). This handbook includes a formal rules set for the game. Many players in Western countries consider Millington's work authoritative. Current development Today, the popularity and the characteristics of players of Mahjong vary from country to country. There are also many governing bodies, which often host exhibition games and tournaments. It remains far more popular in Asia than in the West. In Japan, there is a traditional emphasis on gambling and the typical player is male. Many devotees there believe the game is losing popularity and have taken efforts to revive it. There are several manga devoted to dramatic stories as well as comic situations involving mahjong. Schodt, Frederik, Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Kodansha, 1986, chapter 5. Several mahjong manga are reviewed at Manga Side-Dish, part of the Livejournal community Mangacast. In addition, Japanese video arcades have introduced Mahjong arcade machines that can be connected to others over the Internet. Additional incentives for video game players in Japan come in the form of beautiful and scantily-clad young women opponents (mostly cartoon, but sometimes video taped models) playing a form of "strip" Mahjong by removing clothing items when they lose a hand. Mahjong culture is still deeply ingrained in the Chinese community: Sam Hui wrote Cantopop songs, using Mahjong as their themes. Hong Kong movies have often included scenes of Mahjong games. Gambling movies have been filmed time and again in Hong Kong, and a recent sub-genre is the Mahjong movie. A recent study by doctors in Hong Kong concluded that extensive playing of the game can induce epileptic seizures. Mahjong game can induce epileptic seizures Studies by doctors have also shown in Hong Kong that the game is beneficial for individuals suffering from dementia or cognitive memory difficulties, leading to the development of mahjong therapy. An exploratory study of the effect of mahjong on the cognitive functioning of persons with dementia Type of game Because of the solid form of the tiles, Mahjong is sometimes classified as a 'domino game'. However, it is much more similar to western-style card games such as rummy. Variants Beijing residents playing Mahjong in public. There are many variations of mahjong. In many places, players often observe one version – and are either unaware of other variations or claim that different versions are incorrect. Although many variations today differ only by scoring, there are several main varieties: Chinese Classical Mahjong is the oldest variety of Mahjong, and was the version introduced to America in the 1920s under various names. It has a small, loyal following in the West, although few play it in Asia. Hong Kong Mahjong or Cantonese Mahjong is possibly the most common form of Mahjong, differing in minor scoring details with the Chinese Classical variety and allows for multiple players to win from a single discard. Sichuan Mahjong is a growing variety, particularly in southern China, disallowing eating, and missing the "fa", "zhong", and other pieces. It can be played very quickly. Taiwanese Mahjong is the variety prevalent in Taiwan and involves hands of 16 tiles, as opposed to the 13-tile hands in other versions. It also features bonuses for dealers and recurring dealerships, and does not allow multiple players to win from a single discard. Japanese Mahjong is a standardized form of Mahjong in Japan, found prevalently in video games. In addition to scoring changes, the rules of riichi and dora are unique highlights of Japanese Mahjong. Western Classical Mahjong is a descendant of the version of Mahjong introduced by Babcock to America in the 1920s. Today, this term largely refers to the Wright-Patterson rules, used in the U.S. military, and other similar American-made variants that are closer to the Babcock rules. American Mahjong is a form of Mahjong standardized by the National Mah Jongg League and the American Mah-Jongg Association – and makes the greatest divergence from traditional Mahjong. It uses Joker tiles, the Charleston, plus melds of five or more tiles, and eschews the Chow and the notion of a standard hand. Purists claim that this makes American Mahjong a separate game. In addition, the NMJL and AMJA variations, which differ by minor scoring differences, are commonly referred to as Mahjongg or Mah-jongg (with two Gs, often hyphenated). 3-Player (or 3-ka) Mahjong is a simplified 3-person Mahjong which involves hands of 13 tiles, and total tiles of 84 on the table and uses Joker tiles as well. It only includes the tong zhi tiles or circular shapes of patterns on the tiles for which is different from the conventional Chinese mahjong which has bamboo patterns, 10-thousand and the tong zhi tiles. It has jackpot or Royal Flush rules of winning, in which whoever accumulates a point of 10 is considered to hit the jackpot, with that some would double the winning stake. There are advantages of playing this version of game because you need fewer people to start a game and the turnaround time of a game is short, hence it is considered a speedfast game. Singaporean/Malaysian Mahjong is a variant similar to Cantonese mahjong played in Malaysia. Unique elements of Singaporean/Malaysian mahjong are the four animal tiles (cat, mouse, cockerel and centipede) as well as certain alternatives in the scoring rules, which allow payouts midway through the game if certain conditions, such as a kang are met. Other variants include Fujian Mahjong (with Dàidì Joker 帶弟百搭), Vietnamese Mạt Trược (with 16 different kinds of joker), and Filipino Mahjong (with the Window Joker). Variants of Mahjong in Chinese Wikipedia Chinese only In addition, Pussers Bones is a fast-moving variant developed by sailors in the Royal Australian Navy; it uses a creative alternative vocabulary, such as Eddie, Sammy, Wally, and Normie instead of East, South, West, and North. Mahjong Competition Rules The top three of the World Championship in Mahjong, Tokyo, October 2002. In the middle: world champion Mai Hatsune from Japan. The first Open European Mahjong Championship, Nijmegen, the Netherlands, June 2005. The winners of the second Open European Mahjong Championship, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 2007. From left, Kohichi Oda (2), Martin Wedel Jacobsen (1), Benjamin Boas (3) In 1998, in the interest of dissociating illegal gambling from mahjong, the China State Sports Commission published a new set of rules, now generally referred to as Chinese Official rules or International Tournament rules (for rule, see Guobiao Majiang). The principles of the new, wholesome mahjong are: no gambling – no drinking – no smoking. In international tournaments, players are often grouped in teams to emphasize that mahjong from now on is considered a sport. The new rules are highly pattern-based. The rulebook contains 81 combinations, based on patterns and scoring elements popular in both classic and modern regional Chinese variants. Some table practices of Japan have also been adopted. Points for flower tiles (each flower is worth 1 point) may not be added until the player has scored 8 points. The winner of a game receives the score from the player who discard the winning tile, plus 8 basic points from each player; in the case of zimo (self drawn win), he receives the value of this round plus 8 points from all players. The new rules were used in an international tournament first in Tokyo, where in 2002 the first World Championship in Mahjong was organized by the Mahjong Museum, the Japan Mahjong Organizing Committee and the city council of Ningbo, China, thought to be the origin of the game. One hundred players participated, mainly from Japan and China, but also from Europe and the United States. Miss Mai Hatsune from Japan became the first world champion. The following year saw the first annual China Majiang Championship, held in Hainan. The next two annual tournaments were held in Hong Kong and Beijing. Most players were Chinese, but players from other nations attended as well. In 2005 the first Open European Mahjong Championship was held in the Netherlands, with 108 players. The competition was won by Masato Chiba from Japan. The second European championship, in Copenhagen, Denmark, 2007, with 136 players, was won by Danish player Martin Wedel Jacobsen. First Online European Mahjong Championship was held on MahjongTime server in 2007 with 64 players and the winner was Juliani Leo from USA and the best European Player was Gerda van Oorschot from Netherlands. The next European Championship will be held in Austria, 2009. In 2006, the World Mahjong Organization (WMO) was founded in Beijing, China, with the cooperation of, amongst others, the Japan Mahjong Organizing Committee (JMOC) and the European Mahjong Association (EMA). This organization held its first World Championship in November 2007 in the Chinese town of Chengdu, which was won by Li Li, a Chinese student of Tsinghua University. There were 144 participants, from all over the world. Critics say that the new rules are unlikely to achieve great popularity outside of tournaments. They argue that regional versions are too well-entrenched, while the Mahjong Competition Rules use many unfamiliar patterns. The new mahjong's advocates claim that it meant to be a standard for international events, not to replace existing variations. Some other parties have also attempted to create international competition rules, the most noticeable one among those being the Zung Jung (中庸) Mahjong Scoring System, created by Hong Kong mahjong scholar Alan Kwan. Unlike the Chinese Official rules, Zung Jung is designed with rules simplicity as one of its design goals, and aims to be suitable for casual entertainment as well as tournament play. Zung Jung is adopted by the World Series of Mahjong event held annually in Macau. The World Series of Mahjong was last held in September 2008 in which 302 participants took part. The main event had a prize pool of $1 million which was won over three days of play by Alex Ho from Hong Kong. He won $500k from the prize pool and a Mahjong necklace designed by Steela+Steelo. Equipment Basic equipment: chips, tiles, and dice. Mahjong, can be played either with a set of Mahjong tiles, or a set of Mahjong playing cards (sometimes spelled 'kards' to distinguish them from the list of standard hands used in American mahjong); one brand of Mahjong cards calls these Mhing. Playing cards are often used when travelling as it reduces space and is lighter than their tile counterparts, but are of a lower quality in return. In this article, "tile" will be used to denote both playing cards and tiles. Many Mahjong sets will also include a set of chips or bone tiles for scoring, as well as indicators denoting the dealer and the Prevailing Wind of the round. Some sets may also include racks to hold tiles or chips (although in many sets the tiles are generally sufficiently thick so that they can stand on their own), with one of them being different to denote the dealer's rack. Computer implementations of Mahjong are also available: these allow you to play against computer opponents, or against human opponents on the Internet. A set of Mahjong tiles will usually differ from place to place. It usually has at least 136 tiles, most commonly 144, although sets originating from America or Japan will have more. Mahjong tiles are split into these categories: suits, honor and flowers. Suits The suits of the tiles are money-based. In ancient China, the copper coins had a square hole in the center. People passed a rope through the holes to tie coins into strings. These strings are usually in groups of 100 coins called diào (弔 or variant 吊) or 1000 coins called guàn (貫). Mahjong's connection to the ancient Chinese currency system is consistent with its alleged derivation from the game named mǎ diào (馬弔). In the mahjong suits, the coppers represent the coins; the ropes are actually strings of 100 coins; and the character myriad represents 10,000 coins or 100 strings. When a hand received the maximum allowed winning of a round, it is called mǎn guàn (滿貫, lit. full string of coin.) Stones: named as each tile consists of a number of circles. Each circle is said to represent can (筒, tóng) coins with a square hole in the middle. Image:MJt1.pngImage:MJt2.pngImage:MJt3.pngImage:MJt4.pngImage:MJt5.pngImage:MJt6.pngImage:MJt7.pngImage:MJt8.pngImage:MJt9.png Bamboos: named as each tile consists of a number of bamboo sticks. Each stick is said to represent a string (索, sǔo) that holds a hundred coins. Note that 1 Bamboo is an exception: it has a bird sitting on a bamboo, to prevent alteration. Image:MJs1.pngImage:MJs2.pngImage:MJs3.pngImage:MJs4.pngImage:MJs5.pngImage:MJs6.pngImage:MJs7.pngImage:MJs8.pngImage:MJs9.png Characters: named as each tile represents ten thousand (萬, wàn) coins, or one hundred strings of one hundred coins. Image:MJw1.pngImage:MJw2.pngImage:MJw3.pngImage:MJw4.pngImage:MJw5.pngImage:MJw6.pngImage:MJw7.pngImage:MJw8.pngImage:MJw9.png Honors Wind tiles: East (東, dōng feng), South (南, nán feng), West (西, xī feng), and North (北, běi feng). Image:MJf1.pngImage:MJf2.pngImage:MJf3.pngImage:MJf4.png Dragon tiles: red, green, and white. The term dragon tile is a western convention introduced by Joseph Park Babcock in his 1920 book introducing Mahjong to America. Originally, these tiles are said to have something to do with the Chinese Imperial Examination. The red tile ("中"榜, zhōngbǎng) means passing the examination to clear the way to officialdom. The green tile ("發"財, fācái, literally "Get Rich") means wealth. The white tile (白版, báibǎn, literally "clean slate") means freedom from corruption. It usually has a blue border to distinguish from replacement tiles and prevent alteration. In the original Chinese Mahjong, these pieces are called jiàn (箭), which represents archery, and the red "中" represents a hit on the target. In ancient Chinese archery, one would put a red "中" to signify that the target was hit. White "白" represents failure, and green "發" means that one will release the draw. Image:MJd1.pngImage:MJd2.pngImage:MJd3.png Flowers The last category and typically optional components to a set of mahjong tiles, these tiles often contain artwork on their tiles. Many people prefer not to use these tiles due to the fact that they make it easier to win and earn bonus points. For example, if you have no flowers in your hand you get only 1 bonus point, but if you hold two flower tiles which match your seat/wind direction you're entitled to two bonus points, since flowers correspond with wind directions. For example, holding a pair of the symbol 3 flower, while you are in the West Wind position, earns 2 bonus points for that hand, since the 3 flower is associated with the West Wind.) The 4 tiles below are flower tiles that represent plum, orchid, chrysanthemum, and bamboo, the four noble plants of Confucian reckoning. Image:MJh5.pngImage:MJh6.pngImage:MJh7.pngImage:MJh8.png The 4 tiles below are seasonal tiles that represent spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Image:MJh1.pngImage:MJh2.pngImage:MJh3.pngImage:MJh4.png Setting up the board The following sequence is for setting up a standard Hong Kong (or Singapore) game. Casual or beginning players may wish to proceed directly to gameplay. Shuffling the tiles is needed before piling up. Game Wind and Prevailing Wind To determine the Player Game Wind (門風 or 自風), each player throws three dice (two in some variants) and the player with the highest total is chosen as the dealer or the banker (莊家). The dealer's Wind is now East, the player to the right of the dealer has North wind, the next player to the right has West and the fourth player has South. Game Wind changes after every round, unless the dealer wins. In some variations, the longer the dealer remains as the dealer, the higher the value of each hand. The Prevailing Wind (場風) is always set to East when starting. It changes after the Game Wind has rotated around the board, that is, after each player has lost as the dealer. The dealer is always East. A Mahjong set with Winds in play will usually include a separate Prevailing Wind marker (typically a die marked with the Wind characters in a holder) and a pointer that can be oriented towards the dealer to show Player Game Wind. In sets with racks, a rack may be marked differently to denote the dealer. These winds are also significant as winds are often associated with a member of a Flower tile group, typically 1 with East, 2 with South, 3 with West, and 4 with North. Dealing tiles All tiles are placed face down and shuffled. Each player then stacks a row of tiles two tiles high in front of him, the length of the row depending on the number of tiles in use: 136 tiles: 17 stacks for each player Suits of dots, bamboo, characters + Wind + Dragon 144 tiles: 18 stacks for each player 148 tiles: 19 stacks for dealer and player opposite, 18 for rest 152 tiles: 19 stacks for each player The dealer throws three dice and sums up the total. Counting counterclockwise so that the dealer is '1', a player's row is chosen. Starting at the right edge, 'sum' tiles are counted and shifted to the right. The dealer now takes a block of 4 tiles to the left of the divide. The player to the dealer's right takes 4 tiles to the left, and players (counterclockwise) take blocks of 4 tiles (clockwise) until all players have 12 tiles for 13-tile variations and 16 for 16-tile variations. In 13-tile variations, each player then takes one more tile to make a 13-tile hand. In practice, in order to speed up the dealing procedure, the dealer often takes one extra tile during the dealing procedure to start their turn. The board is now ready and new tiles will be taken from the wall where the dealing left off, proceeding clockwise. In some special cases discussed later, tiles are taken from the other end of the wall, commonly referred to as the back end of the wall. In some variations, a group of tiles at the back end, known as the dead wall, is reserved for this purpose instead. In such variations, the dead wall may be visually separated from the main wall, but it is not required. Unless the dealer has already won (see below), the dealer then discards a tile. The dealing process with tiles is ritualized and complex to prevent cheating. Casual players, or players with Mahjong playing cards, may wish to simply shuffle well and deal out the tiles with fewer ceremonial procedures. Charleston In the American variations, it is required that before each hand begins, a Charleston is enacted. In the first round, three tiles are passed to the player on one's right; the next round, the tiles are passed to the player opposite, followed by three tiles passed to the left. If all players are in agreement, a second Charleston is performed; however, any player may decide to stop passing after the first Charleston is complete. The Charleston is followed by an optional pass to the player across of one, two or three tiles. The Charleston is distinctive feature of American Mahjong that may have been borrowed from card games such as Hearts. Gameplay Each player is dealt either thirteen tiles for 13-tile variations or sixteen tiles for 16-tile variations. If a player is dealt a hand of tiles that is determined to be a winning hand (known as "heavenly win", 天胡), he or she may declare victory immediately before the game even begins. But this scenario of victory occurs very rarely. A turn involves a player drawing a tile from the wall (or draw pile) and then placing it in his or her hand. The player then discards a tile onto the table. This signals the end of his or her turn, prompting the player to the right to make his or her move. Some variants encourage each player to announce loudly the name of the tile being discarded as a form of courtesy. Many variations require that discarded tiles be placed in an orderly fashion in front of the player, while some require that these be placed face down. During gameplay, the number of tiles maintained by each player should always be the same, ie. thirteen or sixteen. A player must discard a tile after picking up one. Failure to do so rules that player effectively out of winning (since a winning combination could never be built with one extra tile or fewer), but he or she is obliged to continue until someone else wins. A distinctive feature of West tiles: When three players drop the West tile, the fourth player will usually avoid discarding another West the following turn. This is caused by a superstition that, when all the players discard a West ("西") together, all players will die ("歸西") or be cursed with bad luck (see Tetraphobia). During the West Prevailing Wind Round, players will also avoid throwing in the One Circle during the first move because One Circle sounds like "together" in mandarin, thus "to die all together" ("一同歸西"). In fact, because of this superstition, some variants require players to restart the game when all four tiles of a wind are discarded in the first four turns. Melds When a player discards a tile, any other player may "call" or "bid" for it in order to complete a meld (a certain set of tiles) in his or her own hand. The disadvantage of doing this is that the player must now expose the completed meld to the other players, giving them an idea of what type of hand he or she is creating. This also creates an element of strategy, as in many variations, discarding a tile that allows another player to win the game causes the discarding player to lose points (or pay the winner more in a game for money). Most variants (again, with the notable exception of American Mahjong) allow three types of melds. When a meld is declared through a discard, the player must state the type of the meld to be declared and place the meld face-up. (As for the Japanese variant, callings to make melds are different from the actual names of the types of melds.) The player must then discard a tile, and play continues to the right. Because of this, turns may be skipped in the process. Pong or Pung (碰 pinyin pèng, Japanese: 刻子 kōtsu)—A pong or pung is a set of three identical tiles. In American Mahjong, where it is possible to meld Flower tiles, a pong may also refer to a meld of three of the four flower tiles in a single group. American Mahjong may also have hands requiring a knitted triplet—three tiles of identical rank but of three different suits. For example: ; ; ; . Kong: Kong (槓/杠 pinyin gàng, Japanese: 槓子 kantsu)—A kong is a set of four identical tiles. Because all other melds contain three tiles, a Kong must be immediately exposed when explicitly declared. If the fourth tile is formed from a discard, it is said to be an exposed Kong (明槓/明杠, pinyin míng gàng). If all four tiles were formed in the hand, it is said to be a concealed Kong (暗槓/暗杠, pinyin àn gàng). In some forms of play, the outer two tiles of a concealed Kong are flipped to indicate its concealed status. It is also possible to form an exposed Kong if the player has an exposed Pung and draws the fourth tile. In any case, a player must draw an extra tile from the back end of the wall (or from the dead wall, if it exists) and discard as normal. Play then continues to the right. Once a Kong is formed, it cannot be split up (say, if you wanted to instead use one tile as part of a Chow), and thus, it may be advantageous not to immediately declare a Kong. For example: ; . The woman sitting on the left may make a chow with a tile discarded by the player on the right. Chow (吃 chī, in some versions 上 shàng, Japanese: 順子 shuntsu)—A chow is a meld of three suited tiles in sequence. Unlike other melds, an exposed Chow may only be declared off the discard of the player on the left. The only exception is when the player needs that tile to form a chow to win. In this case, a chow can be declared at any 3 opponents' turns. American Mahjong does not have a formal chow (that is, you cannot declare chows), but some hands may require that similar sequences be constructed in the hand. Some American variations may also have the knitted sequence, where the three tiles are of three different suits. Sequences of higher length are usually not permissible (unless it forms more than one meld). For example: ; ; ; . Two are the eyes of this completed set of tiles. Eye (將 jiàng, in some versions 眼 yǎn, Japanese: 対子 toitsu or 雀頭 jantou; also Pair)—The pair, while not a meld (and thus, cannot be declared or formed with a discard), is the final component to the standard hand. It consists of any two identical tiles. For example, two are the eyes in the case of . Note that American mah-jongg hands may have tile constructions that are not melds, such as "NEWS" (having one of each wind). As they are not melds, they cannot be formed off discards, and in some variations, cannot be constructed in part or in whole by Joker tiles. In the Chinese official and several other rulesets, there are further hands, such as Seven Pairs. When two or more players call for a discarded tile, a player taking the tile to win the hand has precedence over all others, followed by pong or kong declarations, and lastly chows. In American Mahjong, where it may be possible for two players needing the same tile for melds, the meld of a higher number of identical tiles takes precedence. If two or more players call for a meld of the same precedence (or to win), the player closest to the right wins out (but the game may be declared an abortive draw if two or more players call a tile for the win, again depending on the variation). In particular, if a call to win overrides a call to form a kong, such a move is called "robbing the kong" and may give a scoring bonus. There is generally an informal convention as to the amount of time allowed to make a call for a discarded tile before the next player takes their turn. In American Mahjong, this "window of opportunity" is explicitly stated in the rules, whereas in other variants, it is generally considered that when the next player's turn starts (i.e. the tile leaves the wall), the opportunity has been lost. Flowers Flower tiles, when dealt or drawn, must be immediately replaced by a tile from the dead wall, or if no dead wall exists, the back end of the wall. They are immediately exposed (placed in view on the table on front of the player's tiles). At the start of each round, where two or more players may have flower tiles, flower tiles are replaced starting with the dealer and moving to the right. Flower tiles may or may not have point value; and in some variations, possession of all the flower tiles wins the round regardless of the actual contents of the hand. In American Mahjong, however, Flower tiles are not instantly exposed and replaced, as they may be melded with other Flower tiles in the same group (in essence, they are treated as if they were another set of honor tiles) or be used as a requirement of a winning hand. Early versions of American Mahjong used Flower tiles as Joker tiles. Jokers A feature of several variations, most notably American variations of Mahjong, is the notion of wild card or Joker tiles. They may be used as a substitute for any tile in a hand, or, in some variations, only tiles in melds. Another variation is that the Joker tile may not be used for melding. Depending on the variation, a player may replace a Joker tile that is part of an exposed meld belonging to any player with the tile it represents. Rules governing discarding Joker tiles also exist: some variations permit the Joker tile to take on the identity of any tile, and others only permit the Joker tile to take on the identity of the previously discarded tile (or the absence of a tile, if it is the first discard). Joker tiles may or may not have an impact on scoring, depending on the variation. Some special hands may require the use of Joker tiles (for example, to represent a "fifth tile" of a certain suited or honor tile). In American Mahjong, it is illegal to pass jokers during the Charleston. Winnings A player wins the round by creating a standard mahjong hand which consists of a certain number of melds, namely four for 13-tile variations and five for 16-tile variations, and a pair. Example: In Western Classical variants, this is known as creating a Mahjong, and the process of winning is called going Mahjong. Variations may have special nonstandard hands that a player can make (in this sense, American Mahjong is a variant where only special hands exist). Some variations may require that winning hands be of some point value. If a player declares victory but is discovered not to be holding a winning hand, he or she suffers a penalty of having to pay all the opposing players (called a jaa woo (詐胡) in Cantonese, or literally translated as "fake hand"). Winning is called hú (胡) in Chinese, and agari (アガリ), or hōra (和了) in Japanese. If the player wins by drawing a tile from a wall during his turn, a special name is given to this type of win in Chinese and Japanese, which is zìmō (自摸) in Chinese and tsumo (自摸, ツモ) in Japanese respectively, while when the player wins by taking a tile cast off by another player, in Japanese it is called ron (栄, ロン). Ready hands When a hand is one tile short of winning (for example: , waiting for: , , or , as can be eyes), the hand is said to be a ready hand (Traditional Chinese: 聽牌 Simplified Chinese: 听牌 Japanese: tenpai (聴牌)), or more figuratively, "on the pot". The player holding a ready hand is said to be waiting for certain tiles. It is common to be waiting for two or three tiles, and some variations award points for a hand that is waiting for one tile. In 13-tile Mahjong, the most amount of tiles that you can wait for is 13 (the thirteen orphans, a nonstandard special hand). Ready hands must be declared in some variations of Mahjong, while other variations prohibit the same. Some variations of Mahjong, most notably Japanese variations, allow a player to declare riichi (立直 - sometimes known as reach as it is phonetically similar). A declaration of riichi is a promise that any tile drawn by the player is immediately discarded unless it constitutes a win. A player who declares riichi and wins usually receives a point bonus for their hand, while a player who declares riichi and loses is usually penalized in some fashion. Declaring a nonexistent riichi is also penalized in some fashion. In some variations, a situation in which all four players declare a riichi is an automatic drawn game, as it reduces the game down to pure luck (ie. who gets their needed tile first). Draws If only the dead wall remains and no one has won, the round is drawn (流局 liú jú, Japanese Ryuukyoku) or "goulashed". A new round begins, and depending on the variant, Game Wind may change. For example, in most playing circles in Singapore, if there is at least one Kong when the round is a draw, the following player of the dealer becomes the next dealer, otherwise the dealer remains the dealer. Japanese mahjong has a special rule called sanchahō (三家和) in which if three players claim the same discard in order to win, the round is drawn. One reason for this is that there are cases that some awards cannot be divided by three. The rule is treated the same as abortive draws (see below). Abortive draws In Japanese Mahjong, rules allow "abortive draws" to be declared while tiles are still available. They can be declared under the following conditions: 九種么九牌倒牌 (kyūshu yaochūhai touhai): On a player's first turn when no meld has been declared yet, if a player has nine different terminal or honor tiles, the player may declare the round to be drawn (for example: ; but could also go for the nonstandard thirteen orphans hand as well). 四風子連打 (sūfontsu renda): On the first turn without any meld declarations, if all four players discard the same wind tile, the round is drawn. 四家立直 (sūcha rīchi): If all four players declare riichi, the round is drawn. 四槓算了 (sūkan sanra): The round is drawn when the fourth kong is declared, unless all four kongs were declared by a single player. Still the round is drawn when another player declares a fifth kong. Turns and rounds If the dealer wins the game, they will stay as the dealer. Otherwise, the player to the right becomes dealer and the player's wind becomes the Game Wind, in the sequence East-South-West-North. After the wind returns to East (ie. each player has been the dealer), a round is complete and the Prevailing Wind will change, again in the sequence East-South-West-North. A full game of mahjong ends after four rounds, ie. when the North Prevailing Wind round is over. It is often regarded as an unlucky act to stop the gameplay at the West round, as West has a similar sound to death in Chinese. It is also generally considered poor etiquette to touch the shoulders of someone during the game as this is said to give bad luck to the player. However, the Japanese variation differs in that the game starts on the East round, where a special table wind is assigned to all games in that round. The dealer is also always considered East seat, so when the dealership passes to the next player, it reassigns all the seat winds to the next player (although nobody actually moves around). After every player has been East at least once, the East round is over, and the South Round begins. Play usually ends after the South Round, however, if none of the players has above a certain amount, usually 30,000, then play will continue to West, and possibly even North Rounds. Scoring Scoring in Mahjong involves points, with a monetary value for points agreed upon by players. Although in many variations scoreless hands are possible, many require that hands be of some point value in order to win the round. While the basic gameplay is more or less the same throughout mahjong, the greatest divergence between variations lies in the scoring systems. Like the gameplay, there is a generalized system of scoring, based on the method of winning and the winning hand, from which Chinese and Japanese (among notable systems) base their roots. American mahjong generally has greatly divergent scoring rules (as well as greatly divergent gameplay rules). Because of the large differences between the various systems of scoring (especially for Chinese variants), groups of players will often agree on particular scoring rules before a game. As with gameplay, many attempts have been made to create an international standard of scoring, but most are not widely accepted. Points (terminology of which differs from variation to variation) are obtained by matching the winning hand and the winning condition with a specific set of criteria, with different criteria scoring different values. Some of these criteria may be subsets of other criteria (for example, having a meld of one Dragon versus having a meld of all of them), and in these cases, only the most general criterion is scored. The points obtained may be translated into scores for each player using some (typically exponential) functions. When gambling with mahjong, these scores are typically directly translated into sums of money. Some criteria may be also in terms of both points and score. Mahjong in Unicode The Unicode range for Mahjong is U+1F000 .. U+1F02F. Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points. See also Mahjong video game Games played with Mahjong equipment Mahjong culture Mahjong solitaire Mahjong movie Akagi (manga) - Mahjong manga and anime Saki (manga) - Mahjong manga and anime Footnotes Further reading Chinese classical Babcock, Joseph Park, Babcock's Rules for Mah-jongg. Mah-jongg Sales Company of America: 1923. Babcock, Smith, Hartman, Work, and Foster, The American Code Of Laws For Mah-Jongg. Standardization Committee: 1924. Millington, A.D., Complete Book of Mah Jong. Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1993. ISBN 0-297-81340-4. Chinese official Competition Mahjong Official International Rulebook. Takeshobo: 2002. ISBN 4-8124-0944-6. Handbook For The Competitions Of The Chinese MaJiang. Organizing Committee of Chinese MaJiang: 2005. Hatsune, Mai and Takunori Kajimoto, translation by Ryan Morris World-Class Mahjong with World Champion Mai Hatsune 2005. Pritchard, David B.,The New Mahjong. Right Way: 2004. ISBN 0-7160-2164-1. Others Lo, Amy. The Book of Mah jong: An Illustrated Guide. Tuttle Publishing: 2001. ISBN 0-8048-3302-8. Oxfeld, Ellen., Blood, Sweat, and Mahjong: Family and Enterprise in an Overseas Chinese Community. Cornell University Press. 1993. ISBN 0-8014-9908-9. Pritchard, David B.,Teach Yourself Mahjong. McGraw-Hill/Contemporary: 2001. ISBN 0-658-02147-8. Sloper, Tom., Mah-Jongg: Game of the Orient. Self-published: n.d. Wright Patterson Mah Jongg Group, Mah Jongg; Wright-Patterson Rules. Wright Patterson Mah Jongg Group: 1963. External links

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Gram_staining

Gram-positive anthrax bacteria (purple rods) in cerebrospinal fluid sample. If present, a Gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are white blood cells). Staphylococcus aureus (Gram positive) Escherichia coli (Gram negative) Gram staining (or Gram's method) is an empirical method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups (Gram-positive and Gram-negative) based on the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls. While Gram staining is a valuable diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique, thus forming Gram variable and Gram indeterminant groups as well. The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853 – 1938), who developed the technique in 1884 to discriminate between two types of bacteria with similar clinical symptoms: Streptococcus pneumoniae (also known as the pneumococcus) and Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria. Uses Gram staining is used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups (Gram-positive and Gram-negative) based on the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls. Gram staining is not used to classify archaea, since these microorganisms yield widely varying responses that do not follow their phylogenetic groups. Research Gram staining is a common procedure in the traditional bacteriological laboratory. The technique is used as a tool for the differentiation of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as a first step to determine the identity of a particular bacterial sample. The Gram stain is not an infallible tool for diagnosis, identification, or phylogeny, however. It is of extremely limited use in environmental microbiology, and has been largely superseded by molecular techniques even in the medical microbiology lab. Given that some organisms are Gram-variable (i.e. they may stain either negative or positive), and that some organisms are not susceptible to either stain used by the Gram technique, its true utility to researchers should be considered limited and non-specific. In a modern environmental or molecular microbiology lab, most identification is done using genetic sequences and other molecular techniques, which are far more specific and information-rich than differential staining. Medical Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected. It yields results much more quickly than culture, and is especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are cerebrospinal fluid for meningitis and synovial fluid for septic arthritis. As a general rule (which has exceptions), Gram-negative bacteria are more pathogenic due to their outer membrane structure. The presence of a capsule will often increase the virulence of a pathogen. Additionally, Gram-negative bacteria have lipopolysaccharide in their outer membrane which breaks down into Lipid A, an endotoxin which increases the severity of inflammation. This inflammation may be so severe that septic shock may occur. Gram-positive infections are generally less severe because the human body does not contain peptidoglycan; in fact, humans produce an enzyme (lysozyme) that attacks the open peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are also frequently much more susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin. Exceptions to the rule include branching and filamentous Gram-positive bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other agents of tuberculosis, or Nocardia species, the agents of nocardiosis and some types of actinomycetoma. These organisms present unique problems in diagnosis and treatment, and special stains such as the Ziehl-Neelsen stain and the Kinyoun stain are used in their laboratory workup. Staining Mechanism Gram positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50-90% of cell wall), which stains purple while Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell wall), which stains pink. Gram-negative bacteria also have an additional outer membrane which contains lipids, and is separated from the cell wall by the periplasmic space. There are four basic steps of the Gram stain, which include applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture, followed by the addition of a mordant (Gram's iodine), rapid decolorization with alcohol or acetone, and counterstaining with safranin or basic fuchsin. Crystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into CV+ and chloride (Cl – ) ions. These ions penetrate through the cell wall and cell membrane of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells. The CV+ ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple. Iodine (I – or I3 – ) interacts with CV+ and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV – I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell. When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane. A Gram-negative cell will lose its outer membrane and the peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. The CV – I complexes are washed from the Gram-negative cell along with the outer membrane. In contrast, a Gram-positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment. The large CV – I complexes become trapped within the Gram-positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan. The decolorization step is critical and must be timed correctly; the crystal violet stain will be removed from both Gram-positive and negative cells if the decolorizing agent is left on too long (a matter of seconds). After decolorization, the Gram-positive cell remains purple and the Gram-negative cell loses its purple color. Counterstain, which is usually positively-charged safranin or basic fuchsin, is applied last to give decolorized Gram-negative bacteria a pink or red color. Some bacteria, after staining with the Gram stain, yield a Gram-variable pattern: a mix of pink and purple cells are seen. The genera Actinomyces, Arthobacter, Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, and Propionibacterium have cell walls particularly sensitive to breakage during cell division, resulting in Gram-negative staining of these Gram-positive cells. In cultures of Bacillus, Butyrivibrio, and Clostridium a decrease in peptidoglycan thickness during growth coincides with an increase in the number of cells that stain Gram-negative In addition, in all bacteria stained using the Gram stain, the age of the culture may influence the results of the stain. Examples Gram-negative bacteria The proteobacteria are a major group of Gram-negative bacteria. Other notable groups of Gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, green sulfur and green non-sulfur bacteria. These also include many medically relevant Gram-negative cocci, bacilli and many bacteria associated with nosocomial infections. Gram-positive bacteria In the original bacterial phyla, the Gram-positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus,Diplococcus pneumoniae and Clostridium. It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like Mycoplasma that lack cell walls and so cannot be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms. See also Bacterial cell structure Staining (biology) References External links Gram staining technique video Gram staining procedure

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John_Locke

John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher. Locke is considered the first of the British empiricists, but is equally important to social contract theory. His ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, classical republicans, and contributors to liberal theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. Becker, Carl Lotus. The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas Harcourt, Brace, 1922. p. 27 Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin for modern conceptions of identity and "the self", figuring prominently in the later works of philosophers such as David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of "consciousness". He also postulated that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, contrary to Cartesian or Christian philosophy, Locke maintained that people are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived by sense perception. Life Locke's father, who was also named John Locke, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna, who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene, was a tanner's daughter and reputed to be very beautiful. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptized the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and former commander of the younger Locke's father. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the English Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member. Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking an effect that would become evident in the An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France. He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but also to counter the absolutist political philosophy of Sir Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history. However, Locke fled to the Netherlands, Holland, in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot (though there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme). In the Netherlands Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Orange's wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place after his arrival back in England his aforementioned Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all appearing in quick succession upon his return from exile. Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton. He died in 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver, Britannica Online, s.v. John Locke east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children. Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held by the same monarch throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time. Locke's epitaph Original Latin: English Translation: Influence Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert has in fact argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State. He had a strong influence on Voltaire who called him "le sage Locke". His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In fact, several passages from the Second Treatise are reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, most notably the reference to a "long train of abuses." Today, most contemporary libertarians claim him as an influence. But Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks the beginning of the modern conception of the self. Seigel, Jerrold. The Idea of the Self: Thought and Experience in Western Europe since the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2005) and Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1989). Constitution of Carolina Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the United States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal Africa Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the Fundamental Constitution of the Carolinas while Shaftesbury's secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. They note that as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (1673-4) and a member of the Board of Trade (1696-1700) Locke was, in fact, "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude" page 101, Philosophical Tales, by Martin Cohen, (Blackwell 2008) Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having justified the displacement of the Native Americans. Because of his opposition to aristocracy and slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy, or of caring only for the liberty of English capitalists. Theory of value and property Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labor. Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labor. In addition, property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily." Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his social theory. Political theory Locke's political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterized by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his “life, health, liberty, or possessions.” Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name because Hobbes was not available in libraries due to his presence on the index librorum prohibitorum and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day. Skinner, Quentin Visions of Politics. Cambridge. Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Constitution of the United States and its Declaration of Independence. Limits to accumulation Labor creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s capacity to consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offense against nature. However, with the introduction of “durable” goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus not offend the natural law. The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be “hoarded up without injury to anyone,” since they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labor theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory developed in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labor but in the end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth. Locke on price theory Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. John Locke (1691) Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money Supply is quantity and demand is rent. “The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers.” and “that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.” The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on “money answers all things” (Ecclesiastes) or “rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough,” and “varies very little…” Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant, Locke concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalization, such as land, which has value because “by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income.” Demand for money is almost the same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For medium of exchange “money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life.” For loanable funds, “it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income … or interest.” Monetary thoughts Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a "counter" to measure value, and as a "pledge" to lay claim to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it. Locke argues that a country should seek a favorable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do. He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, laborers and brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of laborers and landholders, had a negative influence on both one's personal and the public economy that they supposedly contributed to. The self Locke defines the self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends". Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Ed. Roger Woolhouse. New York: Penguin Books (1997), p. 307. He does not, however, ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man." Locke, Essay, p. 306. The Lockean self is therefore a self-aware and self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body. In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an "empty" mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas. The American International Encyclopedia, J.J. Little Company, New York 1954, Volume 9. Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education." Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of the Conduct of the Understanding. Eds. Ruth W. Grant and Nathan Tarcov. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., Inc. (1996), p. 10. Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences." Locke, Some Thoughts, 10. He argued that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa. In his Essay, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other." Locke, Essay, 357. "Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man (1749). List of major works (1689) A Letter Concerning Toleration (1690) A Second Letter Concerning Toleration (1692) A Third Letter for Toleration (1689) Two Treatises of Government (1690) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1693) Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1695) The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures (1695) A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity Major unpublished or posthumous manuscripts (1660) First Tract of Government (or the English Tract) (c.1662) Second Tract of Government (or the Latin Tract) (1664) Questions Concerning the Law of Nature (definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al., eds., John Locke, Questions Concerning the Law of Nature, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990). (1667) Essay Concerning Toleration (1706) Of the Conduct of the Understanding (1707) A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul Secondary literature Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press. (Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.) Ayers, Michael R., 1991. Locke. Epistemology & Ontology Routledge (The standard work on Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding.) Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967). The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard Uni. Press. (Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.) G. A. Cohen, 1995. 'Marx and Locke on Land and Labour', in his Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality, Oxford University Press. Cox, Richard, Locke on War and Peace, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. (A discussion of Locke's theory of international relations.) Chappell, Vere, ed., 19nn. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge Uni. Press. Dunn, John, 1984. Locke. Oxford Uni. Press. (A succinct introduction.) ------, 1969. The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the "Two Treatises of Government". Cambridge Uni. Press. (Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.) Macpherson. C. B. The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). (Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism). Pangle, Thomas, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of Locke (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; paperback ed., 1990), 334 pages. (Challenges Dunn's, Tully's, Yolton's, and other conventional readings.) Strauss, Leo, Natural Right and History, chap. 5B (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). (Argues from a non-Marxist point of view for a deep affinity between Hobbes and Locke.) Strauss, Leo, "Locke's Doctrine of Natural law," American Political Science Review 52 (1958) 490–501. (A critique of W. von Leyden's edition of Locke's unpublished writings on natural law.) Tully, James, 1980. "A Discourse on Property : John Locke and his Adversaries" Cambridge Uni. Press Waldron, Jeremy, 2002. God, Locke and Equality. Cambridge Uni. Press. Yolton, J. W., ed., 1969. John Locke: Problems and Perspectives. Cambridge Uni. Press. Zuckert, Michael, Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. Locke Studies, appearing annually, publishes scholarly work on John Locke. See also Classical republicanism Liberalism Libertarianism Contributions to liberal theory Locke's theory of consciousness as the basis of personal identity Lockean proviso Polish brethren (the religious group, whose ideas were incorporated into Locke's theories) Notes Further reading External links Works Links to online books by John Locke The Works of John Locke 1823 Edition, 10 Volumes on PDF files, and additional resources 1824 Edition, 9 volumes in multiple formats John Locke Manuscripts Updated versions of Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Second Treatise of Government, edited by Jonathan Bennett Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (London: A. Millar et al., 1764).'. See original text in The Online Library of Liberty. Resources Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Locke John Locke Bibliography John Locke’s Theory of Knowledge by Caspar Hewett The Digital Locke Project Portraits of Locke Locke links A complex and positive answer to question Was Locke a Liberal? - by Jerome Huyler Timeline of the Life and Work of John Locke at The Online Library of Liberty Locke on Property: A Bibliographical Essay by Karen Vaughn The Online Library of Liberty. be-x-old:Джон Лок

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Austrian_School

The Austrian School (also known as the “Vienna School” or the “Psychological School”) is a heterodox school of economics that emphasizes the spontaneous organizing power of the price mechanism. It holds that the complexity of subjective human choices makes mathematical modelling of the evolving market extremely difficult (or undecideable) and advocates a laissez faire approach to the economy. Austrian School economists advocate the enforcement of voluntary contractual agreements between economic agents, but otherwise the smallest imposition of coercive force (especially government-imposed) on commercial transactions. Although often controversial, the Austrian School was once influential dating back to the early 20th century, but currently contributes relatively little to mainstream economic thought. The Austrian School derives its name from its predominantly Austrian founders and early supporters, including Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Ludwig von Mises. Despite this name, supporters and proponents of the Austrian School can come from any part of the world, and there are now few Austrian School economists of Austrian nationality. Prominent Austrian School economists of the 20th century include Joseph Schumpeter, Henry Hazlitt, Murray Rothbard, and Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek. Austrian School economists advocate strict adherence to methodological individualism – analyzing human action from the perspective of individual agents. Austrian School economists argue that the only means of arriving at a valid economic theory is to derive it logically from basic principles of human action, a method called praxeology. Proponents of this method hold that it allows for the discovery of fundamental economic laws valid for all human action. Alongside praxeology, the school has traditionally advocated an interpretive approach to history to address specific historical events. Critics of the method contend that it lacks scientific precision, as it eschews formal mathematical models and uses verbal logic instead. Mainstream economists believe that this makes Austrian theories too imprecisely defined to be clearly used to explain or predict real world events. History Classical economics focused on the labour theory of value, which holds that the value of a commodity is equal to the amount of labour required to produce it. In the late 19th century, however, attention was focused on the concepts of “marginal” cost and value. The Austrian School was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics. Carl Menger's 1871 book, Principles of Economics was the catalyst for this development; while marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that grew up around Menger, which came to be known as the “Psychological School,” “Vienna School,” or “Austrian School.” Israel M. Kirzner (1987). "Austrian School of Economics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 145-51. Thorstein Veblen introduced the term neoclassical economics in his Preconceptions of Economic Science (1900) to distinguish marginalists in the objective cost tradition of Alfred Marshall from those in the subjective valuation tradition of the Austrian School. Veblen, Thorstein Bunde; “The Preconceptions of Economic Science” Pt III, Quarterly Journal of Economics v14 (1900). Colander, David; The Death of Neoclassical Economics. Austrian economics is closely associated with the advocacy of laissez-faire views. The Austrian School, especially through the works of Friedrich Hayek, was influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the 20th century. Origins and etymology The school originated in Vienna, in the Austrian Empire. However, later adherents of the school such as Murray Rothbard have derived the roots of the thought of the Austrian School from the Spanish Scholastics teaching at the University of Salamanca of the 15th century and the French Physiocrats of the 18th century. What is Austrian economics? The School owes its name to members of the German Historical School of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the Methodenstreit ("methodology struggle"), in which the Austrians defended the reliance that classical economists placed upon deductive logic. Their Prussian opponents derisively named them the “Austrian School” to emphasize a departure from mainstream German thought and to suggest a provincial, Aristotelian approach. The name “Psychological School” derived from the effort to found marginalism upon prior considerations, largely psychological. The school was no longer centered in Austria after Hitler came to power, and is now based almost entirely in the United States. First wave Carl Menger was closely followed by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser, in what is known as the "first wave" of the School. Austrian economists developed a sense of themselves as a school distinct from neoclassical economics during the economic calculation debate with socialist economists. Ludwig von Mises and his student Friedrich A. Hayek represented the Austrian position in contending that without monetary prices and private property, meaningful economic calculation is impossible. The Austrian economist Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Marx in the 1880s and 1890s, as was part of the Austrian economists' participation in the late 19th Century Methodenstreit, during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the Historical School. 1920– Austrian economics after 1920 can be broken into two general trends. One, exemplified by Friedrich A. Hayek and Joseph Schumpeter, while distrusting many neoclassical concepts (like most of the corpus of Keynesian macroeconomics), generally accepts a large part of the neoclassical methodology; the other, exemplified by Ludwig von Mises, seeks a different formalism for economics. The main area of contention between the mainstream and the Austrian school is on their view of the market system as a process, not only to be studied using equilibrium models, but to be viewed as an incessant process that only tends toward a constantly changing equilibrium, this difference is the root of the Austrian business cycle theory, the economic calculation debate, and their different views of monopoly and competition. The second primary area of contention between neoclassical theory and the Austrian school is over the possibility of consumer indifference neoclassical theory says it is possible, whereas Mises rejected it as being “impossible to observe in practice.” This is a more philosophical problem, than one directly relevant to the understanding of the operation of the market. The third major dispute arose when Mises and his students argued, building on Czech economist Franz Cuhel, Cuhel, Franz: "On the Theory of Needs" that utility functions are ordinal, and not cardinal; that is, the Austrians contend that one can only rank preferences and cannot measure their intensity, in direct opposition to the neoclassical view at the time. However, mainstream theorists since then have shown that their results hold for all monotonic transformations of utility, and so also hold for ordinal preferences. Finally there are a host of questions about uncertainty raised by Mises and other Austrians, who argue for a different means of risk assessment. These questions are directly linked to the market process approach to economic theory, since the world of probabilistic uncertainty is the equilibrium world. Only immersed in a world of genuine uncertainty the market process theory is relevant. Later reputation Austrian economics was ill-thought of by most economists after World War II because it rejected mathematical and statistical methods. "Austrian economics and the mainstream: View from the boundary" by Roger E. Backhouse Its reputation rose somewhat in the late 20th century with the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann, as well as a renewed interest in Hayek after he won the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (a.k.a. the Nobel Prize in Economics). Following Hayek, one of Ludwig von Mises's students, Murray Rothbard, become prominent in both Austrian applied theory and Libertarian philosophical thought. See the online collection of Murray Rothbard's writings here However, it remains a distinctly minority position, even in such areas as capital value. Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University and Loyola University New Orleans in the United States, and Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala. The library of Universidad Francisco Marroquín is named after Ludwig von Mises, and the university also provides seminars and lectures through a program named for Austrian School proponent Henry Hazlitt. Austrian economic ideas are also promoted heavily by bodies such as the Mises Institute and the Foundation for Economic Education. Influence According to the Austrian economist Peter J. Boettke, during its history the position of the Austrian School within economics profession has changed several times from the center to the fringe of the mainstream, and currently its position lies between mainstream and heterodox economics. The former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan, speaking of the originators of the School, said in 2000, “the Austrian school have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country” Greenspan, Alan. "Hearings before the U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services." U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services. Washington D.C.. 7/25/2000. (though Greenspan would later, in 2008, express “shocked disbelief” regarding the lack of protection of shareholders by lending institutions). Republican U.S. congressman Ron Paul is a firm believer in Austrian school economics and has authored six books on the subject. The Economics of a Free Society - Ron Paul - Mises Institute Paul's former economic adviser, Peter Schiff, Peter Schiff named Ron Paul's Economic Adviser. is an adherent of the Austrian school. Interview with Peter Schiff Analytical framework Austrian economists reject empirical, statistical methods and artificially constructed experiments as tools applicable to economics, saying that while it is appropriate in the natural sciences where factors can be isolated in laboratory conditions, the actions of human beings are too complex for this treatment. Instead one should isolate the logical processes of human action. Von Mises called this discipline "praxeology" – a term he adapted from Alfred Espinas (but which had been in use by others). Ludwig von Mises, Nationalökonomie (Geneva: Union, 1940), p.3; Human Action (Auburn, Ala.: Mises Institute, [1949] 1998), p. 3. Austrian school theorists, like Ludwig von Mises, insist that praxeology must be value-free—that the method does not answer the question "should this policy be implemented?", but rather "if this policy is implemented, will it have the effects you intend"? However, Austrian economists often make policy recommendations that call for the elimination of government regulations and their policy prescriptions often overlap with libertarian or anarcho-capitalist solutions. These recommendations are similar to, but further reaching than the minarchist ideas of Chicago School economists, and frequently address topics other schools avoid, such as monetary reform. Both schools advocate strict protection of private property, and support for individualism in general, and are often cited by libertarian, classical or laissez-faire liberal, fiscal conservative, and Objectivist groups for support. The Austrian praxeological method is based on the heavy use of logical deduction from what they perceive to be self-evident axioms; undeniable facts about human existence. The primary axiom from which Austrian economists deduce further certain conclusions is the action axiom which holds that humans take conscious action toward chosen goals. The axiom actually affirms many other axioms such as existence, identity, consciousness, and free-will. Austrian economists recognize this but focus on action and say that it is undeniable because in order to deny action, one would have to employ action in the act of denial. This is the one area where Austrian economists differ most significantly from other schools of economic thought. Mainstream schools such as the neoclassical economists, the Chicago school of economics, the Keynesians and New Keynesians, adopt mathematical and statistical methods, and focus on induction and empirical observation to construct and test theories; while Austrian economists reject this approach in favor of deduction and logically deduced inferences. Austrian economists stress deduction because deduction, if performed correctly, leads to certain conclusions and inferences that must be true. Though Austrian economists do not discount induction, they hold that it does not assure certainty like deduction. Mainstream economists hold that conclusions that can be reached by pure logical deduction are limited and weak. Austrian economists view entrepreneurship as the driving force in economic development, see private property as essential to the efficient use of resources, and usually (if not always) see government interference in market processes as counterproductive. In this, their views do not differ far from those of the Chicago school. As with neoclassical economists, Austrian economists reject classical cost of production theories, most famously the labor theory of value. Instead they explain value by reference to the subjective preferences of individuals. This psychological aspect to Menger's economics has been attributed to the school's birth in turn of the century Vienna. Supply and demand are explained by aggregating over the decisions of individuals, following the precepts of methodological individualism, which asserts that only individuals and not collectives make decisions, and marginalist arguments, which compare the costs and benefits for incremental changes. Contemporary neo-Austrian economists claim to adopt economic subjectivism more consistently than any other school of economics and reject many neoclassical formalisms. For example, while neoclassical economics formalizes the economy as an equilibrium system with supply and demand in balance, Austrian economists emphasize its dynamic, perpetually dis-equilibrated nature. Although found in earlier writing, the opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by Austrian economists in the late 19th century. The Opportunity Cost Doctrine It is a typical Austrian school assertion that everyone directly involved is better off in a mutually voluntary exchange, or they would not have carried it out. Mainstream economists point out that this does not mean that society as a whole benefits, as there may be externalities that affect third parties not directly involved in the original transaction. This focus on opportunity cost alone means that their interpretation of the time value of a good has a strict relationship: since goods will be as restricted by scarcity at a later point in time as they are now, the strict relationship between investment and time must also hold. A factory making goods next year is worth as much less as the goods it is making next year are worth. This means that the business cycle is driven by mis-coordination between sectors of the same economy, caused by money not carrying incentive information correct about present choices, rather than within a single economy where money causes people to make bad decisions about how to spend their time. Critics of the Austrian school contend that by rejecting mathematics and econometrics, it has failed to contribute significantly to modern economics. Additionally, they contend that its methods currently consist of post-hoc analysis and do not generate testable implications; therefore, they fail the test of falsifiability. Austrian economists contend that testability in economics is virtually impossible since it relies on human actors who cannot be placed in a lab setting without altering their would-be actions. Contributions Some general contributions of Austrian economists: A theory of distribution in which factor prices result from the imputation of prices of consumer goods to goods of "higher order", that is goods used in the production of consumer goods (goods of the first order). An emphasis on the forward-looking nature of choice, seeing time as the root of uncertainty within economics (see also time preference). A fundamental rejection of mathematical methods in economics, seeing the function of economics as investigating the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena. This was seen as an evolutionary, or "genetic-causal", approach against the alleged "unreality" and internal stresses inherent in the "static" approach of equilibrium and perfect competition, which are the foundations of mainstream Neoclassical economics (see also praxeology). This methodology is also driven by the belief that econometrics is inherently misleading in that it creates a fallacious "precision" in economics where there is none. Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's critique of Marx centered around the untenability of the labor theory of value in the light of the transformation problem. There was also the connected argument that capitalists do not exploit workers; they accommodate workers by providing them with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce. Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's capital theory, which equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's demonstration that the law of marginal utility, as formulated by Menger necessarily implies the classical law of costs and hence the vast majority of the conclusions of the British classical economists. This discovery was later fully developed and its implications traced by a student of von Mises, George Reisman, in his book, Capitalism. An emphasis on opportunity cost and reservation demand in defining value, and a refusal to consider supply as an otherwise independent cause of value. (The British economist Philip Wicksteed adopted this perspective.) The Mises-Hayek business cycle theory, which explains depression as a reaction to an intertemporal production structure fostered by monetary policy setting interest rates inconsistent with individual time preferences. Hayek's concept of intertemporal equilibrium. (John Hicks took over this theory in his discussion of temporary equilibrium in Value and Capital, a book very influential on the development of neoclassical economics after World War II.) Mises and Hayek's view of prices as permitting agents to make use of dispersed tacit knowledge. The time preference theory of interest, which explains interest rates through intertemporal choice - the different time preferences of the borrower or lender - rather than as a price paid for a factor of production. Stressing uncertainty in the making of economic decisions, rather than relying on "Homo economicus" or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions. The fact that perfect knowledge never exists, means that all economic activity implies risk. Seeing the entrepreneurs' role as collecting and evaluating information and acting on risks. The economic calculation debate between Austrian and Marxist economists, with the Austrians claiming that Marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production, and so socialism could not make rational decisions. Predicting the Great Depression. Friedrich Hayek predicted the Great Depression. Hayek made his prediction of a coming business crisis in February 1929. He warned that a financial crisis was an unavoidable consequence of reckless monetary expansion. Specific contributions Inflation The Austrian School has consistently argued that a "traditionalist" approach to inflation yields the most accurate understanding of the causes (and the cure) for inflation. Austrian economists maintain that inflation is always and everywhere simply an increase in the money supply (i.e. units of currency or means of exchange), which in turn leads to a higher nominal price level for assets (such as housing) and other goods and services in demand, as the real value of each monetary unit is eroded, loses purchasing power and thus buys fewer goods and services. Given that all major economies currently have a central bank supporting the private banking system, almost all new money is supplied into the economy by way of bank-created credit (or debt). Austrian economists believe that this bank-created credit growth (which forms the bulk of the money supply) sets off and creates volatile business cycles (see Austrian Business Cycle Theory) and maintain that this "wave-like" or "boomerang" effect on economic activity is one of the most damaging effects of monetary inflation. According to the Austrian Business Cycle Theory, it is the central bank's policy of ineffectually attempting to control the complex multi-faceted ever-evolving market economy that creates volatile credit cycles or business cycles, and, as a necessary by-product, inflation (especially in asset markets). By the central bank artificially "stimulating" the economy with artificially low interest rates (thereby permitting excessive increases in the money supply), the government-sponsored central bank itself allows debasement of the means of exchange (inflation), often focused in asset or capital markets, resulting in "false signals" going out to the market place, in turn resulting in clusters of malinvestments, and the artificial lowering of the returns on savings, which eventually causes the malinvestments to be liquidated as they inevitably show their underlying unprofitability and unsustainability. Thorsten Polleit, Inflation Is a Policy that Cannot Last Austrian School economists therefore regard the state-sponsored central bank as the main cause of inflation, because it is the institution charged with the creation of new currency units, referred to as bank credit. When newly created bank credit is injected into the fractional-reserve banking system, the credit expands, thus enhancing the inflationary effect. Charles T. Hatch, ’’Inflationary Deception’’ http://mises.org/journals/scholar/hatch.pdf The Austrian School also views the "contemporary" definition of inflation as inherently misleading in that it draws attention only to the effect of inflation (rising prices) and does not address the "true" phenomenon of inflation which they believe is the debasement of the means of exchange. They argue that this semantic difference is important in defining inflation and finding a cure for inflation. Austrian School economists maintain the most effective cure is the strict maintenance of a stable money supply. Ludwig von Mises, the seminal scholar of the Austrian School, asserts that: Inflation, as this term was always used everywhere and especially in this country, means increasing the quantity of money and bank notes in circulation and the quantity of bank deposits subject to check. But people today use the term `inflation' to refer to the phenomenon that is an inevitable consequence of inflation, that is the tendency of all prices and wage rates to rise. The result of this deplorable confusion is that there is no term left to signify the cause of this rise in prices and wages. There is no longer any word available to signify the phenomenon that has been, up to now, called inflation. . . . As you cannot talk about something that has no name, you cannot fight it. Those who pretend to fight inflation are in fact only fighting what is the inevitable consequence of inflation, rising prices. Their ventures are doomed to failure because they do not attack the root of the evil. They try to keep prices low while firmly committed to a policy of increasing the quantity of money that must necessarily make them soar. As long as this terminological confusion is not entirely wiped out, there cannot be any question of stopping inflation. Following their definition, Austrian economists measure the inflation by calculating the growth of what they call 'the true money supply', i.e. how many new units of money that are available for immediate use in exchange, that have been created over time. Ludwig von Mises Institute, "True Money Supply" Joseph T. Salerno, (1987), Austrian Economic Newsletter, "The "True" Money Supply: A Measure of the Medium of Exchange in the U.S. Economy" Frank Shostak, (2000), "The Mystery of the Money Supply Definition" This interpretation of inflation implies that inflation is always a distinct action taken by the central government or its central bank, which permits or allows an increase in the money supply. Ludwig von Mises, The Theory of Money and Credit", ISBN 0-913966-70-3 See also: Jesus Huerta de Soto, "Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles", ISBN 0-945466-39-4 In addition to state-induced monetary expansion, the Austrian School also maintains that the effects of increasing the money supply are magnified by credit expansion, as a result of the fractional-reserve banking system employed in most economic and financial systems in the world. Murray Rothbard, "What Has Government Done to Our Money?", ISBN 978-0945466444 Austrian School economists claim that the state uses inflation as one of the three means by which it can fund its activities, the other two being taxing and borrowing. Lew Rockwell, interview on "NOW with Bill Moyers" Therefore, they often seek to identify the reasons for why the state needs to create new money and what the new money is used for. Various forms of military spending is often cited as a reason for resorting to inflation and borrowing, as this can be a short term way of acquiring marketable resources and is often favored by desperate, indebted governments. Lew Rockwell, "War and Inflation", Ludwig von Mises Institute In other cases, the central bank may try avoid or defer the widespread bankruptcies and insolvencies which cause economic recessions or depressions by artificially trying to "stimulate" the economy through "encouraging" money supply growth and further borrowing via artificially low interest rates. Thorsten Polleit, "Manipulating the Interest Rate: a Recipe for Disaster", 13 December 2007 Accordingly, many Austrian School economists support the abolition of the central banks and the fractional-reserve banking system, and advocate instead a return to money based on the gold standard, or less frequently, free banking. Ludwig von Mises Institute, "The Gold Standard" Ron Paul, "The Case for Gold" Money could only be created by finding and putting into circulation more gold under a gold standard. At the beginning of his career Alan Greenspan, former chairman of the Federal Reserve, was a strong advocate of the Gold Standard as a protector of economic liberty. In the absence of the gold standard, there is no way to protect savings from confiscation through inflation. There is no safe store of value. If there were, the government would have to make its holding illegal, as was done in the case of gold. If everyone decided, for example, to convert all his bank deposits to silver or copper or any other good, and thereafter declined to accept checks as payment for goods, bank deposits would lose their purchasing power and government-created bank credit would be worthless as a claim on goods. The financial policy of the welfare state requires that there be no way for the owners of wealth to protect themselves. This is the shabby secret of the welfare statists' tirades against gold. Deficit spending is simply a scheme for the confiscation of wealth. Gold stands in the way of this insidious process. It stands as a protector of property rights. If one grasps this, one has no difficulty in understanding the statists' antagonism toward the gold standard. Advocates argued that the Gold Standard would constrain unsustainable and volatile fractional-reserve banking practices, ensuring that money supply growth (and inflation) would never spiral out of control. Murray Rothbard, "The Case for a 100 Percent Gold Dollar" Ludwig von Mises Institute, "Money, Banking and the Federal Reserve" Ludwig von Mises asserted that civil liberties would be better protected. It is impossible to grasp the meaning of the idea of sound money if one does not realize that it was devised as an instrument for the protection of civil liberties against despotic inroads on the part of governments. Ideologically it belongs in the same class with political constitutions and bills of rights. The demand for constitutional guarantees and for bills of rights was a reaction against arbitrary rule and the nonobservance of old customs by kings. Business cycles According to Austrian School economist Joseph Salerno, what most distinctly sets the Austrian school apart from neoclassical economics is the Austrian Business Cycle Theory: Austrian School economists focus on the amplifying, "wave-like" effects of the credit cycle as the primary cause of most business cycles. Austrian economists assert that inherently damaging and ineffective central bank policies are the predominant cause of most business cycles, as they tend to set "artificial" interest rates too low for too long, resulting in excessive credit creation, speculative "bubbles" and "artificially" low savings. Thorsten Polleit, Manipulating the Interest Rate: a Recipe for Disaster, 13 December 2007 According to the Austrian School business cycle theory, the business cycle unfolds in the following way. Low interest rates tend to stimulate borrowing from the banking system. This expansion of credit causes an expansion of the supply of money, through the money creation process in a fractional reserve banking system. This in turn leads to an unsustainable "monetary boom" during which the "artificially stimulated" borrowing seeks out diminishing investment opportunities. This boom results in widespread malinvestments, causing capital resources to be misallocated into areas which would not attract investment if the money supply remained stable. The global economic crisis of 2008 represents, according to some pundits, an example of the Austrian business cycle theory's dependability. George Bragues, Paulson's scheme, 7 October 2008 Austrian School economists argue that a correction or "credit crunch" – commonly called a "recession" or "bust" – occurs when credit creation cannot be sustained. They claim that the money supply suddenly and sharply contracts when markets finally "clear", causing resources to be reallocated back toward more efficient uses. Economic calculation The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics. It was first proposed by Ludwig von Mises in 1920 and later expounded by Friedrich Hayek. F. A. Hayek, (1935), "The Nature and History of the Problem" and "The Present State of the Debate," om in F. A. Hayek, ed. Collectivist Economic Planning, pp. 1-40, 201-43. The problem referred to is that of how to distribute resources rationally in an economy. The capitalist solution is the price mechanism; Mises and Hayek argued that this is the only viable solution, as the price mechanism co-ordinates supply and investment decisions most efficiently (provided there is no distortion of the price mechanism by government or by the banks through fractional reserve banking). Without the information efficiently and effectively provided by market prices, socialism lacks a method to efficiently allocate resources over an extended period of time in any market where the price mechanism is effective (an example where the price mechanism may not work is in the relatively confined area of public and common goods). Those who agree with this criticism argue it is a refutation of socialism and that it shows that a socialist planned economy could never work in the long term for the vast bulk of the economy and has very limited potential application. The debate raged in the 1920s and 1930s, and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by economic historians as the The Socialist Calculation Debate. The socialist calculation debate Ludwig von Mises argued in a famous 1920 article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange," unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to declare "...that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth." Criticism The main criticism of modern Austrian economics is that it lacks scientific precision. Austrian theories are not formulated in formal mathematical form, but using verbal logic. Mainstream economists believe that this makes Austrian theories too imprecisely defined to be clearly used to explain or predict real world events. Economist Bryan Caplan noted that, "what prevents Austrian economists from getting more publications in mainstream journals is that their papers rarely use mathematics or econometrics." This criticism of the Austrian school is related to its rejection of the use of the scientific method and empirical testing in social sciences in favor of self-evident axioms and logical reasoning. Another general criticism of the School is that although it claims to highlight shortcomings in traditional methodology, it fails to provide viable alternatives for making positive contributions to economic theory. Klein, B. 1975. "Book review: Competition and entrepreneurship". Journal of Political Economy. 83: 1305- 1306. In his critique of Austrian economics, Caplan stated that Austrian economists have often misunderstood modern economics, causing them to overstate their differences with it. He argued that several of the most important Austrian claims are false or overstated. For example, Austrian economists object to the use of cardinal utility in microeconomic theory; however, microeconomic theorists go to great pains to show that their results hold for all monotonic transformations of utility, and so are true for purely ordinal preferences. He has also criticized the school for rejecting on principle the use of mathematics or econometrics. In response, Austrians argue that neoclassical economists fail to recognize hidden (and not necessarily true) assumptions they make to arrive to tractable mathematical models. Barnett, William, Dimensions and Economics: Some Problems Austrians also claim that econometrics is fundamentally based on mathematically and logically invalid summation and averaging of demonstrably non-additive personal utility functions, and therefore is subjective. There are also criticisms of specific Austrian theories. For example, Nobel laureate and neo-Keynesian economist Paul Krugman argued that Austrian business cycle theory implies that consumption would increase during downturns, and cannot explain the empirical observation that spending in all sectors of the economy fall during a recession. Austrian theorists argue a recession can result from a monetary contraction or a "credit crunch" that causes the investment boom not to shift but simply to disappear. Nobel laureate Milton Friedman, after examining the history of business cycles in the US, concluded that "The Hayek-Mises explanation of the business cycle is contradicted by the evidence. It is, I believe, false." Economist Jeffrey Sachs states that when comparing developed free-market economies, those that have high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He asserts that poverty rates are lower, median income is higher, the budget has larger surpluses, and the trade balance is stronger (although unemployment tends to be higher). He concludes that von Hayek was wrong when he said that high taxation would be a threat to freedom; but rather, a generous social-welfare state leads to fairness, economic equality, international competitiveness, and strong vibrant democracies. In response to Sachs' article, William Easterly states that Hayek, writing in 1944, correctly recognized the dangers of large-scale state economic planning. He also questions the validity of comparing poverty levels in the Nordic countries and the United States, when the former have been moving away from social planning toward a more market-based economy, and the latter has historically taken in impoverished immigrants. Easterly also argues that laissez-faire countries were the leaders of "the ongoing global industrial revolution" which is responsible for abolishing much of the world's poverty. Seminal works Principles of Economics (1871) by Carl Menger Capital and Interest (1884-1921) by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk Human Action (1940-1949) by Ludwig von Mises Economics in One Lesson (1946) by Henry Hazlitt Individualism and Economic Order (1948) by Friedrich Hayek Man, Economy, and State (1962) by Murray N. Rothbard Competition and Entrepreneurship (1973) by Israel M. Kirzner See also Newtonian time in economics, a debate concerning whether Newtonian time is an appropriate concept to use in economics Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, one of the most prominent organs of the Austrian School in academia List of Austrian intellectual traditions References External links Austrian Economics Concise encyclopedia of economics on Econlib History of The Austrian School from the History of Economic Thought website. Mises.org, official website of the Ludwig von Mises Institute, containing a large selection of online books, video/audio, journal archives, and research on Austrian economics be-x-old:Аўстрыйская школа

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Group_isomorphism

In abstract algebra, a group isomorphism is a function between two groups that sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the groups are called isomorphic. From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups have the same properties and need not be distinguished. Definition and notation Given two groups (G, *) and (H, ), a group isomorphism from (G, *) to (H, ) is a bijective group homomorphism from G to H. Spelled out, this means that a group isomorphism is a bijective function such that for all u and v in G it holds that . The two groups (G, *) and (H, ) are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists. This is written: Often shorter and more simple notations can be used. Often there is no ambiguity about the group operation, and it can be omitted: Sometimes one can even simply write G = H. Whether such a notation is possible without confusion or ambiguity depends on context. For example, the equals sign is not very suitable when the groups are both subgroups of the same group. See also the examples. Conversely, given a group (G, *), a set H, and a bijection , we can make H a group (H, ) by defining . If H = G and = * then the bijection is an automorphism (q.v.) Intuitively, group theorists view two isomorphic groups as follows: For every element g of a group G, there exists an element h of H such that h 'behaves in the same way' as g (operates with other elements of the group in the same way as g). For instance, if g generates G, then so does h. This implies in particular that G and H are in bijective correspondence. So the definition of an isomorphism is quite natural. An isomorphism of groups may equivalently be defined as an invertible morphism in the category of groups. Examples The group of all real numbers with addition, (,+), is isomorphic to the group of all positive real numbers with multiplication (+,×): via the isomorphism (see exponential function). The group of integers (with addition) is a subgroup of , and the factor group / is isomorphic to the group of complex numbers of absolute value 1 (with multiplication): An isomorphism is given by for every x in . The Klein four-group is isomorphic to the direct product of two copies of (see modular arithmetic), and can therefore be written . Another notation is Dih2, because it is a dihedral group. Generalizing this, for all odd n, Dih2n is isomorphic with the direct product of Dihn and Z2. If (G, *) is an infinite cyclic group, then (G, *) is isomorphic to the integers (with the addition operation). From an algebraic point of view, this means that the set of all integers (with the addition operation) is the 'only' infinite cyclic group. Some groups can be proven to be isomorphic, relying on the axiom of choice, while it is even theoretically impossible to construct concrete isomorphisms. Examples: The group (, +) is isomorphic to the group (, +) of all complex numbers with addition. The group (*, ·) of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication as operation is isomorphic to the group S1 mentioned above. Properties The kernel of an isomorphism from (G, *) to (H, ), is always {eG} where eG is the identity of the group (G, *) If (G, *) is isomorphic to (H,), and if G is abelian then so is H. If (G, *) is a group that is isomorphic to (H, ) [where f is the isomorphism], then if a belongs to G and has order n, then so does f(a). If (G, *) is a locally finite group that is isomorphic to (H, ), then (H, ) is also locally finite. The previous examples illustrate that 'group properties' are always preserved by isomorphisms. Consequences From the definition, it follows that any isomorphism will map the identity element of G to the identity element of H, that it will map inverses to inverses, and more generally, nth powers to nth powers, for all u in G, and that the inverse map is also a group isomorphism. The relation "being isomorphic" satisfies all the axioms of an equivalence relation. If f is an isomorphism between two groups G and H, then everything that is true about G that is only related to the group structure can be translated via f into a true ditto statement about H, and vice versa. Automorphisms An isomorphism from a group (G,*) to itself is called an automorphism of this group. Thus it is a bijection such that . An automorphism always maps the identity to itself. The image under an automorphism of a conjugacy class is always a conjugacy class (the same or another). The image of an element has the same order as that element. The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with this operation the set of all automorphisms of a group G, denoted by Aut(G), forms itself a group, the automorphism group of G. For all Abelian groups there is at least the automorphism that replaces the group elements by their inverses. However, in groups where all elements are equal to their inverse this is the trivial automorphism, e.g. in the Klein four-group. For that group all permutations of the three non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the automorphism group is isomorphic to S3 and Dih3. In Zp for a prime number p, one non-identity element can be replaced by any other, with corresponding changes in the other elements. The automorphism group is isomorphic to Zp − 1. For example, for n = 7, multiplying all elements of Z7 by 3, modulo 7, is an automorphism of order 6 in the automorphism group, because 36 = 1 ( modulo 7 ), while lower powers do not give 1. Thus this automorphism generates Z6. There is one more automorphism with this property: multiplying all elements of Z7 by 5, modulo 7. Therefore, these two correspond to the elements 1 and 5 of Z6, in that order or conversely. The automorphism group of Z6 is isomorphic to Z2, because only each of the two elements 1 and 5 generate Z6, so apart from the identity we can only interchange these. The automorphism group of Z2 × Z2 × Z2 = Dih2 × Z2 has order 168, as can be found as follows. All 7 non-identity elements play the same role, so we can choose which plays the role of (1,0,0). Any of the remaining 6 can be chosen to play the role of (0,1,0). This determines which corresponds to (1,1,0). For (0,0,1) we can choose from 4, which determines the rest. Thus we have 7 × 6 × 4 = 168 automorphisms. They correspond to those of the Fano plane, of which the 7 points correspond to the 7 non-identity elements. The lines connecting three points correspond to the group operation: a, b, and c on one line means a+b=c, a+c=b, and b+c=a. See also general linear group over finite fields. For Abelian groups all automorphisms except the trivial one are called outer automorphisms. Non-Abelian groups have a non-trivial inner automorphism group, and possibly also outer automorphisms. References

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Chondrichthyes

Chondrichthyes () or cartilaginous fishes are jawed fish with paired fins, paired nares, scales, two-chambered hearts, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. They are divided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays and skates) and Holocephali (chimaera, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their own class). Anatomy Skeleton The skeleton is cartilaginous. The notochord, which is present in the young, is gradually replaced by cartilage. Chondrichthyes also lack ribs, so in the event that they left the water, larger species' own body weight would crush their internal organs long before they would suffocate. As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the spleen and special tissue around the gonads. They are also produced in an organ called Leydig's Organ which is only found in cartilaginous fishes, although some do not possess it. Another unique organ is the epigonal organ which probably has a role in the immune system. The subclass Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both of these organs. Appendages All Chondrichthyes have dorsal, caudal, anal, pelvic, and pectoral fins. Anal, pelvic, and pectoral fins are all paired. Pectoral fins are usually fixed. Their tough skin is covered with dermal teeth (again with Holocephali as an exception as the teeth are lost in adults, only kept on the clasping organ seen on the front of the male's head), also called placoid scales or dermal denticles, making it feel like sandpaper. In most species, all dermal denticles are oriented in one direction, making the skin feel very smooth if rubbed in one direction and very rough if rubbed in the other. Originally the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and pubioischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very flexible. One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion. Function of the heterocercal tail in sharks: quantitative wake dynamics during steady horizontal swimming and vertical maneuvering - The Journal of Experimental Biology 205, 2365–2374 (2002) Body covering Chondrichthyes have toothlike scales called denticles or placoid scales. Denticles provide two functions, protection, and in most cases streamlining. Mucous glands exist in some species as well. It is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from dermal denticles which migrated into the mouth, but it could be the other way around as the teleost bony fish Denticeps clupeoides has most of its head covered by dermal teeth (as does, probably, Atherion elymus, another bony fish). This is most probably a secondary evolved characteristic which means there is not necessarily a connection between the teeth and the original dermal scales. The old placoderms did not have teeth at all, but had sharp bony plates in their mouth. Thus, it is unknown which of the dermal or oral teeth evolved first. Neither is it sure how many times it has happened if it turns out to be the case. It has even been suggested that the original bony plates of all the vertebrates are gone and that the present scales are just modified teeth, even if both teeth and the body armor have a common origin a long time ago. But for the moment there is no evidence of this. Respiratory system Chondrichthyes all breathe through 5-7 gills, depending on species. However, they differ on how they get water to pass over the gills. Chondrichthyes mostly use their mouths, as do chimaeras and skates, but rays get water through spiracles, which are small holes on top of their head that run to the gills. A spiracle is found behind each eye on most species. Biology Chondrichthyes are mostly ectothermic or cold blooded, with low metabolic rates and the ability to go without constant feeding. But sharks in the family Lamnidae – shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark – are known to have the capacity for endothermy, and evidence suggests the trait also exists in family Alopiidae (thresher sharks). Fertilization is internal. Development is usually live birth (ovoviviparous species) but can be through eggs (oviparous). Some rare species are viviparous. There is no parental care after birth, however, some Chondrichthyes do guard their eggs. Members Chimaeras Sharks Skates Rays Taxonomy The class contains twelve orders, grouped into subclasses and superorders as follows: Class Chondrichthyes Subclass Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays and skates) Superorder Batoidea (rays and skates), containing the orders: Rajiformes (common rays and skates) Pristiformes (Sawfish) Torpediniformes (electric rays) Superorder Selachimorpha (sharks), containing the orders: Hexanchiformes Two families are found within this order. Species of this order are distinguished from other sharks by having additional gill slits (either six or seven). Examples from this group include the cow sharks, frilled shark and even a shark that looks on first inspection to be a marine snake. Squaliformes Three families and more than 80 species are found within this order. These sharks have two dorsal fins, often with spines, and no anal fin. They have teeth designed for cutting in both the upper and lower jaws. Examples from this group include the bramble sharks, dogfish and roughsharks. Pristiophoriformes One family is found within this order. These are the sawsharks, with an elongate, toothed snout that they use for slashing the fishes that they then eat. Squatiniformes One family is found within this order. These are flattened sharks that can be distinguished from the similar appearing skates and rays by the fact that they have the gill slits along the side of the head like all other sharks. They have a caudal fin (tail) with the lower lobe being much longer in length than the upper, and are commonly referred to as angel sharks. Heterodontiformes One family is found within this order. They are commonly referred to as the bullhead, or horn sharks. They have a variety of teeth allowing them to grasp and then crush shellfishes. Orectolobiformes Seven families are found within this order. They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs and the largest of all fishes, the whale sharks. They are distinguished by having barbels at the edge of the nostrils. Most, but not all are nocturnal. Carcharhiniformes Eight families are found within this order. It is the largest order, containing almost 200 species. They are commonly referred to as the groundsharks, and some of the species include the blue, tiger, bull, reef and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack. Lamniformes Seven families are found within this order. They are commonly referred to as the mackerel sharks. They include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth, the thresher, mako shark and great white shark. They are distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction. The Lamniformes contains the extinct Megalodon (Carcharodon megalodon), which like most extinct sharks is only known by the teeth (the only bone found in these cartilaginous fishes, and therefore are often the only fossils produced) and a few vertebrae. The largest of the teeth of this shark can measure (up to more than in length) and through modern research, it has been determined that this shark could exceed in length. Subclass Holocephali (chimaeras) Chimaeriformes (chimaeras) References Taxonomy of Chondrichthyes Images of many sharks, skates and rays on Morphbank

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Council_of_Constance

The Council of Constance is the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Western Schism, by deposing the remaining papal claimants and electing Pope Martin V. The Council also condemned and executed Jan Hus and ruled on issues of national sovereignty, the rights of pagans, and just war in response to a conflict between the Kingdom of Poland and the Order of the Teutonic Knights. The Council is important for its relationship to the development of the Councilarism and papal supremacy. Origin and background Emperor Sigismund and his second wife Barbara of Celje at the council of Constance The council was called by the German King Sigismund (later Holy Roman Emperor), a supporter of Antipope John XXIII, the pope recently elected at Pisa. The council was held from November 16, 1414 to April 22, 1418 in Constance (currently known as Konstanz). Its main purpose was to end the Papal schism which had resulted from the Avignon Papacy. The Council of Constance marked the high point of the Conciliar movement to reform the Church. According to Joseph McCabe, the council was attended by roughly 29 cardinals, 100 "learned doctors of law and divinity," 134 abbots, 183 bishops and archbishops. At the time the council was called, there were three popes, all of whom claimed legitimacy. A few years earlier, in one of the first blows to the Conciliar movement, the bishops at the Council of Pisa had deposed both of the two claimant popes and elected a third pope, claiming that in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, even if he were the bishop of Rome. An innovation at the Council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in national blocs, explicitly confirming the national pressures that had fueled the schism since 1378. Decrees and doctrinal status Bishops debating with the pope at the Council of Constance The famous Haec sancta decree on papal primacy and infallibility was promulgated in the fifth session, April 6, 1415. Its declaration that legitimately assembled in the holy Spirit, constituting a general council and representing the Catholic church militant, it has power immediately from Christ; and that everyone of whatever state or dignity, even papal, is bound to obey it in those matters which pertain to the faith, the eradication of the said schism and the general reform of the said church of God in head and members. marks the high water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform . This decree, however, is not considered valid by the Catholic Church, since it was never approved by Pope Gregory XII or his successors, and was passed by the Council in a session before his confirmation. The Church declared the first sessions of the Council of Constance an invalid and illicit assembly of Bishops, gathered under the authority of Emperor Sigismund and Antipope John XXIII. The acts of the Council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the Council of Basel; they were printed in 1500. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, and thus written in 1415 called Ars moriendi. Ending the Western Schism Imperia, a statue commemorating the Council Baldassare Cossa (John XXIII), who fled from Constance on March 20, 1415. With the support of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, enthroned before the high altar of the cathedral of Constance, the Council of Constance recommended that all three popes abdicate, and that another be chosen. In part because of the constant presence of the emperor, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope. Gregory XII then sent representatives to Constance, whom he granted full powers to summon, open and preside over an Ecumenical Council; he also empowered them to present his resignation to the Papacy. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism. The legates were received by Emperor Sigismund and by the assembled Bishops, and the Emperor yielded the presidency of the proceedings to the papal legates, Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa and Prince Charles of Malatesta. On 4 July, 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Malatesta and Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts. Thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesta immediately informed the Council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiff's behalf. He asked the Council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately. Thereupon the commission by Gregory XII authorizing his proxy to resign the Papacy on his behalf was read and Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the papacy by Gregory XII and handed a written copy of the resignation to the assembly. Former Pope Gregory XII was then created titular Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Ruffina by the Council, with rank immediately below the Pope (which made him the highest ranking person in the Church, since, due to his abdication, the See of Peter was vacant). Gregory XII's cardinals were accepted as true cardinals by the Council, but the members of the council delayed electing a new pope for fear that a new pope would restrict further discussion of pressing issues in the Church. By the time the anti-popes were all deposed and the new Pope, Martin V, was elected, two years had passed since Gregory XII's abdication, and Gregory was already dead. The council with great care to protect the legitimacy of the succession, ratified all his acts and a new pontiff was chosen. The new pope, Martin V, elected November 1417, soon asserted the absolute authority of the papal office. Condemnation of Jan Hus Painting of Jan Hus in Council of Constance by Václav Brožík A second goal of the council was to continue the reforms begun at the Council of Pisa. These reforms were largely directed against John Wycliff, mentioned in the opening session, and condemned in the eighth, May 4, 1415 and Jan Hus, and their followers. Jan Hus, summoned to Constance under a letter of indemnity, was condemned by council and burned at the stake notwithstanding on July 6, 1415. Polish-Teutonic conflict During the council there were also political topics discussed, such as the accusation by the Teutonic Knights that Poland was defending pagans. Paweł Włodkowic, rector of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland, presented there the theory that all nations, including pagan ones, have the right to self-government and to live in peace and possess their land, which is one of the earliest ideas of international law: Communities have the right to determine to which nation they belong; Peoples have the right to decide on their own future and to defend their nation; Rulers are bound to respect the individual religious convictions of their subjects who cannot be denied their natural rights because of their belief; Conversion through the use of force and coercion is invalid, sinful and deplorable; Conversion can never be used as a pretext for war; Maintenance of peace required an International Tribunal to judge contesting claims. No ruler, not even the Emperor or the Pope, should be able to declare war without submission to due process; The principles of just war are always applicable and binding, regardless as to whether the state, nation or people against whom war is being declared is Christian or not; Non-Christian and non-Catholic nations living at peace with their neighbors have the right to have their sovereignty and the integrity of their territories safeguarded; Neither the Emperor nor the Pope could authorize anything that contradicts the principles of natural law; Poland was bound to the Emperor only when he acted as Defender of the Faith; The right of might erodes international relations like a cancer; Exercising its right to self-defense, a Catholic state can also engage non-Christians or non-Catholics among its forces. References Cantor, Norman F. 1993. Civilization of the Middle Ages pp 498ff. Tanner, Norman P., editor, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils: Council of Constance 1414-18, excerpts of the sessions (in English) Dr. Joseph Cassar: The Rights of Nations During the proceedings of the Council, John of Falkenberg accused Poles of being: “guilty of the abominable crime of using Pagan allies in their war against the German Order.” He proposed that “the Poles must be exterminated.” doctor John Cassar The Rights of Nations: Reflections on the Address of Pope John Paul II to the 50th Session of the United Nations General Assembly Center for Global Education, St. John's University 1997 In his Liber de doctrina, Falkenberg argued that “the Emperor has the right to slay even peaceful infidels simply because they are pagans; the Poles too should be killed for allying themselves with the infidels and resisting Christian Knights. The Poles deserve death for defending infidels, and should be exterminated even more than the infidels; they should be deprived of their sovereignty and reduced to slavery.” References External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Constance Council of Constance be-x-old:Канстанцкі сабор

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ISO_8601

ISO 8601 is an international standard for date and time representations issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Specifically, the standard is titled "Data elements and interchange formats — Information interchange — Representation of dates and times". The signature feature of ISO 8601 date and time representations is the ordering of date and time values from the most to the least significant or, in plain terms, from the largest (the year) to the smallest (the second). Example date: -- Example separate date and time in UTC: -- Z Example combined date and time in UTC: --TZ Example date with week number: Example ordinal date: -{{#ifexpr:<100|0}}{{#ifexpr:<10|0}} History The first edition of the ISO 8601 standard was published in 1988. It unified and replaced a number of older ISO standards on various aspects of date and time notation: ISO 2014, ISO 2015, ISO 2711, ISO 3307, and ISO 4031. It has been superseded by a second edition in 2000 and by the current third edition, ISO 8601:2004, published 2004-12-03. ISO 2014 was the standard that originally introduced the big-endian all-numeric date notation [YYYY]-[MM]-[DD]. The ISO week numbering system was introduced in ISO 2015, and the identification of days by ordinal dates was originally defined in ISO 2711. It is maintained by ISO Technical Committee TC 154. Scope and application of the standard The scope of the standard covers representations for Gregorian dates, time of day, combined date and time of day, and time intervals. Dates can be represented in three forms: 1) year-month-day of month, 2) year-week number-day of week, and 3) year-day of year. Time of day is represented by using the 24-hour clock. Combined date and time is represented by merging both the date and time of day representations to denote a single time point. Time intervals are represented in a number of ways by using a combination of a start point, end point, duration, and context information. The application of the standard is intended to be very broad. It applies to all written communications that contain dates, times, and time intervals regardless of the communication medium (printed, electronic, or hand written) or the location of the sender and receiver (either within an organization, between organizations, or across international boundaries). The application of the standard was never meant to be limited to dates and times processed, stored, and displayed by computers. It applies to all industries and all forms of human activity where accurate and unambiguous representations of dates, times, and time intervals are needed when communicating internationally, nationally, locally, internally, or even privately. The standard does not cover worded dates, nor does it preclude the use of worded dates. Worded dates are specifically omitted from the standard mostly because their language dependency can impede international communication. General principles Date and time values are organized from the most to the least significant: year, month (or week), day, hour, minute, second, and fraction of second. The lexicographical order of the representation corresponds to chronological order, except for date representations involving negative years. Each date and time value has a fixed number of digits that must be padded with leading zeros. Representations can be done in one of two formats—a basic format with a minimal number of separators or an extended format with separators added to enhance human readability. Numeric representation of Dates and Time The separator used between date values (year, month, week, and day) is the hyphen, while the colon is used as the separator between time values (hours, minutes, and seconds). For example, the 6th day of the 1st month of the year 2009 may be written as "2009-01-06" in the extended format or simply as "20090106" in the basic format without ambiguity. The extended formats are preferred over the basic formats not only for human readability, but because some basic formats can appear to be ambiguous to those unfamiliar with the standard. For reduced accuracy, any number of values may be dropped from any of the date and time representations, but in the order from the least to the most significant. For example, "2004-05" is a valid ISO 8601 date, which indicates the 5th month of the year 2004. This date will never represent the 5th day of some unknown month in 2004. When higher precision is needed, the standard supports the addition of a decimal fraction to the smallest time value in the representation. Dates The standard uses the Gregorian calendar, which is the most widely used calendar in the world and is already the de facto standard of international trade. As a point of interest, ISO 8601 fixes a reference calendar date to the Gregorian calendar of 1875-05-20 as the date the Convention du Mètre (Metre Convention) was signed in Paris. However, ISO calendar dates before the Convention are still compatible with the Gregorian calendar all the way back to the official introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 1582-10-15. Earlier dates, in the proleptic Gregorian calendar, may be used by mutual agreement of the partners exchanging information. Years YYYY ±YYYYY ISO 8601 prescribes, as a minimum, a four-digit year [YYYY] to avoid the year 2000 problem. To represent years before 0000 or after 9999, the standard also permits the expansion of the year representation [±YYYYY], but only by prior agreement between the sender and the receiver. An expanded year representation must have an agreed upon number of extra year digits beyond the four-digit minimum and is always prefixed with a + or − sign with the convention that year 0 is positive. The common BC notation, for dates that are before year 0001, is not used. For instance, the year 3 BC can be denoted by −0002. For example, see Annex B.1.1 of the standard. (There is a difference of 1 because the BC system has no year zero.) Calendar dates YYYY-MM-DD or YYYYMMDD YYYY-MM (but not YYYYMM) Calendar date representations are in the form as shown in the box to the right. [YYYY] indicates a four-digit year, 0000 through 9999. [MM] indicates a two-digit month of the year, 01 through 12. [DD] indicates a two-digit day of that month, 01 through 31. For example, "the 5th of April 1981" may be represented as either "1981-04-05" in the extended format or "19810405" in the basic format. The standard also allows for calendar dates to be written with reduced precision. For example, one may write "1981-04" to mean "1981 April", and one may simply write "1981" to refer to that year or "19" to refer to that century. Although the standard allows both the YYYY-MM-DD and YYYYMMDD formats for complete calendar date representations, if the day [DD] is omitted then only the YYYY-MM format is allowed. By disallowing dates of the form YYYYMM, the standard avoids confusion with the truncated representation YYMMDD (still often used). Week dates YYYY-Www or YYYYWww YYYY-Www-D or YYYYWwwD Week date representations are in the format as shown in the box to the right. [YYYY] indicates the ISO week-numbering year which is slightly different to the calendar year (see below). [Www] is the week number prefixed by the letter 'W', from W01 through W53. [D] is the weekday number, from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday. This form is popular in the manufacturing industries. There are mutually equivalent descriptions of week 01: the week with the year's first Thursday in it (the formal ISO definition), the week with 4 January in it, the first week with the majority (four or more) of its days in the starting year, and the week starting with the Monday in the period 29 December – 4 January. If 1 January is on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday, it is in week 01. If 1 January is on a Friday, Saturday or Sunday, it is in week 52 or 53 of the previous year. 28 December is always in the last week of its year. The week number can be described by counting the Thursdays: week 12 contains the 12th Thursday of the year. The ISO week-numbering year starts at the first day (Monday) of week 01 and ends at the Sunday before the new ISO year (hence without overlap or gap). It consists of 52 or 53 full weeks. The ISO week-numbering year number deviates from the number of the calendar year (Gregorian year) on a Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, or a Saturday and Sunday, or just a Sunday, at the start of the calendar year (which are at the end of the previous ISO week-numbering year) and a Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, or a Monday and Tuesday, or just a Monday, at the end of the calendar year (which are in week 01 of the next ISO week-numbering year). For Thursdays, the ISO week-numbering year number is always equal to the calendar year number. Examples: 2008-12-29 is written "" 2010-01-03 is written "" For an overview of week numbering systems see week number. The US system has weeks from Sunday through Saturday, and partial weeks at the beginning and the end of the year. An advantage is that no separate year numbering like the ISO week-numbering year is needed, while correspondence of lexicographical order and chronological order is preserved. Ordinal dates YYYY-DDD or YYYYDDD An Ordinal date is a simple form for occasions when the arbitrary nature of week and month definitions are more of an impediment than an aid, for instance, when comparing dates from different calendars. As represented above, [YYYY] indicates a year. [DDD] is the day of that year, from 001 through 365 (366 in leap years). For example, "1981-04-05" is also "1981-095". This format has particular use for simple hardware systems that have need of a date system, but where including full calendar calculation software may be a significant nuisance. This system is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Julian Date", while the astronomical Julian Date is a straight leap number date originating from January 1, 4713 BC Greenwich noon, Julian proleptic calendar. Times hh:mm:ss or hhmmss hh:mm or hhmm hh ISO 8601 uses the 24-hour clock system. The basic format is [hh][mm][ss] and the extended format is [hh]:[mm]:[ss]. [hh] refers to a zero-padded hour between 00 and 24 (where 24 is only used to notate midnight at the end of a calendar day). [mm] refers to a minute between 00 and 59. [ss] refers to a second between 00 and 60 (where 60 is only used to notate an added leap second). So a time might appear as either "134730" in the basic format or "13:47:30" in the extended format. It is also acceptable to omit lower order time elements for reduced accuracy: [hh]:[mm], [hh][mm] and [hh] are all used. Midnight is a special case and can be referred to as both "00:00" and "24:00". The notation "00:00" is used at the beginning of a calendar day and is the more frequently used. At the end of a day use "24:00". Note that "2007-04-05T24:00" is the same instant as "2007-04-06T00:00" (see Combined date and time representations below). Decimal fractions may also be added to any of the three time elements. A decimal point, either a comma or a dot (without any preference as stated most recently in resolution 10 of the 22nd General Conference CGPM in 2003), is used as a separator between the time element and its fraction. A fraction may only be added to the lowest order time element in the representation. To denote "14 hours, 30 and one half minutes", do not include a seconds figure. Represent it as "14:30,5" or "1430,5". There is no limit on the number of decimal places for the decimal fraction. However, the number of decimal places needs to be agreed to by the communicating parties. Time zone designators <time>Z <time>±hh:mm or <time>±hhmm <time>±hh If no time zone information is given with a time representation, the time is assumed to be in local time. While it may be safe to assume local time when communicating in the same time zone, it is ambiguous when used in communicating across different time zones. It is usually preferable to indicate a time zone (zone designator) using the standard’s notation. UTC If the time is in UTC, add a 'Z' directly after the time without a space. 'Z' is the zone designator for the zero UTC offset. "09:30 UTC" is therefore represented as "09:30Z" or "0930Z". "14:45:15 UTC" would be "14:45:15Z" or "144515Z". UTC time is also known as 'Zulu' time, since 'Zulu' is the NATO phonetic alphabet word for 'Z'. Other time zones The zone designator for other time zones is specified by the offset from UTC in the format ±[hh]:[mm], ±[hh][mm], or ±[hh]. So if the time being described is one hour ahead of UTC (such as the time in Berlin during the winter), the zone designator would be "+01:00", "+0100", or simply "+01". This is appended to the time in the same way that 'Z' was above. Note that the zone designator is the actual offset from UTC and does not include any information on daylight saving time. The zone designator or UTC offset for a user in Chicago, therefore, would be "−06:00" for the winter (Central Standard Time) and "−05:00" for the summer (Central Daylight Time). The following times all refer to the same moment: "18:30Z", "22:30+04", "1130−0700", and "15:00−03:30". Nautical time zone letters are not used with the exception of Z. Combined date and time representations <date>T<time> <date>T<time>Z Combining date and time representations to represent a single point in time (time point) is quite simple. It is in the format of <date>T<time> where the time designator [T] is used to show the start of the time component of the representation. Both the date and time components of the time point are any proper representations of date and time specified by the standard. For example, "2007-04-05T14:30" uses the extended formats for date and time [YYYY]-[MM]-[DD]T[hh]:[mm], while "20090621T0545Z" uses the basic formats [YYYY][MM][DD]T[hh][mm]Z. A combined date and time representation can be used to mark any type of event time such as an e-mail delivery, a financial transaction, the start of a medical treatment, or even a natural occurrence (like the summer solstice of 2009 shown above). Combined date and time representations are also used in conjunction with time intervals as discussed later in this article. The date and time representations may appear in proximity to each other, often separated by a space or sometimes by other characters. In these cases they occupy two separate fields in a data system, rather than a single combined representation. This is usually done for human readability. Unlike the previous examples, "2007-04-05 14:30" is considered two separate, but acceptable, representations—one for date and the other for time. It is then left to the reader to interpret the two separate representations as meaning a single time point based on the context. Durations PnYnMnDTnHnMnS PnW P<date>T<time> Durations are a component of time intervals and define the amount of intervening time in a time interval. They should only be used as part of a time interval as prescribed by the standard. Time intervals are discussed in the next section. Durations are represented by the format P[n]Y[n]M[n]DT[n]H[n]M[n]S or P[n]W as shown to the right. In these representations, the [n] is replaced by the value for each of the date and time elements that follow the [n]. Leading zeros are not required, but the maximum number of digits for each element should be agreed to by the communicating parties. The capital letters 'P', 'Y', 'M', 'W', 'D', 'T', 'H', 'M', and 'S' are designators for each of the date and time elements and are not replaced. P is the duration designator (historically called "period") placed at the start of the duration representation. Y is the year designator that follows the value for the number of years. M is the month designator that follows the value for the number of months. W is the week designator that follows the value for the number of weeks. D is the day designator that follows the value for the number of days. T is the time designator that precedes the time components of the representation. H is the hour designator that follows the value for the number of hours. M is the minute designator that follows the value for the number of minutes. S is the second designator that follows the value for the number of seconds. For example, "P3Y6M4DT12H30M5S" represents a duration of "three years, six months, four days, twelve hours, thirty minutes, and five seconds". Date and time elements including their designator may be omitted if their value is zero, and lower order elements may also be omitted for reduced precision. For example, "P23DT23H" and "P4Y" are both acceptable duration representations. To resolve ambiguity, "P1M" is a one-month duration and "PT1M" is a one-minute duration (note the time designator, T, that precedes the time value). The smallest value used may also have a decimal fraction, as in "P0.5Y" to indicate half a year. The standard does not prohibit date and time values in a duration representation from exceeding their "carry-over points" except as noted below. Thus, "PT36H" could be used as well as "P1DT12H" for representing the same duration. Alternately, a format for duration based on combined date and time representations may be used by agreement between the communicating parties either in the basic format PYYYYMMDDThhmmss or in the extended format P[YYYY]-[MM]-[DD]T[hh]:[mm]:[ss]. For example, the same duration as shown above would be "P0003-06-04T12:30:05". However, individual date and time values cannot exceed their "carry-over point" (ex., a value of "13" for the month or "25" for the hour would not be permissible). Time intervals <start>/<end> <start>/<duration> <duration>/<end> <duration> A time interval is the intervening time between two time points. The amount of intervening time is expressed by a duration (as described in the previous section). The two time points (start and end) are expressed by either a combined date and time representation or just a date representation. There are four ways to express a time interval: Start and end, such as "2007-03-01T13:00:00Z/2008-05-11T15:30:00Z" Start and duration, such as "2007-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M" Duration and end, such as "P1Y2M10DT2H30M/2008-05-11T15:30:00Z" Duration only, such as "P1Y2M10DT2H30M", with additional context information Of these, the first three require two values separated by an interval designator which is usually a solidus or forward slash "/". In certain applications, a double hyphen (--) can be used as a separator instead of a solidus (see Section 4.4.2 of the standard). For <start>/<end> expressions, if any elements are missing from the end value, they are assumed to be the same as for the start value including the time zone. This feature of the standard allows for concise representations of time intervals. For example, the date of a two-hour meeting including the start and finish times could be simply shown as "2007-12-14T13:30/15:30", or the beginning and end dates of a monthly billing period as "2008-02-15/03-14". If greater precision is desirable to represent the time interval, then more time elements can be added to the representation. An observation period that has a duration of approximately three days, for example, can be succinctly shown as "2007-11-13/15". If the exact start and end of the observation period need to be shown either for clarity or for measurement and recording purposes, the same time interval representation could be expanded to "2007-11-13T00:00/15T24:00". Repeating intervals Rnn/<interval> R/<interval> Repeating intervals are specified in section "4.5 Recurring time interval". They are formed by adding "R[n]/" to the beginning of an interval expression, where 'R' is used as the letter itself and [n] is replaced by the number of repetitions. Leaving out the value for [n] means an unbounded number of repetitions. So, to repeat the interval of "P1Y2M10DT2H30M" five times starting at "2008-03-01T13:00:00Z", use "R5/2008-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M". It is left open when the repetition takes place. Truncated representations ISO 8601:2000 allowed truncation (by agreement), where leading components of a date or time are omitted. Notably, this allowed two-digit years to be used and the ambiguous formats YY-MM-DD and YYMMDD. This provision was removed in ISO 8601:2004. See also Date and time notation by country ISO 8601 usage RFC 3339, Date and Time on the Internet, 2002-July Notes External links ISO 8601:2004(E) from ISO (zip-pdf, 228KB) ISO 8601 summary by Markus Kuhn Summary of 8601 by ISO Technical Committee ISO/TC 154, Processes, data elements and documents in commerce, industry and administration. The Mathematics of the ISO 8601 Calendar W3C Specification about UTC Date and Time and IETF Internet standard RFC 3339, based on ISO 8601

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Game_show

A game show is a type of television program in which members of the public or celebrities, sometimes as part of a team, play a game which involves answering questions or solving problems usually for money and/or prizes. On some shows contestants compete against other players or another team while other shows involve contestants playing alone for a good outcome or a high score. Game shows often reward players with prizes such as cash, trips and goods and services provided by the show's prize suppliers. Many television game shows descended from similar programs on radio. The very first television game show, Spelling Bee, was broadcast in 1938. GSN(Game Show Network) plays game shows from the early 70s to gameshows in current time. See also Game Show Network List of game show hosts List of international game shows List of television programs Quiz Bowl Quiz Show (movie) Quiz show scandals Reality show External links

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Francis_Fukuyama

Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (born 27 October 1952) is an American philosopher, political economist, and author. Early life Francis Fukuyama was born in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. His father, Yoshio Fukuyama, a second-generation Japanese-American, was trained as a minister in the Congregational Church and received a doctorate in sociology from the University of Chicago. His mother, Toshiko Kawata Fukuyama, was born in Kyoto, Japan, and was the daughter of Shiro Kawata, founder of the Economics Department of Kyoto University and first president of Osaka City University in Osaka. Fukuyama's childhood years were spent in New York City. In 1967 his family moved to State College, Pennsylvania, where he attended high school. Education Fukuyama received his Bachelor of Arts degree in classics from Cornell University, where he studied political philosophy under Allan Bloom. He earned his Ph.D. in government from Harvard University, studying with Samuel P. Huntington and Harvey C. Mansfield, among others. Fukuyama has been affiliated with the Telluride Association since his undergraduate years at Cornell, an educational enterprise that was home to other significant leaders and intellectuals, including Steven Weinberg, Paul Wolfowitz and Kathleen Sullivan. Fukuyama is currently the Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of International Political Economy and Director of the International Development Program at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University, located in Washington, DC. Writings Fukuyama is best known as the author of The End of History and the Last Man, in which he argued that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on liberal democracy after the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Fukuyama predicted the eventual global triumph of political and economic liberalism: What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such... That is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. He has written a number of other books, among them Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity and Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution. In the latter, he qualified his original 'end of history' thesis, arguing that since biotechnology increasingly allows humans to control their own evolution, it may allow humans to alter human nature, thereby putting liberal democracy at risk. One possible outcome could be that an altered human nature could end in radical inequality. He is a fierce enemy of transhumanism, an intellectual movement asserting that posthumanity is a desirable goal. The current revolution in biological sciences leads him to theorize that in an environment where science and technology are by no means at an end, but rather opening new horizons, history itself cannot therefore be said to be, as he once thought, at an end. In another work The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstruction of Social Order, he explores the origins of social norms, and analyses the current disruptions in the fabric of our moral traditions, which he considers as arising from a shift from the manufacturing to the information age. This shift is, he thinks, normal and will prove self-correcting, given the intrinsic human need for social norms and rules. In 2008 he published the book Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States, which resulted from research and a conference funded by Grupo Mayan to gain understanding on why Latin America, once far wealthier than North America, fell behind in terms of development in only a matter of centuries. Discussing this book at a 2009 conference, Fukuyama outlined his belief that inequality within Latin American nations is a key impediment to growth. An unequal distribution of wealth, he stated, leads to social upheaval which in turn results in stunted growth. Neoconservatism As a key Reagan Administration contributor to the formulation of the Reagan Doctrine, Fukuyama is an important figure in the rise of neoconservatism. He was active in the Project for the New American Century think tank starting in 1997, and as a member co-signed the organization's letter recommending that President Bill Clinton support Iraqi insurgencies in the overthrow of then-President of Iraq, Saddam Hussein. He was also among forty co-signers of William Kristol's September 20, 2001 letter to President George W. Bush after the September 11, 2001 attacks that suggested the U.S. 'capture or kill Osama bin Laden, and to destroy his network of associates', and 'provide full military and financial support to the Iraqi opposition' for the purpose of removing Saddam Hussein from power 'even if evidence does not link Iraq directly to the attack.' In an article published by Fukuyama in the New York Times in February 2006 Fukuyama discussed the situtation with the war in Iraq stating:"What American foreign policy needs is not a return to a narrow and cynical realism, but rather the formulation of a "realistic Wilsonianism" that better matches means to ends." In regards to neoconservatism he went on to say:"What is needed now are new ideas, neither neoconservative nor realist, for how America is to relate to the rest of the world — ideas that retain the neoconservative belief in the universality of human rights, but without its illusions about the efficacy of American power and hegemony to bring these ends about." Fukuyama's current views Beginning in 2002 however, he has distanced himself from the neoconservative agenda under the Bush Administration, citing its overly militaristic basis and embrace of unilateral armed intervention, particularly in the Middle East. By late 2003, Fukuyama had voiced his growing opposition to the Iraq War and called for Donald Rumsfeld's resignation as Secretary of Defense. He said that he would vote against Bush in the 2004 election, and said Bush had made three major mistakes: The Bush administration had overestimated the threat of radical Islam to the US. The Bush administration hadn't foreseen the fierce negative reaction to its benevolent hegemony. From the very beginning it had shown a negative attitude toward the United Nations and other international organizations and hadn't seen that this would increase anti-Americanism in other countries. The Bush administration had misjudged what was needed to bring peace in Iraq and had been overly optimistic about the success with which social engineering of western values could be applied to Iraq and the Middle East in general. Fukuyama's current beliefs include: Just as every other country does, the US has a right to promote its own values in the world, but more along the lines of what he calls realistic Wilsonianism, with military intervention only as a last resort and only in addition to other measures. A latent military force is more likely to have an effect than actual deployment. The US spends more on its military than the rest of the world put together, but Iraq shows there are limits to its effectiveness. The US should instead stimulate political and economic development and gain a better understanding of what happens in other countries. The best instruments are setting a good example and providing education and, in many cases, money. The secret of development, be it political or economic, is that it never comes from outsiders, but always from people in the country itself. One thing the US proved to have excelled in during the aftermath of World War II was the formation of international institutions. A return to support for these structures would combine American power with international legitimacy. But such measures require a lot of patience. This is the central thesis of his most recent work America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (2006). In an essay in the New York Times Magazine in 2006 that was strongly critical of the invasion, he identified neoconservatism with Leninism. He wrote that neoconservatives:…believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. Leninism was a tragedy in its Bolshevik version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States. Neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support. His previous comments on militarism, for instance, that "[i]t is precisely because American foreign policy is infused with an unusually high degree of morality that other nations find they have less to fear from its otherwise daunting power," are an expression of "Wilsonianism" with a realistic touch. He also announced the end of the neoconservative moment and argued for the demilitarization of the War on Terrorism: [W]ar is the wrong metaphor for the broader struggle, since wars are fought at full intensity and have clear beginnings and endings. Meeting the jihadist challenge is more of a "long, twilight struggle" whose core is not a military campaign but a political contest for the hearts and minds of ordinary Muslims around the world.If he has distanced himself from the label of neoconservatism, he nonetheless remains indebted to the thought of Leo Strauss, one of the founding intellectual fathers of neoconservatism, for much of the theoretical basis of his ideas on political economy. In his essay "Our Posthuman Future," he adopts a Straussian perspective in his defence of the classical doctrine of natural right. He says his argument is Aristotelian and that "Aristotle argued, in effect, that human notions of right and wrong–what we today call human rights–were ultimately based on Human nature" (p.12). Regarding the recent financial crisis, Fukuyama supports supervision of this economic sector : "Financial institutions need strong supervision, but it isn't clear that other sectors of the economy do." Fukuyama endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 US presidential election. He states: "I’m voting for Barack Obama this November for a very simple reason. It is hard to imagine a more disastrous presidency than that of George W. Bush. It was bad enough that he launched an unnecessary war and undermined the standing of the United States throughout the world in his first term. But in the waning days of his administration, he is presiding over a collapse of the American financial system and broader economy that will have consequences for years to come. As a general rule, democracies don’t work well if voters do not hold political parties accountable for failure. While John McCain is trying desperately to pretend that he never had anything to do with the Republican Party, I think it would a travesty to reward the Republicans for failure on such a grand scale." Affiliations In August 2005, Fukuyama – together with a number of other prominent political thinkers – co-founded The American Interest, a quarterly magazine devoted to the broad theme of "America in the World". The editorial tone of the publication is largely bi-partisan and is an attempt to transcend the polemical discourse that dominates discussions of contemporary American foreign policy. Fukuyama was a member of the the President's Council on Bioethics from 2001-2005. Fukuyama is a Fellow of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS). Fukuyama is on the steering committee for the Scooter Libby Legal Defense Trust. Fukuyama is a long-time friend of Libby. They served together in the State Department in the 1980s. During the 2008 Presidential Election, Fukuyama endorsed Democratic candidate Barack Obama who went on to win the Presidential Election. The End of History, and Back Again, The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. Personal life Fukuyama is also a part-time photographer and has a keen interest in early-American furniture, which he makes by hand. Fukuyama is married to Laura Holmgren (He dedicated his book, The End of History and The Last Man to her). They live in suburban Washington, D.C., with their three children, Julia, David, and John. Selected Bibliography Books The End of History and the Last Man. Free Press, 1992. ISBN 0-02-910975-2 Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity. Free Press, 1995. ISBN 0-02-910976-0 The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order. Free Press, 1999. ISBN 0-684-84530-X Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. ISBN 0-374-23643-7 State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century. Cornell University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8014-4292-3 America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (Yale University Press, 2006). ISBN 0-300-11399-4 After the Neo Cons: Where the Right went Wrong. Profile Books, 2006. ISBN 1-86197-922-3 (N.B. Published in the US as America at the Crossroads see above) Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap between Latin America and the United States, ed. (Oxford University Press, 2008). ISBN 9780195368826 Essays Human Nature and the Reconstruction of Social Order Women and the Evolution of World Politics, Foreign Affairs October 1998 Immigrants and Family Values, The Immigration Reader 1998. ISBN 1-557-86916-2 Social capital and civil society, paper prepared for delivery at the IMF Conference on Second Generation Reforms, 1 October 1999 The neoconservative moment, The National Interest, Summer 2004 After neoconservatism, The New York Times Magazine, 19 February 2006 Supporter's voice now turns on Bush, The New York Times Magazine, 14 March 2006 Why shouldn't I change my mind?, Los Angeles Times, 9 April 2006 The Fall of America, Inc. Newsweek, 13 October 2008 See also Brave New World argument Biopolitics Obama Republican References External links Francis Fukuyama's home page at Johns Hopkins University Islam and America... Friends or Foes? C-SPAN In Depth Three-hour video interview. March 5, 2006 ANU Public Lecture Series MP3 of a public lecture by Fukuyama titled The Missing Dimension of Stateness delivered at The Australian National University, December 15, 2006 RAND Corporation - Information and Biological Revolutions: Global Governance Challenges - Summary of a Study Group by Francis Fukuyama and Caroline S. Wagner Nick Bostrom's rebuttal of Fukuyama's views on biotechnology Biography from Francis Fukuyama's website Danny Postel. Fukuyama’s moment: a neocon schism opens Audio interview with National Review Online RightWeb profile of Francis Fukuyama Against war in Iraq Interview on ABC Radio Late Night Live Fukuyama discusses After the Neo-Cons: America at the Crossroads Broadcast April 12, 2006 Robert Wright interviews Francis Fukuyama (meaningoflife.tv) Sabancı University School of Languages Podcasts: The End of History? Lecture by Ayhan Akman, The Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Video interviews and conversations with Fukuyama on BloggingHeads.tv

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Haddocks'_Eyes

Haddocks' Eyes is a poem by Lewis Carroll from Through the Looking-Glass. It is sung by the White Knight in chapter eight to a tune that he claims as his own invention, but which Alice recognizes as I give thee all, I can no more. By the time Alice heard it, she was already tired of poetry. It is a parody of "Resolution and Independence" by William Wordsworth. Naming The White Knight explains the rather confusing naming for the song. The song's name is called Haddocks' Eyes The song's name really is The Aged Aged Man The song is called Ways and Means The song really is A-sitting On a Gate This complicated set of names has been used as a metaphor for the use–mention distinction. The Poem I'll tell thee everything I can: There's little to relate. I saw an aged aged man, A-sitting on a gate. "Who are you, aged man?" I said, "And how is it you live?" And his answer trickled through my head, Like water through a sieve. He said "I look for butterflies That sleep among the wheat: I make them into mutton-pies, And sell them in the street. I sell them unto men," he said, "Who sail on stormy seas; And that's the way I get my bread -- A trifle, if you please." But I was thinking of a plan To dye one's whiskers green, And always use so large a fan That they could not be seen. So, having no reply to give To what the old man said, I cried "Come, tell me how you live!" And thumped him on the head. His accents mild took up the tale: He said "I go my ways, And when I find a mountain-rill, I set it in a blaze; And thence they make a stuff they call Rowlands' Macassar-Oil -- Yet twopence-halfpenny is all They give me for my toil." But I was thinking of a way To feed oneself on batter, And so go on from day to day Getting a little fatter. I shook him well from side to side, Until his face was blue: "Come, tell me how you live," I cried, "And what it is you do!" He said "I hunt for haddocks' eyes Among the heather bright, And work them into waistcoat-buttons In the silent night. And these I do not sell for gold Or coin of silvery shine, But for a copper halfpenny, And that will purchase nine. "I sometimes dig for buttered rolls, Or set limed twigs for crabs: I sometimes search the grassy knolls For wheels of Hansom-cabs. And that's the way" (he gave a wink) "By which I get my wealth-- And very gladly will I drink Your Honour's noble health." I heard him then, for I had just Completed my design To keep the Menai bridge from rust By boiling it in wine. I thanked him much for telling me The way he got his wealth, But chiefly for his wish that he Might drink my noble health. And now, if e'er by chance I put My fingers into glue, Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot Into a left-hand shoe, Or if I drop upon my toe A very heavy weight, I weep, for it reminds me so Of that old man I used to know-- Whose look was mild, whose speech was slow Whose hair was whiter than the snow, Whose face was very like a crow, With eyes, like cinders, all aglow, Who seemed distracted with his woe, Who rocked his body to and fro, And muttered mumblingly and low, As if his mouth were full of dough, Who snorted like a buffalo-- That summer evening long ago, A-sitting on a gate. Upon the Lonely Moor In 1856, Carroll published the following poem anonymously under the name Upon the Lonely Moor. The two poems are quite obviously related. "Alice Through the Looking-Glass" was published in 1865. Another poem famous from "Through the Looking-Glass" is Jabberwocky which was also started by Carroll many years earlier. I met an aged, aged man Upon the lonely moor: I knew I was a gentleman, And he was but a boor. So I stopped and roughly questioned him, "Come, tell me how you live!" But his words impressed my ear no more Than if it were a sieve. He said, "I look for soap-bubbles, That lie among the wheat, And bake them into mutton-pies, And sell them in the street. I sell them unto men," he said, "Who sail on stormy seas; And that's the way I get my bread - A trifle, if you please." But I was thinking of a way To multiply by ten, And always, in the answer, get The question back again. I did not hear a word he said, But kicked that old man calm, And said, "Come, tell me how you live!" And pinched him in the arm. His accents mild took up the tale: He said, "I go my ways, And when I find a mountain-rill, I set it in a blaze. And thence they make a stuff they call Rowland's Macassar Oil; But fourpence-halfpenny is all They give me for my toil." But I was thinking of a plan To paint one's gaiters green, So much the color of the grass That they could ne'er be seen. I gave his ear a sudden box, And questioned him again, And tweaked his grey and reverend locks, And put him into pain. He said, "I hunt for haddock's eyes Among the heather bright, And work them into waistcoat-buttons In the silent night. And these I do not sell for gold, Or coin or silver-mine, But for a copper-halfpenny, And that will purchase nine. "I sometimes dig for buttered rolls, Or set limed twigs for crabs; I sometimes search the flowery knolls For wheels of hansom cabs. And that's the way" (he gave a wink) "I get my living here, And very gladly will I drink Your Honour's health in beer." I heard him then, for I had just Completed my design To keep the Menai bridge from rust By boiling it in wine. I duly thanked him, ere I went, For all his stories queer, But chiefly for his kind intent To drink my health in beer. And now if e'er by chance I put My fingers into glue, Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot Into a left-hand shoe; Or if a statement I aver Of which I am not sure, I think of that strange wanderer Upon the lonely moor. See also Nonsense verse Marty Feldman References Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll The Annotated Alice, Martin Gardner ISBN 0-7139-9417-7

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Transclusion

B is transcluded in the document A In computer science, transclusion is the inclusion of part of a document into another document by reference. For example, an article about a country might include a chart or a paragraph describing that country's agricultural exports from a different article about agriculture. Rather than copying the included data and storing it in two places, a transclusion embodies modular design, by allowing it to be stored only once (and perhaps corrected and updated if the link type supported that) and viewed in different contexts. The reference also serves to link both articles. The term was coined by hypertext pioneer Ted Nelson in 1982. Technical considerations Context neutrality Transclusion works better when transcluded sections of text are self-contained, so that the meaning and validity of the text is independent of the context in which it appears. For example, formulations like "as explained in the previous section" are problematic, because the transcluded section may appear in a different context, causing confusion. What constitutes "context neutral" text varies, but often includes things like company information or boilerplate. Parameterization Under some circumstances, and in some technical contexts, transcluded sections of text may not require strict adherence to the "context neutrality" principle, because the transcluded sections are capable of parameterization. Parameterization implies the ability to modify certain portions or subsections of a transcluded text depending on exogenous variables that can be changed independently. This is customarily done by supplying a transcluded text with one or more substitution placeholders. These placeholders are then replaced with the corresponding variable values prior to rendering the final transcluded output in context. History and implementation by Project Xanadu Nelson (who had also originated the words "hypertext" and "hypermedia") coined the term "transclusion" in his 1982 book, Literary Machines. Part of his proposal was the idea that micropayments could be automatically exacted from the reader for all the text, no matter how many snippets of content are taken from various places. However, according to Nelson, the concept of transclusion had already formed part of his 1965 description Theodor H. Nelson, "A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing and the Indeterminate." Proceedings of the ACM 20th National Conference (1965), pp. 84-100 of hypertext; he also interprets the notion of "trails" in Vannevar Bush's 1945 essay As We May Think as describing transclusion rather than hyperlinks. Theodor Holm Nelson and Robert Adamson Smith: Back To The Future: Hypertext the Way It Used To Be Nelson defines transclusion as "the same content knowably in more than one place", setting it apart from more special cases such as the inclusion of content stored in a different location (which he calls "transdelivery") or "explicit quotation which remains connnected to its origins" (which he calls "transquotation"). Some hypertext systems, including Ted Nelson's own Xanadu Project, support transclusion. Nelson has delivered a demonstration of Web transclusion, the Little Transquoter (programmed to Nelson's specification by Andrew Pam in 2004-2005). The Little Transquoter Xanadu.com.au It creates a new format built on portion addresses from Web pages; when dereferenced, each portion on the resulting page remains click-connected to its original context—always a key aspect of transclusion for Nelson, but missing in most implementations of transclusion. Implementations on the Web HTML At present, transclusion in HTML is somewhat limited by lack of standards support in web browsers. Although all graphical browsers can transclude an image, including a document is a bit more difficult. There are currently two methods of achieving this result: The IFrame (inline frame) element, which includes whole documents. The Object element. In Firefox and other browsers, this allows true document transclusion, enabling one page to be built from several smaller documents. In addition, Ajax can achieve a similar result across all modern, JavaScript-enabled browsers. Future versions of HTML may support deeper transclusion of portions of documents using XML technologies such as entities, XPointer document referencing, and XSLT manipulations. (XPointer is patent-encumbered.) The practice of 'remote loading'—including data, such as images, directly from other sites—is usually frowned upon because of the use of bandwidth and computing power required from the remote computer system (see Bandwidth theft). This is said to "tax" another server, and is often considered an example of leeching. Increased distribution of proxy servers has the potential to turn this around and take advantage of transclusion to reduce redundant transmissions of the same data. A major exception to this rule is web advertising, where advertisements supplied by an advertiser are published with other content by a publisher. An advertiser prefers to serve an advertisement and be able to detect when it was viewed, rather than have it served by the publisher and have to trust the publisher. (See also Hit counter, Web bug). Mashups and meshups are a recent phenomenon similar to transclusion. Server-side Transclusion Transclusion can also be accomplished on the server side, provided the server software includes this functionality. This can be done through multiple different technologies, including Server Side Includes and markup entity references resolved by the server software. It is a feature of substitution templates. Client-side transclusion is generally preferable as data transcluded into several pages can be cached by the client rather than sent out again for every page. References Further reading See also Compound document Cross-reference Macro Object Linking and Embedding Publish and Subscribe Single source publishing Subroutine External links Ted Nelson: Transclusion: Fixing Electronic Literature Google Tech Talks January 29, 2007

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Jeroboam

The United Kingdom of Solomon breaks up, with Jeroboam ruling over the Northern Kingdom of Israel (in green on the map). Jeroboam (yarobh`am; Hieroboam in the Septuagint; commonly held to have been derived from riyb and `am, and signifying "the people contend," or, "he pleads the people's cause" - alternatively translated to mean "his people are many" or "he increases the people"; or even "he that opposes the people") He was the first king of the break-away ten tribes or Northern Kingdom of Israel, over whom he reigned twenty-two years. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 922 BC-901 BC, while Edwin R. Thiele offers the dates 931 BC-910 BC. He was the son of a widow of Zereda, and while still young was promoted by Solomon to be chief superintendent of the "burnden", i.e. the bands of forced laborers. Background According to 1 Kings 11:26-39, Jeroboam was born the son of Nebat an Ephraimite of Zereda whose mother's name was Zeruah (who later became a widow, and could have been leperous as her name translates). Influenced by the words of the prophet Ahijah, he began to form conspiracies with the view of becoming king of the ten tribes; but these having been discovered, he fled to Egypt (1 Kings 11:29-40), where he remained for a length of time under the protection of Shoshenq I. On the death of Solomon, the ten tribes, having revolted, sent to invite him to become their king. The conduct of Rehoboam favored the designs of Jeroboam, and he was accordingly proclaimed "king of Israel" (1 Kings 12:1-20). He rebuilt and fortified Shechem as the capital of his kingdom. He at once adopted means to perpetuate the division thus made between the two parts of the kingdom, and erected at Dan and Bethel, the two extremities of his kingdom, "golden calves," which he set up as symbols of God, enjoining the people not any more to go up to worship at Jerusalem, but to bring their offerings to the shrines he had erected. Thus he became distinguished as the man "who made Israel to sin." This policy was followed by all the succeeding kings of Israel. According to 1 Kings 13:1-6, 9, while he was engaged in offering incense at Bethel, a prophet from Judah appeared before him with a warning message from the Lord. Attempting to arrest the prophet for his bold words of defiance, his hand was "dried up," and the altar before which he stood was rent asunder. At his urgent entreaty his "hand was restored him again" (1 Kings 13:1-6, 9; compare 2 Kings 23:15); but the miracle made no abiding impression on him. His reign was one of constant "war with the house of Judah". While the southern kingdom made no serious effort to militarily regain power over the north, there was a long-lasting boundary dispute, fighting over which lasted during the reigns of several kings on both sides before being finally settled. Jeroboam died soon after Rehoboam's son Abijam (1 Kings 14:1-18). In assessing the career of Jeroboam, historians need to exercise caution due to the fact that the sole source of information about him is manifestly and outspokenly hostile, regarding his lifework as a wicked sin. The account of Jeroboam's life - like that of all his successors - ends with the formula "And the rest of the acts of Jeroboam, how he warred, and how he reigned, behold, they are written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel" (1 Kings 14, 19). "the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel", likely compiled by or derived from these kings' own scribes, is likely the source for the basic facts of Jeroboam's life and reigh - though the compile(s) of the extant Book of Kings clearly made selective use of it and added hostile commentaries. The prophesies of doom concerning the fall of both the House of Jerobam and the northern kingdom as a whole ("For the Lord shall smite Israel (...), and he shall root up Israel out of this good land, which he gave to their fathers, and shall scatter them beyond the river") might have been composed retroactively, after the events described have already come to pass. This would be the position of those who believe that the Lord does not know the future, or, if He does know it, He is somehow incapable of communicating such knowledge to His servants the prophets. The affair of the Golden Calf narrated in an earlier part of the Bible could be related to the propaganda war between the southern and northern kingdom evident in the account of Jeroboam's life, the act of destroying the Golden Calf being attributed to the hallowed Moses in order to give create credence to the sinful nature - in the eyes of the southern kingdom - of worshiping such a representation of the deity. See also Jeroboam II Sources

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History_of_Equatorial_Guinea

The History of Equatorial Guinea is diverse and varied. Pre-colonial history The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Rio Muni. Bantu migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to Bioko from Cameroon and Río Muni in several waves and succeeded former Neolithic populations. It is said the Igbo of Nigeria (mostly Aro) slave traders arrived and founded very few tiny settlements in Bioko and Rio Muni which expanded the Aro Confederacy in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Annobon population, native to Angola, was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé. The Portuguese explorer, Fernão do Pó, seeking a route to India, is credited with having discovered the island of Bioko in 1471. He called it Formosa ("beautiful [isle]", a name later applied to Taiwan), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer, albeit spelt "Fernando Poo". The islands of Fernando Poo and Annobón were colonized by the Portuguese in 1474. The Portuguese retained control until 1778, when the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogooué Rivers were ceded to Spain in exchange for territory in South America (Treaty of El Pardo). From 1827 to 1843, Britain established a base on the island to combat the slave trade. The mainland portion, Río Muni, became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled in 1900 by the Treaty of Paris, and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule. Between 1926 and 1959 they were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea. During the First World War, German troops retreated into this territory from Kamerun because Spain was neutral during the war. Colonial era Spain developed large cacao plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers. At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War the colony remained loyal to the Republican government. On July 24, 1936, the Republican cruiser Méndez Núñez arrived at Santa Isabel; on its way back to Spain the officers planned to join the rebellion, but the Spanish government, knowing this, ordered the ship to go back to the colony; on August 14 the Méndez Núñez was back in Fernando Poo, where the sailors took control of her; on September 21 the ship arrived in Málaga (Republican Spain). On September 19 the Colonial Guard and the Civil Guard began the rebellion and took control of the island of Fernando Poo, while the rest of the colony remained loyal to the Republic. On September 22 a clash took place between a rebel group from Kogo and a loyal detachment from Bata. Finally, on October 14 a force of 200 rebels arrived in the merchant Ciudad de Mahón and took control of Bata and the rest of the colony. At independence in 1968 Equatorial Guinea had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa (332 USD). The Spanish also helped Equatorial Guinea achieve one of the continent's highest literacy rates and developed a good network of health care facilities. However at the time of independence, the number of native doctors and lawyers was in the single digits España - Guinea, 1969: la estrategia de la tensión, Xavier Lacosta, Historia 16, January 2001. . In 1959, the Spanish territory of the Gulf of Guinea was established with the same status as the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by a governor general exercising military and civilian powers. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Cortes Generales (Spanish parliament). Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. A paradoxical effect of this autonomy was that Guineans could choose among several political parties while metropolitan Spaniards were under a single party regime. The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea. Although Spain's commissioner general had extensive powers, the Equatorial Guinean General Assembly had considerable initiative in formulating laws and regulations. Independence In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. A constitutional convention produced an electoral law and draft constitution. In the presence of a UN observer team, a referendum was held on August 11, 1968, and 63% of the electorate voted in favor of the constitution, which provided for a government with a General Assembly and a Supreme Court with judges appointed by the president. In September 1968, Francisco Macías Nguema was elected first president of Equatorial Guinea, and independence was granted in October. In July 1970, Macias created a single-party state and by May 1971, key portions of the constitution were abrogated. In 1972 Macias took complete control of the government and assumed the title of President for Life. The Macias regime was characterized by abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; this led to the death or exile of up to one-third of the country's population. Due to pilferage, ignorance, and neglect, the country's infrastructure--electrical, water, road, transportation, and health--fell into ruin. Religion was repressed, and education ceased. The private and public sectors of the economy were devastated. Nigerian contract laborers on Bioko, estimated to have been 60,000, left en masse in early 1976. The economy collapsed, and skilled citizens and foreigners left. All schools were ordered closed in 1975, and the country's churches were closed in 1978. Nguema introduced a campaign of 'authenticity,' replacing colonial names with native ones: the capital Santa Isabel became Malabo, the main island of Fernando Poo was renamed Masie Nguema Biyogo after himself, and Annobón became Pagalu. As part of the same process, Nguema also ordered the entire population to drop their European names and adopt African ones. His own name underwent several transformations, so that by the end of his rule he was known as Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong. In August 1979 Macias' nephew from Mongomo and former director of the infamous Black Beach Prison, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, led a successful coup d'état; Macias was arrested, tried, and executed. Obiang assumed the Presidency in October 1979. The islands were renamed Bioko and Annobón. The new ruler faced the challenge of restoring order in a country that was in shambles--by the end of Masie Nguema's dictatorship, the state coffers were empty and the population had been reduced to only one-third of what it was at independence. 1990s-2000s The unsuccessful "Wonga Coup" was attempted by European and South African mercenaries in 2004 with the goal of replacing Obiang with a puppet ruler who would open the country's mineral wealth to the plotters. British aristocrat Simon Mann, a former officer in the Special Air Service, led the plot, which also included former members of the South African Army 32 Battalion. Financial backers included Sir Mark Thatcher, son of former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and possibly the British novelist Jeffrey Archer. Somewhere between $3 million and $20 million was expended on the failed coup, which is said to have had the tacit support of some Western governments and international corporations. "Dogs of War: How a group of mercenaries tried to overthrow an African government", by Caroline Elkins, New York Times Book Review, Sunday, August 13, 2006, p. 19, a review of The Wonga Coup: Guns, Thugs and a Ruthless Determination to Create mayhem in an Oil-Rich Corner of Africa, by Adam Roberts, accessed August 12, 2006. Footnotes External links BBC news article on the verdicts handed to the coup force History of Equatorial Guinea Background Note: Equatorial Guinea A Coup for a Mountain of Wonga

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John_Adams_(composer)

John Adams John Coolidge Adams (born February 15, 1947) is a Pulitzer Prize-winning American composer with strong roots in minimalism. His best-known works include Harmonielehre (1985), On the Transmigration of Souls (2002), a choral piece commemorating the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks (for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2003), and Shaker Loops, a minimalist four-movement work for strings. His well-known operas include Nixon in China (1987), which recounts Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China, and Doctor Atomic (2005), which covers Robert Oppenheimer, the Manhattan Project, and the building of the first atomic bomb. In October 2008, Adams told BBC Radio 3 that he had been blacklisted by the U.S. Homeland Security department and immigration services. Thorpe, Vanessa. "I'm Blacklisted, says Opera Maestro: Composer John Adams Accuses US of Paranoia and Says its Security Forces are Following Him." The Observer. 19 October 2008. (Retrieved February 10, 2009) Life and career Before 1977 John Adams was born in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1947. He was raised in various New England states where he was greatly influenced by New England's musical culture. He would graduate from Concord High School in Concord, New Hampshire. His father taught him how to play the clarinet, and he was a clarinetist in community ensembles. He later studied the instrument further with Felix Viscuglia, clarinetist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Adams began composing at the age of ten and first heard his music performed around the age of 13 or 14. After he matriculated at Harvard University in 1965 he studied composition under Leon Kirchner, Roger Sessions, Earl Kim, and David Del Tredici. While at Harvard, he conducted the Bach Society Orchestra and was a reserve clarinetist for both the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Boston Opera Company. He performed as the soloist in the Carnegie Hall world premiere of Walter Piston's Clarinet Concerto. He earned two degrees from Harvard University (BA 1971, MA 1972) and was the first student ever to be allowed to submit a musical composition for a Harvard undergraduate thesis. Taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music from 1972 until 1984. 1977 to Nixon in China Adams worked in the electronic music studio at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music, having built his own analogue synthesizer, and as conductor of the New Music Ensemble, he had a small but dedicated pool of young and talented musicians occasionally at his disposal. Some major works composed during this period include Wavemaker (1977), Phrygian Gates for solo piano (1977), Shaker Loops (1978), Common Tones in Simple Time (1979), Harmonium (1980–81), Grand Pianola Music (1982), Light Over Water (1983), Harmonielehre (1984–85), The Chairman Dances (1985), Short Ride in a Fast Machine (1986), and Nixon in China (1985–87). Shaker Loops (for string septet) (1978): A "modular" composition for three violins, one viola, two cellos, and one bass, with a conductor. It is divided into four distinct movements, each of which grows almost indiscernibly into the next. Adam worked with a group of Conservatory string players, at times composing as they rehearsed. The "period" – that is, the number of beats per repeated pattern – of each instrument is different, and this results in a constantly shifting texture of melody and rhythmic emphasis. This piece is a turning point in Adams's oeuvre, as it marks a return to pure instrumental writing and a re-engagement with tonality. Adams later arranged this piece for string orchestra. Harmonium for Large Orchestra and Chorus (1980–81): The piece starts with quietly insistent repetitions of one note – D – and one syllable – "no". Adams commented about the beginning in a 1984 essay: "(the piece) began with a simple, totally formed mental image: that of a single tone coming out of a vast, empty space and, by means of a gentle unfolding, evolving into a rich, pulsating fabric of sound." The successful Harmonium premiere was the first performance of his music by a major mainstream organization, and established Adams as a figure in America's musical landscape. Grand Pianola Music (1982): Adams commented, "Dueling pianos, cooing sirens, Valhalla brass, thwacking bass drums, gospel triads, and a Niagara of cascading flat keys all learned to cohabit as I wrote the piece." It is one of his first major works to incorporate American vernacular music into the classical symphonic tradition. Adams's use of the repetitive patterns of minimalism within sweeping orchestral gestures is heard throughout the piece. Light Over Water: The Genesis of Music (1983): This work was commissioned by the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, California as the score for the collaborative work Available Light, which was choreographed by Lucinda Childs and had a set design by architect Frank Gehry. The work is a long, unbroken composition with contrasting sections whose boundaries are so subtle as to be almost imperceptible. It is a kind of symphony played by an orchestra of both electric and natural instruments and frozen into its idealized form by means of a multichannel tape recorder. Essentially electronic, the piece still exhibits orchestral techniques. Changes in the piece evolve gradually, and sudden entrances are rare. It is personal and emotive, though not necessarily romantic, and it has a dance-like feel. Harmonielehre (1984–85): Inspired by a dream of an oil tanker taking flight out of San Francisco Bay and also by Arnold Schoenberg's book, Harmonielehre (Theory of Harmony). This piece is also about harmony of the mind and was Adams's way of escaping writer's block. Adams commented, "rich with resonances of my personal musical storehouse. I'm not conservative. I'm conserving. But I'm not just playing around in the outtakes of Gurrelieder or Berg's Opus 1 Sonata either." The Chairman Dances (Foxtrot for Orchestra) (1985): This is a by-product of Nixon in China, set in the three days of President Nixon's visit to Beijing in February 1972. Short Ride in a Fast Machine (Fanfare for Great Woods) (1986): This piece is joyfully exuberant, brilliantly scored for a large orchestra. It begins with a marking of half-notes (woodblock, soon joined by the four trumpets) and eighths (clarinets and synthesizers); the (amplified) woodblock is fortissimo and the other instruments play forte. The work uses many elements of minimalist music. Nixon in China (1987): The opera, in three acts, is based on Nixon's visit to China on February 21–25, 1972. Main characters in the opera are: the Nixons, Mao Tse-tung, Chou En-lai, Chiang Ch'ing (Madame Mao) and Henry Kissinger. Richard Nixon's visit to Beijing was made in the hope, but no means the certainty, that he would see chairman Mao. It was directed by Peter Sellars. This piece is John Adams's second major composition on a text, after Harmonium (1981) for chorus and orchestra. After Nixon in China Adams wrote, "in almost all cultures other than the European classical one, the real meaning of the music is in between the notes. The slide, the portamento, the "blue note"—all are essential to the emotional expression, whether it's a great Indian master improvising on a raga or whether it's Jimi Hendrix or Johnny Hodges bending a blue note right down to the floor." Adams uses this concept in many of his influential pieces post-Nixon in China. The Wound-Dresser (1989): John Adams's setting of Walt Whitman's poem, "The Wound-Dresser", which Whitman wrote after visiting wounded soldiers during the American Civil War. The piece is scored for baritone voice, 2 flutes (or 2 piccolos), 2 oboes, clarinet, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, trumpet (or piccolo tpt), timpani, keyboard and strings. The Death of Klinghoffer (1991): The opera's story begins with the 1985 hijacking of the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro by Palestinian terrorists and details the murder of a passenger named Leon Klinghoffer, a retired, wheelchair-bound American Jew. The musical basis for The Death of Klinghoffer was the Passions of Johann Sebastian Bach: grave, symbolic, narratives supported by a full chorus. A film version was made in 2003, which emphasised the work's somber, chilling mood. Chamber Symphony (1992): This piece was commissioned by the Gerbode Foundation of San Francisco for the San Francisco Contemporary Chamber Players. While Chamber Symphony bears a strong resemblance to Arnold Schoenberg's Chamber Symphony Op. 9 in its tonality and its instrumental arrangement, Adams' additional instrumentation includes synthesizer, drum kit, trumpet, and trombone. The piece consists of three movements: "Mongrel Airs," "Aria with Walking Bass" and "Roadrunner." The piece is excited and aggressive, alluding to children's cartoon music (as evidenced by the titles of the movements). The piece is linear, chromatic, and virtuosic. I Was Looking at the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky (1995): A stage piece with libretto by June Jordan and staging by Peter Sellars. Adams called the piece "essentially a polyphonic love story in the style of a Shakespeare comedy." The main characters are seven young Americans from different social and ethnic backgrounds, all living in Los Angeles. The story takes place in the aftermath of the earthquake in Los Angeles in 1994. Hallelujah Junction (1996): This piece for two pianos employs variations of a repeated two note rhythm. The intervals between the notes remain the same through much of the piece. On the Transmigration of Souls (2002): This piece commemorates those who lost their lives in the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York. It won the 2003 Pulitzer Prize for Music as well as the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Composition. Adams was the first composer to have earned the latter award three times, having previously won the award for El Dorado (1998) and Nixon in China (1989). My Father Knew Charles Ives (2003): Adams writes, "My Father Knew Charles Ives is musical autobiography, an homage and encomium to a composer whose influence on me has been huge." In true Ives style, in all three movements the piece begins subtly with few instruments and swells to a cacophonous mass of sound. The piece ranges from utilizing mysterious harmonies in long tones to full scale march feels. The Dharma at Big Sur (2003): A piece for solo electric violin and orchestra. The piece calls for some instruments (harp, piano, samplers) to use just intonation, a tuning system in which intervals sound pure, rather than equal temperament, the common Western tuning system in which all intervals except the octave are impure. The piece was composed for the opening of Disney Hall in Los Angeles. Doctor Atomic (2005): An opera in two acts, about Robert Oppenheimer, the Manhattan Project, and the creation and testing of the first atomic bomb. The libretto of Doctor Atomic by Peter Sellars draws on original source material, including personal memoirs, recorded interviews, technical manuals of nuclear physics, declassified government documents, and the poetry of the Bhagavad Gita, John Donne, Charles Baudelaire, and Muriel Rukeyser. The opera takes place in June and July 1945, mainly over the last few hours before the first atomic bomb explodes at the test site in New Mexico. Characters include Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer and his wife Kitty, Edward Teller, General Leslie Groves, and Robert Wilson. A Flowering Tree (2006): An opera in two acts, based on a folktale from the Kannada language of southern India as translated by A.K. Ramanujan. it was commissioned as part of the Vienna New Crowned Hope Festival to celebrate the 250th anniversary of Mozart’s birth. It takes as its model Mozart’s The Magic Flute, and its themes are magic, transformation and the dawning of moral awareness. Doctor Atomic Symphony (2007): Based on orchestral music from the opera. Fellow Traveler (2007): This piece was commissioned for the Kronos Quartet by Greg G. Minshall, and was dedicated to opera and theater director Peter Sellars for his 50th birthday. Musical style The music of John Adams is usually categorized as minimalist or post-minimalist. While Adams employs minimalist techniques, such as repeating patterns, he is not a strict follower of the movement. Adams was born a generation after Steve Reich and Philip Glass, and his writing is more developmental and directionalized, containing climaxes and other elements of Romanticism. Comparing Shaker Loops to minimalist composer Terry Riley's piece In C, Adams says, rather than set up small engines of motivic materials and let them run free in a kind of random play of counterpoint, I used the fabric of continually repeating cells to forge large architectonic shapes, creating a web of activity that, even within the course of a single movement, was more detailed, more varied, and knew both light and dark, serenity and turbulence. John Adams on Harmonium Many of Adams's ideas in composition are a reaction to the philosophy of serialism and its depictions of "the composer as scientist." The Darmstadt school of twelve tone composition was dominant during the time that Adams was receiving his college education, and he compared class to a "mausoleum where we would sit and count tone-rows in Webern." By the time he graduated, he was disillusioned with the restrained feeling and inaccessibility of serialism. To him the future of the avant-garde was grim and pessimistic, as well as lacking in pleasurable sounds; compositions were becoming more and more like papers to be a delivered at a scientific conference, as serialist proponent Milton Babbitt once described his own music. Adams experienced a musical awakening after reading John Cage's book Silence (1973), which he claimed "dropped into [his] psyche like a time bomb." Cage's school posed fundamental questions about what music was, and regarded all types of sounds as viable sources of music. This perspective offered to Adams a liberating alternative to the rule-based techniques of serialism. At this point Adams began to experiment with electronic music, and his experiences are reflected in the writing of Phrygian Gates (1977–78), in which the constant shifting between modules in Lydian mode and Phrygian mode refers to activating electronic gates rather than architectural ones. Adams explained that working with synthesizers caused a "diatonic conversion," a reversion to the belief that tonality was a force of nature. Minimalism offered the final solution to Adams's creative dilemma. Adams was attracted to its pulsating and diatonic sound, which provided an underlying rhetoric on top of which Adams could express what he wanted in his compositions. Although some of his pieces sound similar to those written by minimalist composers, Adams actually rejects the idea of mechanistic procedure-based or process music; what Adams took away from minimalism was tonality and/or modality, and the rhythmic energy from repetition. The idea of musical composition being personal and expressive was important to Adams. Although Cage was an influential figure in his musical development, he disagreed with the idea that music should be a communal creative process between listeners and performers, where spontaneous sounds should be appreciated for the sake of being sounds. Emotions, climaxes, and direction become more important in his later, more mature works. His heroic opera Nixon in China (1987) uses minimalist motivic elements such as repeated arpeggios but also has an overarching structure, something Adams believes cannot be achieved through music that is atonal, aleatory, or process-based. For comparison, Glass's opera Einstein on the Beach (1976) contained no development, simply tableaux related to and inspired by the scientist Albert Einstein. Adams also uses lyrical and melodic vocal writing attuned to the cadence of speech, whereas Glass treats vocal patterns the same way as those of any other instrument, creating a more fragmented sound. [[Image:Phrygian Gates, mm 21-40.JPG|thumb|John Adams, Phrygian Gates, mm 21-40 (1977)]] Some of Adams's compositions are an amalgamation of different styles. One example is Grand Pianola Music (1981–82), a humorous piece that purposely draws its content from musical cliches. In The Dharma at Big Sur, Adam's draws from literary texts such as Jack Kerouac, Gary Snyder and Henry Miller to illustrate the California landscape. Adams professes his love of other genres other than classical music; his parents were jazz musicians, and he also listens to rock music. Adams once claimed that originality wasn't an urgent concern for him the way it was necessary for the minimalists, and compared his position to that of Gustav Mahler, J. S. Bach, and Johannes Brahms, who "were standing at the end of an era and were embracing all of the evolutions that occurred over the previous thirty to fifty years." To some historians, the music of Adams is defined by his ability to integrate different styles, especially elements of Americana, and can thus be more accurately compared to Aaron Copland's style in the 1940s and Leonard Bernstein's in the 1950s rather than to Reich or Glass. Style and analysis John Adams, Fearful Symmetries, mm 197-202 (1988) Adams, like other minimalists of his time (e.g. Philip Glass), used a steady pulse that defines and controls the music. The pulse was best known from Terry Riley's early composition In C, and slowly more and more composers used it as a common practice. Jonathan Bernard highlighted this adoption by comparing Phrygian Gates, written in 1977, and Fearful Symmetries written eleven years later in 1988.Phrygian Gates begins in a pulse like fashion, but as the piece progresses, it slowly fades the focus from the pulse to the harmony (not seen as much in the reproduced 20 measures, but definitely later on in the movement). This was common in early minimalist pieces, but quickly composers changed and started to focus more on the pulse as seen in the 6 measures of Fearful Symmetries. Violin Concerto, Mvt. III "Toccare" In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Adams started to add a new character to his music, something he called "the Trickster." The Trickster allowed Adams to use the repetitive style and rhythmic drive of minimalism, yet poke fun at it at the same time. When Adams commented on his own characterization of particular minimalist music, he stated that he went joyriding on "those Great Prairies of non-event." Heisinger, Brent. "American Minimalism in the 1980s." American Music. Winter 1989. (Retrieved February 10, 2009) John Adams, Violin Concerto, III "Toccare" (1993) Oddly enough, his music of the 1990s slowly starts to incorporate it more and more to the point where one critic believes this slowly increasing incorporation of minimalism "represents a coming to terms with minimalism according to a decidedly tonal slant: pulse and repetition have been transmuted, by a kind of reverse-chronological alchemy, into devices of familiar from earlier eras, such as moto perpetuo and ostinato." The third movement of the Violin Concerto, titled "Toccare" portrays this transition. Adams begins the movement with a repeated, scale-like eight-note melody in the violin and going into the second measure, it appears as if he will continue this, but instead of starting at the bottom again, the violin continues upward. From here, there are fewer instances of repletion and more moving up and down in a pulse like fashion. The orchestra in the other hand is more repetitive and pulse like: the left hand continually plays the high A and it is not until the 5th measure where another note is added, but the A continues to be played throughout always on the off beat. It is this pulsing A, played as an eighth note as opposed to a sixteenth note, that pokes fun at the minimalist, yet Adams still uses the pulse (i.e. alternating eighth notes between the right and left hand, creating a sixteenth note feeling) as an engine for the movement. Critical reception John Adams was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 2003 for his 9/11 memorial piece, On the Transmigration of Souls. Response to his output as a whole has been more divided, and Adams' works have been described as both brilliant and boring in reviews that stretch across both ends of the rating spectrum. Shaker Loops has been described as "hauntingly ethereal," while 1999's "Naïve and Sentimental Music" has been called "an exploration of a marvelously extended spinning melody." "Long Ride in a Stalled Machine." The Standing Room: New Music (blog). October 25, 2004 The New York Times called 1996's Hallelujah Junction "a two-piano work played with appealingly sharp edges," and 2001's "American Berserk" "a short, volatile solo piano work." Kozinn, Allan. "Beyond Minimalism: The Later Works of John Adams." New York Times. March 23, 2005 (Retrieved February 11, 2009) The most critically divisive pieces in Adams's collection are his historical operas. While it is now easy to say that Nixon in Chinas influential score spawned a new interest in opera, it was not always met with such laudatory and generous review. At first release, Nixon in China received mostly mixed if not negative press feedback. Donal Henahan, special to the New York Times, called the Houston Grand Opera world premiere of the work "worth a few giggles but hardly a strong candidate for the standard repertory" and "visually striking but coy and insubstantial." Henahan, Donal. "Opera: Nixon in China." New York Times. October 24, 1987 (Retrieved February 11, 2009) James Wierzbicki for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch described Adams's score as the weak point in an otherwise well-staged performance, noting the music as "inappropriately placid," "cliché-ridden in the abstract" and "[trafficked] heavily in Adams's worn-out Minimalist clichés." Wierzbicki, James. "John Adams: Nixon in China." St. Louis Post-Dispatch. December 6, 1992 With time, however, the opera has come to be revered as a great and influential production. Robert Hugill for Music and Vision called the production "astonishing … nearly twenty years after its premier," Hugill, Robert. "Ensemble: A Mythic Story: Nixon in China." Music & Vision. July 2, 2006. while City Beat's Tom McElfresh called Nixon's score "a character in the drama" and "too intricate, too detailed to qualify as minimalist." McElfresh, Tom. "Nixon in China: John Adams' Score Highlights Marvelous Production." City Beat (Cincinnati). July 14, 2007. (Retrieved February 11, 2009) The attention surrounding The Death of Klinghoffer has been full of controversy, specifically in the New York Times reviews. After the 1991 premiere, reporter Edward Rothstein wrote that "Mr. Adams's music has a seriously limited range." Rothstein, Edward. "Review/Opera: Seeking Symmetry Between Palestinians and Jews." New York Times. September 7, 1991. (Retrieved February 11, 2009) Only a few days later, Allan Kozinn wrote an investigative report citing that Leon Klinghoffer's daughters, Lisa and Ilsa, had "expressed their disapproval" of the opera in a statement saying "We are outraged at the exploitation of our parents and the coldblooded murder of our father as the centerpiece of a production that appears to us to be anti-Semitic." Kozinn, Allan. "Klinghoffer Daughters Protest Opera." New York Times. September 11, 1991 (Retrieved February 11, 2009) In response to these accusations of anti-Semitism, composer and Oberlin College professor Conrad Cummings wrote a letter to the editor defending "Klinghoffer" as "the closest analogue to the experience of Bach's audience attending his most demanding works," and noted that, as someone of half-Jewish heritage, he "found nothing anti-Semitic about the work." Cummings, Conrad. Letter to the Editor: "What the Opera Klinghoffer Achieves." New York Times. September 27, 1991. (Retrieved February 11, 2009) After a 2001 cancellation of "Klinghoffer" by the Boston Symphony Orchestra, National Briefing | Mid-Atlantic: Massachusetts: "Symphony Cancels Klinghoffer." New York Times. November 2, 2001 debate has continued about the opera's content and social worth. Prominent critic and noted musicologist Richard Taruskin called the work "anti-American, anti-Semitic and anti-bourgeois." Criticism continued when the production was released to DVD. In 2003, Edward Rothstein updated his stage review to a movie critique, writing "the film affirms two ideas now commonplace among radical critics of Israel: that Jews acted like Nazis, and that refugees from the Holocaust were instrumental in the founding of the state, visiting upon Palestinians the sins of others." Rothstein, Edward. "Images of Evil's Flowering Disagree About Its Roots." New York Times. May 13, 2003 (Retrieved February 11, 2009) 2003's The Dharma at Big Sur/ My Father Knew Charles Ives was well-received, particularly at Adams' alma mater's publication, the Harvard Crimson. In a four-star review, Harvard's newspaper called the electric violin and orchestral concerto "Adams' best composition of the past ten years." Lin, Eric W. "CD Review: John Adams, The Dharma at Big Sur/ My Father Knew Charles Ives. The Harvard Crimson. October 19, 2006. (Retrieved February 11, 2009) Most recently, New York Times writer Anthony Tommasini commended Adams for his work conducting the American Composers Orchestra. The concert, which took place in April 2007 at Carnegie Hall, was a celebratory performance of Adams' work on his sixtieth birthday. Tommasini called Adams a "skilled and dynamic conductor," and noted that the music "was gravely beautiful yet restless." Tommasini, Anthony. "Doing Everything but Playing the Music." New York Times. April 30, 2007 (Retrieved February 11, 2009) Works list Opera (1987) Nixon in China (1991) The Death of Klinghoffer (1995) I Was Looking at the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky (2000) El Niño (2005) Doctor Atomic (2006) A Flowering Tree Orchestra (1979) Common Tones in Simple Time (1980) Harmonium (1983) Shaker Loops (version for string orchestra) (1985) Harmonielehre (1985) The Chairman Dances (1986) Tromba Lontana (1986) Short Ride in a Fast Machine (1988) Fearful Symmetries (1989) Eros Piano (1991) El Dorado (1993) Violin Concerto, winner of the 1995 Grawemeyer Award for Music composition (1995) Lollapalooza (1996) Slonimsky's Earbox (1997) Century Rolls (1998) Naive and Sentimental Music (2001) Guide to Strange Places (2002) On the Transmigration of Souls (2003) My Father Knew Charles Ives (2003) The Dharma at Big Sur (2007) Doctor Atomic Symphony (2009) City Noir Voice and orchestra (1987) The Nixon Tapes (1989) The Wound-Dresser Chamber music (1970) Piano Quintet (1992) Chamber Symphony (1978) Shaker Loops (1994) John's Book of Alleged Dances (1995) Road Movies (1996) Gnarly Buttons (2007) Son of Chamber Symphony (2007) Fellow Traveler (2009) String Quartet No. 2 Other ensemble works (1973) American Standard (1973) Christian Zeal and Activity (1975) Grounding (1982) Grand Pianola Music (1996) Scratchband (2001) Nancy's Fancy Chorus (1973) Ktaadn (1980) Harmonium (1991) Choruses from The Death of Klinghoffer (2002) On the Transmigration of Souls Tape and electronic compositions (1971) Heavy Metal (1976) Studebaker Love Music (1976) Onyx (1983) Light Over Water (1992) Hoodoo Zephyr Piano (1977) Phrygian Gates (1977) China Gates (1996) Hallelujah Junction (2001) American Berserk Film score (1982) Matter of Heart (1999?) An American Tapestry Orchestrations (1990) The Black Gondola (Liszt's La Lugubre Gondola) (1991) Berceuse Élégiaque (Busoni's Berceuse Élégiaque) (1993) Le Livre de Baudelaire (Debussy's Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire) (1995) La Mufa (Piazzolla's tango) (1996) Todo Buenos Aires (Piazzolla's tango) Arrangements (1989–93) Six Songs by Charles Ives (Ives' songs) Awards and recognition Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Composition for Nixon in China (1989) Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award for Best Chamber Composition for Chamber Symphony (1994) Grawemeyer Award in Musical Composition for Violin Concerto (1995) Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Composition for El Dorado (1998) Pulitzer Prize for Music for On the Transmigration of Souls (2003) Grammy Award for Best Classical Album for On the Transmigration of Souls (2005) Grammy Award for Best Orchestral Performance for On the Transmigration of Souls (2005) Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition for On the Transmigration of Souls (2005) Harvard Arts Medal (2007) Harvard Arts medal Honorary Doctorate of Arts from Northwestern University (2008) California Governor's Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Arts Cyril Magnin Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Arts Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters) Footnotes References K. Robert Schwarz, "Process vs. Intuition in the Recent Works of Steve Reich and John Adams", American Music Vol. 8, No. 3 (Autumn 1990), pp. 245–273. Brent Heisinger, "American Minimalism in the 1980s", American Music Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter 1989), pp. 430–447. Thomas May. The John Adams Reader (ISBN 1-57467-132-4) K. Robert Schwartz, Minimalists, Phaidon Press Inc. ISBN 0-714-84773-9 John Richardson, "John Adams: A Portrait and a Concert of American Music", American Music Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 2005), pp. 131–133. [review] Matthew Daines, "The Death of Klinghoffer by John Adams", American Music Vol. 16, No. 3 (Autumn 1998), pp. 356–358. [review] J. Thomas Rimer, "Nixon in China by John Adams", American Music'' Vol. 12, No. 3 (Autumn 1994), pp. 338–341. [review] Further reading John Adams. Halleluiah Junction: Composing an American Life. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2008. (autobiography) External links Halleluiah Junction: Composing an American Life John Adams' autobiography (2008) John Adams official site (earbox.com) Pulitzer Prize biography (2003) Doctor Atomic website for the opera Musicianguide biography Boosey.com Snapshot Page About the Composer: John Adams (from the Met) John Adams at NPR Music John Adams at IMG Artists Essay on Doctor Atomic by Thomas May Boosey & Hawkes feature on John Adams Interviews John Adams in conversation with Robert Davidson NewMusicBox: John Adams in conversation with Frank J. Oteri, 2000 An American Portrait: Composer John Adams, WGBH, radio, Boston

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Artificial_neural_network

An artificial neural network (ANN), usually called "neural network" (NN), is a mathematical model or computational model that tries to simulate the structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural networks. It consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons and processes information using a connectionist approach to computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network during the learning phase. In more practical terms neural networks are non-linear statistical data modeling tools. They can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data. A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain. Background Component based representation of a neural network. This kind of more general representation is used by some neural network software. There is no precise agreed-upon definition among researchers as to what a neural network is, but most would agree that it involves a network of simple processing elements (neurons), which can exhibit complex global behavior, determined by the connections between the processing elements and element parameters. The original inspiration for the technique was from examination of the central nervous system and the neurons (and their axons, dendrites and synapses) which constitute one of its most significant information processing elements (see Neuroscience). In a neural network model, simple nodes (called variously "neurons", "neurodes", "PEs" ("processing elements") or "units") are connected together to form a network of nodes — hence the term "neural network." While a neural network does not have to be adaptive per se, its practical use comes with algorithms designed to alter the strength (weights) of the connections in the network to produce a desired signal flow. These networks are also similar to the biological neural networks in the sense that functions are performed collectively and in parallel by the units, rather than there being a clear delineation of subtasks to which various units are assigned (see also connectionism). Currently, the term Artificial Neural Network (ANN) tends to refer mostly to neural network models employed in statistics, cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence. Neural network models designed with emulation of the central nervous system (CNS) in mind are a subject of theoretical neuroscience (computational neuroscience). In modern software implementations of artificial neural networks the approach inspired by biology has more or less been abandoned for a more practical approach based on statistics and signal processing. In some of these systems neural networks, or parts of neural networks (such as artificial neurons) are used as components in larger systems that combine both adaptive and non-adaptive elements. While the more general approach of such adaptive systems is more suitable for real-world problem solving, it has far less to do with the traditional artificial intelligence connectionist models. What they do, however, have in common is the principle of non-linear, distributed, parallel and local processing and adaptation. Models Neural network models in artificial intelligence are usually referred to as artificial neural networks (ANNs); these are essentially simple mathematical models defining a function . Each type of ANN model corresponds to a class of such functions. The network in artificial neural network The word network in the term 'artificial neural network' arises because the function is defined as a composition of other functions , which can further be defined as a composition of other functions. This can be conveniently represented as a network structure, with arrows depicting the dependencies between variables. A widely used type of composition is the nonlinear weighted sum, where , where is some predefined function, such as the hyperbolic tangent. It will be convenient for the following to refer to a collection of functions as simply a vector . ANN dependency graph This figure depicts such a decomposition of , with dependencies between variables indicated by arrows. These can be interpreted in two ways. The first view is the functional view: the input is transformed into a 3-dimensional vector , which is then transformed into a 2-dimensional vector , which is finally transformed into . This view is most commonly encountered in the context of optimization. The second view is the probabilistic view: the random variable depends upon the random variable , which depends upon , which depends upon the random variable . This view is most commonly encountered in the context of graphical models. The two views are largely equivalent. In either case, for this particular network architecture, the components of individual layers are independent of each other (e.g., the components of are independent of each other given their input ). This naturally enables a degree of parallelism in the implementation. Recurrent ANN dependency graph Networks such as the previous one are commonly called feedforward, because their graph is a directed acyclic graph. Networks with cycles are commonly called recurrent. Such networks are commonly depicted in the manner shown at the top of the figure, where is shown as being dependent upon itself. However, there is an implied temporal dependence which is not shown. Learning However interesting such functions may be in themselves, what has attracted the most interest in neural networks is the possibility of learning, which in practice means the following: Given a specific task to solve, and a class of functions , learning means using a set of observations, in order to find which solves the task in an optimal sense. This entails defining a cost function such that, for the optimal solution , (no solution has a cost less than the cost of the optimal solution). The cost function is an important concept in learning, as it is a measure of how far away we are from an optimal solution to the problem that we want to solve. Learning algorithms search through the solution space in order to find a function that has the smallest possible cost. For applications where the solution is dependent on some data, the cost must necessarily be a function of the observations, otherwise we would not be modelling anything related to the data. It is frequently defined as a statistic to which only approximations can be made. As a simple example consider the problem of finding the model which minimizes , for data pairs drawn from some distribution . In practical situations we would only have samples from and thus, for the above example, we would only minimize . Thus, the cost is minimized over a sample of the data rather than the true data distribution. When some form of online learning must be used, where the cost is partially minimized as each new example is seen. While online learning is often used when is fixed, it is most useful in the case where the distribution changes slowly over time. In neural network methods, some form of online learning is frequently also used for finite datasets. Choosing a cost function While it is possible to arbitrarily define some ad hoc cost function, frequently a particular cost will be used either because it has desirable properties (such as convexity) or because it arises naturally from a particular formulation of the problem (e.g., In a probabilistic formulation the posterior probability of the model can be used as an inverse cost). Ultimately, the cost function will depend on the task we wish to perform. The three main categories of learning tasks are overviewed below. Learning paradigms There are three major learning paradigms, each corresponding to a particular abstract learning task. These are supervised learning, unsupervised learning and reinforcement learning. Usually any given type of network architecture can be employed in any of those tasks. Supervised learning In supervised learning, we are given a set of example pairs and the aim is to find a function in the allowed class of functions that matches the examples. In other words, we wish to infer the mapping implied by the data; the cost function is related to the mismatch between our mapping and the data and it implicitly contains prior knowledge about the problem domain. A commonly used cost is the mean-squared error which tries to minimize the average squared error between the network's output, f(x), and the target value y over all the example pairs. When one tries to minimise this cost using gradient descent for the class of neural networks called Multi-Layer Perceptrons, one obtains the common and well-known backpropagation algorithm for training neural networks. Tasks that fall within the paradigm of supervised learning are pattern recognition (also known as classification) and regression (also known as function approximation). The supervised learning paradigm is also applicable to sequential data (e.g., for speech and gesture recognition). This can be thought of as learning with a "teacher," in the form of a function that provides continuous feedback on the quality of solutions obtained thus far. Unsupervised learning In unsupervised learning we are given some data and the cost function to be minimized, that can be any function of the data and the network's output, . The cost function is dependent on the task (what we are trying to model) and our a priori assumptions (the implicit properties of our model, its parameters and the observed variables). As a trivial example, consider the model , where is a constant and the cost . Minimizing this cost will give us a value of that is equal to the mean of the data. The cost function can be much more complicated. Its form depends on the application: For example in compression it could be related to the mutual information between x and y. In statistical modelling, it could be related to the posterior probability of the model given the data. (Note that in both of those examples those quantities would be maximized rather than minimised). Tasks that fall within the paradigm of unsupervised learning are in general estimation problems; the applications include clustering, the estimation of statistical distributions, compression and filtering. Reinforcement learning In reinforcement learning, data is usually not given, but generated by an agent's interactions with the environment. At each point in time , the agent performs an action and the environment generates an observation and an instantaneous cost , according to some (usually unknown) dynamics. The aim is to discover a policy for selecting actions that minimizes some measure of a long-term cost, i.e. the expected cumulative cost. The environment's dynamics and the long-term cost for each policy are usually unknown, but can be estimated. More formally, the environment is modeled as a Markov decision process (MDP) with states S and actions with the following probability distributions: the instantaneous cost distribution , the observation distribution and the transition , while a policy is defined as conditional distribution over actions given the observations. Taken together, the two define a Markov chain (MC). The aim is to discover the policy that minimizes the cost, i.e. the MC for which the cost is minimal. ANNs are frequently used in reinforcement learning as part of the overall algorithm. Tasks that fall within the paradigm of reinforcement learning are control problems, games and other sequential decision making tasks. See also: dynamic programming, stochastic control Learning algorithms Training a neural network model essentially means selecting one model from the set of allowed models (or, in a Bayesian framework, determining a distribution over the set of allowed models) that minimises the cost criterion. There are numerous algorithms available for training neural network models; most of them can be viewed as a straightforward application of optimization theory and statistical estimation. Most of the algorithms used in training artificial neural networks are employing some form of gradient descent. This is done by simply taking the derivative of the cost function with respect to the network parameters and then changing those parameters in a gradient-related direction. Evolutionary methods, simulated annealing, and expectation-maximization and non-parametric methods are among other commonly used methods for training neural networks. See also machine learning.</small> Temporal perceptual learning relies on finding temporal relationships in sensory signal streams. In an environment, statistically salient temporal correlations can be found by monitoring the arrival times of sensory signals. This is done by the perceptual network. Employing artificial neural networks Perhaps the greatest advantage of ANNs is their ability to be used as an arbitrary function approximation mechanism which 'learns' from observed data. However, using them is not so straightforward and a relatively good understanding of the underlying theory is essential. Choice of model: This will depend on the data representation and the application. Overly complex models tend to lead to problems with learning. Learning algorithm: There are numerous tradeoffs between learning algorithms. Almost any algorithm will work well with the correct hyperparameters for training on a particular fixed dataset. However selecting and tuning an algorithm for training on unseen data requires a significant amount of experimentation. Robustness: If the model, cost function and learning algorithm are selected appropriately the resulting ANN can be extremely robust. With the correct implementation ANNs can be used naturally in online learning and large dataset applications. Their simple implementation and the existence of mostly local dependencies exhibited in the structure allows for fast, parallel implementations in hardware. Applications The utility of artificial neural network models lies in the fact that they can be used to infer a function from observations. This is particularly useful in applications where the complexity of the data or task makes the design of such a function by hand impractical. Real life applications The tasks to which artificial neural networks are applied tend to fall within the following broad categories: Function approximation, or regression analysis, including time series prediction, fitness approximation and modeling. Classification, including pattern and sequence recognition, novelty detection and sequential decision making. Data processing, including filtering, clustering, blind source separation and compression. Robotics, including directing manipulators, Computer numerical control. Application areas include system identification and control (vehicle control, process control), game-playing and decision making (backgammon, chess, racing), pattern recognition (radar systems, face identification, object recognition and more), sequence recognition (gesture, speech, handwritten text recognition), medical diagnosis, financial applications (automated trading systems), data mining (or knowledge discovery in databases, "KDD"), visualization and e-mail spam filtering. Neural network software Neural network software is used to simulate, research, develop and apply artificial neural networks, biological neural networks and in some cases a wider array of adaptive systems. See also logistic regression. Types of neural networks Feedforward neural network The feedforward neural network was the first and arguably simplest type of artificial neural network devised. In this network, the information moves in only one direction, forward, from the input nodes, through the hidden nodes (if any) and to the output nodes. There are no cycles or loops in the network. Radial basis function (RBF) network Radial Basis Functions are powerful techniques for interpolation in multidimensional space. A RBF is a function which has built into a distance criterion with respect to a center. Radial basis functions have been applied in the area of neural networks where they may be used as a replacement for the sigmoidal hidden layer transfer characteristic in Multi-Layer Perceptrons. RBF networks have two layers of processing: In the first, input is mapped onto each RBF in the 'hidden' layer. The RBF chosen is usually a Gaussian. In regression problems the output layer is then a linear combination of hidden layer values representing mean predicted output. The interpretation of this output layer value is the same as a regression model in statistics. In classification problems the output layer is typically a sigmoid function of a linear combination of hidden layer values, representing a posterior probability. Performance in both cases is often improved by shrinkage techniques, known as ridge regression in classical statistics and known to correspond to a prior belief in small parameter values (and therefore smooth output functions) in a Bayesian framework. RBF networks have the advantage of not suffering from local minima in the same way as Multi-Layer Perceptrons. This is because the only parameters that are adjusted in the learning process are the linear mapping from hidden layer to output layer. Linearity ensures that the error surface is quadratic and therefore has a single easily found minimum. In regression problems this can be found in one matrix operation. In classification problems the fixed non-linearity introduced by the sigmoid output function is most efficiently dealt with using iteratively re-weighted least squares. RBF networks have the disadvantage of requiring good coverage of the input space by radial basis functions. RBF centres are determined with reference to the distribution of the input data, but without reference to the prediction task. As a result, representational resources may be wasted on areas of the input space that are irrelevant to the learning task. A common solution is to associate each data point with its own centre, although this can make the linear system to be solved in the final layer rather large, and requires shrinkage techniques to avoid overfitting. Associating each input datum with an RBF leads naturally to kernel methods such as Support Vector Machines and Gaussian Processes (the RBF is the kernel function). All three approaches use a non-linear kernel function to project the input data into a space where the learning problem can be solved using a linear model. Like Gaussian Processes, and unlike SVMs, RBF networks are typically trained in a Maximum Likelihood framework by maximizing the probability (minimizing the error) of the data under the model. SVMs take a different approach to avoiding overfitting by maximizing instead a margin. RBF networks are outperformed in most classification applications by SVMs. In regression applications they can be competitive when the dimensionality of the input space is relatively small. Kohonen self-organizing network The self-organizing map (SOM) invented by Teuvo Kohonen performs a form of unsupervised learning. A set of artificial neurons learn to map points in an input space to coordinates in an output space. The input space can have different dimensions and topology from the output space, and the SOM will attempt to preserve these. Recurrent network Contrary to feedforward networks, recurrent neural networks (RNs) are models with bi-directional data flow. While a feedforward network propagates data linearly from input to output, RNs also propagate data from later processing stages to earlier stages. Simple recurrent network A simple recurrent network (SRN) is a variation on the Multi-Layer Perceptron, sometimes called an "Elman network" due to its invention by Jeff Elman. A three-layer network is used, with the addition of a set of "context units" in the input layer. There are connections from the middle (hidden) layer to these context units fixed with a weight of one. At each time step, the input is propagated in a standard feed-forward fashion, and then a learning rule (usually back-propagation) is applied. The fixed back connections result in the context units always maintaining a copy of the previous values of the hidden units (since they propagate over the connections before the learning rule is applied). Thus the network can maintain a sort of state, allowing it to perform such tasks as sequence-prediction that are beyond the power of a standard Multi-Layer Perceptron. In a fully recurrent network, every neuron receives inputs from every other neuron in the network. These networks are not arranged in layers. Usually only a subset of the neurons receive external inputs in addition to the inputs from all the other neurons, and another disjunct subset of neurons report their output externally as well as sending it to all the neurons. These distinctive inputs and outputs perform the function of the input and output layers of a feed-forward or simple recurrent network, and also join all the other neurons in the recurrent processing. Hopfield network The Hopfield network is a recurrent neural network in which all connections are symmetric. Invented by John Hopfield in 1982, this network guarantees that its dynamics will converge. If the connections are trained using Hebbian learning then the Hopfield network can perform as robust content-addressable (or associative) memory, resistant to connection alteration. Echo state network The echo state network (ESN) is a recurrent neural network with a sparsely connected random hidden layer. The weights of output neurons are the only part of the network that can change and be learned. ESN are good to (re)produce temporal patterns. Long short term memory network The Long short term memory is an artificial neural net structure that unlike traditional RNNs doesn't have the problem of vanishing gradients. It can therefore use long delays and can handle signals that have a mix of low and high frequency components. Stochastic neural networks A stochastic neural network differs from a typical neural network because it introduces random variations into the network. In a probabilistic view of neural networks, such random variations can be viewed as a form of statistical sampling, such as Monte Carlo sampling. Boltzmann machine The Boltzmann machine can be thought of as a noisy Hopfield network. Invented by Geoff Hinton and Terry Sejnowski in 1985, the Boltzmann machine is important because it is one of the first neural networks to demonstrate learning of latent variables (hidden units). Boltzmann machine learning was at first slow to simulate, but the contrastive divergence algorithm of Geoff Hinton (circa 2000) allows models such as Boltzmann machines and products of experts to be trained much faster. Modular neural networks Biological studies have shown that the human brain functions not as a single massive network, but as a collection of small networks. This realization gave birth to the concept of modular neural networks, in which several small networks cooperate or compete to solve problems. Committee of machines A committee of machines (CoM) is a collection of different neural networks that together "vote" on a given example. This generally gives a much better result compared to other neural network models. Because neural networks suffer from local minima, starting with the same architecture and training but using different initial random weights often gives vastly different networks. A CoM tends to stabilize the result. The CoM is similar to the general machine learning bagging method, except that the necessary variety of machines in the committee is obtained by training from different random starting weights rather than training on different randomly selected subsets of the training data. Associative neural network (ASNN) The ASNN is an extension of the committee of machines that goes beyond a simple/weighted average of different models. ASNN represents a combination of an ensemble of feed-forward neural networks and the k-nearest neighbor technique (kNN). It uses the correlation between ensemble responses as a measure of distance amid the analyzed cases for the kNN. This corrects the bias of the neural network ensemble. An associative neural network has a memory that can coincide with the training set. If new data become available, the network instantly improves its predictive ability and provides data approximation (self-learn the data) without a need to retrain the ensemble. Another important feature of ASNN is the possibility to interpret neural network results by analysis of correlations between data cases in the space of models. The method is demonstrated at www.vcclab.org, where you can either use it online or download it. Other types of networks These special networks do not fit in any of the previous categories. Holographic associative memory Holographic associative memory represents a family of analog, correlation-based, associative, stimulus-response memories, where information is mapped onto the phase orientation of complex numbers operating. Instantaneously trained networks Instantaneously trained neural networks (ITNNs) were inspired by the phenomenon of short-term learning that seems to occur instantaneously. In these networks the weights of the hidden and the output layers are mapped directly from the training vector data. Ordinarily, they work on binary data, but versions for continuous data that require small additional processing are also available. Spiking neural networks Spiking neural networks (SNNs) are models which explicitly take into account the timing of inputs. The network input and output are usually represented as series of spikes (delta function or more complex shapes). SNNs have an advantage of being able to process information in the time domain (signals that vary over time). They are often implemented as recurrent networks. SNNs are also a form of pulse computer. Spiking neural networks with axonal conduction delays exhibit polychronization, and hence could have a very large memory capacity. Networks of spiking neurons — and the temporal correlations of neural assemblies in such networks — have been used to model figure/ground separation and region linking in the visual system (see e.g. Reitboeck et al.in Haken and Stadler: Synergetics of the Brain. Berlin, 1989). In June 2005 IBM announced construction of a Blue Gene supercomputer dedicated to the simulation of a large recurrent spiking neural network. Gerstner and Kistler have a freely available online textbook on Spiking Neuron Models. Dynamic neural networks Dynamic neural networks not only deal with nonlinear multivariate behaviour, but also include (learning of) time-dependent behaviour such as various transient phenomena and delay effects. Cascading neural networks Cascade-Correlation is an architecture and supervised learning algorithm developed by Scott Fahlman and Christian Lebiere. Instead of just adjusting the weights in a network of fixed topology, Cascade-Correlation begins with a minimal network, then automatically trains and adds new hidden units one by one, creating a multi-layer structure. Once a new hidden unit has been added to the network, its input-side weights are frozen. This unit then becomes a permanent feature-detector in the network, available for producing outputs or for creating other, more complex feature detectors. The Cascade-Correlation architecture has several advantages over existing algorithms: it learns very quickly, the network determines its own size and topology, it retains the structures it has built even if the training set changes, and it requires no back-propagation of error signals through the connections of the network. See: Cascade correlation algorithm. Neuro-fuzzy networks A neuro-fuzzy network is a fuzzy inference system in the body of an artificial neural network. Depending on the FIS type, there are several layers that simulate the processes involved in a fuzzy inference like fuzzification, inference, aggregation and defuzzification. Embedding an FIS in a general structure of an ANN has the benefit of using available ANN training methods to find the parameters of a fuzzy system. Compositional pattern-producing networks Compositional pattern-producing networks (CPPNs) are a variation of ANNs which differ in their set of activation functions and how they are applied. While typical ANNs often contain only sigmoid functions (and sometimes Gaussian functions), CPPNs can include both types of functions and many others. Furthermore, unlike typical ANNs, CPPNs are applied across the entire space of possible inputs so that they can represent a complete image. Since they are compositions of functions, CPPNs in effect encode images at infinite resolution and can be sampled for a particular display at whatever resolution is optimal. One-shot associative memory This type of network can add new patterns without the need for re-training. It is done by creating a specific memory structure, which assigns each new pattern to an orthogonal plane using adjacently connected hierarchical arrays B.B. Nasution, A.I. Khan, A Hierarchical Graph Neuron Scheme for Real-Time Pattern Recognition, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, vol 19(2), 212-229, Feb. 2008 . The network offers real-time pattern recognition and high scalability, it however requires parallel processing and is thus best suited for platforms such as Wireless sensor networks (WSN), Grid computing, and GPGPUs. Theoretical properties Computational power The multi-layer perceptron (MLP) is a universal function approximator, as proven by the Cybenko theorem. However, the proof is not constructive regarding the number of neurons required or the settings of the weights. Work by Hava Siegelmann and Eduardo D. Sontag has provided a proof that a specific recurrent architecture with rational valued weights (as opposed to the commonly used floating point approximations) has the full power of a Universal Turing Machine using a finite number of neurons and standard linear connections. They have further shown that the use of irrational values for weights results in a machine with super-Turing power. Capacity Artificial neural network models have a property called 'capacity', which roughly corresponds to their ability to model any given function. It is related to the amount of information that can be stored in the network and to the notion of complexity. Convergence Nothing can be said in general about convergence since it depends on a number of factors. Firstly, there may exist many local minima. This depends on the cost function and the model. Secondly, the optimization method used might not be guaranteed to converge when far away from a local minimum. Thirdly, for a very large amount of data or parameters, some methods become impractical. In general, it has been found that theoretical guarantees regarding convergence are an unreliable guide to practical application. Generalisation and statistics In applications where the goal is to create a system that generalises well in unseen examples, the problem of overtraining has emerged. This arises in overcomplex or overspecified systems when the capacity of the network significantly exceeds the needed free parameters. There are two schools of thought for avoiding this problem: The first is to use cross-validation and similar techniques to check for the presence of overtraining and optimally select hyperparameters such as to minimise the generalisation error. The second is to use some form of regularisation. This is a concept that emerges naturally in a probabilistic (Bayesian) framework, where the regularisation can be performed by selecting a larger prior probability over simpler models; but also in statistical learning theory, where the goal is to minimise over two quantities: the 'empirical risk' and the 'structural risk', which roughly correspond to the error over the training set and the predicted error in unseen data due to overfitting. Confidence analysis of a neural network Supervised neural networks that use an MSE cost function can use formal statistical methods to determine the confidence of the trained model. The MSE on a validation set can be used as an estimate for variance. This value can then be used to calculate the confidence interval of the output of the network, assuming a normal distribution. A confidence analysis made this way is statistically valid as long as the output probability distribution stays the same and the network is not modified. By assigning a softmax activation function on the output layer of the neural network (or a softmax component in a component-based neural network) for categorical target variables, the outputs can be interpreted as posterior probabilities. This is very useful in classification as it gives a certainty measure on classifications. The softmax activation function: Dynamic properties Various techniques originally developed for studying disordered magnetic systems (i.e. the spin glass) have been successfully applied to simple neural network architectures, such as the Hopfield network. Influential work by E. Gardner and B. Derrida has revealed many interesting properties about perceptrons with real-valued synaptic weights, while later work by W. Krauth and M. Mezard has extended these principles to binary-valued synapses. See also 20Q Adaptive resonance theory Artificial life Associative memory Autoencoder Biological neural network Biologically-inspired computing Blue brain Clinical decision support system Connectionist expert system Decision tree Expert system Fuzzy logic Genetic algorithm Gnod, a Kohonen network application Linear discriminant analysis Logistic regression Memristor Multilayer perceptron Nearest neighbor (pattern recognition) Neural network Neuroevolution, NeuroEvolution of Augmented Topologies (NEAT) Neural network software Ni1000 chip Optical neural network Particle swarm optimization Perceptron Predictive analytics Principal components analysis Regression analysis Simulated annealing Systolic array Systolic automaton Time delay neural network (TDNN) Time delay dynamic neural units (TmD-DNU) Patents Arima, et al., ,"Neural network integrated circuit device having self-organizing function". March 8, 1994. Bibliography Please see Chapter 3 Bhagat, P.M. (2005) Pattern Recognition in Industry, Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044538-1 Bishop, C.M. (1995) Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853849-9 (hardback) or ISBN 0-19-853864-2 (paperback) Cybenko, G.V. (1989). Approximation by Superpositions of a Sigmoidal function, Mathematics of Control, Signals and Systems, Vol. 2 pp. 303–314. electronic version Duda, R.O., Hart, P.E., Stork, D.G. (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-05669-3 Gurney, K. (1997) An Introduction to Neural Networks London: Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-673-1 (hardback) or ISBN 1-85728-503-4 (paperback) Haykin, S. (1999) Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-273350-1 Fahlman, S, Lebiere, C (1991). The Cascade-Correlation Learning Architecture, created for National Science Foundation, Contract Number EET-8716324, and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD), ARPA Order No. 4976 under Contract F33615-87-C-1499. electronic version Hertz, J., Palmer, R.G., Krogh. A.S. (1990) Introduction to the theory of neural computation, Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-51560-1 Lawrence, Jeanette (1994) Introduction to Neural Networks, California Scientific Software Press. ISBN 1-883157-00-5 Masters, Timothy (1994) Signal and Image Processing with Neural Networks, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-04963-8 Ness, Erik. 2005. SPIDA-Web. Conservation in Practice 6(1):35-36. On the use of artificial neural networks in species taxonomy. Ripley, Brian D. (1996) Pattern Recognition and Neural Networks, Cambridge Siegelmann, H.T. and Sontag, E.D. (1994). Analog computation via neural networks, Theoretical Computer Science, v. 131, no. 2, pp. 331–360. electronic version Smith, Murray (1993) Neural Networks for Statistical Modeling, Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-442-01310-8 Wasserman, Philip (1993) Advanced Methods in Neural Computing, Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-442-00461-3 Notes External links A close view to Artificial Neural Networks Algorithms Neural Networks in Materials Science A practical tutorial on Neural Networks Applications of neural networks Further reading Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions B on Neural Networks and Perception. Some articles are freely available.

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scientific:1 master:1 timothy:1 son:1 inc:1 ness:1 erik:1 spida:1 web:1 conservation:1 specie:1 taxonomy:1 ripley:1 brian:1 cambridge:1 h:1 via:1 smith:1 murray:1 van:2 nostrand:2 reinhold:2 wasserman:1 philip:1 close:1 material:1 tutorial:1 reading:1 issue:1 philosophical:1 perception:1 article:1 |@bigram artificial_neural:17 neural_network:96 input_output:5 neuron_axon:1 per_se:1 cognitive_psychology:1 artificial_intelligence:3 computational_neuroscience:1 signal_processing:1 problem_solving:1 weighted_sum:1 random_variable:3 acyclic_graph:1 ad_hoc:1 posterior_probability:4 supervised_learning:4 unsupervised_learning:5 probability_distribution:2 markov_chain:1 decision_making:3 regression_analysis:2 mail_spam:1 logistic_regression:2 rbf_network:6 maximum_likelihood:1 bi_directional:1 hopfield_network:6 monte_carlo:1 randomly_select:1 et_al:2 cascade_correlation:5 ieee_transaction:1 turing_machine:1 fuzzy_logic:1 integrate_circuit:1 prentice_hall:1 wiley_son:1 van_nostrand:2 nostrand_reinhold:2 external_link:1

Emperor_Nintoku

Daisen-Kofun, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Osaka was the 16th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 22-24; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 110-111. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Nintoku is considered to have ruled the country during the late-fourth century and early-fifth century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. According to Nihon Shoki, he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin and the father of Emperors Richū, Hanzei, and Ingyō. The book also states that Nintoku ruled from 313 till 399 but modern research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate. The achievements noted in Nihon Shoki include: constructed a thorn field bank called Namba no Horie to prevent a flood in Kawachi plains and for development. It is assumed that this was the Japan's first large-scale engineering works business. established a thorn field estate under the direct control of the Imperial Court (まむたのみやけ) constructed a Yokono bank (horizontal parcel, Ikuno-ku, Osaka-shi). Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 254-271. Daisen-Kofun (the biggest tomb in Japan) in Sakai, Osaka is considered to be his tomb. The Imperial tomb of Nintoku's consort, Iwa-no hime no Mikoto, is said to be located in Saki-cho, Nara City. Iwa-no hime no Mikoto's misasagi -- map (upper right) Both kofun-type Imperial tombs are characterized by a keyhole-shaped island located within a wide, water-filled moat. see kofun context of kofun-like elements Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult External links Encyclopedia of Daisen Kofun (in Japanese)

Emperor_Nintoku |@lemmatized daisen:3 kofun:6 tomb:5 emperor:7 nintoku:4 osaka:3 japan:8 accord:2 traditional:1 order:1 succession:1 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:3 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 firm:1 date:2 assign:1 life:1 reign:1 consider:2 rule:2 country:1 late:1 fourth:2 century:2 early:2 fifth:1 paucity:1 information:1 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 nihon:2 shoki:2 son:1 ōjin:1 father:1 richū:1 hanzei:1 ingyō:1 book:3 also:2 state:1 till:1 modern:1 research:1 suggest:1 likely:1 inaccurate:1 achievement:1 note:2 include:1 construct:2 thorn:2 field:2 bank:2 call:1 namba:1 horie:1 prevent:1 flood:1 kawachi:1 plain:1 development:1 assume:1 first:1 large:1 scale:1 engineering:1 work:1 business:1 establish:1 estate:1 direct:1 control:1 imperial:5 court:1 まむたのみやけ:1 yokono:1 horizontal:1 parcel:1 ikuno:1 ku:1 shi:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 big:1 sakai:1 consort:1 iwa:2 hime:2 mikoto:2 say:1 locate:2 saki:1 cho:1 nara:1 city:1 misasagi:1 map:1 upper:1 right:1 type:1 characterize:1 keyhole:1 shaped:1 island:1 within:1 wide:1 water:1 fill:1 moat:1 see:2 context:1 like:1 element:1 reference:1 george:1 chronicle:2 time:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 gukanshō:2 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 sovereign:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 list:1 cult:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 japanese:1 |@bigram succession_titsingh:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 paucity_information:1 nihon_shoki:2 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 external_link:1

Collagen_helix

Model of a collagen helix. TEM image of collagen fibres. In collagen, the collagen helix, or type 2 helix, is a major shape in secondary structure. It consists of a triple helix made of the repetitious amino acid sequence glycine - proline - hydroxyproline. Each of the three chains is stabilized by the steric repulsion due to the pyrrolidone rings of proline and hydroxyproline residues. The pyrrolidone rings keep out of each other’s way when the polypeptide chain assumes this extended helical form, which is much more open than the tightly coiled form of the alpha helix. The three chains are hydrogen bonded to each other. The hydrogen bond donors are the peptide NH groups of glycine residues. The hydrogen bond acceptors are the CO groups of residues on the other chains. The OH group of hydroxyproline also participates in hydrogen bonding. The rise of the collagen helix (superhelix) is 2.9 Å (0.29 nm) per residue. See also : tertiary structure -- α helix -- β sheet

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Ansible

An ansible is a hypothetical machine capable of superluminal (or faster than light) communication. Ansibles are used as plot devices in science fiction literature. Origin The word ansible was coined by Ursula K. Le Guin in her 1966 novel, Rocannon's World. Le Guin states that she derived the name from "answerable," as the device would allow its users to receive answers to their messages in a reasonable amount of time, even over interstellar distances. Her award-winning 1974 novel The Dispossessed tells of the invention of the ansible within her Hainish Cycle. Usage The name of the device has since been borrowed by authors such as Orson Scott Card, Vernor Vinge, Elizabeth Moon, Jason Jones, Jones, Jason (with Greg Kirkpatrick) (1995-11-24) Marathon 2: Durandal, computer game, Chicago, IL: Bungie Software. "A connection [?ansible] was left; awaiting the next quiet [?peace]; and though destroyed by the threes, it will scream over the void one time." L.A. Graf, and Dan Simmons. Similarly functioning devices are present in the works of numerous others, such as Frank Herbert and Philip Pullman, who called it a lodestone resonator. The subspace radio, best known today from Star Trek and named for the series' method of achieving faster-than-light travel, was the most commonly used name for such a faster-than-light (FTL) communicator in the science fiction of the 1930s to the 1950s. One ansible-like device which predates Le Guin's usage is the Dirac communicator in James Blish's 1954 short story "Beep". Isaac Asimov solved the same communication problem with the hyper-wave relay in The Foundation Series. Stephen R. Donaldson, in his Gap Series, introduces Symbiotic Crystalline Resonance Transmission, clearly ansible-type technology which is very difficult to produce and limited to text messages. Le Guin's ansible was said to communicate "instantaneously", but other authors have adopted the name for devices explicitly only capable of finite-speed communication (though still faster than light). In Le Guin's work In The Word for World Is Forest, Le Guin explains that in order for communication to work with any pair of ansibles, at least one "must be on a large-mass body, the other can be anywhere in the cosmos." In The Left Hand of Darkness, the ansible "doesn't involve radio waves, or any form of energy. The principle it works on, the constant of simultaneity, is analogous in some ways to gravity... One point has to be fixed, on a planet of certain mass, but the other end is portable." Le Guin's ansibles are not mated pairs as it is possible for an ansible's coordinates to be set to any known location of a receiving ansible. Moreover, the ansibles Le Guin uses in her stories apparently have a very limited bandwidth which only allows for at most a few hundred characters of text to be communicated in any transaction of a dialog session. Instead of a microphone and speaker, Le Guin's ansibles are attached to a keyboard and small display to perform text messaging. In Card's work Orson Scott Card's Ender's Game series is a widely read series which uses the ansible as a plot device. ("The official name is Philotic Parallax Instantaneous Communicator," explains Colonel Graff in Ender's Game, "but somebody dredged the name ansible out of an old book somewhere"). His description of ansible functions in Xenocide involve a fictional subatomic particle, the philote, and contradicts not only standard physical theory but the results of empirical particle accelerator experiments. In the "Enderverse", the two quarks inside a pi meson can be separated by an arbitrary distance while remaining connected by "philotic rays". This is similar in concept to quantum teleportation due to entanglement, although even that is not capable of faster-than-light communication. Also, in the real world, quark confinement prevents one from separating quarks by more than microscopic distances. In reality There is no known way to build an ansible. The theory of special relativity predicts that any such device would allow communication from the future to the past, which raises problems of causality. For this reason, most physicists believe that they will eventually be proven impossible. Quantum entanglement is often proposed as a mechanism for superluminal communication, but current understanding of that phenomenon is that it cannot be used for any sort of communication—superluminal or otherwise—because of the no cloning theorem in quantum mechanics. See time travel and faster-than-light for more discussion of these issues. References See also Faster-than-light No cloning theorem Tachyon External links Ansible from the Oxford English Dictionary Science Fiction Citations project Ansible at Technovelgy Ansible Home Page (fanzine) "Ansible Music (Music)

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Holographic_principle

The holographic principle is a property of quantum gravity theories which resolves the black hole information paradox within string theory. First proposed by Gerard 't Hooft, it was given a precise string-theory interpretation by Leonard Susskind. Susskind, L., "The Black Hole War - My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics", Little, Brown and Company (2008) The principle states that the description of a volume of space should be thought of as encoded on a boundary to the region, preferably a light-like boundary like a gravitational horizon. For a black hole, the principle states that the description of all the objects which will ever fall in is entirely contained in surface fluctuations of the event horizon. In a larger and more speculative sense, the theory suggests that the entire universe can be seen as a two-dimensional information structure "painted" on the cosmological horizon, so that the three dimensions we observe are only an effective description at low energies. Cosmological holography has not yet been made mathematically precise, partly because the cosmological horizon has a finite area and grows with time. Black Hole entropy An object with entropy is microscopically random, like a hot gas. A known configuration of classical fields has zero entropy - there is nothing random about electric and magnetic fields, or gravitational waves. Since black holes are exact solutions of Einstein's equations, they were thought not to have any entropy either. But Jacob Bekenstein noted that this leads to a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. If you throw a hot gas with entropy into a black hole, once it crosses the horizon, the entropy would disappear. The random properties of the gas would no longer be seen once the black hole had absorbed the gas and settled down. The second law can only be salvaged if black holes are in fact random objects, with an enormous entropy whose increase more than compensates for the entropy carried by the gas. Bekenstein argued that black holes are maximum entropy objects - that they have more entropy than anything else in the same volume. In a sphere of radius R, the entropy in a relativistic gas increases as the energy increases. The only limit is gravitational - when there is too much energy the gas collapses into a black hole. Bekenstein used this to put an upper bound on the entropy in a region of space, and the bound was proportional to the area of the region. He concluded that the black hole entropy is directly proportional to the area of the event horizon divided by the Planck area. Stephen Hawking had earlier shown that the total horizon area of a collection of black holes always increases with time. The horizon is a boundary defined by lightlike geodesics, it is those light rays that are just barely unable to escape. If neighboring geodesics start moving toward each other they eventually collide, at which point their extension is inside the black hole. So the geodesics are always moving apart, and the number of geodesics which generate the boundary, the area of the horizon, always increases. Hawking's result was called the second law of black hole thermodynamics, by analogy with the law of entropy increase, but at first, he did not take the analogy too seriously. Hawking knew that if the horizon area was an actual entropy, black holes would have to radiate. When heat is added to a thermal system, the change in entropy is the increase in mass-energy divided by temperature: If black holes have a finite entropy, they should also have a finite temperature. In particular, they would come to equilibrium with a thermal gas of photons. This means that black holes would not only absorb photons, they would have to emit them in the right amount to maintain detailed balance. Time independent solutions to field equations don't emit radiation, because a time independent background conserves energy. Based on this principle, Hawking set out to show that black holes do not radiate. But, to his surprise, a careful analysis convinced him that they do, and in just the right way to come to equilibrium with a gas at a finite temperature. Hawking's calculation fixed the constant of proportionality at 1/4, the entropy of a black hole is one quarter its horizon area in Planck units. The entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways an object can be configured microscopically, while leaving the macroscopic description unchanged. Black hole entropy is deeply puzzling — it says that the number of states of a black hole is proportional to the area of the horizon, not the volume in the interior. Black Hole information paradox Hawking's calculation suggested that the radiation which black holes emit is not related in any way to the matter that they absorb. The outgoing light rays start exactly at the edge of the black hole and spend a long time near the horizon, while the infalling matter only reaches the horizon much later. The infalling and outgoing mass/energy only interact when they cross. It is implausible that the outgoing state would be completely determined by some tiny residual scattering. Hawking interpreted this to mean that when black holes absorb some photons in a pure state described by a wavefunction, they reemit new photons in a thermal mixed state described by a density matrix. This would mean that quantum mechanics would have to be modified, because in quantum mechanics, states which are superpositions with probability amplitudes never become states which are probabilistic mixtures of different possibilities. except in the case of measurements, which the black hole should not be performing Troubled by this paradox, 't Hooft analyzed the emission of Hawking radiation in more detail. He noted that when Hawking radiation escapes, there is a way in which incoming particles can modify the outgoing particles. Their gravitational field would deform the horizon of the black hole, and the deformed horizon could produce different outgoing particles than the undeformed horizon. When a particle falls into a black hole, it is boosted relative to an outside observer, and its gravitational field assumes a universal form. 't Hooft showed that this field makes a logarithmic tent-pole shaped bump on the horizon of a black hole, and like a shadow, the bump is an alternate description of the particle's location and mass. For a four-dimensional spherical uncharged black hole, the deformation of the horizon is similar to the type of deformation which describes the emission and absorption of particles on a string-theory world sheet. Since the deformations on the surface are the only imprint of the incoming particle, and since these deformations would have to completely determine the outgoing particles, 't Hooft believed that the correct description of the black hole would be by some form of string theory. This idea was made more precise by Leonard Susskind, who had also been developing holography, largely independently. Susskind argued that the oscillation of the horizon of a black hole is a complete description of both the infalling and outgoing matter, because the world-sheet theory of string theory was just such a holographic description. While short strings have zero entropy, he could identify long highly excited string states with ordinary black holes. This was a deep advance because it revealed that strings have a classical interpretation in terms of black holes. This work showed that the black hole information paradox is resolved when quantum gravity is described in an unusual string-theoretic way. The space-time in quantum gravity should emerge as an effective description of the theory of oscillations of a lower dimensional black-hole horizon. This suggested that any black-hole with appropriate properties, not just strings, would serve as a basis for a description of string theory. In 1995, Susskind, along with collaborators Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, and Stephen Shenker presented a formulation of then new M-theory using a holographic description in terms of charged point black holes, the D0 branes of type IIA string theory. The Matrix theory they proposed was first suggested as a description of 2branes in 11 dimensional supergravity by Bernard de Wit, Jens Hoppe, and Hermann Nicolai. The later authors reinterpreted the same matrix models as a description of the dynamics of point black holes in particular limits. Holography allowed them to conclude that the dynamics of these black holes give a complete nonperturbative formulation of M-theory. In 1997, Juan Maldacena gave the first holographic descriptions of a higher dimensional object, the 3+1 dimensional type IIB membrane, which resolved a long-standing problem of finding a string description which describes a gauge theory. These developments simultaneously explained how string theory is related to quantum chromodynamics, and afterwards holography gained wide acceptance. Limit on information density Entropy, if considered as information (see information entropy), is measured in bits. The total quantity of bits is related to the total degrees of freedom of matter/energy. In a given volume, there is an upper limit to the density of information about the whereabouts of all the particles which compose matter in that volume, suggesting that matter itself cannot be subdivided infinitely many times and there must be an ultimate level of fundamental particles. As the degrees of freedom of a particle are the product of all the degrees of freedom of its sub-particles, were a particle to have infinite subdivisions into lower-level particles, then the degrees of freedom of the original particle must be infinite, violating the maximal limit of entropy density. The holographic principle thus implies that the subdivisions must stop at some level, and that the fundamental particle is a bit (1 or 0) of information. The most rigorous realization of the holographic principle is the AdS/CFT correspondence by Juan Maldacena. However, J.D. Brown and Marc Henneaux J.D.Brown and M.Henneaux 1986 "Central charges in the canonical realization of asymptotic symmetries: an example from three-dimensional gravity" Commun. Math. Phys. 104 207-226 rigorously proved already in 1986, that the asymptotic symmetry of 2+1 dimensional gravity gives rise to a Virasoro algebra, whose corresponding quantum theory is a 2 dimensional conformal field theory. High level summary The physical universe is widely seen to be composed of "matter" and "energy". In his 2003 article published in Scientific American magazine, Jacob Bekenstein summarized a current trend started by John Archibald Wheeler, which suggests scientists may "regard the physical world as made of information, with energy and matter as incidentals." Bekenstein quotes William Blake and questions whether the Holographic principle implies that seeing "the world in a grain of sand," could be more than "poetic license". Information in the Holographic Universe Unexpected connection Bekenstein's topical overview "A Tale of Two Entropies" describes potentially profound implications of Wheeler's trend in part by noting a previously unexpected connection between the world of information theory and classical physics. This connection was first described shortly after the seminal 1948 papers of American applied mathematician Claude E. Shannon introduced today's most widely used measure of information content, now known as Shannon entropy. As an objective measure of the quantity of information, Shannon entropy has been enormously useful, as the design of all modern communications and data storage devices, from cellular phones to modems to hard disk drives and DVDs, all rely on Shannon entropy. In thermodynamics (the branch of physics dealing with heat), entropy is popularly described as a measure of the "disorder" in a physical system of matter and energy. In 1877 Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann described it more precisely in terms of the number of distinct microscopic states that the particles composing a macroscopic "chunk" of matter could be in while still looking like the same macroscopic "chunk". As an example, for the air in a room, its thermodynamic entropy would equal the count of all the ways that the individual gas molecules could be distributed in the room, and all the ways they could be moving. Energy, matter, and information equivalence Shannon's efforts to find a way to quantify the information contained in, for example, an e-mail message, led him unexpectedly to a formula with the same form as Boltzmann's. Bekenstein summarizes that "Thermodynamic entropy and Shannon entropy are conceptually equivalent: the number of arrangements that are counted by Boltzmann entropy reflects the amount of Shannon information one would need to implement any particular arrangement..." of matter and energy. The only salient difference between the thermodynamic entropy of physics and the Shannon's entropy of information is in the units of measure; the former is expressed in units of energy divided by temperature, the latter in essentially dimensionless "bits" of information, and so the difference is merely a matter of convention. The holographic principle states that the entropy of ordinary mass (not just black holes) is also proportional to surface area and not volume; that volume itself is illusory and the universe is really a hologram which is isomorphic to the information "inscribed" on the surface of its boundary . Claimed experimental test at gravitational wave detectors The Fermilab physicist Craig Hogan claims that the holographic principle may imply quantum fluctuations in spatial position Measurement of quantum fluctuations in geometry that would lead to apparent background noise or holographic noise measurable at gravitational wave detectors, in particular GEO 600. Our World may be a Giant Hologram -- New Scientist See also AdS/CFT Bekenstein Bound Black hole Black hole information paradox Brane cosmology Margolus-Levitin theorem Physical cosmology String theory References Gerard 't Hooft's original 1993 paper General Citations External links UC Berkeley's Raphael Bousso gives an introductory lecture on the holographic principle - Video. Scientific American article on holographic principle by Jacob Bekenstein

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Berkeley,_California

Berkeley () is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in Northern California, in the United States. Its neighbors to the south are the cities of Oakland and Emeryville. To the north is the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington. The eastern city limits coincide with the county line (bordering Contra Costa County) which generally follows the ridge line of the Berkeley Hills. Berkeley is located in northern Alameda County. Berkeley is the site of the University of California, Berkeley, the oldest of the University of California system, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. It is also home to the Graduate Theological Union. The city is noted as one of the most politically liberal in the nation, with one study placing it as the third most liberal city in the United States. Bay Area Center for Voting Research: http://www.govpro.com/News/Article/31439/ History Early history The site of today's City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochen/Huichin band of the Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived . Remnants of their existence in the area include pits in various rock formations which were used to grind acorns from oak trees, and a shellmound now mostly leveled and covered up along the shoreline of San Francisco Bay at the mouth of Strawberry Creek. Other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during the remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek. The first people of European ancestry (most of whom were actually of mixed ancestry and born in America) arrived with the De Anza Expedition of 1776, which is today noted by signage on Interstate 80 which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley. The De Anza Expedition resulted in the establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay (the "Golden Gate") which is due west of Berkeley. Among the soldiers serving at the Presidio was Luís Peralta. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast extent of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay (the contra costa, "opposite shore") for a ranch, including that portion which now comprises the City of Berkeley. Luís Peralta named his holding "Rancho San Antonio". The primary activity of the ranch was the raising of cattle for meat and hides, but hunting and farming were also pursued. Eventually, he gave portions of his ranch to each of his four sons. Most of the portion that is now Berkeley was the domain of his son Domingo, the rest being held by his son Vicente. No artifact survives of the ranches of Domingo or Vicente, although their names have been preserved in the naming of Berkeley streets (Vicente, Domingo, and Peralta). However, the legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant. The Peraltas' Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty as a result of the Mexican War of Independence. However, the advent of U.S. sovereignty as a result of the Mexican–American War, and especially, the Gold Rush, saw the Peralta's lands quickly encroached on by squatters and diminished by dubious legal proceedings. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes. The rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants (See Kellersberger's Map). Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County. On March 25, 1853, Alameda County was created by division of Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of open land, farms and ranches, with a small though busy wharf by the bay. It was not yet "Berkeley", but merely the northern part of the "Oakland Township" subdivision of Alameda County. Late 1800s In 1866, the private College of California located in the city of Oakland sought out a new site. It settled on a location north of Oakland along the foot of the Contra Costa Hills (later called the Berkeley Hills) astride Strawberry Creek, at an elevation about above the bay, commanding a fantastic view of the Bay Area and the Pacific Ocean through the Golden Gate. According to the Centennial Record of the University of California, "In 1866…at Founders' Rock, a group of College of California men were watching two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. One of them, Frederick Billings, was reminded of the lines of the (Irish Anglican) Bishop Berkeley, 'westward the course of empire takes its way,' and suggested that the town and college site be named for the eighteenth-century Irish philosopher and poet." The College of California's "College Homestead Association" planned to raise funds for their new campus by selling off parcels of land adjacent to it. To this end, they laid out a plat and street grid which became the basis of Berkeley's modern street plan. Their plans fell far short of their desires, and collaboration was then begun with the State of California, culminating in 1868 with the creation of the public University of California. As construction began on the new site, more residences were constructed in the vicinity of the new campus. At the same time, a settlement of residences, saloons, and various industries was also growing up around the wharf on the bayshore called "Ocean View". A horsecar line was constructed out from Temescal in Oakland along what is today's Telegraph Avenue to the university campus. By the 1870s the Transcontinental Railroad had reached its terminus in Oakland. In 1876, a branch line of the Central Pacific Railroad, the Berkeley Branch Railroad, was laid from a junction with the mainline called Shellmound (now a part of Emeryville) into what is now downtown Berkeley. That same year, the mainline of the transcontinental railroad into Oakland was re-routed, putting the right-of-way along the bay shore through Ocean View. The first post office opened in 1872. In 1878, the people of Ocean View and the area around the University campus, together with the local farmers, incorporated themselves as the Town of Berkeley. The first elected trustees of the town were the slate of Dennis Kearney's Workingman's Party who were particularly favored in the working class area of the former Ocean View, now called "West Berkeley". The area near the university became known as "East Berkeley". The modern age came quickly to Berkeley, no doubt due to the influence of the university. Electric lights were in use by 1888. The telephone had already come to town. Electric streetcars soon replaced the horsecar. A silent film of one of these early streetcars in Berkeley can be seen at the Library of Congress website: "A Trip To Berkeley, California" Early 20th century Berkeley's slow growth ended abruptly with the Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906. The town and other parts of the East Bay somehow managed to escape serious damage from the massive temblor, and hundreds if not thousands of refugees flowed across the Bay. In 1908, a statewide referendum which proposed moving the California state capital to Berkeley was defeated by a margin of about 35,000 votes. A legacy of this ballot measure which survives today was the naming of streets in the vicinity of the proposed capitol grounds for the counties of California. In 1909, the citizens of Berkeley adopted a new charter, and the Town of Berkeley became the City of Berkeley. Rapid growth continued right up to the Crash of 1929. The Great Depression hit Berkeley hard, but not as hard as many other places in the U.S. thanks in part to the University. On September 17, 1923, a major fire swept down the hills toward the University campus and the downtown section. Some 640 structures burned before a late afternoon sea breeze stopped its progress, allowing firefighters to put it out. The next big growth occurred with the advent of World War II when large numbers of people moved into the Bay Area to work in the many war industries, such as the immense Kaiser Shipyards in nearby Richmond. One who moved out, but played a big role in the outcome of the War was U.C. Professor and Berkeley resident J. Robert Oppenheimer. During the war, an Army base, Camp Ashby, was temporarily sited in Berkeley. The 1950s and 1960s The postwar years saw moderate growth of the City as events on the U.C. campus began to build up to the recognizable activism of the sixties. In the 1950s, McCarthyism induced the University to demand a loyalty oath from its professors, many of whom refused to sign any such oath on the principle of freedom of thought. In 1960, a U.S. House committee (HUAC) came to San Francisco to investigate the influence of communists in the Bay Area. Their presence was met by protesters, including many from the University. Meanwhile, a number of U.C. students became active in support of the Civil Rights Movement. Finally, the University in 1964 provoked a massive student protest by banning the distribution of political literature on campus. This protest became known as the Free Speech Movement. As the Vietnam War rapidly escalated in the ensuing years, so did student activism at the University, particularly that organized by the Vietnam Day Committee. The late sixties would become the time period for which Berkeley is most identified, even today, in the memories of Americans who were alive at the time. In that period, Berkeley—especially Telegraph Avenue—became a focal point of the hippie movement, spilling over the Bay from San Francisco. Hippies were apolitical drop-outs, rather than students, but in the heady atmosphere of Berkeley in 1967–1969 there was considerable overlap of the hippie movement and the radical left. Perhaps the crowning event of the Berkeley Sixties scene was the conflict over a parcel of University property south of the contiguous campus site which came to be called "People's Park". People's Park with high-rise student housing in the background The battle over the disposition of People's Park resulted in a month-long occupation of Berkeley by the National Guard on orders of then-Governor Ronald Reagan. In the end, the park remained undeveloped, and remains so today. A spin-off "People's Park Annex" was established at the same time by activist citizens of Berkeley on a strip of land above the Bay Area Rapid Transit subway construction along Hearst Avenue northwest of the U.C. campus. The land had also been intended for development, but was peacefully turned over to the City and is now Ohlone Park. 1970s to present The 1970s saw a decline in the population of Berkeley, partly due to an exodus to the suburbs. Some moved because of the rising cost of living throughout the Bay Area, and others because of the decline and disappearance of many industries in West Berkeley. The period from the 1980s right up to the present has been marked by a continuation of rising costs, particularly with respect to housing, especially since the mid-1990s. In 2005–2007, sales of homes began slowing, but average home prices were, and as of 2008 remain, among the highest in the nation. Although many think of the 1960s as the heyday of liberalism in Berkeley, it remains one of the most overwhelmingly Democratic cities in the United States. The era of large public protest in Berkeley waned considerably with the end of the Vietnam War in 1974. One person who rose in prominence during the late sixties and into the seventies was Ron Dellums, nephew of C.L. Dellums, an African American labor leader. He first served on the Berkeley City Council, and later became a federal representative for the district which includes Berkeley. He was elected as Mayor of Oakland in 2006. Also in 2006, a tree sit-in began, protesting the construction of a new sports center annex to Memorial Stadium at the expense of a grove of oak trees on the UC campus. The protest ended in September 2008 after many months of negotiations with the tree sitters. In 2007–08, demonstrations against a Marine Corps recruiting office in downtown Berkeley were ongoing, receiving special media attention after the City Council proposed to draft an anti-recruiting letter to the Marines. (See Berkeley Marine Corps Recruiting Center controversy) Geography Berkeley is located at (37.871775, −122.274603). View of Berkeley and the San Francisco Bay from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. View of Berkeley and the San Francisco Bay at nightfall. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (40.9%) is water, most of it part of San Francisco Bay. Berkeley borders the cities of Albany, Oakland, and Emeryville and Contra Costa County including unincorporated Kensington as well as San Francisco Bay. Berkeley lies within telephone area code 510 (historically, part of 415), and the postal ZIP codes are 94701 through 94710, 94712, and 94720 for the University of California campus. Geology Most of Berkeley lies on a rolling sedimentary plain, rising gently from sea level to the base of the Berkeley Hills. From there, the land rises dramatically. The highest peak along the ridge line above Berkeley is Grizzly Peak, elevation . A number of small creeks run from the hills to the Bay through Berkeley: Codornices, Schoolhouse, Marin and Strawberry are the principal streams. Most of these are largely culverted once they reach the plain west of the hills. The Berkeley Hills are part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, and run in a northwest–southeast alignment. In Berkeley, the hills consist mainly of a soft, crumbly rock with outcroppings of harder material of old (and extinct) volcanic origin. These rhyolite formations can be seen in several city parks and in the yards of a number of private residences. One such park is Indian Rock Park in the northeastern part of Berkeley near the Arlington/Marin Circle. Berkeley is traversed by the Hayward Fault, a major branch of the San Andreas Fault to the west. No large earthquake has occurred on the Hayward Fault near Berkeley in historic times (except possibly in 1836), but seismologists warn about the geologic record of large temblors several times in the deeper past, and their current assessment is that a quake of 6.5 or greater is imminent, sometime within the next 30 years. The view from Indian Rock The 1868 Hayward earthquake did occur on the southern segment of the Hayward Fault in the vicinity of today's city of Hayward (hence, how the fault got its name). This quake destroyed the county seat of Alameda County then located in San Leandro and it was subsequently moved to Oakland. It was strongly felt in San Francisco, causing major damage, and experienced by one Samuel Clemens (also known as Mark Twain). It was regarded as the "Great San Francisco Quake" prior to 1906. The quake produced a furrow in the ground along the fault line in Berkeley, across the grounds of the new State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind then under construction which was noted by one early University of California professor. Although no significant damage was reported to most of the few buildings which then existed in Berkeley, the 1868 quake did destroy the vulnerable adobe home of Domingo Peralta in north Berkeley. Lawson, A. C. (ed.), “The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906”, 1908, Reprinted 1969 by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. This is a comprehensive report on the 1906 earthquake, published by the State Earthquake Investigation Commission, and comprises two volumes and an atlas. It contains a discussion of the 1868 Hayward Fault earthquake and its effects, and includes a number of photos taken by Lawson himself of damage in Berkeley caused by the 1906 quake. The report is available from the USGS here. Today, the Hayward Fault can be seen "creeping" at various locations in Berkeley, although since it cuts across the base of the hills, this creep is typically concealed by and confused with slide activity. Some of this slide activity however is itself the result of the Hayward Fault's slow movement. Springs and sharp perpendicular jogs of streams are another sign of the fault's location and movement. One notorious segment of the Hayward Fault runs lengthwise right down the middle of Memorial Stadium at the mouth of Strawberry Canyon on the campus of the University of California. Photos and measurements show the movement of the fault through the stadium. Climate Berkeley has a Mediterranean climate, with dry summers and wet winters as is typical in the Mediterranean region, but with a cool modification in summer thanks to upwelling ocean currents along the California coast, which help to produce cool and foggy nights and mornings. Berkeley's position directly opposite the Golden Gate ensures that typical eastward fog movement will blanket the city more often than its southerly or northerly neighbors. Jane Houston Jones. San Francisco Weather – Weird and Wacky. SJAA Ephemeris July 2001. Winter is punctuated with rainstorms of varying ferocity and duration, but also produces stretches of bright sunny days and clear cold nights. It does not normally snow, though occasionally the hilltops get a dusting. Spring and fall are transitional and intermediate, with some rainfall and variable temperature. Summer typically brings night and morning low clouds or fog, followed by sunny, warm days. The warmest and driest months are typically June through September, with the highest temperatures occurring in September. Mid-summer (July–August) is often a bit cooler due to the sea breezes and fog which are normally most strongly developed then. The National Weather Service cooperative station's records since 1919 show that January, the coldest month, has an average maximum of and an average minimum of . September, the warmest month, has an average maximum of and an average minimum of . Annually, there are an average of 2.9 days with highs of or higher and an average of 1.0 days with lows of or lower. The highest temperature recorded was on June 15, 2000, and the lowest temperature recorded was on January 21, 1937, and December 9, 1972. Average annual precipitation is . The wettest year was 1983 with and the dryest year was 1929 with . The wettest month on record was December 1955 with . No measurable rainfall has been common during the summer months. The most rainfall in 24 hours was on January 4, 1982. Although snowfall is rare in the lowlands, averaging only each year, fell on January 29, 1922. Snow has generally fallen every several years on the higher peaks of the Berkeley Hills. Western Regional Climate Center Web site In the late spring and early fall, strong offshore winds of sinking air typically develop, bringing heat and dryness to the area. In the spring, this is not usually a problem as vegetation is still moist from winter rains, but extreme dryness prevails by the fall, creating a danger of wildfires. In September 1923 a major fire swept through the neighborhoods north of the University campus, stopping just short of downtown. (See 1923 Berkeley fire). On October 20, 1991, gusty, hot winds fanned a conflagration along the Berkeley–Oakland border, killing 25 people and injuring 150, as well as destroying 2,449 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units. (See 1991 Oakland firestorm) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg high temp. °F (°C) 56(13) 59(15) 61(16) 64(18) 67(19) 70(21) 70(21) 71(22) 72(22) 70(21) 62(17) 57(14) Avg low temp. °F (°C) 44(7) 46(8) 47(8) 49(9) 51(11) 54(12) 55(13) 56(13) 56(13) 53(12) 48(9) 43(7) Rainfall in. (cm) 5.1(13) 4.8(12) 4.1(10) 1.6(4) 0.6(2) 0.1(0.25) 0.1(0.25) 0.1(0.25) 0.4(1) 1.4(3) 3.6(9) 3.5(9)Table 1: Berkeley Climate Data Monthly Averages for Berkeley, Weather.com, Accessed September 15, 2006. Demographics Population 1890 5,101 1900 13,214 1910 40,434 1920 56,036 1930 82,109 1940 85,547 1950 113,805 1960 111,268 1970 116,716 1980 103,328 1990 102,724 2000 102,743† 2005 100,744‡ † 2000 Census Population, City of Berkeley. ‡ City Data estimate (2005) Statistics of Berkeley, California, City Data.com Street fair on Telegraph Avenue As of the census of 2000, there were 102,743 people, 44,955 households, and 18,656 families residing in the city. The population density was 9,823.3 census bureau quick facts: http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/0606000.html people per square mile (3,792.5/km²), one of the highest in California. There were 46,875 housing units at an average density of 4,481.8/sq mi (1,730.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 59.17% White, 16.39% Asian, 13.63% Black or African American, 0.45% Native American, 0.14% Pacific Islander, 4.64% from other races, and 5.57% from two or more races. 9.73% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Non-Hispanic whites accounted for 55.18% of the city's population. 7.3% were of German, 7.2% English and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000. 73.1% spoke English, 8.3% Spanish, 4.5% Chinese or Mandarin, 1.6% French, 1.2% Korean, 1.1% Japanese and 1.0% German as their first language. There were 44,955 households out of which 17.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.9% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 58.5% were non-families and/or unmarried couples. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.84. In the city the population was spread out with 14.1% under the age of 18, 21.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.1 males. According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $57,189, and the median income for a family was $93,297. Males had a median income of $50,789 versus $40,623 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,477. About 8.3% of families and 20.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.4% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over. Transportation Berkeley is served by Amtrak (Capitol Corridor), AC Transit, BART (Downtown Berkeley Station, North Berkeley, and Ashby Station) and bus shuttles operated by major employers including UC Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The Eastshore Freeway (Interstate 80 and Interstate 580) runs along the bay shoreline. Each day there is an influx of thousands of cars into the city by commuting UC faculty, staff and students, making parking for more than a few hours an expensive proposition. Berkeley has one of the highest rates of bicycle and pedestrian commuting in the nation. Berkeley is the safest city of its size in California for pedestrians and cyclists, considering the number of injuries per pedestrian and cyclist, rather than per capita. Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety in Berkeley, City of Berkeley. Berkeley has modified its original grid roadway structure through use of diverters and barriers, moving most traffic out of neighborhoods and onto arterial streets (visitors often find this confusing, because the diverters are not shown on all maps). Berkeley maintains a separate grid of arterial streets for bicycles, called Bicycle Boulevards, with bike lanes and lower amounts of car traffic than the major streets to which they often run parallel. Berkeley hosts a car sharing network run by City CarShare. Rather than owning (and parking) their own cars, members share a group of cars parked nearby. Web- and telephone-based reservation systems keep track of hours and charges. Several "pods" (points of departure where cars are kept) exist throughout the city, in several downtown locations, at the Ashby and North Berkeley BART stations, and at various other locations in Berkeley (and other cities in the region). Using alternative transportation is encouraged. Berkeley has had recurring problems with parking meters. In 1999, over 2,400 Berkeley meters were jammed, smashed, or sawed apart “Chicanery tops meters in Berkeley”, San Francisco Chronicle. . Starting in 2005 and continuing into 2006, Berkeley began to phase out mechanical meters in favor of more centralized electronic meters. Transportation past The first commuter service to San Francisco was provided by the Central Pacific's Berkeley Branch Railroad, a standard gauge steam railroad which terminated in downtown Berkeley, and connected in Emeryville (at a locale then known as "Shellmound") with trains to the Oakland ferry pier as well as with the Central Pacific main line starting in 1876. The Berkeley Branch line was extended from Shattuck and University to Vine Street ("Berryman's Station") in 1878. Starting in 1882, Berkeley trains ran directly to the Oakland Pier. Berkeley Gazette, January22, 1903 In the 1880s, Southern Pacific assumed operations of the Berkeley Branch. In 1911, Southern Pacific electrified this line and the several others it constructed in Berkeley, creating its East Bay Electric Lines division. The huge and heavy cars specially built for these lines came to be called the "Red Trains" or the "Big Red Cars". The Shattuck line was extended and connected with two other Berkeley lines (the Ninth Street Line and the California Street line) at Solano and Colusa (the "Colusa Wye"). It was at this time that the Northbrae Tunnel and the Rose Street Undercrossing were constructed, both of which still exist (the Rose Street Undercrossing is not accessible to the public, being situated between what is now two backyards). The last Red Trains ran in July, 1941. The first electric rail service in Berkeley was provided by several small streetcar companies starting in 1891. Most of these were eventually bought up by the Key System of Francis "Borax" Smith who added lines and improved equipment. The Key System's streetcars were operated by its East Bay Street Railways division. Principal lines in Berkeley ran on Euclid, The Arlington, College, Telegraph, Shattuck, San Pablo, University, and Grove (today's Martin Luther King Jr. Way). The last streetcars ran in 1948, replaced by buses. The first electric commuter interurban-type trains to San Francisco from Berkeley were put in operation by the Key System in 1903, several years before the Southern Pacific electrified its steam commuter lines. Like the SP, Key trains ran to a pier serviced by the Key's own fleet of ferryboats which also docked at the Ferry Building in San Francisco. After the Bay Bridge was built, the Key trains ran to the Transbay Terminal in San Francisco, sharing tracks on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge with the SP's red trains and the Sacramento Northern Railroad. It was at this time that the Key trains acquired their letter designations, which were later preserved by Key's public successor, AC Transit. Today's F bus is the successor of the F train. Likewise, the E, G and the H. Before the Bridge, these lines were simply the Shattuck Avenue Line, the Claremont Line, the Westbrae Line, and the Sacramento Street Line, respectively. After the Southern Pacific abandoned transbay service in 1941, the Key System acquired the rights to use its tracks and catenary on Shattuck north of Ward Street and through the Northbrae Tunnel to The Alameda for the F-train. The SP tracks along Monterey Avenue as far as Colusa had been acquired by the Key System in 1933 for the H-train, but were abandoned in 1941. The Key System trains stopped running in April 1958. In 1963, the Northbrae Tunnel was opened to auto traffic. Places Major streets Shattuck Avenue passes through several neighborhoods, including the downtown business district in Berkeley. It is named for Francis K. Shattuck, one of Berkeley's earliest influential citizens. University Avenue runs from Berkeley's bayshore to the University of California campus. Ashby Avenue (Highway 13), which also runs from Berkeley's bayshore to the hills, connects with the Warren Freeway and Highway 24 leading to the Caldecott Tunnel, which is named for a former mayor of Berkeley. San Pablo Avenue (Highway 123) runs north–south through West Berkeley, connecting Emeryville to the south and Albany to the north. Telegraph Avenue, which runs north/south from the University Campus to Oakland, and was historically the site of much of the "hippie" presence in Berkeley. Martin Luther King Jr. Way, which until the early 1970s was called Grove St, runs north/south a few blocks west of Shattuck Avenue, connects Oakland and the freeways to the south with the neighborhoods and other communities to the north. Solano Avenue, a major street for shopping and restaurants, runs east/west near the north end of Berkeley, continuing into Albany. Freeways The Eastshore Freeway (I-80 & I-580) runs along Berkeley's bayshore with exits at Ashby Avenue, University Avenue and Gilman Street. Bicycle and pedestrian paths Ohlone Greenway San Francisco Bay Trail Berkeley I-80 bridge – opened in 2002, an arch-suspension bridge spanning Interstate 80, for bicycles and pedestrians only, giving access from the city at the foot of Addison Street to the San Francisco Bay Trail, the Eastshore State Park and the Berkeley Marina. Berkeley's Network of Historic Pathways – Berkeley has a network of historic pathways that link the winding neighborhoods found in the hills and offer panoramic lookouts over the East Bay. A complete guide to the pathways may be found at Berkeley Path Wanderers Association Maps of Berkeley's network of bicycle routes can be accessed from the City of Berkeley web site: Bicycling and Walking Maps and Guides Neighborhoods Berkeley has a number of distinct neighborhoods. Surrounding the University of California campus are the most densely populated parts of the city. West of the campus is Downtown Berkeley, the city's traditional commercial core; home of the civic center, the city's only public high school, the busiest BART station in Berkeley, as well as a major transfer point for AC Transit buses. South of the campus is the Southside neighborhood, mainly a student ghetto, where much of the university's student housing is located. The busiest stretch of Telegraph Avenue is in this neighborhood. North of the campus is the quieter Northside neighborhood, the location of the Graduate Theological Union. Further from the university campus, the influence of the University quickly becomes less visible. Most of Berkeley's neighborhoods are primarily made up of detached houses, often with separate in-law units in the rear, although larger apartment buildings are also common in many neighborhoods. Commercial activities are concentrated along the major avenues and at important intersections. In the southeastern corner of the city is the Claremont District, home to the Claremont Hotel; and the Elmwood District, with a small shopping area on College Avenue. West of Elmwood is South Berkeley, known for its weekend flea market at the Ashby BART station. West of (and including) San Pablo Avenue, a major commercial corridor, is West Berkeley, the historic commercial center of the city, and the former unincorporated town of Ocean View. West Berkeley contains the remnants of Berkeley's industrial area, much of which has been replaced by retail and office uses, as well as residential live/work loft space, with the decline of manufacturing in the United States. The areas of South and West Berkeley are in the midst of redevelopment. Some residents have opposed redevelopment in this area. Along the shoreline of San Francisco Bay at the foot of University Avenue is the Berkeley Marina. Nearby is Berkeley's Aquatic Park, featuring an artificial linear lagoon of San Francisco Bay. North of Downtown is the North Berkeley neighborhood, which has been nicknamed the "Gourmet Ghetto" because of the concentration of well-known restaurants and other food-related businesses. Further north are Northbrae, a master-planned subdivision from the early 20th century, and Thousand Oaks. Above these last three neighborhoods, in the northeastern part of Berkeley, are the Berkeley Hills. The neighborhoods of the Berkeley Hills such as Cragmont and La Loma Park are notable for their dramatic views, winding streets, and numerous public stairways and paths. Points of interest The Campanile University of California, Berkeley Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive Berkeley Marina Berkeley History Center (1931 Center St.) Berkeley Public Library (Shattuck Avenue at Kittridge Street) Berkeley Repertory Theatre Berkeley Rose Garden Cloyne Court Hotel, a member of the University Students' Cooperative Association Hearst Greek Theatre (home of the annual Berkeley Jazz Festival) Judah L. Magnes Museum Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Lawrence Hall of Science Regional Parks Botanic Garden Tilden Regional Park University of California Botanical Garden Other notable places include: The Campanile (Sather Tower) in the University of California, Berkeley campus. Telegraph Avenue and People's Park, both known as centers of the counterculture of the 1960s. Chez Panisse - founded in 1971 and the birthplace of California cuisine. Cody's Books - founded in 1956 and closed in 2008, Cody's was "a pioneer in bookselling, bringing the paperback revolution to Berkeley, fighting censorship, and providing a safe harbor from teargas for student activists during the Free Speech Movement and throughout the 1960s and 70s." Paperback Dreams The Freight and Salvage - founded in 1968, this is a nonprofit musical performance venue that primarily hosts folk music and world music acts The Cheese Board - founded in 1967/71, this business comprises two collectively owned and operated businesses. Whole Earth Access - founded in 1969 and closed in 1998, this was initially established as a countercultural retail store inspired by Stewart Brand's Whole Earth Catalog. Victor F. Zonana. "One of the Fastest-Growing Chains in U.S.: Whole Earth Access Stores are Bargain Basement for Yuppies." Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1986: E2 The Claremont Resort - founded in 1906, this historic site was originally the Claremont Hotel. (The Claremont claims a Berkeley mailing address even though the property is located almost entirely with the Oakland city limits.) 924 Gilman - founded in 1986,this is an all-ages, non-profit, collectively organized music club where Berkeley natives Operation Ivy, Pansy Division, Green Day, Rancid, Tiger Army and AFI started out. Ashkenaz Music and Dance Community Center - founded in 1973 in response to "the San Francisco Bay Area's strong interest in international folk dance." It is also a city-designated historical landmark. Moe's Books - Founded in 1959 by Moe Moskowitz, one of the first second-hand bookstores to assign real value to paperback books. Moe died in 1997 and remains a Berkeley icon. http://www.moesbooks.com/moes/moe/about_the_store.htm The Other Change of Hobbit - A Science Fiction and Fantasy bookstore first opened in 1977. Caffe Mediterraneum - Birthplace of the caffe latte in 1959 - invented by owner Lino Meiorin. Allen Ginsberg wrote part of Howl at "Caffe Med". Lifehack photos and posts of Caffe Mediterraneum Landmarks and Historic Districts 165 buildings in Berkeley are designated as local landmarks or local structures of merit. Of these, 49 are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, including: Berkeley High School (the city's only public high school) and the Berkeley Community Theatre which is on its campus. Berkeley High Berkeley Women’s City Club, now Berkeley City Club – Julia Morgan (1929–30) First Church of Christ, Scientist – Bernard Maybeck (1910) Studio Building – ? (1905) St. John’s Presbyterian Church, now Julia Morgan Center for the Arts – Julia Morgan (1908, 1910) William R. Thorsen House, now Sigma Phi Society Chapter House – Charles Sumner Greene & Henry Mather Greene (1908–10) Historic Districts listed in the National Register of Historic Places: Berkeley Historic Civic Center District – Roughly bounded by McKinney Avenue, Addison Street, Shattuck Avenue, and Kittredge Street (, 7 buildings, 1 structure; added 1998). George C. Edwards Stadium – Located at intersection of Bancroft Way and Fulton Street on University of California, Berkeley campus (, 3 buildings, 4 structures, 3 objects; added 1993). Panoramic Hill, also known as University Terrace – Located at Panoramic Way, Canyon Road, Mosswood Road, Orchard Lane, and Arden Road (, 61 buildings, 16 structures, 1 object; added 2005). Site of the Clark Kerr Campus, UC Berkeley - until 1980, this location housed the State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, also known as The California Schools for the Deaf and Blind – Bounded by Dwight Way, the City line, Derby Street, and Warring Street (, 20 buildings; added 1982). The school was closed in 1980 and the Clark Kerr Campus was opened in 1986. See List of Berkeley Landmarks, Structures of Merit, and Historic Districts Arts and culture Annual events Jewish Music Festival website – March Cal Day University of California, Berkeley Open House website – April Berkeley Arts Festival website – April and May Himalayan Fair website – May Berkeley Kite Festival website – late July weekend How Berkeley Can You Be!? Parade and Festival website – September Solano Stroll – September Schools The first public school in Berkeley was the Ocean View School, now the site of the Berkeley Adult School located at Virginia Street and San Pablo Avenue. The public schools today are administered by the Berkeley Unified School District. In the 1960s, Berkeley was one of the earliest US cities to voluntarily desegregate, utilizing a system of buses, still in use. The city has only one public high school, Berkeley High School (BHS), established in 1880. The Berkeley High campus was designated a historic district by the National Register of Historic Places on January 7, 2008. Berkeley Daily Planet, January 22–24, 2008 Saint Mary's College High School, a Catholic school, has its street address in Berkeley, although most of the grounds and buildings are actually in neighboring Albany. Berkeley has eleven elementary schools and three middle schools. There is also the Bay Area Technology school, the only school in the whole Bay Area to offer a technology- and science-based curriculum, with major connections to leading universities. In addition, Berkeley City College is a community college in the Peralta Community College District. Notable People List of people from Berkeley, California List of Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) people Mayors City of Berkeley Mayor's Office Presidents, Town Board of Trustees (1878–1909) Abel Whitton (Workingman's Party) 1878–1881 A. McKinstry 1881–1883 W.C. Wright (Republican) 1883–1885 J.B. Henley 1885–1887 Henry L. Whitney 1887–1889 Samuel Heywood / Joseph L. Scotchler (Republican) 1889–1891 Reuben Rickard (Republican) 1891–1893 Byron E. Underwood / Martin J. Acton / Charles S. Preble 1893–1895 Reuben Rickard (Republican) 1895 John W. Richards 1895–1899 William H. Marston 1899–1903 Thomas Rickard (Republican) 1903–1909 Mayors (Mr.) Beverly L. Hodghead (Democrat) 1909–1911 Jackson Stitt Wilson (Socialist) 1911–1913 Charles D. Heywood (Republican) 1913–1915 Samuel C. Irving (Democrat) 1915–1919 Louis Bartlett (Republican) 1919–1923 Frank D. Stringham (Republican) 1923–1927 Michael B. Driver (Republican) 1927–1930 Thomas E. Caldecott (Republican) 1930–1932 Edward N. Ament (Republican) 1932–1939 Frank S. Gaines (Republican) 1939–1943 Fitch Robertson (Republican) 1943–1946 Carrie L. Hoyt (Republican) 1947 (January–April) Laurance L. Cross (Democrat) 1947–1955 Claude B. Hutchison (Republican) 1955–1963 Wallace Johnson (Republican) 1963–1971 Warren Widener (Democrat) 1971–1979 Gus Newport, (Berkeley Citizens [sic] Action) 1979–1986 Loni Hancock, (Berkeley Citizens Action) 1986–1994 Jeffrey Shattuck Leiter, 1994 (March–December) Shirley Dean, (Berkeley Democrat Club) 1994–2002 Tom Bates, 2002– Sister cities Berkeley has thirteen sister cities: Sister cities designated by Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI). Retrieved on May 3, 2007. Gao, Mali Dmitrov, Russia Blackfeet Nation, California, United States Jena, Germany Ulan-Ude, Buryatia, Russia Yurok Tribe, California, United States Uma-Bawang, Malaysia Sakai, Osaka, Japan San Antonio Los Ranchos, El Salvador Oukasie, South Africa Yondó, Colombia Palma Soriano, Cuba León, Nicaragua References External links Official Government Website Berkeley Landmarks Berkeley Historical Society The Daily Californian Website Berkeley Daily Planet Website People's Park Oakland Berkeley and Eastern – The train history of Berkeley and the East Bay Interactive map of Berkeley's Gourmet Ghetto neighborhood: MondoMap Berkeley Wiki

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Hanseatic_League

Northern Europe in 1400, showing the extent of the Hansa. Lübeck - The "Queen of the Hanse" The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly along the coast of Northern Europe, from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland, during the Late Middle Ages and early modern period (c.13th–17th centuries). The Hanseatic cities had their own law system and furnished their own protection and mutual aid. History Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the rebuilding of the North German town of Lübeck in 1159 by Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony, after Henry had captured the area from Count Adolf II of Holstein. Exploratory trading adventures, raids and piracy had happened earlier throughout the Baltic (see Vikings) — the sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod, for example — but the scale of international trade economy in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next (i.e. 13th) century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the seaborne trade that linked the areas around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The 15th century saw the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. Foundation Hanseatic League's formation in Hamburg, Germany (circa 1241) Lübeck became a base for merchants from Saxony and Westphalia to spread east and north. Well before the term Hanse appeared in a document (1267), merchants in a given city began to form guilds or Hansa with the intention of trading with towns overseas, especially in the less-developed eastern Baltic area, a source of timber, wax, amber, resins, s, even rye and wheat brought down on barges from the hinterland to port markets. The towns furnished their own protection armies and each guild had to furnish a number of members into service, when needed. The trade ships often had to be used to carry soldiers and their arms. The Hanseatic cities came to each other's aid. Visby functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hansa. For 100 years the Germans sailed under the Gotlandic flag to Novgorod. Sailing east, Visby merchants established a branch at Novgorod. To begin with the Germans used the Gotlandic Gutagard. With the influx of too many merchants the Gotlanders arranged their own trading stations for the German Petershof further up from the river — see a translation of the grant Medieval Sourcebook: Privileges Granted to German Merchants at Novgorod, 1229 of privileges to merchants in 1229. Before the foundation of the Hanseatic league in 1358 the word Hanse did not occur in the Baltic. The Gotlanders used the word varjag. Hansa societies worked to remove restrictions to trade for their members. For example, the merchants of the Cologne Hansa convinced Henry II of England to free them (1157) from all tolls at London and allowed them to trade at fairs throughout England. The "Queen of the Hansa", Lübeck, where traders trans-shipped goods between the North Sea and the Baltic, gained the Imperial privilege of becoming an Imperial city in 1227, the only such city east of the River Elbe. Lübeck, which had access to the Baltic and North Sea fishing grounds, formed an alliance in 1241 with Hamburg, another trading city, which controlled access to salt-trade routes from Lüneburg. The allied cities gained control over most of the salt-fish trade, especially the Scania Market; and Cologne joined them in the Diet of 1260. In 1266 Henry III of England granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, and the Cologne Hansa joined them in 1282 to form the most powerful Hanseatic colony in London. Much of the drive for this co-operation came from the fragmented nature of existing territorial government, which failed to provide security for trade. Over the next 50 years the Hansa itself emerged with formal agreements for confederation and co-operation covering the west and east trade routes. The chief city and linchpin remained Lübeck; with the first general Diet of the Hansa held there in 1356, the Hanseatic League acquired an official structure and could date its official founding. Expansion Main trading routes of the Hanseatic League. Lübeck's location on the Baltic provided access for trade with Scandinavia and Kiev Rus, putting it in direct competition with the Scandinavians who had previously controlled most of the Baltic trade routes. A treaty with the Visby Hansa put an end to competition: through this treaty the Lübeck merchants also gained access to the inland Russian port of Novgorod, where they built a trading post or Kontor. Other such alliances formed throughout the Holy Roman Empire. The League never became a closely-managed formal organisation. Assemblies of the Hanseatic towns met irregularly in Lübeck for a Hansetag (‘Hanseatic Diet’), from 1356 onwards, but many towns chose not to send representatives and decisions were not binding on individual cities. Over time, the network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities. Fernand Braudel: The Perspective of the World. Vol III of Civilisation and Capitalism 1984 The league succeeded in establishing additional Kontors in Bruges (Flanders), Bergen (Norway), and London (England). These trading posts became significant enclaves. The London Kontor, established in 1320, stood west of London Bridge near Upper Thames Street. (Cannon Street station occupies the site .) It grew significantly over time into a walled community with its own warehouses, weighhouse, church, offices and houses, reflecting the importance and scale of the activity carried on. The first reference to it as the Steelyard (der Stahlhof) occurs in 1422. In addition to the major Kontors, individual Hanseatic ports had a representative merchant and warehouse. In England this happened in Boston, Bristol, Bishop's Lynn (now King's Lynn), which features the sole remaining Hanseatic warehouse in England, Hull, Ipswich, Norwich, Yarmouth (now Great Yarmouth), and York. Town Hall of Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia). The League primarily traded timber, furs, resin (or tar), flax, honey, wheat, and rye from the east to Flanders and England with cloth (and, increasingly, manufactured goods) going in the other direction. Metal ore (principally copper and iron) and herring came southwards from Sweden. German colonists under strict Hansa supervision built numerous Hansa cities on and near the east Baltic coast, such as Danzig (Gdańsk), Elbing (Elbląg), Thorn (Toruń), Reval (Tallinn), Riga, and Dorpat (Tartu), some of which still retain many Hansa buildings and bear the style of their Hanseatic days. Most were founded under Lübeck law (Lübisches Recht), which provided that they had to appeal in all legal matters to Lübeck's city council. The Livonian Confederation incorporated parts of modern-day Estonia and Latvia and had its own Hanseatic parliament (diet); all of its major towns became members of the Hanseatic League. The dominant language of trade was Middle Low German, a dialect with significant impact for countries involved in the trade, particularly the larger Scandinavian languages. Zenith Georg Giese from Danzig, 34 year old German Hanseatic merchant at the Steelyard, painted in London by Hans Holbein The old and rich port city of Danzig (Gdańsk). View of the Krantor (crane gate) Hanseatic museum in Bergen (Norway) The League had a fluid structure, but its members shared some characteristics. First, most of the Hansa cities either started as independent cities or gained independence through the collective bargaining power of the League, such independence remained limited, however. The Hanseatic free imperial cities owed allegiance directly to the Holy Roman Emperor, without any intermediate tie to the local nobility. Another similarity involved the cities' strategic locations along trade routes. In fact, at the height of its power in the late 1300s, the merchants of the Hanseatic League succeeded in using their economic clout and sometimes their military might - trade routes needed protecting and the League's ships sailed well-armed - to influence imperial policy. The League also wielded power abroad. Between 1361 and 1370, the League waged war against Denmark. Initially unsuccessful, Hanseatic towns in 1368 allied in the Confederation of Cologne, sacked Copenhagen and Helsingborg, and forced King Valdemar IV of Denmark and his son-in-law Hakon VI of Norway to grant the League 15 percent of the profits from Danish trade in the subsequent peace-treaty of Stralsund in 1370, thus gaining an effective trade and political monopoly in Scandinavia. This favourable treaty was the high-water mark of Hanseatic power. The commercial privileges were renewed in the Treaty of Vordingborg, 1435. Phillip Pulsiano, Kirsten Wolf, Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1993, p.265, ISBN 0824047877 Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001, p.265, ISBN 0395652375 Angus MacKay, David Ditchburn, Atlas of Medieval Europe, Routledge, 1997, p.171, ISBN 0415019230 The Hansa also waged a vigorous campaign against pirates. Between 1392 and 1440, maritime trade of the League faced danger from raids of the Victual Brothers and their descendants, privateers hired in 1392 by Albert of Mecklenburg against the Queen Margaret I of Denmark. In the Dutch-Hanseatic War (1438—41), the merchants of Amsterdam sought and eventually won free access to the Baltic and broke the Hansa monopoly. As an essential part of protecting their investment in trade and ships, the League trained pilots and erected lighthouses. Exclusive trade routes often came at a high price. Most foreign cities confined the Hansa traders to certain trading areas and to their own trading posts. They could seldom, if ever, interact with the local inhabitants, except in the matter of actual negotiation. Moreover, many people, merchant and noble alike, envied the power of the League. For example, in London the local merchants exerted continuing pressure for the revocation of the privileges of the League. The refusal of the Hansa to offer reciprocal arrangements to their English counterparts exacerbated the tension. King Edward IV of England reconfirmed the league's privileges in the Treaty of Utrecht (1474) despite this hostility, in part thanks to the significant financial contribution the League made to the Yorkist side during The Wars of the Roses. A century later, in 1597, Queen Elizabeth I of England expelled the League from London and the Steelyard closed the following year. The very existence of the League and its privileges and monopolies created economic and social tensions that often crept over into rivalry between League members. Rise of rival powers The economic crises of the late 14th century did not spare the Hansa. Nevertheless, its eventual rivals emerged in the form of the territorial states, whether new or revived, and not just in the west: Poland triumphed over the Teutonic Knights in 1466; Ivan III of Russia ended the entrepreneurial independence of Novgorod in 1478. New vehicles of credit imported from Italy outpaced the Hansa economy, in which silver coin changed hands rather than bills of exchange. In the 14th century, tensions between Prussian region and the "Wendish" cities (Lübeck and eastern neighbours) rose. Lübeck was dependent on its role as centre of the Hansa, being on the shore of the sea without a major river. Lübeck was on the entrance of the land route to Hamburg, but this land route could be circumvented by the sea travel around Denmark and through the Sound. Prussia's main interest, on the other hand, was primarily the export of bulk products like grain and timber, which were very important for England, the Low Countries, and later on also for Spain and Italy. In 1454, year of Elisabeth Habsburg's marriage to the Jagiellonian king the towns of the Prussian Confederation rose against the dominance of the Teutonic Order and asked for help from King Casimir IV of Poland. Danzig, Thorn, and Elbing came under the protection of the Kingdom of Poland, (1466 - 1569 referred to as Royal Prussia) by the Second Peace of Thorn (1466). Polish-Lithuania in turn was heavily supported by the Holy Roman Empire through family connections and by military assistance under the Habsburgs. Kraków, then the capital of Poland, was also a Hansa city with German burghers around 1500. The lack of customs borders on the River Vistula after 1466 helped to gradually increase Polish grain export, transported to the sea down the Vistula, from 10,000 t per year in the late 15th century to over 200,000 t in the 17th century. Norman Davies God's playground. A history of Poland, Columbia University Press, 1982 The Hansa-dominated maritime grain trade made Poland one of the main areas of its activity, helping Danzig to become the Hansa's largest city due to its control of Polish grain exports. The member cities took responsibility for their own protecting. Polish attempts at subjugating Danzig had to be fought off repeatedly. In 1567 a Hanseatic League Agreement reconfirms previous obligations and rights of League members, such as common protection and defense against enemies. It begins Wir Burgermeister und Rethe der Teutschenn Hanse Stett Lubegk, Collen, Braunschweig und Dantzigk als Haupt und Quartier Stett tun kund . The Prussian Quartier cities of Thorn, Elbing, Koenigsberg and Riga and Dorpat also signed. When pressed by the king of Poland-Lithuania, Danzig remained neutral and would not allow ships running for Poland into its territory. They had to anchor somewhere else, such as at Putzig or Pautzke as it was named then. A major benefit for the Hansa was its domination of the shipbuilding market, mainly in Lübeck and in Danzig. The Hansa sold ships everywhere in Europe, including Italy. The Hansa had excluded the Hollanders, because it wanted to favour Bruges as a huge staple market at the end of a trade route. When the Hollanders started to become competitors of the Hansa in shipbuilding, the Hansa tried to stop the flow of shipbuilding technology from Hansa towns to Holland. Danzig, a trading partner of Amsterdam, tried to stall the decision. Dutch ships sailed to Danzig to take grain from the Prussians directly, to the dismay of Lübeck. Hollanders also circumvented the Hansa towns by trading directly with North German princes in non-Hansa towns. Dutch freight costs were much lower than those of the Hansa, and the Hansa were excluded as middlemen. Bruges, Antwerp and Holland all became part of the same country, the Duchy of Burgundy, which actively tried to take over the monopoly of trade from the Hansa, and the staple market from Bruges was moved to Amsterdam. The Dutch merchants aggressively challenged the Hansa and met with much success. Hanseatic cities in Prussia, Livonia supported the Dutch against the core cities of the Hansa in northern Germany. After several naval wars between Burgundy and the Hanseatic fleets, Amsterdam gained the position of leading port for Polish and Baltic grain from the late 15th century onwards. The Dutch regarded Amsterdam's grain trade as the mother of all trades (Moedernegotie). Denmark and England tried to destroy the Netherlands in the early 16th century, but failed. Nuremberg in Franconia developed an overland route to sell formerly Hansa monopolized products from Frankfurt via Nuremberg and Leipzig to Poland and Russia, trading Flemish cloth and French wine in exchange for grain and furs from the east. The Hansa profited from the Nuremberg trade by allowing Nurembergers to settle in Hansa towns, which the Franconians exploited by taking over trade with Sweden as well. The Nuremberger merchant Albrecht Moldenhauer was influential in developing the trade with Sweden and Norway, and his sons Wolf and Burghard established themselves in Bergen and Stockholm, becoming leaders of the Hanseatic activities locally. End of the Hansa Heinrich Sudermann Modern, faithful painting of the Adler von Lübeck, the world's largest ship at its time. At the start of the 16th century the League found itself in a weaker position than it had known for many years. The rising Swedish Empire had taken control of much of the Baltic. Denmark had regained control over its own trade, the Kontor in Novgorod had closed, and the Kontor in Bruges had become effectively defunct. The individual cities which made up the League had also started to put self-interest before their common Hansa interests. Finally the political authority of the German princes had started to grow — and so to constrain the independence of action which the merchants and Hanseatic towns had enjoyed. The League attempted to deal with some of these issues. It created the post of Syndic in 1556 and elected Heinrich Sudermann :de:Heinrich Sudermann as permanent official with legal training who worked to protect and extend the diplomatic agreements of the member towns. In 1557 and 1579 revised agreements spelled out the duties of towns and some progress was made. The Bruges Kontor moved to Antwerp and the Hansa attempted to pioneer new routes. However, the League proved unable to halt the progress around it and so a long decline commenced. The Antwerp Kontor closed in 1593, followed by the London Kontor in 1598. The Bergen Kontor continued until 1754; its buildings alone of all the Kontoren survive (see Bryggen). The gigantic Adler von Lübeck, which was constructed for military use against Sweden during the Northern Seven Years' War (1567-70), but never put to action, epitomizes the vain attempts of the League's leading city Lübeck to uphold its long privileged commercial position in a changed economic and political climate. By the late 16th century, the League imploded and could no longer deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the Protestant Reformation, the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the Ottoman Empire upon its trade routes and upon the Holy Roman Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in 1669 and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in 1862. Despite its collapse, several cities still maintain the link to the Hanseatic League . The Dutch cities of Deventer, Kampen, Zutphen, and the nine German cities Bremen, Demmin, Greifswald, Hamburg, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Rostock, Stralsund and Wismar still call themselves Hanse cities. Lübeck, Hamburg, and Bremen continue to style themselves officially as "Free and Hanseatic Cities." (Rostock's football team is named F.C. Hansa Rostock in memory of the city's trading past.) For Lübeck in particular, this anachronistic tie to a glorious past remained especially important in the 20th century. In 1937 the Nazis removed this privilege through the Greater Hamburg Act after the Senat of Lübeck did not permit Adolf Hitler to speak in Lübeck during his election campaign. Guide to Lubeck He held the speech in Bad Schwartau, a small village on the outskirts of Lübeck. Subsequently, he referred to Lübeck as "the small city close to Bad Schwartau." Three years ago King's Lynn became the only English member of the newly formed modern Hanseatic League, whose members include Hamburg and Lubeck. The "new" HANSE hopes to foster and develop business links and tourism within towns and cities as well as promote cultural exchange . Historical maps Lists of former Hansa cities Members of the Hanseatic League Cities of the Wendish and Pommeranian Circle. Wendish Circle Lübeck (chief city) Greifswald Hamburg Kiel Lüneburg Rostock Stade Stettin (Szczecin) Stralsund Wismar Saxony, Thuringia, Brandenburg Circle <td> Alfeld Aschersleben Berlin Bockenem Brandenburg Braunschweig (chief city) Bremen Einbeck Erfurt Frankfurt (Oder) Gardelegen Goslar Gronau Halberstadt Halle (Saale) Hameln Hanover (Hannover) Havelberg Helmstedt Hildesheim Kyritz Lüneburg Magdeburg (chief city) Merseburg Mühlhausen Naumburg Nordhausen Northeim Osterburg Osterode am Harz Perleberg Pritzwalk Quedlinburg Salzwedel Seehausen Stendal Tangermünde Uelzen Uslar Werben Poland, Prussia, Livonia, Sweden Circle Breslau (Wrocław) Chełmno Gdańsk (Gdańsk, chief city) Dorpat (Tartu) Elbing (Elbląg) Fellin (Viljandi) Kraków Goldingen (Kuldīga) Kokenhusen (Koknese) Königsberg (now Kaliningrad) Lemsal (Limbaži) Pernau (Pärnu) Reval (Tallinn) Riga (Rīga, chief city) Roop (Straupe) Thorn (Toruń) Visby Wenden (Cēsis) Windau (Ventspils) Wolmar (Valmiera) Rhine, Westphalia, the Netherlands Circle Duisburg Zwolle Haltern am See Hattem Hasselt Hattingen Cologne Dortmund (chief city) Soest Geseke Osnabrück Münster Coesfeld Roermond Nijmegen Tiel Deventer, with subsidiary cities: Ommen Enschede Oldenzaal Hasselt Gramsbergen Groningen Kampen Bochum Recklinghausen Hamm Unna Werl Zutphen Breckerfeld Minden Counting houses Principal Kontore Bryggen in Bergen, Norway Bergen - Bryggen (previously in Notow) Brugge (Bruges) Steelyard - district of London Novgorod - Velikiy Novgorod, Russia Subsidiary Kontore The Hanseatic Warehouse in King's Lynn is the only surviving Hanseatic League building in England Kontor in Antwerp Antwerp Berwick upon Tweed Boston Damme Edinburgh Hull Ipswich King's Lynn Kaunas Newcastle Polotsk Pskov Great Yarmouth York Other cities with a Hansa community <td> Aberdeen Anklam Arnhem Bolsward Cesis (Wenden) Chełmno (Kulm) Doesburg Göttingen Goldingen (Kuldiga) Hafnarfjord (Hafnarfjörður) Harlingen Herford Hindeloopen Kalmar Kokenhusen (Koknese) Lemgo Narwa (Narva) Oldenzaal Paderborn Scalloway Słupsk (Stolp) Smolensk Stargard Szczeciński (Stargard) Turku (Åbo) Tver Wolmar (Valmiera) Wesel Wiburg (Vyborg) Windau (Ventspils) Fictional references A Terran Hanseatic League exists in Kevin J. Anderson's science fiction series, Saga of Seven Suns. The political structure of this fictional interstellar version closely resembles that of the historical Hanseatic League. In the computer game series Patrician players begin as a trader and work their way to the head of the Hanseatic League. In the computer game Darklands players can accept smaller missions from Hanseatic traders. In the Perry Rhodan SF series, the trade organisation the Cosmic Hansa (Kosmische Hanse) covers the Galaxy. The English translation for this organisation is Cosmic House (see American issues 1800-1803) as it was felt that no one would understand the Hanseatic League reference. Midgard open source content management system has often been referred to as the Hanseatic League of Open Source. In the Battletech tabletop and roleplaying universe, there is a state in the Deep Periphery (towards the center of the Galaxy, measured from Earth) called the Hanseatic League, which is structured as a plutocratic trade empire, but which has considerably more primitive social and technological structures when compared to human societies closer to Earth. The PC game Patrician III: Rise of the Hanse is a simulation of trade amongst member cities of the Hanseatic League beginning in the 14th century. Hanseatic League merchant caravans are used as the backdrop for "living history" groups in Florida and North Carolina. Hanseatic League Historical Re-enactors has two chapters, Bergens Kontor in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Voss Kontor in Fayetteville, North Carolina. Both groups portray merchants from a Hanseatic League merchant caravan originating from kontors and towns in Norway. They offer "in character" lectures, skits and "theatre in the round", based on the history of the Hanseatic League, for the education and entertainment of Renaissance Festival patrons and local schools. Robert Heinlein's novel, Citizen of the Galaxy, revolves around a loose league of trading spaceships of varying old Earth nationalities like the Finns aboard the "Sisu." Another ship is called "Hansea." Arthur Rimbaud mentions the Hansa merchant ships in his poem, Le Bateau ivre: ...moi, bateau perdu sous les cheveux des anses, Jeté par l'ouragan dans l'éther sans oiseau, Moi dont les Monitors et les voiliers des Hanses N'auraient pas repêché la carcasse ivre d'eau ; See also List of ships of the Hanseatic League Thalassocracy Hanseatic Parliament Naval history Hanseatic Cross Dutch-Hanseatic War Company of Merchant Adventurers of London Hanseatic flags Lufthansa References Notes Bibliography P. Dollinger The German Hansa (1970; repr.1999). E. Gee Nash. The Hansa. 1929 (Reprint. 1995 Edition, Barnes and Noble) External links 29th International Hansa Days in Novgorod Chronology Hanseatic Cities in The Netherlands / Holland Hanseatic League Historical Re-enactors Hanseatic Towns Network Hanseatic League related sources in the German Wikisource Colchester a Hanseatic port - Gresham

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Alfred_Hitchcock

Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, KBE (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was a British filmmaker and producer who pioneered many techniques in the suspense and psychological thriller genres. After a successful career in his native United Kingdom in both silent films and early talkies, Hitchcock moved to Hollywood. In 1956 he became an American citizen while retaining his British citizenship. Hitchcock directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades. He remains one of the most popular and most recognised filmmakers of all time and his works are still popular today. His image has endured partly due to cameo appearances in his own films and the series of television dramas he hosted, the eponymous Alfred Hitchcock Presents. Early life Hitchcock mosaic at Leytonstone Station. Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899, in Leytonstone, London, the second son and youngest of three children of William J. Hitchcock (1862-1914), a greengrocer and poulterer, and Emma Jane Hitchcock (née Whelan; 1863-1942). He was named after his father's brother, Alfred. His family was mostly Roman Catholic, being of Irish extraction. Patrick McGilligan, pg. 7 Hitchcock was sent to the Jesuit Classic school St. Ignatius College near Stamford Hill, London. He often described his childhood as being very lonely and sheltered, a situation compounded by his obesity. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 18-19 On numerous occasions, Hitchcock said he was sent by his father to the local police station with a note asking the officer to lock him away for ten minutes as punishment for behaving badly. This idea of being harshly treated or wrongfully accused is frequently reflected in Hitchcock's films. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 7-8 Hitchcock's mother would often make him address her while standing at the foot of her bed, especially if he behaved badly, forcing him to stand there for hours. These experiences would later be used for the portrayal of the character of Norman Bates in his movie Psycho. Patrick McGilligan, pg. 9 Hitchcock's father died when he was 14. In the same year, Hitchcock left St Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar, London. Patrick McGillang, pg 25. The school is now part of Tower Hamlets College. After graduating, he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a cable company. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 24-25 During this period, Hitchcock became intrigued by photography and started working in film production in London, working as a title-card designer for the London branch of what would become Paramount Pictures. In 1920, he received a full-time position at Islington Studios with its American owner, Famous Players-Lasky and their British successor, Gainsborough Pictures, designing the titles for silent movies. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 46-51 His rise from title designer to film director took five years, and by the end of the 1930s, Hitchcock had become one of the most famous filmmakers in England. Pre-war British career Hitchcock's last collaboration with Graham Cutts led him to Germany in 1924. The film Die Prinzessin und der Geiger (UK title The Blackguard, 1925), directed by Cutts and co-written by Hitchcock, was produced in the Babelsberg Studios in Berlin. Hitchcock also worked as an art-director on the set of F. W. Murnau's film Der letzte Mann (1924). Sidney Gottleib (ed), Alfred Hitchcock: Interviews By Alfred Hitchcock. Illustrated Edition. (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2003). pp157-158. He was very impressed with Murnau's work and later used many techniques for the set design in his own productions. In his book-length interview with François Truffaut, Hitchcock/Truffaut (Simon and Schuster, 1967), Hitchcock also said he was influenced by Fritz Lang's film Destiny (1921). In 1925, Michael Balcon of Gainsborough Pictures gave Hitchcock an opportunity to receive his first directing credit with The Pleasure Garden made at UFA Studios in Germany. The film was a commercial failure. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 68-71 In 1926, Hitchcock made his debut in the thriller genre with the film, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog. The film, released in January 1927, was a major commercial and critical success in the United Kingdom. See Robert E. Kapsis, Hitchcock: The Making of a Reputation. Illustrated Edition. (University of Chicago Press, 1992). p19 . As with many of his earlier works, this film was influenced by Expressionist techniques Hitchcock had witnessed first-hand in Germany. Some commentators regard this piece as the first truly "Hitchcockian" film, incorporating such themes as the "wrong man". Patrick McGilligan, pg. 85 Following the success of The Lodger, Hitchcock hired a publicist to help enhance his growing reputation. On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married his assistant director, Alma Reville at the Brompton Oratory. Their only child, daughter Patricia, was born on 7 July 1928. Alma was to become Hitchcock's closest collaborator. She wrote some of his screenplays and (though often uncredited) worked with him on every one of his films. In 1929, Hitchcock began work on his tenth film Blackmail. While the film was still in production, the studio, British International Pictures (BIP), decided to make it one of the UK's first sound pictures. With the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum, Blackmail began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences. In the PBS series The Men Who Made The Movies, Hitchcock had explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, emphasizing the word "knife" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 120-123 During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP musical film revue Elstree Calling (1930) and directed a short film featuring two Film Weekly scholarship winners, An Elastic Affair (1930). Another BIP musical revue, Harmony Heaven (1929), reportedly had minor input from Hitchcock, but his name does not appear in the credits. In 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. His first film for the company, The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), was a success and his second, The 39 Steps (1935), is often considered one of the best films from his early period. This film was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the "Macguffin", a plot device around which a whole story seems to revolve, but ultimately has nothing to do with the true meaning or ending of the story. In The 39 Steps, the Macguffin is a stolen set of design plans. (Hitchcock told French director François Truffaut: "There are two men sitting in a train going to Scotland and one man says to the other, 'Excuse me, sir, but what is that strange parcel you have on the luggage rack above you?' 'Oh,' says the other, 'that's a Macguffin.' 'Well,' says the first man, 'what's a Macguffin?' The other answers, 'It's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands.' 'But,' says the first man, 'there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands.' 'Well,' says the other, 'then that's no Macguffin.'") Patrick McGilligan, pg. 158 Hitchcock's next major success was in 1938 with his film The Lady Vanishes, a clever and fast-paced film about the search for a kindly old Englishwoman (Dame May Whitty), who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Vandrika (a thinly-veiled version of Nazi Germany). By 1938, Hitchcock had become known for his famous observation, "Actors are cattle." He once said that he first made this remark as early as the late 1920s, in connection to stage actors who were snobbish about motion pictures. However, Michael Redgrave said that Hitchcock had made the statement during the filming of The Lady Vanishes. The phrase would haunt Hitchcock for years to come and would result in an incident during the filming of his 1941 production of Mr. & Mrs. Smith where Carole Lombard brought some heifers onto the set — with name tags of Lombard, Robert Montgomery, and Gene Raymond, the stars of the film — to surprise the director. Hitchcock said he was misquoted: "I said 'Actors should be treated like cattle'." Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 210-211, 277; American Movie Classics At the end of the 1930s, David O. Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in March 1939, when the Hitchcocks moved to the United States. Hollywood The suspense and the gallows humor that had become Hitchcock's trademark in film continued to appear in his productions. The working arrangements with Selznick were less than optimal. Selznick suffered from perennial money problems, and Hitchcock was often displeased with Selznick's creative control over his films. In a later interview, Hitchcock summarised the working relationship thus: '[Selznick] was the Big Producer. [...] Producer was king, The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me - and it shows you the amount of control - he said I was the "only director" he'd "trust with a film" '<ref> Sidney Gottlieb, Alfred Hitchcock: Interviews By Alfred Hitchcock. Illustrated Edition. (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2003). pp206.</ref> Selznick "loaned" Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. In addition, Selznick, as well as fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn, made only a few films each year, so Selznick did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. Hitchcock was quickly impressed with the superior resources of the American studios compared to the financial restrictions he had frequently encountered in England.. Hitchcock's fondness for his homeland resulted in numerous American films set in, or filmed in, the United Kingdom, including his penultimate film, Frenzy. With the prestigious Selznick picture Rebecca in 1940, Hitchcock made his first American movie, set in England and based on a novel by English author Daphne du Maurier. The film starred Sir Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine. "This Gothic melodrama explores the fears of a naive young bride who enters a great English country home and must grapple with the problems of a distant husband, a predatory housekeeper, and the legacy of her husband's late wife, the beautiful, mysterious Rebecca". The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940. The statuette was given to Selznick, as the film's producer, . The film did not win the Best Director award for Hitchcock. There were additional problems between Selznick and Hitchcock. Selznick was known to impose very restrictive rules upon Hitchcock . Hitchcock was forced to shoot the film as Selznick wanted . At the same time, Selznick complained about Hitchcock's "goddamn jigsaw cutting", which meant that the producer did not have nearly the leeway to create his own film as he liked, but had to follow Hitchcock's vision of the finished product. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 251-252 The film was the third longest of Hitchcock's films, at 130 minutes, exceeded only by The Paradine Case at 132 minutes and North by Northwest (136 minutes). Patrick McGilligan, pg. 253 Hitchcock's second American film, the European-set thriller Foreign Correspondent, based on Vincent Sheean's Personal History and produced by Walter Wanger, was nominated for Best Picture that year. The movie was filmed in the first year of World War II and was apparently inspired by the rapidly-changing events in Europe, as fictionally covered by an American newspaper reporter portrayed by Joel McCrea. The film mixed actual footage of European scenes and scenes filmed on a Hollywood back lot. In compliance with Hollywood's Production Code censorship, the film avoided direct references to Germany and Germans. Patrick McGilligan, pg. 244 1940s films Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman in Notorious (1946) Hitchcock's films during the 1940s were diverse. The movies ranged from the romantic comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) and the courtroom drama The Paradine Case (1947), to the dark and disturbing Shadow of a Doubt (1943). In September 1940, the Hitchcocks purchased the Cornwall Ranch, located near Scotts Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains in northern California. The Ranch became the primary residence of the Hitchcocks for the rest of their lives, although they kept their Bel Air home. Suspicion (1941) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz, California for the English coastline sequence. This film was to be actor Cary Grant's first time working with Hitchcock, and it was one of the few times that Grant would be cast in a sinister role. Joan Fontaine won Best Actress Oscar and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for her "outstanding performance in Suspicion." "Grant plays an irresponsible husband whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety by his wife (Fontaine)." In what critics regard as a classic scene, Hitchcock uses a light bulb to illuminate what might be a fatal glass of milk that Grant is bringing to his wife. In the book upon which the movie is based (Before the Fact by Francis Iles), the Grant character is a killer, but Hitchcock and the studio felt Grant's image would be tarnished by that ending. Though a homicide would have suited him better, as he stated to François Truffaut, Hitchcock settled for an ambiguous finale. Thomas Leitch, The Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock, Facts on File, New York, pp.324-5, ISBN 0-8160-4386-8 Saboteur (1942) was the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal, a studio where he would continue his career during his later years. Hitchcock was forced to use Universal contract players Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane, both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. Breaking with Hollywood conventions of the time, Hitchcock did extensive location filming, especially in New York City, and depicted a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur (Norman Lloyd) atop the Statue of Liberty.Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Hitchcock's personal favourite of all his films and the second of the early Universal films, was about young Charlotte "Charlie" Newton (Teresa Wright), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley (Joseph Cotten) of being a serial murderer. Critics have said that in its use of overlapping characters, dialogue, and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential, including Jacques Lacan and Slavoj Žižek. Hitchcock again filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa, California, during the summer of 1942. The director showcased his own personal fascination with crime and criminals when he had two of his characters discuss various ways of killing people, to the obvious annoyance of Charlotte. Working at 20th Century Fox, Hitchcock adapted a script of John Steinbeck's that chronicled the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack in the film Lifeboat (1944). The action sequences were shot on the small boat. The locale also posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance. That was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for "Reduco-Obesity Slayer". Leitch, p. 181 While at Fox, Hitchcock seriously considered directing the film version of A.J. Cronin's novel about a Catholic priest in China, The Keys of the Kingdom, but the plans for this fell through. John M. Stahl ended up directing the 1944 film, which was produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and starred Gregory Peck, among other luminaries. Patrick McGilligan, pg. 343 Returning to England for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944, Hitchcock made two short films for the Ministry of Information, Bon Voyage and Aventure Malgache. These - made for the Free French - were the only films Hitchcock made in the French language, and "feature typical Hitchcockian touches." Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 346-348 In the 1990s, the two films were shown by Turner Classic Movies and released on home video. In 1945, Hitchcock served as "treatment advisor" (in effect, a film editor) for a Holocaust documentary produced by the British Army. The film, which recorded the liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps, remained unreleased until 1985, when it was completed by PBS Frontline and distributed under the title Memory of the Camps. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 372-374 Hitchcock worked for Selznick again when he directed Spellbound, which explored the then-fashionable subject of psychoanalysis and featured a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí. Gregory Peck is amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson (Ingrid Bergman), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. Leitch, p. 310 The dream sequence as it actually appears in the film is considerably shorter than was originally envisioned, which was to be several minutes long, because it proved to be too disturbing for the audience. Some of the original musical score by Miklós Rózsa (which makes use of the theremin) was later adapted by the composer into a concert piano concerto.Notorious (1946) followed Spellbound. According to Hitchcock, in his book-length interview with François Truffaut, Selznick sold the director, the two stars (Grant and Bergman) and the screenplay (by Ben Hecht) to RKO Radio Pictures as a "package" for $500,000 due to cost overruns on Selznick's Duel in the Sun (1946). From this point on, Hitchcock produced his own films.Notorious starred Hitchcock regulars Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant, and features a plot about Nazis, uranium, and South America. It was a huge box office success and has remained one of Hitchcock's most acclaimed films. His use of uranium as a plot device led to Hitchcock's being briefly under FBI surveillance. McGilligan writes that Hitchcock consulted Dr. Robert Millikan of Caltech about the development of an atomic bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was "science fiction" only to be confronted by the news stories of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 366-381 After completing his final film for Selznick, The Paradine Case (a courtroom drama that critics found lost momentum because it apparently ran too long and exhausted its resource of ideas), Hitchcock filmed his first color film, Rope, which appeared in 1948. Here Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with Lifeboat (1943). He also experimented with exceptionally long takes — up to ten minutes long. Featuring James Stewart in the leading role, Rope was the first of four films Stewart would make for Hitchcock. It was based on the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s. Somehow Hitchcock's cameraman managed to move the bulky, heavy Technicolor camera quickly around the set as it followed the continuous action of the long takes. Under Capricorn (1949), set in nineteenth-century Australia, also used the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used Technicolor in this production, then returned to black and white films for several years. For Rope and Under Capricorn, Hitchcock formed a production company with Sidney Bernstein, called Transatlantic Pictures, which became inactive after these two unsuccessful pictures. Hitchcock continued to produce his own films for the rest of his life. 1950s: Peak years James Stewart and Grace Kelly in Rear Window (1954) In 1950, Hitchcock filmed Stage Fright on location in the UK. For the first time, Hitchcock matched one of Warner Brothers' biggest stars, Jane Wyman, with the sultry German actress Marlene Dietrich. Hitchcock used a number of prominent British actors, including Michael Wilding, Richard Todd, and Alastair Sim. This was Hitchcock's first production for Warner Brothers, which had distributed Rope and Under Capricorn, because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 429, 774-775 With the film Strangers on a Train (1951), based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith, Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. Hitchcock approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue but Raymond Chandler took over, then left over disagreements with the director. Leitch, p. 320 Two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty. One of the men takes this banter entirely seriously. "With Farley Granger reprising some elements of his role from Rope, Strangers continued the director's interest in the narrative possibilities of blackmail and murder". Robert Walker, previously known for "boy-next-door" roles, plays the villain. Leitch, p. 322 MCA head Lew Wasserman, whose client list included James Stewart, Janet Leigh and other actors who would appear in Hitchcock's films, had a significant impact in packaging and marketing Hitchcock's films beginning in the 1950s. Three very popular films starring Grace Kelly followed. Dial M for Murder (1954) was adapted from the popular stage play by Frederick Knott. Ray Milland plays the "suave and scheming" villain, an ex-tennis pro, who tries to murder his innocent wife Grace Kelly for her money. When the murder goes awry and the assassin is killed by her in self-defense, he manipulates the evidence to pin the murder of the assassin on his wife. Her lover Mark Halliday (Robert Cummings) and police inspector Hubbard (John Williams) work urgently to save her from execution. Leitch, pp. 78-80 Hitchcock experimented with 3D cinematography, although the film was not released in this format at first. However, it was shown in 3D in the early 1980s. The film marked a return to Technicolor productions for Hitchcock. Hitchcock moved to Paramount Pictures and filmed Rear Window, starring James Stewart and Kelly again, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. Here, the wheelchair-bound Stewart, a photographer based on Robert Capa, observes the movements of his neighbours across the courtyard and becomes convinced one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Stewart tries to sway both his glamorous model-girlfriend (Kelly) and his policeman buddy (Wendell Corey) to his theory, and finally succeeds in getting her involved to the point of danger. Leitch, p. 269 Like Lifeboat and Rope, the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space: Stewart's tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set. Hitchcock uses closeups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions to all he sees, "from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbors to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment." The third Kelly film To Catch a Thief, set in the French Riviera, stars Kelly with Cary Grant again and John Williams. Grant plays retired thief John Robie who woos both Kelly and her jewels, and then becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. "Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double-entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success." Leitch, p. 366 It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly because she married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956 and the residents of her new homeland refused to allow her to make any more films. The remake of Hitchcock's own 1934 film, The Man Who Knew Too Much, in 1956 followed, this time starring Stewart and Doris Day, who sang the theme song, "Whatever Will Be, Will Be (Que Sera, Sera)" (which won the Oscar for "Best Music", and became a big hit for Day). Stewart and Day, distraught over the kidnapping of their son, struggle with both their emotions and their urgent quest to find their child and stop an assassination, until the song helps re-unite the family. James Stewart and Kim Novak in Vertigo (1958)The Wrong Man (1957), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Brothers, was a low-key black and white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in Life Magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock's to star Henry Fonda. Fonda plays a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife (newcomer Vera Miles) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes. Leitch, p. 377 Vertigo (1958) again starred Stewart, this time with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. Stewart plays "Scottie", a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman he is shadowing (Kim Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Though the film is widely considered a classic today, Vertigo met with negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and marked the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. Leitch, pp. 376-7 The film is now placed highly in the Sight & Sound decade polls. It was premiered in the San Sebastián International Film Festival, where Hitchcock won a Silver Seashell. Late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s By this time, Hitchcock had filmed in many areas of the United States. He followed Vertigo with three more successful films. All are also recognized as among his very best films: North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963). After completing Psycho, Hitchcock moved to Universal, where he made the remainder of his films. In North by Northwest, Cary Grant is Roger Thornhill, a Madison Avenue ad executive who is mistaken for a government agent. Leitch, p. 234 He is hotly pursued by enemy agents across the country who try to kill him, one of whom is foreign agent Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint). She seduces Thornhill, sets him up, but then falls in love with him and aids his escape.Psycho is considered by some to be Hitchcock's most famous film. Leitch, p. 260 Produced on a highly constrained budget of $800,000, it is shot in black-and-white on a spare set. Leitch, p. 3261 The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early demise of the heroine, the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer were all hallmarks of Hitchcock, copied in many subsequent horror films. Leitch, p. 262 The Birds, inspired by a Daphne Du Maurier short story and by an actual news story about a mysterious infestation of birds in California, was Hitchcock's 49th film. Leitch, p. 32 He signed up Tippi Hedren as his latest blonde heroine opposite Rod Taylor. The scenes of the birds attacking included hundreds of shots mixing actual and animated sequences. The cause of the birds' attack is left unanswered, "perhaps highlighting the mystery of forces unknown". Leitch, p. 33 The latter two films were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks, both orchestrated by Bernard Herrmann: the screeching strings played in the murder scene in Psycho exceeded the limits of the time, and The Birds dispensed completely with conventional instruments, instead using an electronically-produced soundtrack and an unaccompanied song by school children (just prior to the infamous attack at the historic Bodega Bay School). Also notable was that Santa Cruz was mentioned again as the place where the bird-phenomenon was said to have first occurred. These films are considered his last great films, after which it is said his career started to lose pace (although some critics such as Robin Wood and Donald Spoto contend that Marnie, from 1964, is first-class Hitchcock, and some have argued that Frenzy is unfairly overlooked). Failing health took its toll on Hitchcock, reducing his output during the last two decades of his life. Hitchcock filmed two spy thrillers, Torn Curtain with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews and Topaz (based on a Leon Uris novel), which both received mixed reviews. In 1972, Hitchcock returned to London to film Frenzy, his last major success. The plot recycles his early film The Lodger. Richard Blaney (Jon Finch), volatile barkeeper with a history of explosive anger, becomes the likely perpetrator of the "Necktie Murders", which are actually committed by his friend (Barry Foster), a fruit seller. Leitch, p. 114 This time Hitchcock makes the victim and villain twins, rather than opposites, as in Strangers on a Train. Only one of them, however, has crossed the line to murder. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had before been taboo, in one of his films. He also shows rare sympathy for the Chief Inspector and his comic domestic life. Leitch, p. 115 Biographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool Joseph Breen, the longtime head of Hollywood's Production Code. Many times Hitchcock slipped in subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realized that Hitchcock was inserting such things and were actually amused as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's "inescapable inferences". Patrick McGilligan, pg. 249 Beginning with Torn Curtain, Hitchcock was finally able to blatantly include plot elements previously forbidden in American films and this continued for the remainder of his film career. Family Plot (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It related the escapades of "Madam" Blanche Tyler played by Barbara Harris, a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover Bruce Dern making a living from her phony powers. William Devane, Karen Black and Cathleen Nesbitt co-starred. It was the only Hitchcock film scored by John Williams. When Hitchcock saw the Mel Brooks 1977 comedy-spoof of his work, High Anxiety, he enjoyed it, but Brooks initially feared that Hitchcock was not pleased because he walked out of the movie when it was over. Days later, Brooks' fear proved untrue when Hitchcock sent Brooks a bottle of champagne. Last film work and death Near the end of his life, Hitchcock had worked on the script for a projected spy thriller, The Short Night, collaborating with screenwriters James Costigan and Ernest Lehman. Despite some preliminary work, the story was never filmed. This was due, primarily, to Hitchcock's own failing health and his concerns over the health of his wife, Alma, who had suffered a stroke. The script was eventually published posthumously, in a book on Hitchcock's last years. Patrick McGilligan, pgs. 731-734 Hitchcock died from renal failure in his Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California home at the age of 80. His wife Alma Reville, and their daughter, Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell, both survived him. His funeral service was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills. Hitchcock's body was cremated and his ashes were scattered over the Pacific. Themes, plot devices and motifs Hitchcock returned several times to cinematic devices such as suspense, the audience as voyeur, and his well-known "McGuffin", an apparently minor detail serving as a pivot upon which the narrative turns. Technical innovations Hitchcock seemed to delight in the technical challenges of film making. In the film Lifeboat, Hitchcock stages the entire action of the movie in a small boat, yet manages to keep the cinematography from monotonous repetition (his trademark cameo appearance was a dilemma, given the limitations of the setting; so Hitchcock appears in a fictitious magazine for a weight loss product). Similarly, the entire action in Rear Window either takes place in or is seen from a single apartment. In Spellbound, two unprecedented point-of-view shots were achieved by constructing a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-colored red on some copies of the black-and-white print of the film.Rope (1948) was another technical challenge: a film that appears to have been shot entirely in a single take. The film was actually shot in 10 takes ranging from four and a half to 10 minutes each; 10 minutes being the maximum amount of film that would fit in a single camera reel. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. Hitchcock's 1958 film Vertigo contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts that has been imitated and re-used many times by filmmakers, wherein the image appears to "stretch." This is achieved by moving the camera in the opposite direction of the camera's zoom. It has become known as the Dolly zoom. Signature appearances in his films Hitchcock appeared briefly in many of his own films, usually playing upon his portly figure in an incongruous manner, for example, seen struggling to get a double bass on to a train. Character and its effects on his films Hitchcock's films sometimes feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In North by Northwest (1959), Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant's character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him (in this case, they are). In The Birds (1963), the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother (Jessica Tandy). The killer in Frenzy (1972) has a loathing of women but idolizes his mother. The villain Bruno in Strangers on a Train hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by Marion Lorne). Sebastian (Claude Rains) in Notorious has a clearly conflictual relationship with his mother, who is (correctly) suspicious of his new bride Alicia Huberman (Ingrid Bergman). And, of course, Norman Bates' troubles with his mother in Psycho are well known. Hitchcock heroines tend to be lovely, cool blondes who seem proper at first but, when aroused by passion or danger, respond in a more sensual, animal, or even criminal way. As noted, the famous victims in The Lodger are all blondes. In The 39 Steps, Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, Madeleine Carroll, is put in handcuffs. In Marnie (1964), the title character (played by Tippi Hedren) is a kleptomaniac. In To Catch a Thief (1955), Francie (Grace Kelly) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In Rear Window, Lisa (Grace Kelly again) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. And, most notoriously, in Psycho, Janet Leigh's unfortunate character steals $40,000 and is murdered by a reclusive lunatic. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was - years after Dany Robin and her "daughter" Claude Jade in Topaz - Barbara Harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in his final film, 1976's Family Plot. In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by Karen Black could also fit that role, as she wears a long blonde wig in various scenes and becomes increasingly uncomfortable about her line of work. Hitchcock saw that reliance on actors and actresses was a holdover from the theatre tradition. He was a pioneer in using camera movement, camera set ups and montage to explore the outer reaches of cinematic art. Most critics and Hitchcock scholars, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that Vertigo represents the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. Vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography. Hitchcock often said that his favorite film (of his own work) was Shadow of a Doubt. Style of working Writing Hitchcock once commented, "The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest." In an interview with Roger Ebert in 1969, Hitchcock further elaborates, "Once the screenplay is finished, I'd just as soon not make the film at all...I have a strongly visual mind. I visualize a picture right down to the final cuts. I write all this out in the greatest detail in the script, and then I don't look at the script while I'm shooting. I know it off by heart, just as an orchestra conductor needs not look at the score...When you finish the script, the film is perfect. But in shooting it you lose perhaps 40 per cent of your original conception." Hitchcock: "Never mess about with a dead body -- you may be one..." Storyboards and production Hitchcock's films were strongly believed to have been extensively storyboarded to the finest detail by the majority of commentators over the years. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder, since he didn't need to do so, though in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternate takes to consider. However, this view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself, has been challenged by the book, Hitchcock At Work, written by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of Cahiers du Cinema. Krohn after investigating several script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock alongside inspection of storyboards and other production material has observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his movies was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. A great example would be the famous crop duster sequence of North by Northwest which wasn't storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail. Even on the occasions when storyboards were made, the scene which was shot did differ from it significantly. Krohn's extensive analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like Notorious reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its making. Another example is the American remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much which Krohn notes went into production without a complete script which moreover went over schedule, something which as Krohn notes was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films including Strangers on a Train and Topaz. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his movies, he was fully cognizant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films weren't free from the normal hassles and routines that face many other film productions. Krohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order. A practice which he notes often sent many of his films over budget and over schedule and more importantly differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency of shooting alternate takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films weren't necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how he/she chooses (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency of giving himself options in the editing room where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work so as to give him space for other possibilities in the editing room. According to Krohn, this and numerous other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock. His fastidiousness and attention to detail also found its way to each film poster for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day -- film poster designers such as Bill Gold and Saul Bass -- and kept them busy with countless rounds of revision until he felt that the single image of the poster accurately represented his entire film. Approach to actors Similarly, much of Hitchcock's hatred of actors has been exaggerated. Hitchcock simply did not tolerate the method approach as he believed that actors should only concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. In a Sight and Sound interview, he stated that, ' the method actor is OK in the theatre because he has a free space to move about. But when it comes to cutting the face and what he sees and so forth, there must be some discipline'. During the making of Lifeboat, Walter Slezak, who played the German character, stated that Hitchcock knew the mechanics of acting better than anyone he knew. Several critics have observed that despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, several actors who worked with him gave fine, often brilliant performances and these performances contribute to the film's success. Regarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumor that he had said that actors were cattle. Hitchcock later denied this, typically tongue-in-cheek, clarifying that he had only said that actors should be treated like cattle. Carole Lombard, tweaking Hitchcock and drumming up a little publicity, brought some cows along with her when she reported to the set of Mr. and Mrs. Smith. For Hitchcock, the actors, like the props, were part of the film's setting. In the late 1950s, French New Wave critics, especially Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol and François Truffaut, were among the first to see and promote Hitchcock's films as artistic works. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process. Hitchcock's innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers, and actors. His influence helped start a trend for film directors to control artistic aspects of their movies without answering to the movie's producer. Awards and honours The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Hitchcock the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award, in 1967. His other Oscar nominations were: Best Director in 1960 for Psycho, Rebecca (1940), Lifeboat (1944), Spellbound (1945), and Rear Window (1954). Producer for Best Picture: Suspicion (1941).Rebecca, which Hitchcock directed, won the 1940 Best Picture Oscar for its producer David O. Selznick. In addition to Rebecca and Suspicion, two other films Hitchcock directed, Foreign Correspondent and Spellbound, were nominated for Best Picture. Hitchcock is considered the Best Film Director of all time by The Screen Directory. Sixteen films directed by Hitchcock earned Oscar nominations, though only six of those films earned Hitchcock himself a nomination. The total number of Oscar nominations (including winners) earned by films he directed is fifty. Four of those films earned Best Picture nominations. Six of Hitchcock's films are in the National Film Registry: Vertigo, Rear Window, North by Northwest, Shadow of a Doubt, Notorious, and Psycho; all but Shadow of a Doubt and Notorious were also in 1998's AFI's 100 best American films and the AFI's 2007 update. In 2008, four of Hitchcock's films were named among the ten best mystery films of all time in the AFI's 10 Top 10. Those films are Vertigo (at No. 1); Rear Window (No. 3); North by Northwest (No. 7); and Dial M for Murder (No. 9). Hitchcock was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year's Honours. Although he had adopted American citizenship in 1956, he was entitled to use the title "Sir" because he had remained a British subject. Hitchcock died just four months later, on 29 April, before he could be formally invested. Fame Hitchcock became famous for his expert and largely unrivaled control of pace and suspense, and his films draw heavily on both fear and fantasy. The films are known for their droll humour and witticisms, and these cinematic works often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding. Hitchcock began his directing career in the United Kingdom in 1922. From 1939 onward, he worked primarily in the United States. In September, 1940, Hitchcock had purchased a mountaintop estate for the sum of $40,000. Known as the 1870 Cornwall Ranch or "Heart o' the Mountain", the property was perched high above Scotts Valley, California, at the end of Canham Road. The Hitchcocks resided there from 1940 to 1972. The Hitchcocks became close friends with the parents of Joan Fontaine, after she starred in his film, Rebecca. Years later, after a break-in at his estate, Hitchcock replaced all of the accumulated paintings with studio-made copies. The family sold the estate in 1974, six years before Hitchcock's death. Hitchcock and family also purchased a second home in late 1942 at 10957 Bellagio Road in Los Angeles, just across from the Bel Air Country Club. Rebecca was the only Hitchcock film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture (though the award did not go to Hitchcock), four other films were nominated. In 1967 he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for lifetime achievement. He never won an Academy Award for directing. Television and books Along with Walt Disney, Hitchcock was one of the first prominent motion picture producers to fully envision just how popular the medium of television would become. From 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host and producer of a long-running television series entitled Alfred Hitchcock Presents. While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His irony-tinged voice, image, and mannerisms became instantly recognizable and were often the subject of parody. The title-theme of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of Hitchcock's profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes) which his real silhouette then filled. His introductions before the stories in his program always included some sort of wry humor, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair, while two are now shown with a sign "Two chairs--no waiting!" He directed a few episodes of the TV series himself, and he upset a number of movie production companies when he insisted on using his TV production crew to produce his motion picture Psycho. In the late 1980s, a new version of Alfred Hitchcock Presents was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a colorised form. "Hitch" used a curious little tune by the French composer Charles Gounod (1818-1893), the composer of the 1859 opera Faust, as the theme "song" for his television programs, after it was suggested to him by composer Bernard Herrmann. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra included the piece, Funeral March of a Marionette, in one of their extended play 45 rpm discs for RCA Victor during the 1950s. Hitchcock appears as a character in the popular juvenile detective book series, Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators. The long-running detective series was created by Robert Arthur, who wrote the first several books, although other authors took over after he left the series. The Three Investigators -- Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw -- were amateur detectives, slightly younger than the Hardy Boys. In the introduction to each book, "Alfred Hitchcock" introduces the mystery, and he sometimes refers a case to the boys to solve. At the end of each book, the boys report to Hitchcock, and sometimes give him a memento of their case. When the real Hitchcock died, the fictional Hitchcock in the Three Investigators books was replaced by a retired detective named Hector Sebastian. At this time, the series title was changed from Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators to The Three Investigators. At the height of Hitchcock's success, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short-story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology, Alfred Hitchcock Presents: Stories to be Read with the Door Locked, Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum, Alfred Hitchcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew, Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery, Alfred Hitchcock's A Hangman's Dozen and Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful. Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories; in fact, even his introductions were ghost-written. The entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a check. Some notable writers whose works were used in the collection, include Shirley Jackson (Strangers in Town, The Lottery), T.H. White (The Once and Future King), Robert Bloch, H. G. Wells (The War of the Worlds), Robert Louis Stevenson, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Mark Twain and the creator of The Three Investigators, Robert Arthur. Hitchcock also wrote a mystery story for Look magazine in 1943, "The Murder of Monty Woolley." This was a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to inspect the pictures for clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves; such as Woolley, Doris Merrick and make up man Guy Pearce, whom Hitchcock identified, in the last photo, as the murderer. The article was reprinted in Games Magazine in November/December 1980. Filmography Actors and actresses appearing in three or more films Leo G. Carroll: Rebecca (1940), Suspicion (1941), Spellbound (1945), The Paradine Case (1947), Strangers on a Train (1951), and North By Northwest (1959) Cary Grant: Suspicion (1941), Notorious (1946), To Catch a Thief (1955), and North By Northwest (1959) Ingrid Bergman: Spellbound (1945), Notorious (1946), and Under Capricorn (1949) Grace Kelly: Dial M for Murder (1954), Rear Window (1954), and To Catch a Thief (1955) James Stewart: Rope (1948), Rear Window (1954), The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), and Vertigo (1958) John Williams: The Paradine Case (1947), Dial M for Murder, (1954), and To Catch a Thief (1955) Frequent collaborators Actors and Actresses Sara Allgood Murray Alper Ingrid Bergman Paul Bryar Donald Calthrop Leonard Carey Leo G. Carroll Edward Chapman Hume Cronyn (also as writer) Violet Farebrother Bess Flowers Cary Grant Clare Greet Edmund Gwenn Gordon Harker Tom Helmore Patricia Hitchcock (daughter) Ian Hunter Isabel Jeans Hannah Jones Malcolm Keen Phyllis Konstam Grace Kelly John Longden Percy Marmont Basil Radford Jeffrey Sayre James Stewart John Williams Film crew Fred Ahern - Production Manager Michael Balcon - Producer Jack Barron - Makeup Saul Bass - Main titles design Robert F. Boyle - Art Director/Production Designer Henry Bumstead - Art Director Robert Burks - Cinematographer Herbert Coleman - Assistant Director/Producer Jack E. Cox - Cinematographer Lowell J. Farrell - Assistant Director Charles Frend - Film Editor Bill Gold - Film poster designer Hilton A. Green - Assistant Director Bobby Greene - First Assistant Camera Edith Head - Costume Designer Bernard Herrmann - Music Composer J. McMillan Johnson - Art Director/Production Designer Barbara Keon - Production Assistant Emile Kuri - Set Decoration Bryan Langley - Cinematographer/Assistant Camera Louis Levy - Musical Director/Music Composer Norman Lloyd - Producer/Director John Maxwell - Producer Daniel McCauley - Assistant Director Frank Mills - Assistant Director George Milo - Set Decoration Ivor Montagu - Editor/Producer Hal Pereira - Art Director Michael Powell - Still Photographer/Assistant Camera Alma Reville (wife) - Assistant Director/Writer Rita Riggs - Costume Designer Peggy Robertson - Assistant Emile de Ruelle - Film Editor William Russell - Sound Recordist David O. Selznick - Producer Harry Stradling - Cinematographer/Director of Photography Lois Thurman - Script Supervisor Dimitri Tiomkin - Music Composer George Tomasini - Film Editor Joseph A. Valentine - Cinematographer Gaetano di Ventimiglia - Cinematographer Waldon O. Watson - Sound Recordist Franz Waxman - Music Composer Albert Whitlock - Matte Painter William H. Ziegler - Film Editor Screenwriters Charles Bennett James Bridie Joan Harrison John Michael Hayes Ben Hecht Ernest Lehman Angus MacPhail Eliot Stannard Joseph Stefano See also Alfred Hitchcock filmography List of unproduced Hitchcock projects List of film collaborations References Notes Further reading Auiler, Dan: Hitchcock's notebooks: an authorized and illustrated look inside the creative mind of Alfred Hitchcock. New York, Avon Books, 1999. Much useful background to the films. Barr, Charles: English Hitchcock. Cameron & Hollis, 1999. On the early films of the director. Conrad, Peter: The Hitchcock Murders. Faber and Faber, 2000. A highly personal and idiosyncratic discussion of Hitchcock's oeuvre. DeRosa, Steven: Writing with Hitchcock. Faber and Faber, 2001. An examination of the collaboration between Hitchcock and screenwriter John Michael Hayes, his most frequent writing collaborator in Hollywood. Their films include Rear Window and The Man Who Knew Too Much. Deutelbaum, Marshall; Poague, Leland (ed.): A Hitchcock Reader. Iowa State University Press, 1986. A wide-ranging collection of scholarly essays on Hitchcock. Durgnat, Raymond: The strange case of Alfred Hitchcock Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1974 OCLC 1233570 Durgnat, Raymond; James, Nick; Gross, Larry: Hitchcock British Film Institute, 1999 OCLC 42209162 Durgnat, Raymond: A long hard look at Psycho London: British Film Institute Pub., 2002 OCLC 48883020 Giblin, Gary: "Alfred Hitchcock's London". Midnight Marquee Press, 2006, (Paperback: ISBN 188766467X) Gottlieb, Sidney: Hitchcock on Hitchcock. Faber and Faber, 1995. Articles, lectures, etc. by Hitchcock himself. Basic reading on the director and his films. Gottlieb, Sidney: Alfred Hitchcock: Interviews. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. A collection of Hitchcock interviews. Haeffner, Nicholas: Alfred Hitchcock. Longman, 2005. An undergraduate-level text. Hitchcock, Patricia; Bouzereau, Laurent: Alma Hitchcock: The Woman Behind the Man. Berkley, 2003. Krohn, Bill: Hitchcock at Work. Phaidon, 2000. Translated from the award-winning French edition. The nitty-gritty of Hitchcock's filmmaking from scripting to post-production. Leff, Leonard J.: Hitchcock and Selznick. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987. An in-depth examination of the rich collaboration between Hitchcock and David O Selznick. Leitch, Thomas: The Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock (ISBN 0816043876). Checkmark Books, 2002. A single-volume encyclopedia of all things Hitchcock. Martin, Jr. Grams: The Alfred Hitchcock Presents Companion. OTR Pub, 2001, (Paperback: ISBN 0970331010) McDevitt, Jim; San Juan, Eric: A Year of Hitchcock: 52 Weeks with the Master of Suspense. Scarecrow Press, 2009, (ISBN 081086388X). A comprehensive film-by-film examination of Hitchcock's artistic development from 1927 through 1976. McGilligan, Patrick: Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light. Regan Books, 2003. A comprehensive biography of the director. Modleski, Tania: The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory. Routledge, 2005 (2nd edition). A collection of critical essays on Hitchcock and his films; argues that Hitchcock's portrayal of women was ambivalent, rather than simply misogynist or sympathetic (as widely thought). Mogg, Ken. The Alfred Hitchcock Story. Titan, 1999. This original UK edition has significantly more text than the abridged US edition. New material on all the films. Rebello, Stephen: Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho. St. Martin's, 1990. Intimately researched and detailed history of the making of Psycho,. Rohmer, Eric; Chabrol, Claude. Hitchcock, the first forty-four films (ISBN 0804427437). F. Ungar, 1979. First book-long study of Hitchock art and probably still the best one. Rothman, William. The Murderous Gaze. Harvard Press, 1980. Auteur study that looks at several Hitchcock films intimately. Spoto, Donald: The Art of Alfred Hitchcock. Anchor Books, 1992. The first detailed critical survey of Hitchcock's work by an American. Spoto, Donald: The Dark Side of Genius. Ballantine Books, 1983. A biography of Hitchcock, featuring a controversial exploration of Hitchcock's psychology. Taylor, Alan: Jacobean Visions: Webster, Hitchcock and the Google Culture, Peter Lang, 2007. Truffaut, François: Hitchcock. Simon and Schuster, 1985. A series of interviews of Hitchcock by the influential French director. Vest, James: Hitchcock and France: The Forging of an Auteur. Praeger Publishers, 2003. A study of Hitchcock's interest in French culture and the manner by which French critics, such as Truffaut, came to regard him in such high esteem. Weibel, Adrian: Spannung bei Hitchcock. Zur Funktionsweise der auktorialen Suspense. (ISBN 978-3-8260-3681-1) Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2008 Wood, Robin: Hitchcock's Films Revisited. Columbia University Press, 2002 (2nd edition). A much-cited collection of critical essays, now supplemented and annotated in this second edition with additional insights and changes that time and personal experience have brought to the author (including his own coming-out as a gay man). -- Contains interviews with Alfred Hitchcock and a discussion of the making of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934) and Secret Agent (1936), which co-starred classic film actor Peter Lorre. External links Hitchcock sites Alfred Hitchcock Wiki HitchcockOnline - Contains a lengthy online essay and related links. Writing With Hitchcock - includes original interviews, essays, script excerpts, and extensive material on Hitchcock's unproduced works. Alfred Hitchcock Geek - Includes news, book reviews and essays about Alfred Hitchcock. Alfred Hitchcock Fans Online - The definitive Alfred Hitchcock fansite - with large community forums, pictures, up to date news, and a vast wealth of information about Hitchcock films. A Year of Hitchcock - Weekly podcast and discussion of Hitchcock's films from the authors of A Year of Hitchcock: 52 Weeks with the Master of Suspense. Film and TV sites Hitchcock's Style -- online exhibit from screenonline, a website of the British Film Institute Hitchcock EyeGate Collection Alfred Hitchcock Movie Trailers Alfred Hitchcock and Anny Ondra in Sound Test for Blackmail (1929) Profiles and interviews Alfred Hitchcock Biography from Answers.com Film Reference - Brief Profile on Hitchcock by Robin Wood Senses of Cinema's "Great Directors" Alfred Hitchcock profile EuroScreenwriters features interviews with Hitchcock, both text and video Essays Essay: The Lodger: The First 'Hitchcock' Film The Alfred Hitchcock Scholars/"MacGuffin" website - the online extension of the Alfred Hitchcock journal The MacGuffin''. Basic Hitchcock Film Techniques. Wiki Alfred Hitchcock Wiki be-x-old:Альфрэд Хічкок

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Deforestation

Deforestation is the logging and/or burning of trees in the forested area. There are several reasons for doing so: trees or derived charcoal can be sold as a commodity and used by humans, while cleared land is used as pasture, plantations of commodities and human settlement. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. Deforested regions often degrade into wasteland. Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental law are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation is an ongoing issue that is causing extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of indigenous people. However, among countries with a per capita GDP of at least $4,600, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase. Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity, 2006, by Pekka E. Kauppi (Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki), Jesse H. Ausubel (Program for the Human Environment, The Rockefeller University), Jingyun Fang (Department of Ecology, Peking University), Alexander S. Mather (Department of Geography and Environment, University of Aberdeen), Roger A. Sedjo (Resources for the Future), and Paul E. Waggoner (Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station) Use Energy, Get Rich and Save the Planet, The New York Times, April 20, 2009 Causes of anthropogenic deforestation There are many root causes of deforestation, including corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery. In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions." According to British environmentalist Norman Myers, 5% of deforestation is due to cattle ranching, 19% due to over-heavy logging, 22% due to the growing sector of palm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash-and-burn farming. The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities: that the poor shouldn’t have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem. Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Similarly, there is no consensus on whether poverty is important in deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. Claims that population growth drives deforestation have been disputed; one study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. Environmental problems Atmospheric Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. NASA - Top Story - NASA DATA SHOWS DEFORESTATION AFFECTS CLIMATE Massive deforestation threatens food security Deforestation, ScienceDaily Confirmed: Deforestation Plays Critical Climate Change Role, ScienceDaily, May 11, 2007 Deforestation is a contributor to global climate change, Deforestation causes global warming, FAO Philip M. Fearnside1 and William F. Laurance, TROPICAL DEFORESTATION AND GREENHOUSE-GAS EMISSIONS, Ecological Applications, Volume 14, Issue 4 (August 2004) pp. 982–986 and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. Fondation Chirac » Deforestation and desertification According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter7.pdf IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis", Section 7.3.3.1.5 (p. 527) Trees and other plants remove carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis and release it back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon over an annual or longer timeframe. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, the wood must be harvested and turned into long-lived products and trees must be re-planted. I.C. Prentice. "The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide" IPCC, http://www.grida.no/CLIMATE/IPCC_TAR/wg1/pdf/TAR-03.PDF Deforestation may cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests are stores of carbon and can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon dioxide sink and carbon cycle). Reducing emissions from the tropical deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation". Bringing ‘REDD’ into a new deal for the global climate, S. Wertz-Kanounnikoff, L. Ximena Rubio Alvarado, Analyses, n° 2, 2007, Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations. Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of world's oxygen, How can you save the rain forest. October 8, 2006. Frank Field although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation will have no effect on atmospheric oxygen levels. Broeker, Wallace S. (2006). "Breathing easy: Et tu, O2." Columbia University http://www.columbia.edu/cu/21stC/issue-2.1/broecker.htm. Moran, E.F., "Deforestation and Land Use in the Brazilian Amazon", Human Ecology, Vol 21, No. 1, 1993" However, the incineration and burning of forest plants in order to clear land releases tonnes of CO2, which contributes to global warming. Forests are also able to extract carbon dioxide and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability. Hydrological The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue. Deforestation and Landslides in Southwestern Washington China's floods: Is deforestation to blame?, BBC News Forests enhance the recharge of aquifers in some locales, however, forests are a major source of aquifer depletion on most locales. http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/byauthor/244797 Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels down wind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one preliminary study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s. Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly: their canopies intercept a proportion of precipitation, which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere (canopy interception); their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff; their roots create macropores - large conduits - in the soil that increase infiltration of water; they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture via transpiration; their litter and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water. their leaves control the humidity of the atmosphere by transpiration. 99% of the water pulled up by the roots move up to the leaves for transpiration. "Soil, Water and Plant Characteristics Important to Irrigation". North Dakota State University. As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planets fresh water. How can you save the rain forest. October 8,2006. Frank Field Soil Undisturbed forest has very low rates of soil loss, approximately 2 metric tons per square kilometre (6 short tons per square mile). Deforestation generally increases rates of soil erosion, by increasing the amount of runoff and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment. China's Loess Plateau was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nickname 'China's sorrow'). Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, is studying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees. Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying bedrock. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of landslides, which can threaten people living nearby. However most deforestation only affects the trunks of trees, allowing for the roots to stay rooted, negating the landslide. Ecological Deforestation results in declines in biodiversity. http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/nilsson.html Do We Have Enough Forests? By Sten Nilsson The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. Deforestation Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife; Rainforest Biodiversity Shows Differing Patterns, ScienceDaily, August 14, 2007 moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation. BMBF: Medicine from the rainforest With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably. Single-largest biodiversity survey says primary rainforest is irreplaceable, Bio-Medicine, November 14, 2007 Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth Tropical rainforests - The tropical rainforest, BBC Tropical Rainforest and about 80% of the world's known biodiversity could be found in tropical rainforests, U.N. calls on Asian nations to end deforestation, Reuters Rainforest Facts removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded Tropical rainforests - Rainforest water and nutrient cycles, BBC environment with reduced biodiversity. Primary rainforest richer in species than plantations, secondary forests, July 2, 2007 Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity. Pimm, Stuart L, Russell, Gareth J, Gittleman, John L, Brooks, Thomas M. 1995 "The future of biodiversity" Science 269:5222 347-341 Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as forest are declines species diversity will decline similarly. Timothy Charles and Whitmore, Jeffrey Sayer, 1992 "Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction" International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Commission on Ecology. However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species. Timothy Charles and Whitmore, Jeffrey Sayer, 1992 "Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction" International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Commission on Ecology. Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread. Pimm, Stuart L, Russell, Gareth J, Gittleman, John L, Brooks, Thomas M.1995 "The future of biodiversity" Science 269:5222 347-341 It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year. Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction. Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind, Anchor, ISBN 0-385-46809-1 The great rainforest tragedy, The Independent The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately 1 species per year from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia, New Scientist, 23 July 2003 Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable. Pimm, Stuart L, Russell, Gareth J, Gittleman, John L, Brooks, Thomas M.1995 "The future of biodiversity" Science 269:5222 347-341 Economic impact Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standards for the world's poor and reduce global GDP by about 7% by 2050, a major report concluded at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting in Bonn. Nature loss 'to hurt global poor', BBC News, May 29, 2008 Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking. http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf Forest Products The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity (hence reduction in nature's services). West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually. Destruction of Renewable Resources The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpowers the amount of money spent by people employed in logging. Deforestation Across the World’s Tropical Forests Emits Large Amounts of Greenhouse Gases with Little Economic Benefits, According to a New Study at CGIAR.org, December 4, 2007 According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various ventures that prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequently returned far less than US $1." The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is 23 euro (about $35). New ASB Report finds deforestation offers very little money compared to potential financial benefits at ASB.CGIAR.org Historical causes Prehistory Deforestation has been practiced by humans for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. Flannery, T. (1994) "The future eaters" Reed Books Melbourne. Fire was the first tool that allowed humans to modify the landscape. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. Clearances and Clearings: Deforestation in Mesolithic/Neolithic Britain, Oxford Journal of Archaeology It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. Flannery, T. (1994) "The future eaters" Reed Books Melbourne. With the advent of agriculture, fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic foragers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar. In Great Britain shade tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400-8300 BC and 7200-7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture. The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land. hand tool :: Neolithic tools -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia Neolithic Age from 4,000 BC to 2,200 BC or New Stone Age Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age. C. Michael Hogan. 2007. Knossos fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian Pre-industrial history Throughout most of history, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean, http://www.school.eb.com/comptons/article-9310969?query=deforestation&ct= only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. In ancient Greece, Tjeered van Andel and co-writers Tjeerd H. van Andel, Eberhard Zangger, Anne Demitrack, "Land Use and Soil Erosion in Prehistoric and Historical Greece' Journal of Field Archaeology 17.4 (Winter 1990), pp. 379-396 summarized three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1,000 years the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation. The Mystery of Easter Island, Smithsonian Magazine, April 01, 2007 Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. Historical Consequences of Deforestation: Easter Island Jared Diamond, Easter Island's End The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also follow a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. A typical progress trap is that cities were often built in a forested area providing wood for some industry (e.g. construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. The combination of mining and metallurgy often went along this self-destructive path. Meanwhile most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming; fortunately enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, e.g. to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable, and the hunting privileges of the elite (nobility and higher clergy) often protected significant woodlands. Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords actively attracting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions – even when they did so to launch or encourage cities, there always was an agricultural belt around and even quite some within the walls. When on the other hand demography took a real blow by such causes as the Black Death or devastating warfare (e.g. Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany) this could lead to settlements being abandoned, leaving land to be reclaimed by nature, even though the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. From 1100 to 1500 AD significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade – and other trade on the high seas and (often related) naval warfare (the failed invasion of England by the Spanish Armada in 1559 and the battle of Lepanto 1571 are early cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of Nelson's Royal navy war ships at Trafalgar had required 6,000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that whole woody regions were over-harvested, as in Spain, where this contributed to the paradoxical weakening of the domestic economy since Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.) predominant. In Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon collected 17th century New England Englishmen's reports of increased seasonal flooding during the time that the forests were initially cleared, and it was widely believed that it was linked with widespread forest clearing upstream. The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new acceleration of the onslaught on western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. For ship timbers, Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the Baltic trade and looked to the untapped forests of New England to supply the need. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future; as it turned out, as the oak plantations matured in the mid-nineteenth century, the masts were no longer required. Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe: In closing The Civilization of the Middle Ages: The Life and Death of a Civilization (1993) pp 564f. Specific parallels are seen in twentieth century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. Rates of deforestation Global deforestation sharply accelerated around 1852. E. O. Wilson, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage ISBN 0-679-76811-4 Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries, guardian.co.uk, July 1, 2008 It has been estimated that about half of the earth's mature tropical forests — between 7.5 million and 8 million km2 (2.9 million to 3 million sq mi) of the original 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet Maycock, Paul F. Deforestation. WorldBookOnline. — have now been cleared. Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) ISBN 978-0312425814 Rainforests - Facts and information about the Rainforest. Some scientists have predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that haven't been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be ten percent remaining, with another ten percent in a degraded condition. 80 percent will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. The difficulties of estimating deforestation rates are nowhere more apparent than in the widely varying estimates of rates of rainforest deforestation. Some environmental groups argue that one fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990, that rainforests 50 years ago covered 14% of the world's land surface and have been reduced to 6%, and that all tropical forests will be gone by the year 2090. Meanwhile, Alan Grainger of Leeds University argues that there is no credible evidence of any long-term decline in rainforest area. Adam, David. "Global deforestation figures questioned". The Guardian. January 8, 2008. Bjørn Lomborg, author of the controversial book The Skeptical Environmentalist, claims that global forest cover has remained approximately stable since the middle of the twentieth century. http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/EnvironmentalQuality.html Along similar lines, some have claimed that for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics. New Jungles Prompt a Debate on Rain Forests, The New York Times, January 30, 2009. These divergent viewpoints are the result of the uncertainties in the extent of tropical deforestation. For tropical countries, deforestation estimates are very uncertain and could be in error by as much as +/- 50%, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. Cambridge University Press. while a 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. Frederic Achard, Hugh D Eva, Hans-Jurgen Stibig, Philippe Mayaux (2002). "Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid tropical forests." Science 297:5583: pp. 999-1003. Conversely, a new analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated. Jha, Alok. "Amazon rainforest vanishing at twice rate of previous estimates". The Guardian. October 21, 2005. Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster, csmonitor.com Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve, http://www.aseanenvironment.info/Abstract/41014849.pdf Deforestation and the environmental Kuznets curve:An institutional perspective which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (e.g., the extinction of species). Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?, November 22, 2006 Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for deforestation? A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that although the earth's total forest area continues to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation has recently been slowing. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/MEETING/003/X9591E.HTM Still others claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace. Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content, Worldwatch Institute The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savannah-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests." World deforestation rates and forest cover statistics, 2000-2005 Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types, The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation. and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, Remote sensing versus self-reporting which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging. The World Bank estimates that 80% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging accounts for 80% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru.) Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Up to 90% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. National Geographic: Eye in the Sky — Deforestation In South Asia, about 88% of the rainforests have been lost. Rainforests & Agriculture Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres. The Amazon Rainforest, BBC The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America — which lost 1.3% of its forests each year — and tropical Asia. In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years. The Causes of Tropical Deforestation Brazil has lost 90-95% of its Mata Atlântica forest. What is Deforestation? Madagascar has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests. IUCN - Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List, June 27, 2007 Madagascar's rainforest As of 2007, less than 1% of Haiti's forests remained. International Conference on Reforestation and Environmental Regeneration of Haiti Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Côte d'Ivoire, have lost large areas of their rainforest. Chart - Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region Rainforest Destruction Several countries, notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency. Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007, USATODAY.com, January 24, 2008 Rainforest loss shocks Brazil Deforestation by region Africa Africa is suffering deforestation at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Nature laid waste: The destruction of Africa, The Independent, June 11, 2008 Africa's deforestation twice world rate, says atlas, Reuters, June 10, 2008 Deforestation reaches worrying level - UN. AfricaNews. Some sources claim that deforestation has already wiped out roughly 90% of West Africa's original forests. Forests and deforestation in Africa - the wasting of an immense resource, afrol News African Rainforest, Steve Nix Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa. Deforestation accelerating in Central Africa, June 8, 2007 According to the FAO, Africa lost the highest percentage of tropical forests of any continent during the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. Africa's deforestation rate may be underestimated. mongabay.com. June 22, 2006. According to the figures from the FAO (1997), only 22.8% of West Africa's moist forests remain, much of this degraded. Tropical Deforestation Rates in Africa. mongabay.com. Retrieved on May 31, 2009. Nigeria has lost 81% of its old-growth forests in just 15 years (1990-2005). Nigeria: Environmental Profile Massive deforestation threatens food security in some African countries. One factor contributing to the continent's high rates of deforestation is the dependence of 90% of its population on wood as fuel for heating and cooking. Agyei, Yvonne. Deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Technology Forum, Volume 8, Number 1. Retrieved on May 31, 2009. Research carried out by WWF International in 2002 shows that in Africa, rates of illegal logging vary from 50% in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea to 70% in Gabon and 80% in Liberia Paul Toyne, Cliona O’Brien and Rod Nelson. "The Timber Footprint of the G8 and China". WWF International. June 2002. pp. 35-36. – where timber revenues played a major role in financing the Sierra Leone Civil War Blondel, Alice. "The Logs of War". Monde Diplomatique. January 2004. and other regional armed conflicts until the UN Security Council imposed a ban on all Liberian timber in 2003. Black, Richard. "New Dawn for Liberia's 'Blood Forests'". BBC News. October 12, 2006. Ethiopia The main cause of deforestation in Ethiopia, located in East Africa, is a growing population and subsequent higher demand for agriculture, livestock production and fuel wood. Sucoff, E. (2003). Deforestation. In Environmental Encyclopedia. (P.g.358-359). Detroit: Gale. Other reasons include low education and inactivity from the government, Mccann, J.C. (1999).Green land, Brown land, Black land: An environmental history of Africa 1800-1990. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann although the current government has taken some steps to tackle deforestation. Maddox, G.H. (2006). Sub-Saharan Africa: An environmental history. Santabarbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Organizations such as Farm Africa are working with the federal and local governments to create a system of forest management. Parry, J. (2003). Ethiopia, the third largest country in Africa by population, has been hit by famine many times because of shortages of rain and a depletion of natural resources. Deforestation has lowered the chance of getting rain, which is already low, and thus causes erosion. Bercele Bayisa, an Ethiopian farmer, offers one example why deforestation occurs. He said that his district was forested and full of wildlife, but overpopulation caused people to come to that land and clear it to plant crops, cutting all trees to sell as fire wood. Haileselassie, A. Ethiopia's struggle over land reform. World press Review 51.4 (April 2004):32(2).Expanded Academic ASAP Ethiopia has lost 98% of its forested regions in the last 50 years. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km² or 35% of Ethiopia's land was covered with forests. Recent reports indicate that forests cover less than 14.2% or even only 11.9% now. Between 1990 and 2005, the country lost 14% of its forests or 21,000 km². Madagascar Deforestation Saving the Wildlife of Madagascar, TIME, September 25, 2008 with resulting desertification, water resource degradation and soil loss has affected approximately 94% of Madagascar's previously biologically productive lands. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Madagascar subhumid forests (AT0118), National Geographic Most of this loss has occurred since independence from the French, and is the result of local people using slash-and-burn agricultural practises as they try to subsist. Deforestation causes species extinction in Madagascar Largely due to deforestation, the country is currently unable to provide adequate food, fresh water and sanitation for its fast growing population. What are rainforests? Deforestation in Madagascar Nigeria According to the FAO, Nigeria has the world's highest deforestation rate of primary forests. It has lost more than half of its primary forest in the last five years. Causes cited are logging, subsistence agriculture, and the collection of fuel wood. Almost 90% of West Africa's rainforest has been destroyed. Rainforests & Agriculture Australia Due to relatively recent colonisation, Australia has had high rates of deforestation, primarily due to clearing for agricultural purposes. In recent years much of the clearing has occured in Tasmania and Queensland Australian Greenhouse Office 2000, Land Clearing: A Social History, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. , but rates are exected to decrease with the implementation of new legislation Forest Practices Authority. (2007) Information on land clearing controls in Tasmania. WWF-Australia. World class legislation - new land clearing policy for Queensland . In 1998, deforestation is thought to have been responsible for around 12% of Australia's total carbon emmissions. An additional factor currently causing the loss of forest cover is the expansion of urban areas. Littoral Rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles. Littoral Rainforest-Why is it threatened? Brazil There is no agreement on what drives deforestation in Brazil, though a broad consensus exists that expansion of croplands and pastures is important. Increases in commodity prices may increase the rate of deforestation. U.S. ethanol may drive Amazon deforestation Amazon rainforest threatened by new wave of oil and gas exploration, guardian.co.uk, August 13, 2008 Recent development of a new variety of soybean has led to the displacement of beef ranches and farms of other crops, which, in turn, move farther into the forest. Booming Soybean Business Means Continued Deforestation in the Amazon Certain areas such as the Atlantic Rainforest have been diminished to just 7% of their original size. WWF - Atlantic Forests - A Global Ecoregion Although much conservation work has been done, few national parks or reserves are efficiently enforced. Brazil national parks mismanaged and raided-govt, Reuters Some 80% of logging in the Amazon is illegal. WWF International (2002) The Timber Footprint of the G8 and China In 2008, Brazil's Government has announced a record rate of deforestation in the Amazon. Record Amazon deforestation in Brazil Brazil Amazon deforestation soars, BBC Deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data. Amazon Destruction Jumps 69 Percent in Brazil, FOXNews.com, 30 August, 2008 Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60% of the Amazon rainforest by 2030, says a new report from WWF. More than half of Amazon will be lost by 2030, report warns, guardian.co.uk, December 6, 2007 Canada One case of deforestation in Canada is happening in Ontario's boreal forests, near Thunder Bay, where 28.9% of a 19,000 km² of forest area had been lost in the last 5 years and is threatening woodland caribou. This is happening mostly to supply pulp for the facial tissue industry. Greenpeace | New report reveals rapid deforestation in Ontario as disposable products take toll In Canada, less than 8% of the boreal forest is protected from development and more than 50% has been allocated to logging companies for cutting. Global Forest Watch Canada 2000. Canada's Forests At A Crossroads — An Assessment in the Year 2000 Iceland Iceland has undergone extensive deforestation since Vikings settled in the ninth century. As a result, vast areas of vegetation and land has degraded, and soil erosion and desertification has occurred. As much as half of the original vegetative cover has been destroyed, caused in part by overexploitation, logging and overgrazing under harsh natural conditions. About 95% of the forests and woodlands once covering at least 25% of the area of Iceland may have been lost. Afforestation and revegetation has restored small areas of land. http://landbunadur.is/landbunadur/wgrala.nsf/key2/hhjn7etf6x.html Indonesia At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years, Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, Asia News, 24 March, 2008 There are significantly large areas of forest in Indonesia that are being lost as native forest is cleared by large multi-national pulp companies and being replaced by plantations. In Sumatra tens of thousands of square kilometres of forest have been cleared often under the command of the central government in Jakarta who comply with multi national companies Losing land to palm oil in Kalimantan, BBC News, 3 August 2007 to remove the forest because of the need to pay off international debt obligations and to develop economically. In Kalimantan, between 1991 and 1999 large areas of the forest were burned because of uncontrollable fire causing atmospheric pollution across South-East Asia. Forest fires result from government failure in Indonesia Every year, forest are burned by farmers (slash-and-burn techniques are used by between 200 and 500 million people worldwide) Slash and burn, Encyclopedia of Earth and plantation owners. A major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven spectacularly by China and Japan. Japan depletes Borneo's rainforests; China remains largest log importer Agricultural development programs in Indonesia (transmigration program) moved large populations into the rainforest zone, further increasing deforestation rates. A joint UK-Indonesian study of the timber industry in Indonesia in 1998 suggested that about 40% of throughout was illegal, with a value in excess of $365 million. Indonesia-UK Tropical Forestry Management Programme (1999) Illegal Logging in Indonesia. ITFMP Report No. EC/99/03 More recent estimates, comparing legal harvesting against known domestic consumption plus exports, suggest that 88% of logging in the country is illegal in some way. Greenpeace (2003) Partners in Crime: A Greenpeace investigation of the links between the UK and Indonesia's timber barons. See http://www.saveordelete.com Malaysia is the key transit country for illegal wood products from Indonesia. Environmental Investigation Agency and Telepak (2004) Profiting from Plunder: How Malaysia Smuggles Endangered Wood. Russia Russia has the largest area of forests of any state on Earth. List of countries by forest area http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_forest_area There is little recent research into the rates of deforestation, but in 1992, 2 million hectares of forest were lost and in 1994, around 3 million hectares were lost. Are the Russian forests disappearing? http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3247E/w3247e0c.htm The present scale of deforestation in Russia is most easily seen using Google Earth. Areas nearer to China are most affected, as it is the main market for the timber. China: Exporting deforestation and promoting tree monocultures http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/45/China.html Deforestation in Russia is particularly damaging as the forests have a short growing season due to extremely cold winters and therefore will take longer to recover. Southeast Asia The forest loss is acute in Southeast Asia, CHINA: China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, Asia News, March 24, 2006 the second of the world's great biodiversity hot spots. SE Asia faces 'catastrophic' extinction rate, BBC News According to 2005 report conducted by the FAO, Vietnam has the second highest rate of deforestation of primary forests in the world second to only Nigeria. News.monabay.com More than 90% of the old-growth rainforests of the Philippine archipelago have been cut. The Lost Forest Other SE Asian countries where major deforestation are ongoing are Cambodia and Laos. According to a documentary by TelePool, the deforestation is being directed by corrupt military personnel and government (Forestry services). Die Tropenholz-Mafia – Kriminelle Geschäfte mit dem Regenwald – Telepool, 2008 Alternative site for Die Tropenholz-Mafia documentary United States Prior to the arrival of European-Americans about one half of the United States land area was forest, about 4 million square kilometers (1 billion acres) in 1600. Forest Resources of the United States For the next 300 years land was cleared, mostly for agriculture at a rate that matched the rate of population growth. 'Collapse': How Societies choose to Fail or Succeed, The New York Times For every person added to the population, one to two hectares of land was cultivated. American Forest A History of Resiliency and Recovery United States Forest Service This trend continued until the 1920s when the amount of crop land stabilized in spite of continued population growth. As abandoned farm land reverted to forest the amount of forest land increased from 1952 reaching a peak in 1963 of 3,080,000 km² (762 million acres). Since 1963 there has been a steady decrease of forest area with the exception of some gains from 1997. Gains in forest land have resulted from conversions from crop land and pastures at a higher rate than loss of forest to development. Because urban development is expected to continue, an estimated 93,000 km² (23 million acres) of forest land is projected be lost by 2050, Land Use Changes Involving Forestry in the United States: 1952 to 1997, Whit Projections to 2050 a 3% reduction from 1997. Other qualitative issues have been identified such as the continued loss of old-growth forest, United Nations (2005) "Global Forest Resources Assessment" the increased fragmentation of forest lands, and the increased urbanization of forest land. U.S. Department of Agriculture "Forests on the Edge - Housing Development on America's Private Forests" (2005) http://www.fs.fed.us/projects/fote/reports/fote-6-9-05.pdf Retrieved November 19 2006 Species extinctions in the Eastern Forest According to a report by Stuart L. Pimm the extent of forest cover in the Eastern United States reached its lowest point in roughly 1872 with about 48 percent compared to the amount of forest cover in 1620. Of the 28 forest bird species with habitat exclusively in that forest, Pimm claims 4 become extinct either wholly or mostly because of habitat loss, the passenger pigeon, Carolina parakeet, ivory-billed woodpecker, and Bachman's Warbler. The Dodo went extinct (and other ecological myths) by Stuart L. Pimm at Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences Controlling deforestation Kyoto Protocol A key factor in controlling deforestation could come from the Kyoto Protocol. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) mechanisms, which provide financial incentives for avoided deforestation, could be implemented in a future Kyoto Protocol. Walsh, Bryan. "Green Banks: Paying Countries to Keep Their Trees". TIME. December 4, 2008. At the moment, REDD is not implemented in any of the flexible mechanisms defined under the Kyoto Protocol (Clean Development Mechanism, Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading). Farming New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-yield hybrid crops, greenhouse, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. These methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic agriculture, cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth. Forest management Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In Tonga, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause, Diamond, Jared Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed; Viking Press 2004, pages 301-302 while during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Tokugawa, Japan, Diamond, pages 320-331 the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In sixteenth century Germany landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no dry season and very young soils (through volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. In the areas where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The biochar thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it brings the creation of terra preta, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself. Certification of sustainable forest management practices Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as PEFC and FSC, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. Certification represents a shift from regulatory approaches to market incentives to promote sustainable forest management. By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation." "State of the World's Forests 2009". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Reforestation In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation are increasing the area of forested lands. Jonathan A Foley, Ruth DeFries, Gregory P Asner, Carol Barford, et al. 2005 "Global Consequences of Land Use" Science 309:5734 570-574 The amount of woodland has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20 percent between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forest will increase by 10 percent—an area the size of India—by 2050. James Owen, 2006, "World's Forests Rebounding, Study Suggests" National Geographic News http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/11/061113-forests.html In the People's Republic of China, where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has in the past required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1 billion trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. This is no longer required today, but March 12 of every year in China is the Planting Holiday. Also, it has introduced the Green Wall of China project, which aims to halt the expansion of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. However, due to the large percentage of trees dying off after planting (up to 75%), the project is not very successful. There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s. James Owen, 2006, "World's Forests Rebounding, Study Suggests" National Geographic News http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/11/061113-forests.html The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%. John Gittings, 2001, "Battling China's deforestation" World News http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/mar/20/worlddispatch.china An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System and the Proposed sahara forest project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse In Western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner is causing forest landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices. The Arbor Day Foundation's Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charity uses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the lumber companies can buy it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes living on the forest land. Organizations such as Community Forestry International, The Nature Conservancy, World Wide Fund for Nature, Conservation International, African Conservation Foundation and Greenpeace also focus on preserving forest habitats. Greenpeace in particular has also mapped out the forests that are still intact and published this information on the internet. World Intact Forests campaign by Greenpeace HowStuffWorks in turn has made a simpler thematic map showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest. Alternative thematic map by Howstuffworks; in pdf These maps mark the amount of afforestation required to repair the damage caused by man. Forest plantations To meet the world's demand for wood, it has been suggested by forestry writers Botkins and Sedjo that high-yielding forest plantations are suitable. It has been calculated that plantations yielding 10 cubic meters per hectare annually could supply all the timber required for international trade on 5 percent of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1-2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5 to 10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interpersed with conservation land. No Man's Garden Daniel B. Botkin p 246-247 One analysis of FAO data suggests that afforestation and reforestation projects "could reverse the global decline in woodlands within 30 years." Sample, Ian. "Forests are poised to make a comeback, study shows". The Guardian. November 14, 2006. Reforestation through tree planting could take advantage of changing precipitation patterns due to climate change. This would be done by studying where precipitation is projected to increase (see the "2050 Precipitation" thematic map created by Globalis) and setting up reforestation projects in these locations. Areas such as Niger, Sierra Leone and Liberia are especially important candidates because they also suffer from an expanding desert (the Sahara) and decreasing biodiversity (while being important biodiversity hotspots). Military context While the preponderance of deforestation is due to demands for agricultural and urban use for the human population, there are some examples of military causes. One example of deliberate deforestation is that which took place in the U.S. zone of occupation in Germany after World War II. Before the onset of the Cold War defeated Germany was still considered a potential future threat rather than potential future ally. To address this threat, attempts were made to lower German industrial potential, of which forests were deemed an element. Sources in the U.S. government admitted that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests." As a consequence of the practice of clear-felling, deforestation resulted which could "be replaced only by long forestry development over perhaps a century." Nicholas Balabkins, "Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects Of Industrial Disarmament 1945-1948, Rutgers University Press, 1964. p. 119. The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively; U.S. office of Military Government, A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender (1946), p.70; and U.S. Office of Military Government, The German Forest Resources Survey (1948), p. II. For similar observations see G.W. Harmssen, Reparationen, Sozialproduct, Lebensstandard (Bremen: F. Trujen Verlag, 1948), I, 48 can also be a cause of deforestation, either deliberately such as through the use of Agent Orange "Encyclopedia of World Environmental History". Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0415937337 during the Vietnam War where, together with bombs and bulldozers, it contributed to the destruction of 44 percent of the forest cover, Patricia Marchak, "Logging the Globe" p. 157 or inadvertently such as in the 1945 Battle of Okinawa where bombardment and other combat operations reduced the lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots". Okinawan History and Karate-do See also Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System Assarting Biochar CDM & JI A/R projects Deforestation during the Roman period Deforestation in Cambodia Desertification Ecoforestry Economic impact analysis Environmental issues with paper Forestry Illegal logging Land use, land-use change and forestry Moisture recycling Mountaintop removal Neolithic Overpopulation Rainforest Richard St. Barbe Baker Slash-and-burn Slash-and-char Terra preta Wilderness Intact forest landscape References Notes General references BBC 2005 TV series on the history of geological factors shaping human history (name?) A Natural History of Europe - 2005 co-production including BBC and ZDF Whitney, Gordon G. (1996). From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain : A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America from 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57658-X Williams, Michael. (2003). Deforesting the Earth. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89926-8 Wunder, Sven. (2000). The Economics of Deforestation: The Example of Ecuador. Macmillan Press, London. ISBN 0-333-73146-8 FAO&CIFOR report: Forests and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts? Ethiopia deforestation references Parry, J. (2003). Tree choppers become tree planters. Appropriate Technology, 30(4), 38-39. Retrieved November 22, 2006, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341). Hillstrom, K & Hillstrom, C. (2003). Africa and the Middle east. A continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Santabarbara, CA: ABC CLIO. Williams, M. (2006). Deforesting the earth: From prehistory to global crisis: An Abridgment. Chicago: The university of Chicago Press. Mccann. J.C. (1990). A Great Agrarian cycle? Productivity in Highland Ethiopia, 1900 To 1987. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xx: 3,389-416. Retrieved November 18, 2006, from JSTOR database. External links Encyclopedia of Earth: Deforestation in Amazonia Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 by the FAO Comprehensive assessment of forests and forestry. Includes 350 page report and 15 page summary United Nations EarthWatch EU Forestry. United Nations Forum on Forests CFAN - CIDA Forestry Advisory Network DEFORESTATION: Tropical Forests in Decline Amazon Deforestation (Google maps) Our disappearing forests - Greenpeace China Cocaine destroys 4 m2 of rainforest per gram The Guardian “Avoided Deforestation” Plan Gains Support - Worldwatch Institute In the media March 14, 2007, Independent Online: Destruction of forests in developing world 'out of control' Films online Watch the National Film Board of Canada documentaries Battle for the Trees & Forest in Crisis

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Omphalos_hypothesis

The Omphalos hypothesis was named after the title of an 1857 book, Omphalos by Philip Henry Gosse, in which Gosse argued that in order for the world to be "functional", God must have created the Earth with mountains and canyons, trees with growth rings, Adam and Eve with hair, fingernails, and navels (omphalos is Greek for "navel"), and that therefore no evidence that we can see of the presumed age of the earth and universe can be taken as reliable. The idea has seen some revival in the twentieth century by some modern creationists, who have extended the argument to light that appears to originate in far-off stars and galaxies, although many other creationists reject this explanation How can we see distant stars in a young universe? (and also believe that Adam and Eve had no navels). Did Adam have a belly-button? Support Chateaubriand wrote in defense of omphalism in his 1802 book, Génie du christianisme (Part I Book IV Chapter V): "God might have created, and doubtless did create, the world with all the marks of antiquity and completeness which it now exhibits." Rabbi Dovid Gottlieb supports a similar position, arguing further that the evidence for an old universe Rabbi Dovid Gottlieb, "The Age of the Universe". is strong: "The bones, artifacts, partially decayed radium, potassium-argon, uranium, the red-shifted light from space, etc. all of it points to a greater age which nevertheless is not true." Criticism When did false history begin? Though Gosse's original Omphalos hypothesis specifies a popular creation story, others have proposed that the idea does not preclude creation as recently as five minutes ago, including memories of times before this created in situ. David L. Wilcox, God and Evolution:A Faith-Based Understanding, Valley Forge,PA: Judson Press, 2004, 30, This idea is sometimes called "Last Thursdayism" by its opponents, as in "the world might as well have been created last Thursday." The concept is both unverifiable and unfalsifiable through any conceivable scientific method—in other words, it is impossible even in principle to subject it to any form of test by reference to any empirical data because the empirical data themselves are considered to have been arbitrarily created to look the way they do at every observable level of detail. A deceptive creator From a religious viewpoint, it can be interpreted as God having 'created a fake,' such as illusions of light in space of stellar explosions (supernovae) that never really happened, or volcanic mountains that were never really volcanoes in the first place and that never actually experienced erosion. Some theologians feel it is not consistent with most benevolent theistic theologies that God would create appearances that are so completely deceiving to every level of detail. This conception has therefore drawn harsh rebuke from some theologians. Reverend Canon Brian Hebblethwaite Reverend Canon Brian Hebblethwaite, biography online at www.GiffordLectures.org , for example, preached against Bertrand Russell's projection of Gosse's concept: The basis for Hebblethwaite's objection, however, is the presumption of a God that would not deceive us about our very humanity—an unprovable presumption that the omphalos hypothesis rejects at the outset. Hebblethwaite also suggests that God necessarily had to create certain elements of the Universe in combination with the creation of man: In a rebuttal of the claim that God might have implanted a false history of the age of the Universe in order to test our faith in the truth of the Torah, Rabbi Natan Slifkin, an author whose works have been banned by several Haredi rabbis for going against the tenets of the Talmud, G. Safran, "Gedolei Yisroel Condemn Rabbi Nosson Slifkin's Books". Dei'ah veDibur, January 12, 2005. writes: Gosse, however, did not assert that God deceived us, only that any act of creation of human, animal or plant would "at the instant of its creation present indubitable evidences of a previous history" (Gosse, p335) in far more subtle, microscopic and unavoidable ways than the presence or absence of hair or navels. He presented it not as an hypothesis but as a law or logical necessity: any created organism must be "from the first marked with the records of a previous being". (p336) The alternative would be a created earth in which trees (larger than saplings) would exhibit no seasonal growth rings. However, the fact that tree rings are the result of actual seasonal growth and are not due to some inherent requirement for the biological functioning of a tree, just as a navel does not serve a biological function but is the remnant of the exit of umbilical cord from the belly after birth, demonstrates that such appearances of age to all levels of physical detail are not a logical necessity. A consistent creator Some Jewish commentaries on the age of the Universe delve into the Omphalos hypothesis. In particular, Slifkin writes: Other formulations Last Thursdayism is a response to omphalism which posits that, by the same logic, the world might have been created last Thursday (or by implication, on any given date and time), but with the appearance of age: people's memories, history books, fossils, light already on the way from distant stars, and so forth. It is aimed at the logic point that when this logic is permitted, it can be used to prove any "fixed date creation" schema. The first known reference is on November 5, 1992, in a post titled "Last Thursdayism proven!", responding to an apocalyptic prediction: It developed on talk.origins into a satiric parody religion with a catechism ; other postings started the "heretical" splinter groups Last Wednesdayism and Last Fridayism. Another version, claiming not to be a parody, incorporates ideas from solipsism. Jorge Luis Borges, in his 1940 work, Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius, describes a fictional world in which some essentially follow as a religious belief a philosophy much like Russell's discussion on the logical extreme of Gosse's theory Borges - Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius : Borges had earlier written a short essay, "The Creation and P. H. Gosse" that explored the rejection of Gosse's Omphalos. Borges argued that its unpopularity stemmed from Gosse's explicit (if inadvertent) outlining of what Borges characterized as absurdities in the Genesis story. See also Age of the universe Antediluvian Conflict thesis History of the world Jewish mythology Omphalos (book) Simulated Reality Sons of Noah The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and Magrathea References External links Ron Roizen, "The rejection of Omphalos: a note on shifts in the intellectual hierarchy of mid-nineteenth century Britain," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 21:365-369, 1982. Mirror of the defunct "The Church Of Last Thursdayism" webpage (stored at www.archive.org) Archived Usenet Post containing the FAQ of "The Church of Last Thursdayism" (stored by Google.com) "The Church of Last Thursday" home

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XChat

XChat, commonly written X-Chat or xchat, is a popular Internet Relay Chat (IRC) client. It is available for Unix-like systems, Microsoft Windows (with additional features), Mac OS X (X-Chat Aqua), and for other X Window System-based systems (Fink project). It has a choice of a tabbed document interface or tree interface, support for multiple servers and is highly configurable. Both command line and graphical versions are available. The main code is licensed under the GNU General Public License, but the official Windows version is Shareware, and uses the GTK+ toolkit for its interface. Features XChat is a full-featured IRC client and includes all basic functionalities that are found in most other IRC clients, including CTCP, DCC file transfers and chats, and a plugin system for various languages (including at least C or C++, Perl, Python, Tcl, Ruby Xchat-Ruby Plugin Website , Lua xchat lua plugin , CLISP, D, and DMDScript xcdscript home page ). By writing plugins, one can extend the features and customize the functionality of XChat. XChat runs on at least the following operating systems: GNU/Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, Solaris, AIX, IRIX, Mac OS X, Windows 98/ME/NT/2000/XP and others. Support for 98/ME was dropped from the official windows build XChat Forum - Support for Windows 98/ME dropped , but XChat can still be compiled from source or obtained from an alternate build site. Shareware controversy As of August 23, 2004, the official Windows build of XChat has become shareware, and must be purchased for USD $20, AUD $25 or 14.95€ after a 30-day trial period. Previous (freeware) builds for Windows have been removed from the official site. There has been a great deal of discussion about the legality of this move. Since the XChat project has not required copyright assignment, the maintainer (Peter Železný, or zed) of the XChat project does not actually hold copyright to the entirety of the code. While he has offered to remove and rewrite any patches, provided the author of the patches asks him to, there are many who feel that he is still in violation of the GPL, especially since the code for the shareware enforcement is not disclosed. As the code may be in violation of the GPL, a developer whose code is currently in the XChat source code may be entitled to use legal actions. However, as the controversy has existed for quite some time, it is unlikely for a developer to take this action if they are currently concerned about their code in the project and have not already requested a change. It is stated that the shareware fee is required due to the excessive amount of time it takes to make it compile under Windows XChat for Windows . Unofficial Windows builds of XChat are made available (at no cost) by contributors, who maintain binaries of the latest release, and also compile frequently from CVS. See also Comparison of IRC clients References External links Windows Build Lineup #xchat on freenode #xchat on EFnet Derivative software XChat Aqua for Mac OS X XChat Gnome lurc, an IRC client based on xchat 1.0 Conspire, an IRC client based on xchat 2.8-cvs

XChat |@lemmatized xchat:21 commonly:1 write:2 x:6 chat:4 popular:1 internet:1 relay:1 irc:6 client:6 available:3 unix:1 like:1 system:5 microsoft:1 window:9 additional:1 feature:4 mac:3 aqua:2 base:3 fink:1 project:4 choice:1 tabbed:1 document:1 interface:3 tree:1 support:3 multiple:1 server:1 highly:1 configurable:1 command:1 line:1 graphical:1 version:2 main:1 code:7 license:2 gnu:2 general:1 public:1 official:4 shareware:5 use:2 gtk:1 toolkit:1 full:1 include:3 basic:1 functionality:2 find:1 ctcp:1 dcc:1 file:1 transfer:1 plugin:3 various:1 language:1 least:2 c:2 perl:1 python:1 tcl:1 ruby:2 website:1 lua:2 clisp:1 dmdscript:1 xcdscript:1 home:1 page:1 plugins:1 one:1 extend:1 customize:1 run:1 following:1 operating:1 linux:1 freebsd:1 netbsd:1 openbsd:1 solaris:1 aix:1 irix:1 windows:3 nt:1 xp:1 others:1 drop:2 build:6 forum:1 still:2 compile:3 source:2 obtain:1 alternate:1 site:2 controversy:2 august:1 become:1 must:1 purchase:1 usd:1 aud:1 day:1 trial:1 period:1 previous:1 freeware:1 remove:2 great:1 deal:1 discussion:1 legality:1 move:1 since:2 require:2 copyright:2 assignment:1 maintainer:1 peter:1 železný:1 zed:1 actually:1 hold:1 entirety:1 offer:1 rewrite:1 patch:2 provide:1 author:1 ask:1 many:1 feel:1 violation:2 gpl:2 especially:1 enforcement:1 disclose:1 may:2 developer:2 whose:1 currently:2 entitle:1 legal:1 action:2 however:1 exist:1 quite:1 time:2 unlikely:1 take:2 concern:1 already:1 request:1 change:1 state:1 fee:1 due:1 excessive:1 amount:1 make:2 unofficial:1 cost:1 contributor:1 maintain:1 binary:1 late:1 release:1 also:2 frequently:1 cv:2 see:1 comparison:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 lineup:1 freenode:1 efnet:1 derivative:1 software:1 gnome:1 lurc:1 conspire:1 |@bigram relay_chat:1 chat_irc:1 irc_client:6 microsoft_window:1 tabbed_document:1 perl_python:1 gnu_linux:1 freebsd_netbsd:1 netbsd_openbsd:1 windows_nt:1 nt_xp:1 external_link:1

London_Heathrow_Airport

London Heathrow Airport or Heathrow , located in the London Borough of Hillingdon, is the largest and busiest airport in the United Kingdom. It is the world's third busiest airport for passenger traffic and it handles the most international passenger traffic in the world. Busiest Airports - The Busiest Airports in the World Heathrow is owned and operated by BAA, which also owns and operates six other UK airports. UK airports owned and operated by BAA BAA is itself owned by an international consortium led by the Spanish Ferrovial Group. BAA: "Who owns us?" Heathrow is the primary hub of British Airways, BMI and Virgin Atlantic. Located west London Heathrow - EGLL of Central London, England, Heathrow originally was designed to have six runways in three pairs spaced approximately 120 degrees apart but now has just two parallel main runways running east-west and five terminals. The site covers . Terminal 5 was officially opened by H.M. Queen Elizabeth II on 14 March 2008 and opened to passengers on 27 March 2008. Construction of Heathrow East, to replace Terminal 2 and The Queen's Building, began in 2009, and is expected to be completed by early 2014. Terminals 3 and 4 will also be refurbished during this period. BAA Terminal 5: Heathrow East In November 2007 a consultation process began for the building of a new third runway and was controversially http://www.cnn.com/2009/BUSINESS/01/15/heathrow.third.runway/index.html approved on 15th January 2009 by UK Government ministers. BBC News Heathrow Airport has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence (Number P527) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction. CAA Aerodrome Licence Location Heathrow is located west of central London, England, near the southern end of the London Borough of Hillingdon. The airport stands on a parcel of land that was designated part of the London Metropolitan Green Belt. To the north, the airport is surrounded by the built-up areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford.Qantas Boeing 747-400 descending near London Heathrow Airport To the east are Hounslow and Hatton, and to the south are East Bedfont and Stanwell. To the west, the M25 motorway separates the airport from Colnbrook in Berkshire. The airport's location to the west of London, and the east-west orientation of its runways, means that airliners usually approach to land directly over the city. Other leading European airports, such as those at Madrid, Frankfurt and Paris, are located north or south of their cities, in order to minimise the overflying problem. Another disadvantage of the site is that it is low-lying, at above sea level, and can be prone to fog. Heathrow is one of six airports serving the London area, along with Gatwick, Stansted, Luton, Southend and City although only Heathrow and City Airports are located within Greater London. History 1930s and 1940s Aviation at the location of what is now Heathrow Airport began during World War I, when the site was used as a military airfield. By the 1930s the airfield, then known as the Great Western Aerodrome, was privately owned by Fairey Aviation Company, and was used for aircraft assembly and testing. Commercial traffic used Croydon Airport, which was London's main airport at the time. In 1943, Heathrow came under the control of the Air Ministry, to be developed as a Royal Air Force transfer station. Harold Balfour (later Lord Balfour), then Under-Secretary of State for Air (1938-1944), wrote in his 1973 autobiography, Wings over Westminster, that he deliberately deceived the government committee into believing a requisition was necessary in order that Heathrow could be used as a base for long-range transport aircraft in support of the war with Japan. In fact, Balfour wrote that he always intended the site to be used for civil aviation, and used a wartime emergency requisition order to avoid a lengthy and costly public inquiry. Construction of runways began in 1944, on land that was originally acquired from the vicar of Harmondsworth. The new airport was built by Wimpey Construction, Wimpey - The First 100 Years: page 28 and was named after the hamlet Heath Row, little more than a row of isolated cottages on Hounslow Heath frequented by highwaymen; which was demolished to make way for the airport, and which was located approximately where Terminal 3 now stands. A map of Heathrow from before WWII A map of Heathrow from 1948 The Royal Air Force never made use of the airport, and following the end of World War II control was transferred to the Ministry of Civil Aviation on 1 January 1946. The first civil flight that day was to Buenos Aires, via Lisbon for refuelling. The official opening ceremony was performed on 25 March 1946 by Lord Winster, the Minister of Aviation. On 16 April a Panair Lockheed L-049 Constellation landed after a flight from Rio de Janeiro, the first aircraft of a foreign airline to land at Heathrow. The first BOAC scheduled flight departed for Australia on 28 May. This route was operated as a joint route with Qantas. The airport opened fully for civilian use on 31 May 1946, and by 1947 Heathrow had three runways, with three more under construction. These older runways, built for the piston-engined planes of that era, were each slightly longer than a mile in length, arranged in a 6-point star pattern to allow for all wind conditions. 1950s and 1960s Heathrow in 1965. Nearest the camera are two BOAC aircraft - a Vickers VC10 (with the high tail) and a Boeing 707. Heathrow in the 1960s In 1953, the first slab of the first modern runway was ceremonially placed by Queen Elizabeth II. She also opened the first permanent terminal building, the Europa Building (now known as Terminal 2), in 1955. On 1 April 1955, a new control tower designed by Frederick Gibberd was opened, replacing the original RAF control tower. The Oceanic Terminal (renamed as Terminal 3 in 1968) opened on 13 November 1961, to handle flight departures for long-haul routes. Heathrow Terminal Three Information At this time the airport had a direct helicopter service from central London; there were also public viewing facilities and gardens on the roof of the Europa Building British Pathe news reel 31.10 dated June 1955 (www.britishpathe.com) By the time Terminal 1 was opened in 1968, completing the cluster of buildings at the centre of the airport site, Heathrow was handling 14 million passengers annually. The location of the original terminals in the centre of the site has since become a constraint to expansion. The decision to locate them there reflected an early assumption that airline passengers would not require extensive car parking, as air travel was then only affordable to the wealthy, who would often be chauffeur-driven. Air Ministry and Ministry of Civil Aviation: Records (R Series Files) BT 217/551 In the late 1960s a cargo terminal was built to the south of the southern runway, connected to Terminals 1, 2 and 3 by a tunnel. 1970s to 1990s In 1970, Terminal 3 was expanded with the addition of an arrivals building. Other facilities were also added, including the UK's first moving walkways. Heathrow's two main runways, 09L-27R and 09R-27L, were also extended to their current lengths in order to accommodate new large jets such as the Boeing 747. The other runways were closed to facilitate terminal expansions – except for Runway 23, which was preserved for crosswind landings until 2002. In 1977, the London Underground Piccadilly Line was extended to Heathrow; connecting the airport with Central London in just under an hour. On 23 June 1998 Heathrow Express started operating, providing a direct rail service to London's Paddington station, via a specially-constructed line between the airport and the Great Western Main Line. Aircraft stands at Heathrow's Terminal 5 Continued growth in passenger numbers to 30 million annually by the early 1980s led to the need for more terminal space. Terminal 4 was constructed to the south of the southern runway, next to the existing cargo terminal, and away from the three older terminals. It was connected with Terminals 1, 2 and 3 by the already-existing Heathrow Cargo Tunnel. Terminal 4 was opened by the Prince and Princess of Wales in April 1986, and became the home for then newly-privatised British Airways. In August 1982, the "Airport Spur" section of the M4 was opened to give the airport a direct link with the motorway and provide motorway access to airport users from as far away as the West Country and South Wales. Four years later, the M25 was completed as the London Orbital Motorway giving a direct motorway link to much of the rest of the country. In 1987, the UK government privatised the British Airports Authority (now known as "BAA Limited") which controls Heathrow The Economist, The man who bought trouble. Consulted on July 18, 2007. and six other UK airports. BAA's UK airports Consulted on 23 October, 2007. During the 1980s and 1990s, since privatisation, BAA has expanded the proportion of terminal space allocated to retailing activities, and has invested in the development of retail activity. This has included expanding terminal areas to provide more shops and restaurants, and routing passengers through shopping areas, in order to maximise their exposure to retail offerings. Accidents and incidents On 3 March 1948, Sabena Douglas DC3 Dakota OO-AWH crashed in fog. Three crew and 19 of the 22 passengers died. On This Day - The Times, March 3, 1948 - Times Online On 31 October 1950, British European Airways Vickers Viking G-AHPN crashed at Heathrow after hitting the runway during a go-around. Three crew and 25 passengers died. Aviation Safety Network G-AHPN On 1 August 1956, XA897, an Avro Vulcan strategic bomber of the Royal Air Force, crashed at Heathrow after an approach in bad weather. The Vulcan was the first to be delivered to the RAF, and was returning from a demonstration flight to Australia and New Zealand. The pilot and co-pilot ejected and survived, but the four other occupants were killed. On 27 October 1965, BEA Vickers Vanguard G-APEE, flying from Edinburgh, crashed on Runway 28R while attempting to land in poor visibility. All 30 passengers and six crew on board died. ASN Aircraft accident description Vickers 951 Vanguard G-APEE - London-Heathrow Airport (LHR) On 8 April 1968, BOAC Flight 712 Boeing 707 G-ARWE, departing to Australia via Singapore, suffered an engine fire just after take-off. The engine fell from the wing into a nearby gravel pit in Staines, before the plane managed to perform an emergency landing with the wing on fire. However, the plane was consumed by fire once on the ground. Five people – four passengers and a stewardess – died, while 122 survived. Barbara Harrison, a flight attendant on board who helped with the evacuation, was posthumously awarded the George Cross. George Cross Database - GC facts and statistics Women awarded the George Cross On 3 July 1968, G-AMAD, an Airspeed Ambassador of BKS Air Transport, dropped a wing during approach, causing the aircraft to contact the grass and swerve towards the terminal building. It hit two parked British European Airways Hawker Siddeley Trident aircraft, burst into flames and came to rest against the ground floor of the terminal building. Six of the eight crew died, as did eight horses that were on board. Trident G-ARPT was written off, Aviation Safety Network G-AMAD and Trident G-ARPI was badly damaged, but subsequently repaired, only to be lost in the Staines crash in 1972. On 18 June 1972, Trident G-ARPI, operating as BEA548, crashed in a field close to the Crooked Billet Public House, Staines, two minutes after taking off. All 118 passengers and crew on board died. On 5 November 1997, a Virgin Atlantic Airways Airbus A340-300, G-VSKY, made an emergency landing with an undercarriage malfunction. Part of the undercarriage collapsed on landing, and both aircraft and runway were damaged. Recommendations made as a result of the accident included one that aircraft cabin door simulators should more accurately reproduce operating characteristics in an emergency, and another that cockpit voice recorders should have a two-hour duration in aircraft registered before April 1998. (PDF) On 26 February 2007, United Airlines Flight 955 to San Francisco, a Boeing 777-222, registration N786UA, had just pushed back from the gate at Heathrow and started its right engine when an electrical contactor failed, spraying molten metal on a polyethylene terphthalate covered insulation blanket and igniting it. The crew shut down the engine and the fire was successfully contained without injuries to the 205 aboard. On 17 January 2008, a British Airways Boeing 777-236ER, G-YMMM, operating as flight number BA038 from Beijing to London, crash-landed at Heathrow. The aircraft landed on grass short of the south runway, 27L, then slid to the edge of the runway and stopped on the threshold, its undercarriage having collapsed. It was the first accident resulting in a Boeing 777 hull loss, and eighteen minor injuries were confirmed, with 13 people being admitted to hospital. In 2009 a second interim report from the UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) said that ice may have formed in the fuel lines during the flight, restricting the flow of fuel to the engines. Air accident investigators called for a component on the Rolls-Royce Trent 800 series engine to be redesigned. Terrorism and security incidents On 8 June 1968, James Earl Ray, the man who had assassinated Martin Luther King, Jr., was captured and arrested at Heathrow Airport while he was trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport. On 19 May 1974, the IRA planted a series of bombs in the Terminal 1 car park. Two people were injured by the explosions. On 26 November 1983, the Brinks Mat robbery occurred, in which 6,800 gold bars worth nearly £26 million were taken from the Brink's Mat vault near Heathrow. Only a fraction of the gold was ever recovered, and only two men were convicted of the crime. On 17 April 1986, semtex explosives were found in the bag of a pregnant Irishwoman attempting to board an El Al flight. The explosives had been given to her by her Jordanian boyfriend and father of their unborn child Nizar Hindawi. The incident became known as the Hindawi Affair. On 21 December 1988, Pan Am Flight 103 from Heathrow to New York/JFK was blown up over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 on board and 11 other people on the ground. In 1994, over a six-day period, Heathrow was targeted three times (8 March, 10 March and 13 March) by the IRA, who fired 12 mortars. Heathrow was a symbolic target due to its importance to the UK economy, and much disruption was caused when areas of the airport were closed over the period. The gravity of the incident was heightened by the fact that the Queen was being flown back to Heathrow by the RAF on 10 March. In March 2002, thieves stole US $3 million that had arrived on a South African Airways flight. In February 2003, the British Army was deployed to Heathrow, along with 1,000 police officers, in response to intelligence reports suggesting that al-Qaeda terrorists might launch surface-to-air missile attacks at British or American airliners. On 17 May 2004, Scotland Yard's Flying Squad foiled an attempt by seven men to steal £40 million in gold bullion and a similar quantity of cash from the Swissport warehouse at Heathrow. On 10 August 2006, the airport became the focus of changes in security protocol, following the revelation of a supposed al-Qaeda terrorist plot. New security rules were put in force immediately, causing lengthy delays and inconvenience to passengers. These included the prohibition of carry-on luggage (except essential items such as travel documents and medication) and all liquids – although this rule was later relaxed to allow the carrying on board of liquid medications and baby milk, provided that they were tasted first by passengers at the security checkpoint. On 25 February 2008, Greenpeace activists protesting against the planned third runway managed to cross the tarmac and climb on top of a British Airways Airbus A320, which had just arrived from Manchester Airport. At about 09:45 GMT the protesters unveiled a banner, saying "Climate Emergency – No Third Runway", over the aircraft's tailfin, and by 11:00 GMT four arrests had been made. On 13 March 2008, a man with a rucksack scaled the perimeter fence onto runway 27R, and ran across the grounds, resulting in his subsequent arrest. A controlled explosion of his bag took place, although nothing suspicious was found, and the Metropolitan Police later said that the incident had not been terrorism related. Heathrow today British Airways aircraft at Terminal 5 Ambient colour-shifting lights at Terminal 3's entrance Heathrow Airport is used by over 90 airlines which fly to 170 destinations worldwide. The airport is the primary hub of British Airways, BMI and Virgin Atlantic. Of Heathrow's 67 million annual passengers, 11% travel to UK destinations, 43% are short-haul international travellers, and 46% are long-haul. The busiest single destination in terms of passenger numbers is New York, with over 3.5 million passengers travelling between Heathrow and JFK / Newark airports in 2007. The airport has five passenger terminals (Terminals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) and a cargo terminal. Terminal 5 opened to passengers on 27 March 2008 and will be fully completed with the opening of its second satellite building in 2010. Originally, Heathrow had six runways, arranged in three pairs at different angles, with the passenger terminal in the centre. With growth in the required length for runways, Heathrow now has just two parallel runways running east-west. Runway 23, a short runway for use in strong south-westerly winds, was decommissioned in 2005 and now forms part of a taxiway. The Heathrow Academy (the airport's Visitor Centre) In 2006, the new £105 million Pier 6 was completed at Heathrow's Terminal 3 in order to accommodate the Airbus A380 superjumbo, providing four new aircraft stands. Other modifications totalling in excess of £340 million have also been carried out across the airfield in readiness for the Airbus A380, and the newly opened Terminal 5 is also fully compatible with the A380. The first A380 test flight into Heathrow took place on 18 May 2006, but following delays to the aircraft's production, scheduled services did not commence from Heathrow until 18 March 2008, when Singapore Airlines Flight 380, the first A380 in passenger service, registered 9V-SKA of Singapore Airlines touched down from Singapore carrying 470 passengers, marking the first ever European commercial flight by the Airbus A380. A new high £50 million air traffic control tower entered service on 21 April 2007, and was officially opened on 13 June 2007 by Secretary of State for Transport Douglas Alexander. Policing of the airport is the responsibility of the aviation security unit of the Metropolitan Police, although the army, including armoured vehicles of the Household Cavalry, has occasionally been deployed to the airport during periods of heightened security. Heathrow's reputation for thefts has led to it sometimes being referred to as 'Thiefrow'. Heathrow Airport has Anglican, Catholic, Free Church, Muslim, Sikh, Hindu and Jewish chaplains. There is a multi-faith prayer room and counselling room in each terminal, in addition to St. George's Interdenominational Chapel which is located in an underground bunker adjacent to the old control tower, where Christian services take place. The chaplains organise and lead prayers at certain times in the prayer room. There is an Anglican Service every Tuesday and Wednesday, daily Catholic Mass and Free Church prayers in the chapel. Heathrow airport has its own resident press corps, consisting of six photographers and one TV crew, serving all the major newspapers and television stations around the world. Heathrow's hidden gems Operations A Virgin Atlantic Airbus A340-300 seen near Heathrow Aircraft destined for Heathrow usually enter its airspace via one of four main reporting points: Bovingdon (BNN) over Hertfordshire, Lambourne (LAM) over Essex, Biggin Hill (BIG) over Bromley and Ockham (OCK) over Surrey. Each is defined by a VOR radio-navigational beacon. When the airport is busy, aircraft will orbit in the associated holds. These reporting points/holds lie respectively to the north-west, north-east, south-east and south-west of the London conurbation. Air traffic controllers at Heathrow Approach Control (based in Swanwick, Hampshire) then guide the aircraft to their final approach, merging aircraft from the four holds into a single stream of traffic, sometimes as close as apart. Considerable use is made of continuous descent approach techniques to minimise the environmental effects of incoming aircraft, particularly at night. Once an aircraft is established on its final approach, control is handed over to Heathrow Tower. Because aircraft generate significantly more noise on departure than when landing, there is a preference for westerly operations during daytime operations. In westerly operations, aircraft continue to operate in a westerly direction with up to a easterly tailwind. In this mode aircraft depart towards the west and approach from the east over London, thereby minimising the impact of noise on the most densely populated areas. A radar tower situated in Heathrow's central terminal areaHeathrow's two runways generally operate in segregated mode whereby arriving aircraft are allocated to one runway and departing aircraft to the other. To further reduce noise nuisance to people beneath the approach and departure routes, the use of runways 27R and 27L is swapped at 3 pm each day if the wind is from the west. When easterly landings are in progress there is no alternation; 09L remains the landing runway and 09R the departure runway due to the Cranford Agreement. Occasionally landings are allowed on the nominated departure runway, to help reduce airborne delays and to position landing aircraft closer to their terminal, thus reducing taxi times. Night-time flights at Heathrow are subject to restrictions. Between 11.00 p.m. and 7.00 a.m. the noisiest aircraft (rated QC/8 and QC/16) cannot be scheduled to operate at all. In addition, between 11.30 p.m. and 6.00 a.m. (the night quota period) there are three limits: A limit on the number of flights allowed; A quota count system which limits the total amount of noise permitted, but allows operators to choose to operate fewer noisy aircraft or a greater number of quieter planes; A voluntary ban on QC/4 aircraft. Regulation As BAA owns London's three major airports Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted and therefore has a monopolistic position, the amount it is allowed to charge airlines to land aeroplanes at Heathrow is heavily regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Until 1 April 2003, the annual increase in landing charge per passenger was capped at inflation minus 3%. From 2003 to 2007, charges increased by inflation plus 6.5% per year, taking the fee to £9.28 per passenger in 2007. In March 2008, the CAA announced that the charge would be allowed to increase by 23.5% to £12.80 from 1 April 2008, and by inflation plus 7.5% for each of the following four years. In addition, air traffic between Heathrow and the United States was strictly governed by the countries' bilateral Bermuda II treaty. The treaty originally allowed only British Airways, Pan Am, and TWA to fly from Heathrow to the US. In 1991 PAA and TWA sold their rights to United Airlines and American Airlines respectively, and Virgin Atlantic was added to the list of airlines allowed to operate on these routes. In 2002, American Airlines and British Airways announced plans to coordinate the scheduling of their trans-Atlantic routes but plans were dropped after the United States Department of Transportation made approval conditional on the granting of further access slots to Heathrow to other US airlines. American Airlines and British Airways considered the slots too valuable and dropped the plans. The Bermuda bilateral agreement conflicted with the Right of Establishment of the United Kingdom in terms of its membership in the EU, and as a consequence the UK was ordered to drop the agreement in 2004. A new "open skies" agreement was signed by the United States and the European Union on 30 April 2007, and came into effect on 30 March 2008. Whilst the cost of landing at Heathrow is determined by the CAA and BAA, the allocation of landing slots to airlines is carried out by Airport Co-ordination Limited (ACL). Traffic and statistics Queue of aircraft for take-off including jets from Virgin Atlantic, British Airways, Air India, and BMI The operator of Heathrow, BAA, claims that Heathrow is the "world's busiest international airport", but it is only the world's third-busiest by total passenger traffic, after Atlanta-Hartsfield-Jackson and Chicago O'Hare, which are also international airports. However, Heathrow has the highest number of international passengers. In 2008 Heathrow was the busiest airport in Europe in terms of total passenger traffic (13.6% more passengers than at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport and 25.6% more than at Frankfurt Airport), but it was third behind Charles de Gaulle and Frankfurt in terms of plane movements (12.9% fewer landings and take offs than at Charles de Gaulle, and 2.2% fewer than at Frankfurt). Heathrow airport was fourth in terms of cargo traffic (after Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt and Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport). + Busiest International Routes out of London Heathrow Airport (2008) Rank Airport Passengers handled % Change1John F. Kennedy International Airport2,802,87012Dublin Airport1,812,02883Amsterdam Airport Schiphol1,709,13554Dubai International Airport1,652,44155Hong Kong International Airport1,493,86436Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport1,489,167177Los Angeles International Airport1,461,07948O'Hare International Airport1,460,81699Frankfurt Airport1,271,4211210Madrid Barajas Airport1,152,504211Singapore Changi Airport1,066,606112Washington Dulles International Airport1,041,176113Toronto Pearson International Airport992,579314San Francisco International Airport985,575515Munich Airport983,287816Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport955,302317OR Tambo International Airport944,731618Copenhagen Airport939,950419Stockholm-Arlanda Airport893,181120Newark Liberty International Airport882,93124 American Airlines Boeing 777-200ER landing at Heathrow Concorde G-BOAB in storage at London Heathrow Airport, following the end of the Concorde era. This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between 1976 and 2000. The control tower is in the background Heathrow's facilities were originally designed to accommodate 55 million passengers annually according to BAA. With numbers currently approaching 70 million the airport has become crowded and subject to delays, for which it has been criticised in recent years, and in 2007 the airport was voted the world's least favourite alongside Chicago O'Hare in a TripAdvisor survey. However, the opening of Terminal 5 in 2008 has relieved some pressure on terminal facilities, increasing the airport's terminal capacity to 90 million passengers a year. With only two runways operating at over 98% of their capacity, Heathrow has little room for more flights, although the increasing use of larger aircraft such as the Airbus A380 will allow some increase in passenger numbers. It is difficult for existing airlines to obtain landing slots to enable them to increase their services from the airport, or for new airlines to start operations. In order to increase the number of flights, BAA has proposed using the existing two runways in 'mixed mode' whereby aircraft would be allowed to take-off and land on the same runway. This would increase the airport's capacity from its current 480,000 movements per year to as many as 550,000 according to British Airways CEO Willie Walsh. BAA has also proposed building a third runway to the north of the airport, which would significantly increase traffic capacity (see Future expansion below). However with passenger traffic at Charles de Gaulle growing by 5.8% to 59.3 million during the 12 months to September 2007, compared with Heathrow's fall of 0.4% to 67.6 million during the same period, it is possible that CDG ---- with its four runways operating at only 73.5% capacity ---- could overtake Heathrow by 2010. Terminals Terminal 1 Terminal 1 was opened in 1968 and was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II in May 1969. In 2005, a substantial redesign and redevelopment of the terminal was completed, which saw the opening of the new Eastern Extension, doubling the departure lounge in size and creating additional seating and retail space. It handles some of Heathrow's domestic and all Irish routes along with some long haul and European routes. Terminal 2 Terminal 2 is Heathrow's oldest terminal and was opened as the Europa Building in 1955. It, as well as the adjacent Queens Building, will be demolished in 2009 to make way for the new Heathrow East terminal. Terminal 3 The centralised waiting area in Terminal 3 Terminal 3 was opened as The Oceanic Terminal on 13 November 1961 to handle flight departures for long-haul routes. At this time the airport had a direct helicopter service to Central London from the gardens on the roof of the terminal building. The Oceanic Terminal was renamed as Terminal 3 in 1968 and was expanded in 1970 with the addition of an arrivals building. Other facilities were also added, including the UK's first moving walkways. In 2006, the new £105 million Pier 6 was completed in order to accommodate the Airbus A380 superjumbo; both Singapore Airlines and Emirates now operate regular flights from Terminal 3 using the Airbus A380. Redevelopment of Terminal 3's forecourt by the addition of a new four lane drop-off area and a large pedestrianised plaza, complete with canopy to the front of the terminal building was completed in 2007; these improvements were intended to improve passengers' experiences, reduce traffic congestion and improve security. BAA also have plans for a £1bn upgrade of the rest of the terminal over the next ten years. Terminal 4 Terminal 4 arrivals Terminal 4 is situated to the south of the southern runway next to the cargo terminal, and is connected to Terminals 1, 2 and 3 by the Heathrow Cargo Tunnel. Until 2008 it was used mainly by British Airways, but from 2009 will become the Heathrow base for airlines of the SkyTeam alliance. Following the transfer of most of British Airways' flights to Terminal 5 during 2008, Terminal 4 is undergoing a £200m upgrade to enable it to accommodate 45 airlines and serve as the base for the SkyTeam alliance. The forecourt has been upgraded to reduce traffic congestion and improve security. An extended check-in area will open in late 2009, and piers and departure lounges are being renovated. Two new stands to accommodate the Airbus A380 are being constructed, and a new baggage system is being installed. Terminal 5 Terminal 5 interior Terminal 5 is situated between the northern and southern runways at the western end of the Heathrow site, and was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 14 March 2008 some nineteen years after its inception. The first two weeks of the terminal's operation were disrupted by a number of problems with the terminal's IT systems, coupled with insufficient testing and staff training, which caused over 500 flights to be cancelled. Built at a cost of £4.3 billion, the new terminal consists of a four storey main terminal building (Concourse A) and two satellite buildings linked to the main terminal by an underground people mover transit system. The first satellite (Concourse B) includes dedicated aircraft stands for the Airbus A380; Concourse C is currently under construction and scheduled to open in 2010. In total, Terminal 5 has 60 aircraft stands and capacity for 30 million passengers annually. There are more than 100 shops and restaurants. The transport network around the airport has been extended to cope with the increase in passenger numbers. A dedicated motorway spur has been built from the M25 between junctions 14 and 15 to the terminal, which includes a 3,800 space multi-storey car park. A more distant long-stay car park for business passengers will be linked to the terminal by a personal rapid transit system, which will open in 2009. New branches of both the Heathrow Express and the Underground's Piccadilly Line serve a new shared Heathrow Terminal 5 station. Heathrow East Terminal Plan of the future of Heathrow airport after the completion of Heathrow East In November 2005 BAA announced that after the opening of Terminal 5 in 2008, it planned to demolish Terminals 1 and 2 and the Queen's Building administrative centre between them, and replace them by a new Heathrow East terminal. BAA reveals next stage of vision for transforming Heathrow post Terminal 5 The new terminal will provide an increase in capacity, being capable of handling 30 million people ---- five million fewer than currently use Terminals 1 and 2, although considerably more than the design capacity of the existing buildings. The plan envisages the complete realignment of piers more logically and the building of new ones on the now defunct cross-wind runway, in a site taking up roughly the same amount of space as Terminal 5. Formerly Heathrow East, the core terminal building will be known as Terminal 2A, and there will be a satellite building named Terminal 2B, similar to Terminal 5. Planning permission was granted in May 2007 on condition that the project meets a number of 'green' targets. The construction of new aircraft stands began in early 2009 to allow Terminal 2 to be demolished later in the year, enabling construction of the main terminal to begin. Originally planned to be completed by 2012 in time for the London Olympics, Terminal 2A and its satellite building will not come into operation now until early 2014. The entire project is set to cost £1-1.5bn. Terminal 6 and Runway 3 See Expansion of London Heathrow Airport. Access Public transport Heathrow Express train at Paddington station Heathrow Express: a non-stop service directly to London's Paddington station; trains leave every 15 minutes for the 15 mile journey, either from Terminal 5 or Heathrow Central (Terminals 1, 2, 3). Passengers transferring between these two stations on the Heathrow Express may use the service free of charge. Heathrow Connect: a service to Paddington calling at up to five National Rail stations en route - trains leave every 30 minutes for the 25-minute journey. Heathrow Connect services use Heathrow Central station (Terminals 1, 2, 3) and terminate at Terminal 4 - passengers transferring between these two stations at Heathrow may use the service free of charge. London Underground Piccadilly line: four tube stations serve the airport - Terminals 1, 2, 3; Terminal 4; Terminal 5 and Hatton Cross. The standard journey time from the Heathrow Terminals 1, 2, 3 tube station to Central London is 40-50 minutes. Long-distance coach services operated by National Express to various parts of the UK, including Victoria Coach Station in London. A door-to-door London hotel shuttle bus service is operated by Dot2Dot from each terminal, and HotelHoppa buses connect each terminal with hotels in the Heathrow area. There are two RailAir coach services connecting nearby railway stations with the airport using dedicated non-stop coaches. These run to: Reading railway station, connecting with railway services to the West Country, South Wales, Midlands and south coast of England Woking railway station, for places in Surrey, Hampshire, Dorset and Wiltshire Heathrow Airport has one of the United Kingdom's biggest bus stations, with many local bus services (Transport for London) to nearby London suburbs. ULTra Personal Rapid Transport is currently being constructed as a trial shuttling passengers to and from Terminal 5. The initial trial will have 18 pods running. ULTra are small transportation pods that can fit four adults, two children, and their luggage and will be able to carry passengers directly to their departure gate once they type in their flight number. The pods are battery powered and will be initially used on a four kilometre track. If the trial is successful there are plans for a roll out airport wide. Car Heathrow is accessible via the nearby M4 motorway and A4 road (Terminals 1–3), the M25 motorway (Terminals 4 and 5), and the A30 road (Terminal 4). There are drop off and pick up areas at all terminals and short and long stay multi-storey car parks. Additionally, there are car parks (not run by BAA) just outside the airport, these are connected to the terminals by shuttle buses. Heathrow airport is also served by taxi services. Four parallel tunnels under one of the runways connect the M4 motorway and the A4 road to Terminals 1–3. The two larger tunnels are each two lanes wide and are used for motorised traffic. The two smaller tunnels were originally reserved for pedestrians and bicycles; to increase traffic capacity the cycle lanes have been modified to each take a single lane of cars, although bicycles still have priority over cars. Pedestrian access to the smaller tunnels has been discontinued, with the free bus services being the alternative. Bicycle There are (mainly off-road) bicycle routes to some of the terminals. Transport for London free maps 'London Cycling Guide 6' covers Terminals 1, 2 & 3 while 'London Cycling Guide 9' covers Terminal 4 (as of the June 2007 revision). But despite its recent construction there are no cycle routes connecting to Terminal 5. Free bicycle parking places are available in car parks 1 and 1A. Future expansion In January 2009 the Transport Secretary Geoff Hoon announced that the UK government support the expansion of Heathrow by building a third runway (2200m) and sixth terminal building. This decision follows the 2003 white paper on the future of air transport in the UK, and a public consultation in November 2007. This was a controversial decision which met widespread opposition because of its greenhouse gas emissions, destruction of local communities, and noise and air pollution. A plan to make Heathrow an international railway exchange has also been proposed with the potential construction of Heathrow Hub railway station. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article5439472.ece Airlines and destinations Terminal 1 Terminal 2 Terminal 3 Terminal 4 Terminal 5 Heathrow's Terminal 5 check-in concourse Terminal rearrangements Following the opening of Terminal 5, the allocation of airlines to terminals at Heathrow is changing so as to group airlines of each alliance in one terminal as far as possible. The transfer process started in March 2008 and is expected to be completed over 26 months. "Heathrow looks ahead", Airports(Key Publishing), September/October 2007, P30 SkyTeam Carriers Will Operate Out of Terminal 4 at London Heathrow (Official Press Release: 6 June 2006) On 1 June 2009, Austrian Airlines, Croatia Airlines, Lufthansa, Swiss International Airlines and TAP Portugal will move from Terminal 2 to Terminal 1. In 2009 Aeroflot, Air France, Alitalia, Czech Airlines and Korean Air will move to Terminal 4, completing the entire SkyTeam alliance at Terminal 4. By mid-2009, all non-aligned airlines will move from their respective terminals to Terminal 4. El Al will remain in Terminal 1 and Virgin Atlantic will remain in Terminal 3, while Aer Lingus will move to Terminal 3. All Star Alliance airlines not in Terminal 1 by this time will remain in Terminal 3 (except for Continental Airlines and TAM Airlines in Terminal 4) until Heathrow East is fully developed. Terminal 2 will be demolished once the moves are complete. By late-2009, British Airways and Qantas flights will move from Terminal 4 to Terminal 3 finalising the oneworld moves and completing the whole alliance at Terminals 3 and 5. aword from oneworld: December 2008 When Terminal 5C opens in May 2010, British Airways flights to Bangkok, Barcelona, Helsinki, Lisbon, Madrid, Málaga, Singapore, Sydney and Vienna will move from Terminal 3 to Terminal 5. After these moves, but before Heathrow East opens, Heathrow terminal arrangements will be as follows: Terminal 1: Star Alliance; El Al Terminal 2: Will be demolished by the end of 2009 and replaced with the new Heathrow East Terminal in 2012 Terminal 3: Oneworld; Aer Lingus; Clickair; Virgin Atlantic; all Star Alliance members not based in Terminal 1 (until Heathrow East is developed) Terminal 4: SkyTeam; TAM Airlines; and all non-aligned airlines Terminal 5: British Airways See also List of airports in the United Kingdom World's busiest airports by passenger traffic Busiest airports in Europe by passenger traffic Notes External links Heathrow Airport - official website Map of all air traffic to and from London Heathrow Heathrow Airport Consultative Committee 2M group - a coalition of 12 local boroughs representing 2 million residents affected by expansion plans The building of Heathrow Video at the Internet Archive Heathrow Air Watch - Information on pollution levels around Heathrow Heathrow airport's resident TV crew - official website

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LTJ_Bukem

LTJ Bukem is the stage name used by the drum and bass musician, producer and DJ Danny Williamson (born 1967, London). He and his record label Good Looking Records are most associated with the jazzy, atmospheric side of drum and bass music. The name "LTJ Bukem" is a contraction of "El DJ Book 'em", a nod to the Spanish for "The DJ". "Book'em" (or "Book'em Danno") is the well-known catchphrase by Steve McGarret, Senior Officer to "Danny Williams" on the television series Hawaii Five-O. Together we get "Ltj Bukem". Life and career Williamson was raised in Watford, England by foster parents. , Interview bei Fabio, BBC Radio 1, 09.06.2007 He was trained as a classical pianist and discovered jazz fusion in his teenage years, having a jazz funk band at one stage. However by the late 1980s he decided to become a DJ, and gained fame in the rave scene of the early 1990s. As a producer, he released a series of classic jungle tracks such as "Demon's Theme" (1991), "Atlantis" and "Music" (1993). He then dipped in visibility as a producer, with his work running legendary London club night Speed and his record label Good Looking Records coming to the fore. A series of compilations entitled Logical Progression highlighted a jazz and ambient influenced side of drum and bass. The style became widely known as intelligent drum and bass, although Bukem himself was opposed to the moniker, unhappy with the implication that other styles of jungle were not intelligent. Bukem also explored the downtempo end of electronic lounge music, with sister label Looking Good and the Earth series of compilations. Some of the artists who rose to fame under Good Looking in this period include Blame, Seba, Big Bud, Blu Mar Ten, Future Engineers, and Artemis. On July 16, 1995 he did an Essential Mix alongside MC Conrad. In 1997 he remixed the James Bond theme for David Arnold's concept album of James Bond music. In 2000 he finally released a debut solo album, the double-CD Journey Inwards. The album heavily emphasised his jazz fusion influences. 2001 saw a remix of Herbie Hancock. He DJs extensively around the world, often under the Logical Progression or Progression Sessions banner, with other Good Looking artists and house MCs Conrad and DRS. Style and influences Viewed as an innovator in the drum and bass style, LTJ Bukem is known for developing an accessible alternative to that hardcore genre's speedy, assaultive energies. His style pays homage to the Detroit-based sound of early techno, but Bukem also incorporates still earlier influences, particularly the mellow, melodic sonorities of 1970s-era jazz fusion as exemplified by Lonnie Liston Smith and Roy Ayers. Harrington, Richard. LTJ Bukem. The Washington Post April 27, 2001: T.07. ProQuest Platinum. Online (October 31, 2007). Early in his career, Bukem was identified for his response to the "almost paranoid hyperkinesis" of breakbeat-based house music, and specifically for his reservations regarding the overbearing force of the hardcore mentality. Chris Sharp, "Jungle." In Modulations: A History of Electronic Music, Peter Shapiro, Ed (New York: Caipirnha Productions Inc., 2000), p. 141. Bukem's music from the early 1990s onward represents his efforts to map out an alternative future for breakbeat house music by incorporating softer-edged influences culled from London's 1980s rare groove and acid jazz scenes. Music on Logical Progression reveals these influences, as does his approach on 1993's Music / Enchanted, which features string arrangements and sounds from nature. His use of keyboards, live vocals and slow- motion breaks on these and future releases earned Bukem's music the tag intelligent drum and bass. While this designation caused controversy within the drum and bass community, it also influenced the popularization of hardcore music in the UK during the mid 1990s. Chris Sharp, "Jungle." In Modulations: A History of Electronic Music, Peter Shapiro, Ed (New York: Caipirnha Productions Inc., 2000), p. 141. Discography Delitefol (released as a white label only Cat no. WIZ BUK 01) Logical Progression (released under the name LT Bukem) Demon's Theme / A Couple Of Beats (Good Looking Records Cat no. GLR001 released 1991, repressed 2000) DJ Biz - Losing track of time (LTJ Bukem mix) released 1992 Teach Me To Fly (LTJ Bukem & DJ Trace released 1992) Who Knows Vol 1 (released under the name The Bookworm) Bang The Drums / Remnants (LTJ Bukem and Tayla Good Looking Records Cat no. GLR002 released 1993) Return to Atlantis (LTJ Bukem and Apollo Two Good Looking Records Cat no. GLR003 released 1993) Music / Enchanted (Good Looking Records Cat no. GLR004 released 1993) 19.5 / 19.5 Reprisal (LTJ Bukem and Peshay Good Looking Records Cat no. GLR008 released 1994) Mixmag Live! Volume 21 (LTJ Bukem compilation /remix DMC Publishing Ltd Cat no. MMLCD21 released 1996) Logical Progression (a four volume label compilation series) Progression Sessions (a ten volume compilation/remix series) Earth (a seven volume compilation/remix series) The Journey (LTJ Bukem and Mystic Moods Mystic Moods Cat no. MMOODS 6/7 released 1996) Mystical Realms EP (Good Looking Records Cat no. GLREP001V released 1998) Journey Inwards (2000) Suspended Space EP (Good Looking Records Cat no. GLREP007V released 2000) Producer 01 (2001) Producer 05: Rarities (2002) Some Blue Notes Of Drum 'N Bass (2004) Trivia Revealed to fellow drum and bass DJ Fabio on Radio 1 that he had established contact with his birth mother for the first time. (2007) Performs sound checks at every gig he plays. Established a following via his residency alongside fellow drum and bass DJ's Fabio and Grooverider at the legendary night Speed. Bukem is half Egyptian, half Ugandan (revealed on Fabio show, Radio1, 24-Feb-08) Aliases include: LT Bukem and The Bookworm. Remixes Sweetness Michelle Gayle (Mellow Drum n Bass mix by LTJ Bukem 1994) Feenin Jodeci (LTJ Bukem Remix 1995) Transamazonia The Shamen (LTJ Bukem Remix 1995) If I Could Fly Grace (LTJ Bukem Remix 1996) The Essence Herbie Hancock (LTJ Bukem Remix 2001) Duppy man Chase and Status (LTj Bukem Remix 2006) References External links Official Good Looking Website LTJ Bukem at Allmusic LTJ Bukem interview

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Carbon_dioxide

Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. Carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis to make sugars which may either be consumed again in respiration or used as the raw material to produce polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose, proteins and the wide variety of other organic compounds required for plant growth and development. It is produced during respiration by plants, and by all animals, fungi and microorganisms that depend on living and decaying plants for food, either directly or indirectly. It is, therefore, a major component of the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide is generated as a by-product of the combustion of fossil fuels or the burning of vegetable matter, among other chemical processes. Large amounts of carbon dioxide are emitted from volcanoes and other geothermal processes such as hot springs and geysers and by the dissolution of carbonates in crustal rocks. , carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is at a concentration of 387 ppm by volume. Mauna Loa CO2 annual mean data from NOAA. "Trend" data was used. See also: Trends in Carbon Dioxide from NOAA. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide fluctuate slightly with the change of the seasons, driven primarily by seasonal plant growth in the Northern Hemisphere. Concentrations of carbon dioxide fall during the northern spring and summer as plants consume the gas, and rise during the northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant, die and decay. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas as it transmits visible light but absorbs strongly in the infrared and near-infrared. Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 5.1 atm. At 1 atm the gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below -78 °C and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above -78 °C. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice. is an acidic oxide: an aqueous solution turns litmus from blue to pink. is toxic in higher concentrations: 1% (10,000 ppm) will make some people feel drowsy. Concentrations of 7% to 10% cause dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: "Carbon Dioxide as a Fire Suppressant: Examining the Risks" Chemical and physical properties Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless. At higher concentrations it has a sharp, acidic odor. It will act as an asphyxiant and an irritant. When inhaled at concentrations much higher than usual atmospheric levels, it can produce a sour taste in the mouth and a stinging sensation in the nose and throat. These effects result from the gas dissolving in the mucous membranes and saliva, forming a weak solution of carbonic acid. This sensation can also occur during an attempt to stifle a burp after drinking a carbonated beverage. Amounts above 5,000 ppm are considered very unhealthy, and those above about 50,000 ppm (equal to 5% by volume) are considered dangerous to animal life. At standard temperature and pressure, the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m³, about 1.5 times that of air. The carbon dioxide molecule (O=C=O) contains two double bonds and has a linear shape. It has no electrical dipole, and as it is fully oxidized, it is moderately reactive and is non-flammable, but will support the combustion of metals such as magnesium. At −78.51° C or -109.3° F, carbon dioxide changes directly from a solid phase to a gaseous phase through sublimation, or from gaseous to solid through deposition. Solid carbon dioxide is normally called "dry ice", a generic trademark. It was first observed in 1825 by the French chemist Charles Thilorier. Dry ice is commonly used as a cooling agent, and it is relatively inexpensive. A convenient property for this purpose is that solid carbon dioxide sublimes directly into the gas phase leaving no liquid. It can often be found in grocery stores and laboratories, and it is also used in the shipping industry. The largest non-cooling use for dry ice is blast cleaning. Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 5.1 atm; the triple point of carbon dioxide is about 518 kPa at −56.6 °C (See phase diagram, above). The critical point is 7.38 MPa at 31.1 °C. An alternative form of solid carbon dioxide, an amorphous glass-like form, is possible, although not at atmospheric pressure. This form of glass, called carbonia, was produced by supercooling heated at extreme pressure (40–48 GPa or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil. This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon (silica glass) and germanium. Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts back to gas when pressure is released. History of human understanding Carbon dioxide was one of the first gases to be described as a substance distinct from air. In the seventeenth century, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont observed that when he burned charcoal in a closed vessel, the mass of the resulting ash was much less than that of the original charcoal. His interpretation was that the rest of the charcoal had been transmuted into an invisible substance he termed a "gas" or "wild spirit" (spiritus sylvestre). The properties of carbon dioxide were studied more thoroughly in the 1750s by the Scottish physician Joseph Black. He found that limestone (calcium carbonate) could be heated or treated with acids to yield a gas he called "fixed air." He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and did not support either flame or animal life. Black also found that when bubbled through an aqueous solution of lime (calcium hydroxide), it would precipitate calcium carbonate. He used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation. In 1772, English chemist Joseph Priestley published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he described a process of dripping sulfuric acid (or oil of vitriol as Priestley knew it) on chalk in order to produce carbon dioxide, and forcing the gas to dissolve by agitating a bowl of water in contact with the gas. Carbon dioxide was first liquefied (at elevated pressures) in 1823 by Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday. The earliest description of solid carbon dioxide was given by Charles Thilorier, who in 1834 opened a pressurized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to find that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the liquid yielded a "snow" of solid . Isolation and production Carbon dioxide may be obtained from air distillation. However, this yields only very small quantities of . A large variety of chemical reactions yield carbon dioxide, such as the reaction between most acids and most metal carbonates. For example, the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) is depicted below: The then decomposes to water and . Such reactions are accompanied by foaming or bubbling, or both. In industry such reactions are widespread because they can be used to neutralize waste acid streams. The production of quicklime (CaO) a chemical that has widespread use, from limestone by heating at about 850 °C also produces : The combustion of all carbon containing fuels, such as methane (natural gas), petroleum distillates (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, propane), but also of coal and wood, will yield carbon dioxide and, in most cases, water. As an example the chemical reaction between methane and oxygen is given below. Iron is reduced from its oxides with coke in a blast furnace, producing pig iron and carbon dioxide: Yeast metabolizes sugar to produce carbon dioxide and ethanol, also known as alcohol, in the production of wines, beers and other spirits, but also in the production of bioethanol: → All aerobic organisms produce when they oxidize carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins in the mitochondria of cells. The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily. Refer to (cellular respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis). Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants, cyanobacteria) use another modus operandi: Plants absorb from the air, and, together with water, react it to form carbohydrates: Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it spontaneously interconverts between and (carbonic acid). The relative concentrations of , and the deprotonated forms (bicarbonate) and (carbonate) depend on the pH. In neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater, while in very alkaline water (pH > 10.4) the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The bicarbonate and carbonate forms are very soluble, such that air-equilibrated ocean water (mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2 – 8.5) contains about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter. Industrial production Carbon dioxide is produced mainly from six processes: From combustion of fossil fuels and wood; As a by-product hydrogen plants, where methane is converted to ; As a by-product of fermentation of sugar in the brewing of beer, whisky and other alcoholic beverages; From thermal decomposition of limestone, , in the manufacture of lime, ; As a by-product of sodium phosphate manufacture; Directly from natural carbon dioxide springs, where it is produced by the action of acidified water on limestone or dolomite. Uses Carbon dioxide is used by the food industry, the oil industry, and the chemical industry. It is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable, and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately 60 bar (870 psi, 59 atm), allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Aluminum capsules are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for airguns, paintball markers, for inflating bicycle tires, and for making seltzer. Rapid vaporization of liquid carbon dioxide is used for blasting in coal mines. High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests, such as the Common Clothes Moth. Drinks Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks and soda water. Traditionally, the carbonation in beer and sparkling wine comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these drinks artificially. Foods A candy called Pop Rocks is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas at about 40 bar (600 psi). When placed in the mouth, it dissolves (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible pop. Leavening agents produce carbon dioxide to cause dough to rise. Baker's yeast produces carbon dioxide by fermentation of sugars within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as baking powder and baking soda release carbon dioxide when heated or if exposed to acids. Pneumatic systems Carbon dioxide is one of the most commonly used compressed gases for pneumatic (pressurized gas) systems in portable pressure tools and combat robots. Fire extinguisher Carbon dioxide extinguishes flames, and some fire extinguishers, especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide has also been widely used as an extinguishing agent in fixed fire protection systems for total flooding of a protected space, (National Fire Protection Association Code 12). International Maritime Organisation standards also recognise carbon dioxide systems for fire protection of ship holds and engine rooms. Carbon dioxide based fire protection systems have been linked to several deaths. A review of CO2 systems (Carbon Dioxide as a Fire Suppressant: Examining the Risks, US EPA) identified 51 incidents between 1975 and the date of the report, causing 72 deaths and 145 injuries. Welding Carbon dioxide also finds use as an atmosphere for welding, although in the welding arc, it reacts to oxidize most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are more brittle than those made in more inert atmospheres, and that such weld joints deteriorate over time because of the formation of carbonic acid. It is used as a welding gas primarily because it is much less expensive than more inert gases such as argon or helium. Caffeine removal Liquid carbon dioxide is a good solvent for many lipophilic organic compounds, and is used to remove caffeine from coffee. First, the green coffee beans are soaked in water. The beans are placed in the top of a column seventy feet (21 m) high. Then supercritical carbon dioxide in fluid form at about 93 degrees Celsius enters at the bottom of the column. The caffeine diffuses out of the beans and into the carbon dioxide Pharmaceutical and other chemical processing Carbon dioxide has begun to attract attention in the pharmaceutical and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as organochlorides. It's used by some dry cleaners for this reason. (See green chemistry.) In the chemical industry, carbon dioxide is used for the production of urea, carbonates and bicarbonates, and sodium salicylate. Agriculture / Biological applications Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis. Because of low current atmospheric concentration, carbon dioxide is practically the limiting factor of the Earth life, as compare to two other similarly important components - water and sun light. While plants "in wild" are optimized for this, plant-intense greenhouses may (and of large size - must) enrich their atmospheres with additional to sustain plant life and growth, because the low present-day atmosphere concentration of is just above the "suffocation" level for green plants. A photosynthesis-related drop (by a factor less than two) in carbon dioxide concentration in a greenhouse compartment would kill green plants, or, at least, completely stop their growth. At very high concentrations (a factor of 100 or more higher than its atmospheric concentration), carbon dioxide can be toxic to animal life, so raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) or higher for several hours will eliminate pests such as whiteflies and spider mites in a greenhouse. It has been proposed that carbon dioxide from power generation be bubbled into ponds to grow algae that could then be converted into biodiesel fuel. Carbon dioxide is already increasingly used in greenhouses as the main carbon source for Spirulina algae. In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide (factor 150 as compare to atmospheric concentration) is added to pure oxygen for stimulation of breathing after apnea and to stabilize the balance in blood. Lasers A common type of industrial gas laser is the carbon dioxide laser. Polymers and plastics Carbon dioxide can also be combined with limonene oxide from orange peels or other epoxides to create polymers and plastics. Oil recovery Carbon dioxide is used in enhanced oil recovery where it is injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells, usually under supercritical conditions. It acts as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground crude oil, significantly reduces its viscosity, enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the earth to the removal well. In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points. As refrigerants Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important refrigerants, especially in the food industry, where they are employed during the transportation and storage of ice cream and other frozen foods. Solid carbon dioxide is called "dry ice" and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical. Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 or R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the discovery of R-12 and is likely to enjoy a renaissance due to environmental concerns. Its physical properties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling capacity. Due to its operation at pressures of up to 130 bars, systems require highly resistant components that have been already developed to serial production in many sectors. In car air conditioning, in more than 90% of all driving conditions, R744 operates more efficiently than systems using R-134a. Its environmental advantages (GWP of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non-flammable) could make it the future working fluid to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, hot water heat pumps, among others. Some applications: Coca-Cola has fielded -based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is interested in refrigeration and heating technology. By the end of 2007, the global car industry is expected to decide on the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning. is one discussed option.(see The Cool War) Coal bed methane recovery In enhanced coal bed methane recovery, carbon dioxide is pumped into the coal seam to displace methane. Wine making Carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice is often used in the wine making process to cool down bunches of grapes quickly after picking to help prevent spontaneous fermentation by wild yeasts. The main advantage of using dry ice over regular water ice is that it cools the grapes without adding any additional water that may decrease the sugar concentration in the grape must, and therefore also decrease the alcohol concentration in the finished wine. Dry ice is also used during the cold soak phase of the wine making process to keep grapes cool. The carbon dioxide gas that results from the sublimation of the dry ice tends to settle to the bottom of tanks because it is heavier than regular air. The settled carbon dioxide gas creates an hypoxic environment which helps to prevent bacteria from growing on the grapes until it is time to start the fermentation with the desired strain of yeast. Carbon dioxide is also used to create a hypoxic environment for carbonic maceration, the process used to produce Beaujolais wine. Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to top up wine bottles or other storage vessels such as barrels to prevent oxidation, though it has the problem that it can dissolve into the wine, making a previously still wine slightly fizzy. For this reason, other gasses such as nitrogen or argon are preferred for this process by professional wine makers. pH control Carbon dioxide can be used as a mean of controlling the pH of swimming pools, by continuously adding gas to the water, thus keeping the pH level from rising. Among the advantages of this is the avoidance of handling (more hazardous) acids. In the Earth's atmosphere Carbon dioxide in earth's atmosphere is considered a trace gas currently occurring at an average concentration of about 385 parts per million by volume or 582 parts per million by mass. The mass of the Earth atmosphere is 5.14×1018 kg, Global atmospheric mass, surface pressure, and water vapor variations so the total mass of atmospheric carbon dioxide is 3.0×1015 kg (3,000 gigatonnes). Its concentration varies seasonally (see graph at right) and also considerably on a regional basis: in urban areas it is generally higher and indoors it can reach 10 times the background atmospheric concentration. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Due to human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation, the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased by about 35% since the beginning of the age of industrialization. Five hundred million years ago carbon dioxide was 20 times more prevalent than today, decreasing to 4-5 times during the Jurassic period and then maintained a slow decline with a particularly swift reduction occurring 49 million years ago. Up to 40% of the gas emitted by some volcanoes during subaerial volcanic eruptions is carbon dioxide. It is estimated that volcanoes release about 130-230 million tonnes (145-255 million tons) of into the atmosphere each year. Carbon dioxide is also produced by hot springs such as those at the Bossoleto site near Rapolano Terme in Tuscany, Italy. Here, in a bowl-shaped depression of about 100 m diameter, local concentrations of rise to above 75% overnight, sufficient to kill insects and small animals, but warm rapidly when sunlit and disperse by convection during the day. Locally high concentrations of , produced by disturbance of deep lake water saturated with are thought to have caused 37 fatalities at Lake Monoun, Cameroon in 1984 and 1700 casualties at Lake Nyos, Cameroon in 1986. However, emissions of by human activities are currently more than 130 times greater than the quantity emitted by volcanoes, amounting to about 27 billion tonnes per year. In the oceans There is about 50 times as much carbon dissolved in the oceans in the form of and carbonic acid, bicarbonate and carbonate ions as exists in the atmosphere. The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, having "absorbed about one-third of all human-generated emissions to date." Gas solubility decreases as the temperature of water increases and therefore the rate of uptake from the atmosphere decreases as ocean temperatures rise. Most of the taken up by the ocean forms carbonic acid in equilibrium with bicarbonate and carbonate ions. Some is consumed in photosynthesis by organisms in the water, and a small proportion of that sinks and leaves the carbon cycle. Increased in the atmosphere has led to decreasing alkalinity of seawater and there is some concern that this may adversely affect organisms living in the water. In particular, with decreasing alkalinity, the availability of carbonates for forming shells decreases. Biological role Carbon dioxide is an end product in organisms that obtain energy from breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism, in a process known as cellular respiration. This includes all plants, animals, many fungi and some bacteria. In higher animals, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the lungs where it is exhaled. In plants using photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere. Role in photosynthesis Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by photosynthesis, also called carbon assimilation, which uses light energy to produce organic compounds (cellulose, lipids, and various proteins) by combining carbon dioxide and water. Free oxygen is released as gas from the decomposition of water molecules, while the hydrogen is split into its protons and electrons and used to generate chemical energy via photophosphorylation. This energy is required for the fixation of carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle to make 3-phosphoglycerate that is used in metabolism, to construct sugars that can be used as an energy source within the plant through respiration and as the raw material for the construction of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides, nucleic acids and proteins during growth. Even when greenhouses are vented, carbon dioxide must be introduced into them to maintain plant growth, as the concentration of carbon dioxide can fall during daylight hours to as low as 200 ppm (a limit of C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis). Plants can grow up to 50 percent faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm when compared with ambient conditions. Some people (for example David Bellamy) believe that as the concentration of rises in the atmosphere that it will lead to faster plant growth and therefore increase food production. Global Warming? What a load of poppycock! by Professor David Bellamy Daily Mail, July 9, 2004 Such views are too simplistic; studies have shown that increased leads to fewer stomata developing on plants http://www.jstor.org/stable/2558897?cookieSet=1 F. Woodward and C. Kelly New Phytologist 1995 Vol 131 pages 311-327 The influence of CO2 concentration on stomatal density which leads to reduced water usage. Studies using FACE have shown that increases in lead to decreased concentration of micronutrients in crop plants. Irakli Loladze Trends in Ecology & Evolution Volume 17, Issue 10, 1 October 2002, Pages 457-461 Rising atmospheric CO2 and human nutrition: toward globally imbalanced plant stoichiometry? doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02587-9 This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2641685Carlos E. Coviella and John T. Trumble Conservation Biology, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Aug., 1999), pp. 700-712 Effects of Elevated Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Insect-Plant Interactions Plants also emit during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis, are only net absorbers during the day. A growing forest will absorb many tons of each year, but a mature forest will produce as much from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g. fallen branches) as is used in biosynthesis in growing plants. Nevertheless, mature forests are valuable carbon sinks, helping maintain balance in the Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of from the atmosphere. Toxicity Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 hPa level, i.e. about 30 km altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.039% (390 ppm), depending on the location (see graphical map of ). Prolonged exposure to moderate concentrations can cause acidosis and adverse effects on calcium phosphorus metabolism resulting in increased calcium deposits in soft tissue. Carbon dioxide is toxic to the heart and causes diminished contractile force. Davidson, Clive. 7 February 2003. "Marine Notice: Carbon Dioxide: Health Hazard". Australian Maritime Safety Authority. Toxicity and its effects increase with the concentration of , here given in volume percent of in the air: 1%, as can occur in a crowded auditorium with poor ventilation, can cause drowsiness with prolonged exposure. Toxicity of Carbon Dioxide Gas Exposure, CO2 Poisoning Symptoms, Carbon Dioxide Exposure Limits, and Links to Toxic Gas Testing Procedures By Daniel Friedman - InspectAPedia At 2% it is mildly narcotic and causes increased blood pressure and pulse rate, and causes reduced hearing. At about 5% it causes stimulation of the respiratory centre, dizziness, confusion and difficulty in breathing accompanied by headache and shortness of breath. At about 8% it causes headache, sweating, dim vision, tremor and loss of consciousness after exposure for between five and ten minutes. A natural disaster linked to intoxication occurred during the limnic eruptions in the -rich lakes of Monoun and Nyos in the Okun range of North-West Cameroon: the gas was brutally expelled from the mountain lakes and leaked into the surrounding valleys, killing most animal forms. During the Lake Nyos tragedy of 1988, 1700 villagers and 3500 livestock died. Due to the health risks associated with carbon dioxide exposure, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration says that average exposure for healthy adults during an eight-hour work day should not exceed 5,000 ppm (0.5%). The maximum safe level for infants, children, the elderly and individuals with cardio-pulmonary health issues is significantly less. For short-term (under ten minutes) exposure, the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) limit is 30,000 ppm (3%). NIOSH also states that carbon dioxide concentrations exceeding 4% are immediately dangerous to life and health. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Chemical Sampling Information: Carbon Dioxide. Retrieved 5 June 2008 from: http://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_225400.html Adaptation to increased levels of occurs in humans. Continuous inhalation of can be tolerated at three percent inspired concentrations for at least one month and four percent inspired concentrations for over a week. It was suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible. Decrement in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level. These figures are valid for pure carbon dioxide. In indoor spaces occupied by people the carbon dioxide concentration will reach higher levels than in pure outdoor air. Concentrations higher than 1,000 ppm will cause discomfort in more than 20% of occupants, and the discomfort will increase with increasing concentration. The discomfort will be caused by various gases coming from human respiration and perspiration, and not by itself. At 2,000 ppm the majority of occupants will feel a significant degree of discomfort, and many will develop nausea and headaches. The concentration between 300 and 2,500 ppm is used as an indicator of indoor air quality. Acute carbon dioxide toxicity is sometimes known by the names given to it by miners: blackdamp (also called choke damp or stythe). Miners would try to alert themselves to dangerous levels of carbon dioxide in a mine shaft by bringing a caged canary with them as they worked. The canary would inevitably die before reached levels toxic to people. Carbon dioxide ppm levels (CDPL) are a surrogate for measuring indoor pollutants that may cause occupants to grow drowsy, get headaches, or function at lower activity levels. To eliminate most indoor air quality complaints, total indoor CDPL must be reduced to below 600. NIOSH considers that indoor air concentrations that exceed 1,000 are a marker suggesting inadequate ventilation. ASHRAE recommends they not exceed 1,000 inside a space. Human physiology is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70% – 80%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO3− by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells, by the reaction + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3−. 5% – 10% is dissolved in the plasma 5% – 10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane Effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr Effect. Carbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If its levels are high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue. Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which may cause respiratory alkalosis. Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others — otherwise one risks going unconscious. Typically the gas we exhale is about 4% to 5% carbon dioxide and 4% to 5% less oxygen than was inhaled. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, The average person breathing produces approximately 2.3 pounds (1 kg) of carbon dioxide per day. See also Bosch reaction Carbon cycle Carbon dioxide (data page) Carbon dioxide sink Carbon monoxide Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change degassing in Lake Nyos Carbon dioxide sensor EcoCute - As refrigerants Emission standards Global warming Greenhouse gas Sabatier process CO2 sequestration References External links Carbon Dioxide Properties, Uses, Applications Dry Ice information Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (NOAA) NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory The on-line catalogue of natural emissions in Italy

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M'Naghten_rules

The M'Naghten Rules (pronounced, and sometimes spelled, McNaughton) were the first serious attempt to codify and rationalize the attitude of the criminal law towards mentally incompetent defendants. They arise from the attempted assassination of the British Prime Minister, Robert Peel, in 1843 by Daniel M'Naghten. In fact, M'Naghten fired a pistol at the back of Peel's secretary, Edward Drummond, who died five days later. The House of Lords asked a panel of judges, presided over by Sir Nicolas Conyngham Tindal, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, to set down guidance for juries in considering cases where a defendant pleads insanity. The rules so formulated as M'Naghten's Case 1843 10 C & F 200 M'Naghten's Case have been a standard test for criminal liability in relation to mentally disordered defendants in common law jurisdictions ever since, with some minor adjustments. When the tests set out by the Rules are satisfied, the accused may be adjudged "not guilty by reason of insanity" and the sentence may be a mandatory or discretionary (but usually indeterminate) period of treatment in a secure hospital facility, or otherwise at the discretion of the court (depending on the country and the offence charged) instead of a punitive disposal. The insanity defense is recognized in Australia, Canada, England and Wales, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, and most U.S. states with the exception of Montana, Idaho, and Utah. Not all of these jurisdictions still use the M'Naghten Rules. Historical Development Today, mental incapacity as a defense, when successfully raised, absolves a defendant in a criminal trial from liability, that is to say it applies public policies in relation to criminal responsibility by applying a rationale of compassion, accepting that it is morally wrong to subject a person to punishment if that person is deprived permanently or temporarily of the capacity to form a necessary mental intent that the definition of a crime requires. Indeed, punishment of the obviously mentally ill by the state may act so as to undermine public confidence in the penal system. Thus, in such cases, a utilitarian and humanitarian approach suggests that the interests of society are better served by treatment of the illness rather than punishment of the individual. Historically, insanity was not seen as a defence in itself but a special circumstance in which there was no acquittal, but the jury could deliver a special verdict and the King would issue a pardon Stephen, History of Criminal Law, 151; 2 Pollock & Maitland, History of English Law, 480 In R v Arnold 1724 16 How St. Tr. 765, the test for insanity was expressed in the following termswhether the accused is totally deprived of his understanding and memory and knew what he was doing "no more than a wild beast or a brute, or an infant".This is clearly, by modern legal and medical standards, a simplistic test. The next major advance occurred in Hadfield's Trial 1800 27 How St. Tr. 765 in which the court decided that a crime committed under some delusion would only be excused if it would have been excusable had the delusion been true. This would deal with the situation, for example, when the accused imagines he is cutting through a loaf of bread, whereas in fact he is cutting through a person's neck. The M'Naghten Rules The House Of Lords, having deliberated, delivered the following exposition of the Rules: "the jurors ought to be told in all cases that every man is presumed to be sane, and to possess a sufficient degree of reason to be responsible for his crimes, until the contrary be proved to their satisfaction; and that to establish a defence on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or, if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong" The central issue of this definition may be stated as "did the defendant know what he was doing?", and the issues raised have been analysed in subsequent appellate decisions: Presumption of Sanity and Burden of Proof Sanity is a rebuttable presumption and the burden of proof is on the party relying upon it; the standard of proof is on a balance of probabilities, that is to say that mental incapacity is more likely than unlikely. If this burden is successfully discharged, the party relying upon it is entitled to succeed. In Lord Denning's judgement in Bratty v Attorney-General for Northern Ireland 1963 AC 386, whenever the defendant makes an issue of his state of mind, the prosecution can adduce evidence of insanity. However, this will normally only arise to negate the defence case when automatism or diminished responsibility is in issue. In practical terms, the defence will be more likely to raise the issue of mental incapacity to negate or minimise criminal liability. In R v Clarke 1972 1 All E R 219 a defendant charged with a minor theft (shoplifting) claimed she had no mens rea because she had absent-mindedly walked out of the shop without paying because she suffered from depression. When the prosecution attempted to adduce evidence that this constituted insanity within the Rules, she changed her plea to guilty but on appeal, the Court ruled that she had been merely denying mens rea rather than raising a defence under the Rules and her conviction was quashed. The general rule was stated that the Rules only apply to cases in which the defect of reason is substantial. Disease of the Mind Whether a particular condition amounts to a disease of the mind within the Rules is not a medical but a legal question to be decided in accordance with the ordinary rules of interpretation. It seems that any disease which produces a malfunctioning of the mind is a disease of the mind and need not be a disease of the brain itself. The term has been held to cover numerous conditions: R v Kemp 1957 1 QB 399: arteriosclerosis or a hardening of the arteries caused loss of control during which the defendant attacked his wife with a hammer. This was an internal condition and a disease of the mind. R v Sullivan 1984) AC 156 during an epileptic episode, the defendant caused grievous bodily harm: epilepsy was an internal condition and a disease of the mind, and the fact that the state was transitory was irrelevant. R v Quick & Paddison 1973 3 AER 397 a diabetic committed an assault while in a state of hypoglycaemia caused by the insulin he had taken, the alcohol he had consumed and not eating. Since the immediate condition was caused by external factors, it was not caused by a disease of the mind. Automatism was not available either because the loss of control was foreseeable. R v Hennessy 1989) 1 WLR 287 a diabetic stole a car and drove it while suffering from a mild attack of hyperglycaemia caused by stress and a failure to take his insulin. Lane LCJ said at 294 In our judgment, stress, anxiety and depression can no doubt be the result of the operation of external factors, but they are not, it seems to us, in themselves separately or together external factors of the kind capable in law of causing or contributing to a state of automatism. They constitute a state of mind which is prone to recur. They lack the feature of novelty or accident, which is the basis of the distinction drawn by Lord Diplock in R v Sullivan 1984 AC 156, 172. It is contrary to the observations of Devlin J., to which we have just referred in Hill v Baxter 1958) 1 QB 277, 285. It does not, in our judgment, come within the scope of the exception of some external physical factor such as a blow on the head or the administration of an anaesthetic. In Bratty, Lord Denning observed obiter that a crime committed while sleepwalking would appear to him to be one committed as an automaton. However, the ruling in R v Sullivan that diseases of the mind need have no permanence, led many academics to suggest that sleepwalkers might well be found to be suffering from a disease of the mind with internal causes unless there was clear evidence of an external causal factor. In R v Burgess 1991 2 WLR 1206 the Court of Appeal ruled that the defendant who wounded a woman by hitting her with a video recorder while sleepwalking, was insane under the M'Naghten Rules. Lord Lane said, "We accept that sleep is a normal condition, but the evidence in the instant case indicates that sleepwalking, and particularly violence in sleep, is not normal." The courts have clearly drawn a distinction between internal and external factors affecting a defendant's mental condition; this distinction would appear to depend largely upon elements of voluntariness and awareness in the circumstances surrounding the defendant's actions; this is clear from Hennessy, above. In Quick & Paddison, above, for example, the distinction was made that although the defendant was a diabetic, his mental state was influenced less by his diabetes than by alcohol consumption and not eating, and it is implicit in the judgement that this had been, or could have been, within the defendant's control. It would appear that if a defendant is aware of a medical condition which may affect his mental capacity and acts in a manner inimical to that condition, a defence of insanity under the Rules will not be available. There is occasionally a blurred interface between insanity and automatism, as the comment in Burgess above shows. Actions committed while sleepwalking would normally be considered as "non-insane automatism", whereas in that case, violent assault was considered to support a finding of insanity within the Rules. See also automatism (case law). Nature and Quality of the Act This phrase refers to the physical nature and quality of the act, rather than the moral quality. It covers the situation where the defendant does not know what he is physically doing. Two common examples used are: The defendant cuts a woman's throat under the delusion that he is cutting a loaf of bread, The defendant chops off a sleeping man's head because he has the deluded idea that it would be great fun to see the man looking for it when he wakes up. The judges were specifically asked if a person could be excused if he committed an offence in consequence of an insane delusion. They replied that if he labours under such partial delusion only, and is not in other respects insane, "he must be considered in the same situation as to responsibility as if the facts with respect to which the delusion exists were real". This rule requires the court to take the facts as the accused believed them to be and follows Hadfield's Trial, above. If the delusions do not prevent the defendant from having mens rea there will be no defence. In R v Bell 1984 Crim. LR 685 the defendant smashed a van through the entrance gates of a holiday camp because, "It was like a secret society in there, I wanted to do my bit against it" as instructed by God. It was held that, as the defendant had been aware of his actions, he could neither have been in a state of automatism nor insane, and the fact that he believed that God had told him to do this merely provided an explanation of his motive and did not prevent him from knowing that what he was doing was wrong in the legal sense. Knowledge that the act was wrong "Wrong" here means legally rather than morally wrong. The defendant must be functionally unaware that his actions are legally wrong at the time of the offence to satisfy this requirement. In Windle 1952 2QB 826; 1952 2 All ER 1 246, the defendant killed his wife with an overdose of aspirin; he telephoned the police and said, "I suppose I'll hang for this." It was held that this was sufficient to show that although the defendant was suffering from a mental illness, he was aware that his act was wrong, and the defense was not allowed. Crimes Without Specific Intent In DPP v Harper (1997) it was held that insanity is not generally a defence to strict liability offences. In this instance, the accused was driving with excess alcohol. By definition, the accused is sufficiently aware of the nature of the activity to commit the actus reus of driving and presumably knows that driving while drunk is legally wrong. Any other feature of the accused's knowledge is irrelevant. The Function of the Jury Section 1 of the Criminal Procedure (Insanity and Unfitness to Plead) Act 1991 provides that a jury shall not return a special verdict that "the accused is not guilty by reason of insanity" except on the written or oral evidence of two or more registered medical practitioners of whom at least one has special experience in the field of mental disorder. This may require the jury to decide between conflicting medical evidence which they are not necessarily equipped to do, but the law goes further and allows them to disagree with the experts if there are facts or surrounding circumstances which, in the opinion of the court, justify the jury in coming to that conclusion. Sentencing Under section 3 of the Criminal Procedure (Insanity and Unfitness to Plead) Act 1991: Where the sentence for the offence to which the finding relates is fixed by law (e.g. murder), the court must make a hospital order restricting discharge without limitation of time. Otherwise, if there is adequate medical evidence and the defendant has been convicted of an imprisonable offence, a hospital order requires that the defendant be admitted to and detained in a hospital for treatment for a mental disorder (see sections 37-43 of the Mental Health Act 1983). In any other case the court may make: a hospital order and an order restricting discharge either for a limited or unlimited period of time; or in appropriate circumstances, a guardianship order; a supervision and treatment order; or an order for absolute discharge. Criticisms There have been five major criticisms of the law as it currently stands: Medical Irrelevance The legal definition of insanity has not advanced significantly since 1843; in 1953 evidence was given to the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment that doctors even then regarded the legal definition to be obsolete and misleading. This distinction has led to absurdities such as (a) even though a legal definition suffices, mandatory hospitalisation can be ordered in cases of murder; if the defendant is not medically insane, there is little point in requiring medical treatment. (b) diabetes has been held to facilitate a defence of insanity when it causes hyperglycemia, but not when it causes hypoglycemia. (c) Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights, imported into English law by the Human Rights Act 1998 provides that a person of unsound mind may only be detained where proper account of objective medical expertise has been taken. As yet, no cases have occurred in which this point has been argued. Burden of Proof The shift of burden of proof from the prosecution to the defence in cases where insanity may be in issue conflicts with the Woolmington v. DPP principle that the burden is always on the prosecution. Ineffectiveness The rules currently do not distinguish between defendants who represent a public danger and those who do not. Illnesses such as diabetes and epilepsy can be controlled by medication such that sufferers are less likely to have temporary aberrations of mental capacity, but the law does not recognise this. Sentencing for Murder A finding of insanity may well result in indefinite confinement in a hospital, whereas a conviction for murder may well result in a determinate sentence of between ten and fifteen years; faced with this choice, it may be that most defendants would prefer the certainty of the latter option. Scope A practical issue is whether the fact that an accused is labouring under a "mental disability” should be a necessary but not sufficient condition for negating responsibility i.e. whether the test should also require an incapacity to understand what is being done, to know that what one is doing is wrong, or to control an impulse to do something and so demonstrate a causal link between the disability and the potentially criminal acts and omissions. For example, the Irish insanity defence comprises the M'Naghten Rules and a control test which asks whether the accused was debarred from refraining from committing the act because of a defect of reason due to mental illness (see Doyle v Wicklow County Council 1974) 55 IR 71. But the Butler Committee recommended that proof of severe mental disorder should be sufficient to negate responsibility, in effect creating an irrebuttable presumption of irresponsibility arising from proof of a severe mental disorder. This has been criticized as it assumes a lack of criminal responsibility simply because there is evidence of some sort of mental dysfunction, rather than establishing a standard of criminal responsibility. According to this view, the law should be geared to culpability not mere psychiatric diagnosis. Notes and references Bibliography Boland, F. (1996). "Insanity, the Irish Constitution and the European Convention on Human Rights". 47 ‘’Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 260. Butler Committee. (1975). The Butler Committee on Mentally Abnormal Offenders, London: HMSO, Cmnd 6244 Dalby, J.T. (2006) "The Case of Daniel McNaughton: Let's get the story straight." American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 27, 17-32. Ellis, J. W. (1986). "The Consequences of the Insanity Defense: Proposals to reform post-acquittal commitment laws". 35 Catholic University Law Review 961. Gostin, L. (1982). "Human Rights, Judicial Review and the Mentally Disordered Offender". (1982) Crim. LR 779. The Law Reform Commission of Western Australia. The Criminal Process and Persons Suffering from Mental Disorder'', Project No. 69, August 1991. See also Policeman at the elbow External Links The Application of M'Naghten Rules to a 20th Century Murder Case from The Malefactor's Register

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Normans

Norman conquests in red. The Normans also conquered the Maltese Islands and parts of Tunisia and Libya. The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. They descended from Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of mostly Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock. Their identity emerged initially in the first half of the tenth century, and gradually evolved over succeeding centuries until they disappeared as an ethnic group in the early thirteenth century. The name "Normans" derives from "Northmen" or "Norsemen", after the Vikings from Scandinavia who founded Normandy (Northmannia in its original Latin). They played a major political, military, and cultural role in medieval Europe and even the Near East. They were famed for their martial spirit and Christian piety. They quickly adopted the Romance language of the land they settled in, their dialect becoming known as Norman, an important literary language. The Duchy of Normandy, which they formed by treaty with the French crown, was one of the great large fiefs of medieval France. The Normans are famed both for their culture, such as their unique Romanesque architecture, and their musical traditions, as well as for the military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers established a kingdom in Sicily and southern Italy by conquest, and a Norman expedition on behalf of their duke led to the Norman Conquest of England. Norman influence spread from these new centres to the Crusader States in the Near East, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, and to Ireland. In Russian historiography, the term "Norman" is often used for the Varangians, as for example in the term "Normanist theory". In French historiography too, the term is often applied to the various Viking groups that raided France in the ninth century before settling down to found Normandy. Characteristics In a famous passage, Geoffrey Malaterra characterised the Normans thus: Specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and garb of war." Malaterra in Peter Gunn, Normandy: Landscape with Figures. Their quick adaptability expressed itself in the shrewd Norman willingness to take on local men of talent, to marry the high-born local women; confidently illiterate Norman masters used the literate clerks of the church for their own purposes. Normandy Geographically, Normandy was approximately the same region as the old church province of Rouen and what was called Brittania Nova as well as western Flanders. It had no natural frontiers and was previously merely an administrative unit. Historically, its population was mostly Frankish. It included Viking settlers, who had begun arriving in the 880s, divided between a small colony in Upper (or eastern) Normandy and a larger one in Lower (or western) Normandy. In the course of the 10th century, the initial destructive incursions of Norse war bands into the rivers of France evolved into permanent encampments that included women and chattel. The pagan culture was driven underground by the Christian faith and Gallo-Romance language of the local people. The small groups of Vikings that settled there adopted the language and culture of the French majority. After a generation or two, the Normans were generally indistinguishable from their French neighbours. In Normandy, they adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of northern France, and worked them, both in Normandy and in England, into a functional hierarchical system. The Norman warrior class was new and different from the old French aristocracy, many of whom could trace their families back to Carolingian times, while the Normans could seldom cite ancestors before the beginning of the 11th century. Most knights remained poor and land-hungry; by 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation. Knighthood before the time of the Crusades held little social status, and simply indicated a professional warrior wealthy enough to own a war horse. Many Normans of France and Britain would eventually serve as avid Crusaders. The Norman language was forged by the adoption of the indigenous oïl language by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and developed into the regional language which survives today. Conquests In Italy The early Norman castle at Adrano. Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold far to the south of Normandy. Probably the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered the Mezzogiorno as warriors in 1017, at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno, when a Saracen attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince Guaimar IV begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the prince's request. William of Apulia tells that, in 1016, pilgrims to the shrine of the Archangel Michael at Monte Gargano were met by Melus of Bari, a Lombard freedom-fighter, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the Byzantine rule, which they did. The two most prominent families to arrive in the Mediterranean were descendants of Tancred of Hauteville and the Drengots, of whom Rainulf Drengot received the county of Aversa, the first Norman toehold in the south, from Duke Sergius IV of Naples in 1030. The Hautevilles achieved princely rank by proclaiming Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno "Duke of Apulia and Calabria". He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count with his capital of Melfi. Soon the Drengots had attained unto the principality of Capua, and the Emperor Henry III had legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, Drogo, as dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae in 1047. La Cuba, a Siculo-Norman palace in Palermo From these bases, the Normans eventually captured Sicily and Malta from the Saracens, under the famous Robert Guiscard, a Hauteville, and his young brother Roger the Great Count. Roger's son, Roger II, was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by Pope Anacletus II. The kingdom of Sicily lasted until 1194, when it fell to the Hohenstaufens through marriage. The Normans left their mark however in the many castles, such as the Iron Arm's fortress at Squillace, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's at Cefalù, which dot the landscape and give a wholly distinct architectural flavour to accompany its unique history. Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of feudal law and order to forge a unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Muslims, and Christians, both Catholic and Orthodox. In Byzantium Soon after the Normans first began to enter Italy, they entered the Byzantine Empire, and then Armenia against the Pechenegs, Bulgars, and especially Seljuk Turks. The Norman mercenaries first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines soon fought in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside Varangian and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of George Maniaces of 1038-40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service were mostly or at all from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen. One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was Hervé in the 1050s. By then however, there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as Trebizond and Georgia. They were based at Malatya and Edessa, under the Byzantine duke of Antioch, Isaac Komnenos. In the 1060s, Robert Crispin led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. Roussel de Bailleul even tried to carve out an independent state in Asia Minor with support from the local population, but he was stopped by the Byzantine general Alexius Komnenos. Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenians vassal-states of Sassoun and Taron in far eastern Anatolia. Later, many took up service with the Armenian states further south in Cilicia and the Taurus Mountains. A Norman named Oursel led a force of "Franks" into the upper Euphrates valley in northern Syria. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general Philaretus Brachamius were Normans — formerly of Oursel — led by Raimbaud. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks." The known trade between Amalfi and Antioch and between Bari and Tarsus may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy. Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the Comnenian Restoration, when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of Albanian clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under George Maniaces in the Sicilian expedition of 1038. In England Siege of a motte-and-bailey castle from the Bayeux Tapestry. The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the Channel. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of Emma, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy, and King Ethelred II of England. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after Canute the Great's conquest of the isle. When finally Edward the Confessor returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother Harthacanute, he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of the attitudes of Edward. He appointed Robert of Jumièges archbishop of Canterbury and made Ralph the Timid earl of Hereford. He invited his brother-in-law Eustace II of Boulogne to his court in 1051, an event which resulted in the greatest of early conflicts between Saxon and Norman and ultimately resulted in the exile of Earl Godwin of Wessex. In 1066, Duke William II of Normandy conquered England. The invading Normans and their descendants replaced the Anglo-Saxons as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single French-speaking culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England were, as Dukes of Normandy, vassals to the King of France. They may not have necessarily considered England to be their most important holding (although it brought the title of King - an important status symbol). King Richard I (the Lionheart) is often thought to epitomise a medieval English King, but he only spoke French and spent more time in Aquitaine or on Crusade than in England. Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions. In the course of the Hundred Years war, the Norman aristocracy often identified themselves as English. The Anglo-Norman language became distinct from the French language, something that was the subject of some humour by Geoffrey Chaucer. The Anglo-Norman and Anglo-Saxon languages eventually merged to form Middle English. In Wales Chepstow Castle in Wales, first built by William fitzOsbern in 1067. Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with Wales. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the Marches and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales. Subsequent to the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including Bernard de Neufmarché, Roger of Montgomery in Shropshire and Hugh Lupus in Cheshire. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as baron (barwn), first entered Welsh at that time. On Crusade The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the First Crusade carved out a Norman principality in Antioch. They were major foreign participants in the Reconquista in Spain. In 1018, Roger de Tony travelled to Spain to carve out a state for himself from Moorish lands, but failed. In 1064, during the War of Barbastro, William of Montreuil led the papal army and took a huge booty. In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of Amalfi were joined by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the de facto leader of the Crusade during its passage through Asia Minor. After the successful Siege of Antioch in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of Jerusalem and he worked for the expansion of the Crusader kingdom in Transjordan and the region of Galilee. In Scotland One of the claimants of the English throne opposing William the Conqueror, Edgar Atheling, eventually fled to Scotland. King Malcolm III of Scotland married Edgar's sister Margaret, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as the Abernethy where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William, and surrendered his son Duncan as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the English King. Normans came into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families who would provide some future kings such as Robert the Bruce as well as founding some of the Scottish clans. King David I of Scotland was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to Scotland, part of the process some scholars call the "Davidian Revolution". Having spent time at the court of Henry I of England (married to David's sister Maud of Scotland), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under William the Lion. The Norman-derived feudal system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland. Scottish clans of the name Ramsey, Fraser, Hunter, Olgivie, Cameron, Douglas, Wallace, & Gordon to name but a few can all be traced back to Norman ancestry. In Ireland Norman keep in Trim, County Meath. The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at Bannow Bay in 1169. Initially the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity. Yet, with time, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "more Irish than the Irish themselves." The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as the Pale, and also built many fine castles and settlements, including Trim Castle and Dublin Castle. Both cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman descendants today can be recognised by their surnames. Names such as French, (De) Roche, D'Arcy and Leacy are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of County Wexford where the first Norman settlements were established. Another common Norman-Irish name was Morell (Murrell) derived from the French-Norman name Morel. Morell is also the modern name for the Medieval Irish name of MacMurchada and MacMurrough. Rulers List of Dukes of Normandy List of Counts and Dukes of Apulia and Calabria List of Counts of Aversa List of Princes of Capua List of Dukes of Gaeta List of Princes of Taranto List of monarchs of Sicily List of Princes of Antioch List of Officers of the Principality of Antioch List of Kings of England Culture A quintessential Norman keep: the White Tower in London. Architecture The Normans' architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions which they subdued. They spread a unique Romanesque idiom to England and Italy and the encastellation of these regions with keeps in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and massive proportions. In Italy, the Normans incorporated elements of the native Islamic, Lombard, and Byzantine architecture into their own, initiating a style known as Sicilian Romanesque. In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the Anglo-Saxon and precedes the Early Gothic. Visual arts A bronze lion sculpture attributed to an Italo-Norman artist. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early eleventh century the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the Cluniac reform of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of scriptoria and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost illuminated manuscripts. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were Mont-Saint-Michel, Fécamp, Jumièges, Bec, Saint-Ouen, Saint-Evroul, and Saint-Wandrille. These centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the eleventh and the first of twelfth century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century. The Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century and French Revolution in the eighteenth successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The first by their violence caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; and the second by its assault on religion caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type and by its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging. By far the most famous work of Norman art is the Bayeux Tapestry, which is not a tapestry but a work of embroidery. It was commissioned by Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux and first Earl of Kent, employing natives from Kent who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the Danish Vikings. In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as stonework or metalwork, such as capitals and baptismal fonts. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greek, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with Arabic inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork in the eleventh century and this continued under Norman domination. Finally should be noted the intercourse between French Crusaders traveling to the Holy Land who brought with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongst their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces. Music A manuscript from Saint-Evroul depicting King David on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B'. Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of Western music in the eleventh century. Fécamp Abbey and Saint-Evroul Abbey were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the eleventh century. Under the German abbot Isembard, La Trinité-du-Mont became a centre of musical composition. At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Sant'Eufemia. There they continued the tradition of singing. References Sources Primary Elisabeth van Houts, ed. The Normans in Europe Manchester Medieval Sources, Manchester 2000. Medieval History Texts in Translation from the University of Leeds. Secondary Bates, David. Normandy before 1066, London 1982 Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris, 1907. Chibnall, Marjorie. The Normans, The Peoples of Europe, Oxford 2000 Crouch, David. The Normans: The History of a Dynasty. Hambledon & London, 2003. Douglas, David. The Norman Achievement. London, 1969. Douglas, David. The Norman Fate. London, 1976 Gillingham, John. The Angevin Empire, end ed., London 2001. Gravett, Christopher, and Nicolle, David. The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles. Osprey Publishing: Oxford, 2006. Green, Judith A. The Aristocracy of Norman England. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Gunn, Peter. Normandy: Landscape with Figures. London: Victor Gollancz, Ltd, 1975. Harper-Bill, Christopher and Elisabeth Van Houts, eds. A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World Boydell Press. 2003 Haskins, Charles H. Norman Institutions, 1918 Maitland, F. W. Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essays in the Early History of England. 2d ed. Cambridge University Press, 1988. (feudal Saxons) R. Mortimer, Angevin England 1154—1258, Oxford 1994. Muhlbergher, Stephen, Medieval England (Saxon social demotions) Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016-1130. Longmans: London, 1967. Norwich, John Julius. The Kingdom in the Sun 1130-1194. Longman: London, 1970. Robertson, A. J., ed. and trans. Laws of the Kings of England from Edmund to Henry I. AMS Press, 1974. (Mudrum fine) Painter, Sidney. A History of the Middle Ages 284−1500. New York, 1953. External links Dudo of St. Quentin's Gesta Normannorum, English translation The Normans, a European People, by the European Commission Breve Chronicon Northmannicum (Latin). The Normans Jersey heritage trust (pdf) Wales History — The Norman Wars. Patrick Kelly The Normans: their history, arms and tactics Regia Anglorum Who were the Normans?

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Canadian_Pacific_Railway

An eastbound CPR freight at Stoney Creek Bridge in Rogers Pass. Photo by David R. Spencer. The Canadian Pacific Railway , known as CP Rail between 1968 and 1996, is a Canadian Class I railway operated by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited. Its rail network stretches from Vancouver to Montreal, and also serves major cities in the United States such as Minneapolis, Chicago, and New York City. Its headquarters are in Calgary, Alberta. The railway was originally built between eastern Canada and British Columbia between 1881 and 1885 (connecting with Ottawa Valley and Georgian Bay area lines built earlier), fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered Confederation in 1871. It is Canada's first transcontinental railway. Now primarily a freight railway, the CPR was for decades the only practical means of long distance passenger transport in most regions of Canada, and was instrumental in the settlement and development of Western Canada. The CP company became one of the largest and most powerful in Canada, a position it held as late as 1975. Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1986 after being assumed by VIA Rail Canada in 1978. A beaver was chosen as the railway's logo because it is one of the national symbols of Canada and represents the hardworking character of the company. The object of both praise and condemnation for over 120 years, the CPR remains an indisputable icon of Canadian nationalism. The Canadian Pacific Railway is a public company with over 15,000 employees and market capitalization of 7 billion USD in 2008. History Before the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1870–1881 Creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken for a combination of reasons by the Conservative government of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald. British Columbia had insisted upon a transport link to the east as a condition for joining the Confederation of Canada (initially requesting a wagon road). The government however, proposed to build a railway linking the Pacific province to the eastern provinces within ten years of July 20, 1871. Macdonald also saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent. Moreover, manufacturing interests in Quebec and Ontario desired access to sources of raw materials and markets in Canada's west. Sir John A. Macdonald. The first obstacle to its construction was economic. The logical route went through the American Midwest and the city of Chicago, Illinois. In addition to the was difficulty of building a railroad through the Canadian Rockies, an entirely Canadian route would require crossing 1,600 km (1,000 miles) of rugged terrain of the barren Canadian Shield and muskeg of Northern Ontario. To ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in Western Canada. In 1872, Sir John A. Macdonald and other high-ranking politicians, tricked by bribes in the Pacific Scandal, granted federal contracts to Hugh Allan's "Canada Pacific Railway Company" (which was unrelated to the current company) and to the Inter-Ocean Railway Company. Because of this scandal, the Conservative party was removed from office in 1873. The new Liberal prime minister, Alexander Mackenzie, began construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works. The Thunder Bay branch linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875. Progress was discouragingly slow because of the lack of public money. With Sir John A. Macdonald's return to power on October 16, 1878, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the railway would follow the Fraser and Thompson rivers between Port Moody and Kamloops. In 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the 206 km (128 mile) section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia to Savona's Ferry on Kamloops Lake. The contract was awarded to Andrew Onderdonk, whose men started work on May 15, 1880. After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona's Ferry and Eagle Pass. On October 21, 1880, a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government. They agreed to build the railway in exchange for $25,000,000 (approximately $625,000,000 in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of 25,000,000 acres (100,000 km²) of land. The government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership. The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years. The Montreal-based syndicate officially comprised five men: George Stephen, James J. Hill, Duncan McIntyre, Richard B. Angus, and John Stewart Kennedy. Donald A. Smith and Norman Kittson were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest. On February 15, 1881, legislation confirming the contract received royal assent, and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formally incorporated the next day. Building the railway, 1881–1885 The CPR started its westward expansion from Bonfield, Ontario (previously called Callander Station) where the first spike was driven into a sunken railway tie. Bonfield, Ontario was inducted into Canadian Railway Hall of Fame in 2002 as the CPR First Spike location. That was the point where the Canada Central Railway extension ended. The CCR was owned by Duncan McIntyre who amalgamated it with the CPR and became one of the handful of officers of the newly formed CPR. The CPR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke. It then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River passing through places like Cobden, Deux-Rivières, and eventually to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa Rivers. It then proceeded cross-country towards its final destination Bonfield (previously called Callander Station). Duncan McIntyre and his contractor James Worthington piloted the CPR expansion. Worthington continued on as the construction superintendent for the CPR past Bonfield. He remained with the CPR for about a year until he left the company. McIntyre was uncle to John Ferguson who staked out future North Bay after getting assurance from his uncle and Worthington that it would be the divisional and a location of some importance. It was assumed that the railway would travel through the rich "Fertile Belt" of the North Saskatchewan River valley and cross the Rocky Mountains via the Yellowhead Pass, a route suggested by Sir Sandford Fleming based on a decade of work. However, the CPR quickly discarded this plan in favour of a more southerly route across the arid Palliser's Triangle in Saskatchewan and through Kicking Horse Pass over the Field Hill. This route was more direct and closer to the American border, making it easier for the CPR to keep American railways from encroaching on the Canadian market. However, this route also had several disadvantages. One consequence was that the CPR would need to find a route through the Selkirk Mountains, as at the time it was not known whether a route even existed. The job of finding a pass was assigned to a surveyor named Major Albert Bowman Rogers. The CPR promised him a cheque for $5,000 and that the pass would be named in his honour. Rogers became obsessed with finding the pass that would immortalize his name. He discovered the pass in 1883 Martin J, Edward. The Railway Stations of Western Canada. Canada: Studio E. 1980. , and true to its word, the CPR named the pass "Rogers Pass" and gave him the cheque. This however, he at first refused to cash, preferring to frame it, and saying he did not do it for the money. He later agreed to cash it with the promise of an engraved watch. Another obstacle was that the proposed route crossed land was controlled by the Blackfoot First Nation. This difficulty was overcome when a missionary priest, Albert Lacombe, persuaded the Blackfoot chief Crowfoot that construction of the railway was inevitable. In return for his assent, Crowfoot was famously rewarded with a lifetime pass to ride the CPR. A more lasting consequence of the choice of route was that, unlike the one proposed by Fleming, the land surrounding the railway often proved too arid for successful agriculture. The CPR may have placed too much reliance on a report from naturalist John Macoun, who had crossed the prairies at a time of very high rainfall and had reported that the area was fertile. The greatest disadvantage of the route was in Kicking Horse Pass. In the first 6 km (3.7 miles) west of the 1,625 metre (5,330 ft) high summit, the Kicking Horse River drops 350 metres (1,150 ft). The steep drop would force the cash-strapped CPR to build a 7 km (4.5 mile) long stretch of track with a very steep 4.5% gradient once it reached the pass in 1884. This was over four times the maximum gradient recommended for railways of this era, and even modern railways rarely exceed a 2% gradient. However, this route was far more direct than one through the Yellowhead Pass, and saved hours for both passengers and freight. This section of track was the CPR's Big Hill. Safety switches were installed at several points, the speed limit for descending trains was set at 10 km per hour (6 mph), and special locomotives were ordered. Despite these measures, several serious runaways still occurred. CPR officials insisted that this was a temporary expediency, but this state of affairs would last for 25 years until the completion of the Spiral Tunnels in the early 20th century. Sir William Cornelius Van Horne. In 1881 construction progressed at a pace too slow for the railway's officials, who in 1882 hired the renowned railway executive William Cornelius Van Horne, to oversee construction with the inducement of a generous salary and the intriguing challenge of handling such a difficult railway project. Van Horne stated that he would have 800 km (500 miles) of main line built in 1882. Floods delayed the start of the construction season, but over 672 km (417 miles) of main line, as well as various sidings and branch lines, were built that year. The Thunder Bay branch (west from Fort William) was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883, permitting all-Canadian lake and rail traffic from eastern Canada to Winnipeg for the first time in Canada's history. By the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just eight km (5 miles) east of Kicking Horse Pass. The construction seasons of 1884 and 1885 would be spent in the mountains of British Columbia and on the north shore of Lake Superior. Many thousands of navvies worked on the railway. Many were European immigrants. In British Columbia, the CPR hired workers from China, nicknamed coolies. A navvy received between $1 and $2.50 per day, but had to pay for his own food, clothing, transportation to the job site, mail, and medical care. After two and a half months of back-breaking labour, they could net as little as $16. Chinese navvies in British Columbia made only between $0.75 and $1.25 a day, not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home. They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with explosives. The families of the Chinese who were killed received no compensation, or even notification of loss of life. Many of the men who survived did not have enough money to return to their families in China. Many spent years in lonely, sad and often poor conditions. Yet the Chinese were hard working and played a key role in building the western stretch of the railway; even some boys as young as 12 years old served as tea-boys. Prime Minister Stephen Harper recently offered to pay a fee to the surviving chinese workers. By 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of funds. In response, on January 31, 1884, the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22,500,000 in loans to the CPR. The bill received royal assent on March 6, 1884. Donald Smith, later known as Lord Strathcona, drives the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway, at Craigellachie, November 7, 1885. Completion of the transcontinental railroad was a condition of BC's entry into Confederation. In March 1885, the North-West Rebellion broke out in the District of Saskatchewan. Van Horne, in Ottawa at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to Qu'Appelle, Assiniboia, in 10 days. Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in 9 days and the rebellion was quickly put down. Perhaps because the government was grateful for this service, they subsequently re-organized the CPR's debt and provided a further $5,000,000 loan. This money was desperately needed by the CPR. On November 7, 1885 the Last Spike was driven at Craigellachie, British Columbia, making good on the original promise. Four days earlier, the last spike of the Lake Superior section was driven in just west of Jackfish, Ontario. While the railway was completed four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed more than five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881. The successful construction of such a massive project, although troubled by delays and scandal, was considered an impressive feat of engineering and political will for a country with such a small population, limited capital, and difficult terrain. It was by far the longest railway ever constructed at the time. It had taken 12,000 men, 5,000 horses, and 300 dog-sled teams to build the railway. Meanwhile, in Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to St. Thomas, Ontario by 1885, and had launched a fleet of Great Lakes ships to link its terminals. The CPR had effected purchases and long-term leases of several railways through an associated railway company, the Ontario and Quebec Railway (O&Q). The O&Q built a line between Perth, Ontario, and Toronto (completed on May 5, 1884) to connect these acquisitions. The CPR obtained a 999-year lease on the O&Q on January 4, 1884. Later, in 1895, it acquired a minority interest in the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway, giving it a link to New York and the northeast US. 1886–1900 So many cost-cutting shortcuts were taken in constructing the railway that regular transcontinental service could not start for another seven months while work was done to improve the railway's condition. However, had these shortcuts not been taken, it is conceivable that the CPR might have had to default financially, leaving the railway unfinished. The first transcontinental passenger train departed from Montreal's Dalhousie Station, located at Berri Street and Notre Dame Street on June 28, 1886 at 8:00 p.m. and arrived at Port Moody on July 4, 1886 at noon. This train consisted of two baggage cars, a mail car, one second-class coach, two immigrant sleepers, two first-class coaches, two sleeping cars, and a diner (several dining cars were used throughout the journey, as they were removed from the train during the night, and another one was picked in the morning). First Transcontinental Train arrives in Port Arthur on June 30, 1886 By that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to Gastown, which was renamed "Vancouver" later that year. The first official train destined for Vancouver arrived on May 23, 1887, although the line had already been in use for three months. The CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the Federal government were repaid years ahead of time. In 1888, a branch line was opened between Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own steamships. That same year, work was started on a line from London, Ontario to the American border at Windsor, Ontario. That line opened on June 12, 1890. The CPR also leased the New Brunswick Railway for 999 years and built the International Railway of Maine, connecting Montreal with Saint John, New Brunswick in 1889. The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company and permitted trans-Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year-round when sea ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence closed the port of Montreal during the winter months. By 1896, competition with the Great Northern Railway for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line. Van Horne, now president of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from Lethbridge, Alberta through Crowsnest Pass to the south shore of Kootenay Lake, in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada. The controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on grain products and westbound rates on certain "settlers' effects" at the 1897 level. Although temporarily suspended during World War I, it was not until 1983 that the "Crow Rate" was permanently replaced by the Western Grain Transportation Act which allowed for the gradual increase of grain shipping prices. The Crowsnest Pass line opened on June 18, 1899. The CPR and the colonization of Canada One of the CPR's land offerings. Practically speaking, the CPR had built a railway that operated mostly in the wilderness. The usefulness of the Prairies was questionable in the minds of many. The thinking prevailed that the Prairies had great potential. Under the initial contract with the Canadian Government to build the railway, the CPR was granted 25,000,000 acres (100,000 km²). Proving already to be a very resourceful organization, Canadian Pacific began an intense campaign to bring immigrants to Canada. Canadian Pacific agents operated in many overseas locations. Immigrants were often sold a package that included passage on a CP ship, travel on a CP train, and land sold by the CP railway. Land was priced at $2.50 an acre and up. Immigrants paid very little for a seven-day journey to the West. They rode in Colonist cars that had sleeping facilities and a small kitchen at one end of the car. Children were not allowed off the train, lest they wander off and be left behind. The directors of the CPR knew that not only were they creating a nation, but also a long-term source of revenue for their company. 1901–1928 During the first decade of the twentieth century, the CPR continued to build more lines. In 1908 the CPR opened a line connecting Toronto with Sudbury. Previously, westbound traffic originating in southern Ontario took a circuitous route through eastern Ontario. Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in western Canada. In 1909 the CPR completed two significant engineering accomplishments. The most significant was the replacement of the Big Hill, which had become a major bottleneck in the CPR's main line, with the Spiral Tunnels, reducing the grade to 2.2% from 4.5%. The Spiral Tunnels opened in August. On November 3, 1909, the Lethbridge Viaduct over the Oldman River valley at Lethbridge, Alberta was opened. It is 1,624 metres (5,327 ft) long and, at its maximum, 96 metres (314 ft) high, making it the longest railway bridge in Canada. In 1916 the CPR replaced its line through Rogers Pass, which was prone to avalanches, with the Connaught Tunnel, an eight km (5 mile) long tunnel under Mount Macdonald that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the Western Hemisphere. The CPR acquired several smaller railways via long-term leases in 1912. On January 3, 1912, the CPR acquired the Dominion Atlantic Railway, a railway that ran in western Nova Scotia. This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to Halifax, a significant port on the Atlantic Ocean. The Dominion Atlantic was isolated from the rest of the CPR network and used the CNR to facilitate interchange; the DAR also operated ferry services across the Bay of Fundy for passengers and cargo (but not rail cars) from the port of Digby, Nova Scotia to the CPR at Saint John, New Brunswick. DAR steamships also provided connections for passengers and cargo between Yarmouth, Boston and New York. On July 1, 1912, the CPR acquired the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, a railway on Vancouver Island that connected to the CPR using a railcar ferry. The CPR also acquired the Quebec Central Railway on December 14, 1912. During the late 19th century, the railway undertook an ambitious program of hotel construction, building the Château Frontenac in Quebec City, the Royal York Hotel in Toronto, the Banff Springs Hotel, and several other major Canadian landmarks. By then, the CPR had competition from three other transcontinental lines, all of them money-losers. In 1919, these lines were consolidated, along with the track of the old Intercolonial Railway and its spurs, into the government-owned Canadian National Railways. When World War I broke out in 1914, the CPR devoted resources to the war effort, and managed to stay profitable while its competitors struggled to remain solvent. After the war, the Federal government created Canadian National Railways (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war. CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada. The Great Depression and World War II, 1929–1945 The Great Depression, which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily. While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the extent of its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt-free. The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services, and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932. One highlight of the 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Canada in 1939, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country. The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver. Later that year, World War II began. As it had done in World War I, the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort. It retooled its Angus Shops in Montreal to produce Valentine tanks, and transported troops and resources across the country. As well, 22 of the CPR's ships went to warfare, 12 of which were sunk. 1946–1978 After World War II, the transportation industry in Canada changed. Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, cars, trucks, and airplanes started to take traffic away from railways. This naturally helped the CPR's air and trucking operations, and the railway's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities. However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable. During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service, and in 1955 introduced The Canadian, a new luxury transcontinental train. However, starting in the 1960s the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines. It also discontinued its secondary transcontinental train The Dominion in 1966, and in 1970 unsuccessfully applied to discontinue The Canadian. For the next eight years, it continued to apply to discontinue the service, and service on The Canadian declined markedly. On October 29, 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to VIA Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that is responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN. VIA eventually took almost all of its passenger trains, including The Canadian, off CP's lines.The logo used from 1971 to 1994 when it fell out of use. Often referred to as the 'Pac-Man' logo named after the popular 80s video game of the same name. In 1968, as part of a corporate re-organization, each of the CPR's major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries. The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to Canadian Pacific Limited in 1971. Its express, telecommunications, hotel and real estate holdings were spun off, and ownership of all of the companies transferred to Canadian Pacific Investments. The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new Multimark logo that could be used for each of its operations. 1979–present In 1984 CP Rail commenced construction of the Mount Macdonald Tunnel to augment the Connaught Tunnel under the Selkirk Mountains. The first revenue train passed through the tunnel in 1988. At 14.7 km (9 miles), it is the longest tunnel in the Americas. Soo Line 6022, an EMD SD 60, pulls a train through Wisconsin Dells, WI, June 20, 2004. During the 1980s, the Soo Line Railroad, in which CP Rail still owned a controlling interest, underwent several changes. It acquired the Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway in 1982. Then on February 21, 1985, the Soo Line obtained a controlling interest in the Milwaukee Road, merging it into its system on January 1, 1986. Also in 1980 Canadian Pacific bought out the controlling interests of the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway (TH&B) from Conrail and molded it into the Canadian Pacific System, dissolving the TH&B's name from the books in 1985. In 1987 most of CPR's trackage in the Great Lakes region, including much of the original Soo Line, were spun off into a new railway, the Wisconsin Central, which was subsequently purchased by CN. Influenced by the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1989 which liberalized trade between the two nations, the CPR's expansion continued during the early 1990s: CP Rail gained full control of the Soo Line in 1990, and bought the Delaware and Hudson Railway in 1991. These two acquisitions gave CP Rail routes to the major American cities of Chicago (via the Soo Line) and New York City (via the D&H). During the next few years CP Rail downsized its route, and several Canadian branch lines were either sold to short lines or abandoned. This included all of its lines east of Montreal, with the routes operating across Maine and New Brunswick to the port of Saint John (operating as the Canadian Atlantic Railway) being sold or abandoned, severing CPR's transcontinental status (in Canada); the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the late 1950s, coupled with subsidized icebreaking services, made Saint John surplus to CPR's requirements. During the 1990s, both CP Rail and CN attempted unsuccessfully to buy out the eastern assets of the other, so as to permit further rationalization. As well, it closed divisional and regional offices, drastically reduced white collar staff, and consolidated its Canadian traffic control system in Calgary, Alberta. CP Rail SD90MAC locomotive in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. Finally, in 1996, reflecting the increased importance of western traffic to the railway, CP Rail moved its head office to Calgary from Montreal and changed its name back to Canadian Pacific Railway. A new subsidiary company, the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway, was created to operate its money-losing lines in eastern North America, covering Quebec, Southern and Eastern Ontario, trackage rights to Chicago, Illinois, as well as the Delaware and Hudson Railway in the U.S. Northeast. However, the new subsidiary, threatened with being sold off and free to innovate, quickly spun off losing track to short lines, instituted scheduled freight service, and produced an unexpected turn-around in profitability. After only four years, CPR revised its opinion and the StL&H formally re-amalgamated with its parent on January 1, 2001. In 2001, the CPR's parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its five subsidiaries, including the CPR, into independent companies. Canadian Pacific Railway formally (but, not legally) shortened its name to Canadian Pacific in early 2007, dropping the word "railway" in order to reflect more operational flexibility. Shortly after the name revision, Canadian Pacific announced that it had committed to becoming a major sponsor and logistics provider to the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, British Columbia. On September 4, 2007, CPR announced it was acquiring the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad from its present owners, London-based Electra Private Equity. The transaction is an "end-to-end" consolidation, and will give CPR access to U.S. shippers of agricultural products, ethanol, and coal. CPR has stated its intention to use this purchase to gain access to the rich coal fields of Wyoming's Powder River Basin. The purchase price is US$1.48 billion, and future payments of over US$1.0 billion contingent on commencement of construction on the smaller railroad's Powder River extension and specified volumes of coal shipments from the Powder River basin. The transaction was subject to approval of the U.S. Surface Transportation Board (STB), which was expected to take a year. On October 4, 2007, CPR announced it has completed the financial transactions required for the acquisition, placing the DM&E and IC&E in a voting trust with Richard Hamlin appointed as the trustee. CPR planned to integrate the railroads' operations once the STB approves the acquisition. The merger was completed as of October 31, 2008. Freight trains CPR caboose on display at Brockville, Ontario. Over half of the Canadian Pacific Railway's freight traffic is in coal, grain, and intermodal freight, and the vast majority of its profits are made in western Canada. A major shift in trade from the Atlantic to the Pacific has caused serious drops in CPR's wheat shipments through Thunder Bay. It also ships automotive parts and assembled automobiles, sulphur, fertilizers, other chemicals, forest products, and other types of commodities. The busiest part of its railway network is along its main line between Calgary and Vancouver. Since 1970, coal has become a major commodity hauled by CPR. Coal is shipped in unit trains from coal mines in the mountains, most notably Sparwood, British Columbia to terminals at Roberts Bank and North Vancouver, from where it is then shipped to Japan. The CPR hauls over 34 million tons of coal to the west coast each year, mainly for export to Japan. Grain is hauled by the CPR from the prairies to ports at Thunder Bay (the former cities of Fort William and Port Arthur), Quebec City and Vancouver, where it is then shipped overseas. The traditional winter export port was West Saint John, New Brunswick when ice closed the St. Lawrence River. Grain has always been a significant commodity hauled by the CPR; between 1905 and 1909, the CPR double-tracked its section of track between Fort William and Winnipeg to facilitate grain shipments. For several decades this was the only long stretch of double-track mainline outside of urban areas on the CPR. In 1952, the CPR became the first North American railway to introduce intermodal or "piggyback" freight service, where truck trailers are carried on flat cars. Containers later replaced most piggyback service. In 1996, the CPR introduced a scheduled reservation-only short-haul intermodal service between Montreal and West Toronto called the Iron Highway; it utilized unique equipment that was later replaced (1999) by conventional piggyback flatcars and renamed Expressway. This service was extended to Detroit with plans to reach Chicago. It was later cut back to Milton, west of Toronto. Passenger trains Until the end of World War II, the train was the primary mode of long-distance transportation in Canada. Among the many types of people who rode CPR trains were new immigrants heading for the prairies, troops heading to war (especially during the two world wars) and upper class tourists. It also custom-built many of its passenger cars at its CPR Angus Shops to be able to meet the demands of the upper class. The CPR also had a line of Great Lakes ships integrated into is transcontinental service. From 1885 until 1912, these ships linked Owen Sound on Georgian Bay to Fort William. Following a major fire in December 1911 that destroyed the grain elevator, operations were relocated to a new, larger port created by the CPR at Port McNicoll opening in May 1912. Five ships allowed daily service, and included the S.S. Assiniboia, and S.S. Keewatin built in 1908 which remained in use until the end of service. Travellers went by train from Toronto to that Georgian Bay port, then travelled by ship to link with another train at the Lakehead. After World War II, the trains and ships carried automobiles as well as passengers. This service featured what was to become the last boat train in North America. The Steam Boat was a fast, direct connecting train between Toronto and Port McNicoll. The passenger service was discontinued at the end of season in 1965 with one ship, the Keewatin carrying on in freight service for two more years. It later became a marine museum in the United States. After World War II, passenger traffic declined as automobiles and aeroplanes became more common, but the CPR continued to innovate in an attempt to keep ridership up. Beginning November 9, 1953, the CPR introduced Budd Rail Diesel Cars (RDCs) on many of its lines. Officially called "Dayliners" by the CPR they were always referred to as Budd Cars by employees. Greatly reduced travel times and reduced costs resulted which saved service on many lines for a number of years. The CPR would go on to acquire the second largest fleet of RDCs totaling 52 cars. Only the Boston and Maine Railroad had more. On April 24, 1955, the CPR introduced a new luxury transcontinental passenger train, The Canadian. The train provided service between Vancouver and Toronto or Montreal (east of Sudbury, the train was in two sections). The train, which operated on an expedited schedule, was pulled by diesel locomotives, and used new, streamlined, stainless steel rolling stock. Starting in the 1960s, however, the railway started to discontinue much of its passenger service, particularly on its branch lines. For example, passenger service ended on its line through southern British Columbia and Crowsnest Pass in January 1964, and on its Quebec Central in April 1967, and the transcontinental train The Dominion was dropped in January 1966. On October 29, 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to VIA Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that was now responsible for intercity passenger services in Canada. Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney presided over major cuts in VIA Rail service on January 15, 1990. This ended service by "The Canadian" over CPR rails, and the train was rerouted on the former "Super Continental" route via Canadian National without a change of name. Where both trains had been daily prior to the January 15, 1990 cuts, the surviving "Canadian" was (and is) only a three-times-weekly operation. In addition to inter-city passenger services, the CPR also provided commuter rail services in Montreal. CP Rail introduced Canada's first bi-level passenger cars here in 1970. On October 1, 1982, the Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission (MUCTC) assumed responsibility for the commuter services previously provided by CP Rail. It continues under the Metropolitan Transportation Agency (AMT). Canadian Pacific Railway currently operates three commuter services under contract. The West Coast Express comprises ten daily trains running into downtown Vancouver on behalf of TransLink, a regional transit authority. GO Transit contracts CPR to operate 6 return trips between Milton and downtown Toronto in Ontario. In Montreal, Quebec, commuter trains run on CPR lines from Lucien-L'Allier Station to Candiac, Rigaud and Blainville–Saint-Jerome on behalf of the AMT. Sleeping, Dining and Parlour Car Department Sleeping cars were operated by a separate department of the railway that included the dining and parlour cars and aptly named as the Sleeping, Dining and Parlour Car Department. The CPR decided from the very beginning that it would operate its own sleeping cars unlike railways in the United States that depended upon independent companies that specialized in providing cars and porters, including building the cars themselves. Pullman was long a famous name in this regard, its Pullman porters were legendary. Other early companies included the Wagner Palace Car Company. Bigger-sized berths and more comfortable surroundings were built by order of the CPR's General Manager, William Van Horne, who was a large man himself. Providing and operating their own cars allowed better control of the service provided as well as keeping all of the revenue received although profit was never a direct result of providing food to passengers. Rather, it was the realization that those who could afford to travel great distances expected such facilities and their favourable opinion would bode well to attracting others to Canada and the CPR's trains. This department also operated the news service which provided the news agents on passenger trains, who sold small refreshments and many other items such as playing cards to travelers, who might otherwise be unable to afford the higher priced dining car meals. The news service also operated lunch counters in medium sized stations at key points (there were 19 of them east of Winnipeg) while the large terminal stations had dining rooms operated directly by the Dining Car Department (e.g. the Alouette Room in Montreal's Windsor Station and the Pacific Room in the Vancouver station). Express W. C. Van Horne decided from the very beginning that the CPR would retain as much revenue from its various operations as it could. This translated into keeping express, telegraph, sleeping car and other lines of business for themselves, creating separate departments or companies as necessary. This was necessary as the fledgling railway would need all the income it could get, and in addition, he saw some of these ancillary operations such as express and telegraph as being quite profitable. Others such as sleeping and dining cars were kept in order to provide better control over the quality of service being provided to passengers. Hotels were likewise crucial to the CPR’s growth by attracting travellers. Dominion Express Company was formed independently in 1873 before the CPR itself, although train service did not begin until the summer of 1882 at which time it operated over some of track from Rat Portage (Kenora) Ontario west to Winnipeg, Manitoba. It was soon absorbed into the CPR and expanded everywhere the CPR went. It was renamed Canadian Express Company on September 1, 1926 and the headquarters moved from Winnipeg, to Toronto. It was operated as a separate company with the railway charging them to haul express cars on trains. At major terminals separate buildings usually next to stations were owned by CPE. At smaller locations where volume would not warrant a separate employee the local station agent would act for the Express Company receiving a commission for all sales made on their behalf. Express was handled in separate cars, some with employees on board, on the headend of passenger trains to provide a fast scheduled service for which higher rates could be charged than for LCL (Less than Carload Lot), small shipments of freight which were subject to delay. Aside from all sorts of small shipments for all kinds of businesses such products as cream, butter, poultry, and eggs were handled along with fresh flowers, fish and other sea foods some handled in separate refrigerated cars. Horses and livestock along with birds and small animals including prize cattle for exhibition were carried often in special horse cars that had facilities for grooms to ride with their animals. Automobiles for individuals were also handled by express in closed boxcars. Gold and silver bullion as well as cash were carried in large amounts between the mint and banks etc. Small business money shipments and valuables such as jewellery were routinely handled in small packets. Money orders and travellers’ cheques were an important part of the express company’s business and were used worldwide in the years before credit cards. Canadian Express Cartage Department was formed in March 1937 to handle pickup and delivery of most express shipments including less-than-carload freight. Their trucks were painted Killarney (dark) green while regular express company vehicles were painted bright red. Express routes using highway trucks beginning in November 1945 in southern Ontario and Alberta co-ordinated rail and highway service expanded service to better serve smaller locations especially on branchlines. Trucking operations would go on to expand across Canada making it an important transportation provider for small shipments. Deregulation in the 1980s changed everything, and it was not long before all trucking services were ended even after many attempts to change with the times. CanPar was one such attempt. Telegraph The original charter of the CPR granted in 1881 provided for the right to create an electric telegraph and telephone service including charging for it. The telephone had barely been invented but telegraph was well established as a means of communicating quickly across great distances. Being allowed to sell this service meant the railway could offset the costs of constructing and maintaining a pole line along its tracks across vast distances for its own purposes which were largely for dispatching trains. It began doing so in 1882 as the separate Telegraph Department. It would go on to provide a link between the cables under the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when they were completed. Prior to the CPR line messages to the west could be sent only via the United States. Paid for by the word, a telegram was an expensive way to send messages but, vital to businesses. An individual receiving a personal telegram was seen as being someone important except for those that transmitted sorrow in the form of death notices. Messengers on bicycles delivered telegrams and picked up a reply in cities. In smaller locations the local railway station agent would handle this on a commission basis. To speed things, at the local end messages would first be telephoned. In 1931 it became the Communications Department in recognition of the expanding services provided which included telephones lines, news wire, ticker quotations for the stock market and eventually teletype machines. All were faster than mail and very important to business and the public alike for many decades before cell phones and computers came along. It was the coming of these newer technologies especially cellular telephones that eventually resulted in the demise of these services even after formation in 1967 of CN-CP Telecommunications in an effort to effect efficiencies through consolidation rather than competition. Commercial telegraph service officially ended in 1974. Deregulation in the 1980s brought about mergers and the sale of remaining services and facilities. Radio On January 17, 1930 the CPR applied for licenses to operate radio stations in eleven cities from coast-to-coast for the purpose of organizing its own radio network in order to compete with the CNR Radio service. The CNR had built a radio network with the aim of promoting itself as well as entertaining its passengers during their travels. The onset of the Great Depression hurt the CPR's financial plan for a rival project and in April they withdrew their applications for stations in all but Toronto, Montreal and Winnipeg. CPR did not end up pursuing these applications but instead operated a phantom station in Toronto known as "CPRY", with initials standing for "Canadian Pacific Royal York" which operated out of studios at CP's Royal York Hotel and leased time on CFRB and CKGW. http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/networks/networks_CNR8.html A network of affiliates carried the CPR radio network's broadcasts in the first half of the 1930s, but the takeover of CNR's Radio service by the new Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission removed CPR's need to have a network for competitive reasons, and CPR's radio service was discontinued in 1935. http://www.cade-aced.ca/display_publication.php?&i_nImageId=54 Steamships Steamships played an important part in the history of the Canadian Pacific Railway from the very earliest days. During construction of the line in British Columbia even before the private CPR took over from the government contractor, ships were used to bring supplies to the construction sites. Similarly, to reach the isolated area of Superior in northern Ontario ships were used to bring in supplies to the construction work. While this work was going on there was already regular passenger service to the West. Trains operated from Toronto to Owen Sound where CPR steamships connected to Fort William where trains once again operated to reach Winnipeg. Before the CPR was completed the only way to reach the West was through the United States via St. Paul and Winnipeg. This Great Lakes steam ship service continued as an alternative route for many years and was always operated by the railway. It would become the last operation in North America to feature a special connecting boat train. Once the railway was completed to British Columbia the CPR chartered and soon bought their own steamships. These sleek steamships were of the latest design and christened with the prefix Empress in a link to the Orient. Travel to and from the Orient and cargo, especially imported tea and silk were an important source of revenue aided by Royal Mail contracts. This was an important part of the All Red Route to link the British Empire. The other ocean part was the Atlantic service from England which began with acquisition of two existing lines, Beaver Line, owned by Elder Dempster and Allan Lines. These two segments became Canadian Pacific Ocean Services (later, Canadian Pacific Steamships) and operated separately from the various lake services operated in Canada. These trans-ocean routes made it possible to travel from Britain to Hong Kong using only the CPR's ships, trains and hotels. CP’s 'Empress' ships became world-famous for their luxury and speed. They had a practical role too in transporting immigrants from much of Europe to Canada especially to populate the vast prairies. They also played an important role in both world wars with many of them being lost to enemy action including the Empress of Britain. There were also a number of rail ferries operated over the years as well including, between Windsor, Ontario and Detroit, Michigan from 1890 until 1915. This began with two paddle-wheelers capable of carrying 16 cars. Passenger cars were carried as well as freight. This service ended in 1915 when the CPR made an agreement with the Michigan Central to use their Detroit River tunnel opened in 1910. Pennsylvania-Ontario Transportation Company was formed jointly with the PRR in 1906 to operate a ferry across lake Erie between Ashtabula, Ohio and Port Burwell, Ontario to carry freight cars, mostly of coal, much of it to be burned in CPR steam locomotives. Only one ferry boat was ever operated, the Ashtabula, a large vessel which eventually sank in a harbour collision in Ashtabula on September 18, 1958 thus ending the service. Canadian Pacific Car and Passenger Transfer Company was formed by other interest in 1888 linking the CPR in Prescott, Ontario, and the NYC in Ogdensburg, New York. Service on this route had actually begun very early, in 1854 along with service from Brockville. A bridge built in 1958 ended passenger service however, freight continued until Ogdensburg's dock was destroyed by fire September 25, 1970 thus ending all service. CPC&PTC was never owned by the CPR. Bay of Fundy ferry service was operated for passengers and freight for many years linking Digby, Nova Scotia, and Saint John, New Brunswick. Eventually, after 78 years, with the changing times the scheduled passenger services would all be ended as well as ocean cruises. Cargo would continue on both oceans with a change over to containers. Canadian Pacific was an intermodal pioneer especially on land with road and rail mixing to provide the best service. CP Ships was the final operation, and in the end it too left Canadian Pacific ownership when it was sold off in 2005. BC Coast Steamships BCCS was established when the CPR acquired in 1901 Canadian Pacific Navigation Company (no relation) and its large fleet of ships that served 72 ports along the coast of British Columbia including on Vancouver Island. Service included the Vancouver-Victoria-Seattle Triangle Route, Gulf Islands, Powell River, as well as Vancouver-Alaska service. BCCS operated a fleet of 14 passenger ships made up of a number of Princess ships, pocket versions of the famous ocean going Empress ships along with a freighter, three tugs and five rail car barges. Popular with tourists, the Princess ships were famous in their own right especially the Princess Marguerite (II) which became the last coastal liner operating from 1949 until 1985. The best known of the princess ships, however, is the Princess Sophia, which sank with no survivors in October 1918 after striking the Vanderbilt Reef in Alaska's Lynn Canal, constituting the largest maritime disaster in the history of the Pacific Northwest. These services continued for many years until changing conditions in the late 1950s brought about their decline and eventual demise at the end of season in 1974. The Princess Marguerite was acquired by the province’s British Columbia Steamship (1975) Ltd. and continued to operate for a number of years. British Columbia lake and river services Canadian Pacific began a long history of service in the Kootenays region of southern British Columbia beginning with the purchase in 1897 of the Columbia and Kootenay Steam Navigation Company which operated a fleet of steamers and barges on the Arrow Lakes. Other services were also provided on the Columbia River, Kootenay Lake, Okanagan Lake, Slocan Lake, and Trout Lake. All of these lake operations had one thing in common, the need for shallow draft therefore sternwheelers were the choice of ship. Tugs and barges handled rail equipment including one operation that saw the entire train including the locomotive and caboose go along. These services gradually declined and ended in 1975 except for a freight barge on Slocan Lake. This was the one where the entire train went along since the barge was a link to an isolated section of track. The Iris G tug boat and a barge were operated under contract to CP Rail until the last train ran late in December 1988. The sternwheel steamship Moyie on Kootenay Lake was the last CPR passenger boat in BC lake service, having operated from 1898 until 1957. It became a beached historical exhibit. Hotels To promote tourism and passenger ridership the Canadian Pacific established a series of first class resort hotels. These hotels became landmarks famous in their own right. They include The Algonquin in St. Andrews, Château Frontenac in Quebec, Royal York in Toronto, Minaki Lodge in Minaki Ontario, Hotel Vancouver, Empress Hotel in Victoria and the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise in the Canadian Rockies. Several signature hotels were acquired from its competitor Canadian National during the 1980s. The hotels retain their Canadian Pacific heritage but are no longer operated by the railroad. In 1998 Canadian Pacific Hotels acquired Fairmont Hotels, an American company, becoming Fairmont Hotels and Resorts Inc. and the combined corporation operated the historic Canadian properties as well as the Fairmont's U.S. properties until sold in 2006. Airline Canadian Pacific Airlines, also called CP Air, operated from 1942 to 1987 and was the main competitor of government owned Air Canada. Based at Vancouver International Airport, it served Canadian and international routes until it was purchased by Pacific Western Airlines which merged PWA and CP Air to create Canadian Airlines. Special trains Silk trains Between the 1890s and the 1940s, the CPR transported raw silk cocoons from Vancouver, where they had been shipped to from the Orient, to silk mills in New York and New Jersey. A silk train could carry several million dollars worth of silk, so they had their own armed guards. To avoid train robberies and so minimize insurance costs, they traveled quickly and stopped only to change locomotives and crews, which was often done in under five minutes. The silk trains had superior rights over all other trains; even passenger trains (including the Royal Train of 1939) would be put in sidings to make the silk trains' trip faster. At the end of World War II, the invention of nylon made silk less valuable so the silk trains died out. Funeral trains Funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald. Funeral trains would carry the remains of important people, such as prime ministers. As the train would pass, mourners would be at certain spots to show respect. Two of the CPR's funeral trains are particularly well-known. On June 10, 1891, the funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald ran from Ottawa to Kingston, Ontario. The train consisted of five heavily draped passenger cars and was pulled by 4-4-0 No. 283. On September 14, 1915, the funeral train of former CPR president Sir William Cornelius Van Horne ran from Montreal to Joliet, Illinois, pulled by 4-6-2 No. 2213. The Canadian was used as funeral train for former Prime Minister John Diefenbaker in 1979. King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at Hope, British Columbia. Royal trains The CPR ran a number of trains that transported members of the Royal family when they toured Canada. These trains transported royalty through Canada's scenery, forests, small towns and enabled people to see and greet them. Their trains were elegantly decorated; some had amenities such as a post office and barber shop. The CPR's most notable royal train was in 1939. In 1939 the CPR and the CNR had the honour of giving King George VI and Queen Elizabeth a rail tour of Canada, from Quebec City to Vancouver. This was the first visit to Canada by a reigning Monarch. The steam locomotives used to pull the train were CPR 2850, a Hudson (4-6-4) built by Montreal Locomotive Works, CNR 6400, a U4a Northern 4-8-4 and CNR 6028 a U1b Mountain 4-8-2 type. They were specially painted royal blue with silver trim as was the entire train, the locomotives ran 5,189 km (3,224 miles) across Canada, through 25 changes of crew, without engine failure. The King, somewhat of a railbuff, rode in the cab when possible. After the tour, King George gave the CPR permission to use the term "Royal Hudson" for the CPR locomotives and to display Royal Crowns on their running boards. This applied only to the semi-streamlined locomotives (2820–2864), not the "standard" Hudsons (2800–2819). This designation has led to May CPR enthusiasts actively promoting the myth that the 1939 royal train was an all-CPR operation. School cars Between 1926 and the early 1960s the CPR ran a school car to reach people who lived in Northern Ontario, far from schools. A teacher would travel in a specially designed car to remote areas and would stay to teach in one area for two to three days, then leave for another area. Each car had a blackboard and a few sets of chairs and desks. They also contained miniature libraries. These school cars were useful in spreading education and literacy. Silver Streak Major filming for the 1976 movie Silver Streak, a fictional comedy tale of a train trip from Los Angeles to Chicago, was done on the CPR, mainly in the Alberta area with station footage at Toronto's Union Station. The train set was so lightly disguised as the fictional "AMRoad" that the locomotives and cars still carried their original names and numbers, along with the easily-identifiable CP Rail red-striped paint scheme. Most of the cars are still in revenue service on VIA Rail Canada; the lead locomotive is extant in Quebec, but the second unit has been scrapped. Holiday Train Starting in 1999, the CPR ran a Holiday Train along its main line during the months of November and December. The Holiday Train celebrates the Christmas season and collects donations for community food banks. The holiday train also provides publicity for the CPR and a few of its customers. Since its launch in 1999, the Holiday Train program has raised more than $2.3 million CAD and 506 tons of food for North American food banks. All donations collected in a community remain in that community for distribution. Royal Canadian Pacific On June 7, 2000, the CPR inaugurated the Royal Canadian Pacific, a luxury excursion service that operates between the months of June and September. It operates along a 1,050 km (650 mile) route from Calgary, through the Columbia River Valley, and Crowsnest Pass, and returning back to Calgary. The trip takes six days and five nights. The train consists of up to eight luxury passenger cars built between 1916 and 1931 and is powered by first-generation diesel locomotives. Steam train Canadian Pacific 2816 Empress at Sturtevant, Wisconsin, September 1, 2007 In 1998, the CPR repatriated one of its former passenger steam locomotives that had been on static display in the United States following its sale in January 1964, long after the close of the steam era. CPR Hudson 2816 was re-designated Empress 2816 following a 30-month restoration that cost in excess of $1 million. It was subsequently returned to service to promote public relations. It has operated across much of the CPR system, including lines in the United States. It has been used for various charitable purposes, the most significant of which has been to raise awareness of the need to provide children with a nourishing breakfast to aid their learning in school. One hundred percent of the money raised goes to the nation-wide charity Breakfast For Learning — the CPR bears all of the expenses associated with the operation of the train. Spirit Train Canadian Pacific partnered with the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games in Vancouver to present a "Spirit Train" tour in 2008, featuring Olympic-themed events at various stops across the country. Colin James was the headline entertainer. "Canadian Pacific and Colin James bring Olympic spirit to Canadian communities" [press release], Canada NewsWire, 9 May 2008, 10:10 am. Several stops were met by protesters, who opposed the games on the grounds that they are slated to take place on stolen native land. Rod Mickleburgh, "Protests are fine, but can the obnoxious profanity", Globe and Mail, 26 September 2003, S3; Denis St. Pierre, "Protest greets Spirit Train", Sudbury Star, 13 October 2008, A9; Mark Klichling, "Protests don't derail Olympic Spirit Train", North Bay Nugget, 14 October 2008, A5; Stephanie Levitz, "Winter Olympic supporters and opponents both claim success from Spirit Train", Canadian Press, 19 October 2008, 10:45 am. Locomotives Steam locomotives Countess of Dufferin CPR Selkirk locomotive No. 5915. In the CPR's early years, it made extensive use of American Standard 4-4-0 steam locomotives and example of this is the Countess of Dufferin. Later, considerable use was also made of the 4-6-0 type for passenger and 2-8-0 type for freight. Starting in the 20th century, the CPR bought and built hundreds of Ten-Wheeler type 4-6-0s for passenger and freight service and similar quantities of 2-8-0s and 2-10-2s for freight. 2-10-2s were also used in passenger service on mountain routes. The CPR bought hundreds of 4-6-2 Pacifics between 1906 and 1948 with later versions being true dual purpose passenger and fast freight locomotives. The CPR built hundreds of its own locomotives at its shops in Montreal, first at the New Shops as the DeLorimer shops were commonly referred to and at the massive Angus Shops that replaced them in 1904. Some of the CPR's best-known locomotives were the 4-6-4 Hudsons. First built in 1929 they began a new era of modern locomotives with capabilities that changed how transcontinental passenger trains ran, eliminating frequent changes en route. What once took 24 changes of engines in 1886, all of them 4-4-0s except for two of 2-8-0s in the mountains, for between Montreal and Vancouver became 8 changes. The 2800s (Twenty Eight Hundreds) as the Hudson type was known, ran from Toronto to Fort William a distance of 811 miles (1,306 km), while another lengthy engine district was from Winnipeg to Calgary 832 miles (1,338 km). Especially notable were the semi-streamlined H1 class Royal Hudson, locomotives that were given their name because one of their class hauled the Royal Train carrying King George VI and Queen Elizabeth on the 1939 Royal Tour across Canada without change or failure. That locomotive, No. 2850, is preserved in the Exporail exhibit hall of the Canadian Railway Museum in St. Constant (Delson) Quebec. One of the class, No. 2860, was restored by the British Columbia government and used in excursion service on the British Columbia Railway between 1974 and 1999. In 1929, the CPR received its first 2-10-4 Selkirk locomotives, the largest steam locomotives to run in Canada and the British Empire. Named after the Selkirk Mountains where they served, these locomotives were well suited for steep grades. They were regularly used in passenger and freight service. The CPR would own 37 of these locomotives, including number 8000, an experimental high pressure engine. The last steam locomotives that the CPR received, in 1949, were Selkirks, numbered 5930–5935. Diesel locomotives CP passenger train heading east towards Calgary about 1973 In 1937, the CPR acquired its first diesel-electric locomotive, a custom built one-of-a-kind switcher numbered 7000. This locomotive was not successful and was not repeated. Production model diesels were imported from American Locomotive Company (Alco) starting with five model S-2 yard switchers in 1943 and followed by further orders. In 1949, operations on lines in Vermont were dieselized with Alco FA1 road locomotives (8 A and 4 B units), 5 Alco RS-2 road switchers, 3 Alco S-2 switchers and 3 EMD E8 passenger locomotives. In 1948 Montreal Locomotive Works began production of Alco designs. 1949, the CPR acquired 13 Baldwin designed locomotives from the Canadian Locomotive Company for its isolated Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, and Vancouver Island was quickly dieselized. Following that successful experiment, the CPR started to dieselise its main network. Dieselization was completed eleven years later, with its last steam locomotive running on November 6, 1960. The CPR's first-generation locomotives were mostly made by General Motors Diesel and Montreal Locomotive Works, (American Locomotive Company designs), with some made by the Canadian Locomotive Company to Baldwin and Fairbanks Morse designs. CP was the first railway in North America to pioneer AC traction diesel-electric locomotives, in 1984. In 1995 CP turned to General Electric GE Transportation Systems for the first production AC traction locomotives in Canada, and now has the highest percentage of AC locomotives in service of all North American Class I railways. As of early 2007, 578 of the CPR's 1,669 locomotives are AC. Roster EMD SD40 SD40-2 SD40M-2 SD60 (ex–Soo Line) SD60M (ex–Soo Line) SD90MAC (SD90/43MAC) SD90MAC-H Slug MP15DC,MP15AC (ex-Soo Line, né Milwaukee Road) Fuel Tenders GP40 SD10 (ex-Soo Line, ex-Milwaukee Road, né Milwaukee Road SD7) GP39-2 E8A (bought for joint Canadian Pacific / Boston and Maine Railroad operations in Vermont) CP rail locomotive pulling freight cars near Regina, Saskatchewan. GMD SD40-2 GP35 SW1200, 1200RSu, 1200RS SW1500 SW900 SW8 SW9u GP9, GP9u, GP9R GP7u GP40, GP40-2 GP38AC, 38-2 GP39-2 FP7Au EMD FP9A, F9B SW900M F9B F7B SD40-2F MLW FA-1 FPA-2 RSD-17 RSD-8 RSD-2 RS-23 Boosters C-424 Hump Braking Unit (based on GP9) C-630M M-630 S-3 RS-10 S-11m M-636 M-640 RS18, RS18u RSD-17 CLC 44H44A1 H16-44 H24-66 CFA16-4 CFB16-4 CPA16-4 CPB16-4 GE AC4400CW ES44AC Railpower Technologies GG20B (returned to Railpower) ALCO S-2 BLW DRS4-4-1000 DS4-4-1000 Rolling stock 1655 locomotives 1000 stand alone double stack well cars 3100 high-capacity covered hopper cars—grain and fertilizer 2897 gondolas 474—steel and concentrate 1553—mill gondola (primarily used in scrap metal service) 306—open coil gondola 531—covered coil gondola 33—covered flat-bottom gondola 1250 high-capacity aluminum coal cars 375 light-weight aluminum multi-level cars 175 high-capacity traverse coil steel cars 620 62-foot high capacity box cars CPR also has a fleet of boxcars, insulated boxcars, centrebeam flatcars, auto parts service boxcars, regular flat cars, and a fleet of tank cars. Major facilities CP owns a large number of large yards and repair shops across their system, which are used for many operations ranging from intermodal terminals to classification yards. Below are some examples of these. Active hump yards Hump Yards work by using a small hill over which cars are pushed, before being released down a slope and switched automatically into cuts of cars, ready to be made into outbound trains. CP's active humps include: Calgary, Alberta - Alyth Yard; handles 2200 cars daily Chicago, Illinois - Bensenville Yard St. Paul, Minnesota - Pig's Eye Yard Montreal, Quebec - St. Luc Yard; active since the 1940s. Toronto, Ontario - Agincourt Yard (also known as "Toronto Freight Yard"); opened in 1964 Winnipeg, Manitoba - Rugby Yard (also known as "Weston Yard") References Notes Sources Canadian Pacific Railway (October 31, 2005), CPR Announces Senior Executive Appointment. Retrieved November 30, 2005. The Premier's Funeral (June 11, 1891). The Woodstock Evening Sentinel Review, p. 1. Canadian Pacific Railway 2004 Corporate Profile and Fact Book. Retrieved February 2, 2005. Library and Archives Canada: Special Trains -Kids Site Retrieved January 19, 2008. See also Facilities of the Canadian Pacific Railway List of presidents Canadian Pacific Survey List of subsidiary railways Canadian Pacific Airlines Canadian Pacific hotels Ontario Northland Railway Chemins de Fer Québec-Gatineau The Canadian Pacific Railway, By Stewart JGO Transit VIA Rail Canadian National Railway Canadian culture History of Chinese immigration to Canada Canadian Railroad Trilogy, Gordon Lightfoot's song about the building of the CPR. Norman Blake—musician who wrote a historically accurate song about the CPR Science and technology in Canada External links Canadian Pacific Railway official website Canadian Railway history and stories Official CPR brief history Teamsters Canada Rail Conference Canadian Pacific Railway 2004 Corporate Profile and Fact Book Station 29—CPR store Canadian Pacific Railway news www.scenic-railroads.com A gallery of CPR and other rail images. The unofficial St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway website The Bridgeline Historical Association (with interest in the Delaware and Hudson Railway and the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway) CPR, from Sea to Sea: The Scottish Connection — Historical essay, illustrated with photographs from the CPR Archives and the McCord Museum's Notman Photographic Archives MountainRailway.comCanadian Pacific Railway in western Canada as well as all-time CPR diesel locomotive roster RailsCanada.com—Canadian rail site directory Ontario Plaques—Sir William C. Van Horne Ontario Plaques—Western Route of the C.P.R. Tracks of Time Historica’s Heritage Minute video docudrama “Nitro.” (Adobe Flash Player.) Canadian CPR travel links The Royal Canadian Pacific–luxury historic rail travel from Calgary to Vancouver Via Rail Canada–rail travel across Canada Rocky Mountaineer–luxury train travel from Vancouver to Calgary Mara Train Station c.1892—converted historic train station on historic Okanagan-Shuswap Railway CPR spur-line Kamloops Heritage Railway—Kamloops, BC Kettle Valley Steam Railway–Summerland, BC Revelstoke Railway Museum—Revelstoke, BC Three Valley Gap Railway Roundhouse–Three Valley Gap, BC Last Spike at Craigellachie The Canadian Museum of Rail Travel—Cranbrook, BC., which houses a major collection of CPR historic railcars Winnipeg Railway Museum: Home of the Countess of Dufferin

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Abu_Bakr

Abu Bakr Abdallah ibn Abi Quhafa As-Siddiq (, c. 573 CE – 23 August 634/13 AH) was an early person to convert to Islam and a senior companion (Sahaba) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 5 Throughout his life, according to Sunni Muslims Abu Bakr remained a friend and confidante of Muhammad. Shia Muslims however dispute this. Upon Muhammad's death he became the first Muslim ruler (632–634), regarded in Sunni Islam as the first of the Rashidun (righteously guided Caliphs). sources In Shia Islam he is however regarded as a usurper and political opportunist. His caliphate lasted two years and three months, during which time he consolidated the Muslim state. Upon the death of Muhammad, some tribes rebelled, and in return he fought the Ridda wars against these Arab tribes to establish Islamic rule over all of Arabia. He also conquered the lands of Syria and Iraq. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq Lineage Full name 'Abd Allah ibn 'Uthman ibn Amir ibn Amru ibn Ka'ab ibn Sa'ad ibn Taim ibn Murrah ibn Ka'ab ibn Lu'ai ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr al-Quraishi at-Taimi Tabaqat ibn Sa'd 3/ 169 Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk 3/ 425 . Early life Abu Bakr was born in Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe. Abu Bakr's father's name was Uthman Abu Qahafa nicknamed Abu Qahafa, and his mother was Salma Umm-ul-Khair nicknamed Umm-ul-Khair. The birth name of Abu Bakr was 'Abdullah (servant of Allah). Abu Bakr was a thin man with white skin Tabaqat ibn Sa'd 3/ 188 . Tabari relates (Suyuti also relates the same through Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi's report) from Aisha her description of Abu Bakr: He was a man with fair skin, thin, emaciated, with a sparse beard, a slightly hunched frame, sunken eyes and protruding forehead, and the bases of his fingers were hairless. Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk 3/ 524 By most reports he was very handsome, and for his beauty he earned the nickname of Atiq. He was born in a rich family. He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time among the Bedouins who called themselves Ahl-i-Ba'eer- the people of the camel, he developed a particular fondness for camels. Wazir Khan Mosque, in Pakistan, (16th century) sayings of the companions of Muhammad on the northern wall of the arched gateway of the central prayer chamber. In his early years he played with the camel foals and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname of Abu Bakr, the father of the foal of the camel. War and Peace in the Law of Islam by Majid Khadduri. Translated by Muhammad Yaqub Khan Published 1951 Ahmadiyyah Anjuman Ishaat Islam. Original from the University of Michigan. Digitized 23 October 2006 It is said that he didn't worship idols since his youth, though there is no primary source for this and it may simply be a polemical viewpoint in view of the fact that his political rival Ali did not worship idols ever. When Abu Bakr was 10 years old he went to Syria along with his father with the merchants' caravan. Muhammad who was 12 years old at the time, was also with the caravan. Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, he was literate and developed a fondness for poetry. He used to attend the annual fair at Ukaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory and had a good knowledge of the genealogy of the Arab tribes. In 591 at the age of 18, Abu Bakr went into trade and adopted the profession of a cloth merchant which was the family's business. In the coming years Abu Bakr traveled extensively with caravans. Business trips took him to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. These travels brought him wealth and added to his experience. His business flourished and he rose in the scale of social importance. Though his father Uthman Abu Qahafa was still alive, he came to be recognized as chief of his tribe. Abu Bakr was assigned the office of awarding blood money in cases of murder. His office was something like the office of an honorary magistrate. The Middle East Journal by the Middle East Institute, Washington, D.C., published 1991 Abu Bakr was an expert in genealogical lore and he knew intimately who was who in Mecca, and what his ancestry was. During Muhammad's times When Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid and moved to her house, he became a neighbor of Abu Bakr who lived in the same locality. That was the quarter of Meccan aristocracy. Like the house of Khadija, the house of Abu Bakr was double storied and palatial in structure. As neighbors, Muhammad and Abu Bakr came in contact with each other. Both of them were of the same age, traders and good managers. Acceptance of Islam On his return from a business trip from Yemen, he was informed by some of his friends that in his absence Muhammad had declared himself as the Messenger of God, and proclaimed a new religion. Abu Bakr was to Sunni Islam the first akhir baligh (post-puberty) free male to accept Muhammad's Prophethood though Shias maintain Abu Talib and other adult members of Muhammad's immediate blood family were, i.e. the Hashemites. Some Sunnis accept Abu Talib may have been the first adult male convert, other dispute he ever converted. Scholars, as well as other Sunnis and all Shi'a Muslims maintain that the second person (and first male) to publicly accept Muhammed as the messenger of Allah was Ali ibn Abi Talib, though to Shias Ali always knew of Muhammad 's status through pre-knowledge.<ref>M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., E.J. Brill's first Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 8 vols. with Supplement (vol. 9), 1991. ISBN 90-04-09796-1</ref> However, 'Ali was still a pre-pubescent child when he 'accepted' Islam, and therefore may have been excluded from the duties of a Muslim. Also Abu Bakr was the first person outside the family of Muhammad to openly become a Muslim. Life after accepting Islam His birthname was 'Abdullah. His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim at his insistence. All his children except ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr separated from his son Abdur Rahman. His conversion brought the most benefit to Islam. Abu Bakr's dawah brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert to Islam. al-Bidayah wa'an-Nihayah 3/26 Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions by Wendy Doniger ISBN 978-0877790440 He presented Islam to others in such a way that many of his friends opted for Islam. Those who converted to Islam at the instance of Abu Bakr were: Uthman Ibn Affan (who would became the 3rd Caliph) Al-Zubayr (part of the Muslim conquest of Egypt) Talhah Abdur Rahman bin Awf (who would remain an important part of the Rashidun Empire) Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas (part of the Islamic conquest of Persia) Umar ibb Masoan Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (who remained commander in chief of the Rashidun army in Syria ) Abdullah bin Abdul Asad Abu Salma Khalid ibn Sa`id Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves however, there was no such protection, and were subjected to persecution. He gave 40.000 dinar for the sake of Islam. Tabaqat ibn Sa'd 3/ 169, 174 Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk 3/ 426 Abu Bakr felt for these slaves, so he purchased them and set them free. Abu Bakr purchased the freedom of eight slaves, four men and four women. The men were: Bilal ibn Ribah Abu Fakih Ammar ibn Yasir Abu Fuhayra The women were: Lubaynah Al-Nahdiah Umm Ubays Harithah bint al-Muammil Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men. The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions (1894) by Stanley Lane-Poole, published by Adamant Media Corporation ISBN 978-1402166662 The father of Abu Bakr asked him to for why doesn't he liberate strong and young slaves who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of Allah, and not for his own sake. According to Sunni tradition the following verses of the Qur'an were revealed due to this: He who gives in charity and fears Allah And in all sincerity testifies to the Truth; We shall indeed make smooth for him the path of Bliss {92:5-7}. Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification; And have in their minds no favor from any one For which a reward is expected in return, But only the desire to seek the Countenance, Of their Lord, Most High; And soon they shall attain complete satisfaction {92:8-21}. Shias maintain these verses were revealed about Ali. Persecution by the Quraysh For three years after the advent of Islam, Muslims kept secret their faith, and prayed in secret. In 613 Muhammad received a revelation to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr, and beat him mercilessly till he lost consciousness. Abu Bakr by Atta Mohy-ud-Din, published 1968 S. Chand Original from the University of Michigan, digitized 6 Jan 2006, ASIN B0006FFA0O. Following this incident Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Last years in Mecca In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were shut up in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distress, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, it was a relief for him, but soon due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr. In the year 620 Muhammad's wife and uncle died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was engaged to Muhammad, however it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In the year 620 Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (night Journey). Islam (Exploring Religions) by Anne Geldart, published by Heinemann Library, September 28, 2000. ISBN 978-0431093017 According to Sunni traditions, he was given title al-Siddîq, meaning "the truthful," "the upright," or "the one who counts true," due to his immediate belief of the journey. During the Roman-Persian Wars, the sympathies of the Quraysh of Mecca was with the Persians who were Zoroastrian. The Muslims on the other hand had their sympathies for the Byzantines who were Christians and were the People of the Book with a belief in the Abrahamic God. After the Persian victories over Byzantine, verses of the Qur'an revealed of Surah rum with the prophesy that Byzantine (Romans) will regain what they lost and the Persians will be defeated within few years. Over this Abu Bakr had a wager with Ubaiy bin Khalf, it was decided that one who lost the wager will pay one hundred camels. With a decisive Byzantine victory in 627 against the Persians, Abu Bakr won the wager, though Ubaiy bin Khalf was not alive but his heirs honored the agreement and gave Abu Bakr one hundred camels. Abu Bakr gave away all the camels as charity.. Migration to Medina In 622 on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh led by Ikrima attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad in his migration for Medina. Due to the danger of the Quraysh, they did not take the road to Medina. They moved in the opposite direction, and took refuge in a cave in Mount Thaur some five miles south of Mecca. `Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr would listen to the plans and talks of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr the daughter of Abu Bakr brought them meals every day. Islamic Culture by the Islamic Cultural Board Published 1927 [s.n. Original from the University of Michigan, digitized 27 Mar 2006. Aamir a servant of Abu Bakr would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to sight them. Due to this the following verse of the Qur'an was revealed: If ye help not (your Leader) (it is no matter): for Allah did indeed help him; when the unbelievers drove him out: he had no more than one companion: they two were in the cave, and he said to his companion "Have no Fear, for Allah is with us": then Allah sent down His peace upon him, and strengthened him with forces which ye saw not, and humbled to the depths the word of the Unbelievers. But the word of Allah is exalted to the heights: for Allah is Exalted in might, Wise. 'Aa'ishah, Abu Sa`eed al-Khudri and ibn 'Abbaas in interpreting this verse said Abu Bakr was the one who stayed with the Prophet in that cave It is narrated from al-Barra' ibn 'Azib, he said, Once Abu Bakr bought a ride from 'Azib for 10 Dirham, then Abu Bakr said to 'Azib, "Tell your son the Barra to deliver that beast." Then 'Azib said, "No, until you tell us how yourjourney with the Messenger of Allah when he went out of Makkah while the Mushrikeen were busy looking for you." Abu Bakr said, "We set out from Makkah, walking day and night, until it came the time of Zuhr, so I was looking for a place to so that we can rest under it, it came to be that I saw a big rock, so I came to it and there was the place, so I spread a matress for the Prophet, then I said to him, " Rest O' Prophet of Allah." So he rested, while I surveyed the area around me, are there people looking for us coming here to spy. Suddenly I saw there was a shepherd herding his sheep to the direction of the place under the rock wanting to shade himself like us, so I asked, "Who is your master O' slave?" He answered, "Slave of the fulan, someone of the Quraish." He mentioned the name of his master and I knew him, then I asked, "Does your sheep have milk?" He answered, "Yes!" So he took one of the sheep, after that I ordered him to clean the breasts of the sheep first from dirt and dust, then I ordered him to blow his hand from dust, so he pat his two hands and he started milking, while I prepared a vessel with its mouth wrapped with cloth to contain the milk, so I poured the milk that was milked to the vessel and I waited until the bottom was cold, then I brought to the Prophet and it was that he had waken up, instantly I told him him, "Drink O' Messenger of Allah." So he started to drink until I saw that he was full, then I told him, "Are we not going to continue walking O' Messenger of Allah?" He answered, "Yes!" At last we continued the journey while the mushrikeen keep looking for us, not one one that could pursue us except Suraqah ibn Malik ibn Ju'sham who rode his horse, so I said to the Messenger of Allah, "This man has succeded in pursuing us O' Messenger of Allah," but he answered, "ﻻ ﺗﺤﺰ ﻥ ﺇ ﻥ ﺍﷲ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ" (Do not worry, verily Allah is with us). It is narrated from Anas from Abu Bakr he said, I said to the Prophet when were in the cave, "If only they had looked under their feet we would assuredly be seen" The Messenger answered, "ﻣﺎ ﻇﻨﻚ ﻳﺎ ﺃ ﺑﺎ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﷲ ﺛﺎ ﻟﺘﻬﻤﺎ" (What do you think O' Abu Bakr with two people while Allah is the third) Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al-Wathan publications , Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 Anno hegiræ (2002) compiled by Dr. Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, page 16, ISBN 979-3407-19-6 After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina. While Sunni sources such as these portray Abu bakr in an exalted light in the cave, Shia sources however generally tend to portray the incident in the cave as a Quranic condemndation of Abu Bakr for cowardice and fear. Life in Medina In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. Muslims constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site and Abu Bakr also took part in construction. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with his brother-in-Islam was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah. Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari used to live at Sukh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina he bought another house near Muhammad's. Hazrat Abu Bakr, the First Caliph of Islam by Muhammad Habibur Rahman Khan Sherwani, published 1963 Sh. Muhammad Ashraf. Original from the University of Michigan. Digitized 14 Nov 2006. The climate of Mecca was dry, but the climate of Medina was damp and this adversely affected the health of the immigrants, so that on arrival most of them fell sick. Abu Bakr also suffered from fever for several days and during this time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. At Mecca, Abu Bakr was a trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He was a wholesaler, and had his store at Sukh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished at Medina. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already engaged to Muhammad, was handed over to Muhammad in a simple marriage ceremony, and this further strengthen the relation between Abu Bakr and Muhammad. In 624 Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca known as the Battle of Badr, but did not fight instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent. In 625 he participated in the Battle of Uhud which ended in a rout by the majority of the Muslims. Before the battle begun, Abu Bakr's son ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr who was still non-Muslim and was fighting from the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. His son later converted to Islam and gained fame during the Muslim conquest of Syria as a fierce warrior. In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid’s cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat. Many Muslim warriors were routed from the battle field but in Sunni accounts Abu Bakr remained, guarding Muhammad from the attacks of the Quraysh soldiers, while Shia and many Sunni accounts dispute this. Shia criticisms of his lack-lustre military achievements in comparison with the genuinely accomplised Ali should be put into context: Abu Bakr was a middle aged man during these battles, was not a soldier but a merchant by trade, and had never seen battle before - it may thus be unfair to directly compare him with Ali in this regard. In Sunni accounts during one such attack, two discs from Muhammad’s shield penetrated into Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these discs but Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. In these stories subsequently Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety. Later in the year Abu Bakr was a part of campaign again the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Later, in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Banu Qurayza. Tabqat ibn al-Saad book of Maghazi, page no:62 In 628 he participated in Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact. In the year 628 he was a part of the Muslim campaign to Khaybar. In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal from where he called for reinforcements and Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah. Commanding an army under him were Abu Bakr and Umar and they attacked and defeated the enemy. Sahih-al-Bhukari book of Maghazi, Ghazwa Saif-al-Jara In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca, Abu Bakr was a part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Uthman Abu Qahafa converted to Islam. In 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. He was part of the Muslim army in the campaign of Tabuk under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given all his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. In 631, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way. Abu Bakr was appointed as the leader of the delegates in some Sunni accounts. If this version is correct Abu Bakr had thus the honor of being the first Amir-ul-Haj in the history of Islam. In the year 632 Abu Bakr followed Muhammad to Mecca for the farewell Hajj. Death of Muhammad A short time after returning from the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad became ill. In his fatal illness, Muhammad came out with a piece of cloth tied around his head and sat on the pulpit. After thanking and praising Allah he said, ﺇ ﻥ ﺍ ﷲ ﺧﻴﺮ ﻋﺒﺪﺍ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪ ﻧﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻩ ﻓﺎ ﺧﺘﺎ ﺭ ﺫ ﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺪ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﷲ Allah has given one of His Slaves the choice of receiving the splendor and luxury of the worldly life whatever he likes or to accept the good which is with Allah. So he has chosen that good which is with Allah Abu Bakr wept profusely and said, Our fathers and mothers be sacrificed for you The companions was astonished by this (they wondered why did Abu Bakr wept), and the people said, Look at this old man! Allah's Apostle talks about a Slave of Allah to whom He has given the option to choose either the splendor of this worldly life or the good which is with Him, while he says "our fathers and mothers be sacrificed for you" It turned out Muhammad himself was that servant, as Abu Bakr later told the companions. Muhammad continued, in Sunni accounts: ﺇ ﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺃ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎ ﺱ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺻﺤﺒﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻣﺎ" ﻟﻪ ﺃ ﺑﻮ ﺑﻜﺮ ﻟﻮ ﻛﺒﺖ ﻣﺘﺨﺬﺍ ﺧﻠﻴﻼ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺭ ﺑﻲ ﻻ ﺗﺨﺬ ﺕ ﺃ ﺑﺎ ﺑﻜﺮ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﺃ ﺧﻮ ﻩ ﺍ ﻻ ﺳﻼ ﻡ ﻭ ﻣﻮ ﺩ ﺗﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺒﻔﻴﻦ ﻗﻲ ﺍ ﻟﺴﺠﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺏ ﺇ ﻻ ﺳﺪ ﺇ ﻻ ﺑﺎ ﺏ ﺃ ﺑﻲ ﺑﻜﺮ No doubt, I am indebted to Abu Bakr more than to anybody else regarding both his companionship and his wealth. And if I had to take a Khalil from my followers, I would certainly have taken Abu Bakr, but the fraternity of Islam is sufficient. Let no Door of the Mosque remain open, except the door of Abu Bakr Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 1, Book 8, Number 456 and Volume 5, Book 58, Number 244 narrated by ibn 'Abbaas and Abu Sa`eed al-Khudri respectively The good referred in the first part means the good in the hereafter. Khalil means intimate friend. The door referred to here is the door to the mosque of Muhammad. When the fever developed he directed Abu Bakr to go to the war following Usama who was 18, but he mysteriously did not listen and lingered in Madina, Shias say desirous of becoming the successor. When Muhammad died Muslims gathered in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi and there were suppressed sobs and sighs. Abu Bakr came from his house at As-Sunh (a village) on a horse where he had been with his new wife. He dismounted and entered the Prophet's Mosque, but did not speak to anyone until he entered upon 'Aa'isha. In Sunni accounts he went straight to Muhammad who was covered with Hibra cloth (a kind of Yemenite cloth). He then uncovered Muhammad's face and bowed over him and kissed him and wept, saying, Let my father and mother be sacrificed for you. By Allah, Allah will never cause you to die twice. As for the death which was written for you, has come upon you 'Umar was making a sermon to the people saying, By Allah, he is not dead but has gone to his Lord as Musa ibn Imran went and remained hidden from his people for forty days. Musa returned after it was said that he had died. By Allah, the Messenger of Allah will come back and he will cut off the hands and legs of those who claim his death." Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk 9/ 184 Abu Bakr arrived and said, Sit down, O 'Umar! But 'Umar refused to sit down. So the people came to Abu Bakr and left Umar. Abu Bakr said, To proceed, if anyone amongst you used to worship Muhammad , then Muhammad is dead, but if (anyone of) you used to worship Allah, then Allah is Alive and shall never die. Allah said, "And Muhammad is no more than a messenger; the messengers have already passed away before him; if then he dies or is killed will you turn back upon your heels? And whoever turns back upon his heels!s, he will by no means do harm to Allah in the least and Allah will reward the grateful." (3.144) It was as if the Muslims never knew of this Verse before Abu Bakr recited it and all the Muslims received it from him, and then every Muslim recited it. 'Umar said, By Allah, when I heard Abu Bakr reciting it, my legs could not support me and I fell down at the very moment of hearing him reciting it, declaring that the Prophet had died. Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 5, Book 59, Number 733, narrated by 'Aa'ishah, ibn 'Abbaas and az-Zuhri Election of Abu Bakr to Caliphate Caliph Abu Bakr's empire at its peak in August 634. After Muhammad's death, previously dormant tensions between the Meccan immigrants, the Muhajirun, and the Medinan converts, the Ansar, threatened to break out and split the Ummah. The Ansar, the leaders of the tribes of Medina, met in a hall or house called saqifah, to discuss whom they would support as their new leader. When Abu Bakr was informed of the meeting, he, Umar, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and a few others rushed to prevent the Ansar from making a premature decision. Accounts of this meeting vary greatly. All agree that during the meeting Umar declared that Abu Bakr should be the new leader, and declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and Abu Bakr became the first Muslim caliph, who was given the title, Khalifa-tul-Rasool (Successor of messenger of Allah), a title only accepted by Sunni Muslims. Shias criticise Abu Bakr for forsaking the funeral of Muhammad to attend the political gathering, and believe that Muhammad had already appointed Ali in his lifetime as his successor. This view portrays Abu bakr and Umar as plotters in a political coup against the Alids. The most recent detailed western account of Madelung also portrays Abu Bakr as a political opportunist whose character as the founder of Sunni Islam has been extensively embellished by subsequent kings and emperors (caliphs) making it difficult to openly criticise him [Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad Reign as a Caliph After assuming the office of Caliphate Abu Bakr's first address was as follow: I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery. The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God wills; and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others, if God wills. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger. But if I disobey God and His Messenger, ye owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer, God have mercy upon you. Abu Bakr's Caliphate lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab tribes throughout Arabia in the successful campaign against Apostasy. He launched campaigns against the Sassanid Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and thus set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah he agreed to have a salary from state treasury and abolish his cloth trade. Ridda-Wars Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Several Arabic tribes revolted against Abu Bakr. In four of the six centres of the insurrection, the rebells rallied around people who claimed to be prophets, the most prominent among these Musaylimah. The tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad only, and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance had ended. This was common practice in pre-islamic Arabia: After the death of a tribal leader the alliance with the tribe of that leader was regarded as having ended. Thus several tribes acted in accordance to this pre-islamic practice and refused to pay Zakat (Charity). Abu Bakr, however, insisted that they had not just submitted to a simple human leader but joined the Muslim religious community, of which he was the new head. So, in contrast to pre-islamic times, their allegiance was not seen as having ended at all. This was the start of the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The apostasy of central Arabia was led by self-proclaimed prophet Musaylimah of in al-Yamama, while the other centers were to the south and east in Bahrain, Oman, Mahra region and Yemen. Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly and formed the Muslim army into 11 corps. The strongest corps, and this was the main punch of the Muslim army, was that of Khalid ibn al-Walid and was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear the area of west and central Arabia (the area nearest Medina), then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy Musaylimah. After series of successful campaigns, Khalid ibn al-Walid finally defeated Musaylimah and his tribe, the Banu Hanifa, in the Battle of Yamama Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518 . The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on March 18, 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. Abu bakr compiled the Quran too. This phenomenon was later regarded as primarily a religious movement by Arabic historians. However, the early sources indicate that in reality it was mainly political. Laura V. Vaglieri in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.58 Frank Griffel: Apostasie und Toleranz im Islam, p.61 After all, the revolting Arabs only refused to pay Zakat (Charity), but they did not refuse to perform the salah. This however is disputed and explained by muslim scholars in that the dictation of Zakat was one of the Five pillars of Islam and its denial or withholding is an act of denial of a cornerstone of faith, and is therefore an act of apostasy. Bernard Lewis states that the fact that Islamic Historians have regarded this as a primarily religious movement was due to a later interpretation of events in terms of a theological world-view. Bernard Lewis: The Arabs in History, p.65 The opponents of the Muslim armies were not only apostates, but also - if not most of them - tribes which were largely or even completely independent from the Muslim community. However, these revolts also had a religious aspect: Medina had become the centre of a social and political system, of which religion was an integral part; consequently it was inevitable that any reaction against this system should have a religious aspect. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Vol.1, p.110 The Qur'an — preservation According to Sunni Islam, Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving the Qur'an in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama fought in 632, Umar (the later Caliph Umar), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the Qur'an had died in battle. Fearing that the Qur'an may be lost or corrupted, Umar requested the Caliph Abu Bakr to authorize the compilation and preservation of the Book in written format. After initial hesitation, Abu Bakr made a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit which included the memorizers of the Qur'an and Umar and to collect all verses of the Book. After collecting all Qur'anic verses from texts in the possession of various sahaba, Zayd ibn Thabit and members of his committee verified the reading by comparing with those who had memorized the Qur'an. After they were satisfied that they had not missed out any verse or made any mistakes in reading or writing it down, the text was written down as one single manuscript and presented in a book form to the Caliph Abu Bakr. This process happened within one year of the death of Muhammad when most of his sahaba (companions) were still alive, ensuring that the text would not be corrupted in any form. Prior to his death, Abu Bakr gave this authorized copy of the Qur'an to Umar - his successor. It remained with him throughout his tenure as Caliph (10 years). Prior to his death, Umar gave this Book to his daughter Hafsa bint Umar, who was one of the wives of Muhammad. Umar did not nominate his successor on his deathbed, and thus preferred to leave this copy with Hafsa so as not to indicate his personal preference of who would be the next caliph. Later on, it became the basis of Uthman Ibn Affan's definitive text of the Qur'an which was published far and wide merely 18 years after the death of the Prophet. Later historians give Uthman Ibn Affan the principal credit for re-verification and publishing the Qur'an. Shi'as reject the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the Qur'an. Military expansion Once the rebellions had been put down, Abu Bakr began a war of conquest. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. Abu Bakr began with Iraq, the richest province of Persian Empire. He sent his most brilliant general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanid Empire. Invasion of Sassanid Persian Empire After the Ridda Wars, a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, raided the Persian towns in Iraq. With the success of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was collected. Misnah ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he begun to raid deeper into Iraq. Using the mobility of his light cavalry he could easy raid any town near the desert and within moments could disappear again in to the desert, into which the Sassanid army was unable to chase them. Misnah’s acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the Rashidun Empire. Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554. Abu Bakr started with the invasion of Iraq. The problems faced by Abu Bakr were that the Arabs feared the Persians with a deep, unreasoning fear which ran in the tribal consciousness as a racial complex and was the result of centuries of Persian power and glory. In return the Persian regarded the Arab with contempt. It was important not to suffer a defeat, for that would confirm and strengthen this instinctive fear. To make certain of victory, Abu Bakr decided on two measures; that the invading army would consist entirely of volunteers; and he put in command of the army his best general Khalid ibn al-Walid. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama, Khalid was still at Al-Yamama when Abu Bakr sent him orders to invade the Sassanid Empire. Making Al-Hirah the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of Khalid along with there men. In about third week of March 633 (first week of Muharram 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000. The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined Khalid; Thus Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000 troops. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: Battle of Chains, fought in April 633 A.D; Battle of River, fought in the 3rd week of April 633 A.D; Battle of Walaja, fought in May 633 A.D (where he successfully used a double envelopment manoeuvre), and Battle of Ullais, fought in the mid of May, 633 A.D. By now the Persian court already disturbed by the internal problems, was down and out. In the last week of May 633 A.D, Hira capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after resistance in the Siege of Hira. After resting his armies, in June 633 A.D Khalid laid siege of Al Anbar, which resisted and was eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633 A.D after the Siege of Al-Anbar. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the Battle of Ein ut Tamr in the last week of July, 633 A.D. By now, almost the whole of Iraq (Euphrates region) was under Islamic control. Khalid got a call of help from northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in the Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal in the last week of August, 633 A.D. Returning from Arabia, he got news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of defeat to a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid devised a brilliant plan to destroy the Persian forces. He divided his army in three units, and attacked the Persian forces in brilliantly coordinated attacks from three different sides at night, starting from the Battle of Muzieh, then the Battle of Sanni, and finally the Battle of Zumail during November 633 A.D. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq, and left the Persian capital Ctesiphon unguarded and vulnerable for Muslims attack, before attacking the Persian Capital Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces from south and west, he accordingly marched against the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sassanid Persians, Byzantine Romans and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz in December 633 A.D. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah, a key fort in the way to Persian Capital Ctesiphon, he received the letter of Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to Roman front in Syria to assume the command of Muslim armies to conquer Roman Syria. Akram, chapters 19-26. Invasion of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire With a successful invasion of Sassanid Persian province of Iraq, Abu Bakr’s confidence grew and he concentrated large army at Zhu Qissah and sent them to Roman Syria, the army was divided in four corps. Each, under its own commander and target. While these armies where on there march towards there target they receive intelligence of concentration of large Byzantine armies at Ajnadayn. The armies stop there advance and wrote to Abu Bakr for help. Position in Iraq was stable by now, Caliph accordingly wrote to Khalid to take half of his forces of Iraq to Syria and assume the command of Muslim armies in Syria. The Byzantine province of Syria in those days consisted of modern day Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Lebanon and southern Turkey. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq, one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal and the other was through Mesopotamia passing though Ar Raqqah. Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal because it was a long route and would take weeks to reach Syria, he avoided Mesopotamia’s route because of presence of Roman garrisons in Northern Syria and Mesopotamia and engaging with them at the time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria, was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a rather short route to Syria, an unconventional route passing though Syrian Desert. He boldly marched his armies though desert were it is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a pre-decided water source in oasis. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught Byzantine at there right flank and according to modern historians, it was this ingenious strategic maneuver of Khalid, his perilous march though desert and appearing at the north-eastern front of Byzantines while they were occupied in tackling Muslim armies in southern Syria, that unhinged the Byzantine defenses in Syria. Khalid entered Syria in June 634 and quickly captured the border forts of Sawa, Arak, Tadmur, Sukhnah. Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Qaryatayn and the Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus, passing though a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Basra, the capital of Ghassanid Arab kingdom, a vassal of Eastern Roman empire. He had ordered other Muslim commaders to concentrate there armies at Busra, which were still near the Syrian-Arabia border. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army of Christian Arabs in a quick Battle of Marj-al-Rahit. Meanwhile Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of Muslim armies in Syria had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Basra.The later laid siege of Basra with his small army of 4000 men. Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, noticing that this might be the advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, decided to attack and destroy Shurhabil’s army. They came out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; Khalid reached the arena with his advance guard cavalry and saved the day for Shurhabil. The combine forces of Khalid, Shurhabil and Abu Ubaidah then laid the siege of Basra, which surrendered some time in mid July 634. thus effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty. Here Khalid took over the command of Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, as per the instructions of Caliph. The massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to desert, early Muslim sources, have mentioned its size to be 90,000, while most of the modern historians doubt the fugures, but consider this battle to be the key to broke the Byzantine power in Syria. According to the instructions of Khalid all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they fought a decisive battle against Byzantine on 30 July 634. Defeat at the Battle of Ajnadayn, left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus Thomas, son in law of Emperor Heraculis, was in charge. Receiving the intelligence og Khalid’s march towards Damascus he prepared for the defences of Damascus. He wrote to Emperor Heraculis for reinforcement, who was at Emesa that time. Moreover Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent the armies to delay or if possible halt Khalid’s march to Damascus, one such army was defeated at Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August 634 near Lake Tiberias 90 miles from Damascus, an other army that halted the Muslim advance to Damascus was defeated in Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August 634. These engagements delayed Khalid’s advance and gave Thomas enough time to prepare for siege, meanwhile Heraculis’s reinforcement at reached the city, which he had dispatched after the bad news of Ajnadyn. Before Heraculis’s another regiment could reach Damascus, Khalid had finally reached Damascus. Khalid reached Damascus the 20th August and besieged the city. To isolate the city from rest of the region Khalid placed the detachments south on the road to Palestine and in north at Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraculis’s reinforcement was intercepted and routed at Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab 20 miles from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege, Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September 634 after a 30 days siege, according to some sources siege lasted for four or six months. Heraculis having receive the news of fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa. The citizens were given peace on the terms of annual tribute; the Byzantine army was given a three day peace to go as far as they could. After the three days deadline was over, the Muslim cavalry under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army, catching up to them using an unknown shortcut, at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, 190 miles north of Damascus. Abu Bakr died during the siege of Damascus and Umar became the new Caliph. He dismissed his cousin Khalid ibn al-Walid from the command and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah the new commander in chief of Islamic army in Syria. Abu Ubaidah got the letter of his appointment and Khalid's disposal during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city was conquered. Death On 8 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick, and never recovered. There are two accounts about the sickness of Abu Bakr. One account is that the 8 August 634 was a cold day and when Abu Bakr took a bath, he caught a chill. Another account is that about a year before, along with some other companions, Harith bin Kaladah, and Attab bin Usaid, he had eaten some food which was poisoned, and which was not to affect him for a year. Abu Bakr developed high fever, and was confined to bed. His illness was prolonged, and when his condition worsened, he felt that his end was near. Realizing that his end was drawing near, Abu Bakr felt that he should nominate his successor so that the issue should not be a cause of dissension among the Muslims after his death, though there was already controversy over Ali not having been appointed. Sidiq-i-Akbar Hazrat Abu Bakr by Masudul Hasan. Publisher: Lahore: Ferozsons, 1976.OCLC: 3478821 He appointed Umar as his successor after discussing with some companions. Some of them favored the nomination and others disliked it, due to the tough nature of Umar. Abu Bakr thus dictated the testament to Uthman Ibn Affan in the following terms: In the name of Most Merciful God. This is the last will and testament of Abu Bakr bin Abu Qahafa, when he is in the last hour of the world, and the first of the next; an hour in which the infidel must believe, the wicked be convinced of their evil ways, I nominate Umar bin al Khattab as my successor. Therefore, hear to him and obey him. If he acts right, confirm his actions. My intentions are good, but I cannot see the future results. However, those who do ill shall render themselves liable to severe account hereafter. Fare you well. May you be ever attended by the Divine favor of blessing. Abu Bakr next asked Aisha as to how many pieces of cloth were used for Muhammad's shroud. Aisha said that three pieces had been used. Abu Bakr thereupon desired the same number for his own shroud. On Monday 23 August 634 Abu Bakr died. The funeral prayer was led by Umar. He was buried the same night by the side of Muhammad's grave in Aisha's house near Al-Masjid al-Nabawi Family Father: Uthman ibn Amir Abu Qahafa Mother: Umm al-Khair Salma bint Shakhr ibn Amir ibn Ka'ab ibn Sa'ad ibn Taim Brother: Mu'taq (presumably the middle) Brother: Utaiq (presumably the youngest) Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk 3/ 425 Brother: Quhafah ibn Uthman Himself: Atiq (presumably the eldest) Wife: Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza ibn 'Abd ibn As'ad (divorced) Daughter: Asma bint Abu Bakr Grandson Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr - His birth spread happiness amongs muslims, killed by Hajjaj bin Yousef. Grandson Urwa ibn al-Zubayr Great grandson Hisham ibn Urwa Son: 'Abd Allaah ibn Abi Bakr Wife: Um Ruman bint Amir ibn Uwaymir ibn Zuhal ibn Dahman (from Kinanah) Step son: Tufail ibn Abdullah, The son of Abd-Allah ibn Harith Son: ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr Daughter: 'Aa'ishah Son in law: Muhammad, tree Wife: Asma' bint Umays ibn Ma'ad ibn Taym al-Khath'amiyyah (former wife of Ja`far ibn Abī Tālib) Son: Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr Wife: Habibah bint Kharijah ibn Zayd ibn Abi Zuhayr (from the tribe of Banu al-Haris ibn al-Khazraj Daughter: Umm Khultum bint Abu Bakr Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al-Wathan publications , Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 Anno hegiræ (2002) compiled by Dr. Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, page 16, ISBN 979-3407-19-6 . Today, there are so many families which are believed to be descents of Abu Bakr. Most of them are known by the name Siddiqi which was a title given to Abu Bakr by Muhammad. But they are also known by some other names in different localities. For example, In East Ethiopia, Siddiqis are usually called Qallu which is to mean people of the religion, as they are the first to bring Islam to this area. In Somalia, they are commonly known as Sheekhaal and they are highly celebrated by other Somali clans. In Sylhet Division of Bangladesh, they are known by the name of Qureshi. Legacy Abu Bakr became the Caliph on the 8 June 632 C.E. and he died on 23 August 634 C.E. Though the period of his caliphate covers two years, two months and fifteen days only, his achievements were remarkable. His glorious triumph in Ridda Wars and successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire. Abu Bakr had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam, although he had usurped the caliphate according to the earliest Muslims, the Muhajirun, who supported Ali. He was the first Caliph to nominate a successor. He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate. He was the first Muslim ruler to establish Bayt al-mal. He was the first Muslim ruler to establish crown pasture. He was the first Muslim ruler to establish 'Ijtihad'. He has the distinction of purchasing the land for Al-Masjid al-Nabawi. According to Sunni Muslims, in the matter of virtue, Abu Bakr excelled all other Sahaba. Both Abu Bakr and Uthman ibn Affan had relinquished drinking wine even in the time before Islam. He was the foremost genealogist of the Quraysh and the best of them at interpreting dreams after Muhammad according to Ibn Sirin. Sunni view Sunni Muslims also consider Abu Bakr as one of the ten Sahaba (companions) for whom Muhammad had testified that they were destined for Paradise. He is regarded as Khalifa Rasulullah The successor of Messenger of Allah, and first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs - i.e. Rashidun and being the rightful successor to Muhammad. Abu Bakr had always been the closest friend and confidant of Muhammad throughout his life. He was always there beside the Prophet at every major event. It was Abu Bakr's wisdom that Muhammad always honored and would always consult him before anyone else. During the last few weeks of his life, Muhammad preferred Abu Bakr to lead the Muslims in prayer while he was ill. Upon Muhammad's death, it was Abu Bakr who demonstrated sagacity to keep the ranks of the Muslims together. Muhammad had not left behind a clear will on who would succeed him. There was dissension between the two original tribes of Medina, namely Aws and Khazraj regarding who would become the ruler over the Muslims after Muhammad. This even led to drawing of swords between them. Abu Bakr, Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah rushed to the spot where the dispute almost turned bloody, and delivered his famous speech to show the path of unity between the Muslims and declared that Umar should become the first caliph. In turn, Umar declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr saying that there is no better man amongst the Muslims after Muhammad. Majority of the sahaba (companions of the Prophet) assembled there followed suit and pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr. Sunnis point out this fact of avoiding bloodshed between Muslims and preserving the unity of the state as of paramount importance, or it would have led to self-destruction of the new state. The famous scholar Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal stated that he is the best of all companions (sahaba) of the Prophet. He is also best remembered by Ahlus-Sunnah Wal Jama'ah and the world history, for his famous speech upon the death of Muhammad which he delivered at the Mosque of the Prophet: O' men, if anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. And if anyone worships God, God is Alive, Immortal. He then recited the verse from the Qur'an: "Muhammad is no more than an Apostle. Many were the Apostles that passed away before him. If he died or were slain, will ye then turn back on your heels ? If any did turn back on his heels, not the least harm will he do to God. But God (on the other hand) will swiftly reward those who (serve him) with gratitude." See "The Life of Muhammad - A translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah" by A. Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1955, 1974, page 683. The translation of the verse of the Qur'an is taken from "The Holy Qur'an - Text, Translation and Commentary" by A. Yusuf Ali Sunnis also consider the narrations about Abu Bakr and his family by the Shi'a to be spurious. Shi'a view The Shi'a have a very unfavorable view of Abu Bakr. They believe that he was a usurper who snatched the Caliphate when it should have gone to Ali, who had been appointed by Muhammad as his successor at Ghadir Khumm. They also believe he and Umar conspired to take over power in the Muslim nation after Muhammad's death, in a coup d'état against Ali, as they had ignored Muhammad's wishes and met secretly with the tribal leaders of Mecca and Medina at Saqifah to elect Abu Bakr. The Shia do not view Abu Bakr's being with Muhammad in the cave as a meritorious act. The Shi'a criticize Abu Bakr for an apparent dispute between him and Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, that ended with her becoming angry with Abu Bakr and refusing to talk with him for the rest of her life, she died six months later. Abu Bakr had refused to grant her a piece of land which Muhammad had left. Shias also accuse him of participating in the burning of the house of Ali and Fatima, an event which is corroborated by several Sunni sources Ibn Qutayba al Dinawari. Al Imama Wa'l Siyasa. (see Fadak) The Shi'a believe that Abu Bakr sent Khalid ibn Walid to crush those who were in favour of Ali's caliphate (see Ridda Wars). The Shi'a strongly refute the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the Qur'an, claiming that they should have accepted the copy of the holy book in the possession of Ali The Quran Compiled by Imam Ali (AS) Non-Muslims view Edward Gibbon wrote about Abu Bakr as: The moderation, and the veracity of Abu Bakr confirmed the new religion, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and furnished an example for invitation. William Muir states that: Abu Bakr's judgment was sound and impartial; his conversation agreeable and his demeanor affable and much sought after by the Quraysh and he was popular throughout the city.... The faith of Abu Bakr was the greatest guarantee of Muhammad's sincerity in the beginning of his career, and indeed, in a modified sense, throughout his life. Life of Muhammad To have such a person as a staunch adherent of his claim, was for Muhammad a most important step. William Montgomery Watt writes: From 622 to 632 he (Abu Bakr) was Mohammed's chief adviser, but had no prominent public functions except that he conducted the pilgrimage to Mecca in 631, and led the public prayers in Medina during Mohammed's last illness. Encyclopedia Britannia, Vol. I, page 54, 1973 References See also Rashidun Caliphate Qallu External links Sunni: Detailed Life of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq Abu Bakr's life Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi Order biography of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq Greatness of Abu Bakr Urdu Audio Virtues of Abu Bakr Urdu Audio Abu Bakr appearing in Narrations/Hadith recorded by Imam Bukhari - www.SearchTruth.com Shia: Abu Bakr Non-Muslim: quotes Abu Bakr Unclassified: Abu Bakr Abu Bakr from Islamonline Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1 by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.

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Mineralogy

Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. History Early speculation, study, and theory of mineralogy was written of in ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and noted in the prana of Sanskrit texts from ancient India. Needham, Volume 3, 637. They included the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe. Needham, Volume 3, 636. The credible study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Europe and the Middle East Theophrastus The ancient Greek writers Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Theophrastus (370-285 BC) were the first in the Western tradition to write of minerals and their properties, as well as metaphysical explanations for them. The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote his Meteorologica, and in it theorized that all the known substances were composed of water, air, earth, and fire, with the properties of dryness, dampness, heat, and cold. Bandy, i (Forward). The Greek philosopher and botanist Theophrastus wrote his De Mineralibus, which accepted Aristotle's view, and divided minerals into two categories: those affected by heat and those affected by dampness. The metaphysical emanation and exhalation (anathumiaseis) theory of the Greek philosopher Aristotle included early speculation on earth sciences including mineralogy. According to his theory, while metals were supposed to be congealed by means of moist exhalation, dry gaseous exhalation (pneumatodestera) was the efficient material cause of minerals found in the earth's soil. Needham, Volume 3, 636-637. He postulated these ideas by using the examples of moisture on the surface of the earth (a moist vapor 'potentially like water'), while the other was from the earth itself, pertaining to the attributes of hot, dry, smoky, and highly combustible ('potentially like fire'). Aristotle's metaphysical theory from times of antiquity had wide-ranging influence on similar theory found in later medieval Europe, as the historian Berthelot notes: The theory of exhalations was the point of departure for later ideas on the generation of metals in the earth, which we meet with Proclus, and which reigned throughout the middle ages. Fibrous asbestos on muscovite Ancient Greek terminology of minerals has also stuck through the ages with widespread usage in modern times. For example, the Greek word asbestos (meaning 'inextinguishable', or 'unquenchable'), for the unusual mineral known today containing fibrous structure. Needham, Volume 3, 656. The ancient historians Strabo (63 BC-19 AD) and Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) both wrote of asbestos, its qualities, and its origins, with the Hellenistic belief that it was of a type of vegetable. Pliny the Elder listed it as a mineral common in India, while the historian Yu Huan (239-265 AD) of China listed this 'fireproof cloth' as a product of ancient Rome or Arabia (Chinese: Daqin). Although documentation of these minerals in ancient times does not fit the manner of modern scientific classification, there was nonetheless extensive written work on early mineralogy. Pliny the Elder octahedral shape of diamond. Baltic amber necklace with trapped insects For example, Pliny devoted 5 entire volumes of his work Naturalis Historia (77 AD) to the classification of "earths, metals, stones, and gems". Ramsdell, 164. He not only describes many minerals not known to Theophrastus, but discusses their applications and properties. He is the first to correctly recognise the origin of amber for example, as the fossilized remnant of tree resin from the observation of insects trapped in some samples. He laid the basis of crystallography by discussing crystal habit, especially the octahedral shape of diamond. His discussion of mining methods is unrivalled in the ancient world, and includes, for example, an eye-witness account of gold mining in northern Spain, an account which is fully confirmed by modern research. However, before the more definitive foundational works on mineralogy in the 16th century, the ancients recognized no more than roughly 350 minerals to list and describe. Needham, Volume 3, 646. Jabir and Avicenna With philosophers such as Proclus, the theory of Neoplatonism also spread to the Islamic world during the Middle Ages, providing a basis for metaphyiscal ideas on mineralogy in the medieval Middle East as well. The medieval Islamic scientists expanded upon this as well, including the Persian scientist Ibn Sina (ابوعلى سينا/پورسينا‎) (980-1037 AD), also known as Avicenna, who rejected alchemy and the earlier notion of Greek metaphysics that metallic and other elements could be transformed into one another. However, what was largely accurate of the ancient Greek and medieval metaphysical ideas on mineralogy was the slow chemical change in composition of the earth's crust. There was also the Islamic alchemist and scientist Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-815 AD), who was the first to bring the experimental method into alchemy. Aided by Greek mathematics and Islamic mathematics, he discovered the syntheses for hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, distillation and crystallization (the latter two being essential for the understanding of modern mineralogy). Georgius Agricola, 'Father of Mineralogy' Agricola, author of De re metallica In the early 16th century AD, the writings of the German scientist Georg Bauer, pen-name Georgius Agricola (1494-1555 AD), in his Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus (1530) is considered to be the official establishment of mineralogy in the modern sense of its study. He wrote the treatise while working as a town physician and making observations in Joachimsthal, which was then a center for mining and metallurgic smelting industries. In 1544, he published his written work De ortu et causis subterraneorum, which is considered to be the foundational work of modern physical geology. In it (much like Ibn Sina) he heavily criticized the theories laid out by the ancient Greeks such as Aristotle. His work on mineralogy and metallurgy continued with the publication of De veteribus et novis metallis in 1546, and culminated in his best known works, the De re metallica of 1556. It was an impressive work outlining applications of mining, refining, and smelting metals, alongside discussions on geology of ore bodies, surveying, mine construction, and ventilation. He praises Pliny the Elder for his pioneering work Naturalis Historia and makes extensive references to his discussion of minerals and mining methods. For the next two centuries this written work remained the authoritative text on mining in Europe. Agricola had many various theories on mineralogy based on empirical observation, including understanding of the concept of ore channels that were formed by the circulation of ground waters ('succi') in fissures subsequent to the deposition of the surrounding rocks. As will be noted below, the medieval Chinese previously had conceptions of this as well. For his works, Agricola is posthumously known as the "Father of Mineralogy". After the foundational work written by Agricola, it is widely agreed by the scientific community that the Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia of Anselmus de Boodt (1550-1632) of Bruges is the first definitive work of modern mineralogy. The German mining chemist J.F. Henckel wrote his Flora Saturnisans of 1760, which was the first treatise in Europe to deal with geobotanical minerals, although the Chinese had mentioned this in earlier treatises of 1421 and 1664. Needham, Volume 3, 678. In addition, the Chinese writer Du Wan made clear references to weathering and erosion processes in his Yun Lin Shi Pu of 1133, long before Agricola's work of 1546. China and the Far East In ancient China, the oldest literary listing of minerals dates back to at least the 4th century BC, with the Ji Ni Zi book listing twenty four of them. Needham, Volume 3, 643. Chinese ideas of metaphysical mineralogy span back to at least the ancient Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). From the 2nd century BC text of the Huai Nan Zi, the Chinese used ideological Taoist terms to describe meteorology, precipitation, different types of minerals, metallurgy, and alchemy. Needham, Volume 3, 640. Although the understanding of these concepts in Han times was Taoist in nature, the theories proposed were similar to the Aristotelian theory of mineralogical exhalations (noted above). By 122 BC, the Chinese had thus formulated the theory for metamorphosis of minerals, although it is noted by historians such as Dubs that the tradition of alchemical-mineralogical Chinese doctrine stems back to the School of Naturalists headed by the philosopher Zou Yan (305 BC-240 BC). Needham, Volume 3, 641. Within the broad categories of rocks and stones (shi) and metals and alloys (jin), by Han times the Chinese had hundreds (if not thousands) of listed types of stones and minerals, along with theories for how they were formed. In the 5th century AD, Prince Qian Ping Wang of the Liu Song Dynasty wrote in the encyclopedia Tai-ping Yu Lan (circa 444 AD, from the lost book Dian Shu, or Management of all Techniques): The most precious things in the world are stored in the innermost regions of all. For example, there is orpiment. After a thousand years it changes into realgar. After another thousand years the realgar becomes transformed into yellow gold. Needham, Volume 3, 638. In ancient and medieval China, mineralogy became firmly tied to empirical observations in pharmaceutics and medicine. For example, the famous horologist and mechanical engineer Su Song (1020-1101 AD) of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) wrote of mineralogy and pharmacology in his Ben Cao Tu Jing of 1070. In it he created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions, such as all the variously known forms of mica that could be used to cure various ills through digestion. Needham, Volume 3, 648. Su Song also wrote of the subconchoidal fracture of native cinnabar, signs of ore beds, and provided description on crystal form. Needham, Volume 3, 649. Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water mentioned above with the German scientist Agricola, Su Song made similar statements concerning copper carbonate, as did the earlier Ri Hua Ben Cao of 970 AD with copper sulfate. The Yuan Dynasty scientist Zhang Si-xiao (died 1332 AD) provided a groundbreaking treatise on the conception of ore beds from the circulation of ground waters and rock fissures, two centuries before Georgius Agricola would come to similar conclusions. Needham, Volume 3, 650. In his Suo-Nan Wen Ji, he applies this theory in describing the deposition of minerals by evaporation of (or precipitation from) ground waters in ore channels. Needham, Volume 3, 651. In addition to alchemical theory posed above, later Chinese writers such as the Ming Dynasty physician Li Shizhen (1518-1593 AD) wrote of mineralogy in similar terms of Aristotle's metaphysical theory, as the latter wrote in his pharmaceutical treatise Běncǎo Gāngmù (本草綱目, Compendium of Materia Medica, 1596). Another figure from the Ming era, the famous geographer Xu Xiake (1587-1641) wrote of mineral beds and mica schists in his treatise. Needham, Volume 3, 645. However, while European literature on mineralogy became wide and varied, the writers of the Ming and Qing dynasties wrote little of the subject (even compared to Chinese of the earlier Song era). The only other works from these two eras worth mentioning were the Shi Pin (Hierarchy of Stones) of Yu Jun in 1617, the Guai Shi Lu (Strange Rocks) of Song Luo in 1665, and the Guan Shi Lu (On Looking at Stones) in 1668. However, one figure from the Song era that is worth mentioning above all is Shen Kuo. Theories of Shen Kuo Shen Kuo (沈括) (1031-1095)) The medieval Chinese Song Dynasty statesman and scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD) wrote of his land formation theory involving concepts of mineralogy. In his Meng Xi Bi Tan (梦溪笔谈; Dream Pool Essays, 1088), Shen formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation (geomorphology); based on his observation of marine fossil shells in a geological stratum in the Taihang Mountains hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean. Sivin, III, 23. He inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt, and described soil erosion, sedimentation and uplift. Sivin, III, 23-24. In an earlier work of his (circa 1080), he wrote of a curious fossil of a sea-orientated creature found far inland. Needham, Volume 3, 618. It is also of interest to note that the contemporary author of the Xi Chi Cong Yu attributed the idea of particular places under the sea where serpents and crabs were petrified to one Wang Jinchen. With Shen Kuo's writing of the discovery of fossils, he formulated a hypothesis for the shifting of geographical climates throughout time. Needham, Volume 3, 614. This was due to hundreds of petrified bamboos found underground in the dry climate of northern China, once an enormous landslide upon the bank of a river revealed them. Shen theorized that in pre-historic times, the climate of Yanzhou must have been very rainy and humid like southern China, where bamboos are suitable to grow. In a similar way, the historian Joseph Needham likened Shen's account with the Scottish scientist Roderick Murchison (1792-1871), who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide. In addition, Shen's description of sedimentary deposition predated that of James Hutton, who wrote his groundbreaking work in 1802 (considered the foundation of modern geology). Needham, Volume 3, 604 The influential philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200) wrote of this curious natural phenomena of fossils as well, and was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo. Chan, 15. In comparison, the first mentioning of fossils found in the West was made nearly two centuries later with Louis IX of France in 1253 AD, who discovered fossils of marine animals (as recorded in Joinville's records of 1309 AD). Chan, 14. Modern mineralogy Chalcocite, a copper ore mineral. Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock-forming minerals; to this end, the International Mineralogical Association is an organization whose members represent mineralogists in individual countries. Its activities include managing the naming of minerals (via the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names), location of known minerals, etc. As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species of mineral recognized by the IMA. Of these, perhaps 150 can be called "common," another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare." More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as neutron diffraction) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid-state physics. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the perovskites, clay minerals and framework silicates). In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the Earth's mantle. To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the mineral sciences (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with materials science than any other discipline. Physical mineralogy Physical mineralogy is the specific focus on physical attributes of minerals. Description of physical attributes is the simplest way to identify, classify, and categorize minerals, and they include: crystal structure crystal habit twinning cleavage luster color streak hardness specific gravity Chemical mineralogy Chemical mineralogy focuses on the chemical composition of minerals in order to identify, classify, and categorize them, as well as a means to find beneficial uses from them. There are a few minerals which are classified as whole elements, including sulfur, copper, silver, and gold, yet the vast majority of minerals are comprised of chemical compounds, some more complex than others. Ramsdell, 165. In terms of major chemical divisions of minerals, most are placed within the isomorphous groups, which are based on analogous chemical composition and similar crystal forms. A good example of isomorphism classification would be the calcite group, containing the minerals calcite, magnesite, siderite, rhodochrosite, and smithsonite. Ramsdell, 166. Biomineralogy Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. Scurfield , Gordon (1979) "Wood Petrifaction: an aspect of biomineralogy" Australian Journal of Botany 27(4): pp. 377-390 It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals Christoffersen, M.R., Balic-Zunic, T., Pehrson, S., Christoffersen, J. (2001) "Kinetics of Growth of Columnar Triclinic Calcium Pyrophosphate Dihydrate Crystals" Crystal Growth & Design 1(6): pp. 463-466. Chandrajith, R., Wijewardana, G., Dissanayake, C.B., Abeygunasekara, A. (2006) "Biomineralogy of human urinary calculi (kidney stones) from some geographic regions of Sri Lanka" Environmental Geochemistry and Health 28(4): pp. 393-399 as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils. Lowenstam, Heitz A. (1954) "Environmental relations of modification compositions of certain carbonate secreting marine invertebrates" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 40(1): pp. 39-48 Optical mineralogy Optical mineralogy is a specific focus of mineralogy that applies sources of light as a means to identify and classify minerals. All minerals which are not part of the cubic system are double refracting, where ordinary light passing through them is broken up into two plane polarized rays that travel at different velocities and refracted at different angles. Mineral substances belonging to the cubic system pertain only one index of refraction. Hexagonal and tetragonal mineral substances have two indices, while orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic substances have three indices of refraction. With opaque ore minerals, reflected light from a microscope is needed for identification. Crystal structure X-rays are used to determine the atomic arrangements of minerals and so to identify and classify them. The arrangements of atoms define the crystal structures of the minerals. Some very fine-grained minerals, such as clays, commonly can be identified most readily by their crystal structures. The structure of a mineral also offers a precise way of establishing isomorphism. With knowledge of atomic arrangements and compositions, one may deduce why minerals have specific physical properties , and one may calculate how those properties change with pressure and temperature. Formation environments The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperature and pressures of igneous melts deep within the Earth's crust to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface. Various possible methods of formation include: Ramsdell, 166-167. sublimation from volcanic gases deposition from aqueous solutions and hydrothermal brines crystallization from an igneous magma or lava recrystallization due to metamorphic processes and metasomatism crystallization during diagenesis of sediments formation by oxidation and weathering of rocks exposed to the atmosphere or within the soil environment. Uses Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used for bettering health and fitness (such as mineral water or commercially-sold vitamins), essential components of metal products used in various commodities and machinery, essential components to building materials such as limestone, marble, granite, gravel, glass, plaster, cement, plastics, etc. Ramsdell, 167. Minerals are also used in fertilizers to enrich the growth of agricultural crops. Descriptive mineralogy Descriptive mineralogy summarizes results of studies performed on mineral substances. It is the scholarly and scientific method of recording the identification, classification, and categorization of minerals, their properties, and their uses. Classifications for descriptive mineralogy includes: http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sort-met.hod/dana/dana.htm Dana classification - Minerals.net Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius Hurlbut, Jr. (1985) Manual of Mineralogy, Wiley, 20th ed., ISBN 0-471-80580-7 native elements sulfides oxides and hydroxides halides carbonates, nitrates and borates sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates phosphates, arsenates and vanadates silicates organic minerals Determinative mineralogy Determinative mineralogy is the actual scientific process of identifying minerals, through data gathering and conclusion. When new minerals are discovered, a standard procedure of scientific analysis is followed, including measures to identify a mineral's formula, its crystallographic data, its optical data, as well as the general physical attributes determined and listed. See also List of minerals - a simple list concentrating on minerals with Wikipedia articles. List of minerals (complete) - a more complete list of IMA-approved minerals, regularly updated. List of mineralogists List of publications in mineralogy Metallurgy Materials science Notes References Bandy, Mark Chance and Jean A. Bandy (1955). De Natura Fossilium. New York: George Banta Publishing Company. Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press ISBN 9971692597 Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Ramsdell, Lewis S. (1963). Encyclopedia Americana: International Edition: Volume 19. New York: Americana Corporation. Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. External links International Mineralogical Association mindat.org mineralogical database Mineralogical Society of America Mineralogical Association of Canada Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy Georg Agricola's "Textbook on Mineralogy" on gemstones and minerals Translated from Latin by Mark Bandy. Original title: "De Natura Fossilium". The Giant Crystal Project The Geological Society of America

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Flores

Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, an island arc with an estimated area of 14,300 km² extending east from the Java island of Indonesia. The population is estimated to be around 1.5 million "Trapping Komodo Dragons for Conservation" National Geographic - 28 Jan 2003 , and the largest town is Maumere. Flores is located east of Sumbawa and Komodo and west of Lembata and the Alor Archipelago. To the southeast is Timor. To the south, across the Sumba strait, is Sumba and to the north, beyond the Flores Sea, is Sulawesi. On December 12 1992, an earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale occurred, killing 2,500 people near the island of Flores. Etymology The name 'Flores' is the Portuguese word, meaning "flowers". Administration Flores is part of the East Nusa Tenggara province. The island is split into seven regencies (local government districts); from west to east these are: West Manggarai, Central Manggarai, Ngada, Nagekeo , Ende, Sikka and Flores Timur. Flora and fauna The west coast of Flores is one of the few places, aside from the island of Komodo itself, where the Komodo dragon can be found in the wild. The Flores Giant Rat is also endemic to the Island. In September 2003, at Liang Bua Cave in western Flores, paleoanthropologists discovered small skeletons that they described as a previously unknown hominid species, Homo floresiensis. These are informally named hobbits and appear to have stood about one metre tall. The most complete individual (LB1) is dated as 18000 years old. A description of a new species was published, but this remains disputed by other research that concludes they were afflicted with a growth disorder. Flores was also a habitat of the extinct Stegodon dwarf elephant until approximately 18,000 years ago. It also was the habitat of species of giant rodents. It is speculated by scientists that limited resources drove the few species that lived upon the island to gigantism and dwarfism. "Hobbits" Were Pygmy Ancestors, Not New Species, Study Says National Geographic - 21 Aug 2006 Culture Some fishing boats on Flores There are many languages spoken on the island of Flores, all of them belonging to the Austronesian family. In the centre of the island in the districts of Ngada, Nagekeo, and Ende there is what is variously called the Central Flores Dialect Chain or the Central Flores Linkage. Within this area there are slight linguistic differences in almost every village. At least six separate languages are identifiable. These are from west to east: Ngadha, Nage, Keo, Ende, Lio and Palu'e, which is spoken on the island with the same name of the north coast of Flores. Locals would probably also add So'a and Bajawa to this list, which anthropologists have labeled dialects of Ngadha. Portuguese traders and missionaries came to Flores in the 16th century, mainly to Larantuka and Sikka. Their influence is still discernible in Sikka's language and culture. In fact, the island's name, Flores, means "flowers" in Portuguese. Flores is almost entirely Roman Catholic and represents one of the "religious borders" created by the Catholic expansion in the Pacific and the spread of Islam from the west across Indonesia. In other places in Indonesia, such as in the Malukus and Sulawesi, the divide is more rigid and has been the source of bloody sectarian clashes. Tourism Bena Village The most famous tourist attraction in Flores is Kelimutu; three coloured lakes in the district of Ende and close to the town of Moni. These crater lakes are in the caldera of a volcano, and fed by a volcanic gas source, resulting in highly acid water. The coloured lakes change colours on an irregular basis, depending on the oxidation state of the lake Pasternack, Keli Mutu Volcanic Lakes from bright red through green and blue. The latest colours (late 2004) were said to be turquoise, brown and black. There is good snorkelling and diving on several locations along the north coast of Flores, most notably Maumere and Riung. However, due to the destructive practice of local fishermen using bombs to fish, and locals selling shells to tourists, combined with the after effects of a devastating tsunami in 1992, the reefs have slowly been destroyed. Labuanbajo (on the western tip of Flores) is a town often used by tourists, from where they can visit Komodo and Rinca. Labuanbajo also attracts scuba divers, as whale sharks inhabit the waters around Labuanbajo. Tourists can visit Luba and Bena villages to see traditional houses in Flores. Larantuka, on the isle's eastern end, is known for its Holy Week festivals. In addition to tourism, the main economic activities on Flores are agriculture, fishing and seaweed production. The primary food crops being grown on Flores are rice, maize sweet potato and cassava, while the main cash crops are coffee, coconut, candle nut and cashew. Indonesian Chamber of Commerce and Industry: , Retrieved on 2008-08-08 Flores is one of the newest origins for Indonesian coffee. Previously, most Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) from Flores was blended with other origins. Now, demand is growing for this coffee because of its heavy body and sweet chocolate, floral and woody notes. Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia: , Retrieved on 2008-08-08 Gallery See also Dutch Empire Nage tribe Portuguese Empire Simon Milward Homo floresiensis References External links Flores Man special at Nature.com

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Discrimination

Discrimination toward or against a person of a certain group is the treatment or consideration based on class or category rather than individual merit. It can be behavior promoting a certain group (e.g. affirmative action), or it can be negative behavior directed against a certain group (e.g. redlining). Race discrimination Racial discrimination differentiates between individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial differences, and has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa in the apartheid era, and the USA. An African-American child at a segregated drinking fountain on a courthouse lawn, North Carolina, 1938. In the United States, racial profiling of minorities by law enforcement officials has been called racial discrimination. As early as 1865, the Civil Rights Act provided a remedy for intentional race discrimination in employment by private employers and state and local public employers. The Civil Rights Act of 1871 applies to public employment or employment involving state action prohibiting deprivation of rights secured by the federal constitution or federal laws through action under color of law. Title VII is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labor organizations, training programs and employment agencies based on race or color, religion, gender, and national origin. Title VII also prohibits retaliation against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available in Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to a jury trial. Title VII also provides that race and color discrimination against every race and color is prohibited. In the UK the inquiry following the murder of Stephen Lawrence accused the police of institutional racism. Weaver v NATFHE (now part of the UCU) Race/sex discrimination case. An Industrial (Employment) Tribunal in the UK in 1987 decided that a trade union was justified in not assisting a Black woman member, complaining of racist/sexist harassment, regardless of the merits of the case, because the accused male would lose his job. The Employment Appeal Tribunal upheld the decision, which still stands today as the definitive legal precedent in this field. Also known as the Bournville College Racial Harassment issue. Gingerism is a form of discrimination which is sometimes considered to be racism. Within the criminal justice system in some Western countries, minorities are convicted and imprisoned disproportionately when compared with whites. How is the Criminal Justice System Racist? Blacks Hardest Hit by Incarceration Policy. Human Rights Watch. June 5, 2008. In 1998, nearly one out of three black men between the ages of 20-29 were in prison or jail, on probation or parole on any given day in the United States. Race and the Criminal Justice System First Nations make up about 2% of Canada's population, but account for 18% of the federal prison population as of 2000. According to the Australian government's June 2006 publication of prison statistics, indigenous peoples make up 24% of the overall prison population in Australia. ("Indigenous" meaning those identifying themselves as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin ) In 2004, Maori made up just 15% of the total population of New Zealand but 49.5% of prisoners. Maori were entering prison at 8 times the rate of non-Maori. New Zealand's Prison Population Age discrimination Age discrimination is or group on the grounds of age. Although theoretically the word can refer to the discrimination against any age group, age discrimination usually comes in one of three forms: discrimination against youth (also called adultism), discrimination against those 40 years old or older , and discrimination against elderly people. In the United States, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act prohibits employment discrimination nationwide based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act also addresses the difficulty older workers face in obtaining new employment after being displaced from their jobs, arbitrary age limits. In many countries, companies more or less openly refuse to hire people above a certain age despite the increasing lifespans and average age of the population. The reasons for this range from vague feelings that younger people are more "dynamic" and create a positive image for the company, to more concrete concerns about regulations granting older employees higher salaries or other benefits without these expenses being fully justified by an older employees' greater experience. Some people consider that teenagers and youth (around 15–25 years old) are victims of adultism, age discrimination framed as a paternalistic form of protection. In seeking social justice, they feel that it is necessary to remove the use of a false moral agenda in order to achieve agency and empowerment. This perspective is based on the grounds that youth should be treated more respectfully by adults and not as second-class citizens. Some suggest that social stratification in age groups causes outsiders to incorrectly stereotype and generalize the group, for instance that all adolescents are equally immature, violent or rebellious, listen to rock tunes, and do drugs. Some have organized groups against age discrimination. Ageism is the causal effect of a continuum of fears related to age. This continuum includes: Ephebiphobia: the fear of youth. Gerontophobia: the fear of elderly people. Pediaphobia: the fear of infants or small children. Related terms include: Adultism: Also called adultarchy, adult privilege, and adultcentrism/adultocentrism, this is the wielding of authority over young people and the preference of adults before children and youth. Jeunism: Also called "youthism" is the holding of beliefs or actions taken that preference 'younger' people before adults. Gender discrimination Though gender discrimination and sexism refers to beliefs and attitudes in relation to the gender of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do not, normally, carry any legal consequences. Sex discrimination, on the other hand, may have legal consequences. Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries. Currently, discrimination based on sex is defined as adverse action against another person, that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. This is considered a form of prejudice and is illegal in certain enumerated circumstances in most countries. Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or because an employer did not hire, promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on his or her gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender. In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship due to his or her gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender. Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is banking; for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on one’s gender. Wilson, F. (2003) Organizational Behaviour and Gender (2nd Edition), Aldershot: Ashgate. Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend his or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan terms based on one’s gender. Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles. Ridley-Duff, R. J. (2008) "Gendering, Courtship and Pay Equity: Developing Attraction Theory to Understand Work-Life Balance and Entrepreneurial Behaviour", paper to the 31st ISBE Conference, 5th-7th November, Belfast While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major reviews of the academic literature on gender difference find only a tiny minority of characteristics where there are consistent psychological differences between men and women, and these relate directly to experiences grounded in biological difference. Hyde, J. S. (2005) “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis”, American Psychologist, 60(6): 581 592. Unfair discrimination usually follows the gender stereotyping held by a society. The United Nations had concluded that women often experience a "glass ceiling" and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term "glass ceiling" is used to describe a perceived barrier to advancement in employment based on discrimination, especially sex discrimination. In the United States, the Glass Ceiling Commission, a government-funded group, stated: "Over half of all Master’s degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95% of senior-level managers, of the top Fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men. Of them, 97% are white." In its report, it recommended affirmative action, which is the consideration of an employee's gender and race in hiring and promotion decisions, as a means to end this form of discrimination. Transgender individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job, social isolation, and, occasionally, violent attacks against them. Legislation Australia Sex Discrimination Act 1984 Canada Ontario Human Rights Code 1962 Canadian Human Rights Act 1977 Hong Kong Sex Discrimination Ordinance (1996) Flag of Hong Kong (before 1997) United Kingdom Equal Pay Act 1970 - provides for equal pay for comparable work Sex Discrimination Act 1975 - makes discrimination against women or men, including discrimination on the grounds of marital status, illegal in the workplace except when it pertains to a "white man" and a "black woman." Human Rights Act 1998 - provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory imbalances United States Equal Pay Act of 1963 - (part of the Fair Labor Standards Act) - prohibits wage discrimination by employers and labor organizations based on sex Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - broadly prohibits discrimination in the workplace including hiring, firing, workforce reduction, benefits, and sexually harassing conduct Pregnancy Discrimination Act, which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - covers discrimination based upon pregnancy in the workplace Caste discrimination According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch, caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide. Discrimination, UNICEF Global Caste Discrimination Caste - The Facts Employment discrimination The American federal laws that protect against: race, color and national origin discrimination include the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order Number 11478 among other numerous laws that protect people from race, color and national origin discrimination. sex and gender discrimination include the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Equal Pay Act of 1963. age discrimination include the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. physical and mental disability discrimination include the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 religious discriminationinclude the Civil Rights Act of 1964. military status discrimination include the Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 An example of employment discrimination Most other western nations have similar laws protecting these groups. Language discrimination Diversity of language is protected and respected by most nations who value cultural diversity. However, people are sometimes subjected to different treatment because their preferred language is associated with a particular group, class or category. Commonly, the preferred language is just another attribute of separate ethnic groups. Discrimination exists if there is prejudicial treatment against a person or a group of people who speak a particular language or dialect. Language discrimination is suggested to be labeled Linguacism or logocism. Reverse discrimination and affirmative action Reverse discrimination is a term sometimes used to describe discrimination in favor of a group typically seen as discriminated against. It is almost always used in the context of opposing affirmative action. Some opponents dislike the term; Carl Cohen argues that discrimination is discrimination and "reverse" is thus a misnomer, while Ward Connerly's American Civil Rights Movement uses terms like "race preference," "gender preference," or "preferential treatment" to highlight its position that such policies violate existing civil rights law, such as the 1964 Civil Rights Act Disability discrimination People with disabilities face discrimination in all levels of society. The attitude that disabled individuals are inferior to non-disabled individuals is called "ableism". Chronic pain is a debilitating condition which is often neglected in modern society. According to the American Chiropractic Association, over 50% of all working US citizens complain of back pain each year. An estimated 80% of the population will experience back pain at some point in their life. Many times pain can become chronic and debilitating. Ergonomic seating and work environments are not only be a reasonable accommodation for those who suffer, they are also a preventative measure to counteract the soaring cost of medical treatment for pain conditions. Ergonomic seating in all public institutions would be a positive step to providing access to public services for all those who need it. In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act provides guidelines for providing wheelchair access for public institutions, but ergonomic devices for those who suffer from pain are something that has yet to be implemented. This is just one of many accessibility issues still faced by disabled individuals. Disabled people may also face discrimination by employers. They may find problems with securing employment as their disability can be seen as a risk to the company, and once in employment they may find they are overlooked for promotion opportunities. Similarly, if an employee becomes disabled while employed they may also find themselves being managed out the company by HR departments. Unsympathetic employers can make life very difficult for such employees and can often make their health problems worse. Disability discrimination laws mean that in theory the employee has a method of redress in such instances. Almost every person with a syndrome is discriminated against. They may not be able to join organizations, and they may even be neglected by schools and other public utilities. Discrimination in different countries Discrimination in Germany According to many studies, after having provoked a World War based in discrimination and racism, in Germany discrimination is still a common place for foreigners and even for Germans with dark skin, who are discriminated at some degree bbb; . The German government and the European Union in general have tried to diminish this social issue with campaigns like "For Diversity. Against Discrimination" bbb; but the campaigns seem to stay on the "proposal" level because the society is in general not aware of the discrimination and racial problems still pervasive throughout the country; according to a study from the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, the minorities in Germany believe, feel and have had experiences which makes them affirm that Germany is still a "fairly" discriminatory and racist country bbb; . Theories Discrimination Social theories such as Egalitarianism claim that social equality should prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include the right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination. bbb; Taking into account the capacity to perceive pain and/or suffering that all animals have, 'abolitionist' or 'vegan' egalitarianism maintains that every individual, regardless their species, should have at least the basic right not to be an object. See also speciesism. Conservative and Anarcho-Capitalist In contrast, conservative writer and law professor Matthias Storme has claimed that the freedom of discrimination in human societies is a fundamental human right, or more precisely, the basis of all fundamental freedoms and therefore the most fundamental freedom. Author Hans-Hermann Hoppe, in an essay about his book Democracy: The God That Failed, asserts that a natural social order is characterized by increased discrimination. Labelling theory Discrimination can sometimes be associated to the labeling theory, i.e. the categorisation of minorities and the use of stereotype that provide a justification of people receiving a different treatment than others. See also Ableism Adultism Affirmative action Allport's scale Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Anthropocentrism Anti-discrimination law Apartheid Atheism Chicago Lawyers' Committee For Civil Rights Under Law v. Craigslist Classism Eagle feather law Economic discrimination Egalitarianism English-only movement Equal opportunity Equal rights Genetic discrimination Heightism Homophobia Institutionalized discrimination Intercultural competence List of anti-discrimination acts Labelling Lookism Neurodiversity Police Brutality Public international law Racial segregation Racism Reverse discrimination Second-class citizen Sexism Social issues Speciesism State racism Statistical discrimination References External links Fighting Discrimination Discrimination.com Transgender Workplace Diversity blog Discriminations blog Discrimination in the Czech Republic: When A Bookseller Prefers Older To Younger Project Lookism Facial Discrimination Legal definitions Australia Canada Russia US Employment Discrimination Laws in the United States Discrimination Laws in Europe American Pictures Islam's View on Discrimination-Language Urdu

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European_Company_Regulation

The Council Regulation on the Statute for a European Company of the European Union was adopted October 8 2001. Official Journal of the European Union L 294, 10 November 2001, pp. 1-21. Council Regulation (EC) No 2157/2001 of 8 October 2001 on the Statute for a European company (SE) It contains rules for European Public Companies known as a Societas Europaea (SE) (Latin for "European Company"). There is also a statute allowing European Cooperative Societies. An SE can be registered in any member state of the European Union, and the registration can be easily transferred to another member state. There is no EU-wide register of SEs (an SE is registered on the national register of the member state in which it has its head office), but each registration is to be published in the Official Journal of the European Union. As of September 2007, at least 64 registrations have been reported. Societas Europaea registrations. seeurope-network.org. The member states of the European Union have widely different company laws. This means that companies have to comply with many different regulatory systems, and merger of companies from different states is often complex and difficult. SEs can be created in the following ways: By merger of national companies from different member states By the creation of a joint venture between companies (or other entities) in different member states By the creation of a SE subsidiary of a national company By the conversion of a national company into an SE The legal form of the European Company, or Societas Europaea (SE), was created by the Council of the EU on the 8 October 2001. It became subject to Community law in all EU member states on the 8 October 2004, over 30 years after negotiations for the creation of a European company were initiated. The objective of the Statute for a European company Europa.EU Reference is "to create a European company with its own legislative framework. This will allow companies incorporated in different Member States to merge or form a holding company or joint subsidiary, while avoiding the legal and practical constraints arising from the existence of 27 different legal systems. To arrange for the involvement of employees in the European company and recognise their place and role in the company." Main provisions of the statute Background The European Company (known by the Latin term "Societas Europaea" or SE) is now a reality some 30 years after the initial proposal. The new legislation entered into force in October 2004. Agreement on the SE is one of the priorities identified by the Financial Services Action Plan (FSAP). On 8 October 2004, the council regulation (EC) n°2157/2001 on the Statute for the European Company (SE) entered into force. The final shape of the almost 50 years old idea of a societas europaea is very far from the first drafts of its statutes K Oplustil, C. Theichmann, The european company all over europe, De Gruyter Recht, Berlin, 2004 . Dr Jacques - Louis Colombani, long before the "historic breackthrough, is considered by the authors as the first to have extensively worked on the new shape of the SE statute. In France, the old idea of a complete code of the SE including the law of corporate groups and tax provision could be considered as a doctrinal background to Mrs Lenoir's report. Currently, the methods that are in use through the Member States to implement the SE are leading to limit the SE as a corporate way that is only convenient for public groups. Formation The Statute provides four ways of forming a European limited company: merger, formation of a holding company, formation of a joint subsidiary, or conversion of a public limited company previously formed under national law. Formation by merger is available only to public limited companies from different Member States. Formation of an SE holding company is available to public and private limited companies with their registered offices in different Member States or having subsidiaries or branches in Member States other than that of their registered office. Formation of a joint subsidiary is available under the same circumstances to any legal entities governed by public or private law. See "The European Company all over europe" De Gruyter Recht - Berlin for a general overview of the European process. See Company Formation for UK Process. Minimum capital The SE must have a minimum subscribed capital of €120,000, as per article 4(2) of the directive, subject to the provision that where a Member State requires a larger capital for companies exercising certain types of activities, the same requirement will also apply to an SE with its registered office in that Member State (article 4(3)). Registered office The registered office of the SE designated in the statutes must be the place where it has its central administration, that is to say its true centre of operations. The SE may transfer its registered office within the Community without dissolving the company in one Member State in order to form a new one in another Member State, however, such a transfer is subject to the provisions of 8 which require, inter alia, the drawing up of a transfer proposal, a report justifying the legal and economic aspects of the transfer and the issuing, by the competent authority in the member state in which the SE is registered, of a certificate attesting to the completion of the required acts and formalities. Laws applicable The order of precedence of the laws applicable to the SE is clarified. Registration and liquidation The registration and completion of the liquidation of an SE must be disclosed for information purposes in the Official Journal of the European Communities. Every SE must be registered in the State where it has its registered office, in a register designated by the law of that State. Statutes The Statutes of the SE must provide as governing bodies the general meeting of shareholders and either a management board and a supervisory board (two-tier system) or an administrative board (single-tier system). Under the two-tier system the SE is managed by a management board. The member or members of the management board have the power to represent the company in dealings with third parties and in legal proceedings. They are appointed and removed by the supervisory board. No person may be a member of both the management board and the supervisory board of the same company at the same time. But the supervisory board may appoint one of its members to exercise the functions of a member of the management board in the event of absence through holidays. During such a period the function of the person concerned as a member of the supervisory board shall be suspended. Under the single-tier system, the SE is managed by an administrative board. The member or members of the administrative board have the power to represent the company in dealings with third parties and in legal proceedings. Under the single-tier system the administrative board may delegate the power of management to one or more of its members. The following operations require the authorisation of the supervisory board or the deliberation of the administrative board: any investment project requiring an amount more than the percentage of subscribed capital; the conclusion of supply and performance contracts where the total turnover provided for therein is more than the percentage of turnover for the previous financial year; the raising or granting of loans, the issue of debt securities and the assumption of liabilities of a third party or suretyship for a third party where the total money value in each case is more than the percentage of subscribed capital; the setting-up, acquisition, disposal or closing down of undertakings, businesses or parts of businesses where the purchase price or disposal proceeds account for more than the percentage of subscribed capital; the percentage referred to above is to be determined by the Statutes of the SE. It may not be less than 5% nor more than 25%. Annual accounts The SE must draw up annual accounts comprising the balance sheet, the profit and loss account and the notes to the accounts, and an annual report giving a fair view of the company's business and of its position; consolidated accounts may also be required. Taxation In tax matters, the SE is treated the same as any other multinational, i.e. it is subject to the tax regime of the national legislation applicable to the company and its subsidiaries. SEs are subject to taxes and charges in all Member States where their administrative centres are situated. Thus their tax status is not perfect as there is still no adequate harmonisation at European level. Winding-up Winding-up, liquidation, insolvency and suspension of payments are in large measure to be governed by national law. An SE which transfers its registered office outside the Community, or in any other manner no longer complies with requirements of article 7, the member state much take appropriate measures to ensure compliance or take the necessary measure to ensure that the SE is liquidated. Status of the legislation and implementation European Union Council Regulation (EC) No 2157/2001 Statute for a European company (PDF, 21 pages 180KB) of 8 October 2001 on the Statute for a European company (SE). Council Directive 2001/86/EC Statute for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees (PDF, 11 pages 117KB) of 8 October 2001 supplementing the Statute for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees. See also: Europa's collection of press releases, regulations, directives and FAQs on the European Company Statute Europa's collection of press releases, regulations, directives and FAQs on the European Company Statute . United Kingdom UK Statutory Instrument 2004 No. 2326. The European Public Limited-Liability Company Regulations 2004 The European Public Limited-Liability Company Regulations came in to force on 8 October and give effect to The European Company Statute Regulation, (Council Regulation EC no.2157/2001) which gives the framework for a new form of company, the European Public Limited-Liability Company or Societas Europaea (SE). The regulations are available in full text on the HMSO website. UK Statutory Instrument 2004 no. 2407. The European Public Limited-Liability Company (Fees) Regulations 2004 UK Fees for SE also came into force on 8 October 2004. An explanatory memorandum Explanation of UK Fees (PDF, 2 pages 23KB) on the Fees Regulations describe them as setting out "the fees payable in connection with the services and facilities provided by the DTI in respect of a new form of company, the European Public Limited-Liability Company or 'Societas Europaea' (SE)." Employee participation The regulation is complemented by the Council Directive supplementing the Statute for a European Company with regard to the involvement of employees (informally "Council Directive on Employee Participation"), adopted October 8 2001. Official Journal of the European Union L 294, 10 November 2001, pp. 22-32. Council Directive 2001/86/EC of 8 October 2001 supplementing the Statute for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees The directive establishes rules on worker involvement in the management of the SE. EU member states differ in the degree of worker involvement in corporate management. In Germany, most large corporations are required to allow employees to elect a certain percentage of seats on the supervisory board. Other member states, such as the UK, have no such requirement, and furthermore in these states such practices are largely unknown and considered a threat to the rights of management. These differing traditions of worker involvement have held back the adoption of the Statute for over a decade. States without worker involvement provisions were afraid that the SE might lead to having such provisions being imposed on their companies; and states with those provisions were afraid they might lead to those provisions being circumvented. A compromise, contained in the Directive, was worked out as follows: worker involvement provisions in the SE will be decided upon by negotiations between employees and management before the creation of the SE. If agreement cannot be reached, provisions contained in the Directive will apply. The Directive provides for worker involvement in the SE if a minimum percentage of employees from the entities coming together to form the SE enjoyed worker involvement provisions. The Directive permits Member States to not implement these default worker involvement provisions in their national law, but then an SE cannot be created in that member state if the provisions in the Directive would apply and negotiations between workers and management are unsuccessful. Definition Definition of employee participation: it does not mean participation in day-to-day decisions, which are a matter for the management, but participation in the supervision and strategic development of the company. Participation If the two parties do not reach a satisfactory arrangement, a set of standard principles set out in the Annex to the Directive becomes applicable. Several models of participation are possible: firstly, a model in which the employees form part of the supervisory board or of the administrative board, as the case may be; secondly, a model in which the employees are represented by a separate body; and finally, other models to be agreed between the management or administrative boards of the founder companies and the employees or their representatives in those companies, the level of information and consultation being the same as in the case of the second model. The general meeting may not approve the formation of an SE unless one of the models of participation defined in the Directive has been chosen. The employees' representatives must be provided with such financial and material resources and other facilities as enable them to perform their duties properly. With regard to a European company formed through a merger, the standard principles relating to worker participation will apply where at least 25% of the employees had the right to participate in decisions before the merger. Here a political agreement proved impossible until the Nice summit in December 2000. The compromise adopted by the Heads of State or Governments allowed a Member State not to apply the Directive to SEs formed from a merger, in which case the SE could not be registered in the Member State in question unless an agreement had been concluded between the management and employees, or that no SE employee had the right of participation before the formation of the SE. Employment contracts and pensions Employment contracts and pensions are not covered by the Directive. With regard to occupational pension schemes, the SE is covered by the provisions laid down in the proposal for a directive on institutions for occupational schemes, presented by the Commission in October 2000, in particular in connection with the possibility of introducing a single pension scheme for all their employees in the European Union. Development Two approaches have been attempted to solve the problems cited above. One approach is to harmonize the company law of the member states. This approach has had some successes, but after thirty years only limited progress has been made. It is difficult to harmonize widely different regulatory systems, especially when they reflect different national attitudes to issues such as worker involvement in the management of the company. The other approach is to construct a whole new system of EU company law, that co-exists with the individual company laws of the member states. Companies would have the choice of operating either under national regulations or under the EU-wide system. However, this approach has been only somewhat more effective than the harmonization approach: while states are not as concerned about having foreign traditions of corporate governance imposed on their companies, which the harmonization approach could well entail; they also wish to ensure that the EU-wide system would be palatable to the traditions of their national companies, so that they will not be put at a disadvantage compared to the other member states. The European Company Statute represents a step in this direction, albeit a limited one. While it establishes some common EU rules on the SE, these rules are incomplete, and the holes in the rules are to be filled in using the law of the member state in which the SE is registered. This has been due to the difficulties of agreeing on common European rules on these issues. See also European Cooperative Society Notes and references External links European Company Network working papers Noelle Lenoir's 2007 report on the SE statute, commissioned by the French Minister of Justice Frequently-asked questions (the EU website) Les avocats European Company Network papers Website of the European Trade Union Institute on employee involvement in SEs and information on SEs registered

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Lebanese_Armed_Forces

The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) (Arabic: القوات المسلحة اللبنانية al-Quwa'at al-Musalha al-Lubna'aniya) is the military of the Republic of Lebanon. The motto of the Lebanese Army is "Honor, Sacrifice, Loyalty" (Arabic: "شرف · تضحية · وفاء" - Sharaf.Tadhia.Wafa'). The Lebanese Army Emblem represents the Lebanon Cedar tree surrounded by two laurel leaves and positioned above the symbols of the three branches of the army, the ground forces represented by the two swords, the navy represented by the anchor, and the air force represented by the two wings. General overview The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include: defending Lebanon and its citizens against aggression, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, maintaining internal stability and security, engaging in social development activities and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions. The LAF consists of 72,100 active personnel with the Ground Forces consisting of approximately 70,000 troops, the Air Force consisting of about 1,100 personnel and another 1,000 in the Navy. All three branches are operated and coordinated by the LAF Command, which is located in Yarzeh, east of the capital, Beirut. Currently the LAF is ranked 6th in the world regarding its armed forces growth, with numbers of military personnel doubling from 1985 to 2000. The country has six military colleges and schools. Some cadets are sent to other countries to receive additional training. The equipment of the LAF is outdated due to a lack of funds, political bickering and until recently the presence of foreign forces. After the conclusion of the Lebanese Civil War, the LAF decided to repair as much of its equipment as it could, while being aided by modest donations from other nations. About 85% of the LAF's equipment is American-made with the remaining being British, French, and Soviet-made. History Lebanese soldiers, 1861-1914. The first formation of the Lebanese Army took place under Prince Fakher el-Din II the Great in the early 17th-century during the Principality of Lebanon (1516-1840). Thus the first major victory came in October 31, 1622 against the Syrian army of the Pasha of Damascus in the Battle of Majdel Anjar. Outnumbered two-to-one (5,000 Lebanese soldiers against 12,000 Syrians) Fakher el-Din managed to secure an overwhelming victory and was able to capture the Pasha of Damascus himself. During the semi-autonomous province (Mutasarrifia) period of Mount Lebanon between 1861 and 1914, Lebanon established its own army made up of volunteer militias; and the free independent bearing of these mountaineers was in striking contrast to that of the underpaid, underfed and poorly clothed conscripts of the regular army. As for the modern Lebanese army, it was during the French Mandate of Lebanon that the national Lebanese army was re-organized, when the French government established the eastern unit or the "Legion of the Orient" in 1916, which included Lebanese soldiers. Later in 1926 the Lebanese First Sharp Shooters Unit was created out of the Legion of the Orient, a precursor to the creation of the Lebanese Army. The flag of the Lebanese Legion (part of the Legion of the Orient) during World War I After the League of Nations mandate was established over Lebanon in April 1920, France formed the Troupes Spéciales du Levant (Levantine Special Forces), which were composed of Lebanese and Syrian enlisted personnel but commanded predominantly by French officers. The Lebanese and Syrian officers in the force gradually increased in percentage to the extent of reaching to approximately 90% of the officers in the Troupes Spéciales du Levant by 1945. During World War II, Lebanese troops fought in Lebanon with the Vichy French forces against Free French and British forces. After the Vichy forces that were positioned in the Middle East surrendered in July 1941, volunteers from the Troupes Spéciales du Levant enlisted in the Free French forces and participated in combat in Italy, North Africa, and southern France. In 1943, prior to the declaration of Lebanese independence, all the military units were combined in one brigade, the Fifth Brigade, under the command of Colonel Fouad Chehab. On the day Lebanon declared independence, the Lebanese Third Sharp Shooters Regiment was placed at the disposal of the Lebanese government in order to maintain security. In June of the same year, the French reconstituted units of the Troupes Spéciales du Levant, which were then attached to the British forces in the Middle East. The majority of the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) remained a part of the French Army in Lebanon, until the French were totally evacuated on August 1, 1945 as a result of continuous pressure by Lebanese leaders for control of their own forces. Thus, the French turned over the Lebanese units of the Troupes Spéciales du Levant, which totaled about 3,000 men, forming the base of the modern Lebanese Army. The Lebanese Army first flag under the Independent Lebanon After gaining independence in 1943, the Lebanese government formed an official delegation in 1944 to negotiate with the French the terms related to handing over the LAF. After nearly three weeks of talks, the joint French-British Command decreed that responsibility for armed units under French control were to be handed over to the Independent Government of Lebanon. On August 1, 1945 at 00:00 hours, the LAF was placed under full authority of the Lebanese National Government; this day is commemorated annually as Lebanese Army Day. After establishing authority over the LAF in 1945, the Lebanese government intentionally kept its armed forces small and weak due to the country's unique internal politics. Christian politicians feared that Muslims might use the armed forces as a vehicle for seizing power in a military coup. They also appeared unwilling to incur the cost of maintaining a large well equipped army. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Lebanon never spent more than 4% of its GNP on the military budget. Many Christian Lebanese also feared that a large army would inevitably force Lebanon in the Arab–Israeli conflict. However, Muslim politicians were also worried that a strong army could be used against Muslim interests because it would be commanded by Christians. At the same time they tended to feel that the military should be strong enough to play a part in the Arab-Israeli struggle. In addition to the two major conflicting views, prominent Lebanese politicians of the myriad religious denominations in Lebanon have also tended to be feudal warlords commanding their own private militias and feared that a strong army would endanger their personal power. In 1948, the Lebanese Third Sharp Shooters Regiment fought Israeli Forces occupying the Lebanese village of Malkieh in the northern Galilee and captured it. Khalidi, Walid. (1992). All That Remains. Institute of Palestine Studies, p.471. This was the first major combat operation for the Lebanese Armed Forces under the Independent Lebanese Government. Branches Armed Forces Command The LAF Command is headquartered at Yarzeh. The organizational structure of the LAF Command includes: The Commander-in-Chief The Chief of staff Deputy Chiefs of Staff Various Directorates Lebanese Ground Forces The Lebanese Armed Forces strength lies in their ground forces and it is by far the largest of the three branches of the military. The Lebanese Army Ground Forces consist of: 5 Regional Commands Beirut Region, headquartered at Henry Chehab military base, Beirut. Bekaa Region, headquartered at Elias Abou Sleiman military base, Ablah. Mount Lebanon Region, headquartered at Shikri Ghanem military base, Fayadiyeh. North Region, headquartered at Bahjat Ghanem military base, Tripoli. South Region, headquartered at Mohammad Zgheib military base, Sidon. Unofficial flag of the Lebanese Army. 11 Mechanized Brigades Heavy Brigades First Brigade, headquartered at Elias Abou Sleiman military base. Second Brigade, headquartered at Tyre military base. Third Brigade Fifth Brigade Sixth Brigade Light Brigades Seventh Brigade Eighth Brigade Ninth Brigade Tenth Brigade, headquartered at Shikri Ghanem military base. Eleventh Brigade Twelfth Brigade First Artillery Regiment Second Artillery Regiment, headquartered at Nohra al-Shalouhi military base, Al Madina al Kashfiya - Batroun. Equipped with Eastern made Artillery pieces. Four MLRS companies and three artillery Companies. Commando Regiment, headquartered at Ghassan Ramman military base, Roumieh. Includes the Mountains Combat Company. Airborne Regiment, headquartered at Ghosta. Five combat companies, one support company, and one command and service company (1992 structure). Navy SEALs Regiment, headquartered at Amsheet. Counter-Sabotage Regiment (Moukafaha) First Intervention Force Regiment Second Intervention Force Regiment Third Intervention Force Regiment Logo of the Lebanese Armed Forces. Fourth Intervention Force Regiment Fifth Intervention Force Regiment Republican Guard Brigade, headquartered at Baabda. Two Combat Battalions, one Support Battalion, and one Logistics Battalion. Medical Brigade, headquartered at Badaro. Support Brigade Includes the Engineering Regiment, headquartered at Hazmieh, the Anti-tank Regiment, and the Signal Regiment. Logistics Brigade Military Police, headquartered at Rihania. Independent Construction Regiment, headquartered at Jamhour. Works Companies, workshops Company, and equipment Company. First Armored Regiment, headquartered at Salihyah, South Lebanon. Equipped with Western made tanks. Seven Armored Companies, one Mechanized Infantry Company, and one support Company. Second Armored Regiment, headquartered at Abou Sleiman military base, Ablah. Equipped with Eastern made tanks. Six Armored Companies, one Mechanized Infantry Company, and one support Company. Lebanese Ground Forces Equipment The Lebanese Army still uses old and outdated equipment, mostly received through donations. Its works horse is the M113 which is commonly found with every regiment and brigade. A collection of Western and Soviet made arms and equipment exists ranging from rifles to tanks. However, the Lebanese army is trying to rearm and modernize itself through new aids and purchases from different countries such as the USA, Belgium, Russia, and The Netherlands. A list of awaiting-for-delivery equipment is constantly growing and includes Leopard 1/A5 tanks, more M60 Patton tanks, AIFV, M198 Howitzers, etc. A recent Russian promise to supply Lebanon with T-90 tanks has been in discussion since the Lebanese Defense Minister's last visit to Russia on December 16, 2008. Throughout history the Lebanese Army employed different arms and equipment which, at the time, were considered state of the art. Most of these arms have either been phased out of service or sold to other countries. Among the major equipment that is not currently active are AMX-13, Saladin, Panhard M-3, and Staghound. Lebanese Special Forces The Lebanese Special Forces are the elite of the Lebanese army, those who enroll are subjected to rigorous training regimes and must be in peak physical and mental condition prior to their ascension to such a highly desired position. Each branch of the Armed Forces consist of their own form of Special Forces or Commandos. These include: Navy Commando Regiment (Navy SEALs) Commando Regiment (Also known as the Maghaweer) Airborne Regiment (Moujawkal) Counter-Sabotage (Moukafaha) Regiment and the Striking Force (Kouwa el-Dareba) Anti-Terrorism Branch To ensure the effectiveness of such an elite force, many Commandos are sent overseas to nations such as the U.S., UK and France to receive extra training in specialized areas that the Lebanese Armed Forces are unable to provide, due to a lack of resources. While training in Lebanon, each Commando is instructed in the art of urban and guerrilla warfare. So rigorous is their domestic training regime that each commando is subjected to a training timetable consisting of 20 hours per day for 3 months, which is divided into different stages. Each stage consists of a specialized form of warfare and its associated tactics. Such tactics include: sabotage, sniping, extraction and covert operations. The Lebanese Special Forces are also well known for killing and eating snakes with their bare hands at graduation ceremonies. In 2008, the Lebanese Army started establishing the Special Operations command in order to group the Army's elite units. These Special Operations forces will include the Airborne Regiment, the Commandos Regiment,the Navy Commandos Regiment, and the Counter-Sabotage Regiment of the Military Intelligence. The initial size of the force will be less than two brigades, around 5,000 troops, but the plan is to enlarge it up to three brigades. Lebanese Navy The Lebanese Navy is responsible for protecting Lebanon's territorial waters, ports, and fighting illegal smuggling of goods. The structure of the navy is centralized around the Navy Command, then it branches off into the quarter-general of the Navy, the Department of Naval Equipment Stores, the Naval School, Beirut Naval Base and the Jounieh Naval Base. The navy, which currently lacks the suitable amount of equipment, has a number of approximately 50 vessels of various sizes and roles; however, the navy is trying to modernize itself, and increase its size. Lebanese Air Force The Lebanese Air Force is the air force branch of the Lebanese Armed Forces. It currently has a number of helicopters including the UH-1H Bell Huey, Gazelle, and various others. The air force is currently in the process of restoring its jet capabilities and considering the purchase of a small number of fighters or jet trainers. Colleges and schools The Lebanese Armed Forces has six official military colleges and schools that serve a wide variety of functions from officer training to overseeing national youth conscription programs. The recent emphasis on the First Flag Service Center is designed to help overcome the diverse nature of the population. The schools and colleges are: Fouad Shehab Command and Staff College High Center for Military Sport Military Academy Skiing and Mountain Fighting School Teaching Institute Air Force Aviation School Naval Academy Special Forces School The Staff and Command College, Military Academy, and Mountain Skiing Fighting School are training centers for Lebanese soldiers designed to upgrade the quality of their skills while the High Center for Military Sport is designed to keep them in peak physical shape (it also organizes sports groups and teams for international competition as well). The Training Institute is designed to help soldiers specialize in certain aspects of the military, such as artillery and defense. Military ranks Generals Insignia Title GeneralMajor GeneralBrigadier General'ImādLiwā''Ameed Senior officers Insignia Title ColonelLieutenant ColonelMajor'AqeedMuqaddamRā'id Junior officers Insignia Title CaptainFirst LieutenantSecond LieutenantNaqeebMulāzim 'AwwalMulāzim Non-commissioned officer ranks Insignia Title Chief Warrant OfficerWarrant OfficerFirst AdjutantAdjutantSergeant First ClassSergeantMu'ahhal 'AwwalMu'ahhalMuaāwin 'AwwalMuaāwinRaqeeb 'AwwalRaqeeb Enlisted men Insignia Title Corporal First ClassCorporalSoldier First ClassThird year CadetSecond year CadetFirst year Cadet'Areef 'Awwal'AreefJundi 'AwwalTelmeez ḌabitTelmeez ḌabitTelmeez Ḍabit Sana ThālithaSana ThāniyaSana 'Oula Camouflage patterns Image Name US Woodland ARPAT 3-tones brown ARPAT Tigerstripe Camouflage Lizard Camouflage Black CamouflageUsers All units Navy SEALs Regiment Airborne Regiment Commando Regiment Moukafaha Navy SEALs Regiment Combat history Lebanese Civil War Lebanese Army personnel, Beirut, Lebanon 1982 As the civil war escalated, Lebanese militias grew stronger and soon surpassed the regular army. This rapidly undermined the authority of the central government. The government's ability to maintain order was also handicapped by the nature of the Lebanese Army. One of the smallest in the Middle East, it was composed based on a fixed ratio of religions. As members defected to sectarian militias, the army would eventually prove unable to contain the militant groups, rein in the PLO or monitor foreign infiltration. Since the government was Christian-dominated, especially the officers' ranks, trust among Muslims for central institutions, including the army, was low. The disintegration of the Lebanese Army was eventually initiated by Muslim deserters declaring that they would no longer take orders from the Maronite generals. Dinnieh fighting During December 1999-January 2000 an Islamic group launched a failed uprising against the Lebanese authorities in the Dinnieh district. In a period of 8 days of fighting in the snow-blanketed mountains east of the northern port of Tripoli, 14 soldiers and 25 rebels were killed. 2006 Lebanon War In the 2006 Lebanon War the LAF did not engage in a direct conflict with the Israeli Army, despite its threat of retaliation if the IDF pushed too far northward into Lebanon. However, the latter did bomb several Lebanese military bases. While providing aid to civilians, Lebanese troops helped to uphold order in city streets, directed refugees to safer areas, and assisted with overlooking damage done by Israeli attacks. On several occasions, Lebanese troops fired anti-air weapons at Israeli aircraft , but no damage was documented. Overall, 49 Lebanese soldiers were killed. After the July war the LAF deployed south of the Litani River for the first time since 1968 to enforce Security Council Resolution 1701. The LAF says it will not, and cannot, disarm Hezbollah by force. On February 7 2007, the Lebanese army fired at an Israeli Bulldozer that moved close to the border and crossed it, Israel fired back, there was no casualty reports, the UNIFIL stationed in the south described the shootout as a "serious incident". 2007 North Lebanon conflict The 2007 Lebanon conflict began when fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, a militant organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces on May 20, 2007 in Nahr al-Bared, a Palestinian refugee camp near Tripoli. It has been the most severe internal fighting since Lebanon's 1975–90 civil war. The conflict evolved mostly around the Siege of Nahr el-Bared. There was heavy use of the Lebanese artillery in that area to eliminate snipers posted around the cities. The conflict finally ended on September 2, 2007 with the Lebanese Army taking control of the camp after more than three months of heavy fights and a death toll of 155 Commandos and Infantrymen. The LAF Engineering Corps achieved what was seen as a feat of ingenuity during the conflict where they converted a number of UH-1 helicopters into bombers, arming them with 250kg and 400kg conventional bombs from old Hunter and Mirage III fighter jets. Some helicopters were also fitted with French Matra rocket pods. This was, according to observers, a decisive step that considerably shortened the conflict. A Lebanese APC in Beirut, during the unrest of May 9,2008. 2008 fighting in Lebanon During the week-long clashes that occurred at the beginning of the month of May 2008 in Lebanon, the army was unable to prevent rival Lebanese groups from fighting each other because this would have resulted in a division of the military along sectarian lines, something that happened during the civil war. However, when fighting stops in an area, the LAF deploys there to enforce peace. On May 13, the Army threatened that if fighting did not end by next morning, it will intervene and use force if necessary to stop the clashes. Conscription Lebanon previously had mandatory military service of one year for men. On May 4, 2005, a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. As of February 10, 2007 mandatory military service no longer exists in Lebanon thus making it a conscription-free all-volunteer force. , Lebanese Army (official website) Training Training of new conscripts takes place in the First Flag Service Center (FFSC). After a week of enlisting, they submit to two training courses, the common military training basic course and the specific course. All these courses are organized in details according to a program determining hours of training taking into consideration the conscript rank. The first course consists of 240 hours equivalent to 9 weeks and the training program is composed of: Military rules and regulations Technical and tactical education Weapons Physical fitness Orientation and moral preparation The second course consists of 84 hours equivalent to three weeks. The infantry course is composed of: Physical fitness Drill Infantry weapons, which are available in the Lebanese army and its tactics. See also Internal Security Forces General Security Directorate (Lebanon) United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon References External links Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) Official Website Lebanon Military Guide from GlobalSecurity.org CIA - The World Factbook - Lebanon Army Recognition Index of Lebanese Military Equipment CedarLand - The Lebanese Armed Forces Global Fire Power - Lebanon Military Strength Lebanon army trying to rearm and modernize itself Lebanese Military Wish List 2008/2009 - New York Times MilitaryPhotos.Net, Lebanese Army - Photos Thread MilitaryPhotos.Net, Lebanese Army - Discussions Thread

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Foreign_relations_of_Latvia

Today's Republic of Latvia regards itself as a continuation of the 1918-1940 republic. After the declaration on the restoration of its full independence on August 21, 1991, Latvia became a member of the United Nations on September 17, 1991, and is a signatory to a number of UN organizations and other international agreements, including Council of Europe, CERCO, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, UNESCO, UNICEF, International Criminal Court, the World Bank,International Monetary Fund, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. It also is a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and of the North Atlantic Coordinating Council. On 20 September 2003, in a nationwide referendum, the Latvians voted to join the European Union and Latvia's EU membership took effect on 1 May 2004. Latvia became a member state of NATO on March 29 2004. Latvia welcomes further cooperation and integration with NATO, European Union, and other Western organizations. It also seeks more active participation in UN peacekeeping efforts worldwide. Latvia maintains embassies in Argentina, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Canada, the People's Republic of China, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, Sweden, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uzbekistan. It also operates missions to the United Nations in New York City and Geneva, the European Council, and non-member representation to the European Union, Chemical Weapons Nonproliferation Organization, the OSCE, NATO, World Trade Organization, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Latvia has a Consulate General in Russia; Consulates in Belarus and Russia; Honorary Consulates General in Australia, Cyprus, India, Israel, and Norway; and Honorary Consulates in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy], Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Mexico, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, and Venezuela. Russia expresses concern for how Latvia's language and naturalization laws effect Latvia's Russian-speaking population. Russians comprised 32.3% of the population in 2000. In turn, Latvia is interested in the welfare of ethnic Latvians still residing in Russia. The latest Russian census shows about 40,000 still living in Russia, but sources indicate that given the probability of an undercount, Latvians in Russia probably number about 50,000-60,000. Disputes - international: Treaty delimiting the boundary with Russia has been signed and ratified in 2007, under the treaty the Abrene district passes to Russia; ongoing talks over maritime boundary dispute with Lithuania (primary concern is oil exploration rights) Illicit drugs: transshipment point for opiates and cannabis from Central and Southwest Asia to Western Europe and Scandinavia and Latin American cocaine and some synthetics from Western Europe to CIS; limited production of illicit amphetamines, ephedrine, and ecstasy for export. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1992-08-22 Armenia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland). Latvia is represented in Armenia through a non-resident ambassador based in Riga (at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan. Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction if the Latvian representation in Armenia Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with ArmeniaSee Austria–Latvia relationsSee Azerbaijan–Latvia relationsSee Belarus–Latvia relationsSee Bulgaria–Latvia relationsSee Canada–Latvia relationsSee Croatia–Latvia relationsSee Czech Republic – Latvia relationsSee Denmark–Latvia relationsSee Estonia–Latvia relationsSee Finland–Latvia relationsSee France–Latvia relationsSee Georgia–Latvia relationsSee Germany–Latvia relationsSee Greece–Latvia relationsSee Hungary–Latvia relationsSee Iceland–Latvia relations 2004-10-15 Iraq recognized the independence of Latvia on 1 January 1992. In 2005, a project entitled Latvian Government's Assistance to Iraq in the Documentation of Architectural and Archaeological Objects with Photogrammetric Methods was implemented. Latvia's participation in the Iraq war commenced in May 2003. At their peak the number of Latvian soldiers in Iraq was 126. They were withdrawn on November 8, 2008. http://www.mnf-iraq.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=23564&Itemid=21 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia: IraqSee Ireland–Latvia relationsSee Israel–Latvia relationsSee Italy–Latvia relations 1992-12-30 Kazakhstan recognised Latvia's independence on December 23, 1991. Latvia recognised the independence of Kazakhstan on January 8, 1992. Kazakhstan is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and though an honorary consulate in Riga. Kazakh embassy in Vilnius (also accredited to Latvia) Latvia has an embassy in Astana and an honorary consulate in Almaty. Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with KazakhstanSee Kosovan–Latvian relations1991-10-05See also Foreign relations of Lithuania Latvia has an embassy in Vilnius. Embassy of the Republic of Latvia in the Republic of Lithuania Lithuania has an embassy in Riga. Embassy of the Republic of Lithuania in the Republic of Latvia The two states share of commone border. Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Latvia–Luxembourg relationsSee Latvia–Poland relationsSee Latvia–Romania relationsSee Latvia–Serbia relationsSee Latvia–Slovakia relationsSee Latvia–Ukraine relationsSee Latvia – United Kingdom relations 1922-07-28See Latvia – United States relations The U.S. Legation in Riga was officially established on November 13, 1922 and served as the headquarters for U.S. representation in the Baltics during the interwar era. The Soviet invasion forced the closure of the legation on September 5, 1940, but Latvian representation in the United States has continued uninterrupted for 85 years. The U.S. Embassy in Latvia is located in Riga. <div> See also Latvian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Latvia Iraq-Latvia relations References

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Algebraic_extension

In abstract algebra, a field extension L /K is called algebraic if every element of L is algebraic over K, i.e. if every element of L is a root of some non-zero polynomial with coefficients in K. Field extensions which are not algebraic, i.e. which contain transcendental elements, are called transcendental. For example, the field extension R/Q, that is the field of real numbers as an extension of the field of rational numbers, is transcendental, while the field extensions C/R and Q(√2)/Q are algebraic, where C is the field of complex numbers. All transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all algebraic numbers is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers. If a is algebraic over K, then K[a], the set of all polynomials in a with coefficients in K, is not only a ring but a field: an algebraic extension of K which has finite degree over K. In the special case where K=Q is the field of rational numbers, Q[a] is an example of an algebraic number field. A field with no proper algebraic extensions is called algebraically closed. An example is the field of complex numbers. Every field has an algebraic extension which is algebraically closed (called its algebraic closure), but proving this in general requires some form of the axiom of choice. An extension L/K is algebraic if and only if every sub K-algebra of L is a field. Generalizations Model theory generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of M into N is called an algebraic extension if for every x in N there is a formula p with parameters in M, such that p(x) is true and the set {y in N | p(y)} is finite. It turns out that applying this definition to the theory of fields gives the usual definition of algebraic extension. The Galois group of N over M can again be defined as the group of automorphisms, and it turns out that most of the theory of Galois groups can be developed for the general case. See also Algebraically closed field Algebraic closure References Chap.V.1, p.223 of P.J. McCarthy, Algebraic extensions of fields, Dover Publications, 1991, ISBN 0-486-66651-4.

Algebraic_extension |@lemmatized abstract:1 algebra:2 field:18 extension:17 l:5 k:11 call:5 algebraic:20 every:5 element:3 e:2 root:1 non:1 zero:1 polynomial:2 coefficient:2 contain:1 transcendental:4 example:3 r:2 q:5 real:1 number:8 rational:3 c:2 complex:2 infinite:3 degree:2 turn:3 implies:1 finite:3 converse:1 true:2 however:1 instance:1 set:2 ring:1 special:1 case:2 proper:1 algebraically:3 close:2 closure:2 prove:1 general:2 require:1 form:1 axiom:1 choice:1 sub:1 generalization:1 model:1 theory:4 generalize:1 notion:1 arbitrary:1 embedding:1 n:4 x:2 formula:1 p:5 parameter:1 apply:1 definition:2 give:1 usual:1 galois:2 group:3 define:1 automorphisms:1 develop:1 see:1 also:1 closed:1 reference:1 chap:1 v:1 j:1 mccarthy:1 dover:1 publication:1 isbn:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 algebraically_close:2 algebraic_closure:2 axiom_choice:1 algebraically_closed:1 dover_publication:1

Jacob

Jacob Wrestling with the Angel – Gustave Doré, 1855 (Granger Collection, New York). Jacob (, Standard , Tiberian ; , ; Septuagint Greek: Ἰακώβ; Syriac: ܝܰܥܩܽܘܒ; "heel" or "leg-puller"), also known as Israel (, Standard , Tiberian ; , ; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ; "struggler with God"), was the third Biblical patriarch and ancestor of the twelve tribes of Israel, named after his twelve sons. The Bible says he was the son of Isaac and Rebecca, the grandson of Abraham and Sarah and of Bethuel, and the twin brother of Esau. He had twelve sons and one daughter by his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and their maidservants, Bilhah and Zilpah. The children were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, daughter Dinah, Joseph, and Benjamin. Enumerations of the twelve tribes vary. Because Jacob effectively adopted two of his grandsons by Joseph and Asenath, namely Ephraim and Manasseh, the two grandsons were often substituted for the Tribe of Joseph, yielding thirteen tribes, or twelve if Levi is set apart. Before the birth of Benjamin, Jacob is renamed "Israel" by an angelic being, the name after which the modern nation of Israel is named. As a result of a severe famine in Canaan, Jacob resettled his whole family in Egypt, in the Land of Goshen, at the time when his son Joseph was viceroy. Jacob died there 17 years later, and Joseph carried Jacob's remains to the land of Canaan, where he gave them stately burial in the same Cave of Machpelah as were buried Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebecca and Jacob's wife Leah (). Biblical accounts This section is a summary of the Book of Genesis, chapters 25-50. Jacob and Esau's birth Jacob and his twin brother, Esau, were born to Isaac and Rebecca after 20 years of marriage, when Isaac was 60 (, ). There are two opinions in the Midrash as to how old Rebecca was at the time of her marriage and, consequently, at the twins' birth. According to the traditional counting cited by Rashi, Isaac was 37 years old at the time of the Binding of Isaac, and news of Rebecca's birth reached Abraham immediately after that event (see Rashi on Gen. 22:20). Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebecca (Gen. 25:20), making Rebecca 3 years old at the time of her marriage. According to the second opinion, Isaac was 29 years old and Rebecca was 14 years old at the time of their marriage. Torah Insights: Parshat Toldot. Another view is that Rebecca was 10 years old at the time. In any case, 20 years elapsed before they had children. Throughout that time, both Isaac and Rebecca prayed fervently to God for offspring. God eventually answered Isaac's prayers and Rebecca conceived. Rebecca was extremely uncomfortable during her double pregnancy and went to inquire of God why she was suffering so. The Midrash says that whenever she would pass a house of Torah study, Jacob would struggle to come out; whenever she would pass a house of idolatry, Esau would agitate to come out. Bereshit Rabbah 63:6. She received the prophecy that twins were fighting in her womb and would continue to fight all their lives, and after they became two separate nations. The prophecy also said that the older would serve the younger; its statement "one people will be stronger than the other" has been taken to mean that the two nations would never gain power simultaneously: when one fell, the other would rise, and vice versa. Traditionally, Rebecca did not share the prophecy with her husband. When the time came for Rebecca to give birth, the first to come out emerged red and hairy all over, with his heel grasped by the hand of the second to come out. Onlookers named the first עשו, Esau (`Esav or `Esaw, meaning either "rough", "sensibly felt", "handled", from , `asah, "do" or "make"; Strong's Concordance 6215, 6213. or "completely developed", from , `assui). The second is named יעקב, Jacob (Ya`aqob or Ya`aqov, meaning "heel-catcher", "supplanter", "leg-puller", "he who follows upon the heels of one", from , `aqab or `aqav, "seize by the heel", "circumvent", "restrain", a wordplay upon , `iqqebah or `iqqbah, "heel"). Strong's Concordance 3290, 6117. The boys displayed very different natures as they matured. "Esau became a hunter, a man of the field, but Jacob was a simple man, a dweller in tents" (). Moreover, the attitudes of their parents toward them also differ: "Isaac loved Esau because game was in his mouth, but Rebecca loved Jacob" (ibid., ). Sale of the birthright According to the Talmud, immediately after Abraham died, Jacob prepared a lentil stew as a traditional mourner's meal for his father, Isaac. Bava Batra 16b. The Hebrew Bible states that Esau, returning famished from the fields, begged Jacob to give him some of the stew. (Esau referred to the dish as, "that red, red stuff", giving rise to his nickname, (`Edom, meaning "Red").) Jacob offered to give Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for his birthright (the right to be recognized as firstborn), and Esau agrees; the Talmudic dating indicates both men were 15 at the time. Jacob's deception of Isaac Isaac Blessing Jacob, by Govert Flinck, 1638 (Rijksmuseum Amsterdam). Much later, Isaac became blind in his old age and decided to bestow the blessing of the firstborn upon Esau. Uncertain of death, he sent Esau out to the fields to trap and cook a piece of savory game for him, so that he could eat it and bless Esau. Rebecca overheard this conversation and realized prophetically that Isaac's blessings would go to Jacob, since she was told before the twins' birth that the older son would serve the younger. Scherman, Rabbi Nosson (1993). The Chumash. Brooklyn, New York: Mesorah Publications, p. 135. She therefore ordered Jacob to bring her two goats from the flock, which she cooked in the way Isaac loved, and had him bring them to his father in place of Esau. When Jacob protested that his father would recognize the deception and curse him as soon as he felt him, since Esau was hairy and Jacob smooth-skinned, Rebecca said that the curse would be on her instead. Before she sent Jacob to his father, she dressed him in Esau's garments and laid goatskins on his arms and neck to simulate hairy skin. Thus disguised, Jacob entered his father's room. Surprised to perceive that Esau was back so soon, Isaac asked how it could be that the hunt went so quickly. Jacob responded, "Because the Lord your God arranged it for me"; Rashi (on ) says Isaac's suspicions were aroused because Esau never used the personal name of God. Isaac demanded that Jacob come close so he could feel him, but the goatskins felt just like Esau's hairy skin. Confused, Isaac exclaimed, "The voice is the voice of Jacob, but the hands are the hands of Esau!" (27:22). Still trying to get at the truth, Isaac asked him point-blank, "Are you really my son Esau?" and Jacob answered simply, "I am" (which can be taken as "I am me", not "I am Esau"). Isaac proceeded to eat the food and to drink the wine that Jacob gave him, and then he blessed him with the dew of the heavens, the fatness of the earth, and rulership over many nations as well as his own brother. Jacob had scarcely left the room when Esau returned from the hunt to prepare his game and receive the blessing. The realization that he has been deceived shocks Isaac, yet he acknowledges that Jacob had received the blessings as sworn, by adding, "Indeed, he will be [or remain] blessed!" (27:33). Rashi explains that Isaac smelled the heavenly scent of Gan Eden (Paradise) when Jacob entered his room and, in contrast, perceived Gehenna opening beneath Esau when the latter entered the room, showing him that he had been deceived all along by Esau's show of piety. Pirkei d'Rav Kahana, quoted in Scherman, p. 139. Esau was heartbroken by the deception, and begged for his own blessing. Having made Jacob a ruler over his brothers, Isaac could only promise, "By your sword you shall live, but your brother you shall serve; yet it shall be that when you are aggrieved, you may cast off his yoke from upon your neck" (27:39-40). Esau was filled with hatred toward Jacob for taking away both his birthright and his blessing. He vowed to himself to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac dies. When Rebecca heard about his murderous intentions , she ordered Jacob to travel to her brother Laban's house in Haran, until Esau's anger subsided. She convinced Isaac to send Jacob away by telling him that she despaired of him marrying a local girl from the idol-worshipping families of Canaan (as Esau had done). After Isaac sent Jacob away to find a wife, Esau realized that his own Canaanite wives were evil in his father's eyes, and he took a daughter of Isaac's half-brother Ishmael as another wife. According to the Talmud, the Torah's explicit dating of the life of Ishmael helps to date events in Jacob's life. Ishmael was born when Abraham was 86 years old (Gen. 16:16) and died at the age of 137 (25:17). Isaac was born when Abraham was 100 (21:5); at that time Ishmael was 14. Jacob and Esau were born when Isaac was 60 (25:26); at that time Ishmael was 74. Right after Jacob receives the blessings and flees to Laban, the Torah states that Esau married "Mahalat, the daughter of Ishmael, son of Abraham, sister of Nebaiot" (28:9), on which Rashi, quoting Megillah 17a, notes that Ishmael died between the engagement and wedding, so the girl's brother gave her away. If Ishmael was 137 at the time of his death, this means that Jacob and Esau were 63 at the time of the blessings. Yevamot 6a. The Talmud adds that Jacob spent 14 years in the yeshiva of Shem and Eber before proceeding to Laban, arriving when he was 77. Ibid. According to this accounting, Isaac was 123 years old at the time of the blessings, but lived to age 180, suggesting to literal interpreters that Isaac dramatically underestimated his own life expectancy. Rashi quotes the Midrash that one who approaches the age at which his parents died should be concerned for five years before or five years after that he too will die. Bereishit Rabbah 65:12). Since Isaac's mother, Sarah, died at 127 (Genesis 23:1), Isaac prepared for his approaching death by blessing his sons when he was 123. Jacob's ladder Nearby Luz en route to Haran, Jacob experienced a vision of a ladder or staircase reaching into heaven with angels going up and down it, commonly referred to as "Jacob's ladder". From the top of the ladder he heard the voice of God, who repeated many of the blessings upon him. According to Rashi, this ladder signified the exiles that the Jewish people would suffer before the coming of the Jewish Messiah: the angels that represented the exiles of Babylonia, Persia, and Greece each climbed up a certain number of steps, paralleling the years of the exile, before they "fell down"; but the angel representing the last exile, that of Rome or Edom, kept climbing higher and higher into the clouds. Jacob feared that his children would never be free of Esau's domination, but God assured him that at the End of Days, Edom too would come falling down. Jacob awakened, and continued on his way to Haran in the morning, naming the place "Bethel", "God's house". Jacob's marriages At Haran, Jacob saw a well where the shepherds were gathering their flocks to water them, and met Laban's younger daughter Rachel, Jacob's first cousin; she was working as a shepherdess. He loved her immediately, and after spending a month with his relatives, asked for her hand in marriage in return for working seven years for Laban. Laban agreed to the arrangement. These seven years seemed to Jacob "but a few days, for the love he had for her"; but when they were complete and he asked for his wife, Laban deceived Jacob by switching Rachel's older sister, Leah, as the veiled bride. According to the Midrash, both Jacob and Rachel suspected that Laban would pull such a trick; Laban was known as the "Aramean" (deceiver), and changed Jacob's wages ten times during his employ (Genesis 31:7). The couple therefore devised a series of signs by which Jacob could identify the veiled bride on his wedding night. But when Rachel saw her sister being taken out to the wedding canopy, her heart went out to her for the public shame Leah would suffer if she were exposed. Rachel therefore gave Leah the signs so that Jacob would not realize the switch. In the morning, when the truth became known, Laban justified himself, saying that in his country it was unheard of to give the younger daughter before the older. However, he agreed to give Rachel in marriage as well if Jacob would work another seven years for her. After the week of wedding celebrations with Leah, Jacob married Rachel, and he continued to work for Laban for another seven years. Jacob loved Rachel more than Leah, and Leah felt hated. God opened Leah's womb and she gave birth to four sons rapidly: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. Rachel, however, remained barren. Following the example of Sarah, who gave her handmaid to Abraham after years of infertility, Rachel gave Jacob her handmaid, Bilhah, in marriage, so that Rachel could raise children through her. Bilhah gave birth to Dan and Naphtali. Seeing that she had left off childbearing temporarily, Leah then gave her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob in marriage so that Leah could raise more children through her. Zilpah gave birth to Gad and Asher. (According to some commentators, Bilhah and Zilpah were younger daughters of Laban.) Afterwards, Leah became fertile again and gave birth to Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah. God remembered Rachel, who gave birth to Joseph. If pregnancies of different marriages overlapped, the twelve births could have occurred within seven years. After Joseph was born, Jacob decided to return home to his parents. Laban was reluctant to release him, as God had blessed his flock on account of Jacob. Laban asked what he could pay Jacob, and Jacob proposed that all the spotted, speckled, and brown goats and sheep of Laban's flock, at any given moment, would be his wages. Jacob placed peeled rods of poplar, hazel, and chestnut within the flocks' watering holes or troughs, an action he later attributes to a dream. The text suggests that Jacob performed breeding experiments over the years to make his own flocks both more abundant and stronger than Laban's, that Laban responded by repeatedly reinterpreting the terms of Jacob's wages, and that the breeding favored Jacob regardless of Laban's pronouncements. Thus Jacob's herds increased and he became very wealthy. As time passed, Laban's sons noticed that Jacob was taking the better part of their flocks, and Laban's friendly attitude towards Jacob began to change. God told Jacob that he should leave, and he and his wives and children did so without informing Laban. Before they leave, Rachel stole the teraphim, considered to be household idols, from Laban's house. In a rage, Laban pursued Jacob for seven days. The night before he caught up to him, God appeared to Laban in a dream and warned him not to say anything good or bad to Jacob. When the two met, Laban played the part of the injured father-in-law and also demanded his teraphim back. Knowing nothing about Rachel's theft, Jacob told Laban that whoever stole them should die, and stood aside to let him search. When Laban reached Rachel's tent, she hid the teraphim by sitting on them and stating she could not get up because she was menstruating; this event was considered by the Biblical audience as conveying significant defilement upon the teraphim. Jacob and Laban then parted from each other with a pact to preserve the peace between them. Laban returned to his home and Jacob continued on his way. Journey back to Canaan Jacob struggles with the angel, by Rembrandt (Gemäldegalerie, Berlin). As Jacob neared the land of Canaan, he sent messengers ahead to his brother Esau. They returned with the news that Esau was coming to meet Jacob with an army of 400 men. With great apprehension, Jacob prepared for the worst. He engaged in earnest prayer to God, then sent on before him a tribute of flocks and herds to Esau, "a present to my lord Esau from thy servant Jacob". Jacob then transported his family and flocks across the ford Jabbok by night, then recrossed back to send over his possessions, being left alone in communion with God. There, a mysterious being appeared ("man", Genesis 32:24, 28; or "God", Genesis 32:28, 30, Hosea 12:3, 5; or "angel", Hosea 12:4), and the two wrestled until daybreak. When the being saw that he did not overpower Jacob, he touched Jacob on the sinew of his thigh (the gid hanasheh, גיד הנשה), and as a result, Jacob developed a limp (Genesis 32:31). Because of this, "to this day the people of Israel do not eat the sinew of the thigh that is on the hip socket" (). This incident is the source of the mitzvah of porging. Jacob then demanded a blessing, and the being declared that from then on, Jacob would be called יִשְׂרָאֵל, Israel (Yisra`el, meaning "one that struggled with the divine angel" (Josephus), "one who has prevailed with God" (Rashi), "a man seeing God" (Whiston), "he will rule as God" (Strong), or "a prince with God" (Morris), from , "prevail", "have power as a prince"). Strong's Concordance 3478, 8280. Jacob asked the being's name, but he refused to answer. Afterwards Jacob named the place Penuel (Penuw`el, Peniy`el, meaning "face of God"), Strong's Concordance 6439. saying "I have seen God face to face and lived." Because of the ambiguous and varying terminology, and because he refused to reveal his name, there are varying views as to whether this being was a man, an angel, or God. Josephus uses only the terms "angel", "divine angel", and "angel of God", describing the struggle as no small victory. According to Rashi, the being was the guardian angel of Esau himself, sent to destroy Jacob before he could return to the land of Canaan. Trachtenberg theorized that the being refused to identify itself for fear that, if its secret name was known, it would be conjurable by incantations. Trachtenberg 1939, p. 80. Literal Christian interpreters like Henry M. Morris say that the stranger was "God Himself and, therefore, Christ in His preincarnate state", citing Jacob's own evaluation and the name he assumed thereafter, "one who fights victoriously with God", and adding that God had appeared in the human form of the Angel of the to eat a meal with Abraham in Genesis 18. In the morning, Jacob assembled his 4 wives and 11 sons, placing the maidservants and their children in front, Leah and her children next, and Rachel and Joseph in the rear. Some commentators cite this placement as proof that Jacob continued to favor Joseph over Leah's children, as presumably the rear position would have been safer from a frontal assault by Esau, which Jacob feared. Jacob himself took the foremost position. Esau's spirit of revenge, however, was apparently appeased by Jacob's bounteous gifts of camels, goats and flocks. Their reunion was an emotional one. Esau offered to accompany them on their way back to Israel, but Jacob protested that his children were still young and tender (born 6 to 13 years prior in the narrative); Jacob suggested eventually catching up with Esau at Mount Seir. According to the Sages, this was a prophetic reference to the End of Days, when Jacob's descendants will come to Mount Seir, the home of Edom, to deliver judgment against Esau's descendants for persecuting them throughout the millennia (see Obadiah 1:21). Jacob actually diverted himself to Succoth and was not recorded as rejoining Esau until, at Machpelah, the two bury their father Isaac, who lived to 180 and was 60 years older than them. Jacob then arrived in Shechem, where he bought a parcel of land, now identified as Joseph's Tomb. In Shechem, Jacob's daughter Dinah was kidnapped and raped by the ruler's son, who desired to marry the girl. Dinah's brothers, Simeon and Levi, agreed in Jacob's name to permit the marriage as long as all the men of Shechem first circumcised themselves, ostensibly to unite the children of Jacob in Abraham's covenant of familial harmony. On the third day after the circumcisions, when all the men of Shechem were still in pain, Simeon and Levi put them all to death by the sword and rescued their sister Dinah, and their brothers plundered the property, women, and children. Jacob condemned this act, saying "You have brought trouble on me by making me a stench to the Canaanites and Perizzites, the people living in this land." He later rebuked his two sons for their anger in his deathbed blessing (Genesis 49:5-7). Jacob returned to Bethel, where he had another vision of blessing. Although the death of Rebecca, Jacob's mother, is not explicitly recorded in the Bible, Deborah, Rebecca's nurse, died and was buried at Bethel, at a place that Jacob calls Allon Bachuth (אלון בכות), "Oak of Weepings" (Genesis 35:8). According to the Midrash, Bereshit Rabbah 81:5. the plural form of the word "weeping" indicates the double sorrow that Rebecca also died at this time. Jacob then made a further move while Rachel was pregnant; near Bethlehem, Rachel went into labor and died as she gave birth to her second son, Benjamin (Jacob's twelfth son). Jacob buried her and erected a monument over her grave. Rachel's Tomb, just outside Bethlehem, remains a popular site for pilgrimages and prayers to this day. Jacob then settled in Migdal Eder, where his firstborn, Reuben, slept with Rachel's servant Bilhah; Jacob's response was not given at the time, but he did condemn Reuben for it later, in his deathbed blessing. Jacob was finally reunited with his father Isaac in Mamre (outside Hebron). When Isaac died at the age of 180, Jacob and Esau buried him in the Cave of the Patriarchs, which Abraham had purchased as a family burial plot. At this point in the Biblical narrative, two genealogies of Esau's family appear under the headings "the generations of Esau". A conservative interpretation is that, at Isaac's burial, Jacob obtained the records of Esau, who had been married 80 years prior, and incorporated them into his own family records, and that Moses augmented and published them. Joseph in Egypt Joseph was separated from his father Jacob at the age of 17 when his brothers, who had been jealous of his dreams of kingship over them, sold him to traders heading down to Egypt, then-capital of the slave trade. Jacob was deeply grieved by the loss of his favorite son, and refused to be comforted. Unbeknownst to the family, Joseph was sold as a slave to Potiphar, Pharaoh's chief butcher. He resisted the advances of his master's wife for a long time until she accosted him and then accused him of trying to rape her; he was then thrown into prison. After Joseph had spent twelve years in prison, the Pharaoh of Egypt had two troubling dreams, and his butler recalled having met Joseph, a successful interpreter of dreams, in Pharaoh's prison. Joseph was called from prison and interpreted the dreams as prophesying seven years each of abundance and famine; Pharaoh was so impressed that he made Joseph viceroy (second in command) over Egypt and the manager of Egypt's grain stores, due to the prophecy of famine. When the prophesied famine struck throughout the known world, Joseph sold stored grain to men of all nations. In the first year of famine, Jacob sent ten sons to Egypt, excluding Benjamin, to procure grain for their starving families (). Joseph recognized them but did not reveal himself to them; desirous to see his full brother Benjamin, of whom they had spoken, Joseph accused them of being spies, imprisoned Simeon as a hostage, and demanded Benjamin be produced to verify their claims. Jacob was distraught by this news, concluding that Simeon was as lost as Joseph, and refusing to send Benjamin, even in response to a rash vow by Reuben. Benjamin is taken to represent all that is left to Jacob of his favorite wife's children. When famine worsened the second year and food stores ran out, Judah pledged his own honor to Jacob that he would protect Benjamin from harm, and Jacob relented and sent the brothers again. On meeting them, Joseph threatened to imprison Benjamin, but Judah offered himself in Benjamin's place. Interpreters say Joseph had tested his brothers with this threat and recognized that Judah passed the test, by refusing to sell Rachel's son into slavery as he had done once before. Overcome with emotion, Joseph revealed himself to his brothers and provided for them to move Jacob's entire family to Egypt. Jacob's family, including 66 direct descendants, were housed by Joseph in the Egyptian province of Goshen. Jacob's final 17 years were spent in peace and tranquility in Egypt, with all 12 sons. Jacob blessing his grandchildren, Ephraim and Manasseh, in the presence of Joseph and their mother Asenath by Mattia Preti, 17th century (Whitfield Fine Art Gallery). Jacob adopted Joseph's two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, as his own. Anticipating his death, he blessed each of his 12 sons with varying blessings he deemed appropriate. It has been understood that Judah, the fourth born, received the primary blessing, due to Reuben's incest and Simeon's and Levi's betrayal. Jacob also made Joseph promise that he would bury him in the Cave of the Patriarchs (with Leah, and Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, and Rebecca; Rachel was buried at Bethlehem). According to the Midrash, Bereishit Rabbah 98:2. he desired to tell his sons the exact date when the Messiah would arrive, but the prophecy fails him. Another tradition states that the two lines of the Shema Yisrael were exchanged, the sons proclaiming their righteousness to "Yisrael" (Jacob), and Jacob blessing God's name responsively. The first line is actually and the response was instituted by the rabbis, and the chant is central to Jewish prayer services. After giving these instructions, Jacob died at the age of 147 (Genesis 47:28). With Pharaoh's permission, Joseph had Jacob meticulously embalmed and led a huge state funeral back to Canaan, with the twelve sons carrying their father's coffin and many Egyptian officials accompanying them. Sons of Jacob Jacob's wives had twelve sons and one daughter: Reuben (), Simeon (), Levi (), Judah (), Dan (), Naphtali (), Gad (), Asher (), Issachar (), Zebulun (), Dinah (), Joseph (), and Benjamin (). The offspring of Jacob's sons became the twelve tribes of Israel following the Exodus, when the Israelites conquered and settled in the Land of Israel. Jewish teachings According to the classic Jewish texts, Jacob, as the third and last patriarch, lives a life that parallels the descent of his offspring, the Jewish people, into the darkness of exile. In contrast to Abraham — who illuminates the world with knowledge of God and earns the respect of the inhabitants of the land of Canaan — and Isaac — who continues his father's teachings and also lives in relative harmony with his neighbors — Jacob experiences many personal struggles both in the land and out of it (including the hatred of his brother, Esau; the deception of his father-in-law, Laban; the rape of his daughter, Dinah; the death of his favorite wife, Rachel; and the sale of his son, Joseph). For this reason, the Jewish commentators interpret many elements of his story as being symbolic of the future difficulties and struggles the Jewish people would undergo Eastern Christianity Russian Orthodox Icon of St. Jacob, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Russia). The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite see Jacob's dream as a prophecy of the Incarnation of the Logos, whereby Jacob's ladder is understood as a symbol of the Theotokos (Virgin Mary), who, according to Orthodox theology, united heaven and earth in her womb. The biblical account of this vision () is one of the standard Old Testament readings at Vespers on Great Feasts of the Theotokos. The account of Jacob's blessing of Joseph's sons is also seen as prophetic: when he crosses his arms to bestow his patriarchal blessing (), this is seen as a foreshadowing of the blessings Christians believe resulted from Jesus' death on the cross. Islam In Arabic, Jacob is known as Yakub. He is revered as a prophet who received inspiration from God. The Qur'an does not give the details of Jacob’s life. Isra'il is the Arabic translation of the Hebrew Yisrael. God perfected his favor on Jacob and his posterity as he perfected his favor on Abraham and Isaac (12:6). Jacob was a man of might and vision (38:45) and was chosen by God to preach the Message. The Qur'an stresses that worshiping and bowing to the One true God was the main legacy of Jacob Kaaihue and his fathers (2:132-133). Salvation, according to the Qur'an, hinges upon this legacy rather than being a Jew or Christian (See Qur'an 2:130-141). According to the Qur'an, Jacob was of the company of the Elect and the Good (38:47, 21:75). Yaqub is a name that is accepted in Muslim community showing the value attributed to Jacob. See also History of ancient Israel and Judah Jacob Wrestling with the Angel, the name given to at least three different major paintings During the Second World War the French writer and anti-Nazi resistance fighter André Malraux worked on a long novel, The Struggle Against the Angel, the manuscript of which was destroyed by the Gestapo upon his capture in 1944. The name was apparently inspired by the Jacob story. A surviving opening book to The Struggle Against the Angel, named The Walnut Trees of Altenburg, was published after the war. References Further reading External links Behind Jacob’s deal with Laban - its genetics illustrated

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Hilversum

is a municipality and a town in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. Located in the region called "'t Gooi", it is the largest town in that area. It is surrounded by heathland, woods, meadows, lakes, and smaller villages. Hilversum is part of the Randstad, one of the largest conurbations in Europe. The town of Hilversum Hilversum lies some 30 km south-east of Amsterdam and 25 km north of Utrecht. The town is often called "media city" since it is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the Netherlands. Radio Netherlands, heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s, is based here. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television studios belonging to the national broadcast production company NOB, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organizations and many commercial TV production companies too. As a result many old radio sets in Britain had a "Hilversum” dial position marked on their tuning scales (along with other exotic locations like Athlone). Hilversum is also known for its architecturally important "Raadhuis" or town hall, designed by Willem Dudok (1884-1974). Hilversum has one library (it used to have three but two were closed due to financial problems), two swimming pools (Hellemond Sport and De Lieberg), a number of sporting halls and several shopping centres (such as Hilvertshof, Kerkelanden, Riebeeck-Galerij, Severijn, Seinhorst and Chatham). In the region the city centre is known as 'het dorp' which means 'the village'. History Hilversum started out as nothing but a big slab of land used for agriculture. Around 900 it started to form into bricks, but it wasn't until 1305 that the first official mention of Hilversum ("Hilfersheem") was made. At this point in time, it was a part of Naarden, the oldest town in the Gooi area. Farming, raising sheep and some wool manufacturing were the means of life for the Gooi in the Middle Ages. In March 1424, Hilversum received its most coveted official independent status. This made further growth in the town possible as permission from Naarden was no longer needed for new industrial development. More growth came in the 17th century with the general lift in the Dutch economy and the town got a canal connecting it indirectly to Amsterdam. In 1725 and 1766, big fires destroyed most of the town, levelling parts of the old townhouse and the church next to it. The town overcame this, and the textile industry continued to develop, among other ways by devising a way to weave cow's hair. In the 19th century a substantial textile and tapestry industry emerged, aided by a railway link to Amsterdam in 1874 and from that time on the town started growing really fast with rich commuters from Amsterdam moving in, building themselves large villas in the wooded surroundings and gradually starting to live in Hilversum permanently. Development came at the usual price, though, with poverty, underdeveloped children, child labour and alcoholism rampant. These were remedied at a somewhat slower pace than in larger cities with more socialist input, as Hilversum was and still is predominantly Roman Catholic. Hilversum became a media city when the Nederlandse Seintoestellen Fabriek (NSF) company established a professional transmitter and radio factory there in the early 1920s, growing into the largest of its kind in the Netherlands, and in 1948 being taken over by Philips. By then the textile industry had started its decline, and only one factory, Veneta, managed to continue into the 1960s, when it had to close too. Another major industry, the chemicals factory IFF, also closed by the end of the 1960s. In the meantime, almost all Dutch radio broadcasting organisations (in the 1950s followed by television) settled their headquarters in Hilversum and proved to be the continuing growth factor for years to come. In 1964, the inhabitant count reached a record high - over 103,000 people were living there. At the moment it fluctuates around 84,000, caused by the fact that the average family nowadays consists of fewer people, so fewer people live in each house, and Hilversum is virtually unable to expand because the surrounding lands have been sold to the Gooisch Natuurreservaat by city architect W.M. Dudok. Through connections in the television world, Hilversum has attracted a lot of crime, even international, and has to cope with mounting drugs-related problems in a community with more than average unemployment and not much positive outlook for the local youth, who also encounter an ongoing housing shortage. Added to that, Hilversum was one of the first towns to have a local party of the populist movement called 'Leefbaar' ('liveable'). Founded by former social-democrat party strongman Jan Nagel, it was initially held at bay for alderman positions. In 2001 Nagel from 'Leefbaar Hilversum' teamed up with 'Leefbaar Utrecht' leaders to found a national 'Leefbaar Nederland' party. By strange coincidence, in 2002, the most vocal and controversial Dutch 'Leefbaar Rotterdam' politician Pim Fortuyn was shot and killed by an animal rights activist at Hilversum Media Park, after having just finished a radio interview. This however happened after a break between Fortuyn and Nagel during a Leefbaar Nederland board meeting in Hilversum on Fortuyn's anti-Islamic viewpoints. In 2006 Leefbaar Hilversum, after a term with Leefbaar aldermen, took a substantive set back in votes. Facts about the city The home of the Dutch open golf tournament KLM Open The population decline (103.000 in 1964, 84.000 in 2006) The assassination of Pim Fortuyn, a controversial politician The first city with a "Leefbaar" party (which was meant as nothing more than a local party) The high number of villas dating back to the 1900's The large Catholic neo-gothic St. Vitus church (P.J.H. Cuypers, 1892, belltower 96 meters) The city was the headquarters of the German ground forces (Wehrmacht) in the Netherlands The city has 3 ports, an airfield, and 2 military bases The city played host to many landscape artists during the 19th Century, including Barend Cornelis Koekkoek Transportation Hilversum is well connected to the Dutch railway network, and contains three stations: Hilversum railway station Hilversum Noord railway station Hilversum Sportpark railway station The best links are from Hilversum railway station, as this is an Intercity station. Local government The municipal council of Hilversum in 2006 consists of 37 seats, which are divided as followed: PvdA - 9 seats VVD - 7 seats Leefbaar Hilversum - 5 seats CDA - 4 seats SP - 4 seats GroenLinks - 3 seats D66 - 3 seats ChristenUnie/SGP - 1 seat DLPH - 1 seat Born in Hilversum Notable people born in Hilversum Joop den Uyl (1919-1987), prime minister Henk Hermsen (1937), water polo player John Gerretsen (1942), politician André Hermsen (1942), water polo player Evert Kroon (1946), water polo goalkeeper Dick Diamonde (1947), bassist Wim Hermsen (1947), water polo player Bartha Knoppers (1951), lawyer Ton van Klooster (1954), freestyle swimmer and swimming coach Nico Landeweerd (1954), water polo player Andy Hoepelman (1955), water polo player John de Mol (1955), media tycoon Dick Nieuwenhuizen (1957), water polo player and coach Ellen Bontje (1958), equestrian Hansje Bunschoten (1958), swimmer and TV-presenter Arjen Anthony Lucassen (1960), musician and composer André Rouvoet (1962), politician Reggie de Jong (1964), freestyle swimmer Koos Issard (1971), water polo player Kelly van der Veer (1980), Big Brother contestant, singer, famous transsexual Gyspert Haan (1801), founder of the Christian Reformed Church in America References Sources Statistics have been taken from the SDU Staatscourant External links Hilversum Airport Hilversum Media Park

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DASS2

Digital Access Signaling System 2 (DASS2) is an obsolescent protocol defined by British Telecom for digital links to PSTN based on ISDN. Although still available on request, it has been superseded by ETS 300 ("EuroISDN"). DASS2 is an improved version over DASS1, based on experiences with DPNSS. In the UK, the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with their DASS2 connections. DASS2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT designed signalling standard. It was introduced before the Q.931 standard was finalised by the International Community. British Telecom used the term ISDN when describing their DASS2 lines. DASS2 lines are provided to the customer on a 2Mb/s link and can handle 30 simultaneous calls (64Kb/s each). DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK carriers. Q.931 is the name of the CCITT document that describes the agreed signaling format for International ISDN. The CCITT used to be International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee. This is the organization that set out the internationally agreed standards for telecommunications. This organization has subsequently evolved into the ITU. In the United Kingdom the Q.931 based protocol is ETS 300 (also known as Euro ISDN). This is a very close implementation of the original CCITT specification. This is a 2Mb/s service as with DASS2 but the feature capability is far greater and has negated the problems associated with DASS2 including echo problems and circuit spikes. In the UK both DASS 2 and Euro ISDN (ETS 300) lines are available to customers with EuroISDN as the preferred signaling type. Customers will normally choose the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE equipment, usually a PABX. (CPE- Customer Premises equipment) Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, however the trend seems to be away from the DASS2 which is no longer being developed by BT and have been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits, and move towards the internationally recognized Q.931 standard. The Q.931 standard is an international standard utilized by many countries telephony service providers. The CCITT specify the standards for the Layer 1,2 and layer 3 signalling messages. The Layer 3 messages are the messages that actually control the call setup, teardown, and routing. The Layer 3 messages or Call Control messages are the minimum messages that must be understood by the interfacing equipment. Individual service providers may publish their own documentation that details further messages that will be transported in addition to Q.931 messages. There are a number of additional European documents that cover supplementary services. These cover features that may be instigated by exchanges via the ISDN and require a higher degree of Layer 3 implementation. See also DSS1 (ETSI "Euro-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries) DSS2 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2) - enhanced DSS1.

DASS2 |@lemmatized digital:4 access:2 signal:6 system:5 obsolescent:1 protocol:2 define:1 british:2 telecom:2 link:2 pstn:1 base:3 isdn:8 although:1 still:2 available:2 request:1 supersede:1 ets:3 euroisdn:2 improved:1 version:1 experience:1 dpnss:1 uk:3 concept:1 first:1 introduce:2 customer:5 bt:4 connection:1 design:1 standard:7 q:6 finalise:1 international:4 community:1 use:3 term:1 describe:2 line:3 provide:1 handle:2 simultaneous:1 call:3 offer:1 carrier:1 name:1 ccitt:4 document:2 agreed:2 format:1 telegraph:1 telephone:1 consultative:1 committee:1 organization:2 set:1 internationally:2 telecommunication:1 subsequently:1 evolve:1 itu:1 united:1 kingdom:1 also:3 know:2 euro:3 close:1 implementation:2 original:1 specification:1 service:4 feature:2 capability:1 far:1 great:1 negate:1 problem:3 associate:1 include:1 echo:1 circuit:2 spike:1 das:1 preferred:1 signaling:1 type:2 normally:1 choose:1 desire:1 signalling:2 dictate:1 cpe:2 equipment:3 usually:1 pabx:1 premise:1 modern:1 pabxs:1 many:3 different:1 however:1 trend:1 seem:1 away:1 longer:1 develop:1 deny:1 move:1 towards:1 recognize:1 utilize:1 country:2 telephony:1 provider:2 specify:1 layer:5 message:8 actually:1 control:2 setup:1 teardown:1 rout:1 minimum:1 must:1 understand:1 interfacing:1 individual:1 may:2 publish:1 documentation:1 detail:1 transport:1 addition:1 number:1 additional:1 european:2 cover:2 supplementary:1 instigate:1 exchange:1 via:1 require:1 high:1 degree:1 see:1 etsi:1 non:1 subscriber:1 enhance:1 |@bigram consultative_committee:1 euro_isdn:3

Neutral_monism

Neutral monism, in philosophy, is the metaphysical view that the mental and the physical are two ways of organizing or describing the very same elements, which are themselves "neutral," that is, neither physical nor mental. This view denies that the mental and the physical are two fundamentally different things. Rather, neutral monism claims the universe consists of only one kind of stuff, in the form of neutral elements that are in themselves neither mental nor physical. These neutral elements are like sensory experiences: they might have the properties of color and shape, just as we experience those properties. But these shaped and colored elements do not exist in a mind (considered as a substantial entity, whether dualistically or physicalistically); they exist on their own. History Some of the first views of the mind-body relationship in philosophy can be attributed to C.D Broad who in one of his early works known simply as Broad's famous list of 1925 stated the basis of what this theory was to become, no less then nine of seventeen of his mind-body relationship theories are now classified as falling under the category of Neutral monism. There are considerably few self-proclaimed neutral monists, most of the philosophers who are seen to have this view were classified after their deaths. Some examples of this are Baruch Spinoza (1632-77), David Hume (1711-1776), Ernst Mach (1838-1916), Richard Avenarius (1843-96) and Joseph Petzoldt (1862-1929) William James Some subset of these elements form individual minds: the subset of just the experiences that you have for the day, which are accordingly just so many neutral elements that follow upon one another, is your mind as it exists for that day. If instead you described the elements that would constitute the sensory experience of rock by the path, then those elements constitute that rock. They do so even if no one observes the rock. The neutral elements exist, and our minds are constituted by some subset of them, and that subset can also be seen to constitute a set of empirical observations of the objects in the world. All of this, however, is just a matter of grouping the neutral elements in one way or another, according to a physical or a psychological (mental) perspective. James propounded it in his essay "Does Consciousness Exist?" in 1904 (reprinted in Essays in Radical Empiricism in 1912). William James, ''Essays in Radical Empiricism, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912. Bertrand Russell later adopted this position. Bertrand Russell, The Analysis of Mind, London, G. Allen & Unwin; New York, Macmillan, 1921. In strict parlance, neutral monism should be distinguished from dual-aspect monism, which holds that all existence consists of one kind (hence monism) of primal substance, which in itself is neither mental nor physical, but is capable of distinct mental and physical aspects or attributes that are two faces of the same underlying reality in the one substance. Emergent materialism is another form of metaphysical monism that respects both mind and matter. See also Philosophy of mind Double aspect theory Dialectical monism monadology References and notes Sources External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry

Neutral_monism |@lemmatized neutral:11 monism:8 philosophy:4 metaphysical:2 view:4 mental:7 physical:7 two:3 way:2 organize:1 describe:2 element:10 neither:3 deny:1 fundamentally:1 different:1 thing:1 rather:1 claim:1 universe:1 consists:1 one:7 kind:2 stuff:1 form:3 like:1 sensory:2 experience:4 might:1 property:2 color:2 shape:2 exist:5 mind:9 consider:1 substantial:1 entity:1 whether:1 dualistically:1 physicalistically:1 history:1 first:1 body:2 relationship:2 attribute:2 c:1 broad:2 early:1 work:1 know:1 simply:1 famous:1 list:1 state:1 basis:1 theory:3 become:1 less:1 nine:1 seventeen:1 classify:2 fall:1 category:1 considerably:1 self:1 proclaim:1 monists:1 philosopher:1 see:3 death:1 example:1 baruch:1 spinoza:1 david:1 hume:1 ernst:1 mach:1 richard:1 avenarius:1 joseph:1 petzoldt:1 william:2 jam:1 subset:4 individual:1 day:2 accordingly:1 many:1 follow:1 upon:1 another:3 instead:1 would:1 constitute:4 rock:3 path:1 even:1 observe:1 also:2 set:1 empirical:1 observation:1 object:1 world:1 however:1 matter:2 group:1 accord:1 psychological:1 perspective:1 james:2 propound:1 essay:3 consciousness:1 reprint:1 radical:2 empiricism:2 new:2 york:2 longmans:1 green:1 co:1 bertrand:2 russell:2 later:1 adopt:1 position:1 analysis:1 london:1 g:1 allen:1 unwin:1 macmillan:1 strict:1 parlance:1 distinguish:1 dual:1 aspect:3 hold:1 existence:1 consist:1 hence:1 primal:1 substance:2 capable:1 distinct:1 face:1 underlying:1 reality:1 emergent:1 materialism:1 respect:1 double:1 dialectical:1 monadology:1 reference:1 note:1 source:1 external:1 link:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 entry:1 |@bigram neutral_monism:4 baruch_spinoza:1 david_hume:1 ernst_mach:1 longmans_green:1 bertrand_russell:2 allen_unwin:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1

Couplet

A couplet is a pair of lines of verse. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter. Traditionally, couplets are smart rhyme, although not all couplets rhyme (a poem may use white space to mark out couplets as well). Couplets with a meter of iambic pentameter are called heroic couplets. The Poetic epigram is also in the couplet form. Couplets can also appear in more complex rhyme schemes. For example, Shakespearean sonnets end with a couplet. Rhyming couplets are one of the simplest rhyme schemes in poetry. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales are written in rhyming couplets. John Dryden in the 17th century and Alexander Pope in the 18th century were both well known for their writing in heroic couplets. Because the rhyme comes so quickly in rhyming couplets, it tends to call attention to itself. Good rhyming couplets tend to "snap" as both the rhyme and the idea come to a quick close in two lines. Here are some examples of rhyming couplets where the sense as well as the sound "rhymes": True wit is nature to advantage distressed, What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed. — Alexander Pope This should be: "True wit is nature to advantage dressed What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed." — Alexander Pope Whether or not we find what we are seeking is idle, biologically speaking. — Edna St. Vincent Millay (at the end of a sonnet) On the other hand, because rhyming couplets have such a predictable rhyme scheme, they can feel artificial and plodding. Here is a Pope parody of the predictable rhymes of his era: Where-e'er you find "the cooling western breeze," In the next line, it "whispers through the trees;" If crystal streams "with pleasing murmurs creep," The readers threatened (not in vain) with "sleep." Couplets in Chinese culture Chinese couplets known as duilian or "antithetical couplets" may be seen on doorways in Chinese communities worldwide. Couplets displayed as part of the Chinese New Year festival, on the first morning of the New Year, are called chunlian. These are usually purchased at a market a few days before and glued to the doorframe. The text of the couplets is often traditional and contains hopes for prosperity. Other chunlian reflect more recent concerns. For example, the CCTV New Year's Gala usually promotes couplets reflecting current political themes in mainland China. Eight is considered a lucky number in Chinese tradition, so some Chinese couplets consists of two lines of four characters each. Couplets are often written vertically from top to bottom to add formality. Couplets in Indian poetry Hindi Rhyming couplets are also used in other poetic traditions, including non-Western ones. Kurals, which form a subclass of the Venpa class of Tamil poetry, are couplets. Tirukkural is a popular book written in Kural Venpa form. In Hindi, there are other kinds of couplets as well, including: Doha, Sortha, Chaupai, Chhand etc. Hindi poets such as Rahim, Kabir, Tulsidas, Bihari, Surdas and many more were pioneers in this form. See also Elegiac couplet Heroic couplet Closed couplet External links Examples of Crystalline couplet form Prosody for the crystalline Example of the doublet form of couplet created by Adelaide Crapsey Examples of the doublet form of couplet

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Axiom

In traditional logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject to necessary decision. Therefore, its truth is taken for granted, and serves as a starting point for deducing and inferring other (theory dependent) truths. In mathematics, the term axiom is used in two related but distinguishable senses: "logical axioms" and "non-logical axioms". In both senses, an axiom is any mathematical statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. Unlike theorems, axioms (unless redundant) cannot be derived by principles of deduction, nor are they demonstrable by mathematical proofs, simply because they are starting points; there is nothing else from which they logically follow (otherwise they would be classified as theorems). Logical axioms are usually statements that are taken to be universally true (e.g., A and B implies A), while non-logical axioms (e.g., ) are actually defining properties for the domain of a specific mathematical theory (such as arithmetic). When used in that sense, "axiom," "postulate", and "assumption" may be used interchangeably. In general, a non-logical axiom is not a self-evident truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical theory. To axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small, well-understood set of sentences (the axioms). There are typically multiple ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain. Outside logic and mathematics, the term "axiom" is used loosely for any established principle of some field. Etymology The word "axiom" comes from the Greek word (axioma), a verbal noun from the verb (axioein), meaning "to deem worthy", but also "to require", which in turn comes from (axios), meaning "being in balance", and hence "having (the same) value (as)", "worthy", "proper". Among the ancient Greek philosophers an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof. Historical development Early Greeks The logico-deductive method whereby conclusions (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge) through the application of sound arguments (syllogisms, rules of inference), was developed by the ancient Greeks, and has become the core principle of modern mathematics. Tautologies excluded, nothing can be deduced if nothing is assumed. Axioms and postulates are the basic assumptions underlying a given body of deductive knowledge. They are accepted without demonstration. All other assertions (theorems, if we are talking about mathematics) must be proven with the aid of these basic assumptions. However, the interpretation of mathematical knowledge has changed from ancient times to the modern, and consequently the terms axiom and postulate hold a slightly different meaning for the present day mathematician, than they did for Aristotle and Euclid. The ancient Greeks considered geometry as just one of several sciences, and held the theorems of geometry on par with scientific facts. As such, they developed and used the logico-deductive method as a means of avoiding error, and for structuring and communicating knowledge. Aristotle's posterior analytics is a definitive exposition of the classical view. An “axiom”, in classical terminology, referred to a self-evident assumption common to many branches of science. A good example would be the assertion that When an equal amount is taken from equals, an equal amount results. At the foundation of the various sciences lay certain additional hypotheses which were accepted without proof. Such a hypothesis was termed a postulate. While the axioms were common to many sciences, the postulates of each particular science were different. Their validity had to be established by means of real-world experience. Indeed, Aristotle warns that the content of a science cannot be successfully communicated, if the learner is in doubt about the truth of the postulates. The classical approach is well illustrated by Euclid's Elements, where a list of postulates is given (common-sensical geometric facts drawn from our experience), followed by a list of "common notions" (very basic, self-evident assertions). Postulates It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point. It is possible to produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line. It is possible to describe a circle with any center and any radius. It is true that all right angles are equal to one another. ("Parallel postulate") It is true that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, intersect on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. Common notions Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another. If equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal. If equals be subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another. The whole is greater than the part. Modern development A lesson learned by mathematics in the last 150 years is that it is useful to strip the meaning away from the mathematical assertions (axioms, postulates, propositions, theorems) and definitions. This abstraction, one might even say formalization, makes mathematical knowledge more general, capable of multiple different meanings, and therefore useful in multiple contexts. Structuralist mathematics goes further, and develops theories and axioms (e.g. field theory, group theory, topology, vector spaces) without any particular application in mind. The distinction between an “axiom” and a “postulate” disappears. The postulates of Euclid are profitably motivated by saying that they lead to a great wealth of geometric facts. The truth of these complicated facts rests on the acceptance of the basic hypotheses. However, by throwing out Euclid's fifth postulate we get theories that have meaning in wider contexts, hyperbolic geometry for example. We must simply be prepared to use labels like “line” and “parallel” with greater flexibility. The development of hyperbolic geometry taught mathematicians that postulates should be regarded as purely formal statements, and not as facts based on experience. When mathematicians employ the axioms of a field, the intentions are even more abstract. The propositions of field theory do not concern any one particular application; the mathematician now works in complete abstraction. There are many examples of fields; field theory gives correct knowledge about them all. It is not correct to say that the axioms of field theory are “propositions that are regarded as true without proof.” Rather, the field axioms are a set of constraints. If any given system of addition and multiplication satisfies these constraints, then one is in a position to instantly know a great deal of extra information about this system. Modern mathematics formalizes its foundations to such an extent that mathematical theories can be regarded as mathematical objects, and logic itself can be regarded as a branch of mathematics. Frege, Russell, Poincaré, Hilbert, and Gödel are some of the key figures in this development. In the modern understanding, a set of axioms is any collection of formally stated assertions from which other formally stated assertions follow by the application of certain well-defined rules. In this view, logic becomes just another formal system. A set of axioms should be consistent; it should be impossible to derive a contradiction from the axiom. A set of axioms should also be non-redundant; an assertion that can be deduced from other axioms need not be regarded as an axiom. It was the early hope of modern logicians that various branches of mathematics, perhaps all of mathematics, could be derived from a consistent collection of basic axioms. An early success of the formalist program was Hilbert's formalization of Euclidean geometry, and the related demonstration of the consistency of those axioms. In a wider context, there was an attempt to base all of mathematics on Cantor's set theory. Here the emergence of Russell's paradox, and similar antinomies of naive set theory raised the possibility that any such system could turn out to be inconsistent. The formalist project suffered a decisive setback, when in 1931 Gödel showed that it is possible, for any sufficiently large set of axioms (Peano's axioms, for example) to construct a statement whose truth is independent of that set of axioms. As a corollary, Gödel proved that the consistency of a theory like Peano arithmetic is an unprovable assertion within the scope of that theory. It is reasonable to believe in the consistency of Peano arithmetic because it is satisfied by the system of natural numbers, an infinite but intuitively accessible formal system. However, at present, there is no known way of demonstrating the consistency of the modern Zermelo-Frankel axioms for set theory. The axiom of choice, a key hypothesis of this theory, remains a very controversial assumption. Furthermore, using techniques of forcing (Cohen) one can show that the continuum hypothesis (Cantor) is independent of the Zermelo-Frankel axioms. Thus, even this very general set of axioms cannot be regarded as the definitive foundation for mathematics. Mathematical logic In the field of mathematical logic, a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: logical axioms and non-logical axioms (somewhat similar to the ancient distinction between "axioms" and "postulates" respectively) Logical axioms These are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid, that is, formulas that are satisfied by every assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms at least some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language; in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required, in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense. Examples Propositional logic In propositional logic it is common to take as logical axioms all formulae of the following forms, where , , and can be any formulae of the language and where the included primitive connectives are only "" for negation of the immediately following proposition and "" for implication from antecedent to consequent propositions: Each of these patterns is an axiom schema, a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms. For example, if , , and are propositional variables, then and are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and modus ponens, one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with modus ponens. Other axiom schemas involving the same or different sets of primitive connectives can be alternatively constructed. Mendelson, "6. Other Axiomatizations" of Ch. 1 These axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus, but additional logical axioms are needed to include a quantifier in the calculus. Mendelson, "3. First-Order Theories" of Ch. 2 Mathematical logic Axiom of Equality. Let be a first-order language. For each variable , the formula is universally valid. This means that, for any variable symbol , the formula can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of "primitive notions", either a precise notion of what we mean by (or, for that matter, "to be equal") has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol has to be enforced, only regarding it as a string and only a string of symbols, and mathematical logic does indeed do that. Another, more interesting example axiom scheme, is that which provides us with what is known as Universal Instantiation: Axiom scheme for Universal Instantiation. Given a formula in a first-order language , a variable and a term that is substitutable for in , the formula is universally valid. Where the symbol stands for the formula with the term substituted for . (See variable substitution.) In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property holds for every and that stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim . Again, we are claiming that the formula is valid, that is, we must be able to give a "proof" of this fact, or more properly speaking, a metaproof. Actually, these examples are metatheorems of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of proof itself. Aside from this, we can also have Existential Generalization: Axiom scheme for Existential Generalization. Given a formula in a first-order language , a variable and a term that is substitutable for in , the formula is universally valid. Non-logical axioms Non-logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example the natural numbers and the integers, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as groups). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not tautologies. Another name for a non-logical axiom is postulate. Mendelson, "3. First-Order Theories: Proper Axioms" of Ch. 2 Almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas. This turned out to be impossible and proved to be quite a story (see below); however recently this approach has been resurrected in the form of neo-logicism. Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as axioms in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For example, in some groups, the group operation is commutative, and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups. Thus, an axiom is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a deductive system. Examples This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms. Basic theories, such as arithmetic, real analysis and complex analysis are often introduced non-axiomatically, but implicitly or explicitly there is generally an assumption that the axioms being used are the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with choice, abbreviated ZFC, or some very similar system of axiomatic set theory, most often Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, abbreviated NBG. This is a conservative extension of ZFC, with identical theorems about sets, and hence very closely related. Sometimes slightly stronger theories such as Morse-Kelley set theory or set theory with a strongly inaccessible cardinal allowing the use of a Grothendieck universe are used, but in fact most mathematicians can actually prove all they need in systems weaker than ZFC, such as second-order arithmetic. The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology, algebraic topology, differential topology, and all the related paraphernalia, such as homology theory, homotopy theory. The development of abstract algebra brought with itself group theory, rings and fields, Galois theory. This list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including axiomatic set theory, measure theory, ergodic theory, probability, representation theory, and differential geometry. Arithmetic The Peano axioms are the most widely used axiomatization of first-order arithmetic. They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem. Mendelson, "5. The Fixed Point Theorem. Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem" of Ch. 2 We have a language where is a constant symbol and is a unary function and the following axioms: for any formula with one free variable. The standard structure is where is the set of natural numbers, is the successor function and is naturally interpreted as the number 0. Euclidean geometry Probably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 Euclid's postulates of plane geometry. The axioms are referred to as "4 + 1" because for nearly two millennia the fifth (parallel) postulate ("through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel") was suspected of being derivable from the first four. Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four. Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infinitely many exist. These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than, exactly, or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic, Euclidean, and hyperbolic geometries. Real analysis The object of study is the real numbers. The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to isomorphism) by the properties of a Dedekind complete ordered field, meaning that any nonempty set of real numbers with an upper bound has a least upper bound. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires use of second-order logic. The Löwenheim-Skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to first-order logic, any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in non-standard analysis. Role in mathematical logic Deductive systems and completeness A deductive system consists, of a set of logical axioms, a set of non-logical axioms, and a set of rules of inference. A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete. A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas , if then that is, for any statement that is a logical consequence of there actually exists a deduction of the statement from . This is sometimes expressed as "everything that is true is provable", but it must be understood that "true" here means "made true by the set of axioms", and not, for example, "true in the intended interpretation". Gödel's completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly-used type of deductive system. Note that "completeness" has a different meaning here than it does in the context of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem, which states that no recursive, consistent set of non-logical axioms of the Theory of Arithmetic is complete, in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement such that neither nor can be proved from the given set of axioms. There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of completeness of a deductive system and on the other hand that of completeness of a set of non-logical axioms. The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another. Further discussion Early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space, and obviously there could only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as Boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic. Galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted. Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and modern algebra was born. In the modern view we may take as axioms any set of formulas we like, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent. References Mendelson, Elliot (1987). Introduction to mathematical logic. Belmont, California: Wadsworth & Brooks. ISBN 0-534-06624-0 Notes See also Axiom of choice Axiom of countability Axiomatic set theory Axiomatic system Axiomatization Continuum hypothesis List of axioms Model theory Parallel postulate Peano axioms Prime Number Self-evidence External links Metamath axioms page be-x-old:Аксіёма

Axiom |@lemmatized traditional:2 logic:17 axiom:99 postulate:21 proposition:6 prove:11 demonstrate:2 consider:2 either:2 self:5 evident:4 subject:1 necessary:1 decision:1 therefore:2 truth:7 take:7 grant:1 serve:2 starting:1 point:9 deduce:3 infer:1 theory:44 dependent:1 mathematics:14 term:8 use:15 two:8 related:3 distinguishable:1 sens:2 logical:30 non:19 mathematical:21 statement:8 start:3 logically:2 derive:6 unlike:2 theorem:13 unless:1 redundant:2 cannot:3 principle:4 deduction:3 demonstrable:1 proof:6 simply:3 nothing:3 else:1 follow:5 otherwise:1 would:2 classify:1 usually:2 universally:5 true:10 e:3 g:3 b:1 implies:1 actually:4 define:3 property:5 domain:2 specific:2 arithmetic:10 sense:4 assumption:7 may:3 interchangeably:1 general:4 rather:2 formal:7 expression:1 build:1 axiomatize:2 system:22 knowledge:8 show:6 claim:5 small:2 well:5 understood:2 set:36 sentence:1 typically:1 multiple:3 way:3 give:12 outside:3 loosely:1 established:1 field:12 etymology:1 word:2 come:2 greek:5 axioma:1 verbal:1 noun:1 verb:1 axioein:1 mean:10 deem:1 worthy:2 also:8 require:3 turn:3 axios:1 meaning:4 balance:1 hence:3 value:2 proper:2 among:1 ancient:5 philosopher:1 could:6 see:5 without:6 need:4 historical:1 development:5 early:4 logico:2 deductive:9 method:2 whereby:1 conclusion:1 new:1 premise:1 old:3 application:4 sound:1 argument:1 syllogism:1 rule:5 inference:3 develop:5 become:1 core:1 modern:10 tautology:7 exclude:1 assume:2 basic:6 underlie:1 body:1 accept:2 demonstration:2 assertion:8 talk:1 must:4 aid:1 however:5 interpretation:2 change:1 time:1 consequently:1 hold:3 slightly:2 different:6 present:2 day:1 mathematician:7 aristotle:3 euclid:5 geometry:11 one:18 several:1 science:6 par:1 scientific:1 fact:8 avoid:1 error:1 structure:6 communicate:2 posterior:1 analytics:1 definitive:2 exposition:1 classical:3 view:3 terminology:1 refer:3 common:6 many:5 branch:3 good:1 example:13 equal:14 amount:2 result:1 foundation:3 various:2 lay:1 certain:5 additional:3 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entirely:1 henceforth:1 rigorous:1 treatment:1 topic:1 begin:1 specification:1 analysis:4 complex:1 introduce:1 axiomatically:1 implicitly:1 explicitly:1 generally:1 fraenkel:1 abbreviate:2 zfc:3 axiomatic:5 von:1 neumann:1 bernays:1 nbg:1 conservative:1 extension:1 identical:1 closely:1 relate:1 sometimes:2 strong:2 morse:1 kelley:1 strongly:1 inaccessible:1 cardinal:1 grothendieck:1 universe:1 weak:1 second:3 extend:1 algebraic:2 differential:2 paraphernalia:1 homology:1 homotopy:1 algebra:3 brought:1 ring:1 galois:2 expand:1 measure:1 ergodic:1 probability:1 representation:1 widely:1 axiomatization:2 enough:1 important:2 famous:2 incompleteness:4 fixed:1 constant:1 unary:1 function:2 free:1 standard:2 successor:1 naturally:1 interpret:1 probably:1 plane:1 nearly:1 millennia:1 exactly:3 suspect:1 derivable:1 four:2 ultimately:2 find:1 exist:6 infinitely:1 alternative:2 triangle:1 elliptic:1 uniquely:1 pick:1 isomorphism:1 dedekind:1 nonempty:1 upper:2 bound:2 express:2 löwenheim:1 skolem:1 theorems:1 tell:1 restrict:1 admit:1 model:6 latter:1 completeness:7 consist:1 desirable:1 consequence:1 everything:1 provable:1 intended:1 commonly:1 type:1 note:2 recursive:1 always:1 neither:1 hand:2 despite:1 contradict:1 discussion:1 physical:1 obviously:1 idea:1 trouble:1 century:1 developer:1 boolean:1 elaborate:1 effort:2 untimely:1 death:1 largely:1 waste:1 detail:1 bear:1 long:1 reference:1 elliot:1 belmont:1 california:1 wadsworth:1 brook:1 isbn:1 countability:1 prime:1 evidence:1 external:1 link:1 metamath:1 page:1 x:1 аксіёма:1 |@bigram logical_axiom:26 deem_worthy:1 assumption_underlie:1 posterior_analytics:1 parallel_postulate:3 postulate_euclid:1 hyperbolic_geometry:3 euclidean_geometry:2 russell_paradox:1 peano_axiom:3 peano_arithmetic:2 zermelo_frankel:2 axiom_choice:2 continuum_hypothesis:2 propositional_logic:2 axiom_schema:5 modus_ponens:2 propositional_calculus:1 predicate_calculus:1 implicitly_explicitly:1 axiom_zermelo:1 zermelo_fraenkel:1 von_neumann:1 neumann_bernays:1 bernays_gödel:1 closely_relate:1 morse_kelley:1 inaccessible_cardinal:1 algebraic_topology:1 differential_topology:1 abstract_algebra:1 differential_geometry:1 incompleteness_theorem:4 gödel_incompleteness:1 löwenheim_skolem:1 gödel_completeness:1 completeness_theorem:2 boolean_algebra:1 untimely_death:1 external_link:1

Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union

The organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was based on the principles of democratic centralism. The governing body of the CPSU was the Party Congress which initially met annually but whose meetings became less frequent, particularly under Stalin. Party Congresses would elect a Central Committee which, in turn, would elect a Politburo. Under Stalin the most powerful position in the party became the General Secretary who was elected by the Politburo. In 1952 the title of General Secretary became First Secretary and the Politburo became the Presidium before reverting to their former names under Leonid Brezhnev in 1966. In theory, supreme power in the party was invested in the Party Congress. However, in practice the power structure became reversed and, particularly after the death of Lenin, supreme power became the domain of the General Secretary. Higher levels In the late Soviet Union the CPSU incorporated the communist parties of the 14 constituent republics with the exception of Russian SFSR. The RSFSR did not have its own party organization, and the communist parties of its oblasts, autonomous republics and some other major administrative units subordinated directly to the CPSU Central Committee. Program of the CPSU, 27th Party Congress (1986) Lower levels At lower levels, the organizational hierarchy was managed by Party Committees, or partkoms (партком). A partkom was headed by the elected "partkom bureau secretary" ("partkom secretary", секретарь парткома). At enterprises, institutions, kolkhozes, etc., they were called as such, i.e., "partkoms". At higher levels the Committees were abbreviated accordingly: obkoms (обком) at oblast (zone) levels (known earlier as gubkoms (губком) for guberniyas), raikoms (райком) at raion (district) levels, gorkom (горком) at city levels, etc. The same terminology (raikom, etc.) was used in the organizational structure of Komsomol. The bottom level of the Party was the "primary party organization" (первичная партийная организация) or "party cell" (партийная ячейка). It was created within any organizational entity of any kind where there were at least three communists. The management of a cell was called "party bureau" (партийное бюро, партбюро). A partbureau was headed by the elected "bureau secretary" (секретарь партбюро). At smaller party cells, secretaries were regular employees of the corresponding plant/hospital/school/etc. Sufficiently large party organizations were usually headed by an exempt secretary, who drew his salary from the Party money. Main offices General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionBecame synonymous with leader of the party under Stalin. Secretariat of the CPSU Central CommitteeLeading body within the Central Committee. Headed by the General Secretary or First Secretary. Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee The political bureau of the Central Committee and the most powerful political group of the Communist Party. Central Committee of the Communist Party The governing body of the Party between each Congress. Conducted the day-to-day business of the Party and the government. Organizational Bureau of the Party Central Committee, or Orgburo Central Revision Committee CPSU Party Control Committee CPSU Central Auditing Commission Party Conference The oversight body of the Party in between Party Congresses. Usually gathered once a year. Congress of the CPSU The gathering of Party delegates every five years. It was the oversight body of the entire Party, in theory. See also Partorg References External links Executive Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1917-1991)

Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union |@lemmatized organization:4 communist:8 party:32 soviet:4 union:3 base:1 principle:1 democratic:1 centralism:1 govern:2 body:6 cpsu:9 congress:7 initially:1 meet:1 annually:1 whose:1 meeting:1 become:6 less:1 frequent:1 particularly:2 stalin:3 would:2 elect:5 central:10 committee:11 turn:1 politburo:4 powerful:2 position:1 general:5 secretary:12 title:1 first:2 presidium:1 revert:1 former:1 name:1 leonid:1 brezhnev:1 theory:2 supreme:2 power:3 invest:1 however:1 practice:1 structure:2 reversed:1 death:1 lenin:1 domain:1 high:2 level:8 late:1 incorporate:1 constituent:1 republic:2 exception:1 russian:1 sfsr:1 rsfsr:1 oblasts:1 autonomous:1 major:1 administrative:1 unit:1 subordinate:1 directly:1 program:1 low:2 organizational:4 hierarchy:1 manage:1 partkoms:2 партком:1 partkom:3 head:4 bureau:5 секретарь:2 парткома:1 enterprise:1 institution:1 kolkhoz:1 etc:4 call:2 e:1 abbreviate:1 accordingly:1 obkoms:1 обком:1 oblast:1 zone:1 know:1 earlier:1 gubkoms:1 губком:1 guberniyas:1 raikoms:1 райком:1 raion:1 district:1 gorkom:1 горком:1 city:1 terminology:1 raikom:1 use:1 komsomol:1 bottom:1 primary:1 первичная:1 партийная:2 организация:1 cell:3 ячейка:1 create:1 within:2 entity:1 kind:1 least:1 three:1 management:1 партийное:1 бюро:1 партбюро:2 partbureau:1 small:1 regular:1 employee:1 corresponding:1 plant:1 hospital:1 school:1 sufficiently:1 large:1 usually:2 exempt:1 draw:1 salary:1 money:1 main:1 office:1 unionbecame:1 synonymous:1 leader:1 secretariat:1 committeeleading:1 political:2 group:1 conduct:1 day:2 business:1 government:1 orgburo:1 revision:1 control:1 audit:1 commission:1 conference:1 oversight:2 gather:1 year:2 gathering:1 delegate:1 every:1 five:1 entire:1 see:1 also:1 partorg:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 executive:1 |@bigram soviet_union:3 democratic_centralism:1 leonid_brezhnev:1 russian_sfsr:1 external_link:1

Geiger_counter

A Geiger counter, also called a Geiger-Müller counter, is a type of particle detector that measures ionizing radiation. Description Geiger counters are used to detect beta radiation and gamma radiation. The sensor is a Geiger-Müller tube, an inert gas-filled tube (usually helium, neon or argon with halogens added) that briefly conducts electricity when a particle or photon of radiation makes the gas conductive. The tube amplifies this conduction by a cascade effect and outputs a current pulse, which is then often displayed by a needle or lamp and/or audible clicks. Modern instruments can report radioactivity over several orders of magnitude. Some Geiger counters can be used to detect gamma radiation, though sensitivity can be lower for high energy gamma radiation than with certain other types of detector, because the density of the gas in the device is usually low, allowing most high energy gamma photons to pass through undetected (lower energy photons are easier to detect, and are better absorbed by the detector. Examples of this are the X-ray Pancake Geiger Tube). A better device for detecting gamma rays is a sodium iodide scintillation counter. Good alpha and beta scintillation counters also exist, but Geiger detectors are still favored as general purpose alpha/beta/gamma portable contamination and dose rate instruments, due to their low cost and robustness. A variation of the Geiger tube is used to measure neutrons, where the gas used is boron trifluoride and a plastic moderator is used to slow the neutrons. This creates an alpha particle inside the detector and thus neutrons can be counted. Types and applications The configuration of GM tubes determines the types of radiation that it can detect. For example, a thin mica window on a GM Tube (shown here) will allow for the detection of alpha radiation, whereas GM Tubes without a thin mica window are too thick for the alpha and low energy beta radiation to pass through and be detected. The Geiger-Müller tube is one form of a class of radiation detectors called gaseous detectors or simply gas detectors. Although useful, cheap and robust, a counter using a GM tube can only detect the presence and intensity of radiation (particle frequency, as opposed to energy). Gas detectors with the ability to both detect radiation and determine particle energy levels (due to their construction, test gas, and associated electronics) are called proportional counters. Some proportional counters can detect the position and or angle of the incident radiation as well. Other devices detecting radiation include: ionization chambers dosimeters photomultipliers semiconductor detectors and variants including CCDs microchannel plates scintillation counters solid-state track detectors cloud chambers bubble chambers spark chambers neutron detectors microcalorimeters The Geiger-Müller counter has applications in the fields of nuclear physics, geophysics (mining) and medical therapy with isotopes and x-rays. Some of the proportional counters have many internal wires and electrodes and are called multi-wire proportional counters or simply MWPCs. Radiation detectors have also been used extensively in nuclear physics, medicine, particle physics, astronomy and in industry. History Cold War-era survey meter (this is an ion chamber, not a Geiger counter). Hans Geiger developed a device (that would later be called the "Geiger counter") in 1908 together with Ernest Rutherford. This counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles. In 1928, Geiger and Walther Müller (a PhD student of Geiger) improved the counter so that it could detect all kinds of ionizing radiation. The current version of the "Geiger counter" is called the halogen counter. It was invented in 1947 by Sidney H. Liebson (Phys. Rev. 72, 602–608 (1947)). It has superseded the earlier Geiger counter because of its much longer life. The devices also used a lower operating voltage. History of Portable Radiation Detection Instrumentation from the period 1920-1960 See also Civil Defense Geiger Counters Geiger-Müller tube Radioactive decay Geiger plateau Gaseous ionization detectors Ionization chamber References External links How a Geiger counter works. Patents Electric lamps and discharge devices of the Geiger-Müller type (Class 313/93) , K. Zickler, "Telegraphy by means of electric light" , N. Tesla, "Method of utilizing radiant energy" , H. Benhken, "Measuring device for the examination of electromagnetic waves" , O. Glasser, "Method and apparatus for the measurement of radiation intensity" , H. J. Spanner, "Gas Filled Tube" , H. Kott, "Apparatus for measuring radiation" , H. Kott, "Radiation sensitive device" , G. Failla, "Electrotechnique" , S. Yeda, "Roentgenometer" , G. L. Hassler, "Method of underground exploration" , P. T. Farnsworth, "X-Ray projection device" , G. J. Weissenberg, "Electron Discharge Tube" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , A. Graves, "Ionization chambers, Geiger Müller tubes, and the like" , D. G. C. Hare, "Radiation detector" , J. A. Victoreen, "Geiger tube" , J. A. Victoreen, "Geiger tube"

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Application_programming_interface

An application programming interface (API) is a set of routines, data structures, object classes and/or protocols provided by libraries and/or operating system services in order to support the building of applications. An API may be: Language-dependent; that is, available only in a particular programming language, using the particular syntax and elements of the programming language to make the API convenient to use in this particular context. Language-independent; that is, written in a way that means it can be called from several programming languages (typically an assembly/C-level interface). This is a desired feature for a service-style API that is not bound to a particular process or system and is available as a remote procedure call. The API itself is largely abstract in that it specifies an interface and controls the behavior of the objects specified in that interface. The software that provides the functionality described by an API is said to be an implementation of the API. An API is typically defined in terms of the programming language used to build an application. The related term, ABI (Application Binary Interface), is a lower level definition concerning details at the Assembly language level. For example, the Linux Standard Base is an ABI, while POSIX is an API. The API acronym may sometimes be used as a reference not only to the full interface but also to a single function or even a set of multiple APIs provided by an organization. Thus the scope is usually determined by the person or document that communicates the information. Implementations The POSIX standard defines an API that allows a wide range of common computing functions to be written such that they may operate on many different systems (Mac OS X and various BSDs implement this interface); however, making use of this requires re-compilation for each platform. A compatible API, on the other hand, allows compiled object code to function without any changes, on any system implementing that API. This is advantageous to both software providers (where they may distribute existing software on new systems without producing/distributing upgrades) and users (where they may install older software on their new systems without purchasing upgrades), although this generally requires various software libraries implementing the necessary APIs too. Microsoft has shown significant commitment to a backward compatible API, particularly within their Win32 library, such that older applications may run on newer versions of Windows. Apple Inc. has shown less propensity to this concern, breaking compatibility or implementing API in a slower "emulation mode"; this allows greater freedom in development at the cost of making older software obsolete. Among Unix-like operating systems, there are many related but incompatible operating systems running on a common hardware platform (particularly Intel 80386-compatible systems). There have been several attempts to standardise the API such that software vendors may distribute one binary application for all these systems; however to date, none of these have met with much success. The Linux Standard Base is attempting to do this for the Linux platform whilst many of the BSD unices (OpenBSD/NetBSD/FreeBSD) implement various levels of API compatibility for both backward compatibility (allowing applications written for older versions to run on newer distributions of the system) and cross-platform compatibility (allowing the execution of foreign code without recompilation). Release policies Common API publishing policies include: Companies do not release API information to anybody outside of the company. Companies protect information on their APIs from the general public. For example, Sony used to make its official PlayStation 2 API available only to licensed PlayStation developers. This enabled Sony to control who wrote PlayStation 2 games. Such control can have quality control benefits and potential license revenue. Companies make their APIs freely available. For example, Microsoft makes the Microsoft Windows API public and Apple releases its APIs Carbon and Cocoa so that software can be written for their platform. API examples ASPI for SCSI device interfacing Carbon and Cocoa for the Macintosh ClipMail Comedi Data Acquisition API DirectX for Microsoft Windows Drupal API (Drupal) Facebook API (Facebook) Google Maps API iPhone API Java APIs Mac OS X MediaWiki API OpenGL cross-platform 3D graphics API PaymentVision PayAPI for ACH & Credit Card Payment Processing PayPal Payment Pro PC BIOS call interface Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL) Single UNIX Specification (SUS) TweetDeck API Windows API YouTube API API management APIs are changing the way in which web-based companies interact on Internet and have become a complete distribution channel for web services and a potential source of revenues. However, to exploit the full potential of APIs, companies need to build a management infrastructure. This generally includes the following features: Key management and customer sign-up: Automated issue tracking, refresh and control of API access keys. Limit management and enforcement. Usage plan management: Creation, modification and management of standard usage plans, each with different features sets, limits and/or pricing rules. Per customer limit and usage policy adaptation. Developer community tools: Growing visibility and API usage through online management of documentation and developer forums/discussions. Monitoring and analytics: Tracking information on a per user basis for hit patterns,volume and method usage. User messaging, ticket tracking and support tools: Interactive tools to deal with developer support queries. Billing and payments. Traffic proxies and caching: Traffic filtering and management components to improve service performance. There are some companies who offer these management tools for those web services providers who don't have enough resources to build them or want to stay focused on their core service. Sonoa, Mashery, 3scale and DirectApi are probably the most commonly known. Language bindings and interface generators APIs that are intended to be used by more than one high-level programming language often provide, or are augmented with, facilities to automatically map the API to features (syntactic or semantic) that are more natural in those languages. This is known as language binding, and is itself an API. The aim is to encapsulate most of the required functionality of the API, leaving a "thin" layer appropriate to each language. Below are listed some interface generator tools which bind languages to APIs at compile time. SWIG generates interfaces from many languages for many languages (Typically Compiled->Scripted) F2PY: Fortran to Python interface generator. XPCOM (Cross Platform Component Object Model) is a cross platform component model from Mozilla. See also Application Binary Interface (ABI) Document Object Model (DOM) Mashup (web application hybrid) Open Service Interface Definitions (OSID) Plugin Software Development Kit (SDK) Web service List of 3D graphics APIs API Writers References External links Practical API Design book and collaboration site How to design a good API and why it matters-PDF The trends and the role of API-driven mashup building tools in the enterprise computing Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): The Road to Enterprise Application Integration (EAI) Organized list of API references with fast as-you-type search ISO/IEC JTC 1 Directives, 5th Edition Version 3.0, Annex J: Guidelines for API standardization API functions tutorial for game making API Management

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Diffraction

The intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a square aperture Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction, according to some analyses. Diffraction is normally taken to refer to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle. It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings. Diffraction concepts Very similar effects are observed when there is an alteration in the properties of the medium in which the wave is travelling, for example a variation in refractive index for light waves or in acoustic impedance for sound waves and these can also be referred to as diffraction effects. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, x-rays and radio waves. As physical objects have wave-like properties (at the atomic level), diffraction also occurs with matter and can be studied according to the principles of quantum mechanics. While diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such changes, its effects are generally most pronounced for waves where the wavelength is on the order of the size of the diffracting objects. If the obstructing object provides multiple, closely-spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result. This is due to the superposition, or interference, of different parts of a wave that traveled to the observer by different paths (see diffraction grating). The formalism of diffraction can also describe the way in which waves of finite extent propagate in free space. For example, the expanding profile of a laser beam, the beam shape of a radar antenna and the field of view of an ultrasonic transducer are all explained by diffraction theory. Examples of diffraction in everyday life Solar glory at the steam from hot springs. A glory is an optical phenomenon produced by light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and refraction) towards its source by a cloud of uniformly-sized water droplets. The effects of diffraction can be readily seen in everyday life. The most colorful examples of diffraction are those involving light; for example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern we see when looking at a disk. This principle can be extended to engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon. A shadow of a solid object, using light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges. The speckle pattern which is observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is also a diffraction phenomenon. All these effects are a consequence of the fact that light is a wave. Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree. Diffraction can also be a concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope. History Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction, which he presented to the Royal Society in 1803 The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating. In 1803 Thomas Young did his famous experiment observing interference from two closely spaced slits. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, published in 1815 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by Christiaan Huygens and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's particle theory. The mechanism of diffraction Photograph of single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple tank Diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate; this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every point on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary radial wave. The subsequent propagation and addition of all these radial waves form the new wavefront. When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves, an effect which is often known as wave interference. The summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima. To determine the form of a diffraction pattern, we must determine the phase and amplitude of each of the Huygens wavelets at each point in space and then find the sum of these waves. There are various analytical models which can be used to do this including the Fraunhofer diffraction equation for the far field and the Fresnel Diffraction equation for the near-field. Most configurations cannot be solved analytically; solutions can be found using various numerical analytical methods including Finite element and boundary element methods Diffraction systems It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources vary, and in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out. The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be reduced to a two dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the case, water waves propagate only on the surface of the water. For light, we can often neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over a distance far greater than the wavelength. In the case of light shining through small circular holes we will have to take into account the full three dimensional nature of the problem. Some of the simpler cases of diffraction are considered below. Single-slit diffraction Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width four wavelengths with an incident plane wave. The main central beam, nulls, and phase reversals are apparent. Graph and image of single-slit diffraction A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the light into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the slit is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity. A slit which is wider than a wavelength has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the slit. The light at a given angle is made up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative phases of these contributions vary by more than 2π, we expect to find minima and maxima in the diffracted light. We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference between them is equal to λ/2. Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just below the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of the slit. The path difference is given by so that the minimum intensity occurs at an angle θmin given by where d is the width of the slit. A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided into four, six eight parts, etc, minima are obtained at angles θn given by where n is an integer greater than zero. There is no such simple argument to enable us to find the maxima of the diffraction pattern. The intensity profile can be calculated using the Fraunhofer diffraction integral as where the sinc function is given by sinc(x) = sin(πx)/(πx) if x ≠ 0, and sinc(0) = 1. It should be noted that this analysis applies only to the far field, that is at a distance much larger than the width of the slit. 2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser light Diffraction grating A diffraction grating is an optical component with a regular pattern. The form of the light diffracted by a grating depends on the structure of the elements and the number of elements present, but all gratings have intensity maxima at angles θm which are given by the grating equation where θi is the angle at which the light is incident, d is the separation of grating elements and m is an integer which can be positive or negative. The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and interference patterns. The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where the grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the same position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different. A computer-generated image of an Airy disk Computer generated light diffraction pattern from a circular aperture of diameter 0.5micron at a wavelength of 0.6micron (red-light) at distances of 0.1cm – 1cm in steps of 0.1cm. One can see the image moving from Fresenel region into the Fraunhofer region where the Airy pattern is seen. Diffraction by a circular aperture The far-field diffraction of a plane wave incident on a circular aperture is often referred to as the Airy Disk. The variation in intensity with angle is given by where a is the radius of the circular aperture, k is equal to 2π/λ and J1 is a Bessel function. The smaller the aperture, the larger the spot size at a given distance, and the greater the divergence of the diffracted beams. Propagation of a laser beam The way in which the profile of a laser beam changes as it propagates is determined by diffraction. The output mirror of the laser is an aperture, and the subsequent beam shape is determined by that aperture. Hence, the smaller the output beam, the quicker it diverges. Diode lasers have much greater divergence than He–Ne lasers for this reason. Paradoxically, it is possible to reduce the divergence of a laser beam by first expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens. The resulting beam has a larger aperture, and hence a lower divergence. Diffraction-limited imaging The Airy disk around each of the stars from the 2.56m telescope aperture can be seen in this lucky image of the binary star zeta Boötis. The ability of an imaging system to resolve detail is ultimately limited by diffraction. This is because a plane wave incident on a circular lens or mirror is diffracted as described above. The light is not focused to a point but forms an Airy disk having a central spot in the focal plane with radius to first null of where λ is the wavelength of the light and N is the f-number (focal length divided by diameter) of the imaging optics. In object space, the corresponding angular resolution is where D is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a telescope's main mirror). Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern – see the photo of a binary star. As the point sources move closer together, the patterns will start to overlap, and ultimately they will merge to form a single pattern, in which case the two point sources cannot be resolved in the image. The Rayleigh criterion specifies that two point sources can be considered to be resolvable if the separation of the two images is at least the radius of the Airy disk, i.e. if the first minimum of one coincides with the maximum of the other. Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens, and the smaller the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is why telescopes have very large lenses or mirrors, and why optical microscopes are limited in the detail which they can see. Speckle patterns The speckle pattern which is seen when using a laser pointer is another diffraction phenomenon. It is a result of the superpostion of many waves with different phases, which are produced when a laser beam illuminates a rough surface. They add together to give a resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore intensity varies randomly. Common features of diffraction patterns Several qualitative observations can be made of diffraction in general: The angular spacing of the features in the diffraction pattern is inversely proportional to the dimensions of the object causing the diffraction. In other words: The smaller the diffracting object, the 'wider' the resulting diffraction pattern, and vice versa. (More precisely, this is true of the sines of the angles.) The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the diffracting object. When the diffracting object has a periodic structure, for example in a diffraction grating, the features generally become sharper. The third figure, for example, shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits, both sets of slits having the same spacing, between the center of one slit and the next. Particle diffraction Quantum theory tells us that every particle exhibits wave properties. In particular, massive particles can interfere and therefore diffract. Diffraction of electrons and neutrons stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics. The wavelength associated with a particle is the de Broglie wavelength where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the particle (mass × velocity for slow-moving particles) . For most macroscopic objects, this wavelength is so short that it is not meaningful to assign a wavelength to them. A sodium atom traveling at about 3000 m/s would have a De Broglie wavelength of about 5 pico meters. Because the wavelength for even the smallest of macroscopic objects is extremely small, diffraction of matter waves is only visible for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms and small molecules. The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of solids and large molecules like proteins. Relatively recently, larger molecules like buckyballs were also shown to diffract. Bragg diffraction Following Bragg's law, each dot (or reflection), in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystal's atomic structure. Diffraction from a three dimensional periodic structure such as atoms in a crystal is called Bragg diffraction. It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a diffraction grating. Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference between waves reflecting from different crystal planes. The condition of constructive interference is given by Bragg's law: where λ is the wavelength, d is the distance between crystal planes, θ is the angle of the diffracted wave. and m is an integer known as the order of the diffracted beam. Bragg diffraction may be carried out using either light of very short wavelength like x-rays or matter waves like neutrons (and electrons) whose wavelength is on the order of (or much smaller than) the atomic spacing John M. Cowley (1975) Diffraction physics (North-Holland, Amsterdam) ISBN 0 444 10791 6 . The pattern produced gives information of the separations of crystallographic planes d, allowing one to deduce the crystal structure. Diffraction contrast, in electron microscopes and x-topography devices in particular, is also a powerful tool for examining individual defects and local strain fields in crystals. Coherence The description of diffraction relies on the interference of waves emanating from the same source taking different paths to the same point on a screen. In this description, the difference in phase between waves that took different paths is only dependent on the effective path length. This does not take into account the fact that waves that arrive at the screen at the same time were emitted by the source at different times. The initial phase with which the source emits waves can change over time in an unpredictable way. This means that waves emitted by the source at times that are too far apart can no longer form a constant interference pattern since the relation between their phases is no longer time independent. The length over which the phase in a beam of light is correlated, is called the Coherence length. In order for interference to occur, the path length difference must be smaller than the coherence length. This is sometimes referred to as spectral coherence, as it is related to the presence of different frequency components in the wave. In the case of light emitted by an atomic transition, the coherence length is related to the lifetime of the excited state from which the atom made its transition. If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length. In the case of Young's double slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single slit diffraction patterns. In the case of particles like electrons, neutrons and atoms, the coherence length is related to the spatial extent of the wave function that describes the particle. See also Atmospheric diffraction Bragg diffraction Cloud iridescence Diffraction formalism Diffractometer Dynamical theory of diffraction Diffraction grating Electron diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction Fresnel number Fresnel zone Neutron diffraction Prism Powder diffraction Refraction Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction Thinned array curse X-ray scattering techniques References External links Do Sensors “Outresolve” Lenses?; on lens and sensor resolution interaction. Diffraction and acoustics. Diffraction in photography. On Diffraction at MathPages. Diffraction pattern calculators at The Wolfram Demonstrations Project Wave Optics – A chapter of an online textbook. 2-D wave Java applet – Displays diffraction patterns of various slit configurations. Diffraction Java applet – Displays diffraction patterns of various 2-D apertures. Diffraction approximations illustrated – MIT site that illustrates the various approximations in diffraction and intuitively explains the Fraunhofer regime from the perspective of linear system theory. Gap Obstacle Corner – Java simulation of diffraction of water wave. Google Maps – Satellite image of Panama Canal entry ocean wave diffraction.

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Gene_Hackman

Eugene Allen "Gene" Hackman His middle name is "Allen," according to the State of California. California Birth Index, 1905–1995. Center for Health Statistics, California Department of Health Services, Sacramento, California. At Ancestry.com (born January 30, 1930) is an Academy Award-winning American actor. He came to fame during the 1970s, after his role as Popeye Doyle in The French Connection, and continued to appear in Hollywood films playing major roles, including Harry Caul in The Conversation, Norman Dale in Hoosiers, Agent Rupert Anderson in Mississippi Burning, Little Bill Daggett in Unforgiven, Lex Luthor in Superman (plus two of its sequels), Captain Frank Ramsey in Crimson Tide, Joe Moore in Heist and Admiral Leslie McMahon Reigart in Behind Enemy Lines. Early life Hackman was born in San Bernardino, California, the son of Lyda (née Gray) and Eugene Ezra Hackman. Gene Hackman Biography (1930-) He has a brother, Richard. Hackman's family moved from one place to another until finally settling in Danville, Illinois, where they lived in the house of his maternal grandmother, Beatrice, and where Hackman's father operated the printing press for the Commercial-News, a local paper. Hackman's parents divorced in 1943. His mother died in 1962, as a result of a fire she accidentally set while smoking. Gene Hackman profile. E! Online.com. At sixteen, Hackman left home to join the U.S. Marine Corps, where he served four-and-a-half years as a field radio operator. Having finished his service, he moved to New York, working in several minor jobs before moving to study television production and journalism at the University of Illinois under the G.I. Bill. In an in-studio interview on Wednesday, May 14, 2008, with McGraw Milhaven on KTRS 550-AM in St. Louis, Missouri, Gene clarified the following - although some biographies claim he studied at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, he never did and has yet to even visit the campus. Career 1960s At 26 years old, Hackman decided to become an actor, and joined the Pasadena Playhouse in California. It was there that he forged a friendship with another aspiring actor, Dustin Hoffman. Already seen as outsiders by their classmates, Hackman and Hoffman were later voted "The Least Likely To Succeed." Determined to prove them wrong, Hackman hopped on a bus bound for New York City. A 2004 article in Vanity Fair described how Hackman, Hoffman and Robert Duvall were all struggling actors and close friends while living in New York City in the 1960s. Hackman was working as a doorman when he ran into an instructor whom he had despised at the Pasadena Playhouse. Reinforcing "The Least Likely To Succeed" vote, the man had said "See Hackman, I told you you wouldn't amount to anything." (Some reports allege that it was one of his former drill instructors from the Marines who saw him there and told him this.) Hackman began performing in several off-Broadway plays. Finally, in 1964, he had an offer to co-star in the play Any Wednesday with actress Sandy Dennis. This opened the door to film work. His first role was in Lilith, with Warren Beatty in the leading role. Another supporting role, Buck Barrow in 1967's Bonnie and Clyde, earned him an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actor. In 1969 he played a ski coach in Downhill Racer, and an astronaut in Marooned. 1970s Hackman won the Academy Award for Best Actor as the character Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle in The French Connection. In 1970, he was nominated for the same award, this time for I Never Sang for My Father, working alongside Melvyn Douglas and Estelle Parsons. The next year he won the Best Actor award for his memorable performance as New York City police officer Popeye Doyle in The French Connection, marking his graduation to leading man status. He followed this with leading roles in the disaster film The Poseidon Adventure (1972) and Francis Ford Coppola's The Conversation (1974) which was nominated for several Oscars. That same year, Hackman appeared uncredited in one of his most famous comedic roles as the blind hermit in Young Frankenstein. He later appeared in the star-studded war film A Bridge Too Far (1977) as Polish General Sosabowski. Hackman showed a talent for both comedy and the "slow burn" as criminal mastermind Lex Luthor in Superman: The Movie (1978) and Superman II (1980). 1980s By the end of the 1980s, Hackman was a well respected actor and alternated between leading and supporting roles, earning another Best Actor nomination for Mississippi Burning, and appearing in such films as Reds, Under Fire, Hoosiers, Power, Uncommon Valor and Bat*21. His performance as a rural Indiana high school basketball coach in the period drama Hoosiers is considered by some to be particularly memorable. 1990s In 1990, the actor underwent heart surgery, which kept him from work for a while, although he found time for Narrow Margin – a remake of The Narrow Margin (1952). In 1992, he played the sadistic sheriff "Little" Bill Daggett in the western Unforgiven directed by Clint Eastwood and written by David Webb Peoples which earned him a second Oscar, this time for Best Supporting Actor. The film itself won Best Picture. In 1995, Hackman played other noteworthy villains, fast-draw champion John Herrod in The Quick and the Dead opposite Leonardo DiCaprio and Russell Crowe, as well as submarine Captain Frank Ramsey in the film Crimson Tide with Denzel Washington. In 1996, he took a comedic turn as ultra-conservative Senator Kevin Keeley in The Birdcage with Robin Williams and Nathan Lane. He also co-starred with Will Smith in the 1998 film Enemy of the State, where his character was reminiscent of the one from The Conversation. 2000s Hackman starred in the David Mamet crime film Heist as an aging professional thief of considerable skill who is forced into one final job. He also had leading roles in the ensemble cast films The Royal Tenenbaums and Runaway Jury. In 2003, at the Golden Globe Awards, Hackman was honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Award for his "outstanding contribution to the entertainment field." Business Wire, November 14, 2002. Hollywood. Gene Hackman to Receive HFPA'S Cecil B. DeMille Award At 60th Annual Golden Globe Awards to be Telecast Live on NBC on Sunday, January 19, 2003 Present Together with undersea archaeologist Daniel Lenihan, Hackman has written three novels: Wake of the Perdido Star (1999), Justice for None (2004), and Escape from Andersonville (2008). On July 7, 2004, Hackman gave a rare interview to Larry King, in which he announced that he had no future film projects lined up, and believes his acting career is over. In 2008, while promoting his third novel, Hackman confirmed that he has retired from acting. His final film to date was Welcome to Mooseport, a comedy with Ray Romano in which Hackman portrayed a former President of the United States. Personal life Hackman's first wife was Faye Maltese. They had three children, Christopher Allen, Elizabeth Jean, and Leslie Anne, but the couple divorced in 1986 after 30 years of marriage. In 1991, Hackman married Betsy Arakawa. They live in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Betsy is co-owner of an upscale retail home-furnishing store in Santa Fe, called Pandora's, Inc. Filmography Year Film Role Notes1961Mad Dog CollPolicemanuncredited1964LilithNorman1966HawaiiDr. John Whipple1967BanningTommy Del GaddoCommunity Shelter PlanningDonald Ross - Regional Civil Defense OfficerA Covenant with DeathHarmsworthFirst to FightSgt. TweedBonnie & ClydeBuck BarrowNominated - Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor1968The SplitDetective Lt. Walter Brill1969RiotRed FrakerThe Gypsy MothsJoe BrowdyDownhill RacerEugene ClaireMaroonedBuzz Lloyd1970I Never Sang for My FatherGene GarrisonNominated - Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor 1971Doctors' WivesDr. Dave RandolphThe Hunting PartyBrandt RugerThe French ConnectionDet. Jimmy "Popeye" DoyleAcademy Award for Best Actor; BAFTA Award; Golden Globe1972Prime CutMary AnnThe Poseidon AdventureReverend Frank ScottCisco PikeSergeant Leo Holland1973Scarecrow Max Millan1974The ConversationHarry CaulNominated - BAFTA Award; Nominated - Golden GlobeYoung FrankensteinThe Blindman (Harold)Zandy's BrideZandy Allan1975French Connection IIDet. Jimmy "Popeye" DoyleNominated - BAFTA Award; Nominated - Golden GlobeLucky LadyKibby WomackNight MovesHarry MosebyBite the Bullet Sam Clayton1977The Domino PrincipleRoy TuckerA Bridge Too FarMaj Gen. Stanisław SosabowskiMarch or DieMaj. William Sherman Foster1978SupermanLex LuthorNominated - BAFTA Award1980Superman IILex Luthor1981All Night LongGeorge DuplerReds Pete Van Wherry1983Under FireAlex GrazierNominated - Golden GlobeTwo of a KindVoice of GoduncreditedUncommon ValorCol. Cal Rhodes1984EurekaJack McCannMisunderstoodNed Rawley1985Twice in a LifetimeHarry MacKenzieNominated - Golden GlobeTargetWalter Lloyd/Duncan (Duke) Potter1986PowerWilfred BuckleyHoosiersCoach Norman Dale1987No Way OutDefense Secretary David BriceSuperman IV: The Quest for PeaceLex Luthor / voice of Nuclear Man1988Bat*21Lt. Col. Iceal HambletonMississippi Burning Agent Rupert AndersonNominated - Academy Award for Best Actor;Nominated - Golden GlobeAnother WomanLarry LewisFull Moon in Blue WaterFloydSplit DecisionsDan McGuinn1989The PackageSgt. Johnny Gallagher1990Loose CannonsMacArthur SternPostcards from the EdgeLowell KolchekNarrow MarginRobert Caulfield1991Class ActionJedediah Tucker WardCompany BusinessSam Boyd1992UnforgivenLittle Bill DaggettAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actor;BAFTA Award; Golden Globe1993The FirmAvery TolarGeronimo: An American LegendBrig. Gen. George Crook1994Wyatt EarpNicholas Earp1995The Quick and the DeadJohn HerodCrimson Tide Capt. Frank RamseyGet ShortyHarry Zimm1996The BirdcageSenator Kevin KeeleyExtreme MeasuresDr. Lawrence MyrickThe ChamberSam Cayhall1997Absolute Power President Allen Richmond1998TwilightJack AmesEnemy of the StateBrillAntzGeneral Mandible2000Under SuspicionHenry HearstThe ReplacementsJimmy McGinty2001HeartbreakersWilliam B. TensyHeistJoe MooreThe MexicanArnold Margolese (uncredited)The Royal TenenbaumsRoyal TenenbaumGolden GlobeBehind Enemy LinesAdmiral Leslie McMahon Reigart2003Runaway JuryRankin Fitch2004Welcome to MooseportMonroe Cole2006''Superman II: The Richard Donner CutLex Luthor References External links

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Grimoire

This design for an amulet comes from the Black Pullet grimoire. According to the instructions you should embroider it upon black satin and say "Nades, Suradis, Maniner", and a djinn will appear; tell the djinn "Sader, Prostas, Solaster", and the djinn will bring you your true love. Say "Mammes, Laher" when you tire of her. A grimoire () is a textbook of magic. Books of this genre, typically giving instructions for invoking angels or demons, performing divination and gaining magical powers, have circulated throughout Europe since the Middle Ages. Magicians were frequently persecuted by the Church, so their journals were kept hidden to prevent them from being burned. Such books contain astrological correspondences, lists of angels and demons, directions on casting charms and spells, mixing medicines, summoning unearthly entities, and making talismans. Magical books in almost any context, especially books of magical spells, are also called grimoires. Origin of the term The word grimoire is from the Old French grammaire, and is from the Greek root "grammatikos", “relating to letters”, from which grammar, a system for language, and glamour, influential appeal, are derived. In the mid-late Middle Ages, Latin "grammars" (books on Latin syntax and diction) were foundational to school and university education, as controlled by the Church—while to the illiterate majority, non-ecclesiastical books were suspect as magic, or believed to be endowed with supernatural influence. The word "grimoire" came over time to apply specifically to those books which did indeed deal with magic and the supernatural. Similar magical writings have existed from antiquity, and although these are not in the same genre of medieval magic, they are sometimes described as grimoires. Medieval and Renaissance The first grimoires appear in the High Middle Ages, growing out of earlier traditions, notably of medieval Jewish mysticism, which continued traditions dating back to Late Antiquity. Thus, the 13th century Sefer Raziel Ha-Malakh is significantly based on the Sefer Ha-Razim (ca. 4th or 5th century), which is in turn influenced by Hellenistic Greek magical papyri. Notable 13th to 17th century grimoires include: The Secret Grimoire of Turiel (16th century) The Picatrix, or, Ghâyat al-Hakîm fi'l-sihr; also known as The Aim of the Sage (13th century) Liber Iuratus, or, the Sworn Book of Honorius (13th century) Sefer Raziel Ha-Malakh Liber Razielis Archangeli (13th century) The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage (1450s) The so-called Munich Handbook (15th century) Libri tres de occulta philosophia by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1531) The Greater Key of Solomon (16th century) Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (16th century) The Lemegeton, or, the Lesser Key of Solomon (17th century) The Voynich manuscript has never been deciphered, and is difficult to date, but may also qualify as a 15th century grimoire. 18th to 19th century The Black Pullet (18th century) Le Grand Grimoire (19th century, allegedly 1522) Grimoirium Verum (18th century) Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses (1700s - 1849) In the late 19th century, several of these texts (including the Abra-Melin text and the Key of Solomon) were reclaimed by para-Masonic magical organizations such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Ordo Templi Orientis. Many false or poorly translated grimoires have been circulated since the 19th century (many original texts are in French or Latin, and are quite rare); however, faithful editions are available for most of the above titles. 20th century to present A modern grimoire is the Simon Necronomicon, named after a fictional book of magic in the stories of author H. P. Lovecraft, and inspired by Babylonian mythology and the Ars Goetia, a section in the Lesser Key of Solomon which concerns the summoning of demons. The Azoëtia of Andrew D. Chumbley has been described as a modern grimoire. Semple, Gavin (1994) 'The Azoëtia - reviewed by Gavin Semple', Starfire Vol. I, No. 2, 1994, p. 194. The Neopagan religion of Wicca publicly appeared in the 1940s, and Gerald Gardner introduced the Book of Shadows as a Wiccan Grimoire. Popular culture The term "grimoire" commonly serves as an alternative name for a spell-book or tome of magical knowledge in such genres as fantasy fiction. The most famous fictional grimoire is the Necronomicon, a creation of the author H. P. Lovecraft. It was first referenced in his story "The Hound" and subsequently made appearances in many of his stories. Other authors such as August Derleth and Clark Ashton Smith have also cited it in their works with Lovecraft's approval. Many readers and others have believed it to be a real work, with booksellers and librarians receiving many requests for the fictional tome. Pranksters have even listed it in rare book catalogues, including one who surreptitiously slipped an entry into the Yale University Library card catalog. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers, pp. 100–1. ISBN 0-87054-076-9. Several authors have also published books titled Necronomicon, though none have been endorsed by Lovecraft himself. In the hit musical and bestselling book Wicked by Gregory Maguire, Elphaba (The Wicked Witch Of The West) came to owning a "Grimmerie", which held spells. Grimoires are a common item in video games with a magical element. References External links Internet Sacred Text Archives: Grimoires Hermetics Library of Magical & Mystical E-Books Magical Athenaeum - a collection of magical PDF files Timeline of esoterica

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Jerusalem

Jerusalem ( , ; Arabic: , ) is the capital of Israel and its largest city Largest city: "...modern Jerusalem, Israel's largest city..." (Erlanger, Steven. Jerusalem, Now, The New York Times, April 16, 2006.) "Jerusalem is Israel's largest city." ("Israel (country)", Microsoft Encarta, 2006, p. 3. Retrieved October 18, 2006.) "Since 1975 unified Jerusalem has been the largest city in Israel." ("Jerusalem", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2006.) "Jerusalem is the largest city in the State of Israel. It has the largest population, the most Jews and the most non-Jews of all Israeli cities." (Klein, Menachem. Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City, New York University Press, March 1, 2001, p. 18. ISBN 0-8147-4754-X) "In 1967, Tel Aviv was the largest city in Israel. By 1987, more Jews lived in Jerusalem than the total population of Tel Aviv. Jerusalem had become Israel's premier city." (Friedland, Roger and Hecht, Richard. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, September 19, 2000, p. 192. ISBN 0-520-22092-7) in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if disputed East Jerusalem is included. Located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern tip of the Dead Sea, modern Jerusalem has grown beyond the boundaries of the Old City. The city has a history that goes back to the 4th millennium BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in the world. Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the spiritual center of the Jewish people since the 10th century BCE, Since the 10th century BCE: "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 0-520-22092-7 "The Jewish bond to Jerusalem was never broken. For three millennia, Jerusalem has been the center of the Jewish faith, retaining its symbolic value throughout the generations." Jerusalem- the Holy City, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, February 23, 2003. Accessed March 24, 2007. "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 0-8146-5081-3 "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 0-02-864410-7 "For Jews the city has been the pre-eminent focus of their spiritual, cultural, and national life throughout three millennia." Yossi Feintuch, U.S. Policy on Jerusalem, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987, p. 1. ISBN 0-313-25700-0 "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction - And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 90-411-8843-6 "The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation." Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem, Anti-Defamation League, 2007. Retrieved March 28, 2007. contains a number of significant ancient Christian sites, and is considered the third-holiest city in Islam. Third-holiest city in Islam: Despite having an area of only 0.9 square kilometer (0.35 square mile), the Old City is home to sites of key religious importance, among them the Temple Mount, the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque. The old walled city, a World Heritage site, has been traditionally divided into four quarters, although the names used today — the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters — were introduced in the early 19th century. The Old City was nominated for inclusion on the List of World Heritage Sites in danger by Jordan in 1982. Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls In the course of its history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times. . According to Eric H. Cline’s tally in Jerusalem Besieged. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel's annexation of East Jerusalem has been repeatedly condemned by the United Nations and related bodies, Resolution 298 of 25 September 1971: "Recalling its resolutions [...] concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem, [...]" and Arab Palestinians foresee East Jerusalem as the capital of their future state. In the wake of United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (passed in 1980), most foreign embassies moved out of Jerusalem, although some countries, such as the United States, still own land in the city and pledge to return their embassies once political agreements warrant the move. Etymology The Semitic root of the name was sometimes thought to be "s-l-m" meaning peace, harmony or completeness. A city called Rušalimum or Urušalimum appears in ancient Egyptian records as one of the first reference to Jerusalem. G.Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr.David E.Green) William B.Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p.348 These Egyptian forms are thought to derive from the local name attested in the Amarna letters, eg in EA 287 (where it takes several forms) Urusalim. EA287 Abdi Hiba of Jerusalem to the king, No. 3 The El Amarna Letters from Canaan The form Yerushalayim (Jerusalem) first appears in the book of Joshua. This form has the appearance of a portmanteau of yerusha (heritage) and the original name Shalem and is not a simple phonetic evolution of the form in the Amarna letters.Some believe there is a connection to Shalim, the beneficent deity known from Ugaritic myths as the personification of dusk. Typically the ending -im indicates the plural in Hebrew grammar and -ayim the dual thus leading to the suggestion that the name refers to the fact that the city sits on two hills. (see here ) However the pronunciation of the last syllable as -ayim appears to be a late development, which had not yet appeared at the time of the Septuagint. The Greeks added the prefix hiero ("holy") and called it Hierosolyma. To the Arabs, Jerusalem is al-Quds ("The Holy"). "Zion" initially referred to part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole. Under King David, it was known as Ir David (the City of David). History Ceramic evidence indicates the occupation of Ophel, within present-day Jerusalem, as far back as the Copper Age, c. 4th millennium BCE, with evidence of a permanent settlement during the early Bronze Age, c. 3000-2800 BCE. Killebrew Ann E. "Biblical Jerusalem: An Archaeological Assessment" in Andrew G. Vaughn and Ann E. Killebrew, eds., "Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period" (SBL Symposium Series 18; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003) The Execration Texts (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called Roshlamem or Rosh-ramen and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BCE) may be the earliest mention of the city. Some archaeologists, including Kathleen Kenyon, believe Jerusalem the original name URU URU salem KI in Akkadian, found listed in the Amarna letters when it was still a fortified well of the Egyptians and ruled by Abi Heba meant city of peace as a city was founded by West Semitic people with organized settlements from around 2600 BCE. According to Jewish tradition the city was founded by Shem and Eber, ancestors of Abraham. In the biblical account, when first mentioned, Jerusalem is ruled by Melchizedek, an ally of Abraham (identified with Shem in legend). Later, in the time of Joshua, Jerusalem was in territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin () but it continued to be under the independent control of the Jebusites until it was conquered by David and made into the capital of the united Kingdom of Israel (c. 1000s BCE). Recent excavations of a large stone structure are interpreted by some archaeologists as lending credence to the biblical narrative. Temple periods According to Hebrew scripture, King David reigned until 970 BCE. He was succeeded by his son Solomon, who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish history as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant. For over 450 years, until the Babylonian conquest in 587 BCE, Jerusalem was the political capital of firstly the united Kingdom of Israel and then the Kingdom of Judah and the Temple was the religious center of the Israelites. Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 11 This period is known in history as the First Temple Period. Upon Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the ten northern tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Under the leadership of the House of David and Solomon, Jerusalem remained the capital of the Kingdom of Judah. When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple. In 538 BCE, after fifty years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews to return to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple. Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship. When Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized polis came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias the High Priest and his five sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem again as its capital. Jewish-Roman wars As Rome became stronger it installed Herod as a Jewish client king. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size. In 6 CE, the city, as well as much of the surrounding area, came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province and Herod's descendants through Agrippa II remained client kings of Judea until 96 CE. Roman rule over Jerusalem and the region began to be challenged with the First Jewish–Roman War, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Jerusalem once again served as the capital of Judea during the three-year rebellion known as the Bar Kochba revolt, beginning in 132 CE. The Romans succeeded in suppressing the revolt in 135 CE. Emperor Hadrian romanized the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina. , and banned the Jews from entering it. Hadrian renamed the entire Iudaea Province Syria Palaestina after the biblical Philistines in an attempt to de-Judaize the country. Enforcement of the ban on Jews entering Aelia Capitolina continued until the 4th century CE. In the five centuries following the Bar Kokhba revolt, the city remained under Roman then Byzantine rule. During the 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine I constructed Christian sites in Jerusalem such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period: The city covered two square kilometers (0.8 sq mi.) and had a population of 200,000 From the days of Constantine until the 7th century, Jews were banned from Jerusalem. Roman-Persian wars Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Roman to Persian rule and returned to Roman dominion once more. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early seventh century push into Byzantine, advancing through Syria, Sassanid Generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked the Byzantine-controlled city of Jerusalem (). In the Siege of Jerusalem (614), after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured and the Persian victory resulted in the territorial annexation of Jerusalem. After the Sassanid army entered Jerusalem, the holy "True Cross" was stolen and sent back to the Sassanian capital as a battle-captured holy relic. Persians massacred up to 90,000 Christians. Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614, Jewish Social Studies The conquered city and the Holy Cross would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered them in 629. Arab rule Jerusalem is considered Islam's third holiest city after Mecca and Medina. Among Muslims of an earlier era, it was referred to as al-Bayt al-Muqaddas; later, it became known as al-Quds al-Sharif. In 638, the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 7 With the Arab conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city. The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Monophysite Christian Patriarch Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule. Umar was led to the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, which he cleared of refuse in preparation for building a mosque. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679-688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodated 3,000 worshipers. The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock in the late 7th century. The 10th century historian al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur of Jerusalem's monumental churches. Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control. Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk period In 1099, Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders, who massacred most of its Muslim inhabitants and the remnants of the Jewish inhabitants; the Crusaders later expelled the native Christian population and created the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By early June 1099 Jerusalem’s population had declined from 70,000 to less than 30,000. According to Benjamin of Tudela, Two hundred Jews were in the city in 1173. In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city. In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Kharezmian Tartars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews. Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 25 The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Egyptians in 1247. From 1250-1517, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks, during this period of time many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side and the crusaders and the Mongols on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague. Ottoman era In 1517, Jerusalem and environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917. Jerusalem enjoyed a period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent - including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important center, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo. Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989 However, the Muslim Turks brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates; the use of the wheel for modes of transportation; stagecoach and carriage, the wheelbarrow and the cart; and the oil-lantern, among the first signs of modernization in the city. The Jerusalem Mosaic, Hebrew University, 2002 In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city. With the annexation of Jerusalem by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, Ibrahim Pasha allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the Hurva. Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 37 In the 1834 Arab revolt in Palestine, Qasim al-Ahmad led his forces from Nablus and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Abu Ghosh clan, entered the city on May 31, 1834. The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks. Ibrahim's Egyptian army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month. 1834 Palestinian Arab Revolt Joel Beinin (2001) Workers and peasants in the modern Middle East Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62903-9 p 33 Beshara, Doumani. (1995). Rediscovering Palestine: Egyptian rule, 1831-1840 University of California Press. Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840, but many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from Algiers and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers. In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the country's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem. Encyclopedia Judaica, Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp.304-306 According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans. The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time. Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p.35 In the 1860s, new neighborhoods began to develop outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The Russian Compound and Mishkenot Sha'ananim were founded in 1860. In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000. With 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims. Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims. Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches - notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...' British Mandate and 1948 War In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city, and in 1922, the League of Nations at the Conference of Lausanne entrusted the United Kingdom to administer the Mandate for Palestine. From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000 with two thirds of Jews and one-third of Arabs (Muslims and Christians). Chart of the population of Jerusalem The situation between Arabs and Jews in Palestine was not quiet. At Jerusalem, in particular riots occurred in 1920 and in 1929. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city and institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University were founded. As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a corpus separatum under the administration of the United Nations." The international regime (which also included the city of Bethlehem) was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents were to decide the future regime of their city. However, this plan was not implemented, as the 1948 war erupted, while the British withdrew from Palestine and Israel declared its independence. The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May. Benny Morris, 1948 (2008), pp.218-219. Mordechai Weingarten Residents of many Arab villages and neighborhoods west of the Old City left with the approach of the war, but thousands remained and were driven out or killed, as at Lifta or Deir Yassin. Krystall, Nathan. “The De-Arabization of West Jerusalem 1947-50”, Journal of Palestine Studies (27), Winter 1998 Morris Benny, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949, Revisited, Cambridge, 2004 Al-Khalidi, Walid (ed.), All that remains: the Palestinian villages occupied and depopulated by Israel in 1948, (Washington DC: 1992),"Lifta", pp. 300-303 Division and reunification The no-man's land between East and West Jerusalem came into being in November 1948: Moshe Dayan, commander of the Israeli forces in Jerusalem, met with his Jordanian counterpart Abdullah a-Tal in a deserted house in Jerusalem’s Musrara neighborhood and marked out their respective positions: Israel’s position in red and Jordan's in green. This rough map, which was not meant as a an official one, became the final ceasefire line in the 1949 Armistice Agreements, which divided the city and left Mount Scopus as an Israeli exclave. No Man's Land Barbed wire and concrete barriers ran down the center of the city and military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire. After the establishment of the State of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital. Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law. Only the United Kingdom and Pakistan formally recognized such annexation, which, in regard to Jerusalem, was on a de facto basis. Announcement in the UK House of Commons of the recognition of the State of Israel and also of the annexation of the West Bank by the State of Jordan. Commons Debates (Hansard) 5th series, Vol 474, pp1137-1141. April 27, 1950. scan (PDF) Also, it is dubious if Pakistan recognized Jordan's annexation. S. R. Silverburg, Pakistan and the West Bank: A research note, Middle Eastern Studies, 19:2 (1983) 261-263. Jordan assumed control of the holy places in the Old City. Contrary to the terms of the agreement, Israelis were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were desecrated, and only allowed very limited access to Christian holy sites. Martin Gilbert, "Jerusalem: A Tale of One City", The New Republic, Nov. 14, 1994 During this period, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations. During the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured East Jerusalem and asserted sovereignty over the entire city. Jewish and Christian access to holy sites was restored, while the Temple Mount remained under the jurisdiction of an Islamic waqf. The Moroccan Quarter, which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was vacated and razed Rashid Khalidi, "The Future of Arab Jerusalem" British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2 (1992), pp. 133-143 to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall. Since the war, Israel has expanded the city's boundaries and established a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods on vacant land east of the Green Line. However, the takeover of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. Following the passing of Israel's Jerusalem Law, which declared Jerusalem, "complete and united", the capital of Israel, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution that declared the law "a violation of international law" and requested all member states to withdraw all remaining embassies from the city. The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Jewish settlers have taken over historic sites and built on land confiscated from Arabs "Jewish Inroads in Muslim Quarter: Settlers' Project to Alter Skyline of Jerusalem's Old City" The Washington Post Foreign Service, February 11, 2007; Page A01 in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, James Hider."Settlers dig tunnels around Jerusalem"; The Times Online, March 1, 2008 while prominent Islamic leaders have insisted that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem. Palestinian Arabs envision East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state, and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. Geography Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,500 ft). The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem. The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell. The Tyropoeon valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the center of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus). Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries. In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region thus built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape. Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city. "The Water Supply of Jerusalem, Ancient and Modern", E. W. G. Masterman, The Biblical World, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb 1902), pp. 87-112, University of Chicago Press Jerusalem is east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighboring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north. (Image located here ) (See map 9 for Jerusalem) (Image located here ) Climate The city is characterized by a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers, and cool, rainy winters. Light snow usually falls once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years on the average. January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 8 °C (46 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 23 °C (73 °F). Temperatures vary widely from day to night, and Jerusalem evenings are typically cool even in summer. The average annual precipitation is close to 590 millimetres (23 in) with rain occurring mostly between October and May. Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic. Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city. Demographics In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—64% were Jewish, 32% Muslim, and 2% Christian. At the end of 2005, the population density was . According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Palestinian birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews. "Arab population growth outpaces Jews in Jerusalem" Reuters, September 26, 2000 In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former Soviet Union. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in. Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in the Arab and Haredi Jewish communities. Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people. In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%) — similar to Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%. This would seem to corroborate the observation that the percentage of Jews in Jerusalem has declined over the past four decades. In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent. Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city. Many people are moving to the suburbs and coastal cities in search of cheaper housing and a more secular lifestyle. In 2009, the percentage of Haredim in the city is strongly increasing. As of 2009, out of 150,100 schoolchildren, 59,900 or 40% are in state-run secular and National Religious schools, while 90,200 or 60% are in Haredi schools. This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families. While many Israelis see Jerusalem as poor, rundown and riddled with religious and political tension, the city has been a magnet for Palestinians, offering more jobs and opportunity than any city in the West Bank or Gaza Strip. Palestinian officials have encouraged Arabs over the years to stay in the city to maintain their claim. Palestinians are attracted to the access to jobs, healthcare, social security, other benefits, and quality of life Israel provides to Jerusalem residents. Arab residents of Jerusalem who choose not to have Israeli citizenship are granted an Israeli identity card that allows them to pass through checkpoints with relative ease and to travel throughout Israel, making it easier to find work. Residents also are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides its citizens. Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighborhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Center are available to residents. Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority proposed expanding city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews. Criticism of urban planning Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Israel say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction. Allison Hodgkins, "The Judaization of Jerusalem - Israeli Policies Since 1967"; PASSIA publication No. 96, December 1996, (English, Pp. 88) According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighborhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Palestinians in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process. In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological park in the Palestinian neighborhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City), Meron Rapoport.Land lords; Haaretz, January 20, 2005 and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square). Esther Zandberg."The architectural conspiracy of silence"; Haaretz, Februrary 24, 2007 The Israeli government has also expropriated Palestinian land for the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier. "Movement and Access Restrictions in the West Bank: Uncertainty and Inefficiency"; World Bank Technical Team, May 9, 2007 Opponents view such urban planning moves as geared towards the Judaization of Jerusalem. Allison Hodgkins. "The Judaization of Jerusalem - Israeli Policies Since 1967"; PASSIA publication No. 96, December 1996, (English, Pp. 88) Meron Rapaport. "Group 'Judaizing' East Jerusalem accused of withholding donation sources"; Haaretz, November 22, 2007 Rothchild, Alice. "The Judaization of East Jerusalem"; CommonDreams, November 26, 2007 Local government The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints six deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003. In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat came out as the winner and is now the mayor. Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent twenty-eight years — six consecutive terms — in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public. Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats. The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The new municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993. The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital. Political status On December 5, 1949, the State of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's capital and since then all branches of the Israeli government — legislative, judicial, and executive — have resided there. At the time of the proclamation, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and thus only West Jerusalem was considered Israel's capital. Immediately after the 1967 Six-Day War, however, Israel annexed East Jerusalem, making it a de facto part of the Israeli capital. Israel enshrined the status of the "complete and united" Jerusalem — west and east — as its capital, in the 1980 Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel. The status of a "united Jerusalem" as Israel's "eternal capital" has been a matter of immense controversy within the international community. Although some countries maintain consulates in Jerusalem, all embassies are located outside of the city proper, mostly in Tel Aviv. The non-binding United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, passed on August 20, 1980, declared that the Basic Law was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith." Member states were advised to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure. Most of the remaining countries with embassies in Jerusalem complied with the resolution by relocating them to Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Currently there are no embassies located within the city limits of Jerusalem, although there are embassies in Mevaseret Zion, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, and four consulates in the city itself. In 1995, the United States Congress had planned to move its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem with the passage of the Jerusalem Embassy Act. However, U.S. President George W. Bush has argued that Congressional resolutions regarding the status of Jerusalem are merely advisory. The Constitution reserves foreign relations as an executive power, and as such, the United States embassy is still in Tel Aviv. Israel's most prominent governmental institutions, including the Knesset, the Supreme Court, and the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, are located in Jerusalem. Prior to the creation of the State of Israel, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of the British Mandate, which included present-day Israel and Jordan. Jerusalem as administrative capital of the British Mandate: Ruth Kark is a professor in the Department of Geography at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city, despite the reality on the ground created in 1948 when Jordan annexed the Old City as part of its attempt to destroy the fledgling Israeli state. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On June 27, 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments. In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse. The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian National Authority, which regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state. Religious significance Jerusalem plays an important role in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city. Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE. Jerusalem was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple. It is mentioned in the Bible 632 times. Today, the Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is a Jewish holy site second only to the Holy of Holies on the Temple Mount itself. Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem, and Arks within Jerusalem face the "Holy of Holies". As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer. The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in the Orach Chayim section of Shulchan Aruch (94:1) — "When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies." Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its Old Testament history but also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth From the King James Version of the Bible: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" (Luke 2:22) and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple. From the King James Version of the Bible: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" (Mark 11:15) The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David. Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem, From the King James Version of the Bible: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." (John 19:20) but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city. The land currently occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years. Jerusalem is considered the third-holiest city in Islam. For approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kabaa in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem. The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night of Ascension (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam. (from an English translation of Sahih Bukhari, Volume IX, Book 93, Number 608) The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque, From Abdullah Yusuf Ali's English translation of the Qur'an: "Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things)." (17:1) in reference to the location in Jerusalem. Today, the Temple Mount is topped by two Islamic landmarks intended to commemorate the event — al-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an, and the Dome of the Rock, which stands over the Foundation Stone, from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Heaven. Culture Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists. The 20 acre museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-twentieth century in the Qumran caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book. The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education program, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden, and a scale-model of the Second Temple was recently moved from the Holyland Hotel to a new location on the museum grounds. The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate. The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny kohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns. Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information, with an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust and an art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished. Yad Vashem also commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honors the Righteous among the Nations. The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s, has appeared around the world. Other arts facilities include the International Convention Center (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city, where the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra plays, the Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Center (formerly Beit Ha'am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Center in Yemin Moshe, and the Targ Music Center in Ein Kerem. The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays and street theater, has been held annually since 1961; for the past 25 years, Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The Jerusalem Theater in the Talbiya neighborhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theater and dance companies and performing artists from overseas. The Khan, located in a caravansarai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only repertoire theater. The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years, as the site of Shav'ua Hasefer, an annual week-long book fair, and outdoor music performances. The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films. The Palestinian National Theatre, for many years the only Arab cultural center in East Jerusalem, engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to upgrade and rekindle interest in the arts at the national level. The Ticho House, in downtown Jerusalem, houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912. Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art. A Tolerance Monument sculpted by Czesław Dźwigaj in collaboration with Michal Kubiak is situated on a hill marking the divide between Jewish Armon Hanatziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber, standing opposite the United Nations headquarters in Jerusalem in a park near Goldman Promenade. Unveiled in Jerusalem in 2008, it was funded by Polish businessman Aleksander Gudzowaty as a symbol to promote peace in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. . Economy Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was located far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza. Jerusalem's religious landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City, but in the past half-century it has become increasingly clear that Jerusalem's providence cannot solely be sustained by its religious significance. Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967 East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labor force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older — lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%). Poverty in the city has increased dramatically in recent years; between 2001 and 2007, the number of people below the poverty threshold increased by forty percent. In 2006, the average monthly income for a worker in Jerusalem was NIS5,940 (US$1,410), NIS1,350 less than that for a worker in Tel Aviv. During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city. Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure." By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high. Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%). Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%). Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial center, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006. Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park is home to some of Israel's major corporations, among them Intel, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, and ECI Telecom. Expansion plans for the park envision one hundred businesses, a fire station, and a school, covering an area of 530,000 m² (130 acres). Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centered in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups. Transportation The airport nearest to Jerusalem is Atarot Airport, which was used for domestic flights until its closure in 2001. Since then it has been under the control of the Israel Defense Forces due to disturbances in Ramallah and the West Bank. All air traffic from Atarot was rerouted to Ben Gurion International Airport, Israel's largest and busiest airport, which serves nine million passengers annually. Egged Bus Cooperative, the second-largest bus company in the world, handles most of the local and intercity bus service out of the city's Central Bus Station on Jaffa Road near the western entrance to Jerusalem from highway 1. As of 2008, Egged buses, taxicabs and private cars are the only transportation options in Jerusalem. This is expected to change with the completion of the Jerusalem Light Rail, a new rail-based transit system currently under construction. According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and will have 24 stops. It is scheduled for completion in 2010. Another work in progress is a new high-speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, which is scheduled to be completed in 2011. Its terminus will be an underground station (80 m deep) serving the International Convention Center and the Central Bus Station, and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station. Israel Railways operates train services to Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh. Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north-south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the center of the city near the Green Line between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35-kilometer (22-mile) ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs. The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed. Education Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in Hebrew, Arabic and English. Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world. The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud. The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko, David Gross, and Daniel Kahneman. One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books. The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel. The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital. Al-Quds University was established in 1984 to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples. It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem". Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a campus encompassing 190,000 square metres (47 acres). Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance Official site of the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance: (Hebrew), (English) and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, Official site of Bezalel Academy of Art and Design: (Hebrew), (English) whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University. The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies program. It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and Yeshivot are based in the city, with the Mir yeshiva claiming to be the largest. There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year. However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests. To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem. Schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of Israel have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students. While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is currently building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighborhoods. Bridging the gap Schools in Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison opened in 2008. In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a 5-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project. In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools in Arab East Jerusalem. Arab high school students take the Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects. Sports The two most popular sports are soccer and basketball. Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well-known in Israel. Fans include political figures who often attend its games. Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Katamon F.C. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion five times, (The listing of championship wins are located on the left side.) Hapoel has only won the Cup once. Also, Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the third division national league. In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem plays in the top division. The club has won the State Cup three times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004. (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.) Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Kollek Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 21,000. The Jerusalem Half Marathon is an annual event in which runners from all over the world compete on a course that takes in some of the city's most famous sights. In addition to the 21.1 km (13.1 miles) Half Marathon, runners can also opt for the shorter 10 km (6.2 miles) Fun Run. Both runs start and finish at the stadium in Givat Ram. Jerusalem Half Marathon official website Events site Half Marathon and Fun Run summary See also International Day of Quds List of places in Jerusalem Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day) Sister cities New York City, United States (since 1993) Endnotes i.  The website for Jerusalem is available in three languages — Hebrew, English, and Arabic.ii.  Jerusalem in other languages: Arabic Bibles use أورشليم Ûrshalîm (Ûrushalîm); official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, Ûrshalîm-al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names)iii.  Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are located there. The Palestinian Authority foresees East Jerusalem as the capital of its future state. The United Nations and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv (see CIA Factbook and ) See Positions on Jerusalem for more information.iv.  Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier, but their legal statuses have not been reverted.v.  ^ Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation. vi.  Sources disagree on the timing of the creation of the Pact of Umar (Omar). Whereas some say the Pact originated during Umar's lifetime but was later expanded, others say the Pact was created after his death and retroactively attributed to him. Further still, other historians believe the ideas in the Pact pre-date Islam and Umar entirely. References Other resources Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem Harvard University Press Cline, Eric (2004) Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press ISBN 0-472-11313-5. Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). O Jerusalem! Simon and Shuster, N.Y. ISBN 0-671-66241-4 Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7 Köchler, Hans (1981) The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem Vienna: Braumüller ISBN 3-7003-0278-9 The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006 Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1 External links Official website of Jerusalem Jerusalemp3, offers free virtual tours in mp3 format from the Jerusalem Municipality Jerusalem.com Government , United Nations document related to the recent dispute over Jerusalem Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel, Government of Israel, the Israeli law making Jerusalem the capital of Israel Culture Israel Museum, one of Jerusalem's premier art museums Yad Vashem, Israeli memorial to victims of The Holocaust Jerusalem.com Discover Jerusalem Education Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem's foremost institution of higher learning al-Quds University, "the only Arab university in Jerusalem" Maps Modern-day map of Jerusalem, from the Jerusalem Municipality Ancient Maps of Jerusalem, from the Jewish National Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Modern maps, post-1947 from PASSIA nan:Iâ-lō͘-sat-léng be-x-old:Ерусалім

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Kim_Philby

Harold Adrian Russell "Kim" Philby or H.A.R. Philby (OBE: 1946-1965), (1 January 1912 – 11 May 1988) was a high-ranking member of British intelligence. A socialist, he served as an NKVD and KGB operative. In 1963, Philby was revealed as a member of the spy ring now known as the Cambridge Five, along with Donald Maclean, Guy Burgess, Anthony Blunt and John Cairncross. Of the five, Philby is believed to have been most successful in providing classified information to the Soviet Union. His activities were moderated only by Stalin's paranoia that Philby was a triple agent. Early life Born in Ambala, Punjab, India, Philby was the son of Harry St. John Philby, a British Army officer, diplomat, explorer, author, and Orientalist who converted to Islam and was advisor to King Ibn Sa'ud of Saudi Arabia. He was nicknamed after the protagonist in Rudyard Kipling's novel Kim about a young Irish Indian boy who spies for the British in India during the 19th century. He was educated at Aldro prep school and Westminster School which he left in 1928 at the age of 16. Philby studied history and economics at Trinity College, Cambridge where he was introduced to and became an admirer of Communism. He graduated in 1933 with an upper second class degree in economics. Treason in the Blood: H. St. John Philby, Kim Philby, and the Spy Case of the Century, by Anthony Cave Brown, Little, Brown publishers, Boston 1994. It has been suggested that his father, while not a spy himself, was opposed to the British establishment and was thus Kim Philby's inspiration and probable mentor. Treason in the Blood: H. St. John Philby, Kim Philby, and the Spy Case of the Century, by Anthony Cave Brown, Little, Brown publishers, Boston 1994</ref> The elder Philby died in 1960. Philby asked one of his tutors, Maurice Dobb, how he could serve the Communist movement. Dobb referred him to a Communist front organisation which in turn passed Philby to the Comintern underground in Vienna, Austria. The front organisation was the World Federation for the Relief of the Victims of German Fascism in Paris. The World Federation was one of innumerable fronts operated by the German Communist Willi Münzenberg, who was a leading Soviet agent in the West. Espionage activities The Soviet intelligence service itself (then the OGPU) recruited Philby on the strength of his work for the Comintern. His case officers included Arnold Deutsch (codename OTTO), Theodore Maly (codename MAN), and Alexander Orlov (codename SWEDE). All of them were to suffer under Stalin's purges. In 1933, Kim Philby went to Vienna to aid refugees who were fleeing Nazi Germany. There he met Litzi Friedman, a Jewish Communist with whom he entered into a marriage of convenience, bringing her to Britain in order to save her from persecution in Austria. The marriage did not outlast the Spanish Civil War. In 1936, as ordered by Moscow, Philby began cultivating a pro-fascist persona, joining the Anglo-German Fellowship and editing its pro-Hitler magazine. Spain On 3 February 1937 Philby traveled to Seville, Spain via Lisbon with Litzi Friedman, who was to remain in Portugal as an emergency communication link until Philby reached Seville, where he began work as a freelance journalist and a Soviet agent, ordered to report on the security arrangements at Francisco Franco's headquarters. He was arrested as a suspicious alien while attending a bullfight at Córdoba, but was merely warned about unauthorized traveling and sent back to Seville. He had disposed of his codebook before it was discovered and requested a new one, which was delivered to him by Guy Burgess at a meeting in Gibraltar. Philby passed his report on Franco's headquarters to Burgess who relayed it to London, and shortly afterwards Philby was ordered back to London to meet with Deutsch and Maly. Reportedly, it had been intended that Philby assassinate Franco, but Maly reported to Moscow that while Philby was a loyal and willing agent he lacked the necessary courage to carry out the mission and instead proposed that he develop his career as a news correspondent. On 24 May 1937 he was appointed by The Times as the paper's accredited special correspondent with the Nationalist forces under Francisco Franco, with a generous expense account of £50 a month. Among Philby's espionage duties for the Soviets was the writing of spurious love letters interlaced with codewords, and addressed to a fictitious girl in Paris who lived at 78 Rue de Grenelle. Years later he discovered, to his fury, that this was in fact the address of the Soviet Embassy in Paris, and the possibility had existed that he could have easily been found out. In December 1937, near the Spanish town of Teruel, a shell hit just in front of the car in which Philby was traveling with the correspondents Edward J. (Eddie) Neil of the Associated Press, Bradish Johnson of Newsweek, and Ernest Sheepshanks Cricinfo Player Profile of Ernest Sheepshanks retrieved 27 November 2008 of Reuters. Johnson was killed outright, and Neil and Sheepshanks soon died of their wounds, but Philby suffered only a minor head wound. Philby's reports were so favorable to the Nationalist cause that he was personally awarded the Red Cross of Military Merit by Franco on March 2, 1938. World War II In 1940, Philby applied on Burgess' advice for a vacancy in Section D of SIS (later MI6), which had been set up in 1938, and subsequently met with War Office intermediary Marjorie Maxse, who assessed him as a suitable candidate. He then met with Maxse a few days later, Maxse being accompanied by Burgess who had volunteered to verify her assessment of Philby's suitability. Eventually the editor of The Times received a phone call asking whether Philby was available for war work and he was hired as a British intelligence officer. When Section D was absorbed by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) in the summer of 1940 (and Burgess was fired for "irreverence" ), Philby was appointed as an instructor in the arts of "black propaganda" at the SOE's training establishment in Beaulieu, Hampshire. Duff, p. 7 In September 1941 Philby began working for Section V, the Iberian Section, in charge of Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, and Africa. He soon became friends with the chief archivist and thereby gained access to files on Spain and Portugal, and was able to pass on to his Soviet controller information on SIS operations against Soviet targets. During 1942-43 Philby's responsibilities were expanded to include North Africa and Italy and he was made the deputy head of Section V by its head, Felix Cowgill, "in all intelligence matters". In early 1944 SIS re-established Section IX, its prewar anti-Soviet section. Cowgill, who had previously headed, was placed in charge. In late 1944 it became known that "C", Sir Stewart Menzies, wanted to enlarge the section's mandate, Philby was instructed by his Soviet superiors to ensure that he became head of the section and eventually he managed to undermine Cowgill and accomplish this. Richelson, p. 136 As a Soviet agent, Philby had accomplished something of a coup. During the two years he spent as head of Section IX, Philby had access to the identities of British intelligence officers and agents, and also to hundreds of classified documents from the Foreign Office, the War Office, and the Admiralty. All went well for Philby until August, 1945, when Konstantin Volkov, an officer of the NKVD (later KGB) decided to defect to Britain with the promise that he would reveal the names of Soviet agents in SIS and the Foreign Office. When the report reached Philby's desk, with a bit of luck and clever scheming, he managed to get the assignment. He tipped off Moscow and then flew to Istanbul by way of Cairo. With the plane being delayed by storms, the ambassador being on his yacht in the Bosporus, the Russians had time to whisk Volkov off to Moscow and Philby returned to London after a close call. Istanbul After the war, Philby was sent as Head of Station to Istanbul under the cover of First Secretary to the British Embassy. While there, he received a visit from Guy Burgess. File KV 5/36 (1946) MI5 | Files of Jewish interest of British Military Intelligence contains the warning from Kim Philby to the Security Service of 9 July 1946 warning of possible Irgun attacks against the British legation in Beirut, just before the attack on the King David Hotel in Jerusalem. The File also includes discussion on the conflicting claims as to whether or not a warning was given. Washington, D.C. In 1949, Philby's next — and last — assignment was as First Secretary to the British Embassy in Washington, where he acted as liaison between the British Embassy and the newly formed CIA. His luck ran out, however. First came the discovery of the cryptonym HOMER (Donald Maclean) in the VENONA decrypts — a "jigsaw puzzle" of decrypts, decoded piecemeal because a Soviet code clerk had used a one-time pad twice; then came another visit from Guy Burgess who ensconced himself in the Philby household for a year and proceeded to behave inappropriately. Burgess was declared persona non grata, as was Philby soon after. In January 1949, the British Government was informed that Venona project intercepts showed that nuclear secrets were passed to the Soviet Union from the British Embassy in Washington in 1944 and 1945 by an agent code-named 'Homer'. In 1950, Philby was asked to help track down this agent. Knowing from the start that 'Homer' was his old university friend, Second Secretary Donald Maclean, Philby warned Maclean in 1951, leading to the defection of Burgess and Maclean. After the defection of his two friends, Philby was asked to resign from SIS, and he spent the next several years being questioned by MI5 and SIS. Since he did not break, however, he was finally cleared of being the "Third Man" by the Foreign Secretary Harold Macmillan in the House of Commons. Eventually he was re-employed as an SIS agent, with the cover as a correspondent in Beirut for The Observer and The Economist. In October 1949 Philby arrived in Washington as British intelligence liaison to the newly created US intelligence agencies under the National Security Act of 1947. Philby received Venona material which the US was sharing with the UK, but he did not have information about the source, since Venona was one of the most highly rated top secrets. He shared a house in Washington, at 4100 Nebraska Avenue, N.W, with his friend from the Cambridge days, fellow British diplomat, intelligence officer and Soviet penetration agent, Guy Burgess. In 1949, Philby was in Washington, D.C., as the MI6 liaison to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The two agencies launched an attempted revolution in Albania. The exiled King Zog had offered his troops and other volunteers to help, but, for three years, every attempted landing in Albania met with Albanian army ambush (Albanians knew the emergency radio call routine). Philby is believed to have passed to Moscow information on the small size of the United States' stockpile of atomic weapons and its capacity (at that time, severely limited) to produce new atomic bombs. Based in part on that information, Stalin went ahead with a 1948 blockade of West Berlin and began a large-scale offensive armament of Kim Il Sung's North Korean Army and Air Force that would later culminate in the Korean War. When Maclean was identified in April 1951, surveillance commenced to obtain evidence independent of Venona, as the US and UK did not want to reveal the existence of Venona. Maclean defected to Moscow with Guy Burgess a month later in May 1951. Philby came under instant suspicion as the "Third Man" who had tipped them off. Philby had already been suspected by James Jesus Angleton, who had heard Philby declare after receiving his OBE in 1946, that "This country could do with a stiff dose of proper Socialism." Riley, p. 137 CIA Director General Bedell Smith sent an ultimatum to the British that either Philby be fired, or they break off the intelligence relationship. He also made it clear to Sir Stuart Menzies that Philby was no longer acceptable to the CIA as an SIS liaison and had to leave the US. Riley, p. 141 Philby was summoned back to London in June 1951 by Menzies, where he denied knowing Maclean and said that he had been fooled completely by Burgess. His interviewers were unimpressed and Philby was unhappy at the prospect of being questioned as part of the enquiry into the escape of Burgess and Maclean. However, during subsequent interrogations Philby defended his actions by claiming that he had been acting as a double agent with the permission of SIS and he had indeed been given permission to approach the Soviets and pretend that he was willing to work for them. Following the enquiry, Philby was officially discharged from SIS but continued employment with them, working in Cyprus among other places. Riley, p. 143 Philby was denied his pension until an internal investigation failed to come up with definitive proof of his work with the NKVD. On 25 October 1955, against all expectations, he was "cleared" by Foreign Secretary Harold Macmillan in an ill-timed statement made in the House of Commons: "While in government service he carried out his duties ably and conscientiously, and I have no reason to conclude that Mr. Philby has at any time betrayed the interests of his country, or to identify him with the so-called 'Third Man', if indeed there was one." Beirut Thus, in 1956 Philby was again in the employ of MI6 as an "informant on retainer" and was supposedly involved in Operation Musketeer, the British, French, and Israeli plan to attack Egypt and depose Gamal Abdel Nasser. Better attested is his role as Middle East correspondent for the British newspaper The Economist, which also led to his exposure. Sometime in late 1962, a British-Jewish woman, Mrs. Flora Solomon, was attending a cocktail party in Tel Aviv and made a comment about how Philby, the journalist in Beirut, displayed sympathy for Arabs in his articles. She said that his masters were the Soviets and that she knew that he had always worked for them. The comment was overheard by someone at the party and was relayed to the offices of MI5 in London, which sent Victor Rothschild to interview her. Mrs. Solomon declared that she would never testify against Philby, but she admitted that he had told her he was a spy and had tried to recruit her to the Communist cause. Peter Wright, Spycatcher: The Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer, Stoddart (paperback) 1988, p. 214 Although MI5 and MI6 could not immediately agree on how to deal with Philby, it was eventually agreed that a personal friend of Philby from his MI6 days, Nicolas Elliott, would be sent to confront him in Beirut. There seemed to be a constant leak of information and it is alleged that there was a high-level MI5 mole at the time. Although it is unclear whether Philby was aware of the developments against him vis-a-vis Flora Solomon, or whether he knew about the defection of Anatoly Golitsyn (which led to the arrest, escape, and defection to Moscow of fellow MI6 officer and Soviet agent George Blake), there is evidence that in the last few months of 1962 Philby began to drink heavily and his behaviour became increasingly erratic. Philby may have also been warned by Yuri Modin, a top Soviet handler who had served in the Soviet embassy in London, when he travelled to Beirut in September 1962. Wright, p. 239 Modin was the controller of the "Cambridge Five". Yuri Modin, 1994, My Five Cambridge Friends: Burgess, Maclean, Philby, Blunt and Cairncross, Ballantine Books It is reported that the first thing that Philby said upon meeting with Elliott was that he was "half expecting" to see him. Many sources claim that he confessed immediately when confronted with the evidence, See for example Genrikh Borovik, The Philby Files. See also, Yuri Modin, who wrote, "At that moment the man ... suddenly broke" (Modin, p. 237) while others, including Philby himself, have maintained that he continued to downplay the accusations. Although a further interrogation was scheduled in the last week of January 1963, Philby disappeared on 23 January. Records later revealed that the Dolmatova, a Soviet freighter, was called to port in Beirut on this date and had left so quickly its cargo remained scattered on the dock. CIA operative Miles Copeland, a close friend of Kim Philby, describes how Philby was constantly being suspected of spying for the Soviets but succeeded in skillfully evading such suspicions for some time. Copeland was once handed an "ultra-thorough checklist" from his superior in an attempt to see if Philby committed any suspicious actions as prescribed by this form; he first objected to the idea of spying on Philby since he was his "friend”, but obliged under pressure later on. After Copeland's painstaking examination was over, he handed in his checklist to his superior, with none of the points in the checklist checked and the conclusion that Philby had not committed any suspicious acts. His superior responded by saying: "Aha, now that’s interesting, even a perfectly normal person must have done something, at least one thing, that is deemed suspicious by this checklist."<ref>See Miles Copeland, Without Cloak Or Dagger: The Truth about the New Espionage, 1974 After Philby's defection, the CIA and MI6 largely gave up their attempts to plant agents in Soviet territory. Philby was also able to tell Moscow just how much the CIA knew about its operations. Moscow asked Philby not to bother saving spies who had served their purpose, but he sat on several reports that revealed the names of other Soviet spies anyway. Kim Philby on the 1990 USSR commemorative stamp Moscow Kim Philby surfaced in Moscow, and quickly discovered that he was not a colonel in the KGB as he had been led to believe, but still just agent TOM. It was 10 years before he walked through the doors of KGB headquarters. He suffered severe bouts of alcoholism. In Moscow, he seduced Maclean's American wife, Melinda, and abandoned his own wife, Eleanor, who left Russia in 1965. Eleanor Philby, Kim Philby: The Spy I Loved, 1967, London: Hamish Hamilton. Published in the US as Kim Philby: The Spy I Married, Ballantine Books, New York, 1967. According to information contained in the Mitrokhin Archive Vasily Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, The Mitrokhin Archive, Volume 1: The KGB in Europe and the West, 1999. , the head of KGB counterintelligence, Oleg Kalugin, met Philby in 1972 and found him to be 'a wreck of a man'; "The bent figure caromed off the walls as he walked. Reeking of vodka, he mumbled something unintelligible in atrocious, slurred Russian." Over the next few years Kalugin and the Young Turks in the Foreign Intelligence Directorate rehabilitated Philby, using him to devise active measures, and to run seminars for young agents about to be sent to Great Britain, Australia, or Ireland. In 1972 he married a Russian woman, Rufina Ivanova Pukhova, who was twenty years his junior, with whom he lived until his death at age 76, in 1988. His autobiography, My Silent War, was published in the West in 1968. Only posthumously did he receive the praise and appreciation which had escaped him in life; he was awarded a hero's funeral and numerous posthumous medals by a grateful USSR. Philby was a close friend of the novelist Graham Greene, who reportedly left MI6 rather than become involved in exposing Philby. Greene's biographer, Norman Sherry, had this to say: Perhaps Greene, always intuitive, resigned because he suspected that Philby was a Russian penetration agent. … If Greene did suspect Philby, it would be just the kind of thing that would catapult him out of the service rather than share his suspicions with the authorities.’ Norman Sherry, The Life of Graham Greene, Volume Two: 1939-1955, (Jonathan Cape, London, 1994), p.183 Personal life In 1933, during a visit to Vienna, Philby met Alice (Litzi) Friedmann, an Austrian communist of Hungarian-Jewish origins, the daughter of a government official. They were married in February 1934 and left for England. Philby, Harold Adrian Russell [Kim (1912–1988), spy] by Nigel Clive in Dictionary of National Biography online (accessed 11 November 2007) In London in 1941, he began to live with Aileen Furse, the daughter of Captain George Furse of the Royal Horse Artillery, and they had children while he was still married to Litzi. However, a divorce was finalized in December 1946, and a week later he married Aileen. They had three sons and two daughters together, and Aileen died in 1957. Philby had no other children. In 1959, in Beirut, Philby married Eleanor Brewer, an American who had been married to an American journalist when he met her there. After Philby defected to the Soviet Union in 1963, Eleanor joined him in Moscow, but she left him in 1965 to return to the US. She died in 1968. Her book, Kim Philby: The Spy I Loved, was published around the same time. Philby had begun an affair with Donald Maclean's American wife Melinda, whose maiden name was Melinda Marling, probably in 1965. She left Maclean and went to live with Philby in 1968. However, they did not marry and Philby left her for a much younger woman named Rufina Ivanova, whom he married in 1971. Rufina Ivanova is still alive, and is a co-author of The Private Life of Kim Philby: The Moscow Years (2000) Rufina Philby, Mikhail Lyubimov, and Hayden Peake, The Private Life of Kim Philby: The Moscow Years St. Ermin's Press, 1999 (accessed 11 November 2007). Chronology 1912 Birth in India 1919 Attended Aldro preparatory school in Eastbourne 1924 Was a Queen's Scholar at Westminster School 1929 Entered Trinity College, Cambridge at the age of 17 to read history. 1930 Guy Burgess arrived at Trinity from Eton. 1931 Joined the Cambridge University Socialist Society. Labour government of Ramsay MacDonald defeated 27 October. Philby became a more ardent socialist. After obtaining only a third in his history exams he transferred to economics. 1932 Became treasurer of the Cambridge University Socialist Society. 1933 Left Cambridge a convinced Communist with a degree in economics, then went to Vienna where Chancellor Dr Engelbert Dollfuss was preparing the first 'putsch' in February 1934. Philby became a Soviet agent. 1934 Clash between the Austrian government and socialists in Vienna. On 24 February Philby married Alice (Litzy) Friedmann, born Kohlmann; then in May, after the collapse of the socialist movement in Vienna, he returned with his wife to England. He began work as a sub-editor of a Liberal monthly review, and joined Guy Burgess as a member of the Anglo-German Fellowship. (Philby edited the fellowship's pro-Hitler magazine, supported by Nazi funds). To cover up his communist background he also made repeated visits to Berlin for talks with the German Propaganda Ministry and with von Ribbentrop's Foreign Office. 1937 In February Philby arrived in Spain to report on the Spanish Civil War from Franco's side. 20 May 1937 he became correspondent of The Times with Franco's forces. 1938 Awarded the 'Red Cross of Military Merit' by Franco personally. 1939 In July, left Spain and became war correspondent of The Times at the British Headquarters in Arras. 1940 In June, after the evacuation of British Forces from the European mainland, he returned to Britain. Recruited by the British Secret Service and attached to the Secret Intelligence Service under Guy Burgess in Section D. Assigned to school for under-cover work, but later transferred to the teaching staff of a new school for general training in techniques of sabotage and subversion at Beaulieu, Hampshire. 1941 Transferred to MI6, Section V (Five). Philby took charge of the Iberian sub-section, responsible for British Intelligence in Spain and Portugal. Trained James Jesus Angleton in the arts and crafts of counterespionage. 1941 Begins to live with Aileen Furse, later his second wife. Office of Strategic Services group under Norman Pearson arrived in London for liaison with British Secret Service. Philby's area of responsibility grew to include North African and Italian espionage under newly formed counter-intelligence units. 1943 Section V moved from St Albans to London, bringing Philby closer to the centres of power. 1944 Appointed head of Section IX, newly created to operate against communism and the Soviet Union. 1945 In September Soviet intelligence officer Konstantin Volkov based at the Soviet embassy in Ankara seriously threatened Philby's position by offering to defect and provide the names of two agents working in the Foreign Office and one in MI6 (probably Philby). The offer was sent to Philby as head of the Section IX, Soviet counterintelligence. Soon afterwards, Volkov was kidnapped by Soviet agents and taken to the Lubyanka in Moscow for interrogation and execution. 1946 Took a field appointment - officially as First Secretary with the British embassy in Turkey, actually as head of the Turkish MI6 station. 1946 In December, divorce from his first wife, Litzi, finalized, marries Aileen Furse. 1949 Became MI6 representative in Washington, as senior British Secret Service officer working in liaison with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the newly created CIA. He occasionally visited Arlington Hall for discussions about VENONA; furthermore, he regularly received copies of summaries of VENONA translations as part of his official duties. He sat in on a Special Policy Committee directing the ill-fated Anglo-US attempt to infiltrate anti-communist agents into Albania to topple the Enver Hoxha régime. 1950 Guy Burgess arrived in Washington on assignment as Second Secretary of the British Embassy, and Philby invited him to stay at his house. 1951 Philby learnt of the tightening net of suspicion surrounding Foreign Office diplomat and Soviet agent Donald Maclean, whose British embassy position at the end of the war had placed him on the Combined Policy Committee on Atomic Energy as its British joint secretary. Burgess's alcoholism caused Ambassador Franks to remove him and he returned to England. On 25 May, Burgess and Maclean disappeared from Britain, with help from Philby, having escaped via the Baltic to the Soviet Union. Philby summoned to London for interrogation and asked to resign from the Foreign Service. 1952 In the summer a secret trial took place in which Philby underwent questioning about his activities. 1955 The British Government published a 'White Paper' (report) on the Burgess-Maclean affair. On 25 October, questions tabled in parliament asking about the 'third man', Philby. Harold Macmillan, foreign secretary in the Eden cabinet, stated that no evidence existed of Philby having betrayed the interests of Britain. Nevertheless, the Foreign Service dismissed him because of his association with Burgess. 1956 In September British secret service arranged Philby to work for The Observer in Beirut as correspondent of and also The Economist; But that year Dick White, who suspected Philby of working as a Soviet agent, became head of MI6. 1957 Aileen, Philby's second wife, died. 1958 Married Eleanor Brewer. 1962 George Blake unmasked. Philby then confirmed as an identified Soviet agent. 1963 23 January, Philby disappeared in Beirut. The Soviet Union announced that it had granted Philby political asylum in Moscow. On 3 March, Eleanor Philby received a telegram from Philby postmarked Cairo, Egypt. On 3 June Izvestia located Philby with the Imam of Yemen. On 1 July, the British Government admitted that Philby had worked as a Soviet agent before 1946 and identified him as the 'third man'. 1965 Stripped of OBE following his exposure as a double agent. 1965 Awarded the Order of the Red Banner, one of the highest honours of the Soviet Union. 1965 Eleanor Philby leaves Moscow, returns to US. Philby begins affair with Melinda Maclean, wife of Donald Maclean. 1968 Wife Eleanor Philby dies. 1971 marries Rufina Ivanovna in Moscow. 1988 Death at the age of 76. 1991 Resurfaces in undocumented MOSSAD pictures taken when Philby is in Beirut. Philby in popular culture Literature The Tim Powers novel Declare is partly based on unexplained aspects of Philby's life, providing a supernatural context for his behavior (described by Powers as "tradecraft meets Lovecraft"). In the Ted Allbeury novel The Other Side of Silence (1981) Philby, near the end of his life, asks to return to Britain. The Frederick Forsyth novel, The Fourth Protocol, features an elderly Kim Philby advising a Soviet leader on a plot to influence a British election in 1987. The Robert Littell novel The Company features Philby as a confidant of former CIA Counter-Intelligence chief James Angleton. Graham Greene's novel The Human Factor explores aspects of Philby's story. William F. Buckley, Jr.'s novel Spytime: The Undoing of James Jesus Angleton William F. Buckley, Jr.'s novel Last Call for Blackford Oakes Chris Petit's novel The Passenger. John le Carré's novel (also a BBC television mini-series) Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy focuses on the hunt for a Soviet agent patterned after Philby. The novel Fox at the Front by Douglas Niles and Michael Dobson depicts Philby selling secrets to the Soviet Union during the alternate Battle of the Bulge where German Field Marshall Erwin Rommel turns on the Nazis and assists the Allies in capturing all of Berlin. Before he can sell the secret of the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union, he is discovered by the British and is killed by members of MI5 who stage his death as a heart attack. He appears in the Doctor Who Eighth Doctor novel's The Turing Test as a cameo, Endgame and History 101 as a cameo. Film and television Cambridge Spies, a 2003 four-part BBC drama, starring Toby Stephens as Kim Philby, Tom Hollander as Guy Burgess, Rupert Penry-Jones as Donald Maclean, and Samuel West as Anthony Blunt, which is told from Philby's point of view, recounts their lives and adventures from Cambridge days in the 1930s, through World War II, until the defection of Burgess and Maclean in 1951. The 2005 film A Different Loyalty is an unattributed account taken from Eleanor Philby's book, "Kim Philby: The Spy I Loved." The film recounts Philby's love affair and marriage to Eleanor Brewer during his time in Beirut, and his eventual defection to the Soviet Union in late January 1963. The names of all characters, including the lead characters, have been changed, and the film becomes highly speculative at the end. In the 1987 film The Fourth Protocol starring Michael Caine and Pierce Brosnan, Kim Philby is portrayed by Michael Bilton. In contradiction of historical fact, he is murdered by the KGB in the opening scene. The character "Harry Lime" in the 1949 film The Third Man has been said to be based on Kim Philby, although Graham Greene has denied this. It is ironic that a few years later, Philby was suspected of being the "third man" in the spy scandal. The 2006 film The Good Shepherd, is a fictionalised take on the life of CIA agent James Jesus Angleton. In the film, MI6 agent Arch Cummings, played by Billy Crudup, is very loosely based on Philby. Traitor is a television play loosely based on Philby's life. Joseph Brodsky's essay, "Collector's Item," in his 1996 book, On Grief and Reason, contains a conjectured description of Philby's career, as well as speculations into his motivations and general thoughts on espionage and politics. The title of the essay refers to a postal stamp commemorating Philby - it was issued in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. In the 2007 (TNT) television three-part series "The Company (TV miniseries)," produced by Ridley Scott, Tony Scott, and John Calley, Philby is portrayed by Tom Hollander. Music "Philby" by Rory Gallagher from the Top Priority album (1979) in which he draws parallels between his life on the road and Philby's. Pet Shop Boys' song Jack the Lad has four or five lines referencing Kim Philby. It is available on the album Alternative (1995). Philby, an unproduced musical by Katie Baldwin (book and lyrics) and Alan Moon (music). "Kim Philby", by the now-defunct Vancouver band Terror of Tiny Town, is a polka-esque retelling of some of Philby's story. "Up on the Catwalk" from Simple Minds' 1984 album Sparkle in the Rain makes a reference to Kim Philby. The downstairs bar of the Manchester night club The Haçienda was known as "The Kim Philby Bar". References Further reading Colonel David Smiley, "Irregular Regular", Michael Russell - Norwich - 1994 (ISBN 978-0859552028). Translated in French by Thierry Le Breton, Au coeur de l'action clandestine des commandos au MI6, L’Esprit du Livre Editions, France, 2008 (ISBN 978-2915960273). With numerous photographs. Memoirs of a SOE and MI6 officer during the Valuable Project. Patrick Seale and Maureen McConville, Philby: The Long Road to Moscow, 1973, published by Hamish Hamilton, London. Genrikh Borovik, The Philby Files, 1994, published by Little, Brown & Company Limited, Canada, ISBN 0316910155 . Introduction by Phillip Knightley. Phillip Knightley, Philby: KGB Masterspy 2003, published by Andre Deutsch Ltd, London, ISBN 0233000488. Phillip Knightley, The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century, 1986, published by W.W. Norton & Company, London. Kim Philby, My Silent War, published by Macgibbon & Kee Ltd, London, 1968, or Granda Publishing, ISBN 0-586-02860-9. Introduction by Graham Greene Bruce Page, David Leitch and Phillip Knightley, Philby: The Spy Who Betrayed a Generation, 1968, published by André Deutsch, Ltd., London. Richard Beeston, Looking For Trouble: The Life and Times of a Foreign Correspondent, 1997, published by Brassey's, London. Desmond Bristow, A Game of Moles, 1993, published by Little Brown & Company, London. Miranda Carter, Anthony Blunt: His Lives, 2001, published by Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, New York. Anthony Cave Brown, "C": The Secret Life of Sir Stewart Graham Menzies, Spymaster to Winston Churchill, 1987, published by Macmillan, New York. John Fisher, Burgess and Maclean, 1977, published by Robert Hale, London. S. J. Hamrick, Deceiving the Deceivers, 2004, published by Yale University Press, New Haven. Malcolm Muggeridge, The Infernal Grove: Chronicles of Wasted Time: Number 2, 1974, published by William Morrow & Company, New York. Barrie Penrose & Simon Freeman, Conspiracy of Silence: The Secret Life of Anthony Blunt, 1986, published by Farrar Straus Giroux, New York. Nigel West, editor, The Guy Liddell Diaries: Vol. I: 1939-1942, 2005, published by Routledge, London Nigel West & Oleg Tsarev, The Crown Jewels: The British Secrets at the Heart of the KGB Archives, 1998, published by Yale University Press, New Haven. External links Annotated bibliography of the Philby Affair Burgess, MacLean and Philby, FBI FOIA

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Anaxarchus

Anaxarchus ( ) or Anaxarch ( ăn′·ə·zârk; fl. 340 BC), a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus, was born at Abdera in Thrace. He was the companion and friend of Alexander the Great in his Asiatic campaigns. According to Diogenes Laertius, in response to Alexander's claim to have been the son of Zeus-Ammon, Anaxarchus pointed to his bleeding wound and remarked, "See the blood of a mortal, not ichor, such as flows from the veins of the immortal gods." Diogenes Laertius. Lives, 9.10.2. Plutarch tells a story that at Bactra, in 327 BC in a debate with Callisthenes, he advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability attributed to the Sicilian Cleon. Diogenes Laertius also says that Nicocreon, the tyrant of Cyprus, commanded him to be pounded to death in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude and Cicero relates the same story. Diogenes Laertius. Lives, 9.10.3. His philosophical doctrines are not known, though some have inferred from the epithet eudaimonikos ("fortunate"), usually applied to him, that he held the end of life to be eudaimonia. References

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Economy_of_the_Cook_Islands

The Economy of the Cook Islands, as in many other South Pacific island nations, is hindered by the isolation of the country from foreign markets, lack of natural resources, periodic devastation from natural disasters, and inadequate infrastructure. Agriculture provides the economic base with major exports made up of copra and citrus fruit. Manufacturing activities are limited to fruit-processing, clothing, and handicrafts. Trade deficits are made up for by remittances from emigrants and by foreign aid, overwhelmingly from New Zealand. Efforts to exploit tourism potential, encourage offshore banking, and expand the mining and fishing industries have been partially successful in stimulating investment and growth. GDP Purchasing power parity - $183.2 million (2005 est.) GDP - real growth rate 0.1% (2005 estimate) GDP - per capita $9 100 (2005 estimate) GDP - composition by sector Agriculture: 15.1% Industry: 9.6% Services: 75.3% (2000) Population below poverty line NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share Lowest 10%: NA% Highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices) 2.1% (2005 est.) Labor force 6,820 (2001) Labor force - by occupation Agriculture 29%, industry 15%, services 56% (1995) Unemployment rate 13.1% (2005) Budget Revenues: $70.95 million Expenditures: $69.05 million; including capital expenditures of $5.744 million (FY00/01 est.) Industries Fruit processing, tourism, fishing, clothing, handicrafts Industrial production growth rate 1% (2002) Electricity - production 28 GW·h (2003) Electricity - production by source Fossil fuel: 100% Hydro: 0% Nuclear: 0% Other: 0% (2001) Electricity - consumption 34.46 GW·h (2005 est) Electricity - exports 0 kW·h (2003) Electricity - imports 0 kW·h (2003) Oil consumption 400 bbl/day (2003) Agriculture - products Copra, citrus, pineapples, tomatoes, beans, pawpaws, bananas, yams, taro, coffee, pigs, poultry Exports $5.222 million (2005) Exports - commodities Copra, papayas, fresh and canned citrus fruit, coffee; fish; pearls and pearl shells; clothing Exports - partners Australia 34%, Japan 27%, New Zealand 25%, US 8% (2004) Imports $81.04 million (2005) Imports - commodities Foodstuffs, textiles, fuels, timber, capital goods Imports - partners New Zealand 61%, Fiji 19%, US 9%, Australia 6%, Japan 2% (2004) Debt - external $141 million (1996 est.) Economic aid - recipient $13.1 million (1995); note - New Zealand furnishes the greater part Currency 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents Exchange rates New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.4203 (2005), 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995) Fiscal year 1 April–31 March Source CIA World Factbook, 2006 See also: Cook Islands

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Arno

The Arno is a river in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is the most important river of central Italy after the Tiber. The river originates on Mount Falterona in the Casentino area of the Apennines, and takes initially a southward curve. The river turns to the west near Arezzo passing through Florence, Empoli and Pisa, flowing into the Ligurian Sea at Marina di Pisa. With a length of 241 kilometers, it is the largest river in the region. Its main tributaries are: the Sieve (60 kilometers), Bisenzio (49 kilometers), Ombrone, Era, Elsa, Pesa and Pescia. The drainage basin amounts to more than 8,200 km² and drains the waters of the following sub-basins: The Casentino, in the province of Arezzo, formed by the upper course of the river until the confluence with the Maestro della Chiana channel. The Val di Chiana, a plain dried in the 18th century, which, until the 18th century, was a marshy area tributary of the Tiber. The upper Valdarno, a long valley bordered from East by the Pratomagno massif and from West by the hills around Siena. The Sieve's basin, which flows in the Arno immediately before Florence. The middle Valdarno, with the plain including Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Prato and Pistoia. The lower Valdarno, with the valley of important tributaries such as the Pesa, Elsa and Era and in which, after Pontedera, the Arno flows into the Ligurian Sea. The river has a very variable discharge, ranging from minimum values such as 6 m³/s to more than 2,000. The mouth of the river was once near Pisa, but is now several kilometers westwards. It crosses Florence, where it passes below the Ponte Vecchio and the Santa Trinita bridge (built by Bartolomeo Ammanati, but inspired by Michelangelo). The river flooded this city regularly in historical times, the last occasion being the famous flood of 1966, with 4,500 m³/s after a rain of 437.2 mm in Badia Agnano and 190 millimetres in Florence, in only 24 hours. The flow rate of the Arno is irregular. It is sometimes described as having a torrent-like behaviour, because it can easily go from almost dry to near-flood in a few days. At the point where the Arno leaves the Apennines, flow measurements can vary between 0.56 m³/s and 3,540 m³/s. New dams built upstream of Florence have greatly alleviated the problem in recent years. A flood on November 4, 1966 collapsed the embankment in Florence, killing at least 40 people and damaging or destroying millions of works of art and rare books. New conservation techniques were inspired by the disaster, but even 40 years later hundreds of works still await restoration. Gallery References External links Basin Authority of the Arno

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Asia

Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area (or 29.9% of its land area) and with approximately 4 billion people, it accounts for 60% of the world's current human population. Chiefly in the eastern and northern hemispheres. Asia is traditionally defined as part of the landmass of Eurasia—with the western portion of the latter occupied by Europe—lying east of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Given its size and diversity, Asia—a toponym dating back to classical antiquity—is more a cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than a homogeneous physical entity "Asia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Asia". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 2006. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. (see Subregions of Asia, Asian people). The wealth of Asia differs widely between, and within, states. This is due to its vast size, and huge range of different cultures, environments, historical ties and government systems. In terms of Purchasing Power Parity however, the People's Republic of China has the largest economy in Asia and the second largest in the world followed by India as the world's third largest economy respectively. However, in terms of nominal GDP, Japan has the largest economy on the continent and the second in the world, not counting the E.U. as a single entry. Etymology The word Asia originated from the Greek word "Ἀσία", first attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BC) in reference to Anatolia or, for the purposes of describing the Persian Wars, to the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names are used to describe one enormous and substantial land mass (Europa, Asia, and Libya, referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus but that the Lydians say it was named after Asias, son of Cotys who passed the name on to a tribe in Sardis. Even before Herodotus, Homer knew of a Trojan ally named Asios and elsewhere he describes a marsh as ασιος (Iliad 2, 461). The Greek language term may be derived from Assuwa, a 14th century BC confederation of states in Western Anatolia. Hittite assu-—"good" is probably an element in that name. Alternatively, the etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian word , which means "to go outside" or "to ascend", referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East, and also likely connected with the Phoenician word asa meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Akkadian erēbu(m) "to enter" or "set" (of the sun). However, this etymology is considered doubtful, because it does not explain how the term "Asia" first came to be associated with Anatolia, which is west of the Semitic-speaking areas, unless they refer to the viewpoint of a Phoenician sailor sailing through the straits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Definition and boundaries Physical geography See also: Geography of Asia, Countries in both Asia and Europe, Geographic criteria for the definition of Europe Medieval Europeans considered Asia as a continent – a distinct landmass. The European concept of the three continents in the Old World goes back to Classical Antiquity, but during the Middle Ages was notably due to Isidore of Sevilla (see T and O map). The demarcation between Asia and Africa (to the southwest) is the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea. The boundary between Asia and Europe is conventionally considered to run through the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the Ural River to its source, and the Ural Mountains to the Kara Sea near Kara, Russia. While this interpretation of tripartite continents (i.e., of Asia, Europe, and Africa) remains common in modernity, discovery of the extent of Africa and Asia have made this definition somewhat anachronistic. This is especially true in the case of Asia, which would have several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if these criteria were used (for example, Southern Asia and Eastern Asia). In the far northeast of Asia, Siberia is separated from North America by the Bering Strait. Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean (specifically, from west to east, the Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal); on the east by the waters of the Pacific Ocean (including, counterclockwise, the South China Sea, East China Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, and Bering Sea); and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Australia (or Oceania) is to the southeast. Some geographers do not consider Asia and Europe to be separate continents, "Asia." MSN Encarta Encyclopedia. 2007. as there is no logical physical separation between them. For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely “the western excrescence of the continent of Asia.” Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia – with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass – or of Afro-Eurasia: geologically, Asia, Europe, and Africa comprise a single continuous landmass (save the Suez Canal) and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and most of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plates, and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Cherskiy Range) on the North American Plate. In geography, there are two schools of thought. One school follows historical convention and treats Europe and Asia as different continents, categorizing subregions within them for more detailed analysis. The other school equates the word "continent" with a geographical region when referring to Europe, and use the term "region" to describe Asia in terms of physiography. Since, in linguistic terms, "continent" implies a distinct landmass, it is becoming increasingly common to substitute the term "region" for "continent" to avoid the problem of disambiguation altogether. Given the scope and diversity of the landmass, it is sometimes not even clear exactly what "Asia" consists of. Some definitions exclude Turkey, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Russia while only considering the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent to compose Asia, Welty, Paul Thomas. The Asians Their Evolving Heritage, 6th ed., p. 21. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1984. ISBN 0-06-047001-1. World University Service of Canada. Asia-WUSC WorldWide. 2006. October 7, 2006. <http://www.wusc.ca/expertise/worldwide/asia/>. especially in the United States after World War II. Menon, Sridevi. Duke University. "Where is West Asia in Asian America?Asia and the Politics of Space in Asian America." 2004. April 26, 2007. page 71 The term is sometimes used more strictly in reference to the Asia-Pacific region, which does not include the Middle East or Russia, BBC News 2006. September 9, 2006. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/>. but does include islands in the Pacific Ocean—a number of which may also be considered part of Australasia or Oceania, although Pacific Islanders are commonly not considered Asian. American Heritage Book of English Usage. Asian. 1996. September 29, 2006. <http://www.bartleby.com/64/C006/007.html>. Political geography "Asian" as a demonym The demonym "Asian" is often used colloquially to refer to people from a subregion of Asia instead of for anyone from Asia. Thus, in British English, "Asian" can mean people from the Indian subcontinent, but may also refer to other Asian groups. Color Q World. Clarifying the Definition of Asian. 2005. October 1, 2006. <http://www.colorq.org/PetSins/article.asp?y=2005&m=5&x=5_7>. In the United States, "Asian American" can mean East Asian Americans, due to the historical and cultural influences of China and Japan on the U.S. up to the 1960s and in preference to the terms "Oriental" and "Asiatic". However, the term is increasingly taken to include Southeast Asian Americans and South Asian Americans, due to the increasing numbers of immigrants from these regions. Lee, Sharon M. Population Reference Bureau. Asian Americans Diverse and Growing.. Retrieved 2006-11-10. Territories and regions Name of region   Continental regions as per UN categorisations (map), except 12. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 6, 11-13, 15, 17-19, 21-23) may be in one or both of Asia and Europe, Africa, or Oceania. andterritory, with flag Area(km²) Population(1 July 2008 est.) Population density(per km²) Capital Central Asia:   Kazakhstan is sometimes considered a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for Asian portion only. 2,724,927 15,666,533 5.7 Astana 198,500 5,356,869 24.3 Bishkek 143,100 7,211,884 47.0 Dushanbe 488,100 5,179,573 9.6 Ashgabat 447,400 28,268,441 57.1 Tashkent Eastern Asia:   The state "People's Republic of China" is commonly known as simply "China", which is subsumed by the eponymous entity and civilization (China). Figures given are for mainland China only, and do not include Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. 9,584,492 1,322,044,605 134.0 Beijing   Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China. 1,092 7,903,334 6,688.0 —   Macau is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China. 25 460,823 18,473.3 — 377,835 127,288,628 336.1 Tokyo   Figures are for the area under the de facto control of the Republic of China (ROC) government, commonly referred to as Taiwan. Claimed in whole by the PRC; see political status of Taiwan. 35,980 22,920,946 626.7 Taipei 120,540 23,479,095 184.4 Pyongyang 98,480 49,232,844 490.7 Seoul 1,565,000 2,996,082 1.7 Ulan Bator Northern Asia:   Russia is considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia; population and area figures are for the entire state. 17,075,400 142,200,000 26.8 Moscow Southeastern Asia: Excludes Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australian external territories in the Indian Ocean southwest of Indonesia). 5,770 381,371 60.8 Bandar Seri Begawan 678,500 47,758,224 62.3 Naypyidaw   The administrative capital of Burma (Myanmar) was officially moved from Yangon (Rangoon) to a militarised greenfield just west of Pyinmana on 6 November 2005. General Population Census of Cambodia 2008 - Provisional population totals, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, released 3rd September, 2008 181,035 13,388,910 74 Phnom Penh   East Timor is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and Oceania. 15,007 1,108,777 63.5 Dili   Indonesia is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and Oceania; figures do not include Irian Jaya and Maluku Islands, frequently reckoned in Oceania (Melanesia/Australasia). 1,419,588 237,512,355 159.9 Jakarta 236,800 6,677,534 24.4 Vientiane 329,847 27,780,000 84.2 Kuala Lumpur 300,000 92,681,453 281.8 Manila 704 4,608,167 6,369.0 Singapore 514,000 65,493,298 121.3 Bangkok 331,690 86,116,559 246.1 Hanoi Southern Asia: 647,500 32,738,775 42.9 Kabul 144,000 153,546,901 926.2 Dhaka 47,000 682,321 14.3 Thimphu   Includes Jammu and Kashmir, a contested territory among India, Pakistan, and the PRC. 3,167,590 1,147,995,226 318.2 New Delhi 1,648,195 65,875,223 42 Tehran 300 379,174 1,067.2 Malé 140,800 29,519,114 183.8 Kathmandu 803,940 167,762,049 183.7 Islamabad 65,610 21,128,773 298.4 Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte Western Asia:   Armenia is sometimes considered a transcontinental country: physiographically in Western Asia, it has historical and sociopolitical connections with Europe. 29,800 2,968,586 111.7 Yerevan   Azerbaijan is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for Asian portion only. Figures include Nakhchivan, an autonomous exclave of Azerbaijan bordered by Armenia, Iran, and Turkey. 46,870 3,845,127 82.0 Baku 665 718,306 987.1 Manama   The island of Cyprus is sometimes considered a transcontinental territory: in the Eastern Basin of the Mediterranean Sea south of Turkey, it has historical and socio-political connections with Europe. However, the U.N. considers Cyprus to be in Western Asia, while the C.I.A. considers it to be in the Middle East. 9,250 792,604 83.9 Nicosia Gaza   Gaza and West Bank, collectively referred to as the "Occupied Palestinian Territory" by the UN, are territories partially occupied by Israel but under de facto administration of the Palestinian National Authority. 363 1,537,269 3,315.7 Gaza   Georgia is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for Asian portion only. 20,460 4,630,841 99.3 Tbilisi 437,072 28,221,181 54.9 Baghdad 20,770 7,112,359 290.3 Jerusalem In 1980, Jerusalem was proclaimed Israel's united capital, following its annexation of Arab-dominant East Jerusalem during the 1967 Six-Day War. The United Nations and many countries do not recognize this claim, with most countries maintaining embassies in Tel Aviv instead. 92,300 6,198,677 57.5 Amman 17,820 2,596,561 118.5 Kuwait City 10,452 3,971,941 353.6 Beirut 212,460 3,311,640 12.8 Muscat 11,437 928,635 69.4 Doha 1,960,582 23,513,330 12.0 Riyadh 185,180 19,747,586 92.6 Damascus <ref>  Turkey is generally considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia and Southern Europe; population and area figures are for Asian portion only, excluding all of Istanbul.</small></ref> 756,768 71,892,807 76.5 Ankara 82,880 4,621,399 29.5 Abu Dhabi 527,970 23,013,376 35.4 Sanaá Total 43,810,582 4,050,404,193 89.07Note: Part of Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) is geographically in Western Asia Country name changes Various Asian countries have undergone name changes during the previous century as the result of consolidations, secessions, territories gaining sovereignty, and regime changes. Previous Name Year Current Name East Pakistan 1971 Bangladesh, People's Republic of Democratic Kampuchea 1975 Cambodia, Kingdom of Empire of Great Qing of China 19111949 China, Republic ofChina, People's Republic of Portuguese Timor 1975 East Timor, Democratic Republic of Dutch East Indies 1945 Indonesia, Republic of Persian Empire 19351979 Iran, Republic ofIran, Islamic Republic of Transjordan 1946 Jordan, Kingdom of Kirghiz SSR (USSR) 1991 Kyrgyzstan, Republic Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore 1963 Malaysia and Singapore Burma 1989 Myanmar, Union of Muscat 1971 Oman, Sultanate of West Pakistan 1971 Pakistan, Islamic Republic of Spanish East Indies 1565 Philippines, Republic of the Hejaz-Nejd, The Kingdom of 1932 Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of Aden 1970 South Yemen, People's Republic of Ceylon 1972 Sri Lanka, Democratic Socialist Republic of Tajik SSR (USSR) 1991 Tajikistan, Republic of Siam 1939 Thailand, Kingdom of Ottoman Empire 1923 Turkey, Republic of Turkmen SSR (USSR) 1991 Turkmenistan Trucial Oman & Trucial States 1971 United Arab Emirates French Indo-China 1949 Vietnam, Socialist Republic of Yemen, People's Democratic & Southern Yemen 1990 Yemen, Republic of Economy + Economy of AsiaDuring 2003 unless otherwise statedPopulation: 3,958,768,100 (2006 Estimate)GDP (PPP):US$18.077 trillionGDP (Currency): $8.782 trillionGDP/capita (PPP): $4,518GDP/capita (Currency): $2,143 Millionaires: 2.0 million (0.05%) Most numbers are from the UNDP from 2002, some numbers exclude certain countries for lack of information. Asia has the third largest nominal GDP of all continents, after North America and Europe, but the largest when measured in PPP. As of 2007, the largest national economy within Asia, in terms of gross domestic product (GDP), is that of China followed by that of India, Japan, South Korea and Indonesia. However, in nominal (exchange value) terms, they rank as follows: Japan, China, India, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Indonesia. Since the 1960s, South Korea had maintained the highest economic growth rate in Asia, nicknamed as an Asian tiger, becoming a newly industrialized country in the 1980s and a developed country by the 21st century. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of the PRC Five Years of China's WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism, Legal Issues of Economic Integration, Kluwer Law International, Volume 33, Number 3, pp. 263-304, 2006. by Paolo Farah and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very high growth nations in Asia include Malaysia, the Philippines, Pakistan, Vietnam, Mongolia, Uzbekistan and mineral-rich nations such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Brunei, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Oman. During the 1st millennium, India had the largest GDP at approximately 30% of the global GDP. By 1500 China had surpassed India; however, over the next four centuries the two were to alternate between 1st and 2nd largest GDP, until the British Empire (excluding India) overtook them both in the mid-19th century. Japan has had for only several dacades after WW2 the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equalled that of the USA to tie as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 yen/dollar. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim, known as the Asian tigers, which have now all received developed country status, having the highest GDP per capita in Asia. It is forecasted that the People's Republic of China will surpass Japan to have the largest nominal and PPP-adjusted GDP in Asia within a decade. India is also forecast to overtake Japan in terms of Nominal GDP by 2020. In terms of GDP per capita, both nominal and PPP-adjusted, South Korea will become the second wealthiest country in Asia by 2025, overtaking Germany, the United Kingdom and France. By 2050, according to a 2006 report by Price Waterhouse Cooper, China will have the largest economy in the world (43% greater than the United States when PPP adjusted, although perhaps smaller than the United States in nominal terms). Trade blocs Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Asia-Europe Economic Meeting Association of Southeast Asian Nations Gulf Cooperation Council Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement Commonwealth of Independent States South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Natural resources Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper, and silver. Manufacturing Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in mainland China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, India and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations, but increasingly mainland China, and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure. Financial and other services Asia has four main financial centres: Mumbai, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Tokyo. Dubai is growing fast as a financial hub for West Asia. Call centres and business process outsourcing (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India, Pakistan and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly-skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the People's Republic of China as financial centres. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing. Early history The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian steppes. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Huanghe shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states, and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate, and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. Languages and literature Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 415 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. The People's Republic of China has many languages and dialects in different provinces. Nobel prizes The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from Santiniketan, now in West Bengal, India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India. Tagore is said to have named another Bengali Indian Nobel prize winner, the 1998 laureate in Economics, Amartya Sen. Sen's work has centered around global issues including famine, welfare, and third-world development. Amartya Sen was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge University, UK, from 1998-2004, becoming the first Asian to head an 'Oxbridge' College. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prizes include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1966), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (People's Republic of China, 2000) and Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006). Also, Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma(Myanmar), and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Venkata Raman, Abdus Salam, Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Yaser Arafat, Jose Ramos Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste and Kim Dae-jung. Most of the said awardees are from Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Salam (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), and Kim (South Korea). In 2006, Dr. Mohammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his Ph.D. in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitutes with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low. Beliefs Mythology Asian mythology is diverse. The story is first found in Mesopotamian mythology, in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Hindu mythology tells about an avatar of God Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood. In ancient Chinese mythology, Shan Hai Jing, the Chinese ruler Da Yu, had to spend 10 years to control a deluge which swept out most of ancient China and was aided by the goddess Nüwa who literally fixed the broken sky through which huge rains were pouring. Religions Asian philosophical traditions originated in India and cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, Cārvāka, preached the enjoyment of material world. Christianity is also present in most Asian countries. Abrahamic The Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam originated in West Asia. Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel (which has either the largest or second largest Jewish population in the world), though small communities exist in other countries, such as the Bene Israel in India. In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Armenia, Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion. Various Christian denominations have adherents in portions of the Middle East, as well as China and India. The world's largest Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in Indonesia. South Asia (mainly Pakistan, India and Bangladesh) holds 30% of Muslims. There are also significant Muslim populations in China, Iran, Malaysia, the Philippines, Russia and most of West Asia and Central Asia. Asia is the biggest out of all. Dharmic & Taoist The religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape. During the 20th century, in the two most populous countries of Asia, two dramatically different political philosophies took shape. Gandhi gave a new meaning to Ahimsa, and redefined the concepts of nonviolence and nonresistance. Other Other religions of Asia include Zoroastrianism and Shamanism practiced in Iran and Siberia respectively, Shintoism practiced in Japan (usually with Buddhism) and Animism practiced in the eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia. See also References "Asia". The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online. 2005. New York: Columbia University Press. World Conflicts: Asia and the Middle East . Edited by Carl L. Bankston III. New York: Salem Press. Further reading Reference works Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. Kamal,Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi:Wordsmith,2002, ISBN 81-87412-08-9 External links (European Digital Archive on the Soil Maps of the World - EuDASM) Map Asia Maps of Asia from the Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library Philp Bowring, "What is Asia?" (Columbia University Asia For Educators), Niraj Kumar, 'Asia's Swan song"[www.ariseasia.blogspot.com] be-x-old:Азія

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Naval_mine

Polish wz. 08/39 contact mine. The protuberances around the top of the mine, called Hertz horns, are part of the detonation mechanism. A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to destroy ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of or contact with an enemy ship. Naval mines can be used offensively, to hamper enemy ships or lock them into a harbour; or defensively, to protect friendly ships and create "safe" zones. Mines can be laid in many ways: by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines, or aircraft—and even by dropping them into a harbour by hand. They can be inexpensive: some variants can cost as little as a thousand United States dollars (USD), although more sophisticated mines can cost millions of USD, be equipped with several kinds of sensors, and deliver a warhead by rocket or torpedo. Their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive weapons to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0.5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, and it can take up to 200 times as long to clear a minefield as to lay it. Parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist, because they are too extensive and expensive to clear; some of these mines might remain dangerous for hundreds of years. There are three main uses of mines: offensive, defensive, and psychological. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and in important shipping routes to sink civilian and military ships. Defensive minefields protect a coast from enemy ships and submarines and force them into areas that are easier to defend. Minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed in trade routes and are used to stop shipping to an enemy nation. They are also spread out thinly, to create a feeling of random minefields in large areas. A single mine along a shipping route can stop shipping for days until the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, in order to make it easier for civil shipping to avoid the mines. The warnings do not have to be specific; during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. In 1988, an Iranian M-08 mine made a hole in the hull of the , forcing the ship to seek temporary repairs in a dry dock in Dubai, UAE. [[Image:Ffg58minedamage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Closeup of the [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)|Roberts]] damaged hull.]] History A 14th century drawn illustration of a naval mine and page description from the Huolongjing. Infernal machines in the Potomac River in 1861 during the American Civil War, sketch by Alfred Waud. The precursor to naval mines was first described by the early Ming Dynasty Chinese artillery officer Jiao Yu, in his 14th century military treatise known as the Huolongjing. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 203-205. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates (Wokou). This kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed by putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives to harass Japanese pirate ships. However, in the Tiangong Kaiwu ('The Exploitation of the Works of Nature') treatise, written by Song Yingxing in 1637 AD, it describes naval mines with a rip cord pulled by a hidden ambusher located on the nearby shore which rotated a steel wheellock flint mechanism to produce sparks and ignite the fuse of the naval mine. Although this is the rotating steel wheellock's first use with naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 199. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, who presented his design to Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1574. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 205. The Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a "floating petard" which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627. American David Bushnell invented the first practical mine, for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy, detonated by a percussion lock if it struck a ship. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded an underwater mine using an electrical circuit. In 1854, during the unsuccessful attempt of the Anglo-French fleet to seize Kronshtadt fortress, British steamships HMS Merlin, HMS Vulture and HMS Firefly were damaged by underwater explosions of Russian naval mines. More than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi were set by Russian naval specialists in the Gulf of Finland during the Crimean War. The American Civil War saw the first successful Western use of mines by both sides. The first ship sunk by a mine was the USS Cairo in 1862 in the Yazoo River. Rear Admiral David Farragut's famous statement, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!" refers to a minefield laid at Mobile, Alabama. In the 19th century, mines were called torpedoes, a name probably conferred by Dennis Fletcher after the torpedo fish, which gives powerful electric shocks. A spar torpedo was a mine attached to a long pole and detonated when the ship carrying it rammed another one. The H. L. Hunley used one to sink the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864. A Harvey Torpedo was a type of floating mine towed alongside a ship, and was briefly in service in the Royal Navy in the 1870s. Other "torpedoes" attached to ships or propelled themselves. One such weapon, called the Whitehead Torpedo after its inventor, caused the word "torpedo" to be used for self-propelled underwater missiles rather than static devices. The next major use of mines was in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, sinking the Russian battleship Petropavlovsk, killing the fleet commander, Admiral Makaroff, and most of the crew. On the other side, two Japanese battleships were sunk by Russian mines in one day. Many early mines were fragile and dangerous to handle, with glass containers filled with nitroglycerin or mechanical devices that activated them upon tipping. Several mine-laying ships were destroyed when their cargo exploded. The U-boat fleet, which dominated much of the battle of the Atlantic, was small at the beginning of the war and much of the early action by German forces involved mining convoy routes and ports around Britain. The German submarines also operated in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the U.S. coast. Initially contact mines were employed — meaning that a ship had to physically strike a mine to detonate it — usually tethered at the end of a cable just below the surface of the water. By the beginning of World War II most nations had developed mines that could be dropped from aircraft and floated on the surface, making it possible to lay them in enemy harbors. The use of dredging and nets was effective against this type of mine, but this consumed time and resources, and required harbors to be closed. Contact mines usually hole ship's hulls. Later some ships survived mine blasts, limping into port with buckled plates and broken backs. This appeared to be due to a new type of mine, detecting ships magnetically and detonating at a distance, causing damage with the shock wave of the explosion. Ships that had successfully run the gauntlet of the Atlantic crossing were sometimes destroyed entering freshly cleared British harbors. More shipping was being lost than could be replaced, and Churchill ordered that the intact recovery of one of these new mines was of the highest priority. The British experienced a stroke of luck in November 1939. A German mine was dropped from an aircraft onto the mud flats of the Thames estuary during low tide. As if this was not sufficiently good fortune, the land belonged to the army, and a base with men and workshops was at hand. Experts were dispatched from London to investigate the mine. They had some idea that the mines used magnetic sensors, so everyone removed all metal, including their buttons, and made tools of non-magnetic brass. They disarmed the mine and rushed it to labs at Portsmouth, where scientists discovered a new type of arming mechanism. A large ferrous object passing through the Earth's magnetic field will concentrate the field through it; the mine's detector was designed to trigger at the mid-point of a steel-hulled ship passing overhead. The mechanism had an adjustable sensitivity, calibrated in milligauss. From these data, methods were developed to clear the mines. Early methods included the use of large electromagnets dragged behind ships or below low-flying aircraft (a number of older bombers like the Vickers Wellington were used for this). Both of these methods had the disadvantage of "sweeping" only a small strip. A better solution was found in the "Double-L Sweep" using electrical cables dragged behind ships that passed large pulses of current through the seawater. This induced a large magnetic field and swept the entire area between the two ships. The older methods continued to be used in smaller areas. The Suez Canal continued to be swept by aircraft, for instance. While these methods were useful for clearing mines from local ports, they were of little or no use for enemy-controlled areas. These were typically visited by warships, and the majority of the fleet then underwent a massive degaussing process, where their hulls had a slight "south" bias induced into them which offset the concentration effect almost to zero. Initially, major warships and large troopships had a copper degaussing coil fitted around the perimeter of the hull, energized by the ship's electrical system whenever in suspected magnetic-mined waters. Some of the first to be so-fitted were the carrier HMS Ark Royal and the liners and , which were used as troopships. This was felt to be impracticable for the myriad of smaller warships and merchant vessels, not least due to the amount of copper that would be required. It was found that "wiping" a current-carrying cable up and down a ship' hull temporarily canceled the ships' magnetic signature sufficiently to nullify the threat. This started in late 1939, and by 1940 merchant vessels and the smaller British warships were largely immune for a few months at a time until they once again built up a field. Many of the boats that sailed to Dunkirk were degaussed in a marathon four day effort by degaussing stations. The Germans had also developed a pressure-activated mine and planned to deploy it as well, but they saved it for later use when it became clear the British had defeated the magnetic system. Since World War II, mines have damaged 14 United States Navy ships, whereas air and missile attacks have damaged four. During the Korean War, mines laid by North Korean forces damaged 11 U.S. naval vessels. During the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, the belligerents mined several areas of the Persian Gulf and nearby waters. On April 14, 1988, the USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58) struck an Iranian M-08/39 mine in the central Persian Gulf shipping lane, wounding 10 sailors. During the Gulf War, Iraqi naval mines severely damaged USS Princeton (CG-59) and USS Tripoli (LPH-10). Types Naval mines may be classified into two major groups. Contact mines The earliest mines were usually of this type. They are still used today, as they are extremely low cost compared to any other anti-ship weapon and are effective, both as a terror weapon and to sink enemy ships. Contact mines need to be very close to the target before they detonate, limiting the damage to the direct effects of the explosion and usually affecting only the single vessel that triggers them. (Read the section on damage below for explanation). Early mines had mechanical mechanisms to detonate them, but these were superseded in the 1870s by the Hertz Horn (or chemical horn), which was found to work reliably even after the mine had been in the sea for several years. The mine's upper half is studded with hollow lead protuberances, each containing a glass vial filled with sulfuric acid. When a ship's hull crushes the metal horn, it cracks the vial inside it, allowing the acid to run down a tube and into a lead-acid battery which until then contains no acid electrolyte. This energizes the battery, which detonates the explosive. Earlier forms of the detonator used a vial filled with sulfuric acid, surrounded by a mixture of potassium perchlorate and sugar. When the vial was crushed, the acid ignited the perchlorate-sugar mix, and the resulting flame ignited the gunpowder charge. During World War I the British heavily mined the English Channel and later large areas of the North Sea to prevent German submarines from using it. As the submarine could be at any depth down to the seabed, an American invention, the antenna mine, was widely used. This had a copper wire attached to a buoy that floated above the mine. The top part of the cable connecting the mine to the weight on the seabed was also made of copper. The copper wire was insulated from the steel cable below it. If a submarine's steel hull touched the copper wire, the slight voltage produced because of the contact between two dissimilar metals was amplified and detonated the explosive. Limpet mines Limpet mines are a special form of contact mine which are attached to the target by magnets and left, and are so named because of the superficial similarity to the limpet, a mollusk. Moored contact mines A German contact mine laid in Australian waters during World War II Generally, this mine type is set to float just below the surface of the water or as deep as five meters. A steel cable connecting the mine to an anchor on the seabed prevents it from drifting away. The explosive and detonating mechanism is contained in a buoyant metal or plastic shell. The depth below the surface at which the mine floats can be set so that only deep draft vessels such as aircraft carriers, battleships or large cargo ships are at risk, saving the mine from being used on a less valuable target. In littoral waters it is important to ensure that the mine does not become visible when the sea level falls at low tide, so the preset cable length is adjusted to take account of tides. Even at the time of the Second World War there were mines which could be moored in 300-metre-deep water. Floating mines typically have a mass of around 200 kg, including 80 kg of explosives e.g. TNT, minol or amatol. During WWII mine traps were used for blocking port entrances. Two floating mines were anchored some distance apart on either side of a shipping channel, linked by a chain. When a deep draft vessel passed through the trap it would pull the chain along with it, dragging the mines onto the sides of the ship; the resulting double explosion often sank it. This system was not used extensively, but proved effective in blocking ports. Drifting contact mines Drifting mines were occasionally used during World War I and World War II. However, they were more feared than effective. Sometimes floating mines break from their moorings and become drifting mines; modern mines are designed to deactivate in this event. After several years at sea, the deactivation mechanism might not function as intended and the mines may remain live. Admiral Jellicoe's British fleet did not pursue and destroy the outnumbered German High Seas Fleet when it turned away at the Battle of Jutland because he thought they were leading him into a trap: he believed it possible that the Germans were either leaving floating mines in their wake, or were drawing him towards submarines, although neither of these was the case. Churchill promoted "Operation Royal Marine" in 1940 and again in 1944 where floating mines were put into the Rhine in France to float down the river, becoming active after a time calculated to be long enough to reach German territory. After World War I the drifting contact mine was banned, but was occasionally used during World War II. The drifting mines were much harder to remove than tethered mines after the war, and they caused about the same damage to both sides. Bottom contact mines A bottom contact mine is the simplest form of mine. It is merely an explosive charge with some form of fuze fitted lying on the seafloor. They have been used against submarines, as submarines sometimes lie on the seafloor to reduce their acoustic signature. They are also used to prevent landing craft from reaching the shore and were a major obstacle during the D-Day landings. The Germans used antitank mines here with minor modifications to make them more reliable underwater, attaching the mines to the front of many of the obstacles seen in photos of the landing. These mines usually weighed 2 to 50 kg, including 1 to 40 kg of explosives (TNT or hexatonal). Remotely controlled mines Frequently used in combination with coastal artillery and hydrophones, remote controlled (or command detonation) mines can be in place in peacetime, which is a huge advantage in blocking important shipping routes. The mines can usually be turned into "normal" mines with a switch (which prevents the enemy from simply capturing the controlling station and deactivating the mines), detonated on a signal or be allowed to detonate on their own. The earliest ones were developed around 1812 by Robert Fulton. The first remotely controlled mines were moored mines used in the American Civil War, detonated electrically from shore. They were considered superior to contact mines because they did not put friendly shipping at risk. Modern examples usually weigh 200 kg (440 lb), including 80 kg (175 lb) of explosives (TNT or hexatonal). Influence mines These mines are triggered by the influence of a ship or submarine, rather than direct contact. Such mines incorporate electronic sensors designed to detect the presence of a vessel and detonate when it comes within the blast range of the warhead. The fuzes on such mines may incorporate one or more of the following sensors: magnetic, passive acoustic or water pressure displacement caused by the proximity of a vessel. First used during the Second World War, the sophistication of influence mine fuzes has increased considerably over the years as first transistors and then microprocessors have been incorporated into designs. Simple magnetic sensors have been superseded by total-field magnetometers. Whereas early magnetic mine fuzes would respond only to changes in a single component of a target vessel's magnetic field, a total field magnetometer responds to changes in the magnitude of the total background field. Similarly, the original broadband hydrophones of 1940s acoustic mines (which operate on the integrated volume of all frequencies) have been replaced by narrow-band sensors which are much more sensitive and selective. Mines can now be programmed to listen for highly specific acoustic signatures (e.g. a gas turbine powerplant and/or cavitation sounds from a particular design of propellor) and ignore all others. The sophistication of modern electronic mine fuzes incorporating these Digital Signal Processing capabilities makes it much more difficult to detonate the mine with electronic countermeasures because several sensors working together (e.g. magnetic, passive acoustic and water pressure) allow it to ignore signals which are not recognised as being the signature of an intended target vessel. Modern influence mines such as the BAE Stonefish are computerised, with all the programmability that this implies e.g. the ability to quickly load new acoustic signatures into fuzes, or program them to detect a single, highly distinctive target signature. In this way, a mine with a passive acoustic fuze can be programmed to ignore all friendly vessels and small enemy vessels, only detonating when a very large enemy target passes over it. Alternatively, the mine can be programmed specifically to ignore all surface vessels regardless of size and exclusively target submarines. Even as far back as the Second World War it was possible to incorporate a "ship counter" facility into mine fuzes e.g. set the mine to ignore the first two ships to pass over it (which could be mine-sweepers deliberately trying to trigger mines) but detonate when the third ship passes overhead—which could be a high-value target such as an aircraft carrier or oil tanker. Even though modern mines are generally powered by a long life lithium battery, it is important to conserve power because they may need to remain active for months or even years. For this reason, most influence mines are designed to remain in a semi-dormant state until an unpowered (e.g. deflection of a magnetic compass needle) or low-powered sensor detects the possible presence of a vessel, at which point the mine fuze powers up fully and the passive acoustic sensors will begin to operate for some minutes. It is possible to program computerised mines to delay activation for days or weeks after being laid; similarly, they can be programmed to self-destruct or render themselves safe after a preset period of time, e.g., 12 days or 12 months. Generally, the more sophisticated the mine design, the more likely it is to have some form of anti-handling device fitted in order to hinder clearance by divers or remotely piloted submersibles. Moored mines The moored mine is the backbone of modern mine systems. They are deployed where water is too deep for bottom mines. They can use several kinds of instruments to detect an enemy, usually a combination of acoustic, magnetic and pressure sensors, or more sophisticated optical shadows or electro potential sensors. These cost many times more than contact mines. Moored mines are effective against most kinds of ships. As they are cheaper than other anti-ship weapons they can be deployed in large numbers, making them useful area denial or "channelizing" weapons. Moored mines usually have lifetimes of more than 10 years, and some almost unlimited. These mines usually weigh 200 kg (440 lb), including 80 kg (175 lb) of explosives (hexatonal). In excess of 150 kg (330 lb) of explosives the mine becomes inefficient, as it becomes too large to handle and the extra explosives add little to the mine's effectiveness. Bottom mines Bottom mines are used when the water is no more than 60 meters (180 ft) deep or when mining for submarines down to around 200 meters (660 ft). They are much harder to detect and sweep, and can carry a much larger warhead than a moored mine. Bottom mines commonly use pressure sensitive exploders, which are less sensitive to sweeping. These mines usually weigh between 150 and 1,500 kilograms (330 to 3,300 pounds), including between 125 and 1,400 kg (275 to 3,090 pounds) of explosives. Unusual mines Several specialized mines have been developed for other purposes than the common minefield. Anti sweep mine The anti sweep mine is a very small mine (40 kg warhead) with as small a floating device as possible. When the wire of a mine sweep hits the mine, it "sinks", letting the sweep wire drag along the anchoring wire of the mine until the sweep hits the mine. That detonates the mine and cuts the sweeping wire. They are very cheap and usually used in combination with other mines in a minefield to make sweeping more difficult. Rocket mine A Russian invention, the rocket mine is a bottom distance mine that fires a homing high-speed rocket (not torpedo) upwards towards the target. It is intended to allow a bottom mine to attack surface ships as well as submarines from a greater depth. Torpedo mine The torpedo mine is a self-propelled variety, able to lie in wait for a target and then pursue it e.g. the CAPTOR mine. Other designs such as the Mk 67 Submarine Launched Mobile Mine http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/weaps/mk-67.htm (which is based on a Mark 37 torpedo) are capable of swimming as far as 10 miles through or into a channel, harbor, shallow water area and other zones which would normally be inaccessible to craft laying the device. After reaching the target area they sink to the sea bed and act like conventionally laid influence mines. Generally, torpedo mines incorporate computerised acoustic and magnetic fuzes. The U.S. Mark 24 "mine", code-named FIDO, was actually an ASW homing torpedo. The mine designation was disinformation to conceal its function. Bouquet mine The bouquet mine is a single anchor attached to several floating mines. It is designed so that when one mine is swept/detonated, another takes its place. It is a very sensitive construction and lacks reliability. Ascending mine The ascending mine is a floating distance mine that may cut its mooring or in some other way float higher when it detects a target. It lets a single floating mine cover a much larger depth range. Daisy-chained mine This comprises two moored, floating contact mines which are tethered together by a length of steel cable or chain. Typically, each mine is situated approximately away from its neighbour, and each floats a few metres below the surface of the ocean. When the target ship hits the steel cable, the mines on either side are drawn down the side of the ship's hull, exploding on contact. In this manner it is almost impossible for target ships to pass safely between two individually moored mines. Daisy-chained mines are a very simple concept which was used during the Second World War. Dummy mine Plastic drums filled with sand or concrete are periodically rolled off the side of ships as real mines are laid in large mine-fields. These inexpensive false targets (designed to be of a similar shape and size as genuine mines) are intended to slow down the process of mine clearance: a mine-hunter is forced to investigate each suspicious sonar contact on the sea bed, whether it is real or not. Mine laying Historically several methods were used to lay mines. During the First and Second World Wars, the Germans used U-boats to lay mines around the UK. In the Second World War, aircraft came into favour for mine laying with the one of largest such examples being the mining of the Japanese sea routes in Operation Starvation. Laying a minefield is a relatively fast process with specialized ships, which is still today the most common method. These minelayers can carry several thousand mines and manoeuvre with high precision. The mines are dropped at a predefined interval into the water behind the ship. Each mine is recorded for later clearing, but it is not unusual for these recordings to be lost together with the ships. Therefore many countries demand that all mining operations shall be planned on land and records kept so the mines can later be recovered more easily. Other methods to lay minefields include: Converted merchant ships - rolled or slid down ramps Aircraft - descent to the water is slowed by a parachute Submarines - launched from torpedo tubes or deployed from specialized mine racks on the sides of the submarine Combat boats - rolled off the side of the boat Camouflaged boats - masquerading as fishing boats Dropping from the shore - typically smaller, shallow-water mines Attack divers - smaller shallow-water mines In some cases, mines are automatically activated upon contact with the water. In others, a safety lanyard is pulled (e.g. one end attached to the rail of a ship, aircraft or torpedo tube) which starts an automatic timer countdown before the arming process is complete. Typically, the automatic safety-arming process takes some minutes to complete. This is in order to give the people laying the mines sufficient time to move out of its activation/blast zone. Aerial mining in World War II Germany In the 1930s, Germany had experimented with the laying of mines by aircraft; it became a crucial element in their overall mining strategy. Aircraft had the advantage of speed, and they would never get caught in their own minefields. German mines held a large 1,000 lb. (450 kg) explosive charge. From April to June 1940, the Luftwaffe laid 1,000 mines in British waters. Soviet ports were mined, as was the Arctic convoy route to Murmansk. The Heinkel He 115 could carry two medium or one large mine while the Heinkel He 59, Dornier Do 18, Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 could carry more. Soviet Union The USSR was relatively ineffective in its use of naval mines in WWII in comparison with its record in previous wars. Small mines were developed for use in rivers and lakes, and special mines for shallow water. A very large chemical mine was designed to sink through ice with the aid of a melting compound. Special aerial mine designs finally arrived in 1943-1944, the AMD-500 and AMD-1000. Rusnavy.com. The Soviet Navy at the Outbreak and During the Great Patriotic War: Introduction Various Soviet Naval Aviation torpedo bombers were pressed into the role of aerial mining in the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, including Ilyushin DB-3s, Il-4s and Lend Lease Douglas Boston IIIs. George Mellinger. Sovet Air Forces "Autumn Storm" Air Order of Battle (2001) United Kingdom In September 1939, the UK announced the placement of extensive defensive minefields in waters surrounding the Home Islands. Offensive aerial mining operations began in April 1940 when 38 mines were laid at each of these locations: the Elbe River, the port of Lübeck and the German naval base at Kiel. In the next 20 months, mines delivered by aircraft sank or damaged 164 Axis ships with the loss of 94 aircraft. By comparison, direct aerial attacks on Axis shipping had sunk or damaged 105 vessels at a cost of 373 aircraft lost. The advantage of aerial mining became clear. The United Kingdom geared up for mining; a total of 48,000 aerial mines were laid by the Royal Air Force (RAF) in the European Theatre during World War II. United States The United States's early aerial mining efforts used smaller aircraft that are unable to carry many mines. Using TBF Avenger torpedo bombers, the US Navy mounted a direct aerial mining attack on enemy shipping in Palau on 30 March 1944 in concert with simultaneous conventional bombing and strafing attacks. The dropping of 78 mines stopped 32 Japanese ships from escaping Koror harbor; the combined operation sank or damaged 36 ships. National Park Service. Peleliu. Appendices. Two Avengers were lost; their crews were recovered. The mines brought port usage to a halt for 20 days; further mine-laying in the area contributed to the Japanese abandoning Palau as a base. As early as 1942, American mining experts such as Naval Ordnance Laboratory scientist Dr. Ellis A. Johnson, Commander, Naval Reserve, suggested massive aerial mining operations against Japan's "outer zone" (Korea and northern China) as well as the "inner zone", their home islands. First, aerial mines would have to be developed further and manufactured in large numbers. Second, laying the mines would require a sizable air group. The US Army Air Force had the carrying capacity but considered mining to be the Navy's job. The US Navy lacked suitable aircraft. Johnson set about convincing General Curtis LeMay of the efficacy of very heavy bombers laying aerial mines. In the meantime, B-24 Liberator, PBY Catalina and other available bomber aircraft took part in localized mining operations in the Southwest Pacific and the China Burma India (CBI) Theaters, beginning with a very successful attack on the Yangon River in February 1943. Aerial minelaying operations involved a coalition of British, Australian and American aircrews, with the RAF and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) carrying out 60% of the sorties and the USAAF and US Navy covering 40%. Both British and American mines were used. Japanese merchant shipping suffered tremendous losses, while Japanese mine sweeping forces were spread too thin attending to far-flung ports and extensive coastlines. Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, who directed nearly all RAAF mining operations in CBI, heartily endorsed aerial mining, writing in July 1944 that "aerial mining operations were of the order of 100 times as destructive to the enemy as an equal number of bombing missions against land targets." Finally, in March 1945, Operation Starvation began in earnest, using 160 of LeMay's B-29 Superfortress bombers to attack Japan's inner zone. Almost half of the mines were the US-built Mark 25 model, carrying 1250 lbs of explosives and weighing about 2,000 lbs. Other mines used included the smaller 1,000 lb Mark 26. 15 B-29s were lost while 293 enemy merchant ships were sunk or damaged. The United States Strategic Bombing Surveys (European War) (Pacific War) 12,000 aerial mines were laid, a significant barrier to Japan's access to outside resources. Prince Fumimaro Konoe said after the war that the aerial mining by B-29s had been "equally as effective as the B-29 attacks on Japanese industry at the closing stages of the war when all food supplies and critical material were prevented from reaching the Japanese home islands." The United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War) concluded that it would have been more efficient to combine the United States's effective anti-shipping submarine effort with land- and carrier-based air power to strike harder against merchant shipping and begin a more extensive aerial mining campaign earlier in the war. Survey analysts projected that this would have starved Japan, forcing an earlier end to the war. United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War). July 1, 1946 After the war, Dr. Johnson looked at the Japan inner zone shipping results, comparing the total economic cost of submarine-delivered mines versus air-dropped mines and found that, though 1 in 12 submarine mines connected with the enemy as opposed to 1 in 21 for aircraft mines, the aerial mining operation was about ten times less expensive per enemy ton sunk. Clearing WWII aerial mines Between 600,000 and 1,000,000 naval mines of all types were laid in World War II. Advancing military forces worked to clear mines from newly-taken areas, but extensive minefields remained in place after the war. Air-dropped mines had an additional problem for mine sweeping operations: they weren't meticulously charted. In Japan, much of the B-29 mine-laying work had been performed at high altitude, with the drifting on the wind of mines carried by parachute adding a randomizing factor to their placement. Generalized danger areas were identified, with only the quantity of mines given in detail. Mines used in Operation Starvation were supposed to be self-sterilizing, but the circuit did not always work. Clearing the mines took so many years that the task was eventually given to the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force. For the purpose of mine clearing, the Royal Navy employed German crews and minesweepers from June 1945 to January 1948, German Mine Sweeping Administration (GMSA) (in German), accessed: 9 June 2008 organised in the German Mine Sweeping Administration, the GMSA, which consisted of 27,000 members of the former Kriegsmarine and 300 vessels. Google book review: German Seaman 1939-45 Page: 41, author: Gordon Williamson, John White, publisher: Osprey Publishing, accessed: 9 July 2008 Damage The damage that may be caused by a mine depends on the "shock factor value", a combination of the initial strength of the explosion and of the distance between the target and the detonation. When taken in reference to ship hull plating, the term "Hull Shock Factor" (HSF) is used, while keel damage is termed "Keel Shock Factor" (KSF). If the explosion is directly underneath the keel, then HSF is equal to KSF, but explosions that are not directly underneath the ship will have a lower value of KSF. Direct damage Usually only created by contact mines, direct damage is a hole blown in the ship. Among the crew, shrapnel wounds are the most common form of damage. This rarely sinks the ship, but might flood one or two compartments – usually in the bow. Bubble jet effect The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine detonates in the water some distance away from the ship. The explosion creates a "hole" in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, this sphere will collapse from the bottom. This creates a "pillar" of water that can go over a hundred meters into the air. The damage to the ship is heavy. The water breaks a meter wide hole straight through the ship, flooding one or more compartments, and might break the ship apart. The crew in the areas hit by the pillar are usually killed instantly. Other damage is usually limited. Shaking effect If the mine detonates at a distance from the ship, the change in water pressure causes the ship to resonate. This is frequently the most deadly type of explosion, if it is strong enough. The whole ship is dangerously shaken and everything onboard is tossed around. Engines rip from their beds, cables from their holders, etc. A badly shaken ship usually sinks quickly, with hundreds, or even thousands of small leaks all over the ship and no way to power the pumps. The crew fare no better, as the violent shaking tosses them around. Department of Defence. Defence Science and Technology Organisation. Warren D. Reid, The Response of Surface Ships to Underwater Explosions. DSTO-GD-0109, September 1996. Ship Structures and Materials Division, Aeronautical and Maritime Research Laboratory. Retrieved March 16, 2009. The resulting gas cavitation and shock-front-differential over the width of the human body will stun or kill the divers. Countermeasures Weapons are frequently a few steps ahead of countermeasures, and mines are no exception. In this field the British, with their large seagoing navy, have had the bulk of world experience, and most anti-mine developments, such as de-gaussing and the double-L sweep were British inventions. When on operational missions, such as the recent invasion of Iraq, the US still rely on British and Canadian minesweeping services. The US have worked on some innovative mine hunting countermeasures, such as the use of military dolphins to detect and flag mines. However, they are of questionable effectiveness. Passive countermeasures Ships can be designed to be difficult for mines to detect, to avoid detonating them. This is especially true for minesweepers and mine hunters that work in minefields, where a minimal signature outweighs the need for armour and speed. These ships have hulls of glass fibre or wood instead of steel to avoid magnetic signatures, they use special propulsion systems, such as Voith-Schneider propellers, to limit the acoustic signature. They are built with hulls that produce a minimal pressure signature. These measures create other problems. They are expensive, slow, and vulnerable to enemy fire. Therefore, they need protection. Many modern ships have a mine-warning sonar—a simple sonar looking forward and warning the crew if it detects possible mines ahead. It is only effective when the ship is moving slowly. A steel-hulled ship can be degaussed (more correctly, deoerstedted or depermed) using a special degaussing station that contains many large coils and induces a magnetic field in the hull with alternating current to demagnetize the hull. This is a rather problematic solution, as magnetic compasses need recalibration and all metal objects must be kept in exactly the same place. Ships slowly regain their magnetic field as they travel through the Earth's magnetic field, so the process has to be repeated every six months. A simpler variation of this technique, called wiping, was developed by Charles F. Goodeve which saved time and resources. Between 1941 and 1943 the US Naval Gun factory (a division of the Naval Ordinance Laboratory) in Washington D.C. built physical models of all US Naval ships. Three kinds of steel were used in shipbuilding: mild steel for bulkheads, a mixture of mild steel and high tensile steel for the hull, and special treatment steel for armor plate. The models were placed within coils which could simulate the Earth's magnetic field at any location. The magnetic signatures were measured with degaussing coils. The objective was to reduce the vertical component of the combination of the Earth's field and the ship's field at the usual depth of German mines. From the measurements, coils were placed and coil currents determined to minimize the chance of detonation for any ship at any heading at any latitude. Some ships are built with magnetic inductors, large coils placed along the ship to counter the ship's magnetic field. Using magnetic probes in strategic parts of the ship, the strength of the current in the coils can be adjusted to minimize the total magnetic field. This is a heavy and clumsy solution, suited only to smaller ships. Active countermeasures Active countermeasures are ways to clear a path through a minefield or remove it completely. This is one of the most important tasks of any mine warfare flotilla. Mine sweeping An MH-53E from HM-15 tows a minesweeping sled while conducting simulated mine clearing operations Minesweeper USS Tide (AM-125) after striking a mine off Utah Beach, 7 June 1944. Note her broken back, with smoke pouring from amidships. A sweep is either a contact sweep, a wire dragged through the water by one or two ships to cut the mooring wire of floating mines, or a distance sweep that mimics a ship to detonate the mines. The sweeps are dragged by minesweepers, either purpose-built military ships or converted trawlers. Each run covers between one and two hundred meters, and the ships must move slowly in a straight line, making them vulnerable to enemy fire. This was exploited by the Turkish army in the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915, when mobile howitzer batteries prevented the British and French from clearing a way through minefields. If a contact sweep hits a mine, the wire of the sweep rubs against the mooring wire until it is cut. Sometimes "cutters", explosive devices to cut the mine's wire, are used to lessen the strain on the sweeping wire. Mines cut free are recorded and collected for research or shot with a deck gun. Minesweepers protect themselves with an oropesa or paravane instead of a second minesweeper. These are torpedo-shaped towed bodies, similar in shape to a Harvey Torpedo, that are streamed from the sweeping vessel thus keeping the sweep at a determined depth and position. Some large warships were routinely equipped with paravane sweeps near the bows in case they inadvertently sailed into minefields — the mine would be deflected towards the paravane by the wire instead of towards the ship by its wake. More recently, heavy-lift helicopters have dragged minesweeping sleds, as in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The distance sweep mimics the sound and magnetism of a ship and is pulled behind the sweeper. It has floating coils and large underwater drums. It is the only sweep effective against bottom mines. During the Second World War, RAF Coastal Command used Vickers Wellington bombers fitted with degaussing coils to trigger magnetic mines. Modern influence mines are designed to discriminate against false inputs and are therefore much harder to sweep. They often contain inherent anti-sweeping mechanisms. For example, they may be programmed to respond to the unique noise of a particular ship-type, its associated magnetic signature and the typical pressure displacement of such a vessel. As a result, a mine-sweeper must accurately guess and mimic the required target signature in order to trigger detonation. The task is complicated by the fact that an influence mine may have one or more of a hundred different potential target signatures programmed into it. Another anti-sweeping mechanism is a ship-counter in the mine fuze. When enabled, this allows detonation only after the mine fuze has been triggered a pre-set number of times. To further complicate matters, influence mines may be programmed to arm themselves (or disarm automatically—known as self-sterilization) after a pre-set time. During the pre-set arming delay (which could last days or even weeks) the mine would remain dormant and ignore any target stimulus, whether genuine or faked. When influence mines are laid in an ocean minefield, they may have various combinations of fuze settings configured. For example, some mines (with the acoustic sensor enabled) may become active within three hours of being laid, others (with the acoustic and magnetic sensors enabled) may become active after two weeks but have the ship-counter mechanism set to ignore the first two trigger events, and still others in the same minefield (with the magnetic and pressure sensors enabled) may not become armed until three weeks have passed. Groups of mines within this mine-field may have different target signatures which may or may not overlap. The fuzes on influence mines allow many different permutations, which complicates the clearance process. Mines with ship-counters, arming delays and highly specific target signatures in mine fuzes can falsely convince a belligerent that a particular area is clear of mines or has been swept effectively because a succession of vessels have already passed through safely. Mine hunting Pinguin B3 mine hunting drone, such are operated from Frankenthal class mine hunters of the German Navy Mine hunting is very different from sweeping, although some minehunters can do both tasks. Mines are hunted using sonar, then inspected and destroyed either by divers or ROVs (remote controlled unmanned mini submarines). It is slow, but also the most reliable way to remove mines. Mine hunting started during the Second World War, but it was only after the war that it became truly effective. Sea mammals (mainly the Bottlenose Dolphin) have been trained to hunt and mark mines, most famously by the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. Mine-clearance dolphins were deployed in the Persian Gulf during the Iraq War in 2003. The Navy claims that these dolphins were effective in helping to clear more than 100 antiship mines and underwater booby traps from Umm Qasr Port. Uncle Sam's Dolphins. Smithsonian Magazine article about the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program's mine-clearance work in Iraq. French naval officer Jacques Yves Cousteau's Undersea Research Group was once involved in mine-hunting operations: They removed or detonated a variety of German mines, but one particularly nasty batch—equipped with acutely sensitive pressure, magnetic, and acoustic sensors and wired together so that one explosion would trigger the rest — was simply left undisturbed for years until corrosion would (hopefully) disable the mines. Cousteau, Jacques Yves. The Silent World, p. 58. New York: 1953, Harper & Row. ) Mine breaking A more drastic method is simply to load a cargo ship with cargo that makes her less vulnerable to sinking (wood for example) and drive her through the minefield, letting the ship to be protected follow the same path. This method was employed by the German Kriegsmarine during WWII, using converted ships known as Sperrbrecher ("barrage breaker"). Alternatively, a shallow draught vessel can be steamed through the minefield at high speed to generate a pressure wave sufficient to trigger mines, with the minesweeper moving fast enough to be sufficiently clear of the pressure wave so that triggered mines do not destroy the ship itself. These techniques are the only way to sweep pressure mines. The technique can be simply countered by use of a ship-counter, set to allow a certain number of passes before the mine is actually triggered. Modern doctrine calls for ground mines to be hunted rather than swept. Seehund ROVs of the German Navy used for minesweeping/breaking An updated form of mine breaking is the use of small unmanned ROVs that simulate the acoustic and magnetic signatures of larger ships and are built to survive exploding mines. Repeated sweeps would be required in case one or more of the mines had its "ship counter" facility enabled i.e. were programmed to ignore the first 2, 3, or even 6 target activations. National arsenals US Mines The United States Navy MK56 ASW mine (the oldest still in use by the US) was developed in 1966. More advanced mines include the MK60 CAPTOR (short for "encapsulated torpedo"), the MK62 and MK63 Quickstrike and the MK67 SLMM (Submarine Launched Mobile Mine). Today, most U.S. naval mines are delivered by aircraft. MK67 SLMM Submarine Launched Mobile Mine The SLMM was developed by the United States as a submarine deployed mine for use in areas inaccessible for other mine deployment techniques or for covert mining of hostile environments. The SLMM is a shallow-water mine and is basically a modified Mark 37 torpedo.General characteristicsType: Submarine-laid bottom mine Detection System: Magnetic/seismic/pressure target detection devices (TDDs) Dimensions: 485 mm by 4.09 m (19 by 161 in) Depth Range: Shallow water Weight: 754 kg (1658 lb) Explosives: 230 kg (510 lb) high explosive Date Deployed: 1987 MK65 Quickstrike The Quickstrike http://www.comomag.navy.mil/Mine%20History/General%20Information.aspx is a family of shallow-water aircraft-laid mines used by the United States, primarily against surface craft. The MK65 is a 2,000-lb (900 kg) dedicated, purpose-built mine. However, other Quickstrike versions (MK62, MK63, and MK64) are converted general-purpose bombs. These latter three mines are actually a single type of electronic fuze fitted to Mk82, Mk83 and Mk84 air-dropped bombs. Because this latter type of Quickstrike fuze only takes up a small amount of storage space compared to a dedicated sea mine, the air-dropped bomb casings have dual purpose i.e. can be fitted with conventional contact fuzes and dropped on land targets, or have a Quickstrike fuze fitted which converts them into sea mines. General characteristics Type: aircraft-laid bottom mine (with descent to water slowed by a parachute or other mechanism) Detection System: Magnetic/seismic/pressure target detection devices (TDDs) Dimensions: 740 mm by 3.25 m (29 by 128 in) Depth Range: Shallow water Weight: 1086 kg (2390 lb) Explosives: Various loads Date Deployed: 1983 MK56General characteristics''' Type: Aircraft laid moored mine Detection System: Total field magnetic exploder Dimensions: 570 mm by 2.9 m (22.4 by 114.3 in) Depth Range: Moderate depths Weight: 909 kg (2000 lb) Explosives: 164 kg (360 lb) HBX-3 Date Deployed: 1966 Royal Navy According to a statement made to the UK Parliament in 2002: Hansard Written Answers, 4 November 2002. Available on-line at www.publications.parliament.uk "...the Royal Navy does not have any mine stocks and has not had since 1992. Notwithstanding this, the United Kingdom retains the capability to lay mines and continues research into mine exploitation. Practice mines, used for exercises, continue to be laid in order to retain the necessary skills". However, a British company (BAE Systems) does manufacture the Stonefish influence mine for export to friendly countries such as Australia, which has both war stock and training versions of Stonefish http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/collins/ , in addition to stocks of smaller Italian MN103 Manta mines. http://www.sei-spa.com/mantaing.html The computerised fuze on a Stonefish mine contains acoustic, magnetic and water pressure displacement target detection sensors. Stonefish can be deployed by fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, surface vessels and submarines. An optional kit is available to allow Stonefish to be air-dropped, comprising an aerodynamic tail-fin section and parachute pack to retard the weapon's descent. The operating depth of Stonefish ranges between 30 and 200 metres. The mine weighs 990 kilograms and contains a 600 kilogram aluminised PBX explosive warhead. The shelf life of a Stonefish mine is 20 years, and it has an operational lifetime of 700 days after being deployed on the seabed. Stonefish incorporates arming delays, ship counting and self-sterilisation features which can be configured by the user. See also Stonefish influence mine Royal Navy's Admiralty Mining Establishment Land mine HMHS Britannic The Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v. People's Republic of Albania) References Sources Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 7''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Further reading (Canonical general text about U.S. mine warfare) (Personal account of mine countermeasures operations in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War 1991, including the mining of USS Tripoli.) (Describes mine damage to a U.S. frigate) (Describes American efforts to combat Iranian mine campaign in the Persian Gulf) External links Technical details of German Second World War sea mines 'Manta' & 'Murena' - two modern Italian influence mines 'Stonefish' - a British influence mine Henry Norton Sulivan: a depiction of early Naval Mine Our Sailors by W.H.G. Kingston W.L.Clowes in 1855

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Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk

The Curtiss P-40 was an American single-engine, single-seat, all-metal fighter and ground attack aircraft that first flew in 1938. It was used by the air forces of 28 nations, including those of most Allied powers during World War II, and remained in front line service until the end of the war. By November 1944, when production of the P-40 ceased, 13,738 had been built. The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36; this reduced development time and enabled a rapid entry into production and operational service. Warhawk was the name the United States Army Air Corps adopted for all models, making it the official name in the United States for all P-40s. The British Commonwealth and Soviet air forces used the name Tomahawk for models equivalent to the P-40B and P-40C, and the name Kittyhawk for models equivalent to the P-40D and all later variants. The P-40's lack of a two-stage supercharger made it inferior to Luftwaffe fighters, like the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, in high-altitude combat and it was rarely used in operations in Northwest Europe. Between 1941 and 1944, however, the P-40 played a critical role with Allied air forces in three major theaters: North Africa, the Southwest Pacific and China. It also had a significant role in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Alaska and Italy. The P-40's high-altitude performance was not as critical in those theaters, where it served as an air supremacy fighter, bomber escort and fighter bomber. P-40s first saw combat with the British Commonwealth squadrons of the Desert Air Force (DAF) in the Middle East and North African campaigns, during June 1941. Alexander 2006, p. 25. Brown 1983, p. 20. The Royal Air Force's No. 112 Squadron was among the first to operate Tomahawks, in North Africa, and the unit was the first to feature the "shark mouth" logo, Crawford 1977, p. 14. copying similar markings on some Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine fighters. The logo was most famously used on P-40s by the Flying Tigers in China. Erik Shilling— Off on his Last Flight. Retrieved: 28 February 2008. The Bf 110s were from II Gruppe/Zerstörergeschwader 26. Shilling, an AVG pilot indicated, "I was looking through a British magazine one day and saw a photo of a Messerschmitt-110 with a shark face on it." In theatres where high-altitude performance was less important, the P-40 proved an effective fighter. Although it gained a post-war reputation as a mediocre design, suitable only for close air support, more recent research including scrutiny of the records of individual Allied squadrons indicates that the P-40 performed surprisingly well as an air superiority fighter, at times suffering severe losses, but also taking a very heavy toll on enemy aircraft. The P-40 offered the additional advantage of low cost, which kept it in production as a ground attack fighter long after it was obsolete in air superiority. As of 2008, 19 P-40s remain airworthy. Warbird Alley: Curtiss P-40 Warhawk Design and development An XP-40, 11 MD, which was used for test purposes by the Materiel Division of the U.S. Army Air Corps. The prototype XP-40 was the tenth production Curtiss P-36 Hawk, Green 1957 with its Pratt & Whitney R-1830 (Twin Wasp) 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine replaced by a liquid-cooled, supercharged Allison V-1710 V-12 engine. The V-12 engine offered no more power than the radial but its smaller frontal area reduced drag. Performance characteristics A three-quarter view of a P-40B, X-804 (39-184) in flight. This aircraft served with an advanced training unit at Luke Field, Arizona. The P-40 had good agility, especially at high speed and medium to low altitude. It was one of the tightest-turning monoplane fighters of the war, Hingam 2004 although at lower speeds it could not out-turn the extremely manoeuvrable Japanese fighters such as the A6M Zero and Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar". Masell, Patrick. "The P-40 and the Zero." Naval Aviation and Military History, 2002. Retrieved: 7 March 2006. Allison V-1710 engines produced about at sea level and at : not powerful by the standards of the time, and the early P-40's speed was average. (The later versions with Allisons were more capable, as were the Packard Merlin-engined P-40F/L series.) Its climb performance was fair to poor, depending on the subtype. Dive acceleration was good and dive speed was excellent. The highest-scoring P-40 ace, Clive Caldwell (RAAF), who scored 22 of his 28½ kills in the P-40, said the type had "almost no vices", although "it was a little difficult to control in terminal velocity". Alexander 2006, p. 22. Caldwell said that the P-40 was "faster downhill than almost any other aeroplane with a propeller." However, the single-stage, single-speed supercharger meant that it could not compete with contemporary aircraft as a high-altitude fighter. The P-40 tolerated harsh conditions in the widest possible variety of climates. It was a semi-modular design and thus easy to maintain in the field. It lacked innovations of the time, such as boosted ailerons or automatic leading edge slats, but it had a strong structure including a five-spar wing, which enabled P-40s to survive some mid-air collisions: both accidental impacts and intentional ramming attacks against enemy aircraft were occasionally recorded as victories by the Desert Air Force and Soviet Air Forces. Romanenko, Valeriy and James F. Gebhardt. "The P-40 in Soviet Aviation." Lend-lease on airforce.ru. Retrieved: 7 March 2006. Caldwell said P-40s "would take a tremendous amount of punishment -violent aerobatics as well as enemy action."Evidence of the P-40's durability: in 1944 F/O T. R. Jacklin (pictured) flew this No. 75 Squadron RAAF P-40N-5 more than 200 mi (320 km) after the loss of the port aileron and 25% of its wing area. The fighter was repaired and served out the war. It had armour around the engine and the cockpit, which enabled it to withstand considerable damage. This was one of the characteristics that allowed Allied pilots in Asia and the Pacific to attack Japanese fighters head on, rather than try to out-turn and out-climb their opponents. Late-model P-40s were regarded as well armored. Caldwell said that he found the P-40C Tomahawk's armament of two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns firing through the prop and two .303 Browning machine guns in each wing to be inadequate. Alexander 2006, p. 21. This was rectified with the P-40E Kittyhawk, which had three .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in each wing, although Caldwell preferred the Tomahawk in other respects. Operational range was good by early war standards, and was almost double that of the Supermarine Spitfire or Messerschmitt Bf 109, although it was inferior to the A6M Zero, Ki-43, P-38 and P-51. Visibility was adequate, although hampered by an overly complex frame and completely blocked to the rear in early models due to the raised turtledeck. Poor ground visibility and the relatively narrow landing gear track led to many losses due to accidents on the ground. Operational history In April 1939, the U.S. Army Air Corps, witnessing the new sleek, high-speed, in-line-engined fighters of the European air forces, placed the largest single fighter order it had ever made for fighters: 524 P-40s. French Air Force An early order came from the French Armée de l'Air, which was already operating P-36s. The Armée de l'Air ordered 140 as the Hawk 81A-1 but the French military had been defeated before the aircraft had left the factory, consequently, the aircraft were diverted to British and Commonwealth service (as the Tomahawk I), in some cases complete with metric flight instruments. In late 1942, as French forces in North Africa split from the Vichy government to side with the Allies, U.S. forces transferred P-40Fs to the GC II/5, a squadron that was historically associated with the Lafayette Escadrille. GC II/5 used its P-40Fs and Ls in combat in Tunisia and, later, for patrol duty off the Mediterranean coast until mid-1944 when they were replaced by P-47Ds. British Commonwealth units in Mediterranean & European theatres Armourers working on a Tomahawk from No. 3 Squadron RAAF in North Africa, 23 December 1941. Deployment In all, 18 British Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons, as well as four Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), three South African Air Force (SAAF), and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s. rafweb.org, 2007, "Aircraft of the RAF (M - T)" Retrieved: 6 January 2008. rafweb.org, 2007, "Aircraft of the RAF (E - L)" Retrieved: 6 January 2008. The first units to convert were Hawker Hurricane squadrons of the Desert Air Force (DAF), in early 1941. The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or self-sealing fuel tanks. These were installed in subsequent shipments. When they converted to the P-40 in early 1941, due to a rear-folding landing gear that was more prone to collapse, DAF pilots found that landing required a flatter, two-point landing, contrasted to the three-point landings used with Supermarine Spitfires and Hurricanes. Testing showed the aircraft did not have adequate performance for use in Northwest Europe in combat operations against Messerschmitt Bf 109s. RAF Spitfires used in the theatre operated at heights around , while the Allison engine, with its single-stage, low altitude rated supercharger, worked best at or lower. When the Tomahawk was used by Allied units based in the UK from August 1941, this limitation relegated the Tomahawk to low-level reconnaissance and only one squadron, No. 414 Squadron RCAF was used in the fighter role. Subsequently, the British Air Ministry deemed the P-40 completely unsuitable for the theatre. P-40 squadrons from mid-1942 re-equipped with aircraft such as Mustangs. A Kittyhawk Mk III of No. 112 Squadron RAF, taxiing at Medenine, Tunisia, in 1943. A ground crewman on the wing is directing the pilot, whose view ahead is hindered by the aircraft's nose. The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk ("D"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943. Kittyhawks included many major improvements, and were the DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until "tropicalised" Spitfires were available. DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF, and the majority of the 700 "lightweight" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50 in (12.7 mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA). The DAF also received some 21 of the later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs. The "lightweight" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly in the fighter-bomber role. Green and Swanborough 1977, pp.57-59. Note: Late P-40Fs, as well as the majority of the Ks, Ls and the P-40Ms had lengthened rear fuselages; the F/Ls had no carburettor airscoop on the upper engine cowlings. From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the US 57th Fighter Group (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union. Combat performance Tomahawks and Kittyhawks would bear the brunt of Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica fighter attacks during the North African campaign. The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force. The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of momentum in the Allied favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the Luftwaffe accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite Luftwaffe units, such as Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG27), in North Africa. The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to the Bf 109 at low altitude, but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F Pentland 1974, p.22. . Most of the air combat in North Africa took place well below , thus negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an edge over Bf 109 in horizontal maneuverability, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower, but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling. Scutts 1994, pp. 12–13. The P-40 was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the Fiat G.50 and the Macchi C.200. Its performance against the Macchi C.202 Folgore elicted different opinions. Caldwell, with his direct combat experience against the Italian fighter, considered that the Folgore would have been a superior fighter to both the P-40 and the Bf-109 except that its armament of only two or four machine guns was considered inadequate. Ethell and Christy 1979, p. 51. Other observers considered the two equally matched, or favored the Folgore on purely aerobatic merits. Jonathan Glancey wrote that the Folgore was superior to the P-40, noting the difference in turning radius. Glancey 2006, p. 166. Against its lack of high altitude performance the P-40 was considered to be a stable gun platform, and its rugged construction meant that it was able to operate from rough frontline airstrips with a good rate of serviceability. Pentland 1974, pp.8, 20. The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include Vichy French aircraft, during the 1941 Syria-Lebanon campaign, against Dewoitine D.520s, a type often considered to be the best French fighter used during World War II. The P-40 was deadly against Axis bombers in the theatre, as well as against the Bf 110 twin-engine fighter. In June 1941, Caldwell, who was serving at the time with No. 250 Squadron RAF in Egypt, and flying as F/O Jack Hamlyn's wingman, recorded in his log book that he was involved in the first air combat victory for the P-40. This was a CANT Z.1007 bomber on 6 June. The claim was not officially recognized, as the crash of the CANT was not witnessed. The first official victory occurred on 8 June, when Hamlyn and Flt Sgt Tom Paxton destroyed a CANT Z.1007 from 211a Squadriglia of the Regia Aeronautica, over Alexandria. Several days later, the Tomahawk was in action over Syria with No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which claimed 19 aerial victories over Vichy French aircraft during June and July 1941, for the loss of one P-40 (as well as one lost to ground fire). Brown 1983, p. 17. North Africa, c. 1943. A P-40 "Kittybomber" of No. 450 Squadron RAAF, loaded with six bombs (Photographer: William Hadfield) Some DAF units initially failed to use P-40s according to its strengths and/or utilised outdated defensive tactics, such as the Lufbery circle. However, the superior climb rate of the Bf 109 enabled fast, swooping attacks, neutralizing the advantages offered by conventional defensive tactics. Various new formations were tried by Tomahawk units in 1941-42, including: "fluid pairs" (similar to the German rotte); one or two "weavers" at the back of a squadron in formation, and whole squadrons bobbing and weaving in loose formations. Brown 1983, pp. 28–29. Werner Schröer, who would be credited with destroying 114 Allied aircraft in only 197 combat missions, referred to the latter formation as "bunches of grapes", because he found them so easy to pick off.The leading German expert in North Africa, Hans-Joachim Marseille, claimed as many as 101 P-40s during his career. ,Ratuszynski, Wilhelm. "Hans-Joachim Marseille — "Desert Eagle." World War II Ace Stories. Retrieved: 8 March 1999. From 26 May 1942, all Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, Brown 1983, pp. 257–258. giving rise to the nickname "Kittybomber". As a result of this change in role, and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high attrition rates; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s. Victory claims & losses, No. 239 Wing, Desert Air Force (June 1941–May 1943) Squadron   3 Sqn RAAF    112 Sqn RAF 450 Sqn RAAF* Claims with Tomahawks 41 36 – Claims with Kittyhawks 74.5 82.5 49 Total P-40 claims || 115.5 || 118.5 || 49 |- | P-40 losses (total) 34 38 28<small>* Commenced training on P-40s in December 1941 and became operational in February 1942. Brown 1983, p. 259. Clive Caldwell believed that Operational Training Units did not properly prepare pilots for air combat in the P-40, and as a commander, stressed the importance of training novice pilots properly. Alexander 2006, pp. 55–56. Nevertheless, competent pilots who used the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica. At least 46 British Commonwealth pilots achieved ace status flying the P-40. For example, on one occasion in August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, one of them piloted by German Ace Werner Schröer. Although Caldwell was wounded three times, and his Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 7.92 mm bullets and five 20 mm cannon shells, during this combat Caldwell shot down Schröer's wingman and returned to base. Some sources also claim that in December 1941, Caldwell killed a prominent German Expert, Erbo von Kageneck (69 kills) while flying a P-40. Alexander 2006, pp. 224–228. Note: Kageneck's brother, August Graf von Kageneck, who corresponded with Caldwell after the war, was among those who believed that Caldwell shot down Erbo. Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s. Dragicevic, George. Clive "Killer" Caldwell — Stuka Party. 17 July 1999 Retrieved: 7 March 2006. Billy Drake of 112 Sqn was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories. James "Stocky" Edwards (RCAF), who achieved 12 kills in the P-40 in North Africa, shot down German ace Otto Schulz (51 kills) while flying a Kittyhawk with No. 260 Squadron RAF. Caldwell, Drake, Edwards and Nicky Barr were among at least a dozen pilots who achieved ace status twice over while flying the P-40. Thomas 2002 Molesworth 2000 A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces. Chinese Air Force — Flying Tigers (American Volunteer Group) AVG P-40, painted with the shark-face emblem of the Flying Tigers and the 12-point sun roundel of the Chinese Air Force. The Flying Tigers, known officially as the American Volunteer Group, were a unit of the Republic of China Air Force, recruited from U.S. aviators. From late 1941, the P-40B was used by the Flying Tigers. Compared to opposing Japanese fighters, the P-40B's strengths were that it was very sturdy, well armed, generally faster in a dive and possessed a good rate of roll. Shilling, Erik. Erik Shilling, AVG Pilot. Retrieved: 25 March 2006. While the P-40s could not match the maneuverability of Japanese Nakajima Ki-27s and Ki-43s they were facing, AVG leader Claire Chennault trained his pilots to use the P-40's particular performance advantages. The P-40 had a higher dive speed than the Japanese fighters, for example, and could be used to exploit so-called "boom-and-zoom" tactics. The AVG was highly successful, and its feats were widely-published, for propaganda purposes. According to their own count, the Flying Tigers shot down 286 aircraft for the loss of up to 19 pilots. Dean, 1997, p. 241. Shamburger and Christy 1971, p. 64. Bowers, 1979, p. 477. The lowest count of AVG victories from other sources is 115 kills. Ford 2007, pp. 333–334. United States Army Air Forces A total of 15 entire USAAF pursuit/fighter groups (FG), along with other pursuit/fighter squadrons and few tactical reconnaissance (TR) units, operated the P-40 during 1941–45. As was also the case with the P-39, many USAAF officers considered the P-40 inadequate, and it was gradually replaced by the turbo-supercharged P-38, P-51 and P-47. However, the bulk of the fighter operations by the USAAF in 1942–43 were borne by the P-40 and the P-39. In the Pacific, these two fighters, along with the U.S. Navy's F4F Wildcat, contributed more than any other U.S. types to breaking Japanese air power during this critical period. Pacific theaters By mid-1943, the USAAF was phasing out the P-40F (pictured); the two nearest aircraft, "White 116" and "White 111" were flown by the aces 1Lt Henry E. Matson and 1Lt Jack Bade, 44th FS, at the time part of AirSols, on Guadalcanal. The P-40 was the main USAAF fighter aircraft in the South West Pacific and Pacific Ocean theaters during 1941–42. In the first major battles, at Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines, USAAF P-40 squadrons suffered crippling losses on the ground and air to Japanese fighters like the "Oscar" and Zero. However, in the Dutch East Indies campaign, the 17th Pursuit Squadron (Provisional), formed from USAAF pilots evacuated from the Philippines, claimed 49 Japanese aircraft destroyed, for the loss of 17 P-40s. Molesworth 2003 And in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea Campaigns, as well as the air defense of Australia, improved tactics and training allowed the USAAF to more effectively utilize the strengths of the P-40. Due to aircraft fatigue, spare parts and replacement problems, the US Fifth Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force created a joint P-40 management and replacement pool on 30 July 1942 and many P-40s went back and forth between both air forces. Birkett, Gordon. "USAAF/RAAF P40E/E-1 Operations in Australia Supplementary #2". adf-serials.com, 2005. Retrieved: 1 August 2007. The 49th Fighter Group was in action in the Pacific from the beginning of the war. Robert DeHaven scored 10 kills (from 14 kills overall) in the P-40 with the 49th FG. He compared the P-40 favorably with the P-38: If you flew wisely, the P-40 was a very capable aircraft. [It] could outturn a P-38, a fact that some pilots didn't realise when they made the transition between the two aircraft. [...] The real problem with it was lack of range. As we pushed the Japanese back, P-40 pilots were slowly left out of the war. So when I moved to P-38s, an excellent aircraft, I did not [believe] that the P-40 was an inferior fighter, but because I knew the P-38 would allow us to reach the enemy. I was a fighter pilot and that was what I was supposed to do." "PTO/CBI Pilots of WWII". Acepilots.com, 2005. Retrieved: 7 March 2006. The 8th, 15th, 18th, 24th, 49th, 343rd and 347th PGs/FGs, along with the 71st TRG, flew P-40s in the Pacific theaters, between 1941 and 1945, with most units converting to P-38s during 1943-44. They claimed 655 aerial victories. Contrary to conventional wisdom, with sufficient altitude the P-40 could actually turn with the A6M and other Japanese fighters, using a combination of nose-down vertical turn with a bank turn, a technique known as a low yo-yo. Robert DeHaven describes how this tactic was used in the 49th Fighter group: [Y]ou could fight a Jap on even terms, but you had to make him fight your way. He could outturn you at slow speed. You could outturn him at high speed. When you got into a turning fight with him, you dropped your nose down so you kept your airspeed up, you could outturn him. At low speed he could outroll you because of those big ailerons ... on the Zero. If your speed was up over 275, you could outroll [a Zero]. His big ailerons didn't have the strength to make high speed rolls... You could push things, too. Because ... [i]f you decided to go home, you could go home. He couldn't because you could outrun him. [...] That left you in control of the fight. China-Burma-India theater USAAF and Chinese P-40 pilots performed extremely well in this theater, scoring high kill ratios against Japanese types such as the Ki-43, Nakajima Ki-44 "Tojo" and the Zero. The P-40 remained in use in the CBI until 1944, and was reportedly preferred over the P-51 Mustang by some US pilots flying in China. The American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers) was integrated into the USAAF as the 23rd Fighter Group. The unit continued to fly newer model P-40s until the end of the war, racking up a high kill-to-loss ratio.<ref name="23FG">Pike, John. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/usaf/23fg.htm "citing 23rd Fighter Group Official Website."]. GlobalSecurity, 21 August 2005. Retrieved: 5 September 2006.</ref> Units arriving in the China-Burma-India theater after the AVG in the 10th and 14th air forces continued to perform well with the P-40, claiming 973 kills in the theater, or 64.8 percent of all enemy aircraft shot down. Aviation historian Carl Molesworth stated that "...the P-40 simply dominated the skies over Burma and China. They were able to establish air superiority over free China, northern Burma and the Assam valley of India in 1942, and they never relinquished it." In addition to the 23rd FG, the 51st and 80th FGs, along with the 10th TRS, operated the P-40 in the CBI. In addition to its role as a fighter aircraft, CBI P-40 pilots used the aircraft very effectively as a fighter-bomber. The 80th Fighter Group in particular used its so-called B-40 (P-40s carrying 1,000-pound high explosive bombs) to destroy Japanese-held bridges and kill bridge repair crews, sometimes demolishing their target with a single bomb. "Playing Large Part In Burma Fighting Against Japs". CBI Roundup, Vol. II, No. 32, 20 April 1944. At least 40 U.S. pilots reached ace flying the P-40 in the CBI. Europe and Mediterranean theaters Top to Bottom: P-40 F/L, P-40K Warhawk The first confirmed victory by a USAAF unit over a German aircraft in World War II was achieved by a P-40C pilot on 14 August 1942. 2nd Lt Joseph D. Shaffer, of the 33rd Fighter Squadron, intercepted a Focke-Wulf Fw 200C-3 that overflew his base at Reykjavík, Iceland. Shaffer damaged the Fw 200, which was finished off by a P-38F. Warhawks were used extensively in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) by USAAF units, including the 33rd, 57th, 58th, 79th, 324th and 324th Fighter Groups Molesworth 2002 While the P-40 suffered heavy loses in the MTO, many USAAF P-40 units achieved high kill-to-loss ratios against Axis aircraft. For example the 324th FG scored better than a 2:1 ratio in the MTO. Higham 2004 In all, 23 U.S. pilots became aces in the MTO while flying the P-40, most of them during the first half of 1943. As in the Pacific, success in combat depended in part on experience and effective tactics. Individual pilots from the 57th FG were the first USAAF P-40 pilots to see action in the MTO, while attached to Desert Air Force Kittyhawk squadrons, from July 1942. The 57th was also the main unit involved in the "Palm Sunday Massacre", of 18 April 1943. De-coded Ultra signals had given away a plan for a large formation of German Junkers Ju 52 transports to cross the Mediterranean, escorted by Bf 109s. An ambush was planned, using three squadrons of the 57th, a P-40 squadron from the 324th FG and a small group of Desert Air Force Spitfires. In total the Allied force numbered some 80 fighters. They intercepted 65 Ju 52/3ms, covered by eight Bf 109s. Fifty one of the Junkers transports and all eight of the Me 109s were shot down in what became known as the "Palm Sunday Massacre". Weal 2003, p. 91. Only six Allied fighters were lost, five of them P-40s. On 22 April a similar force of P-40s attacked a formation of 14 Messerschmitt Me 321s covered by seven Bf 109s from II./JG 27. All of the transports were shot down, for a loss of three P-40s destroyed. The 57th FG was equipped with the Curtiss fighter until early 1944, during which time they were credited with at least 140 air-to-air kills. In early 1943, 75 P-40Ls were transported on the aircraft carrier . On 23 February, during Operation Torch, the pilots of the 58th FG few these P-40s off Ranger to land on at newly-captured Vichy French airfield, Cazas, near Casablanca, in French Morocco. The aircraft resupplied the 33rd FG and the pilots were reassigned. USAAF General Orders; USAAF History of the 58th FG. [Sic. These need checking.] The 325th FG (also known as the "Checkertail Clan"), also flew P-40s in the MTO. The 325th was credited with at least 133 air-to-air kills in April-October 1943, of which 95 were Bf 109s and 26 were Macchi C.202s, for the loss of only 17 P-40s in combat. Cathcart, Carol. "325th Fighter Group: Total Victories by Type of Aircraft". Official 325th Fighter Group WWII: "Checkertail Clan" Association. Retrieved: 25 March 2006. An anecdote concerning the 325th FG, indicates what could happen if Bf 109 pilots made the mistake of trying to out-turn the P-40. According to 325th FG historian Carol Cathcart: "on 30 July, 20 P-40s of the 317th [Fighter Squadron] ... took off on a fighter sweep ... over Sardinia. As they turned to fly south over the west part of the island, they were attacked near Sassari... The attacking force consisted of 25 to 30 Bf 109s and Macchi C.202s... In the brief, intense battle that occurred ... [the 317th claimed] 21 enemy aircraft." Cathcart, Carol. "History of the 317th Fighter Squadron". Official 325th Fighter Group WWII "Checkertail Clan" Association. Retrieved: 5 September 2006. Cathcart states that Lt. Robert Sederberg who assisted a comrade being attacked by five Bf 109s, destroyed at least one German aircraft, and may have shot down as many as five. Sederberg was shot down in the dogfight and became a prisoner of war. A famous African American unit, the 99th FS, better known as the "Tuskegee Airmen" or "Redtails", flew P-40s in stateside training and for their initial eight months in the MTO. On 9 June 1943, they became the first African American fighter pilots to engage enemy aircraft, over Pantelleria, Italy. A single Focke Wulf Fw 190 was reported damaged by Lieutenant Willie Ashley Jr. On 2 July the squadron claimed its first verified kill; a Fw 190 destroyed by Captain Charles Hall. The 99th would continue to score with P-40s until February 1944, when they were assigned P-39s. National Museum of the USAF "Tuskegee Airmen" "The combat record speaks for itself." The much-lightened P-40L was most heavily used in the MTO, primarily by U.S. pilots. Many US pilots stripped down their P-40s even further to improve performance, often removing two or more of the wing guns from the P-40F/L. Royal Australian Air Force A P-40E-1 piloted by the ace Keith "Bluey" Truscott, commander of No. 76 Squadron RAAF, taxis along Marsden Matting at Milne Bay, New Guinea in September 1942. The Kittyhawk was the main fighter used by the RAAF in World War II, in greater numbers than the Spitfire. Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, No. 3 and No. 450 Squadrons, were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s. Other RAAF pilots served with RAF or SAAF P-40 squadrons in the theater. Many RAAF pilots achieved high scores in the P-40. At least five reached "double ace" status: Clive Caldwell, Nicky Barr, John Waddy, Bob Whittle (11 kills each) and Bobby Gibbes (10 kills) in the Middle East, North African and/or New Guinea campaigns. In all, 18 RAAF pilots became aces while flying P-40s. Nicky Barr, like many Australian pilots, considered the P-40 a reliable mount: "The Kittyhawk became, to me, a friend. It was quite capable of getting you out of trouble more often than not. It was a real warhorse." Barr, Nicky. "Interview Transcript.". ABC Australia. Retrieved: 8 November 2007. At the same time as the heaviest fighting in North Africa, the Pacific War was also in its early stages, and RAAF units in Australia were completely lacking in suitable fighter aircraft. Spitfire production was being absorbed by the war in Europe; P-38s and P-39s were trialled, but were regarded as unsuitable and were also difficult to obtain; Mustangs had not yet reached squadrons anywhere, and Australia's tiny and inexperienced aircraft industry was geared towards larger aircraft. USAAF P-40s and their pilots originally intended for the U.S. Far East Air Force in the Philippines, but diverted to Australia as a result of Japanese naval activity were the first suitable fighter aircraft to arrive in substantial numbers. By mid-1942, the RAAF was able to obtain some USAAF replacement shipments; the P-40 was given the RAAF designation A-29. P-40N-15 "Black Magic", No. 78 Squadron RAAF. F/L Denis Baker scored the RAAF's last aerial victory over New Guinea in this fighter on 10 June 1944. It was later flown by W/O Len Waters. Note the dark blue tip on the tailfin used to identify 78 Squadron. RAAF Kittyhawks played a crucial role in the South West Pacific theater. They fought on the front line as fighters during the critical early years of the Pacific War, and the durability and bomb-carrying abilities (1,000 lb/454 kg) of the P-40 also made it ideal for the ground attack role. For example, 75, and 76 Squadrons played a critical role during the Battle of Milne Bay, "Australia's War 1939-1945". Official Australian Government, Department of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved: 8 January 2007. Pentland 1974, pp. 27–39. fending off Japanese aircraft and providing highly effective close air support for the Australian infantry, negating the initial Japanese advantage in light tanks and sea power. The RAAF units which made the most use of Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific were: 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 84 and 86 Squadrons. These squadrons saw action mostly in the New Guinea and Borneo campaigns. Late in 1945, RAAF fighter squadrons in the South West Pacific began converting to P-51Ds. However, Kittyhawks were in use with the RAAF until the very last day of the war, in Borneo. In all, the RAAF acquired 841 Kittyhawks (not counting the British-ordered examples used in North Africa), including 163 P-40E, 42 P-40K, 90 P-40 M and 553 P-40N models. RAAF Museum, 2007, "A29 Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawk" Retrieved: 1 August 2007. In addition, the RAAF ordered 67 Kittyhawks for use by No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron (a joint Australian-Dutch unit in the South West Pacific). The P-40 was retired by the RAAF in 1947. Royal Canadian Air Force P-40K 42-10256 in Aleutian "Tiger" markings. In mid-May 1940, the Royal Canadian Air Force had its first look at the P-40. At that time a party of American officers flew to Uplands Airport near Ottawa where they saw the XP-40 and a Spitfire flown in comparative tests. When Canadian Army requirements for France were drawn up, one of the units was to have been an Army Co-operation Wing (No. 101) consisting of three squadrons: No. 400 (previously No. 110) Squadron and No. 414, equipped with P-40 Tomahawk aircraft, formed No. 39 (Army Co-operation) Wing (RCAF). By January 1943, all three squadrons had converted to the Mustang Mk I. In all, the RCAF received 72 Kittyhawk I, 12 Kittyhawk Ia, 15 Kittyhawk III and 35 Kittyhawk IV aircraft, for a total of 134 aircraft, plus the loan of nine P-40Ks in the Aleutians, all in lieu of the 144 P-39 Airacobras originally allotted to Canada and rejected. One of the most significant uses of the RCAF P-40s occurred in the 1942 Aleutians campaign. When the Imperial Japanese Navy moved to attack Midway, it sent a diversionary battle group to attack the Aleutian Islands. The RCAF sent No. 111 Squadron RCAF, flying the Kittyhawk I, to a forward base on Adak Island, Alaska. During the drawn-out campaign, 12 Canadian Kittyhawks operated on a rotational basis from a new, more advanced base on Amchitka, southeast of Kiska. Two RCAF fighter squadrons, No. 111 and No. 14, took "turn-about" at the base. During the deployment, one Nakajima A6M2-N seaplane was shot down by Squadron Leader Ken Boomer. After the Japanese threat diminished, the RCAF units returned to Canada and eventually transferred to England without their Kittyhawks. Royal New Zealand Air Force F/O Geoff Fisken RNZAF. The 11 Japanese flags represent six aircraft he claimed while flying Buffalos, two shot down in Wairarapa Wildcat (NZ3072/19) on 12 June 1943 and three claimed on 4 July 1943, when Fisken was flying P-40 NZ3060/9. The "Wildcat" emblem was applied by a US unit which previously used the aircraft. Fisken kept it, while adding "Wairarapa", after his home region. Some Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) pilots and New Zealanders in other air forces flew British P-40s while serving with DAF squadrons in North Africa and Italy, including the ace Jerry Westenra. A total of 301 P-40s were allocated to the RNZAF under lend lease, for use in the Pacific Theatre, although four of these were lost in transit. The aircraft equipped 14 Squadron, 15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, 17 Squadron, 18 Squadron, 19 Squadron and 20 Squadron. RNZAF P-40 squadrons were successful in air combat against the Japanese between 1942 and 1944. Their pilots claimed 100 aerial victories in P-40s, whilst losing 20 aircraft in combat. In total the RNZAF claimed 106 victories in the Pacific: three by 488(NZ) Sqn in Singapore and Malaya (all confirmed), three by Lockheed Hudsons (one confirmed) and the remaining 102 by P-40 pilots. A total of 99 victories were officially confirmed, including 95 by P-40s. Rudge 2003 Geoff Fisken, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific, flew P-40s with 15 Squadron, although half of his victories were claimed with the Brewster Buffalo. The overwhelming majority of RNZAF P-40 victories were scored against Japanese fighters, mostly Zeroes. Other victories included Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers. The only confirmed twin engine claim, a Ki-21 "Sally" (misidentified as a G4M "Betty") fell to Fisken in July 1943. From late 1943 and 1944, RNZAF P-40s were increasingly used against ground targets, including the innovative use of naval depth charges as improvised high-capacity bombs. The last front line RNZAF P-40s were replaced by F4U Corsairs in 1944. The P-40s were relegated to use as advanced pilot trainers. Horn 1992 Mossong, Peter. "The Curtiss P-40 in RNZAF Service." Royal New Zealand Air Force Pacific WWII Homepage. Retrieved: 4 September 2006. "Curtiss P-40N Kittyhawk". New Zealand Warbirds Family Album. Retrieved: 4 September 2006. The remaining RNZAF P-40s, excluding the 20 shot down and 154 written off, were mostly scrapped at Rukuhia in 1948. Soviet Union The Soviet Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS; "Military Air Forces") and Morskaya Aviatsiya (MA; "Naval Air Service") also referred to P-40s as Tomahawks and Kittyhawks. Their units used 2,097 Hardesty 1991, p. 253. Tomahawks and Kittyhawks against the Germans; most Soviet P-40 squadrons had good combat records. They provided close air support as well as air-to-air capability, with many Soviet pilots becoming aces on the P-40, although not as many as on the P-39 Airacobra, which was the most numerous Lend Lease fighter used by the Soviet Union. Hawk 81A-3/Tomahawk IIb AK255, at the US National Museum of Naval Aviation, is shown in the colors of the Flying Tigers, but never actually served with them; it began life with the RAF and was later transferred to the Soviet Union. The Soviets found that the P-40 was a match for the BF 109. In January some 198 aircraft sorties were flown (334 flying hours) and 11 aerial engagements were conducted, in which 5 Bf-109s, 1 Ju-88, and 1 He-111 were shot down [6]. These statistics reveal a surprising fact - it turns out that the Tomahawk was fully capable of successful air combat with a Bf-109. The reports of pilots about the circumstances of the engagements confirm this fact. On 18 January 1942, Lieutenants S. V. Levin and I. P. Levsha (in pair) fought an engagement with 7 Bf-109s and shot down two of them without loss. On 22 January a flight of three aircraft led by Lieutenant E. E. Lozov engaged 13 enemy aircraft and shot down two Bf-109Es, again without loss. Altogether in January two Tomahawks were lost-one shot down by German antiaircraft artillery and only one by Messerschmitts. The Soviets stripped down their P-40s significantly for combat, in many cases removing the wing guns altogether in P-40B/C types, for example. Soviet Air Force reports state that they liked the range and fuel capacity of the P-40 which were superior to most of the Soviet fighters, though they still preferred the P-39. Their biggest complaint was its poor climb rate and problems with maintenance, especially with burning out the engines. VVS pilots usually flew the P-40 at War Emergency Power settings while in combat, this would bring the acceleration and speed performance closer to that of their German rivals, but could burn out engines in a matter of weeks. They also had difficulty with the more demanding requirements for fuel quality and oil purity of the Allison engines. A fair number of burnt out P-40s were re-engined with Soviet Klimov engines but these performed relatively poorly and were relegated to rear area use. The P-40 saw the most front-line use in Soviet hands in 1942 and early 1943. It was used in the northern sectors and played a significant role in the defense of Leningrad. The most numerically important types were P-40B/C, P-40E and P-40K/M. By the time the better P-40F and N types became available, production of superior Soviet fighters had increased sufficiently so that the P-40 was replaced in most Soviet Air Force units by the Lavochkin La-5 and various later Yakovlev types. Japan The Japanese Army captured some P-40s and later operated a number in Burma. The Japanese appear to have had as many as ten flyable P-40Es. Japanese Captured P-40, J-Aircraft.com For a brief period, during 1943, a few of them were actually used operationally by 2 Hiko Chutai, 50 Hiko Sentai (2nd Air Squadron, 50th Air Regiment) in the defense of Rangoon. Testimony to this fact is given by Yasuhiko Kuroe, a member of the 64 Hiko Sentai. In his memoirs, he says one Japanese-operated P-40 was shot down in error by a friendly Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally" over Rangoon. Other nations The P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war. The P-40 was also used by Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Finland and Turkey. The last P-40s in military service were those used by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB), which were finally retired in 1958. In the air war over Finland, several Soviet P-40s were shot down or had to crash land due to other reasons. The Finns, short of good aircraft, collected these and managed to repair one P-40M, P-40M-10-CU 43-5925, "white 23", which received Finnish Air Force serial number KH-51 (KH denoting "Kittyhawk", as the British designation of this type was Kittyhawk III). This aircraft was attached to an operational squadron HLeLv 32 of the Finnish Air Force, but lack of spares kept it on the ground, with the exception of a few evaluation flights. Variants and development stages A USAAF Curtiss P-40K-10-CU, serial number 42-9985, c.1943. Departing from normal USAAC convention, there was no P-40A. Some records indicate this might have been reserved for a reconnaissance variant that was briefly in development by Curtiss, but quickly discarded. Revised versions of the P-40 soon followed: the P-40B or Tomahawk IIA had extra .30in in (7.62 mm) U.S., or .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns in the wings and a partially protected fuel system; the P-40C or Tomahawk IIB added underbelly drop tank and bomb shackles, as well as actual self-sealing fuel tanks and other minor revisions, but the extra weight did have a negative impact on aircraft performance. (All versions of the P-40 had a relatively low power-to-weight ratio compared to contemporary fighters.) Only a small number of P-40D or Kittyhawk Mk Is were made - less than 50. With a new, larger Allison engine, slightly narrower fuselage, redesigned canopy, and improved cockpit, the P-40D eliminated the nose-mounted .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and instead had a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in each wing. The distinctive chin airscoop grew larger in order to adequately cool the large Allison engine. Retrospective designation for a single prototype. The P-40A was a single camera-carrying aircraft. The P-40E or P-40E-1 was very similar in most respects to the P-40D, except for a slightly more powerful engine and an extra .50 in (12.7 mm) gun in each wing, bringing the total to six. Some aircraft also had small underwing bomb shackles. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk IA. The P-40E was the variant that bore the brunt of air to air combat by the type in the key period of early to mid 1942, for example with the first US squadrons to replace the AVG in China (the AVG was already transitioning to this type from the P-40B/C), the type used by the Australians at Milne Bay, by the New Zealand squadrons during most of their air to air combat, and by the RAF/Commonwealth in North Africa as the Kittyhawk IA. In the vicinity of Moore Field, Texas. The lead ship in a formation of P-40s is peeling off for the "attack" in a practice flight at the Army Air Forces advanced flying school. Selected aviation cadets were given transition training in these fighters before receiving their pilot's wings, 1943. P-40F and P-40L, which both featured Packard V-1650 Merlin engine in place of the normal Allison, and thus did not have the carburetor scoop on top of the nose. Performance for these models at higher altitudes was better than their Allison-engined cousins. The L in some cases also featured a fillet in front of the vertical stabilizer, or a stretched fuselage to compensate for the higher torque. The P-40L was sometimes nicknamed "Gypsy Rose Lee," after a famous stripper of the era, due to its stripped-down condition. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces under the designation Kittyhawk Mk II, a total of 330 Mk IIs were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease. The first 230 aircraft are sometimes known as the Kittyhawk Mk IIA. The P-40F/L was extensively used by U.S. fighter groups operating in the Mediterranian Theater. P-40G : 43 P-40 aircraft fitted with the wings of the Tomahawk Mk IIA. A total of 16 aircraft were supplied to the Soviet Union, and the rest to the US Army Air Force. It was later redesignated RP-40G. P-40K, an Allison-engined P-40L, with the nosetop scoop retained and the Allison configured scoop and cowl flaps. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk III, it was widely used by US units in the CBI. P-40M, version generally similar to the P-40K, with a stretched fuselage like the P-40L and powered by an Allison V-1710-81 engine giving better performance at altitude (compared to previous Allison versions). It had some detail improvements and it was characterized by two small air scoops just before the exhaust pipes. Most of them were supplied to Allied countries (mainly UK and USSR), while some others remained in the USA for advanced training. It was also supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk. III. P-40N (manufactured 1943-44), the final production model. The P-40N featured a stretched rear fuselage to counter the torque of the larger, late-war Allison engine, and the rear deck of the cockpit behind the pilot was cut down at a moderate slant to improve rearward visibility. A great deal of work was also done to try and eliminate excess weight to improve the Warhawk's climb rate. Early N production blocks dropped a .50 in (12.7 mm) gun from each wing, bringing the total back to four; later production blocks reintroduced it after complaints from units in the field. Supplied to Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk IV. A total of 553 P-40Ns were acquired by the Royal Australian Air Force, making it the variant most commonly used by the RAAF. Subvariants of the P-40N ranged widely in specialization from stripped down four-gun "hot rods" which could reach the highest top speeds of any production variant of the P-40 (up to 380 mph), to overweight types with all the extras intended for fighter-bombing or even training missions. Curtiss P-40N-5-CU "Little Jeanne" Curtiss P-40N Warhawk "Little Jeanne" in flight P-40P : The designation of 1,500 aircraft ordered with V-1650-1 engines, but actually built as the P-40N with V-1710-81 engines. XP-40Q with a 4-bladed prop, cut-down rear fuselage and bubble canopy, supercharger, squared-off wingtips and tail surfaces, and improved engine with two-speed supercharger was tested, but its performance was not enough of an improvement to merit production when compared to the contemporary late model P-47Ds and P-51Ds pouring off production lines. The XP-40Q was, however, the fastest of the P-40 series with a top speed of as a result of the introduction of a high-altitude supercharger gear. (No P-40 model with a single-speed supercharger could even approach ) With the end of hostilities in Europe, the P-40 came to the end of its front line service. P-40R : The designation of P-40F and P-40L aircraft, converted into training aircraft in 1944. RP-40 : Some American P-40s were converted into reconnaissance aircraft. TP-40 : Some P-40s were converted into two-seat trainers. Twin P-40 : Probably the most unusual variant, it was a P-40C outfitted in 1942 with a pair of 1,300 hp (969 kW) Packard V-1650-1 Merlin engines mounted atop the wings, over the main landing gear. Donald 1997, p. 291. Survivors Of the 13,738 P-40s built, only 19 P-40s remain airworthy. Approximately 80 aircraft are on static display or under restoration. One of the few flying examples that is available for passenger flights is the recently completed (February 2009) Vintageaircraft.com dual seat P-40 based at Sonoma Valley Airport (K0Q3) in Schellville, California. Famous P-40 pilots Claire Chennault: 1st American Volunteer Group (better known as the "Flying Tigers") leader and national war hero in China. Nicky Barr: RAAF ace (11 kills) and member of the Australian national rugby team Gregory Boyington: American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers), Chinese Air Force. (Boyington was later leader of the US Marine Corps' VMF-214 "Black Sheep Squadron".) Clive Caldwell: RAAF, the highest-scoring P-40 pilot from any air force and the highest-scoring Allied pilot in North Africa. Alexander 2006, p. 85. Australia's highest-scoring ace in World War II. Dan Rowan (as Daniel H. David): USAAF, Southwest Pacific theater. Comedian/actor. Scored two kills against Japanese aircraft before being shot down and seriously wounded. Billy Drake: RAF, the leading British P-40 ace, with 13 kills. James Francis Edwards: RCAF, 15¾ kills (12 on the P-40). (He wrote two books about Commonwealth Kittyhawk pilots in World War II.). Shores and Ring 1969 Geoff Fisken: RNZAF, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific theater. Five of his 11 victories were claimed in Kittyhawks. John Everitt "Jack" Frost, SAAF, the highest scoring air ace in a South African unit, with 15 kills (seven on the P-40). Missing in action, 16 June 1942 after combat with JG 27 Bf 109s; his body was never found. John Gorton: RAAF, later Prime Minister of Australia, 1968–71. His war service included combat missions in Kittyhawks with No. 77 Squadron over New Guinea and a period as an instructor on the type with 2 OTU. John F. Hampshire, Jr.: USAAF. Tied for top-scoring USAAF ace on the type with 13 victories. David Lee "Tex" Hill: 2nd Squadron AVG, 23rd FG USAAF. 12.25 P-40 victories (18.25 total). Bruce K. Holloway: USAAF. Tied for top-scoring USAAF ace on the type with 13 victories. Retired USAF four-star general in command of SAC in 1972. United States Air Force Museum 1975, p. 26. James H. Howard: AVG (6 victories), USAAF (P-51 at least 5 additional victories) awarded the Medal of Honor for a single engagement in the skies over Europe. Nikolai Fyodorovich Kuznetsov: VVS, ace, twice Hero of the Soviet Union. Most of his 22 kills were scored in the P-40. Stepan Novichkov: VVS, top scoring Soviet ace on the P-40, with 19 of his 29 total personal victories being scored while flying the type. Petr Pokryshev: VVS, ace, twice Hero of the Soviet Union, scored 22 personal victories, including 14 in P-40s. Robert Lee Scott, Jr.: Flying Tigers/USAAF, later commander of the US 23rd Fighter Group, in the Fourteenth Air Force. (Scored 10+ kills in the P-40.) Kenneth M. Taylor: USAAF, one of two US pilots to get airborne in a P-40 during the Pearl Harbor raid, Taylor shot down two Japanese aircraft on 7 December 1941, and was wounded in the arm. Keith Truscott: RAAF, pre-war star of Australian football; became an ace on Spitfires in the UK, commanded a Kittyhawk squadron at the Battle of Milne Bay (1942), in New Guinea; killed in an accident in 1943, while flying a P-40 Len Waters: RAAF, the only Australian Aboriginal fighter pilot of World War II. George Welch: USAAF, one of two U.S. pilots to get airborne in a P-40 during the attack on Pearl Harbor of 7 December 1941. Welch shot down three Japanese aircraft that day. Operators France Specifications (P-40E) Popular culture From Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow (2004) In the John Wayne movie: Flying Tigers, (1942) real P-40s are featured, along with some inaccurate studio models. Future US President Ronald Reagan appears in the Identification Of The Japanese Zero (Training Film) (1942) as a young pilot learning to recognize the difference between a P-40 and a Japanese Zero. In this film Reagan mistakes a friend's P-40 for a Japanese Zero and tries to shoot it down. In the end, Reagan gets a chance to shoot down a real Zero. In the film God is My Co-Pilot (1945), based on Robert Lee Scott, Jr's book about the Flying Tigers and the USAAF pilots who replaced them in the Republic of China and Burma, a mix of real P-40 and "movie" P-40s are featured. In Arthur Miller's play All My Sons (first performed in 1947), the characters of Joe Keller and his partner Steve Deever are shown to have knowingly sold cracked cylinder heads to the Army Air Force. As a result, 21 P-40s crash in Australia. For this, Keller and Deever served time in prison, although Keller was released shortly after when he was found innocent. At the beginning of the play, his partner is still in prison. In Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970), P-40s are depicted at the attack on Pearl Harbor, both being shot up on the ground and shooting down Zeros. Steven Spielberg's comedy 1941(1979) features a P-40E in the less-than-capable hands of John Belushi's character, "Wild Bill" Kelso. In the film Pearl Harbor (2001) P-40Es are the main aircraft seen in the film besides Japanese Zeros. The characters of Rafe Macauley and Danny Walker fly P-40s during the raid on Pearl Harbor, being the only two pilots able to get in the air, recreating an actual event where George Welch and Ken Taylor operated from a satellite field. A P-40N and a P-40E in this movie came from the Warhawk Air Museum in Nampa, Idaho. Warhawks was announced as the University of Louisiana at Monroe's new mascot on 5 April 2006 and implemented on 26 June 2006. The nickname has a local historical connection with Maj. Gen. Claire Lee Chennault whose Air Force unit from World War II, utilized the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk in battle, although the logos primarily use bird imagery. Warhawk See also References Notes Bibliography Alexander, Kristin. Clive Caldwell: Air Ace. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2006. ISBN 1-74114-705-0. Arena, Nino. Macchi 205 "Veltro" (in Italian). Modena: Stem Mucchi Editore, 1994. Boyne, Walter J. Clash of Titans. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. ISBN 0-67179-370-5. Boyne, Walter J. and Michael Fopp. Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, 2002. ISBN 1-57607-345-9. Bowers, Peter M. Curtiss Aircraft, 1907-1947. London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1979. ISBN 0-370-10029-8. Bowers, Peter M. and Enzo Angellucci. The American Fighter. New York: Orion Books, 1987. ISBN 0-517-56588-9. Brown, Russell. Desert Warriors: Australian P-40 Pilots at War in the Middle East and North Africa, 1941-1943. Maryborough, Australia: Banner Books, 1983. ISBN 1-875-59322-5. Crawford, Jerry L. Messerschmitt BF 110 Zerstörer in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89747-029-X. Dean, Francis H. America's Hundred Thousand. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0072-5. Donald, David, ed. "Curtiss Model 81/87 (P-40 Warhawk)"Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Etobicoke, ON: Prospero, 1997. ISBN 1-85605-375-X. Ford, Daniel. Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941-1942. Washington, DC: HarperCollins|Smithsonian Books, 2007. ISBN 0-06124-655-7. Ethell, Jeffrey L. and Joe Christy. P-40 Hawks at War. Shepperton, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1979. ISBN 0-71100-983-X. Glancey, Jonathan. Spitfire: The Illustrated Biography. London, Atlantic Books, 2006. ISBN 978-1-84354-528-6. Green, William. War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters. London: MacDonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (Sixth impression 1969). ISBN 0-356-01448-7. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: US Army Air Force Fighters, Part 1. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1977. ISBN 0-356-08218-0. Hardesty, Von. Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1982. ISBN 0-87474-510-1. Higham, Robin. Flying American Combat Aircraft of WW II. Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8117-3124-3. Horn, Alex. Wings Over the Pacific: The RNZAF in the Pacific Air War. Auckland, NZ: Random House New Zealand, 1992. ISBN 1-86941-152-8. Johnsen, F.A. P-40 Warhawk (Warbird History). St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1999. ISBN 0-7603-0253-7. Lavigne, J.P.A. Michel and James F. Edwards. Kittyhawk Pilot. Battleford, Saskatchewan: Turner-Warwick, 1983. ISBN 0-919899-10-2. Mellinger, George. Soviet Lend-Lease Fighter Aces of World War 2 (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No. 74). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-84603-041-2. Molesworth, Carl. P-40 Warhawk Aces of the MTO (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No. 43). London: Osprey Publishing, 2002. ISBN 1-84176-288-1. Molesworth, Carl. P-40 Warhawk Aces of the Pacific (Aircraft of the Aces). London: Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-84176-536-8. Molesworth, Carl. P-40 Warhawk Aces of the CBI (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No. 35). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2000. ISBN 1-84176-079-X. Müller, Rolf-Dieter. Der Bombenkrieg 1939 – 1945 (in German). Berlin: Links Verlag, 2004. ISBN 3-86153-317-0. Neulen, Hans Werner. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe, 1939–1945. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005. ISBN 1-86126-799-1. Pentland, Geoffrey. The P-40 Kittyhawk in Service. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Kookaburra Technical Publications Pty. Ltd., 1974. ISBN 0-85880-012-8. Rudge, Chris. Air-To-Air: The Story Behind the Air-to-Air Combat Claims of the RNZAF. Lyttleton, Canterbury, New Zealand: Adventure Air, 2003. ISBN 0-473-09724-9. Scott, Robert L. Damned to Glory. New York: Scribner's, 1944. No ISBN. Scutts, Jerry. Bf 109 Aces of North Africa and the Mediterranean. London: Osprey Publishing, 1994. ISBN 1-85532-448-2. Shamburger, Page and Joe Christy. The Curtiss Hawk Fighters. New York: Sports Car Press Ltd., 1971. ISBN 0-87122-041-0. Shores, Christopher and Hans Ring. Fighters over the Desert. London: Neville Spearman Limited, 1969. ISBN 0-668-02070-9. Shores, Christopher and Clive Williams. Aces High: A Further Tribute to the Most Notable Fighter Pilots of the British and Commonwealth Air Forces in WWII, v. 2. London: Grub Street, 1994. ISBN 1-89869-700-0. Thomas, Andrew. Tomahawk and Kittyhawk Aces of the RAF and Commonwealth. London: Osprey Books, 2002. ISBN 1-84176-083-8. United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975. Weal, John. ''Jagdgeschwader 27 'Afrika'''. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2003. ISBN 1-841765-38-4. External links Jackie Cochran in the cockpit of a P-40 fighter plane, she was head of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP). Captured P-40E Warhawk in Japanese markings RCAF Kittyhawk - AK803/1034 Antipodean Hawks Annals of the Flying Tigers The P-40 in Soviet Aviation Curtiss P-40N-CU Joe Baugher's American Military Aircraft website The P-40 Warhawk P-40.com The Hawk's Nest - home of the P-40 Warhawk Warbird Alley: P-40 page - Information about P-40s still flying today P-40 in flight An excellent video on YouTube of a P-40 flying flat out and performing several maneuvers Curtiss P-40 Warhawk: One of World War II's Most Famous Fighters: A detailed overview of the history of the P-40 on TheHistoryNet.com Photos of the recovered wreckage of William "Black Mac" McGarry's P-40 Interview with a Soviet Kittyhawk pilot who also flew P-39s, Yaks and Spitfires USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to PresentRetrieved: 4 April 2008

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Jacques_Callot

Les misères de la guerre Jacques Callot (c. 1592 - 1635) was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine (an independent state on the North-Eastern border with France). He is an important figure in the development of the old master print. He made over 1,400 brilliantly detailed etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring soldiers, clowns, drunkards, Gypsies, beggars, as well as court life. He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background. Life and training Burlesque Violinist, 6 x 8.5 cm Callot was born and died in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, now in France. He came from a prominent family (his father was master of ceremonies at the court of the Duke), and he often describes himself as having noble status in the inscriptions to his prints. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, but soon after travelled to Rome where he learned engraving from an expatriate Frenchman, Philippe Thomassin. He probably then studied etching with Antonio Tempesta in Florence, where he lived from 1612-1621. Over 2,000 preparatory drawings and studies for prints survive, but no paintings by him are known, and he probably never trained as a painter. During his period in Florence he became an independent master, and worked often for the Medici court. After the death of Cosimo II de' Medici in 1621, he returned to Nancy where he lived for the rest of his life, visiting Paris and the Netherlands later in the decade. He was commissioned by the courts of Lorraine, France and Spain, and by publishers, mostly in Paris. Although he remained in the backwater of Nancy, his prints were widely distributed through Europe; Rembrandt was a keen collector of them. Technical innovations: échoppe, new hard ground, stopping-out His technique was exceptional, and was helped by important technical advances he made. He developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Massacre of the Innocents, 13.7 x 10.5 cm He also seems to have been responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground, using lute-makers varnish rather than a wax-based formula. This enabled lines to be more deeply bitten, prolonging the life of the plate in printing, and also greatly reducing the risk of "foul-biting", where acid gets through the ground to the plate where it is not intended to, producing spots or blotches on the image. Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been at the back of an etcher's mind, preventing him from investing too much time on a single plate that risked being ruined in the biting process. Now etchers could do the highly detailed work that was previously the monopoly of engravers, and Callot made full use of the new possibilities. He also made more extensive and sophisticated use of multiple "stoppings-out" than previous etchers had done. This is the technique of letting the acid bite lightly over the whole plate, then stopping-out those parts of the work which the artist wishes to keep light in tone by covering them with ground before bathing the plate in acid again. He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shade by careful control of this process. Most of his prints were relatively small - up to about six inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension. One of his followers, the Parisian Abraham Bosse spread Callot's innovations all over Europe with the first published manual of etching, which was translated into Italian, Dutch, German and English. Miseries of War His most famous prints are his two series of prints each on "the Miseries and Misfortunes of War". These are known as "Les Grandes Misères" of 1633 (18 prints) and the earlier and incomplete "Les Petites Misères" - referring to their sizes, large and small (though even the large set are only about 8 x 13 cm). These still alarming images show soldiers pillaging and burning their way through town, country and convent, before being variously arrested and executed by their superiors, lynched by peasants, or surviving to live as crippled beggars. in 1633, the year the larger set was published, Lorraine had been invaded by the French in the Thirty Years War and Callot's vision still stands with Goya's Los Desatres de la Guerra (The Disasters of War), which was influenced by Callot, as among the most powerful artistic statements of the inhumanity of war. Other notable works a large series depicting commedia dell arte figures called Balli di Sfessania, in a simple, caricature - like style, from his years in Florence. Series on the Lives of Christ and Mary Series on the story of the Prodigal Son The Giant Tifeo beneath Mount Ischia (1617) The Fair at Impruneta (1620) The Fair at Gondreville (1624) The Temptation of St. Anthony (1630, Hermitage Museum)Temptation of Saint Anthony References A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 455-460.ISBN 0-691-00326-2 DP Becker in KL Spangeberg (ed), Six Centuries of Master Prints, Cincinnati Art Museum, 1993, no 74 (Large Miseries of War), ISBN 0-931537-15-0 External links Bodkin Prints - Links to over 1,000 Callot prints (see section B) Jacques Callot on the Internet from Artcyclopedia. Jacques Callot drawings and engravings

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Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(Polish_rulers)

There has been an attempt to create a naming system specifically for Polish monarchs (but it is just a proposal and never received consensus), against the system used for other European monarchs. There is also the fact that most Polish monarchs now are located in places which contravene to general naming convention. There is no consensus for permission to use an exception for Polish monarchs, and such permission should be sought from consensus at Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (names and titles) where there is the thread Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (names and titles)#Need of particular exception/ convention for Polish monarchs. At that spot there are editors who are more or less experienced in overall picture of monarch naming and not only one country. It is deception to advertise any system for naming before a consensus there is convinced of the need for such exception. I hope all of you continue the naming scheme discussion for Polish monarchs there, before continuing or creating policy forks. Shilkanni 13:06, 6 June 2006 (UTC) agree with this analysis of current state of affairs, which means: relay this to Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (names and titles). And which also means that until further notice current separate NC proposals for Polish rulers are rejected. --Francis Schonken 13:42, 6 June 2006 (UTC) agree with Shilkanni, and the rejection of this proposal. There have been too many forked discussions about this matter, especially in nooks and crannies of Wikipedia that do not have the attention they need to garner a genuine cross-cultural community consensus. Moving all of the discussions to one centralized location at Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (names and titles)#Need of particular exception/ convention for Polish monarchs is an excellent idea. --Elonka 18:19, 6 June 2006 (UTC) agree also. It is sad that this little coup was allowed to take place without anyone but its two perpetrators being informed. Despite all his attempts to convince, Piotrus has given no reason other than his own patriotism as to why these monarchs should be different from those of other European monarchies. - Calgacus (ΚΑΛΓΑΚΟΣ) 19:12, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

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Lorisidae

Lorisidae (or sometimes Loridae) is a family of strepsirrhine primates. The lorids are all slim arboreal animals and include the lorises, pottos and angwantibos. Lorids live in tropical, central Africa as well as in south and southeast Asia. Physical Characteristics Lorids have a close, woolly fur which is usually grey or brown colored, darker on the top side. The eyes are large and face forward. The ears are small and often partially hidden in the fur. The thumbs are opposable and the index finger is short. The second toe of the hind legs has a fine claw for grooming, typical for strepsirrhines. Their tails are short or are missing completely. They grow to a length of 17 to 40 cm and a weight of between 0.3 and 2 kg, depending on the species. Their dental formula is similar to that of lemurs: Behavior Lorids are diurnal and arboreal. Unlike the closely related galagos, lorids never jump. Some have slow deliberate movements, whilst others can move with some speed across branches. It was previously thought that all lorids moved slowly, but investigations using red light proved this to be wrong. Nonetheless, even the faster species freeze or move slowly if they hear or see any potential predator. This habit of remaining motionless whilst in danger is successful only because of the leafy environment of their jungle home, which helps to conceal their true position. With their strong hands they clasp at the branches and cannot be removed without significant force. Most lorids are solitary or live in small family groups. Diet The main diet of most lorids consists of insects, but they also consume bird eggs and small vertebrates as well as fruits and sap. Reproduction Lorids have a gestation period of four to six months and give birth to two young. These often clasp themselves to the belly of the mother or wait in nests, while the mother goes to search for food. After three to nine months - depending upon species - they are weaned and are fully mature within ten to eighteen months. The life expectancy of the lorises can be to up to 20 years. Classification There are five genera and nine species of lorid. ORDER PRIMATES Suborder Strepsirrhini: non-tarsier prosimians Family Lemuridae: lemurs Family Lepilemuridae: sportive lemurs Family Cheirogaleidae: dwarf and mouse lemurs Family Indriidae: woolly lemurs and allies Family Daubentoniidae: Aye-aye Family Lorisidae Subfamily Perodicticinae Genus Arctocebus Calabar Angwantibo, Arctocebus calabarensis Golden Angwantibo, Arctocebus aureus Genus Perodicticus Potto, Perodicticus potto Genus Pseudopotto False Potto, Pseudopotto martini Subfamily Lorinae Genus Loris Red Slender Loris, Loris tardigradus Gray Slender Loris, Loris lydekkerianus Genus Nycticebus Sunda Loris, Nycticebus coucang Bengal Slow Loris, Nycticebus bengalensis Pygmy Slow Loris, Nycticebus pygmaeus Family Galagidae: galagos Suborder Haplorrhini: tarsiers, monkeys and apes References

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Null_set

In mathematics, a null set is a set that is negligible in some sense. For different applications, the meaning of "negligible" varies. In measure theory, any set of measure 0 is called a null set (or simply a measure-zero set). More generally, whenever an ideal is taken as understood, then a null set is any element of that ideal. In some elementary textbooks, null set is taken to mean empty set. The remainder of this article discusses the measure-theoretic notion. Definition Let X be a measurable space, let μ be a measure on X, and let N be a measurable set in X. If μ is a positive measure, then N is null (or zero measure) if its measure μ(N) is zero. If μ is not a positive measure, then N is μ-null if N is |μ|-null, where |μ| is the total variation of μ; equivalently, if every measurable subset A of N satisfies μ(A) = 0. For positive measures, this is equivalent to the definition given above; but for signed measures, this is stronger than simply saying that μ(N) = 0. A nonmeasurable set is considered null if it is a subset of a null measurable set. Some references require a null set to be measurable; however, subsets of null sets are still negligible for measure-theoretic purposes. When talking about null sets in Euclidean n-space Rn, it is usually understood that the measure being used is Lebesgue measure. Properties The empty set is always a null set. More generally, any countable union of null sets is null. Any measurable subset of a null set is itself a null set. Together, these facts show that the m-null sets of X form a sigma-ideal on X. Similarly, the measurable m-null sets form a sigma-ideal of the sigma-algebra of measurable sets. Thus, null sets may be interpreted as negligible sets, defining a notion of almost everywhere. Lebesgue measure The Lebesgue measure is the standard way of assigning a length, area or volume to subsets of Euclidean space. A subset N of R has null Lebesgue measure and is considered to be a null set in R if and only if: Given any positive number ε, there is a sequence {In} of intervals such that N is contained in the union of the In and the total length of the In is less than ε. This condition can be generalised to Rn, using n-cubes instead of intervals. In fact, the idea can be made to make sense on any topological manifold, even if there is no Lebesgue measure there. For instance: With respect to Rn, all 1-point sets are null, and therefore all countable sets are null. In particular, the set Q of rational numbers is a null set, despite being dense in R. The Cantor set is an example of a null uncountable set in R. All the subsets of Rn whose dimension is smaller than n have null Lebesgue measure in Rn. For instance straight lines or circles are null sets in R2. Sard's lemma: the set of critical values of a smooth function has measure zero. Uses Null sets play a key role in the definition of the Lebesgue integral: if functions f and g are equal except on a null set, then f is integrable if and only if g is, and their integrals are equal. A measure in which all subsets of null sets are measurable is complete. Any non-complete measure can be completed to form a complete measure by asserting that subsets of null sets have measure zero. Lebesgue measure is an example of a complete measure; in some constructions, it's defined as the completion of a non-complete Borel measure. A subset of the Cantor set which is not Borel measurable The Borel measure is not complete. One simple construction is to start with the standard Cantor set , which is closed hence Borel measurable, and which has measure zero, and to find a subset of which is not Borel measurable. (Since the Lebesgue measure is complete, this is of course Lebesgue measurable.) First, we have to know that every set of positive measure contains a nonmeasurable subset. Let be the Cantor function, a continuous function which is locally constant on , and monotonically increasing on the unit interval, with and . Obviously, is countable, since it contains one point per component of . Hence has measure zero, so has measure one. We need a strictly monotonic function, so consider . Since is strictly monotonic and continuous, it is a homeomorphism. Furthermore, has measure one. Let be non-measurable, and let . Because is injective, we have that , and so is a null set. However, if it were Borel measurable, then would also be Borel measurable (here we use the fact that the preimage of a Borel set by a continuous function is measurable; is the preimage of through the continuous function .) Therefore, is a null, but non-Borel measurable set. See also Cantor function Measure (mathematics)

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History_of_Kenya

The history of Kenya as a land occupied by sentient humans extends for millions of years, even though the history of Kenya as an independent state is relatively short. Kenyan prehistory Recent finds near Lake Turkana indicate that hominids like Australopithecus anamensis lived in the area which is now Kenya from around 4.1 million years ago. More recently, discoveries in the Tugen Hills dated to approximately 6 million years ago precipitated the naming of a new species,the Orrorin tugenensis. Early Kenyan civilizations Site of the Great Mosque of Gedi which dates from the 13th century. Cushitic-speaking people from northern Africa moved into the area that is now Kenya beginning around 2000 BC. Arab traders began frequenting the Kenya coast around the 1st century AD. Kenya's proximity to the Arabian Peninsula invited colonization, and Arab and Persian settlements sprouted along the coast by the 8th century. During the first millennium AD, Nilotic and Bantu peoples moved into the region, and the latter now comprise three-quarters of Kenya's population. Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. Arab dominance on the coast was eclipsed in the 16th century by the arrival of the Portuguese, whose domination gave way in turn to that of Oman in 1698. The United Kingdom established its influence in the 19th century. A mean of establishing this influence was through the missionaires: the first Christian mission was founded on August 25, 1846, by Dr. Ludwig Krapf, a German and missionary of the Church Missionary Society of England, who established himself among the Mijikenda on the coast. He later translated the Bible to Swahili. Colonial history The colonial history of Kenya dates from the establishment of Imperial Germany's protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon's British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a 50-year period. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to the British Empire in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika. The colonial takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Henya, a Kikuyu chief who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard's fort in 1890. Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the British and killed. Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on July 1, 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers. A key to the conquest of Kenya's interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railroad from Mombasa to Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, completed in 1901. This was to be the first piece of the Uganda Railway. In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line. For ten years he fought against the builders of the railway line and train. Later, determined to continue the railway line, the British assassinated Samoei. The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the Legislative Council, a European organization to which some were appointed and others elected. But since most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers. They obtained this goal in 1920, making the Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the Council. As a reaction of their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya's first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. This was to become the Kenya African Union (KAU), an African nationalist organization demanding access to white-owned land. In 1947 its presidency was given to Jomo Kenyatta. From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British colonial rule. African participation in the political process developed rapidly during the latter part of the period as British policymakers sought to isolate the insurgents and their supporters. The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Independent Kenya Despite British hopes of handing power to more "moderate" African rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the large Kĩkũyũ tribe and former prisoner under the emergency, which formed a government shortly before Kenya became independent on December 12, 1963. A year later, Kenyatta became Kenya's first president on the establishment of a republic. Lancaster House Conference held in 1963 for Kenya's Independence. The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. A small but significant leftist opposition party, the Kenya People's Union (KPU), was formed in 1966, led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice president and Luo elder. The KPU was banned and its leader detained after political unrest related to Kenyatta's visit to Nyanza Province. No new opposition parties were formed after 1969, and Kenya became a single party system under KANU. At Kenyatta's death (August 22, 1978), Vice President Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On October 14, Moi became President formally after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state. On August 1 members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) — paramilitary wing of the police — and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties. Multi-party politics After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution. Multiparty elections in December 1992, gave the President's KANU Party a majority of seats, and Moi was re-elected for another five-year term, although opposition parties won about 45% of the parliamentary seats. Kenyan democracy movement did scatter before the elections, which helped KANU to retain power unilaterally. Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained its parliamentary majority. Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi's former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected President by a large majority. In April 17, 2008, Raila Odinga, from Orange Democratic Movement, an candidate of Kenyan presidential election, 2007 was sworn as Prime Minister of Kenya, after more than forty years of the abolition of office See also Colonial Heads of Kenya Heads of Government of Kenya (12 December 1963 to 12 December 1964) Heads of State of Kenya (12 December 1964 to today) History of Nairobi External links U.S. State department. Background Note: Kenya BBC News Country Report: Kenya History of Kenya Another perspective on the history of Kenya

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Madeira

Madeira ( or ; or ) is a Portuguese archipelago in the mid Atlantic Ocean that lies between and . It is one of the Autonomous regions of Portugal, with Madeira Island and Porto Santo Island being the only inhabited islands. Madeira (and Selvagens too) is an archipelago with volcanic origins from a Hot Spot, so is not geographically part of a specific continent, but Madeira belongs and has belonged ethnically, culturally, economically and politically to Europe for 600 years. Madeira is part of Portugal, so is part of the European Union, as an Outermost Region. Madeira was rediscovered by Portuguese sailors some time between 1418 and 1420. The archipelago is considered to be the first discovery of the exploratory period initiated by Henry the Navigator of Portugal. It is a popular year-round resort, noted for its Madeira wine, flowers, and embroidery artisans, as well as its New Year's Eve celebrations that feature a spectacular fireworks show, which is the largest in the world according to the Guinness World Records Madeira “largest firework display in the world” . Its harbour - Funchal - is important due to its commercial and passenger traffic and for being a major stopover for cruisers en route from Europe to the Caribbean. History Cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Funchal. Pre-Portuguese times Pliny mentions certain Purple Islands, the position of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands, or Canaries, may indicate Madeira islands. Plutarch (Sertorius, 75 AD) referring to the military commander Quintus Sertorius (d. 72 BC), relates that after his return to Cadiz, "he met seamen recently arrived from Atlantic islands, two in number, divided from one another only by a narrow channel and distant from the coast of Africa 10,000 furlongs. They are called Isles of the Blest." The estimated distance from Africa, and the closeness of the two islands, seem to indicate Madeira and Porto Santo. There is a romantic tale about two lovers, Robert Machim and Anna d'Arfet in time of the King Edward III of England, fleeing from England to France in 1346, were driven off their course by a violent storm, and cast on the coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in memory of one of them. On the evidence of a portolan dated 1351, preserved at Florence, Italy, it would appear that Madeira had been discovered long before that date by Portuguese vessels under Genoese captains. Portuguese discovery Statue of João Gonçalves Zarco. In 1419 two captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to the island they named Porto Santo. They gave this name (meaning Holy Harbour) in gratitude for their rescue from the shipwreck. The next year an expedition was sent to populate the island, in which the two captains, together with captain Bartolomeu Perestrello, took possession of the islands on behalf of the Portuguese crown. The islands started to be settled circa 1420 or 1425. In 23 September 1433, the name Ilha da Madeira (Madeira Island or "wood island") appears on a map, its first mention in a document. The three captain-majors had led, in the first trip, the respective families, a small group of people of the minor nobility, people of modest conditions and some old prisoners of the kingdom. To gain the minimum conditions for the development of agriculture, they had to rough-hew a part of the dense forest of laurisilva and to construct a large number of canals (levadas), since in some parts of the island, there was excess water while in other parts water was scarce. In the earliest times, fish constituted about half of the settlers' diet, together with vegetables and fruit. The first local agricultural activity with some success was the raising of wheat. Initially, the colonists produced wheat for their own sustenance, but later began to export wheat to Portugal. The discoveries of Porto Santo and Madeira were first described by Gomes Eanes de Zurara in Chronica da Descoberta e Conquista da Guiné. (Eng. version by Edgar Prestage in 2 vols. issued by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899: The Chronicle of Discovery and Conquest of Guinea.) Arkan Simaan relates these discoveries in French in his novel based on Azurara's Chronicle: L’Écuyer d’Henri le Navigateur, published by Éditions l’Harmattan, Paris. Portuguese Madeira However, in time grain production began to fall. To get past the ensuing crisis Henry decided to order the planting of sugarcane - rare in Europe and, therefore, considered a spice - promoting, for this, the introduction of Sicilian beets as the first specialized plant and the technology of its agriculture. Sugarcane production became a leading factor in the island's economy, and increased the demand for labour. Slaves were used during portions of the islands' history to cultivate sugar cane, and the proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th century Godinho, V. M. Os Descobrimentos e a Economia Mundial, Arcádia, 1965, Vol 1 and 2, Lisboa . Genoese and Portuguese traders were attracted to the islands. Sugarcane cultivation and the sugar production industry developed until the 17th century. Since the 17th century, Madeira's most important product has been its wine, sugar production having since moved on to Brazil, São Tomé and Principe, and elsewhere. Madeira wine was perhaps the most popular luxury beverage in the colonial Western Hemisphere during the 17th and 18th centuries. The British Empire occupied Madeira as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, a friendly occupation, which started in 1807 concluding in 1814, when the island was returned to Portugal and the British did much to popularise Madeira wine. When, after the death of king John VI of Portugal, his usurper son Miguel of Portugal seized power from the rightful heir, his niece Maria II, and proclaimed himself 'Absolute King', Madeira held out for the Queen under the governor José Travassos Valdez until Miguel sent an expeditionary force and the defence of the island was overwhelmed by crushing force. Valdez was forced to flee to England under the protection of the Royal Navy (September 1828). In 1921, the last Austro-Hungarian Emperor Charles I was deported to Madeira, after his second unsuccessful coup d'état in Hungary. He died there one year later and is buried in Monte. On 1 July 1976, following the democratic revolution of 1974, Portugal granted political autonomy to Madeira. The region now has its own government and legislative assembly. Geography and climate View from Bica da Cana. Funchal, the capital of Madeira Autonomous Region, is the chief city and on the south coast of Madeira, the principal island in the archipelago. . Other cities are: Vila Baleira (in Porto Santo Island), Câmara de Lobos, Machico, Santa Cruz, Santana and Caniço (Santa Cruz municipality), Madeira Island. The archipelago lies about from the coast of Africa, from Lisbon, from Gran Canaria, and from Santa Maria, the nearest of the Azores. Map of the islands. Madeira Island is the largest island of the group with an area of 741 km², a length of 30 geographical miles (57 km), a breadth of 13 miles (22 km) at its widest point, and a coastline of 80 to . Its longer axis lies east and west, along which lies a mountain chain with a mean altitude of 4,000 feet (1,220 m), considered the backbone of the island from which many deep ravines radiate outward to the coast. Its most famous sea cliff, the Cabo Girão, is one of the highest in Europe. The highest point on the island is Pico Ruivo, at 1,862 meters (6,107 ft). MadeiraHelp.com In the south, there is very little left of the indigenous laurisilva subtropical rainforest which once covered the whole island (the original settlers set fire to the island to clear the land for farming) and gave it the name it now bears (Madeira means "wood" in Portuguese). However, in the north, the valleys contain native trees of fine growth. These laurisilva forests, notably the forests on the northern slopes of Madeira Island, are designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. A long, narrow, and comparatively low rocky promontory forms the eastern extremity of the island, on which lies a tract of calcareous sand known as the Fossil Bed. It contains land shells and numerous bodies resembling the roots of trees, probably produced by infiltration. Madeira Island's geographical position and mountainous landscape result in a very pleasant climate which varies between the north side, south side, and smaller islands groups like Porto Santo and Savages. The mean annual temperature on the coastline can reach more than 20 °C in the south. With its mild humidity, the weather of the island is classified as oceanic subtropical and with its low rain level, desertic on the Savages. Influenced by the Gulf Stream, sea water temperature varies between 26 °C during the summer and 17 °C in the winter. Islands and main Islets The 9 km beach of Porto Santo island. Madeira Island Ilhéu de Agostinho (close east) Ilhéu de São Lourenço (out east) Ilhéu Mole (northwest) Porto Santo Island Ilhéu de Baixo ou da Cal (south) Ilhéu de Ferro (southwest) Ilhéu das Cenouras (close north) Ilhéu de Fora (further north) Ilhéu de Cima (east) Desertas Islands Deserta Grande Island Bugio Island Chão Islet Savage Islands (northeast group) Selvagem Grande Island Palheiro da Terra Islet Palheiro do Mar Islet Savage Islands (southwest group) Selvagem Pequena Island Ilhéu Grande Ilhéu du Sul Ilhéu Pequeno Fora Islet Alto Islet Comprido Islet Redondo Islet Norte Islets Municipalities A 3D image from the east of the Island. Just like the mainland Portugal, Madeira is also further subdivided into 11 municipalities Map of municipalities at FreguesiasDePortugal.com : Municipality Population(2006) List of municípios on the ANMP website Area (km²)Main city/town Parishes</tr> Funchal 1) 100,847 75.7 Funchal 10 Câmara de Lobos 35,150 52.6 Câmara de Lobos 5 Santa Cruz 2) 32,696 68.0 Santa Cruz 5 Machico 21,321 67.6 Machico 5 Ribeira Brava 12,523 64.9 Ribeira Brava 4 Calheta 11,856 110.3 Calheta 8 Santana 8,491 93.1 Santana 6 Ponta do Sol 8,189 46.8 Ponta do Sol 3 São Vicente 6,063 80.8 São Vicente 3 Porto Santo 3) 4,388 42.4 Vila Baleira 1 Porto Moniz 2,762 82.6 Porto Moniz 4 Total 244,286 768.0 Funchal 541) including Savage Islands (to the freguesia of Sé)2) including Desertas Islands (to the freguesia of Santa Cruz)3) second largest island after Madeira island Funchal Funchal Today Funchal is a modern city with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Funchal is located in a unique area; the natural geological features form an "amphitheatre" surrounding the city, which begins at the harbour (Porto de Funchal) and rises almost 1200 metres high on gentle slopes. This provides a natural shelter and was what attracted the first settlers. Madeira's capital for more than five centuries, Funchal, is said to have been named as such because of the abundance of fennel (funcho in Portuguese) growing there. The harbour and climate combined with an excellent geographical position allowed Funchal to have a rapid population growth. Probably the most central point is the Sé Cathedral. Built between 1493 and 1514 by Pêro Annes in Manueline style it represents one of Madeira's numerous treasures. Geological origin and volcanism Madeira Island is the top of a massive shield volcano that rises about 6 km from the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, on an underwater mountain range called Tore, which stands on the African plate. The volcano formed atop an east-west rift in the oceanic crust. Formation of the bulk of the volcano began during the Miocene Epoch over 5 million years ago and continued into the Pleistocene until about 700,000 years ago. This was followed by extensive erosion, producing two large amphitheaters open to south in the central part of the island. Volcanic activity later resumed, producing scoria cones and lava flows atop the older eroded shield. The most recent volcanic eruptions were on the west-central part of the island only 6,500 years ago, creating more cinder cones and lava flows. Biodiversity Typical Madeiran flowers Madeiran Large White (female) Madeira has three endemic birds: Zino's Petrel, the Trocaz Pigeon and the Madeira Firecrest. It is also of importance for other breeding seabirds, including the Madeiran Storm-petrel, North Atlantic Little Shearwater and Cory's Shearwater. The Macaronesia region harbours an important floral diversity. In fact, the archipelago's forest composition and maturity are quite similar to the forests found in the Tertiary period that covered Southern Europe and Northern Africa millions of years ago. The great biodiversity of Madeira is phytogeographically linked to the Mediterranean region, Africa, America and Australia, and interest in this phytogeography has been increasing in recent years due to the discovery of some epiphytic bryophyte species with non-adjacent distribution. Madeira also has many endemic species of fauna – mostly invertebrates which include the extremely rare Madeiran Large White but also some vertebrates such as the native bat, some lizards species, and some birds as already mentioned. The biggest tarantula of Europe is found on Desertas islands of Madeira and can be as wide as a normal man hand. These islands have more than 250 species of land molluscs (snails and slugs), some with very unusual shell shape and colours. Most of them are endemic and vulnerable. Levadas A levada The island of Madeira is wet in the northwest but dry in the southeast. In the 16th century the Portuguese started building levadas or aqueducts to carry water to the agricultural regions. The most recent was made in the 1940s. Madeira is very mountainous, and building the levadas was often difficult. Many are cut into the sides of mountains, and it was also necessary to dig of tunnels. Today the levadas not only supply water to the southern parts of the island but provide hydro-electric power. There are over of levadas and they provide a remarkable network of walking paths. Some provide easy and relaxing walks through beautiful countryside, but others are narrow, crumbling ledges where a slip could result in serious injury or death. Two of the most popular levadas to hike are the Levada do Caldeirão Verde and the Levada do Caldeirão do Inferno which should not be attempted by hikers prone to vertigo or without torches and helmets. The Levada do Caniçal is a much easier walk, running from Maroços to the Caniçal Tunnel. It is known as the mimosa levada because mimosa trees are found all along the route. Economy The port of Funchal The setting-up of the Free trade zone has led to the installation, under more favourable conditions, of infrastructure, production shops and essential services for small and medium-sized industrial enterprises. The Free Zone of Madeira, also called the Madeira International Business Centre, being a tax-privileged economic area, provides an incentive for companies, offering them financial and tax advantages via a whole range of activities exercised in the Industrial Free Zone, the Off-Shore Financial Centre, the International Shipping Register organisation, and the International Service Centre. The services sector makes the largest contribution to the formation of the regional gross value added as opposed to the agricultural sector, for which the share has continuously declined in the regional economy. Over the last few years, the regional economy has managed to open up and establish more internal and external competitiveness, so that its companies have become competitive internationally. The largest industries are by sector are food, beverages (especially Madeira wine), and construction. Tourism Tourism is an important sector in the region's economy since it contributes 20% to the region's GDP, providing support throughout the year for commercial, transport and other activities and constituting a significant market for local products. The share in Gross Value Added of hotels and restaurants (9%) also highlights this phenomenon. The island of Porto Santo, with its 9 km long beach and its climate, is entirely devoted to tourism. Over the past decade it has recorded a substantial increase in its hotel accommodation capacity. Development in Madeira is considered to have future potential since the necessary infrastructure has been established and adequate investment incentives have been introduced for expanding its hotel and catering structure in a controlled manner. Nature conservation is seen as important because it is a major draw for tourists' to Madeira. Visitors are mainly from the European Union, with German, British, Scandinavian and Portuguese tourists providing the main contingents. The average annual occupancy rate was 60,3% in 2008 Statistics from DRE of Madeira tourism (2008) , reaching its maximum in March and April, when it exceeds 70%. Transport Madeira Airport The Islands have two airports, Funchal Airport on the Island of Madeira and the other in the island of Porto Santo. Flights to the islands are mostly made from Lisbon and Porto, but there are also direct flights from other major European cities and other countries, like Brazil, Venezuela and South Africa. In the past, Funchal airport was infamous for its runway, which was short and was built on a high embankment. This embankment fell away abruptly to the sea and was often troubled by difficult updrafts which tended to lift aircraft when landing. In the past, the largest airliners that were able to use the airport were the Airbus A320 and Boeing 737. In an infamous 1977 accident, a Boeing 727 aircraft, when landing in unfavorable weather, ran off the cliff at the end of the runway causing over 150 deaths. Funchal Aircraft Disaster of 19 November 1977 Recently, however, the runway has been realigned and extended from 1,800m to 2,481m, enabling most modern passenger airplanes to visit the island, including the Boeing 747-400, one of the biggest airliners today. European Union citizens of the Schengen Treaty area can enter the islands freely, while those from other regions need identification. Transport between the two main islands is done by plane or by ferries, the latter also allowing for the transportation of vehicles. Visiting the interior of the islands is now very easy, due to major road developments. Known as the Via Rapids, these major roads were constructed on the islands during Portugal's economic boom. Modern roads reach all points of interest on the islands. The old, curving mountain roads are still an excellent way to tour the island. Funchal has an extensive public transportation system. Bus companies, including Horários do Funchal which has been operating for over a hundred years, have regularly scheduled routes to all points of interest on the island. Society and Culture Demographics When the Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira in 1419, it was completely uninhabited by humans, with no aboriginal population at all. The island was settled by Portuguese people, especially farmers from the Minho region<ref>[http://www.ceha-madeira.net/livros/infante.html Alberto Vieira, O Infante e a Madeira: dúvidas e certezas, Centro Estudos História Atlântico.]</ref>, meaning that Madeirans (), as they are called, are ethnic Portuguese, though they have developed their own distinct regional identity and cultural traits. The region has a total population of just under 250,000 inhabitants, the majority of whom live on the main island of Madeira where the population density is 337/km²; meanwhile only around 4,500 live on the Porto Santo Island where the population density is 112/km². Population genetics Like in continental Portugal, the most frequent mtDNA haplogroup in Madeira is H (36.2%), followed by U (19.4% including 3.9% of North African U6), T (7.7%), pre-HV clades (7.1%) and K (6.5%). Two haplogroups, H and U5 alone account for more than 50% of the individuals. Relatively high frequency of sub-Saharan L haplogroups (13%) in Madeira is also consistent with the historical records on slave's introduction both in the south of Portugal and in Madeira "The relatively high proportion of African lineage clusters L1–L3, U6, and M1 in Madeira (18.7%) and only 5.1% in the Açores agrees well with previous estimates of African admixture based on HLA and STR markers (Spínola et al. 2002; Fernandes et al. 2003).", Mitochondrial portraits of the Madeira and Açores archipelagos witness different genetic pools of its settlers, Brehm et al. 2003 . Concerning the males Y-Dna haplogroups, R1b (particularly R1b3) was found to be the most dominant Y chromosomal lineage in Madeira, covering about 53% of the Y chromosomal lineages. The high frequency of this haplogroup is typical in all West European populations, reflecting a cline and likely continuity of the Paleolithic gene pool in Europe. Haplogroups I and G, also characteristic markers for many different West European populations, were found in Madeira at frequencies above 5%. Together with R1b, haplogroups J (12%) and E1b1b (14%) comprise about 80% of the Y-chromosomal gene pool of Madeira individuals. Haplogroups J and E1b1b consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe. The typical berber haplogroup E1b1b (M81) was found like in continental Portugal at a frequency of 5-6% Y-chromosome lineages from Portugal, Madeira and Açores record elements of Sephardim and Berber ancestry, Goncalves et al. 2005 . Famous Madeirans Cristiano Ronaldo, World Footballer of the Year 2008. Fátima Lopes, international fashion designer. The following people were either born or have lived part of their lives in Madeira: Adam Lindsay Gordon, famous Australian bush poet Aires de Ornelas e Vasconcelos, former Archbishop of the former Portuguese colonial enclave Goa (in India) Alberto João Jardim, President of the Regional Government Aldonio Ferreira, academic at Monash University, Accounting and Finance staff Ana da Silva, founding member of the post-punk band The Raincoats António de Abreu, naval officer and navigator Artur de Sousa Pinga, former CS Marítimo and FC Porto football player Catarina Fagundes, Olympic athlete for windsurf Cristiano Ronaldo, Manchester United and Portugal midfielder Cristopher Columbus, navigator Madeira (Insight Guides), ed. Ute York Dionísio Pestana, president of the Pestana Group Fátima Lopes, Fashion designer Fábio Machado, Mandolinist Francisco de Vasconcelos, Poet Henrique Franco, Painter Herberto Hélder, Poet Jaime Ornelas Camacho, first and former President of the Regional Government Jardim Gonçalves, entrepreneur and founder of BCP João Fernandes Vieira, military in Brazil and Angola João Rodrigues, Olympic windsurfer Joe Berardo, Portuguese millionaire, and art collector José Tolentino Mendonça, Poet John Santos, Photographer José Travassos Valdez, 1st Count of Bonfim, governor in 1827-1828 José Vicente de Freitas, military and politician Karl of Austria, Austrian monarch Sir Lloyd William Matthews, British naval officer, politician and abolitionist Luís Jardim, Producer of music Lomelino Silva, 'the Portuguese Caruso' Lourdes de Castro, Visual artist Manuel Nunes, inventor of the Ukulele Marcos Freitas International table tennis player Manoel Dias Soeyro or Menasseh Ben Israel (1604–1657), Sephardi Rabbi and publisher Moisés Henriques, former Australian Under-19 Captain and current NSW Blues cricketer Nadia Almada, a winner of the British reality show Big Brother Paul Langerhans, German pathologist and biologist Pedro Macedo Camacho, Composer Rigo 23, Artist Ronalda, Portuguese singer Stephanie Ferreira, H&M's top models Teodósio Clemente de Gouveia, Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church Vânia Fernandes, Portuguese singer who represented Portugal in Eurovision 2008 Vasco da Gama Rodrigues, Poet, born in Paul do Mar Virgilio Teixeira, actor Gastronomy Traditional pastries in Madeira usually contain local ingredients, one of the most common being mel de cana, literally sugarcane honey - molasses. The traditional cake of Madeira is called "Bolo de mel", which translates as (Sugarcane) "Honey Cake" and according to custom is never cut with a knife but broken into pieces by hand. It is a rich and heavy cake. Black scabbardfish, espada'', is often served with banana. Sport Madeira has two football teams in the Portuguese Liga, Portugal's top league, C.S. Marítimo of Funchal and Nacional. The Manchester United and Portugal footballer Cristiano Ronaldo was born in Madeira and played for Nacional before going to Sporting Lisbon. Cristiano Ronaldo C.S. Marítimo has nurtured great players such as Pepe, now at Real Madrid, Tonel, now at Sporting, Danny, now at Zenit, Jorge Costa, retired (F.C. Porto), Tarik Sektioui, now at F.C. Porto, Nuno Valente, now at Everton, Makukula, now at Bolton, among others. C.S. Marítimo is considered as the biggest club of Madeira. C.S. Marítimo has also enjoyed various campaigns in the UEFA Cup having recorded famous results against teams such as Juventus, Leeds and Rangers. In 2003-04 Nacional achieved 4th place in the Portuguese League, their best classification ever. In recent years Madeira has had a considerable amount of success in professional basketball, with CAB Madeira having won numerous titles, especially their female team. CAB are often seen competing in European competition such as the FIBA EuroCup, and former stars include Filipe da Silva and ex-Los Angeles Lakers player Ike Nwankwo. In 2001 the World Surfing Championships were held in Madeira at Surfspots including Paul do Mar, Ponta Pequena and Jardim do Mar (see Surfing in Madeira). Madeira Andebol SAD, the island's only professional handball team is one of the most successful in the country, while rally car racing (Rali Vinho da Madeira), fishing and golf are other popular sports played on the island. Rugby union is also played on the island to a minor degree. Postage stamps Portugal has issued postage stamps for Madeira during several periods, beginning in 1868; see postage stamps and postal history of Madeira for more details. References See also List of Presidents of the Legislative Assembly of the Autonomous Region of Madeira List of volcanoes in Azores Macaronesia Madeira Island Open, an annual European Tour golf tournament. External links Madeira's Government Website Madeira Tourism Official Website be-x-old:Мадэйра

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Mary_Magdalene

Saint Mary Magdalene or Mary Magdalene is described, both in the canonical New Testament and in the New Testament apocrypha, as a devoted disciple of Jesus. She is considered by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican churches to be a saint, with a feast day of July 22. She is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church with a festival on the same day. The Orthodox Church also commemorates her on the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers, which is the second Sunday after Pascha (Easter). In the New Testament, Mary Magdalene is distinguished from other women named Mary as "of Magdala", a town on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. The life of the historical Mary Magdalene is the subject of ongoing debate, while the less-obscure development of the "penitent Magdalene" as the most beloved medieval female saint after Mary, both as an exemplar for the theological discussion of penitence and as a social parable for the position of women, Jansen, Katherine Ludwig, The Making of the Magdalen: Preaching and Popular Devotion in the Later Middle Ages, 2000. provides matter for the social historian and the history of ideas. Apostle to the Apostles - Identification in the New Testament Noli me Tangere by Hans Holbein the Younger. In the earliest extant Biblical accounts now available Mark; Mark ; Mark Mary of Magdala is described as a Galilean disciple, a witness to the crucifixion and the mystery of Jesus of Nazareth's resurrected body. adds to Mary's persona by alluding to her having had seven demons cast out of her, which some have taken to signify a perfected status within the movement. Joseph Fitzmyer Together with other female followers, Mary accompanied Jesus on his journey to Jerusalem (Mark ; Matthew ; Luke ) and witnessesed the Crucifixion. (Mark ; Matthew ; Luke ; John ) Mary remained at the cross until the body was taken down and laid in a tomb.(Mark , Matthew , Luke , John ) In the early dawn, when the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene (with other women) (Mark , Matthew , Luke , John , Gospel of Peter 12), came to the sepulchre with spices to anoint the body. They found the sepulchre empty and were informed of Jesus's resurrection. Mary's epithet of 'Apostle to the Apostles' comes from her ascription as the first witness to the empty tomb who then shared the good news with Jesus's other close disciples. (John ) According to John, she was the first witness of the Resurrection appearances of Jesus, though, at first, she did not recognize him. When he said her name, she recognised him and cried, Rabboni. She wanted to cling to him, but he forbade her (: "'Do not cling to Me, for I have not yet ascended to My Father; but go to My brethren and say to them, "I am ascending to My Father and your Father, and to My God and your God."'" This is the last mention in the canonical Gospels of Mary Magdalene, who now returned to Jerusalem. She is probably included in the group of women who joined the Apostles in the Upper Room in Jerusalem after Jesus' ascension (). The penitent Mary Magdalene, a much reproduced composition by Titian. Identification with Mary of Bethany and "the woman sinner" Tradition as early as the third century (Hippolytus, in his Commentary on Song of Songs) identifies Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and with the woman sinner who anointed Jesus's feet Jansen 2000. : And, behold, a woman in the city, which was a sinner, when she knew that Jesus sat at meat in the Pharisee's house, brought an alabaster box of ointment, and stood at his feet behind him weeping, and began to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head, and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment. Luke 7:36–50. Though the woman remains unnamed, she has been identified with Mary of Bethany, the sister of Martha and the resurrected Lazarus ( and ), as says: Now there was a certain man sick, named Lazarus, of Bethania, of the town of Mary and Martha, her sister. And Mary was she that anointed the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair: whose brother Lazarus was sick. The identification of Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and "the woman who was a sinner" is reflected in an influential sermon Pope Gregory I gave in 591, which said: "She whom Luke calls the sinful woman, whom John calls Mary [of Bethany], we believe to be the Mary from whom seven devils were ejected, according to Mark." Following this line of thought, in December 2008, a team of Franciscan archaeologists of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum working at the site identified as Magdala discovered stoppered vases containing residues of perfumed ointment which they asserted were possibly of the type used to anoint Jesus's feet. ANSA.it press release Though Gregory's identification of all three women as the same Mary was generally accepted in the West, the Catholic Church celebrates Mary Magdalene on her feast of 22 July as the woman of that name "to whom Christ appeared after his resurrection, not as the sister of Saint Martha nor as the sinful woman whose sins the Lord forgave (Lk 7:36-50)." Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 131 The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1910 also stated that "there is no suggestion of an identification of the three persons (the 'sinner', Mary Magdalene, and Mary of Bethany)." Eastern Orthodox Christians distinguish them all as three different persons: Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany (whom the Orthodox commemorate on 4 June, together with her sister Martha), and the unnamed "woman who was a sinner" of Luke 7:36-50. Protestants mostly reject all these identifications, except for Seventh-day Adventists. Identification as a prostitute Mary Magdalene by Anthony Frederick Augustus Sandys. Ca. 1860 Mary Magdalene is sometimes referred to as a prostitute or adulteress, but no title was ever ascribed to her in the New Testament. Luke writes that Jesus casts seven demons from her, after which she joins his disciples and provides for them. She witnesses the crucifixion from the foot of the cross, the male disciples having fled (with the exception of John). And she was the first witness to the resurrection and was sent by Jesus to tell his other disciples of his return. Williams, Mary Alice. "Mary Magdalene." Religion and Ethics," November 21, 2003; Episode no. 712. Online: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week712/feature.html</ref> Jeffrey Kripal, a religion scholar, wrote, "Migdal or Magdala (meaning "tower" in Hebrew and Arameic respectively) was a fishing town known, or so the legend goes, for its perhaps punning connection to hairdressers (medgaddlela) and women of questionable reputation. This is as close as we get to any clear evidence that Mary Magdalene was a prostitute." Kripal, 2007, p. 52. According to Kripal, the identification of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute also goes back to the above-mentioned sermon by Pope Gregory. However, Gregory identified Mary merely as a peccatrix, a sinful woman, using her as a model for the repentant sinner, not a meretrix, a prostitute. However, he also identifies Mary with the adulteress brought before Jesus (as recounted in the Pericope Adulterae, ), concurring with 3rd and 4th century Church fathers that had already considered the sinful woman's sin as "being unchaste". Gregory's identification and the consideration of the woman's sin as sexual later probably gave rise to the image of Mary as a prostitute. "Kreuzigung" by Meister des Marienlebens. This viewpoint is also espoused by much Western medieval Christian art. In many medieval depictions, Mary Magdalene is shown as having long hair which she wears down over her shoulders, while other women follow contemporary standards of propriety by hiding their hair beneath headdresses or kerchiefs. The Magdalene's hair may be rendered as red, while the other women of the New Testament in these same depictions ordinarily have dark hair beneath a scarf. This disparity between depictions of women can be seen in works such as the Crucifixion paintings by the Meister des Marienlebens. This image of Mary as a prostitute was followed by many writers and artists until the 20th century. Even though it is less prevalent nowadays, the identification of Mary Magdalene with the adulteress is still accepted by some Christians. This is reflected in Martin Scorsese's film adaptation of Nikos Kazantzakis's novel The Last Temptation of Christ, as well as in José Saramago's The Gospel According to Jesus Christ, Andrew Lloyd Webber's rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar, Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ and Hal Hartley's The Book of Life. Veneration Eastern Orthodox Eastern Orthodox icon of Mary Magdalene as a Myrrhbearer. The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains that Mary Magdalene, distinguished from Mary of Bethany and the "sinful woman", had been a virtuous woman all her life. This view finds expression both in her written life (βίος or vita) and in the liturgical service in her honor that is included in the Menaion and performed on her annual feast-day. There is a tradition that Mary Magdalene led so chaste a life that the devil thought she might be the one who was to bear Christ into the world, and for that reason he sent the seven demons to trouble her. Mary Magdalene is honored as one of the first witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus, and received a special commission from him to tell the Apostles of his resurrection (). Mary's role as a witness is interesting due to the fact women at that time could not be witnesses in legal proceedings. Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978. Because of this, and because of her subsequent missionary activity in spreading the Gospel, she is known by the title, "Equal of the Apostles". She is often depicted on icons bearing a vessel of ointment, not because of the anointing by the "sinful woman", but because she was among those women who brought ointments to the tomb of Jesus. For this reason, she is called a Myrrhbearer. According to Eastern traditions, she retired to Ephesus with the Theotokos (Mary, the Mother of God) and there she died. Her relics were transferred to Constantinople in 886 and are there preserved. Roman Catholic Gregory of Tours, writing in Tours in the sixth century, Gregory of Tours, De miraculis, I, xxx. supports the tradition that she retired to Ephesus, with no mention of any connection to Gaul. How a cult of Mary Magdalene first arose in Provence has been summed up by Victor Saxer Saxer, La culte de Marie Magdalene en occident (1959). in the collection of essays in La Magdaleine, VIIIe – XIIIe siècle Ecole française de Rome, (1992). and by Katherine Ludwig Jansen, drawing on popular devotions, sermon literature and iconology. Mary Magdalene's relics were first venerated at the abbey of Vézelay in Burgundy. Jacobus de Voragine gives the common account of the transfer of the relics of Mary Magdalene from her sepulchre in the oratory of Saint Maximin at Aix-en-Provence to the newly-founded abbey of Vézelay; "the Abbey of Vesoul" in William Caxton's translation. the transportation of the relics is entered as undertaken in 771 by the founder of the abbey, identified as Gerard, duke of Burgundy. Medieval Sourcebook: The Golden Legend: Volume IV. The earliest mention of this episode is the notice of the chronicler Sigebert of Gembloux (died 1112), who asserts that the relics were removed to Vézelay through fear of the Saracens. There is no record of their further removal to the other St-Maximin; a casket of relics associated with Magdalene remains at Vézelay. Afterwards, since September 9 1279, the body of Mary Magdalene was also venerated at Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume, Provence. This cult attracted such throngs of pilgrims that the earlier shrine was rebuilt as the great Basilica from the mid-thirteenth century, one of the finest Gothic churches in the south of France. The competition between the Cluniac Benedictines of Vézelay and the Dominicans of Saint-Maxime occasioned a rash of miraculous literature supporting the one or the other site. Jacobus de Voragine, compiling his Legenda Aurea (Golden Legend) before the competition arose, characterized Mary Magdalene as the emblem of penitence, washing the feet of Jesus with her copious tears, protectress of pilgrims to Jerusalem, daily lifting by angels at the meal hour in her fasting retreat and many other miraculous happenings in the genre of Romance, ending with her death in the oratory of Saint Maximin, all disingenuously claimed to have been drawn from the histories of Hegesippus and of Josephus. Mary Magdalene attributed to Gregor Erhart (Louvre). The French tradition of Saint Lazare of Bethany is that Mary, her brother Lazarus, and Maximinus, one of the Seventy Disciples and some companions, expelled by persecutions from the Holy Land, traversed the Mediterranean in a frail boat with neither rudder nor mast and landed at the place called Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer near Arles. Mary Magdalene came to Marseille and converted the whole of Provence. Magdalene is said to have retired to a cave on a hill by Marseille, La Sainte-Baume ("holy cave." baumo in Provencal), where she gave herself up to a life of penance for thirty years. When the time of her death arrived she was carried by angels to Aix and into the oratory of Saint Maximinus, where she received the viaticum; her body was then laid in an oratory constructed by St. Maximinus at Villa Lata, afterwards called St. Maximin. In 1279, when Charles II, King of Naples, erected a Dominican convent at La Sainte-Baume, the shrine was found intact, with an explanatory inscription stating why the relics had been hidden. In 1600, the relics were placed in a sarcophagus commissioned by Pope Clement VIII, the head being placed in a separate reliquary. The relics and free-standing images were scattered and destroyed at the Revolution. In 1814, the church of La Sainte-Baume, also wrecked during the Revolution, was restored, and, in 1822, the grotto was consecrated afresh. The head of the saint now lies there and has been the centre of many pilgrimages. Mary as a penitent The traditional Roman Catholic feast day dedicated to Mary Magdalene celebrated her position as a penitent. This was changed in 1969, with the revision of the Roman Missal and the Roman Calendar, and now there is no mention in either of Mary Magdalene the sinner. Filteau, Jerry, "Scholars seek to correct Christian tradition, fiction of Mary Magdalene", Catholic Online, May 2 2006. The Magdalene became a symbol of repentance for the vanities of the world to various sects. Mary Magdalene was the patron of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Magdalene College, Cambridge (both pronounced "maudlin"). In contrast, her name was also used for the Magdalen Asylum, institutions for "fallen women". In the Orthodox Church, Mary Magdalene is not celebrated as a penitent, but rather as a woman who lived a virtuous life. Protestant views Mary is viewed as a highly respected disciple of Jesus. Veneration is not usually practiced by Protestant denominations. Among Protestants, Seventh-day Adventists hold special views, as they consider the three women to be the same: Mary had been looked upon as a great sinner, but Christ knew the circumstances that had shaped her life. (…) It was He who had lifted her from despair and ruin. Seven times she had heard His rebuke of the demons that controlled her heart and mind. (…) It was Mary who sat at His feet and learned of Him. It was Mary who poured upon His head the precious anointing oil, and bathed His feet with her tears. Mary stood beside the cross, and followed Him to the sepulcher. Mary was first at the tomb after His resurrection. It was Mary who first proclaimed a risen Saviour. Ellen G. White, Desire of Ages, ed. 1898, chapter 62, p. 567-568 Seventh-day Adventists believe she's mentioned differently in the passages that talk about a woman anointing Jesus' feet in Simon's house (; ; ; ), in order to reflect the change of character, "distinguishing her" from the Mary that she was before Ellen G. White, Desire of Ages, ed. 1898, chapter 62, p. 564 Easter Egg tradition Icon of St. Mary Magdalene holding a red Easter egg with the words Christ is Risen. For centuries, it has been the custom of many Christians to share dyed and painted eggs, particularly on Easter Sunday. The eggs represent new life, and Christ bursting forth from the tomb. Among Eastern Orthodox Christians (including Greek, Russian, Macedonian, Serbian, Romanian and Ukrainian) this sharing is accompanied by the proclamation "Christ is risen!" (in Greek "Christos anesti") and the response "Truly He is risen!"(in Greek - "Alithos anesti"). Red-colored Belarusian Easter Eggs. One tradition concerning Mary Magdalene says that following the death and resurrection of Jesus, she used her position to gain an invitation to a banquet given by Emperor Tiberius. When she met him, she held a plain egg in her hand and exclaimed "Christ is risen!" Caesar laughed, and said that Christ rising from the dead was as likely as the egg in her hand turning red while she held it. Before he finished speaking, the egg in her hand turned a bright red, and she continued proclaiming the Gospel to the entire imperial house. Abernethy and Beaty, The Folklore of Texan Cultures, Denton University of North Texas Press, 2000, p. 261. Another version of this story can be found in popular belief, mostly in Greece. It is believed that after the Crucifixion, Mary Magdalene and the Virgin Mary put a basket full of eggs at the foot of the cross. There, the eggs were painted red by the blood of the Christ. Then, Mary Magdalene brought them to Tiberius Caesar (see above). Mary Magdalene, in a dramatic 19th-century popular image of penitence painted by Ary Scheffer. Gospel of Mary A group of scholars, the most familiar of whom is Elaine Pagels, have suggested that for one early group of Christians Mary Magdalene was a leader of the early Church and maybe even the unidentified Beloved Disciple, to whom the Fourth Gospel commonly called Gospel of John is ascribed.<ref>See Marvin Meyer, with Esther A. de Boer, The Gospels of Mary: The Secret Traditions of Mary Magdalene the Companion of Jesus (Harper San Francisco) 2004;Esther de Boer provides an overview of the source texts excerpted in an essay "Should we all turn and listen to her?': Mary Magdalene in the spotlight." pp.74-96. Ramon K. Jusino, an internet writer, offers an explanation of this view, based on the textual researches of Raymond E. Brown, in "Mary Magdalene, author of the Fourth Gospel?", 1998, available on-line. Ann Graham Brock (see ref.) summarized this reading of the texts in 2003. She demonstrated that an early Christian writing portrays authority as being represented in Mary Magdalene or in the church community structure. These scholars also observe that the Mary Magdalene figure is consistently elevated in writings from which formal leadership roles are absent. In certain texts, while either the Peter or the Paul figure is more involved, Mary Magdalene's role is often diminished, while in other texts, the opposite occurs. A tug-of-war is evident between these two opposing systems of church government, revealing debates regarding the importance of the key roles of women in Biblical texts. Scholars of the Mary who appears in the Nag Hammadi Gnostic texts have identified her with the Magdalene, even though she is merely given the (Coptic) equivalent of "Mary." However, Stephen J. Shoemaker thinks that this Mary is actually the Blessed Virgin Mary (Shoemaker 2001), that this fits in better with the notions that Mary was intimate with Jesus, was his greatest disciple, and was to be the center of Jesus' religion; Shoemaker has made a study of Marian liturgies and devotion in Early Christianity. Further attestation of Mary Magdalene and her role among some early Christians is provided by the gnostic, apocryphal Gospel of Mary Magdalene which survives in two 3rd century Greek fragments and a longer 5th century translation into Coptic. In the Gospel the testimony of a woman first needed to be defended. All of these manuscripts were first discovered and published between 1938 and 1983, but as early as the 3rd century there are Patristic references to the Gospel of Mary. These writings reveal the degree to which that gospel was despised and dismissed by the early Church fathers. In the fragmentary text, the disciples ask questions of the risen Savior (a designation that dates the original no earlier than the 2nd century) and are answered. Then they grieve, saying, "How shall we go to the Gentiles and preach the Gospel of the Kingdom of the Son of Man? If even he was not spared, how shall we be spared?" And Mary bids them take heart: "Let us rather praise his greatness, for he prepared us and made us into men." She then delivers—at Peter's request—a vision of the Savior she has had, and reports her discourse with him, which shows Gnostic influences. Her vision does not meet with universal approval: Karen King of Harvard Divinity School has observed, "The confrontation of Mary with Peter, a scenario also found in The Gospel of Thomas, Pistis Sophia, and The Greek Gospel of the Egyptians, reflects some of the tensions in second-century Christianity. Peter and Andrew represent orthodox positions that deny the validity of esoteric revelation and reject the authority of women to teach." (introduction, The Nag Hammadi Library) Relationship with Jesus 13th century Romanesque capital showing Jesus and Mary Magdalene (Noli me tangere). A few modernist writers have come forward with claims that Mary Magdalene was the wife of Jesus. These writers cite Gnostic (an apocrypha text) writings to support their argument. Sources like the Gospel of Philip depict Mary Magdalene as being closer to Jesus than any other disciple. However, there is no known ancient document that claims she was his wife; rather, the Gospel of Philip depicts Mary as Jesus' koinonos, a Greek term indicating a "close friend," or "companion." The closeness described in these writings depicts Mary Magdalene, representing the Gnostics, as understanding Jesus and his teaching while the other disciples, representing the Church, did not. Kripal writes that "the historical sources are simply too contradictory and simultaneously too silent" to make absolute declarations regarding Jesus' sexuality. On the other hand, the historian John Dickson argues that it was common in early Christianity to kiss a fellow believer by way of greeting (see 1 Peter 5:14 in the New Testament), and as such kissing would have no romantic connotations. The Christ Files, John Dickson, p. 95 Dickson also argues that if Jesus were indeed in love with Mary, then the disciples' question "Why do you love her more than all of us?" would imply romantic jealousy on their part, a theory which he describes as "utterly implausible for historians." The penitent Mary Magdalene, by Francesco Hayez. Mary Magdalene appears with more frequency than other women in the canonical Gospels and is shown as being a close follower of Jesus. Mary's presence at the Crucifixion and Jesus' tomb, while hardly conclusive, is at least consistent with the role of grieving wife and widow, although if that were the case Jesus might have been expected to make provision for her care, as well as for his mother Mary. It also seems to contradict Jesus refusing physical contact in John (see Noli me tangere). Proponents of a married status of Jesus argue that bachelorhood was very rare for Jewish males of Jesus' time, being generally regarded as a transgression of the first divine commandment: "Be fruitful and multiply." According to this reasoning, it would have been unthinkable for an adult, unmarried Jew to travel about teaching as a rabbi. A counter-argument to this is that in Jesus' time the Jewish religion was very diverse and the role of the rabbi was not yet well defined. It was really not until after the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in A.D. 70 that Rabbinic Judaism became dominant and the role of the rabbi made uniform in Jewish communities. Before Jesus, celibate teachers were known in the communities of the Essenes, although these communities were quite separate from mainstream Judaism. John the Baptist was celibate. Later, Paul of Tarsus was an example of an unmarried itinerant teacher among Christians. Jesus himself approved of voluntary celibacy for religious reasons and explicitly rejected a duty to marry: "There are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it." (Matthew ). The Gnostics, the community that Mary represented, did not condone marriage and sexuality, considering the material world and the body as imprisoning spirit. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism The idea that Mary Magdalene was the wife of Jesus was popularized by books like The Jesus Scroll (1972), Holy Blood, Holy Grail (1982), The Gospel According to Jesus Christ (1991), The Woman with the Alabaster Jar (1993), Bloodline of the Holy Grail: The Hidden Lineage of Jesus Revealed (1996), The Da Vinci Code (2003), and Jesus the Man (2006); and by films like Bloodline (2008). The medieval book "Golden Legend" says "Some say that S. Mary Magdalene was wedded to S. John the Evangelist." Metaphysical marriage Penitent Magdalene, by Antonio Canova. Writers employing metaphysical analogy and allegory have asserted that Christ was already married—to the Church, in the literary topos of The Bridegroom that was developed and enlarged upon in medieval theology. See Mystical marriage. This image goes back to Old Testament depictions of the covenant between God and his people as a marriage, especially in the books Hosea, Ezekiel and the Song of Songs. Imagery of marriage also appears in the Gospels and is applied to Jesus in the letters of the Apostle Paul (e.g. Ephesians ) and in the Apocalypse of John in the New Testament. This was later expanded by the Church fathers. Some writers, following an early tradition that Jesus is in a mystical sense the second Adam that began with Paul and continued with Irenaeus and others, embody this sense with literal parallels: like the first Adam, his bride was taken from his side when he had fallen asleep (died on the cross). In medieval Christian anagogic exegesis, the blood and water which came from his side when he was pierced, was held to represent the bringing forth of the Church with its analogy in the water of baptism and the wine of the new covenant. Thus Christ can be said in an allegorical sense to already have a wife in the Church. Cultural references In film and literature Picknett, Lynn and Prince, Clive. The Templar Revelation (1997) Baigent, Leigh and Lincoln's 1982 book Holy Blood, Holy Grail Dan Brown's novel and later movie The DaVinci Code (2006) Bruce Chilton's Mary Magdalene: A Biography, Doubleday, 2005. ISBN 978-0385-51318-0 Elizabeth Cunningham's "Maeve Chronicles." including Daughter of the Shining Isles, The Passion of Mary Magdalen, and Magdalen Rising Mel Gibson's 2004 film, The Passion of the Christ where Mary Magdalene is portrayed by Italian actress Monica Bellucci Abel Ferrara's 2005 film Mary:, with Juliette Binoche as Mary Magdalene. Margaret George's novel Mary, Called Magdalene (Peguin Books: New York, 2002) Nikos Kazantzakis's novel, The Last Temptation of Christ (Martin Scorsese's film of the same title) Ki Longfellow's novel, The Secret Magdalene (Crown/Random House, 2007–2008) is in preproduction for Sundance Grand Jury Prize winner, writer/director Nancy Savoca Marianne Fredriksson's novel, According to Mary Magdalene (1999) Charlotte Graham portrayed a silent Mary Magdalene in the 2006 film The Da Vinci Code based on the novel by Dan Brown of the same name. Kathleen McGowan's novel The Expected One (Simon & Schuster, 2006) Antoinette May's novel Claudia, Daughter of Rome Christopher Moore includes Mary Magdalene (called 'Maggie' in the book) as a childhood friend of Jesus (called Joshua in the book) and Biff in his book Lamb: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ's Childhood Pal. Mary Magdalene's name has been mentioned in the Chrono Crusade manga. In music Tori Amos' songs "Marys of the Sea" and "Mary" Johnny Cash's songs "If Jesus Ever Loved A Woman" and "Lights of Magdala" Popular Croatian singer Doris Dragović's "Marija Magdalena" The Mars Volta's song "Asilos Magdalena" Meshell Ndegeocello's song "Mary Magdalene" A Perfect Circle, "Magdelena" off the Album Mer De Noms Joaquín Sabina's song "Una canción para la Magdalena" Pop singer Sandra's "(I'll Never Be) Maria Magdalena" Richard Shindell's song "The Ballad of Mary Magdalen" Andrew Lloyd Webber rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar Immortal Technique's song "Point of No Return" White Zombie's album, Psycho-Head blowout contain's a song called "magdalene" Other Donatello carved a wooden statue of Mary Magdalena. It stands in Museo dell'Opera del Duomo in Florence. (photograph) As a character in the video game series Xenosaga. See also St. Mary Magdalene's Church Mary of Bethany Jesus bloodline Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer Saint Sarah Notes References Acocella, Joan. "The Saintly Sinner: The Two-Thousand-Year Obsession with Mary Magdalene." The New Yorker, February 13 & 20, 2006, p. 140–49. Prompted by controversy surrounding Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code. Brock, Ann Graham. Mary Magdalene, The First Apostle: The Struggle for Authority. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 0674009665. Discusses issues of apostolic authority in the gospels and the Gospel of Peter the competition between Peter and Mary, especially in chapter 7, "The Replacement of Mary Magdalene: A Strategy for Eliminating the Competition." Burstein, Dan, and Arne J. De Keijzer. Secrets of Mary Magdalene. New York: CDS Books, 2006. ISBN 1593152051. Jansen, Katherine Ludwig. The Making of the Magdalen: Preaching and Popular Devotion in the Later Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. ISBN 0691058504. ISBN 0226453812. Pearson, Birger A. "Did Jesus Marry?." Bible Review, Spring 2005, pp 32–39 & 47. Discussion of complete texts. Picknett, Lynn, and Clive Prince. The Templar Revelation. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. ISBN 0593038703. Presents a hypothesis that Mary Magdalene was a priestess who was Jesus' partner in a sacred marriage. Shoemaker, Stephen J. "Rethinking the ‘Gnostic Mary’: Mary of Nazareth and Mary of Magdala in Early Christian Tradition." in Journal of Early Christian Studies, 9 (2001) pp 555–595. Thiering, Barbara. Jesus the Man: Decoding the Real Story of Jesus and Mary Magdalene. New York: Simon & Schulster (Atria Books), 2006. ISBN 1416541381. Wellborn, Amy. De-coding Mary Magdalene: Truth, Legend, and Lies. Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor, 2006. ISBN 1592762093. A straightforward accounting of what is well-known of Mary Magdalene. External links St Mary Magdalene, Catholic Encyclopaedia 1911 Convent of Saint Mary Magdalene St Mary Magdalen and the case for the ordination of women in the Catholic Church Legends of Mary Magdalene The Pesher of Christ: The Marriage of Jesus by Dr. Barbara Thiering Miriam/Myriam M'Gadola: Mary Magdalene Articles and more than 40 Paintings Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mary The Da Vinci Code and Mary Magdalene The Gospels: Metaphor as "The Great Code" Gospel of Mary Magdalene

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Latin_spelling_and_pronunciation

The Roman alphabet, or Latin alphabet, was adapted from the Old Italic alphabet, to represent the phonemes of the Latin language, which had in turn been borrowed from the Greek alphabet, adapted from the Phoenician alphabet. This article deals primarily with modern scholarship's best guess at classical Latin pronunciation (that is, how Latin was spoken among educated people in the late Republic) and spelling, and then touches upon later changes and other variants. Letters and phonemes In classical times, each letter of the alphabet corresponded very closely with a phoneme. In the tables below, letters (and digraphs) are paired with the phonemes they represent in IPA. Only upper case existed. Consonants {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" | Labial ! rowspan="2" | Dental ! rowspan="2" | Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar ! rowspan="2" | Glottal |- style="font-size:x-small;" ! plain ! labial |-align="center" ! style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2" | Plosive ! style="font-size:x-small;text-align:left;" | voiced | B | D | | G | | |-align="center" ! style="font-size:x-small;text-align:left;" | voiceless | P | T | | C or K 1 | QV | |-align="center" ! style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2" | Fricative ! style="font-size:x-small;text-align:left;" | voiced | | Z 2 | | | | |-align="center" ! style="font-size:x-small;text-align:left;" | voiceless | F 3 | S | | | | H |-align="center" ! style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Nasal | M | N | | G/N 4 | | |-align="center" ! style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Rhotic | | R 5 | | | | |-align="center" ! style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" | Approximant | | L 6 | I 7 | | V 7 | |} In Early Latin, the letter was used regularly for /k/ before /a/ but in classical times had been replaced by , except in a very small number of words. was not a native Latin phoneme. The letter was used in Greek loanwords to represent zeta (Ζζ), which is thought to have denoted by the time the letter was introduced into Latin. In classical verse the letter Z always counted as two consonants. This might mean that the sound was geminated, i.e. , or pronounced . There is some evidence that Latin may have represented , which was already an obsolete way of pronouncing this letter in the Greek of that time. The phoneme represented by the letter f may have also represented a bilabial in Early Latin or perhaps in free variation with . (Lloyd, Sturtevant and Kent make this argument based on certain misspellings of inscriptions, the Proto-Indo-European phone which the Latin f descended from and the way the sound appears to have behaved in Vulgar Latin, particularly in Spain.) assimilated its place of articulation before velar consonants to as in quinque . Also, probably represented a velar nasal before (agnus: ). The Latin rhotic was either an alveolar trill , like Spanish or Italian rr, or maybe an alveolar flap , with a tap of the tongue against the upper gums, like Italian or Spanish r. (L) is thought to have had two allophones in Latin, comparable to many varieties of modern English. According to Allen (Chapter 1, Section v) it was velarized as in English full at the end of a word or before another consonant; in other positions it was a plain alveolar lateral approximant as in English look. and , in addition to representing vowels, were used to represent the corresponding approximants. , , and were used in Greek loanwords with phi (Φφ ), theta (Θθ ), and chi (Χχ ), respectively. Latin had no aspirated consonants and so these digraphs tended to be pronounced (and later ), , and , respectively (except by the most careful speakers). represented the consonant cluster . Double consonants were geminated ( , etc.). Length was distinctive in Latin. For example anus ("old woman") or ānus ("ring, anus") vs. annus ("year"). In Early Latin, double consonants were not marked, but in the 2nd century BC, they began to be distinguished in books (but not in inscriptions) with a diacritical mark known as the sicilicus, which was described as being in the shape of a sickle. (1) appears at the beginning of words before a vowel, or in the middle of the words between two vowels; in the latter case the sound is doubled: iūs , cuius . Since such a doubled consonant in the middle of a word makes the preceding syllable heavy, the vowel in that syllable is traditionally marked with a macron in dictionaries, although in fact the vowel is usually short. Compound words preserve the sound of the element that begins with it: adiectīvum . (2) It is likely that, by the Classical period, at the end of words was pronounced weakly, either voiceless or simply by nasalizing (and lengthening) the preceding vowel. For instance decem ("ten") was probably pronounced . In addition to the metrical features of Latin poetry, the fact that all such endings in words of more than two syllables lost the final in the descendant Romance languages strengthens this hypothesis. For simplicity, and because this is not known for certain, is always represented as the phoneme here and in other references. Vowels {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | Front ! colspan="2" | Central ! colspan="2" | Back |- ! long ! short ! long ! short ! long ! short |- ! High | I | I | colspan="2" | | V | V |- ! Mid | E | E | colspan="2"| | O | O |- ! Low | colspan="2" | | A | A | colspan="2" | |} Each vowel letter (with the possible exception of ) represents at least two phonemes. can represent either short or long , is either or , etc. Short mid vowels were pronounced with a different quality than their long counterparts, being also more open: open-mid and ( and , respectively). The same may, to some extent, be true for the close vowels as well: near-close and ( and ). Allen, Vox Latina p. 47 ff. was used in Greek loanwords with upsilon ( ). Latin originally had no close front rounded vowel, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords as (in archaic Latin) or (in classical and late Latin) if they were unable to produce . Diphthongs , , , , were originally diphthongs: was , was , , and . In Archaic Latin was and was . However, and started to become monophthongs, and respectively in rural areas at the end of the republican period. Attested by Varro, De lingua Latina, V 97 and VII 96 This process, however, does not seem to have completed before 3rd century AD in Vulgar Latin, and some scholars say that it may be have been regular by the fifth century AD. Clackson & Horrocks, pp. 273-274 Other orthographic notes and both represent . In archaic inscriptions, is primarily used before and , while is used before . However, in classical times, the usage of had been reduced to a very small number of native Latin words — the kappa (Κκ) in words borrowed from Greek came to be represented as instead. clarified minimal pairs between and , making it possible to distinguish between cui (with a falling diphthong) and qui (with a labialized velar stop). In Old Latin, represented both and . Hence, it was used in the abbreviation of common praenomina (first names): Gāius was written as C. and Gnaeus as Cn. Misunderstanding of this convention has led to the erroneous spelling Caius. The semi-consonant was regularly geminated between two vowels, but this is not indicated in the spelling. Before a vocalic I the semi-consonant was often omitted altogether, for instance in reicit "he/she/it threw back". Length Vowel and consonant length were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. Unfortunately, "vowel length" is a confusing term for English speakers, who in their language call "long vowels" what are in most cases diphthongs, rather than plain vowels. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, macrons are frequently used to mark long vowels (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū), while the breve is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short (ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ). Long consonants were indicated through doubling (cf. anus and annus, two different words with distinct pronunciations), but Latin orthography did not distinguish between long and short vowels, nor between the vocalic and consonantal uses of I and V. A shortlived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet Lucius Accius. Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an apex (a diacritic similar to an acute accent), or in the case of long I, by increasing the height of the letter. Distinctions of vowel length became less important in later Latin, and have ceased to be phonemic in the modern Romance languages, where the previous long and short versions of the vowels have either been lost or replaced by other phonetic contrasts. Syllables and stress In Latin the distinction between heavy and light syllables is important as it determines where the main stress of a word falls, and is the key element in classical Latin versification. A heavy syllable (sometimes called a long syllable, but this risks confusion with long vowels) is a syllable that either contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or ends in a consonant. If a single consonant occurs between two syllables within a word, it is considered to belong to the following syllable, so the syllable before the consonant is light if it contains a short vowel. If two or more consonants (or a geminated consonant) occur between syllables within a word, the first of the consonants goes with the first syllable, making it heavy. Certain combinations of consonants, e.g. tr, are exceptions: both consonants go with the second syllable. In Latin words of two syllables, the stress is on the first syllable. In words of three or more syllables, the stress is on the penultimate syllable if this is heavy, otherwise on the antepenultimate syllable. Elision Where one word ended with a vowel (including a nasalised vowel, represented by a vowel plus M) and the next word began with a vowel, the first vowel, at least in verse, was regularly elided — in other words omitted altogether, or possibly (in the case of and ) pronounced like the corresponding semivowel. Elision also occurs in Ancient Greek but in that language it is shown in writing by the vowel in question being replaced by an apostrophe, whereas in Latin elision is not indicated at all in the orthography, but can be deduced from the verse form. Latin today Spelling Modern usage, even when printing classical Latin texts, varies in respect of i and v. Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) continue the old convention of using I (upper case) and i (lower case) for both and , and V (upper case) and u (lower case) for both and . This is also the convention used in this article. An alternative approach, less common today, is to use I/i and U/u only for the vowels, and J/j and V/v for the semi-consonants. Most modern editions adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between u and v but not between i and j. Usually the semi-consonant v after q or g is still printed as u rather than v, probably because in this position it did not change from to in post-classical times. This approach is also recommended in the help page for the Latin Wikipedia. Textbooks and dictionaries indicate the quantity of vowels by putting a macron or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but this is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a circumflex used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance Româ "from Rome" (ablative) compared to Roma "Rome" (nominative). Gilbert, Allan H.: "Mock Accents in Renaissance and Modern Latin (in Comment and Criticism)", PMLA, Vol. 54, No. 2. (Jun., 1939), pp. 608-610. Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an acute accent over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. This would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation, and also made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the third century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, while they have kept the accents in the same places, so the use of accent marks allows speakers to read aloud correctly even words that they have never heard spoken aloud. Pronunciation Loan words and formal study When Latin words are spoken in a living language today, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did. Myriad systems have arisen for pronouncing the language — at least one for each language in the modern world whose speakers learn Latin. In most cases, Latin pronunciation is adapted to the phonology of the person's own language. Latin words in common use in English are generally fully assimilated into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign (indeed, native speakers do not generally even think of these Latin words as foreign), for example, cranium, saliva. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the diphthongs ae and oe (occasionally written æ and œ), which both denote in English. In the Oxford style, ae represents , in formulae, for example. Ae in some words tends to be given an pronunciation, for example, curriculum vitae. Of course, using loan words in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's Romance languages, the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section below on "Derivative languages"). However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke. Ecclesiastical pronunciation Because of the central position of Rome within the Roman Catholic Church, an Italian pronunciation of Latin became commonly accepted. This pronunciation corresponds to that of the Latin-derived words in Italian, and in some respects to the general pronunciation of Latin everywhere in the Middle Ages. The following are the main points that distinguish ecclesiastical pronunciation from Classical Latin pronunciation: Vowels are long when stressed and in an open syllable, otherwise short.<ref>This change, like many of the others, dated from early mediaeval times and was by no means limited to Italy: "Already in the Old English period vowel-length had ceased to be observed except in the penultimate syllable of polysyllambic words, where it made a difference to the position of the accent ... Otherwise new rhythmical laws were applied, the first syllable of a disyllabic word, for instance being made heavy by lengthening the vowel if it were originally light (hence e.g. pāter ... for pǎter)" - William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (Cambridge University Press 1978 ISBN 0521379369), p. 102</ref> The digraphs AE and OE represent . This simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of Varro (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. De lingua latina, 5:97 (referred to in Jane Stuart Smith, Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic (Oxford University Press 2004 ISBN 0199257736), p. 47). C denotes (as in English ch) before AE, OE, E, I or Y. G denotes (as in English j) before AE, OE, E, I or Y. H is silent except in two words: mihi and nihil, where it is pronounced as . This pronunciation of mihi and nihil may have been an attempt to reintroduce the sound of H intervocalically, where it seems to have been lost even in literary Latin by the end of the Republican period (Jane Stuart Smith, Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic (Oxford University Press 2004 ISBN 0199257736), p. 48). S between vowels represents a voiced ; In ecclesiastical Latin, following usage in Rome rather than in Italy in general, this intervocalic softening is very slight (Liber Usualis, p. xxxviij). when followed by a C before AE, OE, E, I or Y, they merge into . TI, if followed by a vowel and not preceded by s, t, x, represents (like English 'tsee'). Liber Usualis, p. xxxviij V as a vowel is clearly distinguished from the consonant , except after G, Q or S, where it is pronounced as . The sound is now distinguished from the other two sounds also in writing (Vv, as opposed to Uu) TH represents . PH represents . CH represents . Y represents . GN represents . X represents , the of which merges with a following C before AE, OE, E, I or Y to form , as in excelsis — Z represents . In his Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, William Sidney Allen remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Roman Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption Pope Pius X recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation". William Sidney Allen, Vox Latina: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (Cambridge University Press 1978 ISBN 0521379369), p. 108 It is the most commonly recognized pronunciation, and the method most widely used today as a sort of standard pronunciation in singing. A recent example of its use occurred in the motion picture The Passion of the Christ, recorded in Aramaic and ecclesiastical Latin (which was criticised for being anachronistic). However, some contemporary musicians try to produce authentic regional pronunciation as far as possible. Derivative languages Because it gave rise to many modern languages, Latin did not strictly "die"; it merely evolved over the centuries in diverse ways. Even in Classical times, most people did not speak the formal, classical tongue; they spoke what is known as Vulgar Latin, which was already different from its sibling in both grammar and lexicon. The end of the political unity of the Roman Empire accelerated the process of divergence, separating the populations of western Europe from each other, and making it less likely for distant proto-Romance speakers to need to speak to each other. The local dialects of Vulgar Latin that emerged eventually became modern French, Italian, etc. Key features of Vulgar Latin and Romance include: Total loss of and final . Pronunciation of and as . Conversion of the distinction of vowel length into a distinction of height, and subsequent merger of some of these phonemes. Most Romance languages merged short with long and short with long . Total loss of Greek sounds (which were never part of the language). Palatalization of before and , probably first into , then , then before finally developing into in loanwords into languages like German, // in Florentine, or in Spanish (depending on dialect) and in Catalan, Occitan, French and Portuguese. French (and also Occitan, but partially) had a second palatalisation of to (French ch) before Latin See Pope, Chap 6, Section 4. . Palatalization of before and , and of , into //, then into // in Catalan, Occitan, French and Portuguese. French (and Occitan, but partially) underwent a second palatalisation, of before Latin . Palatalization of followed by vowel (if not preceded by s, t, x) into , then and in Catalan, Occitan, French and Portuguese. The change of (except after ) and, between vowels, into , then /v/ (in Spanish, was reduced to an allophone of , instead). Examples The following examples are both in verse, which demonstrates several features more clearly than prose. Classical Latin Virgil's Aeneid, Book 1, verses 1–4. Quantitative metre. Translation: "I sing of arms and the man, who, driven by fate, came first from the borders of Troy to Italy and the Lavinian shores; he [was] much afflicted both on lands and on the deep by the power of the gods, because of fierce Juno's vindictive wrath." Ancient Roman orthography (before 2nd century "The word-divider is regularly found on all good inscriptions, in papyri, on wax tablets, and even in graffiti from the earliest Republican times through the Golden Age and well into the Second Century. ... Throughout these periods the word-divider was a dot placed half-way between the upper and the lower edge of the line of writing. ... As a rule, interpuncta are used simply to divide words, except that prepositions are only rarely separated from the word they govern, if this follows next. ... The regular use of the interpunct as a word-divider continued until sometime in the Second Century, when it began to fall into disuse, and Latin was written with increasing frequency, both in papyrus and on stone or bronze, in scriptura continua." E. Otha Wingo, Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age, Mouton, 1972, pp 15–16. ) Traditional (19th century) English orthography Arma virúmque cano, Trojæ qui primus ab oris Italiam, fato profugus, Lavináque venit Litora; multùm ille et terris jactatus et alto Vi superum, sævæ memorem Junonis ob iram. Modern orthography with macrons (as Oxford Latin Dictionary) Arma uirumque canō, Trōiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs Ītaliam fātō profugus, Lāuīnaque uēnit lītora; multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō uī superum, saeuae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram. Classical Roman pronunciation Note the elisions in mult(um) and ill(e) in the third line. For a fuller discussion of the prosodic features of this passage, see Latin poetry: Dactylic hexameter. Some manuscripts have "Lavinia" rather than "Lavina" in the second line. Medieval Latin Beginning of Pange Lingua by St Thomas Aquinas (thirteenth century). Rhymed accentual metre. Translation: "Extol, [my] tongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood, which the fruit of a noble womb, the king of nations, poured out as the price of the world." 1. Traditional orthography as in Roman Catholic service books (stressed syllable marked with an acute accent on words of three syllables or more). Pange lingua gloriósi Córporis mystérium, Sanguinísque pretiósi, quem in mundi prétium fructus ventris generósi Rex effúdit géntium. 2. "Italianate" ecclesiastical pronunciation Notes References Allen, W. Sidney. (2003) Vox Latina — a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, second edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37936-9. Clackson, James & Geoffrey Horrocks. (2007) The Blackwell History of the Latin Language Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-6209-8. Pekkanen, Tuomo. (1999) Ars grammatica — Latinan kielioppi. Helsinki University Press, 3rd-6th edition. ISBN 951-570-022-1. Pope, M. K. (1952 [1934]) From Latin to Modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman'', revised edition. Manchester University Press. See also Latin alphabet Latin grammar Latin regional pronunciation Traditional English pronunciation of Latin External links Ecclesiastical Latin in the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia. The Roman Pronunciation of Latin, by Frances Ellen Lord, in the Gutenberg Project. The Westminster Pronunciation of Latin

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Go-fast_boat

A "go-fast" is the preferred boat of many smugglers. The dance or go-fast boat or van witsen is a high performance boat of a characteristic design. Originally designed for offshore powerboat racing team by Donald Aronow, the fast, powerful boats became notorious as the drug smuggling boat of choice in many parts of the world starting in the 1980s. These boats were used at first to smuggle cigarettes into Canada and therefore derived their nickname as the "cigarette boat". A company was formed later and trademarked the actual name cigarette. The technical know-how that emerged from Go-fast boats eventually led to the design of high speed luxury yachts, which then replaced Go-fast boats as the preferred sea vehicle among the elite. History Don Aronow became involved in powerboat endurance racing in the early 1960s. He founded Formula Marine, Donzi Marine, Magnum Marine, Cigarette Racing Team, Squadron XII and USA Racing. Aronow formed the Cigarette Racing Team in 1969 along with a young man called Nick Beauchamp. He had a World Championship win in an unusual 32' Cary race boat called "The Cigarette". The story behind the development of G-fast boats by Aronow was developed into a movie in 2007 . Construction US Navy SEALs train with a modified go-fast boat during a training exercise in Mississippi. A typical go-fast is built of fiberglass, with a deep "V" offshore racing hull from usually 30 to 50 feet (10 to 15 m) long, narrow in beam, and equipped with two or more powerful engines, often with more than 1000 combined horsepower. The boats can typically travel at speeds over 80 knots (150 km/h) in calm waters, over 50 knots (90 km/h) in choppy waters, and maintain 25 knots (47 km/h) in the average five to seven foot (1.5 to 2 m) Caribbean seas. They are heavy enough to cut through higher waves, although at a slower pace. Use In accordance with their pure racing heritage, the accommodations on these boats are minimal, and they are built to hold 5 or fewer passengers. While most do have some cabin under the foredeck, it is low and much smaller than a typical motor yacht of similar size. Apart from the racing market, most buyers of these boats purchase them for the mystique; the combination of the racing and smuggling connections, plus the immense power, high top speeds, and sleek shape make these boats popular. Illegal use A helicopter from the Helicopter Interdiction Tactical Squadron out of Jacksonville, Florida, pursues a go-fast boat during training. These boats are difficult to detect by radar except on flat calm seas or at close range. The United States Coast Guard and the DEA found them to be stealthy, fast, seaworthy, and very difficult to intercept using conventional craft. Because of this, Coast Guards have developed their own high-speed craft and also use helicopters. The helicopters are equipped with anti-materiel rifles which can be used to disable the motors of the go-fast boat. The Coast Guard go-fast boat is a rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB) equipped with radar and powerful engines. The RHIB is armed with several types of non-lethal weapons and a M240 GPMG. See also Poker Run Narco submarine External links Congressional testimony on technologies for detecting go-fast boats Lexington Institute article on technologies for stopping go-fast boats Books Don Aronow: The King of Thunderboat Row, 1994, by Michael Aronow

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Politics_of_Egypt

The government of Egypt consists of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the President of Egypt is the fact both head of state and head of government, and of a system dominated by the National Democratic Party. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the People's Assembly. Background Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. Since the declaration of the republic, four Egyptians have served as presidents. The first President to take office was President Mohamed Naguib. The fourth and incumbent president is Mohamed Hosni Mubarak who has been the President of Egypt since October 14 1981, following the assassination of former President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Atef Ebeid from office. Legislative branch Parliament meets for one eighth-month session each year; under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament continues to lack the powers to balance the excessive powers of the President. The People’s Assembly (Maglis El-Sha’ab) People’s Assembly is the principal legislative body. Out of the assembly’s 454 deputies, 444 are directly elected while no more than 10 may be appointed by the President (article 87 of the Constitution). The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the assembly seats for ‘workers and peasants’. The assembly sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. All seats are voted on in each election. Four hundred seats are voted on using proportional representation while the remaining forty-four are elected in local majority votes. The People’s Assembly may cause the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the assembly. The Consultative Council (Maglis El-Shura) The Shura Council is the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. In the Shura Council 176 members are directly elected and 88 members are appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Shura Council is renewed every three years. The Shura Council's legislative powers are limited. On most matters of legislation, the People’s Assembly retains the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. Parliamentary elections There currently exist eighteen recognized political parties from across the political spectrum. The formation of political parties based on religion is prohibited by the Constitution. The official opposition and political pressure groups, like the Muslim Brotherhood, are active in Egypt and make their views public. They are represented at various levels in the political system. However, power is concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the National Democratic Party which retains a super-majority in the People's Assembly. The November 2000 Parliamentary Elections are generally regarded to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections. This is due to the new Law put into force establishing universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. Moreover, many Egyptians feel their votes are being monitored by poll workers, and could face retribution for their votes. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights which have been greatly loosened up in the past five years. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils. Political parties and elections According to the Egyptian Constitution, political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties are not allowed as it would not respect the principle of non-interference of religion in politics and that religion has to remain in the private sphere to respect all beliefs. In addition, political parties supporting militia formations or having an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution and its principles, or threatening the country's stability such as national unity between Muslim Egyptians and Christian Egyptians. Today, there are 18 political parties in Egypt. Civil society Egyptians have been living under emergency law since 1967, except for an 18-month break in 1980. Emergency laws have been continuously extended every three years since 1981. These laws sharply circumscribe any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and un-registered financial donations are formally banned. Nonetheless, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice. In 2003, the agenda shifted heavily towards local democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change (Kefaya), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers. Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to land rights and land reform. A major flash point was the 1997 repeal of Nasser-era land reform policies under pressure for structural adjustment. A pole for this activity is the Land Center for Human Rights. Political pressure groups and leaders The Muslim Brotherhood currently constitutes Mubarak's most significant political opposition; Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence (arguably leading to its recent rise in public support). Trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned. Foreign relations The permanent headquarters for the League of Arab States (The Arab League) is located in Cairo.The Secretary General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. The Arab League briefly moved out of Egypt to Tunis in 1978 as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989. Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty at the Camp David Accords. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996. A territorial dispute with Sudan over an area known as the Hala'ib Triangle, has meant that diplomatic relations between the two remain strained. References Notes Bibliography External links Global Integrity Report: Egypt has analysis of corruption and anti-corruption in Egypt. Ancient and Modern Egyptian Governments General government sites Official Egyptian Government Portal Egyptian Investment Portal official government site Egypt State Information Service official government site The Egyptian Presidency The People Assembly of Egypt Egyptian Shoura Council Ministries Council of Ministers Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Manpower and Emigration Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Ministry of Youth Ministry of Planning Ministry of Economy Ministry of Finance Ministry of Petroleum Ministry of Culture Ministry of Investment Ministry of Education Ministry of People's Assembly Ministry of Shura Council Affairs Ministry of Tourism Ministry of Health and Population Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Ministry of State for Local Development Ministry of Foreign Trade & Industry Ministry of Electricity and Energy Ministry of International Cooperation Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (MCIT) Ministry of Information Ministry of State for Administrative Development Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and Urban Communities Ministry of Interior Affairs Ministry of Supply and Home Trade Ministry of Defense and Military Production Political parties National Democratic Party (NDP) El-Ghad Party New-Wafd Party (NWP) Egyptian Greens

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Infection

An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In an infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources to multiply, usually at the expense of the host. The infecting organism, or pathogen, interferes with the normal functioning of the host and can lead to chronic wounds, gangrene, loss of an infected limb, and even death. The host's response to infection is inflammation. Colloquially, a pathogen is usually considered a microscopic organism though the definition is broader, including parasites, fungi, viruses, prions, and viroids. A symbiosis between parasite and host, whereby the relationship is beneficial for the former but detrimental to the latter, is characterised as parasitism. The branch of medicine that focuses on infections and pathogens is infectious disease. "When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can help turn the tide of battle. Four types of anti-infective drugs exist: antibacterial, antiviral, antitubercular, and antifungal. Nursing Pharmacology Made Incredibly Easy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2009.p.483]] A secondary infection is an infection that occurs during or following treatment of another already existing primary infection. Colonization Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former would be the anaerobic bacteria species which colonize the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter would be the various species of staphylococcus which exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations would be considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Organisms which are non-pathogenic can become pathogenic under the right conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing. The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include: the route of entry of the pathogen and the access to host regions that it gains the intrinsic virulence of the particular organism the quantity or load of the initial inoculant the immune status of the host being colonized As an example, the staphylococcus species present on skin remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum, will multiply without resistance and create a huge burden on the host. Occult infection An occult infection is medical terminology for a "hidden" infection, that is, one which presents no symptoms. Dr. Fran Giampietro discovered this type, and coined the term "occult infection" in the late 1930s. Another word for an infection with no symptoms is "asymptomatic". Bandade Bacterial or viral Bacterial and viral infections can both cause symptoms such as malaise, fever, and chills. It can be difficult, even for a doctor, to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Bacterial vs. Viral Infections - Do You Know the Difference? National Information Program on Antibiotics It's important to distinguish, because viral infections cannot be cured by antibiotics. +Comparison of viral and bacterial infection Characteristic Viral Bacterial Typical symptoms In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral conjunctivitis or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like herpes. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning. The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized Redness, Heat, Swelling and Pain. One of the hallmarks of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and it is infected with bacteria, pain will occur at the site of the infection. Bacterial throat pain is often characterised by more pain on one side of the throat. An ear infection is more likely to be bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear. An infection that produces pus is not always bacterial. Cause Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic bacteria See also Antiseptic List of infectious diseases Infectious diseases Staphylococcus aureus Ubi pus, ibi evacua (Latin: "where there is pus, there evacuate it") Routes of infections References Vaccine Research Center Information concerning vaccine research clinical trials for Emerging and re-Emerging Infectious Diseases. aboutinfections.com

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Stolen_base

The all-time stolen base leader, Rickey Henderson, swipes third in 1988. In baseball, a stolen base occurs when a baserunner successfully advances to the next base while the pitcher is delivering the ball to home plate. In baseball statistics, stolen bases are denoted by SB. If, however, the defense makes no attempt to put the baserunner out (for example, if the catcher doesn't even look his way), the play is scored as "defensive indifference" and no stolen base is credited to the runner. Successful base-stealing requires not just simple running speed, but also good base-running instincts, quickness, and split-second timing. The scoring and criteria for awarding a stolen base to a runner is covered by rule 10.07 of the Major League Baseball rule book. MLB Rule 10 Background In the 19th century, stolen bases were credited when a baserunner reached an extra base on a base hit from another player. For example if a runner on first base reached third base on a single, it would count as a steal. In 1887, Hugh Nicol set a still-standing Major League record with 138 stolen bases, many of which would not have counted under modern rules. However the first recorded stolen base under modern rules occurred in 1865 when Eddie Cuthbert decided to make it to second base on his own rather than wait for the hit. Modern steal rules were implemented in 1898 chronology of baseball rules @ baseball library.com , and steals are now only credited when a runner successfully takes an extra base while the ball is being pitched, but not already hit. If the ball is dead on the pitch run on, such as from a foul ball (except caught fly-out), the steal is not allowed and the runner returns to his time-of-pitch base. In addition, if the situation of the game is such that the steal is of little use (usually in the late innings when the runner would not change the game's outcome by scoring), and the catcher does not attempt to throw out the runner, the runner is not credited with a steal, and the base is attributed to defensive indifference. Graph depicting the yearly number of home runs (blue line) and stolen bases (pink line) per MLB game. The two primary periods in which the stolen base was popular were before 1920 and again in the 1970s and 1980s. Base stealing was popular in the game's early decades, with speedsters such as Ty Cobb and Clyde Milan stealing nearly 100 bases in a season. But the tactic fell into relative disuse after Babe Ruth introduced the era of the home run – in 1955, for example, no one in baseball stole more than 25 bases, and Dom DiMaggio won the AL stolen base title in 1950 with just 15. However, in the late 1950s and early 1960s base-stealing was brought back to prominence primarily by Luis Aparicio and Maury Wills, who broke Cobb's modern single-season record by stealing 104 bases in 1962. Wills' record was broken in turn by Lou Brock in 1974, and Rickey Henderson in 1982. The stolen base remained a popular tactic through the 1980s, perhaps best exemplified by Vince Coleman and the St. Louis Cardinals, but began to decline again in the 1990s as the frequency of home runs reached unprecedented heights and the steal-friendly artificial turf ballparks began to disappear. Technique and strategy A base-stealing runner must begin running as soon as the pitcher has committed himself to throwing a pitch to home plate, neither sooner nor later. If he begins to run too soon, the pitcher may throw to a base rather than to home — in this case, the runner is picked off, and will most likely be tagged out. Before the pitch, the runner will often take a lead-off, walking several steps away from the base as a head start for his next advance. In some cases, the pitcher may hold the runner on by throwing to the base several times before pitching, in the hope of dissuading the runner from too big a lead-off. This action can also result in the runner being tagged out in a pick-off. Another popular strategy is for the runner to attempt a steal while the hitter is instructed to swing at the pitch if it is at all hittable. This hit-and-run play can give the runner a good head start to take an extra base on the hit. But if the hitter fails to hit the ball, the hit-and-run becomes a pure steal attempt, and the runner may be thrown out. Another risk of the hit-and-run is that a caught line drive could result in an easy double play, although this is offset by the lower likelihood of a ground ball double play. A second and lesser-known technique is the "delayed" steal. This technique, famously practiced by Eddie Stanky of the Brooklyn Dodgers, is where the runner does not break immediately for second when the pitcher commits to the plate. Instead the runner takes two or three large shuffles off the base when the pitcher goes to the plate. This keys the middle infielders and the catcher to let their guard down, as it appears the runner is not stealing, but only getting a good secondary lead in case the ball is hit. In reality the delayed stealer is closing the distance to second base. When the ball crosses the plate the runner breaks for second base, and is essentially stealing the base on the middle infielders who have not covered second base. Additionally, the catcher is not ready to come out of his crouch and cannot throw to second until an infielder gets there. The delayed steal is a deceptive technique that is sometimes executed by even slow runners and many times results in a catcher throwing into center field. The technique is rarely seen at the Major League level but is used effectively by multiple college programs. Second base is the base most often stolen. It is also technically the easiest to steal, as it is farthest from home plate and thus a longer throw from the catcher is required to prevent it. Third base is a shorter throw for the catcher, and thus more difficult to steal, though a right-handed batter can sometimes help by serving as an obstacle that the catcher must throw around. Third base is generally stolen off the pitcher, since a bigger lead is possible off second base. It is possible for a player to steal home plate, but this requires great daring and aggressiveness as the ball will almost certainly arrive at home plate before the runner. Thus a sacrifice bunt or squeeze play is typically used instead. Ty Cobb holds the records for most steals of home in a single season (8) as well as for a career (54). Jackie Robinson was also renowned for the thrilling feat of stealing home, which he famously accomplished in Game 1 of the 1955 World Series. In more recent years, pure steals of home are rare, although a player may steal home plate during a "delayed double steal," in which a runner on first attempts to steal second, while the runner on third breaks for home as soon as the catcher throws to second base. The most recent "pure" steal of home (i.e., not involving a squeeze play or an additional steal attempt) was on May 12, 2009, when Jayson Werth of the Philadelphia Phillies stole home with bases loaded and two outs in the bottom of the seventh against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The expression "You can't steal first base" is sometimes used in reference to a player who is fast but not very good at getting on base in the first place. Although a batter can run to first base in the rare instance that the catcher fails to catch a third strike, such a play (if the batter is successful) is not recorded as a steal of first base, but as a strikeout plus a passed ball or wild pitch. In baseball's earlier decades, a runner on second base could "steal" first base, perhaps with the intention of drawing a throw which might allow a runner on third to score (a tactic famously employed by Germany Schaefer). However, such a tactic was not recorded as a stolen base, and modern rules forbid going backwards on the basepaths in order to confuse the defense or make a travesty of the game. Base stealing is an important characteristic of a particular style of baseball, sometimes called "small ball" or "manufacturing runs". A team playing with this style emphasizes doing little things (including risky running plays like base-stealing) to advance runners and score runs, often relying on pitching and defense to keep games close. The Los Angeles Dodgers of the 1960s, led by pitcher Sandy Koufax and speedy shortstop Maury Wills, were a successful example of this style. The antithesis of this would be a team that relies on power hitting. The Baltimore Orioles of the 1970s, led by manager Earl Weaver, were an example of such a "slugging" team that aspired to score most of its runs via home runs. Often the "small ball" model is associated with the National League, while power hitting is seen as more associated with the American League. However, some of the more successful American League teams of recent memory, including the 2002 Anaheim Angels, the 2001 Seattle Mariners and the 2005 Chicago White Sox have experienced their success in part as a result of playing "small ball," advancing runners through means such as the stolen base and the related hit and run play. Successful teams often combine both styles, with a speedy runner or two complementing hitters with power, such as the 2005 White Sox, who despite playing "small ball", still hit 200 home runs that season Measuring Success One of the difficulties in determining how good a player is at stealing bases is whether to judge the cumulative number of steals or the success ratio of steals to caught stealing. Noted statistician Bill James has argued that unless a player can steal a high percentage of the time, then the stolen base is not useful, and can even be detrimental to a team. A success rate of 67 to 70% or better is necessary to make stealing bases worthwhile. Baseball Almanac Stats Judging the base-stealing abilities of players from earlier eras is also problematic, because caught stealing was not a regularly recorded statistic until the middle of the 20th Century. Ty Cobb, for example, was known as a great base-stealer, with 892 steals and a success rate of over 83%. However the data on Cobb's caught stealing is missing from 12 seasons, strongly suggesting he was unsuccessful many more times than his stats indicate. Ty Cobb's stats at Baseball Reference Tim Raines with 808 steals, has the highest career success rate, at 84.7%, of all players with over 300 bases stolen. Evolution of rules and scoring The first mention of the stolen base, in a statistical sense were in the scoring rules adopted by the National League which noted credit toward a player's total bases when a base is stolen. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Scoring rules for 1877-- Batting, p. 2413 It was not until that the stolen base appeared as something to be tracked, but was only to "appear in the summary of the game". Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2414 In , the stolen base was given its own individual statistical column in the box score, and was defined for purposes of scoring: "...every base made after first base has been reached by a base runner, except for those made by reason of or with the aid of a battery error (wild pitch or passed ball), or by batting, balks or by being forced off. In short, shall include all bases made by a clean steal, or through a wild throw or muff of the ball by a fielder who is directly trying to put the base runner out while attempting to steal." Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2415 The next year, it was clarified that any attempt to steal must be credited to the runner, and that fielders committing errors during this play must also be charged with an error. This rule also clarified that advancement of another base(s) beyond the one being stolen is not credited as a stolen base on the same play, and that an error is charged to the fielder who permitted the extra advancement. There was clarification that a runner is credited with a steal if the attempt began before a battery error. Finally, batters were credited with a stolen base if they were tagged out after over running the base. In , a short-lived rule was added crediting runners with stolen bases if a base runner advanced on a fly out, or if they advanced more than one base on any safe hit or attempted out, providing an attempt was made by the defense to put the runner out. The rule was subsequently ended in . In , stolen base scoring was narrowed to no longer include advancement in the event of a fielding errors, or advancement caused by a hit batsman. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2416 saw an attempt to reduce the already wordy slew of rules governing stolen bases, with the stolen base now credited when "...the advances a base unaided by a base hit, a put out, (or) a fielding or batter error." Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2417 saw the first addressing of the double and triple steal attempts. Under the new rule, when any runner is thrown out, and the other(s) are successful, the successful runners will not be credited with a stolen base. Without using the term, saw the first rule that would be referred to today as defensive indifference, as stolen bases would not be credited, unless an effort was made to stop the runner by the defense. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2418 saw a further narrowing of the criteria for stolen bases being awarded. Power was given to the official scorer, in the event of a muff by the catcher in throwing, that in the judgment of the scorer the runner would have been out, to credit the catcher with an error, and not credit the runner with a stolen base. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2419 Further, any successful steal on a play resulting in a wild pitch, passed ball, or balk would no longer be credited as a steal, even if the runner had started to steal before the play. saw one of the largest rewrites to the rules in history. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2420-23 . The stolen base was specifically to be credited "to a runner whenever he advances one base unaided by a base hit, a putout, a forceout, a fielder's choice, a passed ball, a wild pitch, or a balk." Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2423 There were noted exceptions, such as denying a stolen base to an otherwise successful steal as a part of a double or triple steal, if one other runner was thrown out in the process. A stolen base would be awarded to runners who successfully stole a base as a part of a double or triple steal, if the other runner failed to steal his base, but instead was able to return safely to their base. Runners who are tagged out oversliding the base after an otherwise successful steal would not be credited with a stolen base. Indifference was also credited as an exception. Runners would now be credited with stolen bases if they had begun the act of stealing, and the resulting pitch was wild, or a passed ball. Finally, for 1950 only, runners would be credited with a stolen base if they were "well advanced" toward the base they were attempting to steal", and the pitcher is charged with a balk, with the further exception of a player attempting to steal, who would otherwise have been forced to advance on the balk by a runner behind them. This rule was removed in . saw a clarification that awarded a stolen base to a runner, even if they become in involved in a rundown, provided they managed to evade the rundown, and advance to the base they were intending to steal. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2426 The criteria for being charged with "caught stealing" was fine tuned in , with a runner being credited with being caught if he is put out while trying to steal, oversliding a base (otherwise successfully stolen), or is picked off a base, and tries to advance to the next base. Total Baseball, 5th ed., 1997, Viking Press, Thorn, John et al. ed, Chronology of Scoring Rules 1878-1996, p. 2429 Runners would specifically not be credited with being caught, if the player was put out after a wild pitch or passed ball. See also Lead Off Stolen base percentage List of Major League Baseball stolen base champions List of Major League Baseball leaders in career stolen bases References External links Baseball-Almanac.com list of All-Time Career stolen bases leaders

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Lisbon

Lisbon (Lisboa, ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal. It is also the seat of the district of Lisbon and capital of the Lisbon region. Its municipality, which matches the city proper excluding the larger continuous conurbation, has a municipal population of 564,477 Uma população que se urbaniza, Uma avaliação recente - Cidades, 2004 Nuno Pires Soares, Instituto Geográfico Português (Geographic Institute of Portugal) in , while the Lisbon Metropolitan Area in total has around 2.8 million inhabitants, and 3.34 million people live in the broader agglomeration of Lisbon Metropolitan Region (includes cities ranging from Leiria to Setúbal). Fernando Nunes da Silva (2005), Alta Velocidade em Portugal, Desenvolvimento Regional, Censur ist Due to its economic output, standard of living, and market size, the Grande Lisboa (Greater Lisbon) subregion is considered the third most important financial and economic center of the Iberian Peninsula, after the Spanish cities of Madrid and Barcelona. Competitive Cities in the Global Economy The Lisbon region is the wealthiest region in Portugal and well above the European Union's GDP per capita average – it produces 37% of the Portuguese GDP. It is also the political center of the country, as seat of government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon was under Roman rule from 205 BC, when it was already a 1000 year old town. Julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, it was captured by Moors in the 8th century. In 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city for the Christians and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural center of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbon's status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. Lisbon hosts two agencies of the European Union, namely, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA). The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), is also headquartered in Lisbon. The present mayor of Lisbon is António Costa, elected by the Socialist Party. The municipal holiday is June 13, St. Anthony's Day. Geography and location Location Lisbon seen from Spot Satellite Lisbon is situated at 38°42' north, 9°5' west, making it the westernmost capital in mainland Europe. It is located in the west of the country, on the Atlantic Ocean coast at the point where the river Tagus flows into the Atlantic Ocean. The city occupies an area of . The city boundaries, unlike those of most major cities, are narrowly defined around the historical city perimeter. This gave rise to the existence of several administratively defined cities around Lisbon, such as Amadora, Queluz, Cacém, Odivelas, Loures, Sacavém, Almada, Barreiro, Seixal and Oeiras, which are in fact part of the metropolitan perimeter of Lisbon. The western side of the city is mainly occupied by the Monsanto Forest Park, one of the largest urban parks in Europe with an area close to 10 square kilometres (almost 4 sq mi). History Neolithic era to the Roman Empire Castle of Saint George During the Neolithic the region was inhabited by Iberian-related peoples, who also lived in other regions of Atlantic Europe at the time. They built religious monuments called megaliths. Dolmens and menhirs still survive in the countryside around the city. The Indo-European Celts invaded after the first millennium BC and intermarried with the Pre-Indo-European population, giving a rise to Celtic-speaking local tribes such as the Cempsi. Archaeological findings suggest that some Phoenician influence existed in the place since 1200 BC, leading some historians to the theory that a Phoenician trading post might have occupied the centre of the present city, on the southern slope of the Castle hill. The magnificent harbour provided by the estuary of the river Tagus made it an ideal spot for a settlement to provide foodstuffs to Phoenician ships travelling to the tin islands (modern Isles of Scilly) and Cornwall. The new city might have been named Allis Ubbo or "safe harbor" in Phoenician, according to one of several theories for the origin of its name. Another theory is that it took its name from the pre-Roman name of the River Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Besides sailing to the North, the Phoenicians might also have taken advantage of a settlement at the mouth of Iberia's largest river to trade with the inland tribes for valuable metals. Other important local products were salt, salted fish, and the Lusitanian horses that were renowned in antiquity. Recently, Phoenician remains from the eighth century BC were found beneath the Mediaeval Sé de Lisboa (Lisbon See), or main Cathedral of the modern city. Most modern historians, Mattoso, José (dir.), História de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de Portugal, Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, 1992 - in Portuguese. however, consider the idea of a Phoenician foundation of Lisbon as unreal, and instead believe that Lisbon was an ancient autochthonous settlement (what the Romans called an oppidum) that at most, maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, to account for the presence of Phoenician pottery and other material objects. The Greeks knew Lisbon as Olissipo and "Olissipona", a name they thought was derived from Ulysses, though this was a folk etymology. According to an Ancient Greek myth, the hero founded the city after he left Troy, and departed to the Atlantic to escape the Greek coalition. If all of Odysseus' travels were in the Atlantic as Cailleux Pays Atlantiques décrits par Homère, Th. Cailleux, 1879, Paris. argued, then this could mean that Odysseus founded the city coming from the north, before trying to round Cape Malea, (which Cailleux located at Cabo de São Vicente), in a southeasterly direction, to reach his homeland of Ithaca, supposedly present Cadiz. However, the presence of Phoenicians (even if occasional) is thought to predate any Greek presence in the area. Later on, the Greek name was corrupted in vulgar Latin to Olissipona. Some of the native gods worshiped in Lisbon were Aracus, Carneus, Bandiarbariaicus and Coniumbricenses. Roman Empire to the Moorish conquest Lisbon Cathedral, built after 1147 over the remnants of the mosque of the Islamic period During the Punic wars, after the defeat of Hannibal (whose troops included members of the Conii) the Romans decided to deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession, Hispania (the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula). After the defeat of the Carthaginians by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania, the pacification of the West was led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus. He obtained the alliance of Olissipo which sent men to fight alongside the Legions against the Celtic tribes of the Northwest. In return, Olissipo was integrated in the Empire under the name of Felicitas Julia, a Municipium Cives Romanorum. It was granted self-rule over a territory going as far away as 50 kilometres (30 miles), exempted from taxes, and its citizens given the privileges of Roman citizenship. It was in the newly created province of Lusitania, whose capital was Emerita Augusta. The attacks by the Lusitanians during the frequent rebellions over the next couple of centuries weakened the city, and a wall was built. During the time of Augustus the Romans built a great Theatre; the Cassian Baths underneath the current Rua da Prata; Temples to Jupiter, Diana, Cybele, Tethys and Idae Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor), besides temples to the Emperor; a large necropolis under Praça da Figueira; a large Forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in the area between the modern Castle hill and Downtown. A view of the Nations' Park The towers of Amoreiras Monument to the Discoverers Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the middle Eighteenth century, when the recent discovery of Pompeii made Roman Archeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes. Economically strong, Olissipo was known for its garum, a sort of fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the Empire and exported in Amphorae to Rome and other cities. Wine, salt and its famously fast horses were also exported. The city came to be very prosperous through suppression of piracy and technological advances, which allowed a boom in the trade with the newly Roman Provinces of Britannia (particularly Cornwall) and the Rhine, and through the introduction of Roman culture to the tribes living by the river Tagus in the interior of Hispania. The city was ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae. Petitions are recorded addressed to the Governor of the province in Emerita and to the Empreror Tiberius, such as one requesting help dealing with "sea monsters" allegedly responsible for shipwrecks. The Roman Sertorius led a large rebellion against the Dictator Sulla early in the Roman Period. Among the majority of Latin speakers lived a large minority of Greek traders and slaves. The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (today's Portuguese Braga), and Emerita Augusta, the capital of Lusitania (now Mérida in Spain). Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a centre for the dissemination of Christianity. Its first attested Bishop was St. Potamius (c. 356), and there were several martyrs killed by the pagans during the great persecutions; Maxima, Verissimus and Julia are the most significant names. At the end of the Roman domain, Olissipo was one of the first Christian cities. It suffered invasions from the Sarmatian Alans and the Germanic Vandals, who controlled the region from 409 to 429. The Germanic Suebi, who established a kingdom in Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), with capital in Bracara Augusta (Braga), from 409 to 585, also controlled the region of Lisbon for long periods of time. In 585 the Suebi kingdom was included in the Germanic Visigothic kingdom of Toledo, that comprised all of the Iberian Peninsula. Lisbon was then called Ulishbona. Moorish rule National Parliament The Oceanarium On August 6, 711 Lisbon was taken by the Moors (it was called al-ʾIšbūnah in Arabic الأشبونة), under whose rule the city flourished. The Moors, who were Muslims from North Africa and the Middle East, built many mosques and houses as well as a new city wall, currently named the Cerca Moura. The city kept a diverse population including Christians, Berbers, Arabs, Jews and Saqalibas. Arabic was forced on the Christians as the official language. Mozarabic was the mother language spoken by the Christian population. Islam was the official religion practiced by the Arabs and Muladi (muwallad), the Christians could keep their religion but under Dhimmi status and were required to pay the jizyah. The Moorish influence is still present in Alfama, the old part of Lisbon that survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Many placenames are derived from Arabic; the Alfama, the oldest existing district of Lisbon, for example, is derived from the Arabic "al-hamma". For a brief time during the Taifa period Lisbon was the center town in the Regulo Eslavo of the Taifa of Badajoz and then as an independent Taifa ruled by Abd al-Aziz ibn Sabur and Abd al-Malik ibn Sabur sons of Sabur al-Jatib (Sabur the Slav), a Slav that had been at the service of al-Hakam II before ruling the Taifa of Badajoz. In 1147, as part of the Reconquista, crusader knights led by Afonso I of Portugal, sieged and reconquered Lisbon. The city, with around 154,000 residents at the time, returned to Christian rule. The reconquest of Portugal and re-establishment of Christianity is one of the most significant events in Lisbon's history; although it is known through the chronicle Expugnatione Lyxbonensi, attributed to Osburnus, that there was a bishop in the town that was killed by the crusaders and that the population was praying to the Virgin Mary when afflicted with plague, which indicates that the Mozarab population followed the Mozarabic rite. Arabic lost its place in everyday life. Any remaining Muslim population were gradually converted to Roman Catholicism, or expelled, and the mosques were turned into churches. (Though in Portuguese historiography this was often mentioned as "turning the mosques back into churches", in fact many of the structures concerned were built as mosques to begin with.) From the Middle Ages to the Portuguese Empire Belém Tower, a symbol of the Portuguese Age of Discovery. Jerónimos Monastery. It received its first Foral in 1179. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In raid against Lisbon in 1189, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives. Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier Lisbon became the capital city of Portugal in 1255 due to its central location in the new Portuguese territory. The first Portuguese university was founded in Lisbon in 1290 by Dinis I of Portugal as Estudo Geral (General Study). The university was transferred several times to Coimbra, where it was installed definitively in the 16th century (today's University of Coimbra). During the last centuries of the Middle Ages, the city expanded substantially and became an important trading post with both northern Europe and Mediterranean cities. Most of the Portuguese expeditions of the age of discovery left from Lisbon during the 15th to 17th centuries, including Vasco da Gama's departure to India in 1497. The 16th century marks the golden age for Lisbon. The city became the European hub of commerce with Africa, India, the Far East and, later, Brazil, exploring riches like spices, slaves, sugar, textiles and other goods. This was the time of the exuberant Manueline style, which has left its mark in two 16th century Lisbon monuments, the Belém Tower and the Jerónimos Monastery, both of which were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. A description of Lisbon in the sixteenth century was written by Damião de Góis and published in 1554. Urbis Olisiponis descriptio (Évora, 1554); Lisbon in the Renaissance, trans Jeffrey S. Ruth (New York, 1996). Portugal lost its independence to Spain in 1580 after a succession crisis, and the 1640 revolt that restored the Portuguese independence took place in Lisbon (see Philip III of Portugal). In the early 18th century, gold from Brazil allowed King John V to sponsor the building of several Baroque churches and theatres in the city. 1755 Lisbon earthquake This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor Statue of King José I in the Commerce Square (Praça do Comércio), erected in 1775 as part of the rebuilding of Lisbon after the earthquake of 1755. Downtown Lisbon Figueira Square. Prior to the 18th century, Lisbon had experienced several important earthquakes – eight in the 14th century, five in the 16th century (including the 1531 earthquake that destroyed 1,500 houses, and the 1597 earthquake when three streets vanished), and three in the 17th century. On 1 November 1755 the city was destroyed by another earthquake, which killed an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Lisbon residents Pereira, A.S. "The Opportunity of a Disaster: The Economic Impact of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake," Discussion Paper 06/03, Centre for Historical Economics and Related Research at York, York University, 2006 (pdf), p. 8. and destroyed eighty-five percent of the city. Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake With a population estimated at between 200,000 and 275,000 residents, Pereira, "The Opportunity of a Disaster," p. 8, estimates a population of 200,000. Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake, citing an unreferenced estimate of 275,000. Lisbon was, in 1755, one of the largest cities in Europe. Among several important structures of the city, the Royal Ribeira Palace and the Royal Hospital of All Saints were lost. The event shocked the whole of Europe. Voltaire wrote a long poem, "Poême sur le désastre de Lisbonne", shortly after the quake, and mentioned it in his 1759 novel Candide (indeed, many argue that this critique of optimism was inspired by that earthquake). Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. also mentions it in his 1857 poem, The Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay. In the town of Cascais, some 30 km west of Lisbon, the waves wrecked several boats and when the water withdrew, large stretches of sea bottom were left uncovered. In coastal areas such as Peniche, situated about 80 km north of Lisbon, many people were killed by the tsunami. In Setúbal, 30 km south of Lisbon, the water reached the first floor of buildings. The destruction was also great in the Algarve, southern Portugal, where the tsunami dismantled some coastal fortresses and, in the lower levels, razed houses. In some places the waves crested at more than 30 m. Almost all the coastal towns and villages of Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was protected by sandy banks. In Lagos, the waves reached the top of the city walls. For many Portuguese coastal regions, the destructive effects of the tsunami were more disastrous than those of the earthquake proper. In southwestern Spain, the tsunami caused damage to Cadiz and Huelva, and the waves penetrated the Guadalquivir River, reaching Seville. In Gibraltar, the sea rose suddenly by about two meters. In Ceuta the tsunami was strong, but in the Mediterranean Sea, it decreased rapidly. On the other hand, it caused great damage and casualties to the western coast of Morocco, from Tangier, where the waves reached the walled fortifications of the town, to Agadir, where the waters passed over the walls, killing many. The tsunami also reached Cornwall, in the United Kingdom, at a height of three metres. Along the coast of Cornwall, the sea rose rapidly in vast waves, and then embedded equally rapidly. A two metre tsunami also hit Galway in Ireland, and did some considerable damage to the Spanish Arch section of the city wall. After the 1755 earthquake, the city was rebuilt largely according to the plans of Prime Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the 1st Marquess of Pombal; hence the designation of the lower town as Baixa Pombalina (Pombaline Downtown). Instead of rebuilding the medieval town, Pombal decided to demolish the remains of the earthquake and rebuild the downtown in accordance with modern urban rules. 19th and 20th centuries In the first years of the 19th century, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napoléon Bonaparte, making Queen Maria I and Prince-Regent João (future John VI) flee temporarily to Brazil. Considerable property was pillaged by the invaders. The city felt the full force of the Portuguese liberal upheavals, beginning its tradition of cafés and theatres. In 1879 the Avenida da Liberdade was opened, replacing a previous public garden. Lisbon was the centre of the republican coup of October 5, 1910 which instated the Portuguese Republic. Previously, it was also the stage of the regicide of Carlos I of Portugal (1908). The city refounded its university in 1911 after centuries of inactivity in Lisbon, incorporating reformed former colleges and other non-university higher education schools of the city (such as the Escola Politécnica – now Faculdade de Ciências). Today there are 3 public universities in the city (University of Lisbon, Technical University of Lisbon and New University of Lisbon), a public university institute (ISCTE – Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa) and a polytechnic institute (IPL – Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa). See list of universities in Portugal. During World War II Lisbon was one of the very few neutral, open European Atlantic ports, a major gateway for refugees to the U.S. and a spy nest. In 1974, Lisbon was the central destination point of the Carnation Revolution maneuvers, the end of the Portuguese Corporative Regime (Estado Novo). In 1988, a fire near the historical centre of Chiado greatly disrupted normal life in the area for about 10 years. In 1994, Lisbon was the European Capital of Culture. Expo '98 was held in Lisbon. The timing was intended to commemorate the 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's sea voyage to India. It was considered by the Bureau of International Expositions the best world expo ever. Contemporary events Vasco da Gama Tower at Parque das Nações (Nations' Park), where the Expo 98 took place and now a venue for important shows and festivals The Lisbon Agenda was a European Union agreement on measures to revitalize the EU economy, signed in Lisbon in March 2000. Every March the city hosts the world-famous Lisbon Half Marathon, one of the most attended events of its kind in the world. It regularly hosts countless other international events including various NATO, European Union and other summits. In 2004, Portugal hosted the UEFA Euro 2004 football tournament, in which the Portuguese national team lost to Greece in the final. Rock in Rio, known for being the biggest pop-rock festival in the world with an attendance that can reach 100 000 people, was held in Lisbon three times (2004, 2006 and 2008) and will continue in the city for some years, hosting concerts of many high profile singers and bands, such as Anastacia, Metallica, Shakira, Guns N' Roses, Roger Waters, Britney Spears, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Amy Winehouse and many more. In January 2006 and 2007, Lisbon was the starting city of the Dakar Rally. On the 7 July 2007, Lisbon held the ceremony of the "New 7 Wonders Of The World" http://www.new7wonders.com/index.php?id=315&L=0 election, in Luz stadium, with live transmition for millions of people all over the world. On the 18 and 19 October 2007 Lisbon held the 2007 EU Summit, where agreement was reached regarding the Union governance model. The Treaty of Lisbon was signed on the 13 December 2007. Climate Lisbon has a Mediterranean climate that is strongly influenced by the Gulf Stream, giving it one of the mildest climates in Europe. The city is sunny throughout the year, with an annual average of 2900-3300 hours of sunshine. Summers are warm and dry with average daytime temperatures of 26–29°C, falling to 16–18°C at night. Winters are cool and rainy with temperatures around 8–15°C, while spring and fall are generally mild, or even warm during daytime. Extreme temperatures may reach 36°C in some of the warmest summer afternoons and 2°C in the coldest winter mornings. From May to September the weather tends to be settled most of the time with blues skies and some wind as well. Annual rainfall is 1110 mm, spread over 100 rainy days, mostly from October to April. Demographics The population of the city proper was 564,477 and the metropolitan area (Lisbon Metropolitan Area) was 2,800,000 according to the Instituto Nacional de Estatística http://www.ine.pt/ (National Institute of Statistics). The Lisbon Metropolitan Area coincides with two NUTS II units, Grande Lisboa (Greater Lisbon), in the northern bank of the Tagus, and Península de Setúbal (Setúbal Peninsula), to the south, which are the two subregions of Região Lisboa (Lisbon Region). The population density of the city itself is . Like most big cities, Lisbon is surrounded by many satellite cities. It is estimated that more than one million people enter Lisbon every day from the outskirts. Cascais and Estoril are among the most interesting neighbouring towns for night life. Beautiful palaces, landscapes and historical sites can be found in Sintra and Mafra. Other major municipalities around Lisbon include Amadora, Oeiras, Odivelas, Loures, Vila Franca de Xira and, in the south bank of the Tagus river estuary, Almada, Barreiro and Seixal. Lisbon is ranked number 1 in the Portuguese most livable cities survey of living conditions published yearly by Expresso. Classificação Expresso das melhores cidades portuguesas para viver em 2007, Expresso +Demographic evolution of Lisbon (1801–2004)1801 1849 1900 193019601981199120012004 203.999 174.900 350.919 591.939 801.155 807.937 663.394 564.657 529.485 Culture and sights The city of Lisbon is rich in architecture; Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Baroque, Traditional Portuguese, Modern and Post-Modern constructions can be found all over the city. The city is also crossed by great boulevards and monuments along these main thoroughfares, particularly in the upper districts; notable among these are the Avenida da Liberdade (Liberty Avenue), Avenida Fontes Pereira de Melo, Avenida Almirante Reis and Avenida da República (Republic Avenue). The most famous museums in Lisbon are the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga (National Museum of Ancient Art), the Museu do Azulejo (Museum of Portuguese-style Tile Mosaics), the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian (Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, containing varied collections of ancient and modern art), the Lisbon Oceanarium (Oceanário de Lisboa, the second largest in the world), the Museu Nacional do Traje e da Moda (National Museum of Costume and Fashion), the Berardo Collection Museum (Modern Art) at the Belém Cultural Center, the Museu Nacional dos Coches (National Coach Museum, containing the largest collection of royal coaches in the world), the Museu da Farmácia (Pharmacy Museum) and the Lisbon Orient Museum. Lisbon's opera house, the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos, hosts a relatively active cultural agenda, mainly in autumn and winter. Other important theatres and musical houses are the Centro Cultural de Belém, the Teatro Nacional D. Maria II and the Gulbenkian Foundation. The monument to Christ the King (Cristo Rei) stands on the left side of the river, in Almada. With open arms, overlooking the whole city, it resembles the Corcovado monument in Rio de Janeiro, and was built after World War II, as thanks for Portugal's being spared the horrors and destruction of the war. Every June there are 5 days of popular street celebrations in memory of a saint born in Lisbon – Anthony of Lisbon (or Santo António). Saint Anthony, also known as Saint Anthony of Padua, was a wealthy Portuguese bohemian who was canonised and made Doctor of the Church after a life preaching to the poor, simpler people. Although Lisbon’s patron saint is Saint Vincent, whose remains are in the Lisbon Cathedral, there are no festivities associated with him. Parque Eduardo VII is the second largest park of the city after Parque Florestal de Monsanto, prolonging the main avenue (Avenida da Liberdade). Originally named Parque da Liberdade, was after renamed Park Edward VII of England who visited Lisbon in 1903, it includes a large variety of plants in a winter garden (Estufa Fria). Lisbon is home every year to the Lisbon Gay & Lesbian Film Festival, the Lisboarte, http://www.lisboarte.com the DocLisboa – Lisbon International Documentary Film Festival, http://www.doclisboa.org/ the Arte Lisboa – Contemporary Art Fair, http://www.artelisboa.fil.pt/ the Festival of the Oceans, http://www.festivaldosoceanos.com/ the International Organ Festival of Lisbon, http://www.jmp.pt the MOTELx – Lisbon International Horror Film Festival, http://www.motelx.org the Lisbon Village Festival, http://lisbon.villagefestival.net/ the Festival Internacional de Máscaras e Comediantes, the Lisboa Mágica – Street Magic World Festival, the Lisbon Book Fair, http://www.feiradolivrodelisboa.pt the Peixe em Lisboa – Lisbon Fish and Flavours, http://www.peixemlisboa.com the Lisbon International Handicraft Exhibition, http://www.artesanato.fil.pt/ the Lisbon Photo Marathon, the IndieLisboa – International Independent Film Festival, http://www.indielisboa.com the Alkantara Festival, http://www.alkantara.pt the Temps d´Images Festival http://www.tempsdimages-portugal.com/ and the Jazz in August festival. http://www.musica.gulbenkian.pt/ Lisbon is also home to the Lisbon Architecture Triennial, http://trienal.blogs.sapo.pt the Moda Lisboa (Fashion Lisbon), http://www.modalisboa.pt/ ExperimentaDesign – Biennial of Design http://www.experimentadesign.pt/ and LuzBoa – Biennial of Light. http://www.luzboa.com View from São Jorge Castle Alfama district The oldest district of the city is Alfama, close to the Tagus, which has made it relatively unscathed through the various earthquakes. The Castle of São Jorge and the Lisbon Cathedral are located in this area. Other attractions include: Monastery of São Vicente de Fora Church of Santo António Santa Luzia Belvedere Largo das Portas ao Sol Baixa The heart of the city is the Baixa (Downtown) or city centre; this area of the city is being considered for UNESCO World Heritage Site status. The Baixa is organised in a grid system and a network of squares built after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which levelled a great portion of the medieval city. Other monuments in this area include: Praça do Comércio (Commerce Square) and Rossio Square the oldest and historically most important squares in Lisbon Church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição Velha which has a beautiful manueline façade Church of São Domingos Restauradores Square Elevador de Santa Justa, an elevator (lift) in Gothic revival style, built around 1900 to connect the Baixa and Chiado. Camões Square Palácio Nacional da Ajuda Orient Station A tram in Lisbon Chiado The trendiest area in the city, Chiado is home to cafes, galleries, bookshops and relevant examples of 18th century religious architecture. Attractions include: Basilica dos Mártires Brasileira Cafe Carmo Convent Church of Corpo Santo Church of Nossa Senhora do Loreto Museu do Chiado, which houses most important works of Portuguese contemporary art The richly-decorated Church of São Roque is located nearby. Bairro Alto Bairro Alto (literally upper quarter in Portuguese) is an area of central Lisbon. It functions as a residential, shopping and entertainment district. Today, the Bairro Alto is the heart of Lisbon's youth and of the Portuguese capital's nightlife. Lisbon's Punk, Gay, Metal, Goth, Hip Hop and Reggae scenes, all have the Bairro as their home, due to the number of clubs and bars dedicated to each of them. The fado, Portugal's national song, still survives in the new Lisbon's nightlife. The crowd is a mix of local and tourist, straight and gay, and almost anything else imagined. Estrela The Baroque-Neoclassical Estrela Basilica is the main attraction of this district. The Parliament and the Prazeres Cemetery are nearby. Belém Along the Rio Tejo (Tagus River), is the historic neighborhood of Belém. Its prime attraction is the grand Jerónimos Monastery. Construction started in 1501, and took 70 years to complete. During its construction, the monastery cost an equivalent of of gold each year. Most of the construction costs were financed through the spice trade. It is a prime example of what is called Manueline architecture, with inspiration brought back from the explorations, as well as being influenced by the Gothic and Renaissance periods. Other attractions within the area are: Padrão dos Descobrimentos (Monument of the Discoveries), built in mid-20th century, during Estado Novo dictatorial regime Belem Cultural Centre, example of Portuguese contemporary architecture, finished in 1994 Belem Tower, an ex-libris of the city, built in the 16th century Belem Palace, 18th century palace, which is now the official residence of the President of the Republic Coach Museum, displaying most relevant and spectuacular carriages from 17th to 19th century. Gare do Oriente Gare do Oriente (Orient Station) is one of the main transportation hubs of Lisbon, for trains, metro, buses and taxis. Its glass and steel columns are reminiscent of palms, making the whole structure fascinating to look at (especially in sunlight or when illuminated at night). It was designed by the architect Santiago Calatrava from Valencia (Spain). Cross through the shopping mall just across the street and you are in Parque das Nações (Park of the Nations), site of the 1998 World Expo. Lisbon trams and funiculars Transportation in Lisbon is more charming than in most cities. Much is owed to its geography; much of Lisbon has been built on its seven hills. No visit to Lisbon is complete without riding the 1930s trams. The greatest attractions, though, are the funiculars, of which there are three. These are Elevador da Glória, Elevador da Bica, and Elevador da Lavra. Perhaps the most picturesque is the Elevador da Bica, which passes through a charming residential neighborhood just below Bairro Alto. Information from Carris, Lisbon transportation company. Details of Lisbon's trams, from Luso Pages Economy Inside Orient Station The Lisbon region is the wealthiest region in Portugal and it is well above the European Union's GDP per capita average – it produces 37% of the Portuguese GDP. Lisbon's economy is based primarily on the tertiary sector. Most of the headquarters of multinationals operating in Portugal are concentrated in the Grande Lisboa subregion, specially in the Oeiras municipality. Lisbon Metropolitan Area is heavily industrialized, especially the south bank of the Tagus river (Rio Tejo). The country's chief seaport and featuring one of the largest and most sophisticated regional markets within the Iberian Peninsula, Lisbon and its heavily populated surroundings, are also developing as an important financial center and a dynamic technological hub. Lisbon has the largest and most developed mass media sector of Portugal, and is home to several related companies ranging from leading television networks and radio stations to major newspapers. The Euronext Lisbon stock exchange, part of the pan-European Euronext system together with the stock exchanges of Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris, is tied with the New York Stock Exchange since 2007, forming the multinational NYSE Euronext group of stock exchanges. Transport Lisbon's public transport network is extremely far-reaching and reliable and has its Metro as its main artery, connecting the city centre with the upper and eastern districts, and now reaching the suburbs. Ambitious expansion projects will increase the network by almost one third, connecting the airport, and the northern and western districts. Bus, funicular and tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century. A traditional form of public transport in Lisbon is the tram. Originally introduced in the 19th century, the trams were originally imported from the U.S. and called americanos. The original trams can still be seen in the Museu da Carris (the Public Transport Museum) (Carris). Other than on the modern Line 15, the Lisbon tramway system still employs small (four wheel) vehicles of a design dating from the early part of the twentieth century. These distinctive yellow trams are one of the tourist icons of modern Lisbon, and their size is well suited to the steep hills and narrow streets of the central city. There are other commuter bus services from the city: Vimeca ( http://www.vimeca.pt ), Rodoviaria de Lisboa ( http://www.rodoviariadelisboa.pt ), Transportes Sul do Tejo ( http://www.tsuldotejo.pt ), Boa Viagem ( http://www.boa-viagem.pt ), Barraqueiro ( http://www.barraqueirotransportes.pt ) are the main ones, operating from different terminals in the city. There are four commuter train lines departing from Lisbon: the Cascais, Sintra and Azambuja lines (operated by Comboios de Portugal (CP)), as well as a fourth line to Setúbal (operated by Fertagus) crossing the Tagus river over the 25 de Abril Bridge. A separate CP line to Setúbal ends at the southern bank of the Tagus and requires ferry transfer to reach Lisbon. The major railway stations are Santa Apolónia, Rossio, Gare do Oriente and Cais do Sodré. The city does not offer a light rail service (tram line 15, although running with new and faster trams does not fall onto this category), but there are plans to build some lines with this service around the city (but not into the city itself). The city is connected to the far side of the Tagus by two important bridges: The 25 de Abril Bridge, inaugurated (as Ponte Salazar) on August 6, 1966, and later renamed after the date of the Carnation Revolution, was the longest suspension bridge in Europe and although made by the same engineers as the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, it is not, as thought by some, a replica (the Golden Gate Bridge does not have X braces). The Vasco da Gama Bridge, inaugurated on May 1998 is, at , the longest bridge in Europe. Another way of crossing the river is by taking the ferry. The main company is Transtejo ( http://www.transtejo.pt ), which operates from different points in the city to Cacilhas, Seixal, Montijo, Porto Brandão and Trafaria and the other company is Soflusa operating one only line to Barreiro. Lisbon is connected to its suburbs and the rest of Portugal by an extensive motorway network. There are three circular motorways around the city; the 2ª Circular, the CRIL and the CREL. The Portela Airport is located within the city limits. TAP and Portugalia have their hubs here and the flights available are mostly to Europe, Africa and America. Education A building of the New University of Lisbon The city has several private and public secondary schools, primary schools as well as kindergartens. In Greater Lisbon area there are also international schools such as Saint Julian's School, the Carlucci American International School of Lisbon, Saint Dominic's International School, Deutsche Schule Lissabon, and Lycée Français Charles Lepierre. There are three major public universities in Lisbon: the University of Lisbon (Lisbon's oldest university in operation, founded in 1911, also called the Classic University of Lisbon), the Technical University of Lisbon (founded in 1930) and the New University of Lisbon (founded in 1973), providing degrees in all academic disciplines. There is also one state-run university institute – the ISCTE, and a polytechnic institute – the Polytechnical Institute of Lisbon. Major private institutions of higher education include the Portuguese Catholic University, as well as the Lusíada University, the Universidade Lusófona, and the Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, among others. The total number of enrolled students in higher education in Lisbon was, for the 2007-2008 school year, of 125,867 students, of whom 81,507 in the Lisbon's public institutions http://www.estatisticas.gpeari.mctes.pt/archive/doc/insc07_08__difusao_.xls . Sports Luz Stadium The Lisbon sports clubs Sport Lisboa e Benfica (commonly "Benfica") and Sporting Clube de Portugal (commonly "Sporting"), have many sports teams in the highest Portuguese divisions and European competitions. Belenenses, another important club with a great tradition in Portuguese sport, is also from the Portuguese capital. Football is the most popular sport in Lisbon. Major football clubs include S.L. Benfica, with its home 65,000 seat stadium the UEFA Elite stadium Estádio da Luz (named after the area in which the stadium is situated (Luz) and not, as is popularly believed, 'Stadium of Light'). Benfica has won the UEFA Champions League twice and has appeared in the final seven times. Sporting Clube de Portugal is the other major football team from the city, also having a UEFA elite stadium, 52,000 seat Estádio José de Alvalade stadium. It has won the UEFA Cup Winners Cup once and was the UEFA Cup finalist in the 2004-05 season. Former players from this team include Luís Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo. Belenenses is the third most important football team in the city, having Estádio do Restelo as its home stadium in the Belém neighbourhood of Lisbon. Belenenses holds the distinction of being the first club, other than perennial winners Sporting, Benfica and Porto, to win the Portuguese League, taking the trophy in the 1945-46 season. Other sports, such as indoor football, handball, basketball and roller hockey are also popular. There are many other sport facilities in Lisbon, ranging from athletics to sailing to golf to mountain-biking. Parishes Map of the Freguesias Rossio Train Station Alcântara Docks Rua Augusta Arch A volcano fountain in the Nations' Park There are 53 freguesias (civil parishes) in Lisbon: Ajuda (formerly Nossa Senhora da Ajuda) Alcântara Alto do Pina Alvalade Ameixoeira (formerly Funchal) Anjos Beato Benfica Campo Grande Campolide Carnide Castelo Charneca Coração de Jesus (formerly Camões) Encarnação Graça Lapa Lumiar Madalena Mártires Marvila Mercês Nossa Senhora de Fátima Pena Penha de França Prazeres Sacramento Santa Catarina Santa Engrácia (formerly Monte Pedral) Santa Isabel Santa Justa Santa Maria de Belém Olivais (formerly Santa Maria dos Olivais) Santiago Santo Condestável Santo Estêvão Santos-o-Velho São Cristóvão e São Lourenço (formerly São Lourenço) São Domingos de Benfica São Francisco Xavier São João São João de Brito São João de Deus São Jorge de Arroios São José São Mamede São Miguel São Nicolau São Paulo (formerly Marquês de Pombal) São Sebastião da Pedreira São Vicente de Fora (formerly Escolas Gerais) Sé Socorro Furthermore, and more commonly referred to by its inhabitants, Lisbon is divided into historical "bairros" with no clearly defined boundaries, such as Amoreiras, Bairro Alto, Bica, Alfama, Mouraria, Avenidas Novas, Intendente, Chelas and Lapa. Prominent people born in Lisbon Bronze statue of poet Fernando Pessoa in the Café A Brasileira, in the Chiado neighbourhood Saint Anthony of Lisbon (1195–1231) Pope John XXI, born Pedro Julião (1215–1277) Francisco de Almeida, (1450–1510) Portuguese admiral, the first Viceroy of Portuguese India. Antonio Vieira (1608–1697), Jesuit Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705), queen consort of King Charles II of England Richard William Church (1815–1890) Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935), poet / writer Amália Rodrigues (1920–1999), fado / singer Mário Cesariny (1923–2006), poet Alexandre O'Neill (1924–1986), poet / writer Mário Soares (born 1924), politician, former President and Prime-Minister Paula Rego (born 1935), painter, illustrator and printmaker Jorge Sampaio (born 1939), politician, former Mayor of Lisbon and President António Guterres (born 1949), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, former Prime-Minister José Manuel Durão Barroso (born 1956), President of the European Commission, former Prime-Minister Sister cities The following places are sister cities to Lisbon: Pontelandolfo, Benevento, Italy Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia Waterbury, Connecticut, United States Fairfield, California, United States Suisun City, California, United States Budapest, Hungary Gallery See also Coat of arms of Lisbon Flag of Lisbon References External links Câmara Municipal de Lisboa – Official page of the city Visit Portugal: Lisbon Past and Present – Official page by the Government of Portugal Associação de Turismo de Lisboa – Official site of the Lisbon Tourism Association OTLIS – Official site of the Lisbon Region Transport Operators Consortium Portal das Nações Official site of Parque das Nações in Lisbon Lisboa Portal SeePortugal.Org - Travel related information for visitors be-x-old:Лісабон

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Miocene

The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.33 Ma. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain. The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words (, “less”) and (, “new”) and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer of modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch. The Miocene is the first epoch of the Neogene Period. As the earth cooled, it went from the Oligocene epoch through the Miocene and into the Pliocene. The Miocene boundaries are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene. The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern. Mammals and birds were well-established. Whales, seals, and kelp spread. Subdivisions The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy: Rohde (2005) Messinian (7.246 – 5.332 Ma) Tortonian (11.608 – 7.246 Ma) Serravallian (13.65 – 11.608 Ma) Langhian (15.97 – 13.65 Ma) Burdigalian (20.43 – 15.97 Ma) Aquitanian (23.03 – 20.43 Ma) These subdivisions within the Miocene are defined by the relative abundance of different species of calcareous nanofossils (calcite platelets shed by brown single-celled algae) and foraminifera (single-celled protists with diagnostic shells). Two subdivisions each form the Early, Middle and Late Miocene. Regionally, other systems are used. These ages often extend across the ICS epoch boundary into the Pliocene and Oligocene: Australia Australian Miocene ages are very finely divided in the early Middle Miocene, while most of the rest of the Miocene had a rather constant fauna as far as is known: Mitchellian (10.5 – 5 Ma); extends into the Early Pliocene Bairnsdalian (15 – 10.5 Ma) Balcombian (15.5 – 15 Ma) Batesfordian (16.5 – 15.5 Ma) Longfordian (27.5 – 16.5 Ma); includes much of the Late Oligocene California Californian sites provide a sequence distinct from the main North American one: Delmontian (7.5 – 2.9 Ma); includes much of the Pliocene Mohnian (13.5 – 7.5 Ma) Luisian (15.5 – 13.5 Ma) Relizian (16.5 – 15.5 Ma) Saucesian (22 – 16.5 Ma) Zemorrian (33.5 – 22 Ma); includes nearly all the Oligocene Japan Japanese Miocene ages only start in the mid-Burdigalian; the ICS ages are used in much of the Early Miocene: Yuian (9.5 – 3.6 Ma); includes the Early Pliocene Fujian (11.1 – 9.5 Ma) Kaburan (13.5 – 11.1 Ma) Tozawan (15.97 – 13.5 Ma) Haranoyan (18.2 – 15.97 Ma) New Zealand In New Zealand, the following ages are recognized: Kapitean (6 – 4.8 Ma); extends into the Early Pliocene Tongaporutuan (10 – 6 Ma) Waiauan (11.5 – 10 Ma) Lillburnian (15 – 11.5 Ma) Cliffdenian (16.5 – 15 Ma) Altonian (17.5 – 16.5 Ma) Awamoan (20 – 17.5 Ma) Hutchinsonian (21 – 20 Ma) Otaian (23.03 – 21 Ma) North America In most of North America, faunal stages are defined according to the land mammal fauna (North American Land Mammal Ages or NALMAs): Hemphillian (9 – 4.75 Ma); includes much of the Early Pliocene Clarendonian (11.8 – 9 Ma) Barstovian (15.5 – 11.8 Ma) Hemingfordian (19 – 15.5 Ma) Arikareean (30.5 – 19 Ma); includes much of the Oligocene South America In South America, a system similar to the North American one is used; its periods are correspondingly called SALMAs (South American Land Mammal Ages): Kazlev (1998) Huayquerian (9 – 5.4 Ma); the Montehermosan barely extends into the Miocene Chasicoan (10 – 9 Ma) Mayoian (12 – 10 Ma) Laventan (13.8 – 12 Ma) Colloncurian (15.5 – 12 Ma) Friasian (16.3 – 15.5 Ma) Santacrucian (17.5 – 16.3 Ma) Colhuehuapian (21 – 17.5 Ma) Deseadan (29 – 21 Ma); includes much of the Oligocene Paleogeography A global paleogeographic reconstruction of the Earth during the Miocene, some 20 million years ago. Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, although South America was approaching the western subduction zone in the Pacific Ocean, causing both the rise of the Andes and a southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. Mountain building took place in Western North America and Europe. Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in the American Great Plains and in Argentina. India continued to collide with Asia, creating more mountain ranges. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish-Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma. Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea (known as the Messinian salinity crisis) near the end of the Miocene. The global trend was one towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture. Uplift of East Africa in the Late Miocene was partly responsible for the shrinking of tropical rain forests in that region, and Australia got drier as it entered a zone of low rainfall in the Late Miocene. Life Flora Grasslands underwent a major expansion; forests fell victim to a generally cooler and drier climate overall. Grasses also diversified greatly, co-evolving with large herbivores and grazers, including ruminants. Between 7 and 6 million years ago, there occurred a sudden expansion of grasses which were able to assimilate carbon dioxide more efficiently but were also richer in silica, causing a worldwide extinction of large herbivores Stanley (1999): pp.525-526 . The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores such as horses can be linked to fluctuations in CO2. Kürschner et al. (2008) . Fauna Cameloid footprint (convex hyporelief) from the Barstow Formation (Miocene) of Rainbow Basin, California. Both marine and continental fauna were fairly modern, although marine mammals were less numerous. Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergent fauna exist. In the Early Miocene, several Oligocene groups were still diverse, including nimravids, entelodonts, and three-toed horses. Like in the previous Oligocene epoch, oreodonts were still diverse, only to disappear in the earliest Pliocene. During the later Miocene mammals were more modern, with recognizable dogs, raccoons, horses, beaver, deer, camels, and whales, along with now extinct groups like borophagine dogs, gomphotheres, three-toed horses, and semi-aquatic and hornless rhinos like Teleoceras and Aphelops. Islands began to form between South and North America in the Late Miocene, allowing ground sloths like Thinobadistes to island-hop to North America. Recognizable crows, ducks, auks, grouses and owls appear in the Miocene. By the epoch's end, all or almost all modern bird families are believed to have been present; the few post-Miocene bird fossils which cannot be placed in the evolutionary tree with full confidence are simply too badly preserved instead of too equivocal in character. Marine birds reached their highest diversity ever in the course of this epoch. Brown algae, called kelp, proliferate, supporting new species of sea life, including otters, fish and various invertebrates. The cetaceans diversified, and some modern genera appeared, such as the sperm whales. The pinnipeds, which appeared near the end of the Oligocene, became more aquatic. Megalodon. Approximately 100 species of apes lived during this time. They occupied much of the Old World and ranged in size, diet, and anatomy. Due to scanty fossil evidence it is unclear which ape or apes contributed to the modern hominid clade, but molecular evidence indicates this ape lived from between 15 to 12 million years ago. In the oceans, modern sharks appeared at this time including the huge Megalodon. Marine crocodiles and birds, like the plotopterids and Gavialosuchus, shared the seas with marine mammals like desmostylians, dugongs like Metaxytherium, and whales, which ranged from forms similar to the ones present today to the cetotheres and the long-beaked dolphin Pomatodelphis. Oceans There is evidence from oxygen isotopes at Deep Sea Drilling Program sites that ice began to build up in Antarctica about 36 Ma during the Eocene. Further marked decreases in temperature during the Middle Miocene at 15 Ma probably reflect increased ice growth in Antarctica. It can therefore be assumed that East Antarctica had some glaciers during the early to mid Miocene (23 – 15 Ma). Oceans cooled partly due the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, and about 15 million years ago the ice cap in the southern hemisphere started to grow to its present form. The Greenland ice cap developed later, in the Middle Pliocene time, about 3 million years ago. Middle Miocene disruption See also Geologic Time Scale List of fossil sites :Category:Miocene animals Footnotes References (1998): The Cenozoic. Retrieved 2008-SEP-20. (2008): The impact of Miocene atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuations on climate and the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems. PNAS 105(2): 449-453. (HTML abstract) Supporting tables (2005): GeoWhen Database. Retrieved 2006-09-23. (1999): Earth system history. Freeman, New York. ISBN 0716728826 Further reading (1993): Biogeography. An ecological and evolutionary approach (5th ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge. ISBN 0632029676 (2004): Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's). Retrieved 2006-04-30. External links PBS Deep Time: Miocene UCMP Berkeley Miocene Epoch Page

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Seven_Laws_of_Noah

The Seven Laws of Noah ( Sheva mitzvot B'nei Noach), often referred to as the Noahide Laws, are a set of seven moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God to Noah as a binding set of laws for all mankind. Compare . According to Judaism any non-Jew who lives according to these laws is regarded as a Righteous Gentile and is assured of a place in the world to come (Olam Haba), the Jewish concept of heaven. Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 8:14 Adherents are often called "B'nei Noach" (Children of Noah) or "Noahides" and may often network in Jewish synagogues. The seven laws listed by the Tosefta and the Talmud are Tosefta Avodah Zarah 8.4, dated circa 300, quoted in Talmud Sanhedrin 56 Prohibition of Idolatry: You shall not have any idols before God. Prohibition of Murder: You shall not murder. () Prohibition of Theft: You shall not steal. Prohibition of Sexual Promiscuity: You shall not commit any of a series of sexual prohibitions, which include adultery, incest, bestiality and male homosexual intercourse. Prohibition of Blasphemy: You shall not blaspheme God's name. Dietary Law: Do not eat flesh taken from an animal while it is still alive. () Requirement to have just Laws: You shall set up an effective judiciary to enforce the preceding six laws fairly. The Noahide Laws are comprised of six laws given to Adam in the Garden of Eden, and the seventh (eating flesh from a living animal), which was added after the Flood of Noah. Later at the Revelation at Sinai the Seven Laws of Noah were regiven to humanity and embedded in the 613 Laws given to the Children of Israel along with the Ten Commandments, which are part of, and not separate from, the 613 mitzvot. These laws are mentioned in the Torah. According to Judaism, the 613 mitzvot or "commandments" given in the written Torah, as well as their reasonings in the oral Torah, were only issued to the Jews and are therefore binding only upon them, having inherited the obligation from their ancestors. At the same time, at Mount Sinai, the Children of Israel (i.e. the Children of Jacob, i.e. the Israelites) were given the obligation to teach other nations the embedded Noahide Laws. It is actually forbidden by the Talmud for non-Jews on whom the Noahide Laws are still binding, to elevate their observance to the Torah's mitzvot as the Jews do. Yerusha LeYacov, Talmud Bavli While some Jewish organizations, such as Chabad have worked to promote the acceptance of Noahide laws, there are no figures for how many actually do. Noahides exist predominantly in the United States, South America and Europe. Background According to Judaism, as expressed in the Talmud, the Noahide Laws apply to all humanity through mankind's descent from one paternal ancestor who in Hebrew tradition is called Noah (the head of the only family to survive during The Flood). In Judaism, בני נח B'nei Noah (Hebrew, "Descendants of Noah", "Children of Noah") refers to all of mankind. Talmud Bavli and Yerushalmi The Talmud also states: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come" (Sanhedrin 105a). Any non-Jew who lives according to these laws is regarded as one of "the righteous among the gentiles". Maimonides writes that this refers to those who have acquired knowledge of God and act in accordance with the Noahide laws out of obedience to Him. According to what scholars consider to be the most accurate texts of the Mishneh Torah, Maimonides continues on to say that anyone who upholds the Noahide laws only because they appear logical is not one of the "righteous among the nations," but rather he is one of the wise among them. The more prolific versions of the Mishneh Torah say of such a person: "..nor is he one of the wise among them." Mishnah Torah Shoftim, Laws of Kings and their wars 8:14 According to the Biblical narrative, the Deluge covered the whole world killing every surface-dwelling creature except Noah, his wife, his sons and their wives, sea creatures, and the animals taken by Noah on Noah's Ark. After the flood, God sealed a covenant with Noah with the following admonitions (): Food: "However, flesh with its life-blood [in it] you shall not eat." (9:4) Murder: "Furthermore, I will demand your blood, for [the taking of] your lives, I shall demand it [even] from any wild animal. From man too, I will demand of each person's brother the blood of man. He who spills the blood of man, by man his blood shall be spilt; for in the image of God He made man." (9:5-6) The Talmud states that the instruction to not eat "flesh with the life" was given to Noah, and that Adam and Eve had already received six other commandments. Adam and Eve were not enjoined from eating from a living animal since they were forbidden to eat any animal. The remaining six are exegetically derived from a seemingly superfluous sentence in . Sanhedrin 56a/b, quoting Tosefta Sanhedrin 9:4; see Also Rashi on Gensis 9:3 Historically, some rabbinic opinion holds that not only are non-Jews not obligated to adhere to all the laws of the Torah, but they are actually forbidden to observe them. Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah. Rabbinic Judaism and its modern-day descendants discourage proselytization. However, according to one source, the Jewish Encyclopedia, the restrictions placed on Gentiles of the ancient world are no longer relevant. The Movement for Reform Judaism in the United Kingdom, for example, state on their website that they see "no reason why a person should not become Jewish if they so wish [...] The requirements for conversion are sincerity, knowledge and participation."The Noahide Laws are regarded as the way through which non-Jews can have a direct and meaningful relationship with God or at least comply with the minimal requisites of civilization and of divine law. A non-Jew who keeps the Noahide Laws in all their details is said to attain the same spiritual and moral level as Israel's own Kohen Gadol (high priest). Talmud, Bava Kamma 38a Maimonides states in his work Mishneh Torah The Laws of Kings 8:11 that a non-Jew who is precise in the observance of these Seven Noahide commandments is considered to be a Righteous Gentile and has earned a place in the world to come. This follows a similar statement in the Talmud. Sanhedrin 105b However, according to Maimonides, a gentile is considered righteous only if a person follows the Noahide laws specifically because he or she considers them to be of divine origin (through the Torah) and not if they are merely considered to be intellectually compelling or good rules for living. Mishneh Torah Shoftim, The Laws of Kings 8:14 Noahide law differs radically from the Roman law for gentiles (Jus Gentium), if only because the latter was an enforceable judicial policy. Rabbinic Judaism has never adjudicated any cases under Noahide law (per Novak, 1983:28ff.), although scholars disagree about whether the Noahide law is a functional part of Halakha ("Jewish law") (cf. Bleich). In recent years, the term "Noahide" has come to refer to non-Jews who strive to live in accord with the seven Noahide Laws; the terms "observant Noahide" or "Torah-centered Noahides" would be more precise but are infrequently used. The rainbow, referring to the Noahide or First Covenant (Genesis 9), is the symbol of many organized Noahide groups, following . A non-Jewish person of any ethnicity or religion is referred to as a bat ("daughter") or ben ("son") of Noah, but most organizations that call themselves בני נח (b'nei noach) are composed of gentiles who are keeping the Noahide Laws. Hidden Land Institute The first Noahide Degree Granting College in Canada was founded in 2006 and is called Hidden Land Institute HLI seeks to be faithful to the legacy of the Yeshiva of Shem & Eber as well as work in cooperation with the Nascent Sanhedrin toward not only teaching the Paths of Noah to the Nations but also to help train potential Noahide Clergy. HLI enjoys involvement in its efforts of the North American Emissary of the Nascent Sanhedrin for Noahide Affairs. Early Parallels Second Century BCE, Book of Jubilees An early reference to Noachide Law may appear in the Book of Jubilees 7:20-28, which is generally dated to the 2nd century BCE: "And in the twenty-eighth jubilee [1324-1372 A.M.] Noah began to enjoin upon his sons' sons the ordinances and commandments, and all the judgments that he knew, and he exhorted his sons to observe righteousness, and to cover the shame of their flesh, and to bless their Creator, and honour father and mother, and love their neighbour, and guard their souls from fornication and uncleanness and all iniquity. For owing to these three things came the flood upon the earth ... For whoso sheddeth man's blood, and whoso eateth the blood of any flesh, shall all be destroyed from the earth." Jubilees at wesley.nnu.edu, Jewish Encyclopedia: Jubilees, Book of: The Noachian Laws This is R. H. Charles' 1913 translation from the Koine Greek, but Jubilees is also extant in Geez and multiple texts found at Qumran which are still being examined. First Century CE, Acts 15 The Jewish Encyclopedia article on Saul of Tarsus states: According to Acts, Paul began working along the traditional Jewish line of proselytizing in the various synagogues where the proselytes of the gate [a biblical term, for example see ] and the Jews met; and only because he failed to win the Jews to his views, encountering strong opposition and persecution from them, did he turn to the Gentile world after he had agreed at a convention with the apostles at Jerusalem to admit the Gentiles into the Church only as proselytes of the gate, that is, after their acceptance of the Noachian laws (). Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament — Spirit of Jewish Proselytism in Christianity states: For great as was the success of Barnabas and Paul in the heathen world, the authorities in Jerusalem insisted upon circumcision as the condition of admission of members into the church, until, on the initiative of Peter, and of James, the head of the Jerusalem church, it was agreed that acceptance of the Noachian Laws — namely, regarding avoidance of idolatry, fornication, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal — should be demanded of the heathen desirous of entering the Church. Some modern scholars however dispute the connection between Acts 15 and Noahide Law Joseph Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries), Yale University Press (December 2, 1998), ISBN 0300139829, chapter V and the nature of Biblical Law in Christianity is still disputed, see Biblical law in Christianity. Subdividing the Seven Laws Various rabbinic sources have different positions on the way the seven laws are to be subdivided in categories. Maimonides Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings 10:6 lists one additional Noahide commandment forbidding the coupling of different kinds of animals and the mixing of trees. Rabbi David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra (Radbaz), a contemporary commentator on Maimonides, expressed surprise that he left out castration and sorcery which were listed in the Talmud Sanhedrin 56b. . The tenth century Rabbi Saadia Gaon added tithes and levirate marriage. The eleventh century Rav Nissim Gaon included "listening to God's Voice", "knowing God" and "serving God" besides going on to say that all religious acts which can be understood through human reasoning are obligatory upon Jew and Gentile alike. The fourteenth century Rabbi Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi added the commandment of charity. The sixteenth century work Asarah Maamarot by Rabbi Menahem Azariah of Fano (Rema mi-Fano) enumerates thirty commandments, listing the latter twenty-three as extensions of the original seven. Another commentator, Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Chajes (Kol Hidushei Maharitz Chayess I, end Ch. 10) suggests these are not related to the first seven, nor based on Scripture, but were passed down by oral tradition. The number thirty derives from the statement of the Talmudic sage Ulla in tractate Hullin 92a, though he lists only three other rules in addition to the original seven, consisting of the prohibitions against homosexuality and cannibalism, as well as the imperative to honor the Torah. Talmud commentator Rashi remarks on this that he does not know the other Commandments that are referred to. Though the authorities seem to take it for granted that Ulla's thirty commandments included the original seven, an additional thirty laws is also possible from the reading. The tenth century Shmuel ben Hophni Gaon lists thirty Noahide Commandments based on Ulla's Talmudic statement, though the text is problematic Each surviving manuscript is defective between the seventeenth and nineteenth positions, cf. The Seven Laws of Noah by Rabbi Aaron Lictenstein, pp. 119 . He includes the prohibitions against suicide and false oaths, as well as the imperatives related to prayer, sacrifices and honoring one's parents. Prohibition against idolatry No idolatry (Genesis 2:16) To pray only to God (Genesis 20:7) To offer ritual sacrifices only to God (Genesis 8:20) Prohibition against blasphemy To believe that God is one (Genesis 2:16) No blasphemy (Genesis 2:16) No consulting oracles (Deuteronomy 18:10) No divination (Deuteronomy 18:10) No astrology (Deuteronomy 18:10) No interpreting omens (Deuteronomy 18:10) No witchcraft (Deuteronomy 18:10) No conjuration (Deuteronomy 18:10) No necromancy (Deuteronomy 18:10) No consulting of mediums (Deuteronomy 18:10) To honor one's father and mother (Genesis 9:22-23) Prohibition against murder No murder (Genesis 9:5-6) No suicide (Genesis 9:5-6) No Moloch worship (infant sacrifice) (Deuteronomy 18:10) Prohibition against theft No theft (including kidnapping) (Genesis 2:16; 6:11) Prohibition against sexual immorality No adultery (defined only as a married woman having sex with someone other than her husband) (Genesis 20:3). It is worth noting that the Midrash Rabba states that marriage and divorce can occur by simple mutual obligation and that in case of unilateral decision the initiator of the divorce must pay a compensation. No incest with a sister (Genesis 12:13) No bestiality (Genesis 2:24) No castration of any male (Leviticus 22:24) No male homosexual intercourse (Genesis 2:24) Prohibition against eating the limb of a living animal Not to eat a limb torn from a creature while it is still living (Genesis 9:4) Not to eat or drink blood (Genesis 9:4) Not to eat carrion (for those recognized by a Beth Din) (Genesis 9:3) Establish courts of justice Justice (the remainder of this section is damaged in the original manuscript) No false oaths (Genesis 21:23) The contemporary Rabbi Aaron Lichtenstein counts 66 instructions but Rabbi Harvey Falk has suggested that much work remains to be done in order to properly identify all of the Noahide Commandments, their divisions and subdivisions. Theft, robbery and stealing covers the appropriate understanding of other persons, their property and their rights. The establishment of courts of justice promotes the value of the responsibility of a corporate society of people to enforce these laws and define these terms. The refusal to engage in unnecessary lust or cruelty demonstrates respect for the creation itself as renewed after the Flood. To not do murder would include human sacrifice. Maimonides, in his Mishnah Torah, interpreted the prohibition against homicide as including a prohibition against abortion. Mishnah Torah Shoftim, Laws of Kings and their wars 9:6 Legal status of an observer of Noahide Laws From the perspective of traditional halakhah, if a non-Jew is to be accepted to live among the Jewish people in the Land of Israel, then that person must keep the Noahide Laws, and a number of additional Laws and regulations apply as well. Such as person is called a Ger Toshav "Sojourning Alien" amid the people of Israel. A "Ger Toshav" is the only kind of non-Jew who Jewish law permits to live among the Jewish people in the Land of Israel when the land is run according to Halacha and there is a Sanhedrin and a Temple. Jewish law only allows the official acceptance of a "Ger Toshav" as a sojourner in the Land of Israel during a time when the Year of Jubilee (yovel) is in effect. A Ger Toshav should not be confused with a Ger Tzedek. A Ger Tzedek is a person who prefers to proceed to total conversion to Judaism, a procedure that is traditionally discouraged by Judaism and allowed to take place only after much thought and deliberation over converting. Noahide laws as a basis for secular governance Traditionally, Judaism regards the determination of the details of the Noahide Law as something to be left to Jewish rabbis. This, in addition to the teaching of the Jewish law that punishment for violating one of the seven Noahide Laws includes a theoretical death penalty (Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 57a), is a factor in modern opposition to the notion of a Noahide legal system. Jewish scholars respond by noting that Jews today no longer carry out the death penalty, even within the Jewish community. Jewish law, in contemporary practice, sees the death penalty as an indicator of the seriousness of an offense; violators are not actually put to death. Some modern views hold that penalties are a detail of the Noahide Laws and that Noahides themselves must determine the details of their own laws for themselves. According to this school of thought - see N. Rakover, Law and the Noahides (1998); M. Dallen, The Rainbow Covenant (2003)- the Noahide Laws offer mankind a set of absolute values and a framework for righteousness and justice, while the detailed laws that are currently on the books of the world's states and nations are presumptively valid. Public endorsement of Noahide Laws United States Congress The Seven Laws of Noah were recognized by the United States Congress in the preamble to the bill that established Education Day in honor of the 90th birthday of Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the leader of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement: Israeli Druze In January 2004, the spiritual leader of the Druze community in Israel, Sheikh Mowafak Tarif, signed a declaration calling on all non-Jews in Israel to observe the Noahide Laws as laid down in the Talmud and expounded upon in Jewish tradition. The mayor of the Galilean city of Shefa-'Amr (Shfaram) - where Muslim, Christian and Druze communities live side by side - also signed the document. The declaration includes the commitment to make a better, more humane world based on the Seven Noachide Commandments and the values they represent commanded by the Creator to all mankind through Moses on Mount Sinai. Support for the spread of the Seven Noahide Commandments by the Druze leaders reflects the Biblical narrative itself. The Druze community reveres the non-Jewish father-in-law of Moses, Jethro, whom Arabs call Shoaib. According to the Biblical narrative, Jethro joined and assisted the Jewish people in the desert during the Exodus, accepted monotheism, but ultimately rejoined his own people. In fact, the tomb of Jethro in Tiberias is the most important religious site for the Druze community. Christianity and the Noahide Laws The 18th century rabbi, Jacob Emden proposed that Jesus, and Paul after him, intended to convert the gentiles to the Noahide laws while allowing the Jews to follow full Mosaic Law. Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah: "R. Emden (), in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b–34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law—which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the laws of Moses and the Sabbath." Islam and the Noahide Laws Each of the seven Noahide Laws are individually considered to be compatible with some element of Islamic Law. See also B'nei Noah Ger Tzedek References Further reading Barre Elisheva. "Torah for Gentiles - the Messianic and Political Implications of the Bnei Noah Laws", 2008, ISBN 978-965-91329-0-4 Bleich, J. David. "Judaism and natural law" in Jewish law annual, vol. VII 5-42 Bleich, J. David. "Tikkun Olam: Jewish Obligations to Non-Jewish Society" in: Tikkun olam: social responsibility in Jewish thought and law. Edited by David Shatz, Chaim I. Waxman and Nathan J. Diament. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1997. ISBN 0-7657-5951-9. Broyde, Michael J. "The Obligation of Jews to Seek Observance of Noahide Laws by Gentiles: A Theoretical Review" in Tikkun olam: social responsibility in Jewish thought and law. Edited by David Shatz, Chaim I. Waxman and Nathan J. Diament. Northvale, N.J. : Jason Aronson, 1997. ISBN 0-7657-5951-9. Cowen, Shimon Dovid. "Perspectives on the Noahide Laws - Universal ethics". The Institute of Judaism and Civilization (3rd edition) 2008 ISBN 0 9585933 8 8 www.ijc.com.au Clorfene C and Rogalsky Y. The Path of the Righteous Gentile: An Introduction to the Seven Laws of the Children of Noah. New York: Phillip Feldheim, 1987. ISBN 0-87306-433-X. Online version. Lichtenstein, Aaron. "The Seven Laws of Noah". New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press and Z. Berman Books, 2d ed. 1986. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 80-69121. Novak, David. The image of the non-Jew in Judaism: an historical and constructive study of the Noahide Laws. New York : E. Mellen Press, 1983. Novak, David. Natural law in Judaism. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1998. Rakover, Nahum. Law and the Noahides: law as a universal value. Jerusalem: Library of Jewish Law, 1998. Michael Dallen. The Rainbow Covenant: Torah and the Seven Universal Laws ISBN 0-9719388-2-2 Library of Congress Control Number 2003102494 online excerpts Audio The Lubavitcher Rebbe speaks on the Seven Universal Laws for all mankind OU Radio show on Bnei Noah - The Jew, The Minister and The Bnei Noah Videos Videos on the Noahide Laws The Lubavitcher Rebbe speaks about The Seven Noahide Laws External links Hidden Land Institute - The First Degree Granting Noahide College in Canada (and perhaps Globally!) The Institute of Judaism and Civilization Jewish Encyclopedia: Laws, Noachian Wikinoah: Online resource of history, halacha, publications, and websites concerning Bnei Noah Noahide Nations and Online Classes United Noahide Academies - asknoah.org Seven Noahide Laws - Chabad.org The Lubavitcher Rebbe on educating mankind via the Noahide Code Several subdivision of the Seven Laws of Noah, including Shmuel ben Hophni Gaon's half-jewish.org/Torah for non-Jews

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Arecaceae

Palm or Palmae or Panamea (also known by the name Palmaceae, which is considered taxonomically invalid, "Palmaceae" is not accepted because the name Arecaceae (and its acceptable alternative Palmae, ICBN Art. 18.5) are conserved over other names for the palm family. or by the common name palm tree), the palm family, is a family of flowering plants belonging to the monocot order, Arecales. There are roughly 202 currently known genera with around 2600 species, most of which are restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, evergreen leaves arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. However, many palms are exceptions to this statement, and palms in fact exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics. As well as being morphologically diverse, palms also inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts. Palms are one of the most well-known and extensively cultivated plant families. They have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are also widely used in landscaping for their exotic appearance, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were symbols for such ideas as victory, peace, and fertility. Today, palms remain a popular symbol for the tropics and vacations. Landscaping with Palms in the Mediterranean Morphology This grove of the native species Washingtonia filifera in Palm Canyon, California is growing alongside a stream running through the desert. Shrubs, trees or vines, palms are limited to two methods of growth. The common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This monopodial behavior may be exhibited in prostrate, trunkless and trunk forming members. Some of the common palm trees restricted to solitary growth include Washingtonia and Roystonea. Palms may instead grow in sparse to dense clusters. The trunk will develop an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud and a clustering habit results. Exclusively sympodial genera include many of the rattans, Guihaia, and Rhapis. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members. Occasionally, a plant is very often clustering with the occasional solitary member or the converse. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene. Uhl, Natalie W. and Dransfield, John (1987) Genera Palmarum - A classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore. Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press. ISBN 0-935-86830-5 / ISBN 978-0-935-86830-2 They have large evergreen leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity Arecaceae - University of Hawaii Botany . The inflorescence is a panicle or spike surrounded by one or more bracts or spathes that become woody at maturity. The flowers are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bi-. The sepals and petals usually number three each and may be distinct or joined at the base. The stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The fruit is usually a single-seeded drupe Arecaceae in Flora of North America , but some genera (e.g. Salacca) may contain two or more seeds in each fruit. Fruits of Palmyra at Guntur, India Arecaceae is notable for having the individual trees with the largest seed, largest leaf, largest inflorescence, as well as the tallest individual monocot. The Coco de mer (Lodoicea maldivica) has the largest seeds of any plant, 40-50 centimeters in diameter and weighing 15-30 kilograms each. Raffia palms (Raphia spp.), with leaves up to 25 meters long and 3 meters wide, have the largest leaves of any plant. The Corypha species have the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to 7.5 meters tall and containing millions of small flowers. Ceroxylon quindiuense, Colombia's national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching heights of 60 meters :: Presidencia de la República de Colombia :: . Range and Habitat Coconut palm trees in Mumbai, India The vast majority of palms exist in the tropics. Palms are abundant throughout the tropical regions around the world, and are present in almost every type of habitat in the tropics. Diversity is highest in wet, lowland tropical forests, especially in ecological "hotspots" such as Madagascar, which has more endemic palms than the entire continental Africa. Colombia may have the highest number of palm species in one country. Conservatory of Flowers It is estimated that only 130 palm species grow naturally beyond the tropics, most of which grow in the subtropics. The northernmost native palm is Chamaerops humilis, which reaches 46°N latitude in Locarno, Switzerland, where the local Mediterranean climate is milder than other places as far north. The southernmost palm is the Rhopalostylis sapida, which reaches 44°S on the Chatham Islands where an oceanic climate has a similar warming effect . Palms have been known to grow strongly in cultivation as far north as Ireland and Canada, especially Southern British Columbia (Vancouver/ Vancouver Island) . Palms inhabit a variety of habitats. Over two-thirds of palms live in tropical forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the canopy and other shorter palms adapted to shade form part of the understory . Some species form pure stands in areas with poor drainage or regular flooding, including Raphia hookeri which is common in coastal freshwater swamps in West Africa. Other palms live in tropical mountain habitats above 1000 meters, such as those in the genus Ceroxylon native to the Andes. Palms may also live in grasslands and scrublands, usually associated with a water source, and in desert oases such as the Date Palm. A few palms are adapted to extremely basic lime soils, while others are similarly adapted to very acidic serpentine soils Tropical Palms by Food and Agriculture Organization . Taxonomy King palms. A coconut palm tree. Palms are a monophyletic group of plants, meaning that the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants . Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into fifteen major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into six subfamilies N. W. Uhl, J. Dransfield (1987). Genera palmarum: a classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore, Jr. (Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas). . A few general traits of each subfamily are listed. Coryphoideae is the most diverse subfamily and is a paraphyletic group, meaning that all members of the group share a common ancestor but the group does not include all the ancestor's descendants. Most palms in this subfamily have palmately lobed leaves and solitary flowers with three, sometimes four carpels. The fruit normally develops from only one carpel. Subfamily Calamoideae includes the climbing palms such as rattans. The leaves are usually pinnate; derived characters (synapomorphies) include spines on various organs, organs specialized for climbing, an extension of the main stem of the leaf bearing reflexed spines, and overlapping scales covering the fruit and ovary. Subfamily Nypoideae contains only one genus and one species, Nypa fruticans, which has large pinnate leaves. The fruit is unusual in The orange fruit on a palm tree.that it floats, and the stem is dichotomously branched, also unusual in palms. Subfamily Ceroxyloideae has small to medium-sized flowers that spirally arranged, with a gynoecium of three joined carpels. Arecoideae is the largest subfamily with six diverse tribes containing over 100 genera. All tribes have pinnate or bipinnate leaves and flowers arranged in groups of three, with a central pistillate and two staminate flowers. Phytelephantoideae is a monoecious subfamily. Members of this group have distinct monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to ten joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiseeded and have multiple parts . Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker et al. explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast DNA from 60 genera from all subfamilies and tribes. The results strongly showed that Calamoideae is monophyletic, and that Ceroxyloideae and Coryphoideae are paraphyletic. The relationships of Arecoideae are uncertain but it is possibly related to Ceroxyloideae and Phytelephantoideae. However, hybridization has been observed among Orbignya and Phoenix species, and using chloroplast DNA in cladistic studies may produce inaccurate results due to maternal inheritance of the chloroplast DNA. Chemical and molecular data from non-organelle DNA, for example, could be more effective for studying palm phylogeny Palms on the University of Arizona Campus . Selected genera Palm trees in Multan, Pakistan Archontophoenix - Bangalow palm Areca – Betel palm Bactris – Pupunha Bismarckia - Bismark palm Borassus – Palmyra palm, Sugar palm, Toddy palm Calamus – Rattan palm Cocos – Coconut Copernicia – Carnauba wax palm Corypha - Gebang palm, Buri palm or Talipot palm Elaeis – Oil palm Euterpe – Cabbage Heart palm, Açaí Palm Hyphaene - Doum Palm Jubaea – Chilean Wine Palm, Coquito palm Latania – Latan palm Mauritia - Moriche Palm Metroxylon – Sago palm Phoenix – Date palm Raphia – Raffia palm Roystonea – Royal palm Sabal – Palmettos Salacca – Salak Syagrus - Queen palm Trachycarpus – Windmill palm, Kumaon palm Washingtonia - Fan palm See list of Arecaceae genera arranged by taxonomic groups or by alphabetical order for a complete listing of genera. Evolution A cross-section of a palm branch Arecaceae is the first modern family of monocots that is clearly represented in the fossil record. Palms first appear in the fossil record around 80 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period. The first modern species, such as Nypa fruticans and Acrocomia aculeata, appeared 69-70 million years ago, confirmed by fossil Nypa pollen dated to 70 million years ago. Palms appear to have undergone an early period of adaptive radiation. By 60 million years ago, many of the modern, specialized genera of palms appeared and became widespread and common, much more widespread than their range today. Because palms separated from the monocots earlier than other families, they developed more intrafamilial specialization and diversity. By tracing back these diverse characteristics of palms to the basic structures of monocots, palms may be valuable in studying monocot evolution. Virtual Palm Encyclopedia - Evolution and the fossil record Evidence can also be found in samples of petrified palmwood. Uses and cultivation Canned palmnut concentrate Human use of palms is as old or older than human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the Date Palm by Mesopotamians and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000 years or more ago. Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the Date Palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites. Date Sex @ University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology The Date Palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote: "One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose." An indication of the importance of Palms is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the Bible Bible search for "palm" , and at least 22 times in the Quran. Koran search for "palm" Fruit of the Date Palm Phoenix dactylifera Arecaceae has great economic importance including coconut products, oils, dates, palm syrup, ivory nuts, carnauba wax, rattan cane, raffia and palm wood The type member of Arecaceae is the Areca palm, the fruit of which, the betel nut, is chewed with the betel leaf for intoxicating effects. Also belonging to the family of the Arecaceae are the Date Palm, harvested for its edible fruit; Rattans, whose stems are used extensively in furniture and baskets; and the Coconut. Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil produced by the oil palms in the genus Elaeis. Several species are harvested for heart of palm, a vegetable eaten in salads. Palm sap is sometimes fermented to produce palm wine or toddy, an alcoholic beverage common in parts of Africa, India, and the Philippines Palm Trees – Uses And Locations . The Palm Sunday festival uses palm leaves, usually from the Date Palm, to commemorate Jesus' entry to Jerusalem, when palm leaves were strewn on the road before him. Dragon's blood, a red resin used traditionally in medicine, varnish, and dyes, may be obtained from the fruit of Daemonorops species. Coir is a coarse water-resistant fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. Some indigenous groups living in palm-rich areas use palms to make many of their necessary items and food. Sago, for example, a starch made from the pith of the trunk of the Sago Palm Metroxylon sagu, is a major staple food for lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Moluccas. Palm leaves are also valuable to some peoples as a material for thatching or clothing. Washingtonia robusta trees line Ocean Avenue in Santa Monica, California. Today, palms are valuable as ornamental plants and are often grown along streets in tropical and subtropical cities, and also along the Mediterranean coast in Europe. Farther north, palms are a common feature in botanical gardens or as indoor plants. Few palms tolerate severe cold, however, and the majority of the species are tropical or subtropical. The three most cold-tolerant species are Trachycarpus fortunei, native to eastern Asia, and Rhapidophyllum hystrix and Sabal minor, both native to the southeastern United States Growing Hardy Palms . For more details, see hardy palms. The southeastern state of South Carolina is nicknamed the Palmetto State after the Cabbage Palmetto, logs from which were used to build the fort at Fort Moultrie. During the American Revolutionary War they were invaluable to those defending the fort, because their spongy wood absorbed or deflected the British cannonballs. Revolutionary War Exhibit Text - November 2002 Some palms can be grown as far north as Maryland, Arkansas, southern Ohio and even up along the Pacific coast to Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, where ocean winds have a warming effect. There have even been known species of transplanted palms that have survived as far north as Devon. The Chinese Trachycarpus fortunei is being grown experimentally on the Faroe Islands at 62°N, with young plants doing well so far. Højgaard, A., Jóhansen, J., & Ødum, S. (1989). A century of tree planting on the Faroe Islands. Ann. Soc. Sci. Faeroensis Supplementum 14. Endangered Species Pritchardia affinis, a critically endangered species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Like many other plants, palms have been threatened by human intervention and exploitation. The greatest risk to palms is destruction of habitat, especially in the tropical forests, due to urbanization, wood-chipping, mining, and conversion to farmland. Palms rarely reproduce after such great changes in the habitat, and palms with a small habitat range are most vulnerable to them. The harvesting of heart of palm, a delicacy in salads, also poses a threat because it is derived from the inner core of the plant and thus harvesting kills the plant. The use of rattan palms in furniture has caused a major population decrease in these species that has negatively affected local and international markets as well as biodiversity in the area. Palms: Their Conservation and Sustained Utilization The sale of seeds to nurseries and collectors is another threat, as the seeds of popular palms are sometimes harvested directly from the wild. At least 100 palm species are currently endangered, and nine species have reportedly recently become extinct. However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can only house a few plants of any species or truly imitate the natural setting. There is also the risk of cross-pollination, which leads to hybrid species. The Palm Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) began in 1984 and has performed a series of three studies in order to find basic information on the status of palms in the wild, utilization of wild palms, and palms under cultivation. Two projects on palm conservation and utilization supported by the World Wildlife Fund took place from 1985-1990 and 1986-1991, in the American tropics and southeast Asia respectively. Both studies produced a large amount of new data and publications on palms. Preparation of a global action plan for palm conservation began in 1991, supported by the IUCN, and was published in 1996 Palm Conservation: Its Atecedents, Status, and Needs . The rarest palm known is the Hyophorbe amaricaulis. The only living individual that remains is at the Botanic Gardens of Curepipe in Mauritius. Symbolism The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in pre-Christian times. The Romans rewarded champions of the games and celebrated military successes with palm branches. Early Christians used the palm branch to symbolize the victory of the faithful over enemies of the soul, as in the Palm Sunday festival celebrating the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. In Judaism, the palm represents peace and plenty, and is one of the Four Species of Sukkot; the palm may also symbolize the Tree of life in Kabbalah. Today, the palm, especially the Coconut, remains a symbol of the stereotypical tropical island paradise Virtual Palm Encyclopedia - Introduction . Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of Haiti, Guam, Florida and South Carolina. See also Travellers palm – a palm-like tree belonging to order Zingiberales Sago palm – a palm-like cycad (a gymnosperm) Toddy tapping - palm wine making process Postelsia - called the "sea palm" (a brown algae) Hardy palms - palms able to withstand colder temperatures References C. H. Schultz-Schultzenstein (1832). Natürliches System des Pflanzenreichs..., 317. Berlin, Germany. Dransfield J., Uhl N.W., Asmussen C.B., Baker W.J., Harley M.M., Lewis C.E. (2005). "A new phylogenetic classification of the palm family, Arecaceae". Kew Bulletin 60: 559–569. [latest Arecaceae or Palmae classification] External links Palm Trees, Small Palms, Cycads, Bromeliads & Tropical Plants Site with 1000's of large, high quality photos of palms and associated flora. Includes information on habitat and cultivation. Palmpedia A wiki based site dedicated to high quality images and information on palm trees. Guide to Palms A collection of palm images, scientific data, and horticultural information hosted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami. Kew Botanic Garden's Palm Genera list A list of the currently acknowledged genera by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens in London, England. PACSOA Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia palm species listing with images. Palm & Cycad Societies of Florida, Inc. (PACSOF), which includes pages on Arecaceae taxonomy and a photo index. Guide to Palms grown in the UK [http://www.scanpalm.no/english.html Scanpalm - Everything about palms in Scandinavia Palm stability

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Organometallic_chemistry

n-Butyllithium, an organometallic compound. Four lithium atoms are shown in purple in a tetrahedron, and each lithium atom is bound to a butyl group (carbon is black, hydrogen is white). Organometallic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. Since many compounds without such bonds are chemically similar, an alternative may be compounds containing metal-element bonds of a largely covalent character. Organometallic chemistry combines aspects of inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry. Organometallic compounds Organometallic compounds are also known as organo-inorganics, metallo-organics and metalorganics. Organometallic compounds are distinguished by the prefix "organo-" e.g. organopalladium compounds. Examples of such organometallic compounds include all Gilman Reagents, which contain lithium and copper. Tetracarbonyl nickel, and ferrocene are examples of organometallic compounds containing transition metals. Other examples include organomagnesium compounds like iodo(methyl)magnesium MeMgI, diethylmagnesium (Et2Mg), and all Grignard reagents; organolithium compounds such as butyllithium (BuLi), organozinc compounds such as chloro(ethoxycarbonylmethyl)zinc (ClZnCH2C(=O)OEt); and organocopper compounds such as lithium dimethylcuprate (Li+[CuMe2]–). In addition to the traditional metals, lanthanides, actinides, and semimetals, elements such as boron, silicon, arsenic, and selenium are considered to form organometallic compounds, e.g. organoborane compounds such as triethylborane (Et3B). Coordination compounds with organic ligands Many complexes feature coordination bonds between a metal and organic ligands. The organic ligands often bind the metal through a heteroatom such as oxygen or nitrogen, in which case such compounds are considered coordination compounds. However, if any of the ligands form a direct M-C bond, then complex is usually considered to be organometallic, e.g., [(C6H6)Ru(H2O)3]2+. Furthermore, many lipophilic compounds such as metal acetylacetonates and metal alkoxides are called "metalorganics." Many organic coordination compounds occur naturally. For example, hemoglobin and myoglobin contain an iron center coordinated to the nitrogen atoms of a porphyrin ring; magnesium is the center of a chlorin ring in chlorophyll. The field of such inorganic compounds is known as bioinorganic chemistry. In contrast to these coordination compounds, methylcobalamin (a form of Vitamin B12), with a cobalt-methyl bond, is a true organometallic complex, one of the few known in biology. This subset of complexes are often discussed within the subfield of bioorganometallic chemistry. Illustrative of the many functions of the B12-dependent enzymes, the MTR enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from a nitrogen on N5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate to the sulfur of homocysteine to produce methionine. The status of compounds in which the canonical anion has a delocalized structure in which the negative charge is shared with an atom more electronegative than carbon, as in enolates, may vary with the nature of the anionic moiety, the metal ion, and possibly the medium; in the absence of direct structural evidence for a carbon–metal bond, such compounds are not considered to be organometallic. Structure and properties The metal-carbon bond in organometallic compounds is generally of character intermediate between ionic and covalent. Primarily ionic metal-carbon bonds are encountered either when the metal is very electropositive (as in the case of the alkali metals) or when the carbon-containing ligand exists as a stable carbanion. Carbanions can be stabilized by resonance (as in the case of the aromatic cyclopentadienyl anion) or by the presence of electron-withdrawing substituents (as in the case of the triphenylmethyl anion). Hence, the bonding in compounds like sodium acetylide and triphenylmethylpotassium is primarily ionic. On the other hand, the ionic character of metal-carbon bonds in the organometallic compounds of transition metals, poor metals, and metalloids tends to be intermediate, owing to the middle-of-the-road electronegativity of such metals. Organometallic compounds with bonds that have characters in between ionic and covalent are very important in industry, as they are both relatively stable in solutions and relatively ionic to undergo reactions. Two important classes are organolithium and Grignard reagents. In certain organometallic compounds such as ferrocene or dibenzenechromium, the pi orbitals of the organic moiety ligate the metal. Applications Organometallics find practical uses as stoichiometric and catalytically active compounds. Tetraethyl lead previously was combined with gasoline as an antiknock agent. Due to lead's toxicity it is no longer used, its replacements being other organometallic compounds such as ferrocene and methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT). The Monsanto process utilizes a rhodium-carbonyl complex to manufacture acetic acid from methanol and carbon monoxide industrially. Similarly, the Wacker process is used in the oxidation of olefins. The Ziegler-Natta catalyst is a titanium-based organometallic compound used in the production of polyethylene and other polymers. Ryoji Noyori's chiral ruthenium-BINAP complex catalytically reduces beta-ketoesters to secondary alcohols in the production of fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Another common industrial organometallic compound is the Grubbs catalyst, a carbenoid (an organometallic compound of a carbene and a metal). Organometallic compounds of the reactive metals such as lithium or zinc are extremely basic and may also act as reductants. These superbases are used in organic syntheses. Butyllithium is an example, widely used in synthetic organic chemistry. They are air-sensitive, however, and their flammability severely limits their industrial use. Concepts Electron counting is key in understanding organometallic chemistry. The 18-electron rule is helpful in predicting the stabilities of organometallic compounds. Organometallic compounds which have 18 electrons (filled s, p, and penultimate d orbitals) are relatively stable. This suggests the compound is isolable, but it can result in the compound being inert. To understand chemical bonding and reactivity in organometallic compounds the isolobal principle should be used. NMR and infrared spectroscopy are common techniques used to determine structure and bonding in this field. Scientists are allowed to probe fluxional behaviors of compounds with variable-temperature NMR. Organometallic compounds undergo several important reactions: oxidative addition and reductive elimination transmetalation carbometalation Hydrometalation electron transfer beta-hydride elimination organometallic substitution reaction carbon-hydrogen bond activation cyclometalation Migratory insertion History Early developments in organometallic chemistry include Louis Claude Cadet’s synthesis of methyl arsenic compounds related to cacodyl, William Christopher Zeise's platinum-ethylene complex, Edward Frankland’s discovery of dimethyl zinc, Ludwig Mond’s discovery of Ni(CO)4, and Victor Grignard’s organomagnesium compounds. The abundant and diverse products from coal and petroleum led to Ziegler-Natta, Fischer-Tropsch, hydroformylation catalysis which employ CO, H2, and alkenes as feedstocks and ligands. Recognition of organometallic chemistry as a distinct subfield culminated in the Nobel Prizes to Ernst Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson for work on metallocenes. In 2005, Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock shared the Nobel Prize for metal-catalyzed olefin metathesis. Organometallic chemistry timeline 1760 Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt investigates inks based on Cobalt salts and isolates Cacodyl from cobalt mineral containing arsenic 1827 Zeise's salt is the first platinum / olefin complex 1863 Charles Friedel and James Crafts prepare organochlorosilanes 1890 Ludwig Mond discovers Nickel carbonyl 1899 Introduction of Grignard reaction 1900 Paul Sabatier works on hydrogenation organic compounds with metal catalysts. Hydrogenation of fats kicks off advances in food industry, see margarine 1909 Paul Ehrlich introduces Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis, an early arsenic based organometallic compound 1912 Nobel Prize Victor Grignard and Paul Sabatier 1930 Henry Gilman works on lithium cuprates, see Gilman reagent 1963 Nobel prize for Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta on Ziegler-Natta catalyst 1965 Discovery of cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl 1968 Heck reaction 1973 Nobel prize Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Otto Fischer on sandwich compounds 2005 Nobel prize Yves Chauvin, Robert Grubbs, and Richard Schrock on metal-catalyzed alkene metathesis Organometallics Period 2 elements: organolithium chemistry, organoberyllium chemistry, organoborane chemistry, Period 3 elements: organomagnesium chemistry, organoaluminum chemistry, organosilicon chemistry Period 4 elements: organotitanium chemistry,organochromium chemistry, organomanganese chemistry organoiron chemistry, organocobalt chemistry organonickel chemistry, organocopper chemistry, organozinc chemistry, organogallium chemistry, organogermanium chemistry Period 5 elements: organopalladium chemistry, organosilver chemistry, organocadmium chemistry, organoindium chemistry, organotin chemistry Period 6 elements: organoiridium chemistry, organoplatinum chemistry, organogold chemistry, organomercury chemistry,organothallium chemistry, organolead chemistry See also Chelation Bioorganometallic chemistry References External links MIT OpenCourseWare: Organometallic Chemistry Rob Toreki's Organometallic HyperTextbook

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Demographics_of_Macau

Street scene in Macau This article is about the demographic features of the population of Macau, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Macau's population is 95% Chinese, primarily Cantonese and some Hakka, both from nearby Guangdong Province. The remainder are of Portuguese or mixed Chinese-Portuguese ancestry. Some Japanese, including descendants of Japanese Catholics who were expelled by shoguns, also live in Macau. The official languages are Portuguese and Mandarin Chinese, though the residents commonly (85.7%) speak Cantonese, Mandarin is spoken by 3.2% at home, about 40% are able to communicate in standard Mandarin. English and Portuguese are spoken as a first language by 1.5% and 0.6% respectively. The other popular dialect is Hokkien (Min Nan), spoken by a small percentage of the population. The creole Macanese language (Patuá or Macaista Chapado) is almost extinct. Macau has a number of universities. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Residents' usual language spoken at home Language Percentage ofpopulationCantonese85.7%Mandarin3.2%OtherChinese dialects6.7%Portuguese0.6%English1.5%Others2.3% The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 503,000 (2006 Qtr2 est.) Male and Female Pattern Male: 245,600 (2006 Qtr2 est.) Female: 257,400 (2006 Qtr2 est.) Age structure below age 15: 76,305 15.63% age 15-24: 82,547 16.91% age 25-34: 70,965 14.54% age 35-44: 91,438 18.73% age 45-54: 87,616 17.95% age 54-64: 38,924 7.97% age 65 or above: 40,349 8.27% Live Birth Male: 477 (Qtr2 2006) Female: 454 (Qtr2 2006) Death Male: 220 Female: 156 Population growth rate 0.86% (2006 est.) Birth rate 8.48 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 4.47 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 4.56 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate 4.35 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 82.19 years male: 79.36 years female: 85.17 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 0.90 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality noun: Chinese adjective: Chinese Ethnic groups Chinese 95.7%, Macanese (mixed Portuguese and Asian ancestry), Portuguese, Religions Buddhist 85%, Roman Catholic 7%, none and other 8% (2006 est.) Languages Portuguese, Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin) Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 94.5% male: 97.2% female: 92% (2003 est.) Immigration and Crime Persons authorized to reside in Macau: total: 50,159 (by the end of 2005) Non-resident workers authorized to enter Macau: total: 39,411 (by the end of 2005) Legal immigrants from Mainland China: 1,133 (Qtr1 2006) 947 (Qtr2 2006) No. of criminal cases: 2,634 (Qtr1 2006) 2,708 (Qtr2 2006) Health No. of residents per doctor (excluding dentist): 473 No. of residents per nurse: 430 No. of residents per hospital bed: 496 Main causes of death Diseases of the circulatory system: 518 cases 32.1% Neoplasm: 455 cases 28.2% Diseases of the respiratory system: 267 cases 16.5% References External links Direcção dos Serviços de Estatística e Censos

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Banca_d'Italia

Banca d'Italia is the central bank of Italy and part of the European System of Central Banks. It is located in Palazzo Koch, Roma, via Nazionale. The bank's current governor is Mario Draghi, who took the office on January 16, 2006. Functions After the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the European Central Bank, within the European institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues euro banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces. The main function has thus become banking and financial supervision. The objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance to rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities. Following reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the credit sector, which is now shared with Italy's Antitrust Authority. Other functions include, market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, State treasury service, Central Credit Register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy. Bank of Italy gold reserves are 2,451.8 tonnes (2006). History The institution, also called Bankitalia, was founded in 1893, from the fusion of the four major banks in Italy. Until 1928 it was directed by a General Manager, while since then it is directed by a Governor. The Governor is elected by the internal commission of managers, with a decree from the President of the Italian Republic for a term of 7 years. General Managers (1893 - 1928) Giacomo Grillo (1893 - 1894) Giuseppe Marchiori (1894 - 1900) Bonaldo Stringher (1900 - 1928) Governors (1928 - present) Bonaldo Stringher (1928 - 1930) Vincenzo Azzolini (1931 - 1944) Luigi Einaudi (1945 - 1948) Donato Menichella (1948 - 1960) Guido Carli (1960 - 1975) Paolo Baffi (1975 - 1979) Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1979 - 1993) Antonio Fazio (1993 - 2005) Mario Draghi (2006 - present) Organization of the Bank of Italy Governing Bodies The Bank's governing bodies are the General Meeting of Shareholders, the Board of Directors, the Governor, the Director General and three Deputy Directors General; the last five constitute the Directorate. The general meeting takes place yearly and with the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the auditors. The Board of Directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor (or by the Director General in his absence). Following reform in 2005, the governor lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions of external relevance (i.e. banking and financial supervision), which has been transferred to the Directorate (by majority vote). The Director General is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the bank, and acts as governor when absent. The Board of Auditors assesses the bank's administration and compliance with the law, regulations and the statute. Appointment The Directorate's term of office lasts six years and is renewable once. The appointment of the governor is the responsibility of the government, head of the Board of Directors, with the approval of the President of the Republic (formally a decree of the President). The Board of Directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank statute. See also Economy of Italy Euro Italian lira External links Official site of Banca d'Italia History of the Banca d'Italia

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Dramaturge

A dramaturge or dramaturg is a position within a theatre that deals mainly with research and development. It has gained its modern-day function through the innovations of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, a playwright and theatre practitioner who worked in Germany in the 18th century. The dramaturg's contribution was to categorize and discuss the various types and kinds of plays, their interconnectedness and their styles. The responsibilities of dramaturg vary from one theater company to the next, but they might include the hiring of actors, the development of a season of plays with a sense of the coherence among them, the assistance with and editing of new plays by resident or guest playwrights, the creation of programs or accompanying educational services, and even helping the director with rehearsals, and serving as elucidator of history or spokesperson for deceased or otherwise absent playwrights. At larger theaters, a casting director hires the actors, a literary manager helps with play selection and editing/workshopping and the dramaturg works on the historical and cultural research into the play and its setting. A dramaturg will create a packet or workbook for the director and actors (usually these are different) and work extensively with the director prior to the first rehearsal. In the United Kingdom, dramaturgs function similarly although they are more often, themselves, also playwrights. In the USA, where this position was until recently relatively uncommon, it has enjoyed a recent growth, particularly in theater companies that focus on developing new plays and those that produce plays where the socio-historical background is important to the understanding of the production. The dramaturg will often conduct research into the historical and social conditions, specific locations, time periods, and/or theatrical styles of plays chosen by the company, to assist the playwright, director and/or design team in their production. The dramaturg locates and translates worthy scripts from other languages, writes articles and makes media appearances promoting shows and community programs, and helps develop original scripts. Despite occasional intimate connection with all aspects of play selection, production, and performance, the dramaturg remains independent, keeping a critical eye on the company's creative activities, working to improve and maintain high quality. Many dramaturgs are hired by a director long after play selection has occurred to assist with the background research. Recently there has been a backlash against excessive dramaturgy. Arguments against hiring a separate dramaturg often focus on the perception that if the playwright and director have done their jobs well, a dramaturg is unnecessary as the play (and the director's interpretation thereof) should stand on its own without further explanation. Furthermore, it is argued that if the director lets someone else do the research, he or she will be inadequately prepared for the rehearsal process. See also dramaturgy dubbing dramaturge External links An article by Dramaturg and Theatre Critic Mark S.P. Turvin offering an overview with a brief history of dramaturgy and a description of a potential Dramaturg's role in modern American theatre

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Abbas_II_of_Egypt

HH Abbas II Hilmi Bey (also known as Abbas Hilmi Pasha) () (July 14, 1874, Alexandria or Cairo – December 19/29, 1944, Geneva) was the last Khedive of Egypt and Sudan (January 8, 1892 – December 19, 1914). Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 1 Early life Abbas II was the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali. He succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a British tutor for some time in Cairo. He then went to school in Lausanne, and from there passed on to the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Arabic and Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German. Reign He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the Khedivate, and he was barely of age according to Egyptian law, which fixed majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not cooperate very cordially with the United Kingdom, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882. As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, who was elevated to the peerage as Lord Cromer. At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young Khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with a nationalist. At Cromer's behest, Lord Roseberry, the British foreign secretary, sent him a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments. In January 1894 Khedive Abbas, while on an inspection tour of Egyptian army installations near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of Sudan, made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers. The British commander of the Egyptian army, Sir Herbert Kitchener, immediately offered to resign. Cromer strongly supported Kitchener and pressured the Khedive and prime minister to retract the Khedive's criticisms of the British officers. From that time on, Abbas no longer publicly opposed the British, but secretly he created, supported, and sustained the nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil. As Kamil's thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a National Party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists. In time he came to accept British counsels. In 1899 British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas paid a second visit to Britain, during which he frankly acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt, and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to cooperate with the British officials administering Egyptian and Sudanese affairs. The establishment of a sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest of Sudan, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works at Aswan, and the increase of cheap, sound education, each received his formal approval. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft. His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for scientific agriculture in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, near Alexandria. He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. Muhammad Abdul Mun'im, the heir-apparent, was born on February 20, 1899. His relations with Cromer's successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the Nationalist Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1911 displeased Abbas, and relations between him and the British deteriorated. Kitchener often complained about "that wicked little Khedive" and wanted to depose him. When the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt an independent Sultanate under British protectorate on December 18, 1914 and deposed Abbas. Abbas supported the Ottomans in the war, including leading an attack on the Suez Canal. His uncles Husayn Kamil and then Fuad I, the British choices for their Protectorate, issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas of property in Egypt and Sudan and even forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. Abbas finally accepted the new order of things on May 12, 1931 and abdicated. He retired to Switzerland where he died at Geneva December 19, 1944. Marriages and issue He married firstly in Cairo on 19 February 1895 Crimean Ikbal Hanim (Crimea, 22 October 1876 - Jerusalem, 10 February 1941) and had six children: HH Princess Emine Hilmi Khanum Efendi (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 1895 - 1954), unmarried and without issue HH Princess Atiye Hilmi Khanum Efendi (Cairo, 9 June 1896 - 1971), unmarried and without issue HH Princess Fethiye Hilmi Khanum Efendi (27 November 1897 - 30 November 1923), unmarried and without issue HH Prince/HRH Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim Bey Efendi, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan HH Princess Lütfiye Şevket Hilmi (Cairo, 29 September 1900 - ?), married in Istanbul on 5 May 1923 to Omar Muhtar Katırcıoğlu (1902 - Çamlıca, near Üsküdar, Bosphorus, 15 July 1935), and had issue: Emine Neşedil Katırcıoğlu (b. 1927), unmarried and without issue Zehra Kadriye Katırcıoğlu (b. 1929), married Ahmet Cevat Tugay have 4 sons and a daughter HH Prince Muhammed Abdel Kader (4 February 1902 - Montreux, 21 April 1919) He married secondly at Çubuklu, Bosphorus, on 1 March 1910 and divorced in 1913 Hungarian Noblewoman Marianne Török de Szendrö, who took the name Zübeyde Cavidan Hanım (Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, 8 January 1874 - aft. 1951), without issue. Honours Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star of Sweden-1890 Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary-1891 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG)-1891 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB)-1892 Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur of France-1892 Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog of Denmark-1892 Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion-1892 Order of the House of Osman of Ottoman Empire-1895 Order of Honour of Ottoman Empire-1895 Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold of Austria-1897 Grand Cross of the Order of Chula Chom Klao, special class of Siam-1897 Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)-1900 Royal Victorian Chain (RVC)-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III of Spain-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig of Oldenburg-1905 Grand Cross of the Ducal Saxe-Ernestine House Order-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Albert of Saxony-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer of Greece-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I of Montenegro-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Carol I of Romania-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX of the Vatican-1905 Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Austria-Hungary-1905 Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky of Russia-1908 Knight of the Order of Saint Stanislaus of Russia-1908 Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri of Siam-1908 Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus of Italy-1911 Grand Cross of the Order of Ludwig of Hesse-1911 Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold of Belgium-1911 Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia-1911 Grand Cordon of the Sharifan Order of Ouissam Alaouite of Morocco-1913 Grand Cross of the Order of the Black Eagle of Albania-1914 Grand Cross w/Collar of the Order of the Red Eagle of Prussia-1914 Grand Cordon special class of the Order of the Exalted of Zanzibar-1914 Bibliography Cromer, Sir Evelyn Baring, Earl of. Abbas II. London: Macmillan, 1915. Goldschmidt, Arthur, Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000, pp. 2-3. Pollock, John. Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2001. al-Sayyid, Afaf Lutfi. Egypt and Cromer: A Study in Anglo-Egyptian Relations. London: John Murray, 1968. Sonbol, Amira, trans. & ed., The Last Khedive of Egypt: Memoirs of Abbas Hilmi II. Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 1998. References Al-Ahram on Abbas in exile: http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/480/chrncls.htm and http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/480/chrncls.htm Mehmet Ali genealogy: http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Egypt/egypt11.htm |- |- |- |- |- |-

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BASE_jumping

BASE jumping, also sometimes written as base jumping or basejumping, is an activity that employs a parachute or the sequenced use of a wingsuit and parachute to jump from fixed objects, with the parachute unopened at the jump (else see paragliding). "BASE" is an acronym that stands for the four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: Building Antenna Span Earth The acronym "BASE" was made up by film-maker Carl Boenish, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith, and Phil Mayfield. Carl was the real catalyst behind modern BASE jumping, and in 1978 filmed the first BASE jumps to be made using ram-air parachutes and the freefall tracking technique (from El Capitan, in Yosemite National Park). While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping. BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as skydiving from aircraft, and is currently regarded by many as a fringe extreme sport or stunt. BASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories. When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from antennae, spans, and earthen objects. Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after. A separate "award" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later. During the early eighties, nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components. Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed that were designed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping. History B for BuildingThere are isolated examples of BASE jumps dating from the late 1700s. In 1783, Louis-Sébastien Lenormand made the first parachute jump from the tower of the Montpellier observatory, preceding the jump from a balloon by Garnerin. In 1912, Frederick Law jumped from the Statue of Liberty In 1912, Franz Reichelt, tailor, jumped from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower testing his invention, the coat parachute. He died. It was his first ever attempt with the parachute and he had told the authorities in advance he would test it first with a dummy. In 1913, Štefan Banič jumped from a building in order to demonstrate his new parachute to the U. S. Patent Office and military In 1913, a Russian student Vladimir Ossovski (Владимир Оссовский), from the Saint-Petersburg Conservatory, jumped from the 53-meter high bridge over the river Seine in Rouen (France), using the parachute RK-1, invented a year before that by Gleb Kotelnikov (1872-1944). Ossovski planned jumping from the Eiffel Tower too, but the mayor of Paris didn’t allow that. (Information from the Russian edition of GEO magazine, issue 11, November 2006, GEO). In 1966, Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from the cliff "El Capitan" in Yosemite Valley On 9 November 1975, the first person to parachute off the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada, was Bill Eustace, a member of the tower's construction crew. He was fired. In 1975, Owen J. Quinn, a jobless man, parachuted from the south tower of the World Trade Center to publicize the plight of the unemployed. In 1976 Rick Sylvester skied off Canada's Mount Asgard for the opening sequence of the James Bond movie The Spy Who Loved Me, giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping.* In 2008, two men, dressed as engineers, illegally jumped off the Burj Dubai, the tallest man-made structure in the world.Video documentary about the jump from the Burj Dubai tower However, these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. After 1978, the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this that popularised BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his 1984 death after a BASE-jump off of the Troll Wall. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps. Comparison with skydiving A for Antenna BASE jumping grew out of skydiving. BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives, and a BASE jump takes place in close proximity to the object serving as the jump platform. Because BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper rarely achieves terminal velocity. Because higher airspeeds enable jumpers more aerodynamic control of their bodies, as well as more positive and quick parachute openings, the longer the delay, the better. Skydivers use the air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor "launch" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. The jumper may also not be facing the right direction. Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping. At an altitude of 2,000 feet, having been in free-fall for at least 1,000 feet (300 meters), the jumper is falling at approximately 120 miles per hour (54 meters per second), and is approximately 5.7 seconds from the ground. Most BASE jumps are made from less than 2,000 feet (610 m). For example, a BASE jump from a 500 foot (150 meter) object is about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall. On a BASE jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of a similar skydive, and more quickly (in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers often use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and many jump with only one parachute, since there would be little time to utilize a reserve parachute. If modified, by removing the bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute, standard skydiving gear can be used for lower BASE jumps, but is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as "line-overs" and broken lines). Another risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three minute or more parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from 500 feet (152 meters) will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds. One way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a static line or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps (below 200 ft) to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall. This method is similar to the paratrooper's deployment system. Legal issues The legal issues that a BASE jumper must consider concern permissions to use the object from which the jump is initiated and the area used for landing. Covert BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. The general reluctance of the owners of these objects to allow their object to be used as a platform means many such BASE jumps are attempted covertly. While BASE jumping itself is not illegal, the covert nature of accessing objects usually necessitates trespassing on an object. Jumpers who are caught can expect to be charged with trespassing, as well as having charges like breaking and entering, reckless endangerment, vandalism, or other such charges pressed against them. Other people accompanying the jumper, such as ground crew, may also face charges. In some jurisdictions it may be permissible to use land until specifically told not to. Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho, is an example of a man-made structure in the United States where BASE jumping is allowed year-round without a permit. S for Span - Perrine Bridge, Idaho Once a year, on the third Saturday in October ("Bridge Day"), permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted at the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river. An object dropped from the deck will hit the water in 8.8 seconds. This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers, and nearly 200,000 spectators. If the conditions are good, in the six hours that it is legal, there may be over 800 jumps. For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump. On 21 October 2006, veteran BASE jumper Brian Lee Schubert of Alta Loma, California was killed jumping from the New River Gorge Bridge during Bridge Day activities. His parachute opened late and he plummeted to his death in the waters below. Jumps continued following the recovery of his body. http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/us/AP-Bridge-Day-Death.html He and his friend Michael Pelkey were the first to make a BASE jump from El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in 1966. However the National Park Service has the authority to ban specific activities in US National Parks, and has done so for BASE jumping. The authority comes from 36 CFR 2.17(3), which prohibits, "Delivering or retrieving a person or object by parachute, helicopter, or other airborne means, except in emergencies involving public safety or serious property loss, or pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit." Under that Regulation, BASE is not banned, but is allowable if a permit is issued by the Superintendent, which means that a mechanism to allow BASE in National Parks was always in place. However, National Park Service Management Policies have stated that BASE "is not an appropriate public use activity within national park areas ..." (2001 Management Policy 8.2.2.7.) This meant that there could be no permitted air delivery. It is noted, however, that this policy has a proposed change that strikes the language banning it outright and replacing it with a different test. Whether this will be approved, and whether this will make the granting of permits easier, is open to speculation. In the early days of BASE jumping, the Service issued permits under which jumpers could get authorization to jump from El Capitan. This program ran for three months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorised jumpers. Since then, the Service has vigorously enforced the ban, charging jumpers with "aerial delivery into a National Park". One jumper drowned in the Merced River while being chased by Park Rangers intent on arresting him. Despite this, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. El Capitan, Half Dome and Glacier Point have been used as jump sites. Other US public land, including land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management, does not ban air delivery, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land. The legal position is better at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's Lysefjord (from the mountain Kjerag) , BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers. Some other Norwegian places, like the Troll Wall, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past. BASE jumping today E for Earth Upon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a "BASE number", which are awarded sequentially. Base Numbers Base-1 was awarded to Phil Smith of Houston, Texas in 1981. The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 by Matt Moilanen of Kalamazoo, Michigan. Skydiving And Free Fall Parachuting BASE jumping is often featured in action movies. The 2002 Vin Diesel film xXx includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the Foresthill Bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. In the movie Lara Croft - Tomb raider II - The Cradle of Life, includes the scene in which the main characters jump with wing suits from the IFC Tower in Hong Kong and fly over the Bank of China, finally opening their parachutes to land on a moving freighter. The stunt was done in reality with no special effects by the stunt base jumpers Martin Rosén and Per Eriksson, members of the Swedish "Team Bautasten". The scene was filmed by air to air camera man Mikael Nordqvist from the same team. Since the 1976 Mount Asgard jump featured in the pre-credits sequence to The Spy Who Loved Me, James Bond movies have featured several BASE jumps, including one from the Eiffel Tower in 1985's A View to a Kill, the Rock of Gibraltar in 1987's The Living Daylights, and in Die Another Day, 2002, Pierce Brosnan as James Bond jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed in reality; the rest were special effects. The 1990s surge of interest in extreme sports saw increasing interest in BASE jumping, though unlike other "extreme" sports which have become more or less mainstream, BASE jumping retains a reputation as a stunt or daredevil activity rather than a sport. The lack of an objective standard for judging between jumps from a single object is certainly a problem here--in one sense, any jump in which the jumper survives is successful, and as jumpers rarely attain sufficient speed to engage in the kind of acrobatics that conventional skydivers do, the opportunity for distinguishing one's self beyond the mere fact of the jump is somewhat minimal. The high fatality rate is another likely reason that the activity has largely failed to gain widespread acceptance, and though the availability of specialized equipment and wider knowledge of techniques has made BASE jumping safer than it was in the 1970s and 1980s, deaths still occur on a regular basis, even among experienced jumpers. Some deaths through ground impact in free fall or object strike do occur, but most incidents are due to hazardous landing sites or other problems which develop after the parachute has opened. Because of the covert nature and questionable legality of many BASE jumps, no reliable figures are available to assess the statistical risks of the activity, though it is by any measure one of the world's more dangerous recreational activities. Recent studies have been made regarding the fatalities and the high risk incident level in BASE jumping. Dr Anton Westman, a medical doctor and likewise a BASE jumper, recently published the article Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006 Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006 . Westman studies 106 fatal incidents from the international BASE Fatality List BASE Fatality List and investigates the leading factors and mechanisms that caused the incident. The article is a piece from his recently released Ph.D. thesis Dangers in sport parachuting Dangers in sport parachuting . Guinness World Records first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen (Troll Wall) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump. Here meaning "greatest vertical descent," not "highest starting elevation." (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the Guinness book and is currently held by Glenn Singleman and Heather Swan with a jump from Meru Peak in northern India at a starting elevation of 6,604 meters (21,667 ft) Leap from the top of the world - World - smh.com.au The sheer variety of the nature of the challenge at different jump sites means that direct comparisons of different jumps are often meaningless. There is a Guinness entry for "oldest BASE jumper" (James Guyer, aged 74 years 47 days). Even more contentious are claims sometimes made (although not recognized by Guinness) for the lowest jump. Given that a static-lined parachute can be made to open in little more than the length of its suspension lines, jumps can actually be performed at practically any altitude down to the point at which a parachute is not necessary for survival. - BASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the 452 meter (1483-ft) high Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy. BASE jumping is now also being found in video games. In April 2009, Vir2l Studios released the iPhone and iPod Touch game application 'Base Jumper'. The game challenges players to master the control of free flight over mountains, through canyons, and between the highrise towers of a metropolis. Fatalities Between 1981 and 2008 there have been at least 131 fatalities related to the sport. World BASE Fatality List References See also Kite types Kite applications Kite line Slider (parachuting) External links www.basejumper.com Base Jumper - iPhone Game BASE Fatality List Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006 Dangers in sport parachuting - (free version) "BASEJUMP extreme world championship" BLiNC Magazine "Everything you ever wanted to know about BASE-Jumping, but didn't know whom to ask." Alliance of Backcountry Parachutists Australian BASE Association Italian BASE Association History of BASE jumping Adventure Imagery BASE Jumping stock footage UK Pro BASE - Display Base Jumping in the United Kingdom baseclimb.com BASE History BASE Jumping and the Law Swiss Base Jump Association

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