Abstract:
This invention is an adaptive neuron for use in neural network processors. The adaptive neuron participates in the supervised learning phase of operation on a coequal basis with the synapse matrix elements by adaptively changing its gain in a similar manner to the change of weights in the synapse io elements. In this manner, training time is decreased by as much as three orders of magnitude.

Description:
ORIGIN OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC 202) in which the Contractor has elected not to retain title. 
    
    
     This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/905,061, filed Jun. 24, 1992, now abandoned which is a continuation of application, Ser. No. 07/473,024, filed Jan. 31, 1990, now abandoned. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The invention relates to neural networks and processors and, more particularly in a neural network employing a plurality of neurons connected to a network of conductors which are selectively interconnected by a plurality of problem-defining synapses each having an adjustable weighting factor wherein the network is parameterized in an iterative learning process in which problem-defining inputs to the neurons and the error signal between actual outputs from the network and expected output from the network are used to incrementally change the weighting factors, the improvement for reducing the number of iterations required from the network to learn how to solve a problem of interest comprising in each neuron between an input thereof for receiving at least one input signal and an output thereof for outputting an output signal value, including a neural conductive element having a variable gain and gain adjustment logic for dynamically adjusting the variable gain as a function of present values of the instantaneous error during a learning process of the neural network. 
     In the preferred embodiment, the gain adjustment logic makes incremental changes in the gain which are proportional to the negative of the derivative of the instantaneous error with respect to the gain. Further in the preferred embodiment, the incremental change ΔT for the l th  neuron on a layer n can be given as: ##EQU1## where η where is the temperature learning rate, which is a pre-established constant. 
     BACKGROUND ART 
     In the field of neural network processors, there is currently much interest as the ability to create large processors in a small space using VLSI techniques has suddenly made these analog techniques viable for purposes such as solving complex problems in real time. Problems such as best path location are quickly solved using the analog approach of a neural network whereas the same problem would be both hardware and time intensive if approached using digital computation facilities in a parallel processing manner. 
     While a neural network processor does its computations rapidly, it does have one drawback relative to the digital approach. With a digital computer, the problem to be solved is described as a series of precise logical steps to be accomplished. These steps are programmed into a series of computer instructions which are then loaded into the computer or computers which are to perform the calculations. At run-time, the input parameters for the problem to be solved are provided to the computer(s) and the problem instructions are executed to provide an answer to the problem. There are no possible variation; that is, a digital computer operates as a brute force automaton executing the sequence of instructions provided. If anything happens which is not provided for in the instruction sequence, the program fails and no meaningful results are provided. 
     The neural network, on the other hand, is patterned after the human brain and must be taught by a learning process. A typical prior art neural network can appear in basic form as depicted in FIG. 1 where it is generally indicated as 10. The network 10 comprises a matrix of conductors 12 to which a number of neurons 14 are connected to provide inputs. The conductors 12 are interconnected by a number of synapses 16 defining the general rules of the problem to be solved. The neurons 14 are generally non-linear elements having an input 18 to which an analog signal representing a variable of the problem to be solved can be connected. The outputs 20 of the neurons 14 are connected to the conductors 12 on one side of the synapses 16. The conductors 12 of the other side of the synapses 16 provide the outputs 22 of the network 10 representing the solution (in analog form) to the problem being solved. 
     A complex problem may take the form of a multi-layer neural network such as that generally indicated as 10&#39; in FIG. 2. In such a multi-layer neural network 10&#39;, the analog inputs defining the problem are input as a first set of neurons 14. The outputs from the first layer of the network 10&#39; are input to a second set of neurons 14 at the input to the second layer of the network 10&#39; and the outputs representing the solution to the problem are found at the outputs 22 from the second layer of the network 10&#39;. 
     A neural network (single layer 10 or multi-layer 10&#39;) &#34;learns&#34; by experience. A first set of variables for the problem to be solved are input to the network 10, 10&#39; and the outputs 22 representing the solution to the problem for the given parameters are inspected. Each of the synapses 16 is then adjusted as to its performance factors (weight) in the total problem. As a result of the &#34;answer&#34; provided, the weights of the synapses 16 are adjusted slightly, as necessary, in a manner which will tend to move the answer to the problem closer to the correct answer. This process is repeated over and over with a second, third, etc. set of variables until the synapses 16 have all been adjusted to the point where the proper answer to the problem is given for any set of variables which are input. At that point, the network 10,10&#39; has learned by experience how to solve the particular problem. 
     One of the current issues in the theory of supervised learning concerns the scaling properties of neural networks. While low-order neural computations are easily handled on sequential or parallel processors, the treatment of high-order problems proves to be intractable. The computational burden involved in implementing supervised learning algorithms, such as back propagation, on networks with large connectivity or lo training sets is immense and impractical. Until the development of fully parallel hardware, the treatment of such applications as image recognition or pattern classification prove unwieldy to handle current algorithms. It is clear, therefore, that a more computationally efficient learning rule is required to deal with such applications. 
     Current neuromorphic models regard the neuron as a strictly passive non-linear element and the synapse, on the other hand, as the primary source of information processing insofar as &#34;learning&#34; is concerned. In these standard prior art models, information processing is performed by propagating within a network synaptically weighted neuronal contributions in either a feed-forward, feed-backward, or fully recurrent fashion. Information is contained in the synaptic weights and their rapid evaluation form the goal of these algorithms. Prior art artificial neural networks take the point of view that the neuron can be modeled by a simple non-linear &#34;wire&#34; type of device. The only prior art implementation of any adjustability to the neurons is depicted in FIG. 3. As depicted therein, the neurons 14 (i.e. implemented as non-linear elements as described above) can be manually adjusted en masse (as indicated by the dashed box 24) by means of a manual input device 26 under the control of a human operator. The neurons 14 each have an adjustable gain which is referred to in the art as the &#34;temperature&#34; of the neuron. Typically, the learning process begins with the temperature (i.e. the gain) of the neurons 14 at a high level. As the learning process proceeds, the operator may periodically and randomly begin to lower the temperature of all the neurons 14 simultaneously by means of the manual input device 26. This results in some measurable and meaningful improvement in the learning process of the network; that is, there is some decrease in learning time when the operator adjusts the temperature of the neurons 14. 
     Substantial evidence is beginning to emerge and be reported that information processing apparently occurs in biological neural networks (e.g. the human brain) at the neuronal level. If this is true, one can suppose that by providing a dynamically adaptable neuron element for use in artificial neural networks which adapts as part of the learning process along with the synapses, the learning process can be improved and the time therefor decreased significantly. 
     STATEMENT OF THE INVENTION 
     Accordingly, it is an object of this invention to provide a dynamically adaptable neuron element for use in artificial neural networks which adapts as part of the learning process along with the synapses. 
     It is another object of this invention to provide a dynamically adaptable neuron element for use in artificial neural networks which improves the learning process and decreases the time therefor significantly. 
     Other objects and benefits of this invention will become apparent from the detailed description which follows hereinafter when taken in conjunction with the drawing figures which accompany it. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 is a simplified drawing depicting a basic prior art neural network comprised of neurons and synapses. 
     FIG. 2 is a simplified drawing depicting a basic prior art multi-level neural network. 
     FIG. 3 is a simplified drawing depicting a basic prior art neural network comprised of neurons and synapses and indicating how the common temperature of the neurons can be regulated manually during the network&#39;s learning process. 
     FIG. 4 is a simplified drawing depicting a multi-level neural network according to the present invention comprised of synapses and adaptive neurons in which the temperature of each neuron is dynamically regulated during the network&#39;s learning process. 
     FIG. 5 is a simplified representation of one adaptive neuron according to the present invention and depicting the function whereby the temperature of the neuron is dynamically regulated during the network&#39;s learning process. 
     FIG. 6 is a graph of the activation function f shown plotted against the input s to an adaptive neuron according to the present invention as depicted in FIG. 5 for several different temperatures. The curves shown are for temperatures T ranging from 0.2 to 2.0 in increments of 0.2 with the sharpest activation curve being for T=0.01 and showing the high sensitivity of f with respect to T. 
     FIGS. 7 and 8 are simplified representations of the architecture of the neural network used for testing the adaptive neuron model on the XOR problem as discussed herein by way of example with FIG. 7 showing the randomized synaptic weights and neuronal temperatures prior to training and FIG.8 showing these same weights after training. 
     FIG. 9 is a graph showing a comparison of training statistics between the adaptive neuron model and the standard back propagation model with the error during training plotted against the training iteration number. 
     FIG. 10 is a companion graph to the graph of FIG. 9 showing the sluddard deviation versus iteration number for the adaptive neuron model and the standard back propagation model. 
     FIG. 11 is another graph showing a comparison of training statistics between the adaptive neuron model and the standard back propagation model with the error during training plotted against the training iteration number for the training case where the adaptive neuron model escapes a local minima. 
     FIG. 12 is a companion graph to the graph of FIG. 11 showing the standard deviation versus iteration number for the adaptive neuron model and the standard back propagation model. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     A multi-level neural network 10&#34;&#39; according to the present lo invention is depicted in FIG. 4. The principle difference between the network 10&#34;&#39; and the prior art networks 10, 10&#39; described above is the substitution of adaptive neurons 14&#39; according to this invention for the standard, prior art neurons 14 described above. As noted in the drawing figure, each neuron 14&#39; has its own temperature (T 1 ) associated with it. While a particular approach to implementing the adaptive neurons 14&#39; is to be described in detail hereinafter and that particular implementation is that which was modeled and for which the results are reported, it should be recognized and appreciated by those skilled in the art that the basic point of novelty of this invention is the use of adaptive neurons within a neural network. It is this breadth which should be accorded the present invention as described and claimed hereinafter. 
     A neuron 14&#39; according to the present invention in its preferred (and modeled) embodiment depicting the temperature adjustment algorithm employed is shown in FIG. 5. The neuron 14&#39; on layer n receives its inputs from the outputs from the previous layer, n-1, and outputs its own output as a dynamically adjustable function of its temperature. Actually, the functional adjustment of the neuron 14&#39; in its preferred embodiment is analogous to the functional adjustment of the synapses 16; that is, the adjustment of the synapses 16 is what can best and most accurately be described as a gradient decent in weight space. The preferred adjustment to the adaptive neurons 14&#39; is a gradient decent in temperature space. This concept will now be addressed in more detail. 
     As mentioned earlier herein, the basic approach of this invention is the extending of the &#34;learning&#34; process to the neuron rather than the prior art approach of using the neuron as a mere conduit to the synapses which have the total learning responsibility. Such an extension can only be made after first defining what constitutes learning at the neuronal level. The adaptive neuron 14&#39; can then be seen to provide an additional or secondary source of information processing and knowledge retention. This is achieved in this invention by treating both the neuronal and synaptic variables as optimization parameters. Both the amplitude and temperature (i.e. gain) of the sigmoid function represent such neuronal parameters. In much the same way that the synaptic interconnection weights (W) require optimization to reflect the knowledge contained within the training set, so should the temperature (T) term be optimized. It should be emphasized that the method of this invention does not necessarily optimize a global neuron parameter for the network; but rather, can either allow each neuron to have its own characteristic local value, or can determine a global one. In either case, however, the neuron parameters are dynamically adjustable as a function of the progress of the learning process and not independently and manually adjustable upon an associated physical basis as in the prior art case described above with respect to FIG. 3. It should be noted at this point that if the number of neurons in a network goes as O(N), then the number of synaptic connections typically increases as O(N 2 ). The fact that the activation function is extremely sensitive to small changes in temperature or amplitude and that there are far fewer neuronal parameters to update than synaptic weights suggests that if indeed the temperature optimization scheme works, a significant reduction in convergence time is expected over standard back propagation. 
     Although the principle of neuronal optimization of this invention is an entirely general concept (and therefore applicable to any learning scheme), the popular feed-forward back-propagation learning rule was selected by the inventor herein for modeling implementation and performance testing. It is this particular tested implementation which is to be described hereinafter. It is the inventor&#39;s intent that the invention as described herein not be limited in any way because of the use of a particular example and implementation. 
     Back propagation is an example of supervised learning where, for each presentation consisting of an input vector o ip  and its associated target vector t p , the algorithm attempts to adjust the synaptic weights so as to minimize the sum-squared error E over all patterns p. The learning rule treats the interconnection weights as the only variable and consequently executes gradient descent in weight space. The error is given by ##EQU2## The quantity t i   p  is the i th  component of the p th  desired output vector pattern and o i   np  is the activation of the corresponding neuron in the final layer n. For notational ease the summation over p is dropped and a single pattern is cnosidered. On completion of learning, the synaptic weights capture the transformation linking the input to output variables. One major drawback of this algorithm when implemented with prior art neurons is the excessive convergence time. It was expected by the inventor herein that a significant decrease in convergence time could be realized provided that the neurons were allowed to participate in the learning process. To accomplish this objective, each neuron in the network is characterized by a set of parameters whose values are optimized according to some rule, and not in a heuristic fashion as in simulated annealing. Upon training completion, learning is thus captured in both the synaptic and neuronal parameters. The scheme as implemented involves assigning a temperature, T, to each neuron, as seen in the activation function. These parameters are to be optimized so as to significantly decrease the network&#39;s learning time. Learning, therefore, is now captured in both the synaptic weights and neuronal parameters. The activation of a unit-- say the i th  neuron on the m th  laye --is given by o i   m . This response is computed by a non-linear operation on the weighted responses of neurons from the previous layer, as seen in FIG. 5. A common function to use is the logistic function, ##EQU3## and T=1/β is the temperature of the network. The net weighted input to the neuron is found by summing produces of the synaptic weights and corresponding neuronal outputs from units on the previous layer, ##EQU4## where o j   m-1  represents fan--in units and the w ij   m-1  the pairwise conenction strength between neuron i in layer m and neuron j in layer m-1. Furthermore, the particular rule chosen to optimize these neuronal parameters is based on gradient descent in the sum squared error, E, in temperature space. 
     Therefore, the incremental change in temperature term must be proportional to the negative of the derivative of the error term with respect to temperature. Focussing on the l th  neuron on the layer n, the incremental change can be given as: ##EQU5## where η is the temperature learning rate, which is a pre-established constant. This equation can be expressed as the product of two terms by the chain rule, ##EQU6## Substituting expressions and leaving the explicit functional form of the activation function unspecified, i.e. o i   n  =f(T 1   n   n , . . . ) we obtain, ##EQU7## In a similar fashion, the temperature update equation for the previous layer is given by, ##EQU8## Using the chain rule, this can be expressed as, ##EQU9## Substituting expressions and simplifying reduces the above to, ##EQU10## By repeating the above derivation for the previous layer, i.e. determining the partial derivative of E with respect to T i   n-2  etc., a simple recursive relationship emerges for the temperature terms. Specifically, the updating schene for the k th  neuronal temperature on the m th  layer is given by, ##EQU11## In the above expression, the error signal δ k   m  takes on the value, 
     
         δ.sub.k.sup.m =[t.sub.k -o.sub.k.sup.m ] 
    
     if neuron m lies on an output layer, or, ##EQU12## if the neuron lies on a hidden layer. 
     The foregoing algorithm was tested by applying it to logic lo problems. The network (in the fashion of the network 10&#34; of FIG. 4 including adaptive neurons 14&#39;) was trained on a standard benchmark employed in the art for such purposes, i.e. the exclusive-or (XOR) problem. It was useful to test the algorithm employed in the adaptive neurons of the present invention on such a problem since it is the classic problem requiring hidden units and since many problems involve an XOR as a subproblem. The application of the proposed learning rule involved two phases. In the first phase, an input pattern was presented and propagate forward through the network to compute the output values o. This output was then Lk compared to its target value, resulting in an error signal for each output unit. The second phase involved a backward pass through the network during which the error signal was passed along the network and the appropriate weight and temperature changes made. Note that in addition to the synapses and neurons having their own learning rates ηand η, respectively, an additional degree of freedom can be introduced, if desired. This is accomplished by allowing for relative time scales for weight and temperature updates, i.e. τ W  and τ T , respectively. This allows a particular simulation to place varying emphasis on either of the two updating schemes. In other words, the weight and temperature changes do no necessarily have to occur simultaneously. The two are truly autonomous and change independently as necessary for the network to learn in an optimum manner. Thus, what we have described is a gradient descent method for finding both weights and temperatures in any feed forward network. 
     In deriving the learning rule for temperature optimization as implemented in the present invention, the derivative of the activation function of a neuron played a key role. The inventor has used a sigmoidal type of function in his simulations whose explicate form is depicted in FIG. 5 and shown by the graph of FIG. 6 to be extremely sensitive to small changes in temperature. The sigmoid is shown plotted against the net input to a neuron for temperatures ranging from 0.2 to 2.0, in increments of 0.2. However, the stee-pest curve was for a temperature of 0.01. The derivative of the activation function taken with respect to the temperature is given by, ##EQU13## As shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, the XOR architecture selected has two input units, two hidden units, and a single output unit. Each neuron is characterized by a temperature, and neurons are connected by weights. Prior to training the network, both the weights and parameters were randomized. The initial and final optimization parameters for a sample training exercise are shown in the drawing figures. Specifically, FIG. 7 shows the values of the randomized weights and temperatures prior to training and FIG. 8 shows their values after training the network for 1,000 iterations. This is a case where the network has reached a global minimum. In both figures, the number associated with the dashed arrows represent the thresholds of the neurons, and the numbers written next to the solid arrows represent the excitatory/inhibitory strengths of the pairwise connections. 
     To fully evaluate the convergence speed of the present invention versus the prior art, a benchmark comparison between the adaptive neuron model (ANM) approach described above and plain back propagation (BP) was made. In both cases, the training was started with identical random synaptic weights lying within the range [-2.0, +2.0] and the same synaptic weight learning rate η=0.1. The temperature of the neurons in the adaptive model were randomly selected to lie within the narrow range of [0.9, 1.1] and the temperature learning rate η set at 0.1. FIGS. 9 and 10 summarize the training statistics of this comparison. In FIG. 9, the error is plotted against the training iteration number. In FIG. 10, the standard deviation of the error over the training set is shown plotted against the training iteration. In the first few hundred training iterations in FIG. 9, the performance of BP and ANM is similar and appears as a broad shoulder in the curve. Recall, however, that both the weights and temperatures were randomized prior to training and are, therefore, far from their final values. As a consequence of the low values of the learning rates used, the error is large and will only begin to get smaller when the weights and temperatures begin to fall in the right domain of values. In the ANM, the shoulder terminus is marked by a phase-transition like discontinuity in both error and standard deviation. For the particular example shown, this occurred at the 637th iteration. A several order of magnitude drop in the error and standard deviation is observed within the next ten iterations. This sharp drop off is followed by a much more gradual decrease in both the error and standard deviation. 
     In learning the XOR problem using standard BP, it has been observed that the network frequently gets trapped in local minima. In FIGS. 11 and 12 we observe such a case as shown by the dashed line. In numerous simulations on this problem, the inventor herein has determined that the ANM approach of this invention is much less likely to become trapped in local minima as depicted by the solid line in the same figures. 
     Finally, it can be reported that the simulation tests run by the inventor herein provide preliminary results that indicate that the adaptive neuron approach as described above can significantly out perform prior art back propagation, for example, by reducing the learning time by several orders of magnitude. Specifically, the XOR problem was learned to a very high precision by the ANM network in about 10 3  training iterations with a mean square error of about 10 -6  versus over 10 6  iterations with a corresponding mean square error of about 10 -3  for the prior art BP approach to the same problem.