Abstract:
Improvements in the efficiency and sensitivity of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) detection in target sequences are realized by developing primers that are specific for nucleic acid sequences, labelling those primers with distinguishable, non-radioactive labels, such as chromophores, and applying the primers in sets such that, after amplification of the target sequence, specific sequences, in particular those of RFLPs, can be identified by virtue of the probe(s) which hybridized.

Description:
This application is a continuation application of Ser. No. 07/266,970, filed Nov. 3, 1988, abandoned which is a continuation-in-part of co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 120,309, filed Nov. 13, 1987 abandoned. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention described and claimed herein relates to restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, to nucleotide labeling, and to fluorescence detection. 
     DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ART AND INTRODUCTION TO THE INVENTION 
     One area in which biotechnology has had a significant impact on plant improvement is in the development of new methods to screen for and identify differentiations of individual plant isolates and varieties. Plant breeding techniques using restriction fragment length polymorphisms for these and other purposes have been well demonstrated. Helentjaris et al., Plant Mol. Biol. 5:109-118 (1985). This technique has been used to create RFLP genetic linkage maps, Helentjaris et al., Theor. Appl. Genet. 72:761-769 (1986), and the use of such processes in methods to identify and characterize the role of individual plant genes in quantitative trait expression and discriminate gene effects has been documented as well. Neinhuis et al., Crop Science, 27:797-803 (1987). These references and all others noted herein are hereby incorporated by reference. 
     Current RFLP technology typically utilizes the Southern blot technique. Southern, E. M., J. Mol. Biol. 98:503-517 (1975). Generally, sample DNA restriction fragments are separated on an agarose gel, denatured in the gel, transferred to a membrane (e.g., nylon) hybridized with labelled probe DNA, washed to remove unbound probe and finally evaluated through, for example, autoradiography. Both the preparation of the membranes with bound DNA and their subsequent hybridization with labelled probes, the latter usually being repeated sequentially many times, are very time consuming steps which can be, therefore, both costly and laborious. Additionally, only one restriction enzyme fragment polymorphic clone can be analyzed for each Southern blot analysis and it normally involves the use of radioactive labelling and subsequent autoradiography. Thus, it will be appreciated that if a technology could be developed which would obtain the same type of genotypic information, albeit more quickly and more economically, in order to make RFLP analyses more amenable for large numbers of samples, it would alleviate these problems and would open up many more opportunities for the application of RFLP technology in both research and industry. 
     Such a technique is described and claimed herein. In one of its aspects, the invention takes advantage of the use of fluorescent-chromophores as nucleotide labels. These fluorescent-chromophore labels have been used in several analytical applications, most recently in automated DNA sequencers. Connell et al., &#34;Automated DNA Sequence Analysis&#34;, Bio-Techniques 5:342-348 (1987). In this application, the use of lasers to induce fluorescence of the chromophores allows their detection in small amounts, in the range of femtomole (10 -15 ) to anamole (10 -18 ). We have made use of this technology in a novel restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis scheme, which can also be performed on an automated basis, to relieve the deficiencies of earlier RFLP techniques in terms of time, labor and cost. 
     A modification of the above technique is directed to increasing the copy number of genomic polymorphisms detected. Primers are produced which enable the enhancement of regions of test plant DNA corresponding to those regions detected by RFLP probes. By increasing the copy number by several orders of magnitude, analysis of DNA sequence, to the single base level, is made possible. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In our method, test plant DNA is prepared, cut with a selected restriction enzyme, and denatured to single strand DNA as in conventional RFLP analysis. Existing polymorphic probes, having an average length of about 1000 nucleotides, are sequenced at each of their 5&#39; and 3&#39; ends. A base pair primer sequence from each end of the probe is constructed using conventional DNA synthesis techniques for use in the elongation step described below. A chromophore is selected and attached to each of the base pair primers. These primers are then elongated, preferably with Sequenase®, a chemically modified phage T7 DNA polymerase which is highly processive, has no 3&#39; to 5&#39; exonuclease activity, and results in virtually no background due to terminations at pause sites or secondary-structural impediments. See Tabor and Richardson, &#34;DNA sequence analysis with a modified bacteriophage T7 DNA polymerase,&#34; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:4767-4771 (1987). These elongated primers are run on a denaturing gel together with the original, single-stranded restricted genomic test plant DNA. Hybridization is determined by reviewing the gels with a laser and appropriate detector. No Southern blotting is necessary and, because the chromophores fluoresce to give different emissions spectra, a number of RFLP probes tagged with different chromophores can be run on a single gel at the same time and detected at the same time as well. 
     This method can be utilized in conjunction with certain technological components to create an automated RFLP analysis system. For example, a broad band laser beam, utilizing wavelengths selected by use of a monochrometer, scans a gel plate that is controlled in its movement by a stepper motor controlled by a computer. The emissions spectrum passing through the gel is detected with an emission spectrograph in combination with an intensified linear photodiode array detector which converts the light received to digital signals. That digital output is transferred to a computer for data acquisition and interpretation. The output from that computer can take any number of forms including spectral data and band identification, and can present data on a chart recorder, printer, or computer screen. 
     In a modification of the present improvement of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, enhancement of the double stranded test plant DNA/primer DNA is used to increase the sensitivity of the assay to detect sequence variation at the single base level. This modification not only enables detection of size variation due to polymorphisms at the single base level, but also enables sequencing of regions of genomic DNA corresponding to primers complementary to RFLP probes. Essentially, primers are selected and produced in the same fashion as described above except that DNA orientation is reversed. Above, primers are used for extension outward, toward the ends of the test plant restriction fragment. In the present modification, primers are oriented inward, so that extension by DNA polymerase occurs in the region between primers. The copy number of the homologous genomic region in the test plant DNA is increased up to several orders of magnitude. Enhancement not only increases the strength of the signal of the label used, but also increases the amount of DNA which can be used for sequencing. By using primers which allow for such enhancement procedures for detecting RFLP&#39;s enables the actual sequence of the RFLP region to be determined. Such enhancement schemes also facilitate automated analysis. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 shows a configuration of a laser detection system for use with the claimed method. 
     FIGS. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 show the nucleic acid sequence for maize locus 288 and primers used for sequencing this locus. 
     FIGS. 7 and 8 show the nucleic acid sequence for maize locus 445 and primers used for sequencing this locus. 
     FIGS. 9 and 10 show the nucleic acid sequence for maize locus 451 and primers used for sequencing this locus. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     A. Rapid Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis 
     Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) are differences observed between genotypes in the fragment lengths of restriction endonuclease-digested DNA. RFLPs occur as a result of base pair or positional changes in the restriction enzyme recognition sites which flank a chromosomal location and can be detected by hybridization of labelled DNA clones containing sequences that are homologous to a portion of the chromosomal fragment. Hybridization with a unique cloned sequence can permit the identification of a specific chromosomal region (locus). 
     This technology employs cloned DNA fragments to detect differences between individuals at the DNA sequence level. When genomic DNAs from two genetically distinct individuals are digested with a restriction enzyme, electrophoresed and probed with a labelled DNA clone, polymorphisms in the hybridization patterns sometimes result due to sequence differences between the individuals. The term &#34;restriction fragment length polymorphism&#34; has been coined to describe this variation. 
     Differences in fragment lengths which are revealed, for example, by agarose gel electrophoresis, function as alleles of that RFLP. Thus, RFLPs can serve as genetic markers in a manner analogous to conventional morphological or isozyme markers. Unlike most genetic markers, however, they are not the products of transcription and translation. Additionally, RFLPs possess certain additional advantages over previously available genetic markers. First, RFLPs reflect existing differences between genetically distinct individuals. The potential number of RFLPs for all practical purposes is thus unlimited, as digestion of the genomic DNA of any higher eukaryote with a six base recognition enzyme will generate more than a million fragments, many of which can be polymorphic. Additionally, over 100 different restriction enzymes have now been described, each of which may generate a new and different set of fragments. The utility of isozyme markers or morphological markers in studies is frequently limited by a lack of informativeness in lines of interest or by an insufficient availability or chromosomal distribution of the loci. 
     Many of the potential applications and theoretical advantages of RFLPs compared to more conventional phenotypic or isozyme marking systems have been previously described. Helentjaris et al., Plant Mol. Biol., supra. In one application of the use of RFLP markers in plant studies, genetic linkage maps based on these markers have been constructed. Helentjaris et al., Theor. Appl. Genet., supra. For example, over 300 RFLPs in maize have been arranged into linkage groups. The locations of the maize RFLP loci have been correlated to the conventional maize genetic map by analyzing the inheritance patterns of the RFLPs in maize lines monosomic for different chromosomes. Helentjaris et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 83:6035-6039 (1986), by establishing linkage relationships with isozyme markers, cloned genes, and morphological markers with previously identified chromosomal locations, Wright et al., MNL 61:89-90 (1987), and by analyzing inheritance patterns in B-A translocation stocks. The use of RFLPs to dissect multigenetic traits into their individual genetic components has also been described. A genome, or portion thereof, saturated with RFLPs or probed with select RFLP markers, all of which can be evaluated together in individual plants, has been found to give the resolution necessary to break down traits of complex inheritance into individual loci, even those under a significant environmental influence. The procedure is equally workable with dominant or recessive traits and can be used to accelerate introgression of desired genes into a commercially acceptable cultivar. Nienhuis et al., supra. 
     Accordingly, it will be appreciated that the many utilities of RFLP analysis in plant studies enhance the desirability of utilizing that technology in a manner that is as efficient, fast, and cost effective as possible. In the improvement described and claimed herein, a novel method for RFLP analysis is set forth which utilizes fluorescent-chromophores in a unique manner. By this method, which involves the use of lasers to induce fluorescence of chromophores tagged to RFLPs, the cost, labor, and time associated with Southern blotting and radioactive labelling is significantly diminished. Furthermore, through the use of multiple chromophores with different emission frequencies, each tagged to a different RFLP, one can detect the presence of multiple target compounds simultaneously. Hence, instead of having to hybridize a Southern blot repeatedly with different probes all tagged by the same radioactive compound, e.g.,  32  P, one can hybridize a blot with a number of probes simultaneously, each bearing a different chromophore. 
     Although this strategy may be used for detection of chromophores hybridized to targets immobilized on a Southern blot solid matrix, such as a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane, it is anticipated that this could result in a loss of sensitivity of several orders of magnitude in comparison to detection of such chromophores in solution or on a gel. This may well be enough of a loss in sensitivity to preclude practical detection of single-copy DNA sequences in a higher eukaryotic such as humans or corn. Furthermore, as noted above, one would still practice the steps of transferring the restricted DNA fragments in the gel to a membrane, hybridizing the RFLP probe to the membrane bound DNA fragments, and removing the unbound probe. 
     The following alternative method circumvents the potential problem with detection on solid matrices, which has the added benefit of obviating the need to transfer the genomic DNA fragments from the gel. Detection may be carried out in the gel, thus significantly reducing the number of steps in the entire process and allowing one to assay multiple probes simultaneously on single samples. 
     In this method, two single strand DNA primers of about 15 to about 20 nucleotides, or of any other length sufficient to serve as a DNA primer, are constructed using sequence information from a cloned probe which is known to reveal polymorphisms through conventional Southern analysis. By sequencing in from each end of the cloned probe a short distance, one can deduce a sequence at each end that will extend outward from the probe ends in a 5&#39; to 3&#39; manner. While the probe may not actually include the polymorphic region of the genomic fragment created by restriction enzyme digestion, it does lie internal to both of the ends of the informative fragments. The two primers, if extended out into the rest of the genomic DNA fragment from the cloned ends, will eventually stop at the ends of the polymorphic genomic fragment. At least one of these two extensions must contain the polymorphic region and, indeed, both could prove to be informative. 
     Once these primers have been produced for each probe, they are tagged using chromophores as described below. The attachment of chromophores, clearly, must not interfere with hybridization of the primer to the DNA of its complementary sequence and it must also not interfere with extension of the primer from the 3&#39; end by a DNA polymerase. 
     The genomic DNA samples to be tested are digested with the appropriate restriction enzyme which will create polymorphic or informative fragments. The total digest is then mixed with the chromophore-tagged primers, denatured into single strands by heating for about three to five minutes, and immediately transferred to a 37° C. bath and left for a short time. The period should be long enough to allow the denatured DNA mix to cool to 37° C. but not so long that many of the high copied sequences present in the genomes of all higher eukaryotics will be able to renature. A period of about several minutes in duration will be sufficient. Because renaturation of single strand DNA into double strand DNA is dependent upon both time and the concentration of the sequences involved, and because the concentration of the unique sequences in these genomes is extremely low, very few of them will have reannealed within this time period. On the other hand, the complementary primers can be added at very high concentrations, for example several nanograms, which will represent a several thousand-fold excess of primer to complementary genomic DNA sequences. These would therefore anneal almost immediately to their complementary genomic sequences and form a short double strand region. 
     In the next step, a polymerase, preferably modified T7 DNA polymerase (&#34;Sequenase®&#34;), is added along with all four individual bases, dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP, and an appropriate buffer. This enzyme has the ability to quickly copy very large single strands of DNA using small primers. While other studies have used the large fragment of DNA polymerase (Klenow) to amplify and detect various small genomic sequences (on the order of 100-200 bases), this approach may prove impractical for the larger fragments (which can be on the order of 2000-12000 bases) that are necessary for human and plant RFLP analysis. The Kenlow fragment rate of copying may be too slow and the denatured strands might well reanneal due to the presence of repetitive sequences before complete copying had been accomplished. Modified T7 polymerase, on the other hand, has a very fast rate of copying and very high processivity, factors which allow it to copy a 10,000 base template in a matter of a few minutes. In our method, modified T7 DNA polymerase should, in a relatively short time, extend off the 3 &#39; end of the primer all the way to the end of the genomic fragments. The enzyme should also extend any other annealed sequences that may have been formed. Only those which have been extended off chromophore-tagged primers, however, will be detected in our method, as described below. 
     Two avenues for detection of the reaction products may be followed. First, any remaining single strand DNA may be digested with S1 nuclease, which would remove the opposite single strand DNA end of the extended fraqments leaving it completely double-stranded. This would also serve to destroy any unused primers which, as described above, would typically have been added in vast excess. Only those strands which had been copied to double strand DNA would then be recovered in the following isolation step. That isolation step could be accomplished by any of a number of known techniques, such as ethanol precipitation or mini-column chromatography. The isolation fragments are then loaded onto a standard neutral agarose gel and separated by size through electrophoresis. 
     Alternatively, the total reaction product following treatment with modified T7 DNA polymerase could be denatured into single strands and analyzed by electrophoresis on a denaturing agarose gel system. The former method is preferred because it will remove unused chromophores which might result in a smearing of the gel and a resultant complication of the final analysis. 
     After electrophoresis in either of the above-described methods, the gel may be scanned by a laser to excite the chromophores to fluoresce, which fluorescence can be detected by a linear photodiode array detector. By examining the data for the emission spectrum peculiar to each chromophore, the polymorphic regions of the test DNA may be detected. Furthermore, once the primers have been prepared in sufficient amount, for example, for hundreds of assays, the remaining steps of digestion, denaturing, extension, electrophoresis, and detection could be accomplished in a very short period of time. By way of illustration, it is envisioned that the entire process could be carried out in one working day for about 20 probes and a large number of genomic DNA test samples. To accomplish this same amount of work using conventional Southern blot technology could take up to several months, even under ideal conditions. Plainly, the time and expense saved will prove to be invaluable in the utilization of such RFLP analyses. 
     DNA sequencers utilizing laser induced fluorescent detection and chemical modification of DNA fragments to attach fluorophores are currently commercially available. See Prober et al., Science 238:338-341 (1987). Although techniques applied in DNA sequencing are sensitive enough to replace  32  P-autoradiography, they can only be detected at selected fluorescent emission wavelengths. Thus, as described in Prober et al., supra, only up to 4 fluorophores with emission maxina close to one another were used. 
     As indicated above, by coupling a fluorometric photodiode array detection system, e.g., Gluckman et al., Anal. Chem. 57:1546-1552 (1985), and laser excitation of RFLP fragments labelled with different fluorophores whose emission spectra are unique, one can not only detect low concentration of DNA fragments in a separating gel media (10 -16  to 10 -18  mole) but can also distinguish one fluorophore from another through computer aided spectral comparison. This allows one to simultaneously analyze DNA fragments generated by a single restriction enzyme in a single lane of gel with multiple DNA probes. 
     An optical system for use in our method is modified from Gluckman et al., supra. A post-run gel is mounted on a quartz plate (20×20 cm). The plate is moved along X-Y coordinates, a monochromatic laser beam will excite a band representing DNA fragments containing a particular fluorophore (DNA probe). The entire emission spectrum passing through the quartz plate is detected using an emission spectrograph coupled to an intensified linear photodiode array (LPDA) detector. The output from the intensified LPDA is converted to digital signals by a detector controller/interface which then transfers them to a computer. The rapid transfers of digital signals allows multiple scannings of the same band which can reduce background noise level and increase signal level. A computer aided spectral library of standard fluorophores will subsequently correlate the band to the corresponding DNA probe. Thus, RFLP fragments will be identified by their fluorescent probe types as well as by X-Y coordination of the gel plate. Although technologies exist for fluorometric photodiode array detection, computer programming for spectral acquisition and comparison and mechanical gel scanning devices, none of these techniques have been combined to detect multiple DNA probes for RFLP analyses as described herein. 
     Set forth below in greater detail are procedures relative to the production of primers, chromophore selection, primer labelling, digestion of genomic DNA, denaturing and annealing of template and primers, extension reactions, and S1 nuclease treatment. It will be appreciated that other means for achieving the same results as those of these protocols will be possible and useful. 
     It is presently preferred to produce primers using cloned probes that reveal polymorphisms in conventional Southern blot analysis. Such an RFLP probe is typically smaller than the fragments it will detect in Southern blot analysis, although this is not necessarily so and neither is it a requirement. An RFLP probe, selected at random or otherwise, may be cloned into a plasmid, such as pUC18, which has a multiple cloning site (MCS) and is amenable to DNA sequencing into the ends of the inserts using primers complementary to the ends of the MCS. With this system, one can easily sequence in a few hundred bases from each end in one run. This sequence information can then be used to produce two primers which, when extended on genomic DNA, would result in an extension product that covers any polymorphic region detected by the original cloned probe. Using any 20 base sequence as one primer, for example, it would extend in one direction to the end of the template. If the complementary sequence is then used as a second primer, it would extend in the opposite direction to the other end of the template. Accordingly, two useful primers may be selected from only a short sequencing effort. It may be that a selected primer would not be useful if its sequence were found at other locations in the genome. Although this is possible it is unlikely because the probes that are used in these analyses are selected on the basis of their relative uniqueness. Of course, if the selected primer appeared to reveal more than one sequence in the later analysis, another primer sequence could be tried from another area of the cloned probe. 
     Oligomeric (20 mer) deoxyribonucleotides were synthesized according to known techniques in solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry. Following oligodeoxyribonucleotide production, these synthesized nucleotides were chemically modified at their 5&#39;-termini by attaching a primary alkylamine group, N-monomethoxytrityl-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylamino-phosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol, also by known techniques. The modified oligodeoxyribonucleotides were isolated, purified and labelled by coupling commercial amine selective fluorescence dyes. Fluorescence labelled oligodeoxyribonucleotides were purified by HPLC and used as primers for different restriction enzyme fragment clones. 
     The synthesis of modified oligodeoxyribonucleotides was done according to B. A. Conolly (Nucleic Acids Research Vol. 15(7):3131, 1987) with some modification. Oligodeoxyribonucleotides were made using an Applied Biosystem DNA synthesizer. Three amine selective fluorophores, dansylchloride (Aldrich Co.), FITC (fluorocein-5-isothiocyanate), and NBD-fluoride (4-fluoro-7-nitrobenz-2-axa-1,3 diazole) (Molecular Probes) were selected to label the modified oligodeoxyribonucleotides. 
     N-monomethoxytrityl-0-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylaminophosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol, for use in linking one of the above fluorophores to the 5&#39; end of a synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotide primer, was prepared as follows. P-anisyldiphenylchloromethane (7.72 g, 25 mmol) and 3-amino-1-propanol (7.5 ml, 100 mmol) were dissolved in dry CH 2  Cl 2  (molecular sieve #3A and Na 2  SO 4  anhydrous filtered) 50 ml and 25 ml, respectively. For over one hour, P-nisyldiphenylchlormethane solution was added dropwise into the ice cold solution of 3-amino-1-propanol with constant mechanical stirring. The mixture was left 1/2 hour at room temperature, then washed two times with 5% NaHCO 3  (50 ml) followed by the same volume of saturated brine. The washed CH 2  Cl 2  solution was dried over Na 2  SO 4  (anhydrous), and concentrated vacuo. N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol was crystallized by dissolving the concentrated mixture in Et20: Hexane, then chilling in liquid nitrogen. Crystals were collected, washed with cold hexane until all the yellow coloration disappeared. White crystals of N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol were recrystallized in cold Et20 and dried over Si-gel in vacuo. Over 4.5 g of crystals were obtained. The product was examined by TLC, 1H-NMR and FAB-MS, and compared to the literature data. 
     Following completion of synthesis of the desired intermediate, N-monomethoxytrilyl-3-amino-1-propanol, an Si-TLC plate was developed once with CH 2  Cl 2  :CH 3  OH:ET 3  N (97:2:1, v:v:v) and visualized by vanillin H 2  SO 4 . A starting compound, P-anisylchlorodiphenylmethane, and the final product, N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol, have Rf valves of 0.9 and 0.58 respectively. The reaction product was characterized by FAB(+)MS and 1H-NMR (200 MHzDC13, TMS). The FAB(+)MS spectrum showed a quasi-molecular ion (M+H)+ of M/z 348 along with a major fragment ion peak of m/z 273 (C2H170)+ which suggested the molecular formula of C23H2502N. 1H-NMR spectrum of N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol showed 7.45-7.15 (m, 14H), 6.81 (d, 2H), 3.89 (t, 2H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 2.34 (t, 2H) and 1.69 (ddd, 2H). These values are in very close agreement with those of the literature values. Slight Rf value differences between experimental and literature data might be due to slight difference TLC conditions. These spectral data strongly suggested that the reaction mixture (a 65% yield) was the desired intermediate, N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol. 
     N,N-diisopropylethylamine (1.9 ml, 10 mmol) was added to the CH 2  Cl 2  solution of N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol (1.73 g, 5 mmol, in 10 ml of dry CH 2  Cl 2  ) and the mixture was cooled on ice. For over a 5 min. period, N,N-diisopropylmethylphosphoramidic chloride (0.97 ml, 5 mmol) was added dropwise with constant stirring. The reaction mixture was left in the ice bath for 10 min. At the end of 10 min., CH 3  OH (1.0 ml) was added to it and left at room temperature for another 10 min. Additional CH 2  Cl 2  (25 ml) was added and washed 2× with 5% NaHCO3 (50 ml) and 1× with saturated brine (50 ml). The CH 2  Cl 2  solution was dried over Na 2  SO 4  (anhydrous), and concentrated in vacuo. N-monomethoxytrityl-0-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylaminophosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol was purified from the reaction mixture through silica gel flash column chromatography. 1.67 g of clear colorless oil was obtained by in vacuo concentration of appropriate column fractions. The compound was characterized by TLC, 31P-NMR and FAB(+)MS. 
     The completion of the above reaction was monitored once again by TLC. TLC plates (Si) were developed once with Hexane:Et3N(9:1, v/v) and viewed under a U.V. 254 nm lamp. The starting intermediate compound, N-monomethoxytrityl-3-amino-1-propanol, and the final product, N-monomethoxytrityl-O-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylaminophosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol, have Rf valves of 0.05 and 0.63 respectively. The final product was purified by flash column (Si) chromatography and characterized by FAB(+)MS and 31p-NMP (CDC13/Eb3N 9;1, 81.3 MHz, H 3  PO 4 ). The FAB(+)MS spectrum of the final product showed a quasimolecular ion (M+H)+ of m/z 509 which suggested the molecular formula C3OH4103N2P. 31p-NMR spectrum of the final product showed a single peak at 147.73 ppm down field from H 3  PO 4 . This value is comparable to the literature value of 148.29 ppm. These spectral values identified the final reaction product as N-monomethoxytrityl-O-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylaminophosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol. 
     Flash column chromatography was performed as follows. Silica gel (40 μm) was wetpacked (CH 2  Cl 2 , 15 cm×3 cm) into a flash column. The packed column was washed 2× with hexane (200 ml) and 1× with hexane-Et3N (3:1, 200 ml). The reaction mixture was dissolved in a small volume of the eluting solvent (Hexane-Et3N, 8:1). Approximately 10 ml volume fractions were collected. 
     Synthesis of deoxyribonucleotide having a 5&#39;-terminus modification with N-monomethoxytrityl-O-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylaminophosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol was accomplished by the following method. Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (20 mer) were prepared using standard solid phase phosphoramidite methods on a scale of about 1 μm of bound first nucleoside. After the required sequence synthesis was compiled, an extra round of synthesis was carried out using N-monomethoxytrityl-O-methoxy-N,N-diisopropylaminophosphinyl-3-amino-1-propanol (12.7 mg in acetonitrile, 25 μm) and 60 μm of tetrazole. Following this coupling, oxidation of phosphite triester with 12/H2O/THF, demethylation with thiophenol and cleaving and deblocking of the base protection group with NH 3  were done without deprotecting the newly introduced NH 2  group. The crude monomethoxytrityl protected oligonucleotides were purified by reversed phase HPLC. Purified oligonucleotides were dissolved in 2 ml of 80% HOAc for two hours to deprotect the amine group. At the end of two hours, HOAc was removed by evaporation and the oligomers with propylamine group was dissolved in a small volume of water. 
     To couple the modified oligonucleotides to the fluorophores, an aqueous solution of the modified oligonucleotides (0.01-0.25 μm, in 100-500 μl) was mixed with an equal volume of 5% NaHCO 3  /Na 2  CO 3  buffer (pH 10). NBD-fluoride and FITC were dissolved with dimethylformamide (100 μg/ml) and dansylchloride was dissolved in acetonitrile (100 equivalent to oligomer, 1-25 μm). These fluorophore solutions were added to the solutions of modified oligonucleotides and incubated over three hours. Fluorophore labelled oligonucleotides were purified by reversed phase HPLC for use in subsequent RFLP analyses. 
     B. Enhancement of Test Plant DNA/Extended Primer DNA 
     Methods to enhance the amount of test plant DNA may be used to both increase the sensitivity of the assay as well as to detect sequence variation at the single base level. Using such a modification, not only can minute size variation be detected, but alterations in the DNA sequence itself can be characterized. This is significant because among plants, much of the variation may constitute changes at the single base pair level. Differences among genomic DNA fragments as a result of these changes could be too small in size to praticably detect by Southern blotting or gel electrophoresis. Also, variation may constitute base pair substitutions which could result in no detectable size alteration, and could also not prevent binding of probe (or primer) except under the most stringent of hybridization conditions. In addition, in extending the primer used in the above example using T7 DNA polymerase, minor alterations of DNA sequence in the part of the sequence extended using T7 are not detectable. The frequency of binding of the primer DNA to the test plant DNA is fairly low because the probes, from which the primers are derived, are chosen on the basis of their low copy number in the plant genome. Thus, one object of the present modification is to selectively increase the amount of test plant DNA bound to the extended primer. 
     In order to detect variation at the single-base level, and at the same time make the present analysis more amenable to automation techniques, the preferred method is one in which the test plant DNA to which primer has been bound is enhanced up to about a million fold. This increase in the amount of test plant DNA enables, for example, direct sequencing of the enhanced segment so that single base pair changes can be detected and characterized, amplification of the signal (e.g., fluorescence from a chromophore label attached to the primer) by enhancement of the extended primer/test plant DNA so that even very low original concentrations may be detected. Moreover, with the increase in signal, less sensitive detection devices are required. 
     The polymerase chain reaction technique or &#34;PCR&#34;, is one method which may be used to selectively amplify the extended primer DNA/test plant DNA hybrid. PCR is described by U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195 and 4,683,202, both of which are herein incorporated by reference. Using this technique, only the double-stranded extended primer/test plant DNA is amplified; unbound single stranded DNAs are not incorporated and remain unchanged. 
     In order to use the PCR technique for amplifying the present DNA fragments of interest, it is necessary to ensure that the desired fragment is short enough to be accurately amplified. PCR is for the most part limited to amplification of segments of less than approximately 1 Kb. The test plant genomic fragments which exhibit polymorphic characteristics however are frequently over 1 kb in their entirety, as the polymorphisms themselves may lie beyond the termini of the approximately 1 Kb RFLP probes we have used. 
     To solve this problem the focus on the analysis was shifted from the RFLPs themselves (i.e., the differences in restriction fragment lengths among plant DNA) to the variation in the sequence of the DNAs among plants tested. These concepts are related in that sequence variation results in RFLP presence, however, analysis of RFLPs alone does not typically indicate the nature of the variation of the sequence itself. In other words, analysis is no longer limited to the change in length of restriction fragments, but also includes sequence changes which cause the change in length. Also included are sequence changes, such as base substitutions, which may cause no change in sequence length as well as minute sequence additions and deletions which produce changes in length which are not practicably detectable. 
     In order to enhance test plant DNA to which primer has been bound, the same basic technique as above was used. However, instead of producing two primers which each can be extended outward toward the ends of the test plant restriction fragment, primers which can be extended inward--that is, each extended toward the other and thus toward the intervening region of the test plant--are produced. In this way, the double stranded region to be amplified is limited to the size of the probe from which the primers are derived. Because the probe typically is comprised of fewer then 1 Kb, amplification using PCR is possible. 
     After enhancement, there may be up to millions of copies are produced of what would otherwise be very low copy number genomic DNA restriction fragments, thus providing enough DNA for sequencing. Because the region between primers, filled in by DNA polymerase, may differ among isolates or varieties, differences in actual sequence can be characterized. 
     Also, by amplification of the region between primers of the double-stranded extended primer/test plant DNA, using labelled oligomers, the signal of the label may be coincidently amplified. This may significantly reduce the complexity of the detection scheme. 
     After amplification, various techniques for detecting sequence variation are possible. The following four detection techniques are set forth as examples, but other detection techniques will be apparent to those skilled in the art. 
     A size polymorphism created by a rearrangement within the amplified region could be analyzed directly on a gel or a column, using the label on the amplified region as the means of detection. While this technique will increase the strength of the signal, single base pair changes will not likely be detected. 
     If a sequence change creates a new restriction site within the amplified region, predigestion of the test DNA (bound to the inward-extended primer) prior to amplification would block amplification. The differences in amplification among test plants would indicate the nature of the alteration in sequence. This &#34;+/-&#34; type assay enables automation easily; however, reliance is placed upon the fortuitous creation or destruction of restriction sites. 
     Another technique which can be used to identify whether or not test plant genomic DNA possesses a sequence corresponding to sequences derived from extended primers is to use stringent hybridization conditions. Under such stringent hybridization conditions, which are well known in the art, there is discrimination against hybridization between mismatched oligomers. One could amplify with unlabelled oligomers, heat denature, and then hybridize under stringent conditions, with labelled internal oligomers which match all of the various sequence variations. In this &#34;+/-&#34; assay, whether or not a particular test plant genomic fragment contains certain sequences can be ascertained. 
     Using fairly stringent hybridization conditions in the annealing step of the enhancement process also provides a practical assay to determine whether a test DNA fragment contains even single base pair changes. Essentially, different primers are used, one fixed at one end of the region to be amplified and two others, each of which end (at the 3&#39; end) in different bases. Each of the two variable primers also is labelled with a different label. For example, one could be tagged with a red fluorescing chromophore, another a green fluorescing chromophore, etc. The fixed primer acts as the opposite end of the complete oligonucleotide produced by filling in the region between the labeled primer (with the variable 3&#39; end) and the fixed primer itself. The &#34;fixed&#34; primer is annealed with the test plant DNA, under stringent hybridization conditions, along with the variable oligonucleotides, each having a different base pair sequence at their respective termini, and each bearing a different label. 
     Next, the bound &#34;fixed&#34; primer, as well as any bound variable primer, are extended toward each other by use of any DNA polymerases, such as Taq polymerase, infra. The test plant DNA between the primers is then amplified under conditions allowing for incorporation of the label of the original primer in all copies. Because a primer with a 3&#39; mismatch is likely to cause extremely inefficient extension, then only an oligomer with 3&#39;termini properly corresponding to that of the test DNA is likely to allow for amplification. The amplification products could be analyzed to determine what label is present, e.g., red chromophore, green chromophore, both, etc. The different labels detected could indicate, for example, whether a test plant is homozygous parental or a heterozygous genotype. 
     A further modification of the latter detection method is to vary the size of the amplified region on the basis of the distance between the fixed and the labelled, variable primer chosen. By varying this distance between several different loci, and amplifying them all simultaneously (which can be performed in a single vessel), the mixture could be run on a gel and analyzed. Each of the loci with variation at the 3&#39; end of the various primers would then be detected at different molecular weight points on the gel by detecting the different chromophores, or other labels used. Thus, multiple loci could be screened in a single gel lane using only two different tags. 
     Set forth below in greater detail are procedures for enhancement, and sequencing of genomic DNA. It will be appreciated that other means for achieving the same results as those of these protocols will be possible and useful. 
     Enhancement for Direct Sequencing of Loci 288 and 451 from Maize Cultivars 
     The following is a protocol used for polymerase chain reaction amplification of genomic corn DNA to which two different primers are bound. The corn lines tested are indicated below, by their conventional designation. All corn lines tested are available from both public and commercial sources. 
     The primers used were manufactured by conventional techniques using RFLP probes from the maize loci as indicated. Helentjaris, Trends in Genetics 3:217 (1987). The DNA sequences of the primers used are shown in FIGS. 2 through 10. FIGS. 2-6 show the nucleic acid sequence for maize locus 288. The sections of the locus used for primers are underlined, and specific primers are indicated. FIGS. 9 and 10 show the DNA sequence for maize locus 451, again indicating the specific primers. The primers were manufactured, by conventional methods, so that their orientation allows for extension by PCR between the primers used. 
     The following genomic DNA/primer mix was used: 
     
         ______________________________________                 Primer #1, Primer #2,Tube:  Genomic DNA, 5 μg.                 100 μM  100 μM______________________________________1      13.5 μl, #5 A619                 1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL12      #21, Mo17      1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL13      #28, H99       1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL14      #33, W153R     1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL15      #34, Oh51      1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL16      #47, B14AHt    1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL17      #113, B73Ht    1 μl 288A                            1 μl 288EOL1 8-14  #113, B73Ht    1 μl 288AR                            1 μl 288BOL115-21  #113, B73Ht    1 μl 451AH3                            1 μl 451CH3______________________________________ 
    
     Two opposing primers were used per test plant genomic DNA. 
     The protocol for the PCR amplification was performed using the Taq polymerase manufactured by Perkin Elmer Cetus (Norwalk, Conn.). The procedure set forth in the product brochure was followed, and such procedure is herein incorporated by reference. See also. Li, et al., Nature 325:414 (1988) for a description of the amplification of DNA sequences. 
     RNA in the unpurified genomic DNAs was digested by adding 10 μl of the following: 
     
         ______________________________________          Rx (24X)______________________________________dH.sub.2 O       1248 μl10X PCR Buffer    216DMSO              240gelatin           48RNase              4.8______________________________________ 
    
     The mixture was allowed to incubate for 5 minutes at room temperature, and then for five minutes at 95° C. 
     The polymerase chain reaction mix, using Taq polymerase as provided in the amplification kit, supra, was as follows: 
     
         ______________________________________          Rx (23X)______________________________________dH.sub.2 O        13.82.5 mM dXTPs     18410X PCR Buffer    23enzyme            9.2______________________________________ 
    
     The polymerase chain reaction was allowed to proceed through 30 cycles, each of 2 minutes at 93° C., 2 minutes at 55° C., and 4 minutes at 72° C., with a last 10 minute extension cycle. The above cycle was found to allow for sufficient binding of the primer without significant reannealing of the complementary strands of the genomic DNA. 
     10 μl of each amplification product was run on an agarose gel, prepared conventionally and stained with ethidium bromide. This gel is at FIG. 11. This gel shows that the 288 primers worked in a subset of the lines tested. The 451 primers show a band of about 300 bp. Line B14 a showed a larger fragment with the 288A primer and 288 EOLI primer than did the other lines. 
     The rest of the samples were prepared for sequencing, (see infra). 23 μl of 5× PCR stop mix was added, and the samples were incubated at 50° C. for 60 minutes. The samples were phenol and chloroform extracted 1× each, and Centricon (Amicon Corp., Lexington, Mass.) dialyzed 3×. The samples were then precipitated with ammonium acetate, and resuspended in 10 μl of buffer. 
     PCR Amplification Using Multiple Cultivars and Amplifiers 
     Here, different cultivars were tested with different primers. In addition, different amounts of test plant DNA were used: 
     
         ______________________________________Tube   Substrate    Primer #1 Primer #2                                 dH.sub.2 O______________________________________1      #21 Mo17, 1 μg               288A      288EOL1 25.31 μl2      #21 Mo17, 5 μg               288A      288EOL1 14.53      #21 Mo17, 10 μg               288A      288EOL1  1 μl4-6    #21 Mo17, 10 μg7      MT 1 μg   288A      288EOL1 25.38      A619         288BOL1   288EOL1 25.39      Mo17         288BOL1   288EOL1 25.310     H99          288BOL1   288EOL1 25.311     W153R        288BOL1   288EOL1 25.312     Oh51         288BOL1   288EOL1 25.313     B14A         288BOL1   288EOL1 25.314     B73          288BOL1   288EOL1 25.315-21  as above but with               238A      238COL1 25.3______________________________________ 
    
     The same protocols as above were used for PCR amplification; and 10 μl was removed and run on an agarose gel, FIG. 12. The gel shows uniform amplification, as detected by the ethidium bromide stain, in the inbred lines. Moreover, it appeared that 5 μg of DNA promoted optimum amplification, and that there was an decrease in amplification when 10 μg was used. The polymorphism in B14A, as in FIG. 11, was again detected. 
     Effects of Increasing Amounts of Test Plant DNA, Varying the Number of Amplification Cycles, and Cleaning-Up of Test Plant DNA on the Degree of Enhancement 
     Genomic DNA from corn inbred MT was isolated by standard techniques and used for all samples. The primers 288BOL1 and 288EOL1 were both used in each sample. The &#34;dirty&#34; DNA below indicates MT genomic DNA without pre-treatment to remove proteins or other extraneous materials. &#34;Clean&#34; DNA is an RNase-treated sample of genomic DNA, phenol and chloroform extracted, 1× each. After PCR amplification, the sample was Centricon dialyzed 4 more times and ammonium acetate precipitated. The DNA pellet was washed once with 80% ethanol. 
     The number of PCR cycles was also varied, with samples undergoing either 30 or 35 cycles. The samples were used: 
     
         ______________________________________1        1 μg of dirty-DNA-35 cycles of PCR2        5 μg of dirty-DNA-35 cycles of PCR5        1 μg of dirty-DNA-30 cycles of PCR6        5 μg of dirty-DNA-30 cycles of PCR8        1 μg of dirty-DNA-30 cycles of PCR,    added enzyme at cycle 159        1 μg of clean-DNA-30 cycles of PCR10       5 μg of clean DNA-30 cycles of PCR15       reused a centricon column sample is same as 8______________________________________ 
    
     The PCR amplification used was as described, supra. 
     Electrophoresis gel analysis of the samples indicates that use of 5 μg of test DNA increases the amount of DNA amplified over that obtained from using 1 μg test DNA. Pre-PCR clean-up showed a slight but non-significant increase in amplification. There was no difference in amplification when samples underwent 35 PCR cycles, from that detectable from 30 cycles. 
     Direct Sequencing of Amplification Reactions 
     Presented is the preferred method for sequencing the amplification product. The samples used here are samples 8-14, prepared as described in the section &#34;PCR Amplification with Multiple Cultivars and Amplifiers,&#34; supra. 
     Samples 8-14 were each extracted once with 25:24:1 phenol: CHCl 3  :isoamyl alcohol, and then once with 24:1 CHCl 3  :isoamyl alcohol. The samples were filtered through 30 kDa Centricon ultrafilters four times, successively diluting with 2 ml water with each filtration. The final resulting retentive was collected and NH 4  OAc was added to a final concentration of 2M. Two volumes of cold ethanol was added, and the mixtures were chilled overnight at -20° C. 
     DNA was sequenced using a Sequenase® kit a modified T7 DNA polymer (U.S. Biochemical Corp., Cleveland, Ohio) according to the manufacturer&#39;s specification, which is herein incorporated by reference. PCR template DNA was dissolved in 10 μl buffer after sedimenting and washing with cold 70% ethanol. One μl was sampled for electrophoresis, which indicated a recovery of approximately 150 to 300 ng in most of the samples. 
     The remaining 9 μl were heated in a boiling water bath 5 minutes and 3 μl of the following primer/buffer mixture, warmed to 37° C., was added: 16 μl 5×Sequenase® buffer+8 μl 1 μM 288EOL1. The resulting mixture was spun briefly to collect the fluid into a single volume, and DNAs were allowed to anneal at room temperature for 15 min then 5.5 μl of the following mixture was added to each tube: 
     
         ______________________________________x1      x8______________________________________1       8          1 M        DTT0.4     3.2        undiluted  labelling mix0.5     4                     [a.sup.35 S]dATP0.25    2          undiluted  Sequenase ™3.35    27                    water______________________________________ 
    
     Reactions were thus labelled for 5 minutes at room temperature when 3.5 μl of each reaction was distributed into tubes containing 2.5 μl termination solutions G, A, T, and C. 
     After 5 to 6 minutes at room temperature, 4 μl of reaction stop solution was added to each tube, then the tubes were frozen -20°. 
     Sequences for maize loci 288 and 451, for various maize cultivars, are presented at FIGS. 13 and 14.