Abstract:
A configuration for use with a processor that incorporates a suite of agents in a “flat” hardware architecture and superimposes thereon a self-forming, self-healing, hierarchical architecture implemented in software. Embodiments may be employed in various applications, such as maintaining network integrity. In one embodiment a building security monitoring network provides for automated network agents to each be capable of communication with any other automated agents on a network at network startup. Shortly after network initialization, the software architecture is superimposed on the flat hardware architecture, re-arranging communication links to provide an efficient hierarchy of control and substituting working agents for compromised agents as necessary in the network. All of this is done in a “live” network, not requiring shutdown, or even reduced operation to accomplish. This “dual” architecture (hierarchical software and flat hardware) provides excellent reliability in those “layered” network applications requiring near total reliability, such as security surveillance.

Description:
STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST 
   Under paragraph 1(a) of Executive Order 10096, the conditions under which this invention was made entitle the Government of the United States, as represented by the Secretary of the Army, to the entire right, title and interest therein of any patent granted thereon by the United States. This patent and related ones are available for licensing. Contact Bea Shahin at 217 373-7234. 

   BACKGROUND 
   Select embodiments of the present invention may be used to measure stress in tensioned members of critical structures. This measure of stress is also referred to as “bulk tension.” In many cases access to these members is limited, e.g., steel reinforcing members buried in concrete. Critical structures include dams, bridges, elevated highways, nuclear containment domes, parking garages, piers, tunnels, and the like. 
   Acoustic waves are nondestructive and are capable of traveling long distances in engineered structures. Further they can be used to “interrogate” a structure to determine its integrity. Acoustic “interrogation” signals may be employed for purposes of determining bulk properties and to detect defects. Bulk properties, such as tension, are determined by acoustic signals interacting macroscopically with material, whereas, defects are identified by acoustic signals interacting microscopically with material. These dual purposes are achieved by carefully shaping transmitted acoustic signals and using tailored signal processing techniques on the reflected signals. Acoustic interrogation can identify both bulk properties and defects, quantifying results quickly, i.e., in “near real-time” although custom processing may extend display of results by one or two minutes. 
   There are two common types of ultrasonic waves, longitudinal and shear. Other types of ultrasonic waves exist, such as surface waves and plate waves. For a longitudinal wave, also termed compressional wave, particles vibrate in a direction that is the same as the propagation direction. For a shear wave, particles vibrate in a direction that is perpendicular to the propagation direction. Shear wave velocities, V s , are typically about half of longitudinal wave velocities, V l . Shear waves do not exist in some media, such as water and air, although solid media support shear waves. 
   Landa and Plesek employed shear waves in a technique that is both reasonably sensitive and linear. Landa, M. and J. Plesek,  Ultrasonic Techniques for Non - Destructive Evaluation of Internal Stresses , Institute of Thermomechanics ASCR, Dolejskova 5, 18200, Praha8, Czech Republic, October, 2000. Their technique is limited to using shear waves that are polarized in two directions, parallel to the principal stress axis and transverse to the principal stress axis. These shear waves propagate in the remaining direction across the principle stress axis. Propagation parallel to the principal stress axis is preferable. 
   A select embodiment of the present invention now enables inspectors to quickly and easily make a quantitative determination of damage or degradation of post-tensioned members or objects. Prior to the present invention, two methods were commonly available for this purpose. The first is a “hammer test” that produces a first acoustic tone when the object is under zero or low tension and a second noticeably different tone when under designed (moderate or high) tension. Obviously, the hammer test yields a purely qualitative result. The second method involves the use of a jack, such as a hydraulic jack and is termed a “jacking test.” It often requires attaining “reasonable” access to members that otherwise have limited access. Jacking is both laborious and expensive when used to determine the condition of post-tensioned members in the field. While the jacking test is quantitative, it cannot be used in many situations because of restricted access considerations, expense, or both. 
   U.S. Pat. No. 5,154,081, Means and Method for Ultrasonic Measurement of Material Properties, to Thompson et al., Oct. 13, 1992 employs two electromagnetic acoustic sensors arranged on a single side of an object to be measured. Stress measurements are limited to those available near a surface of ferromagnetic objects having a large accessible surface. No measurements are made throughout the bulk of the object. 
   U.S. Pat. No. 5,289,387, Method for Measuring Stress, to Higo, et al., Feb. 22, 1994, uses a variety of sensor types and placements on metal, polycarbonates or acryl resin objects to measure bulk stress. The &#39;387 patent measures attenuation of ultrasound to determine stress. Since attenuation is an indirect measurement, i.e., not related to fundamental ultrasonic properties, this method is limited to measuring very well characterized objects, such as standard items in a production line. For example, it cannot be used successfully on unknown parts picked at random. 
   U.S. Pat. No. 6,477,473, Ultrasonic Stress Measurement Using the Critically Refracted Longitudinal (LCR) Ultrasonic Technique, to Bray, Nov. 5, 2002, uses two sensors in a specific arrangement placed on a single side of an object. The sensors measure a reflection angle to determine longitudinal wave speed and hence stress. This device is limited to objects with accessible large surfaces since it measures the velocity of a longitudinal wave only. 
   None of these patents provide a device or method for determining tension in a randomly picked object that may have only a limited surface available for access, such as a reinforcing member embedded in concrete. Embodiments of the present invention differ from existing ultrasonic instruments, such as the StressTel®, BoltMike® and the like, that measure tension in bolts. These instruments measure elongation of a bolt while it is being torqued. They are “tension (bolting) control systems” that depend upon measuring changes in length between the un-loaded and the loaded (stressed) conditions of a particular fastening device, such as a bolt. Thus, unlike an embodiment of the present invention, they cannot measure stress in a fastener, such as a bolt or screw, that was tightened prior to use of the instrument. 
   From first principles of ultrasonic theory a relationship for calculating stress (tension) in a part using only the shear and longitudinal velocities may be derived as follows: 
                 σ   =       (       V   l   2     -     2   ⁢     V   s   2         )       2   ⁢     (       V   l   2     -     V   s   2       )                 (   1   )               
where V l  is the longitudinal wave velocity and V s  is the shear wave velocity and σ is the bulk stress (tension) along the principal stress axis of the structure to be measured. However, Eqn. (1) has been relegated to theory and not adapted for use because heretofore both shear and longitudinal velocities were unable to be measured simultaneously and accurately. Select embodiments of the present invention address this limitation by employing Eqn. (1) in the design of a robust, portable, efficient and relatively inexpensive package. Further, embodiments of the present invention do not require using shear waves that are polarized in two directions, i.e., parallel to the principal stress axis and transverse to the principal stress axis, to propagate in the remaining direction across the principle stress axis. Instead, applying Eqn. (1) allows calculation of bulk stress (bulk tension) by using acoustic energy, preferably ultrasound, propagated parallel to the principal stress axis.
 
   Select embodiments of the present invention are able to address a wider range of situations than is possible using prior techniques. An embodiment of the present invention is useful for accurately determining the bulk stress inside an object that may offer limited access in its permanent installation, such as a reinforcing member buried in concrete, a post-tensioned element used in dams or bridges, and the like. An accurate measure of the bulk stress in a reinforcing member is critical for determining the structural integrity of damaged buildings; in making “repair or replace” decisions on existing structures; in determining the extent of deterioration of infrastructure; in researching degradation of materials, and in like applications. An embodiment of the present invention is also useful for accurately determining the strength of undamaged walls, e.g., resistance to penetration. 
   Select embodiments of the present invention may be provided in a portable package. Further, select embodiments of the present invention are able to limit the imposition of the acoustic signal to small areas, essentially points, for improved resolution. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       FIG. 1  provides top and side views of the two elements incorporated in the sensor of an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 2  illustrates an external view of salient features of a sensor package that may be used with an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 3  is a block diagram of system components incorporated in an embodiment of the present invention employed in measuring stress. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, a method is provided for obtaining a measure of stress in an object. The method comprises: establishing the length of the object along a first axis; providing one or more sensors, each sensor having one each first and second elements, and first and second connectors mounted on a proximal end, the first connector associated with the first element and the second connector associated with the second element, such that the first element facilitates communicating one or more acoustic signals, preferably ultrasonic, in the form of a shear wave and the second element facilitates communicating one or more acoustic signals, preferably ultrasonic, in the form of a longitudinal wave; coating at least part of the distal end with a shear gel (e.g., “shear honey”); bringing the distal end of the sensor into contact with the object; producing first and second acoustic signals, preferably ultrasonic; applying the first signal to the first connector to transmit the first signal via the first element; receiving a first reflection, i.e., a reflection of the first signal from the distal end of the first axis in the form of a shear wave; and establishing the elapsed time from initial transmission of the first signals at the sensor to receipt of the first reflections at the sensor; processing the elapsed time with the established length of the first axis to yield a first estimate, V s , of the velocity of the first signals in the object; applying the second signal to the second connector to transmit the second signal via the second element in the form of a longitudinal wave; receiving a second reflection, i.e., a reflection of the second signal from the distal end of the first axis; establishing the elapsed time from initial transmission of the second signals at the sensor to receipt of the second reflections at the sensor; processing the elapsed time with the established length of the axis to yield a second estimate, V l , of the velocity of the second signals in the object; and employing one value each of V l  and V s  in an algorithm, thus deriving a measure of stress. 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, the sensor is provided in a housing, the connectors are provided through an external surface of the proximal end of the housing, and the distal end of the housing is suitable to transmit an acoustic signal. In select embodiments of the present invention, the housing is provided as a cylinder. 
   Example I 
   Refer to  FIG. 1 .  FIG. 1  at A provides a top view of a sensor  100  that may be used in select embodiments of the present invention.  FIG. 1  at B provides a perspective view of the sensor  100  at A with the center element  101  partially removed. In select embodiments of the present invention, the method provides the first element  101  as a solid cylinder concentric with a longitudinal axis of the sensor  100  and the second element  102  as a hollow cylinder of wall thickness, t, arranged concentrically about the first element  101 , such that t is approximately equal to the radius, r, of the first element  101 . 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, the method provides an acoustic signal as an ultrasonic signal. In select embodiments of the present invention, the method provides an algorithm employing Eqn. (1), such that a measure of stress along a first axis (most likely the longitudinal axis) of the object is obtained. 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, the method establishes a first axis of the object as the principal stress axis of the object. 
   Refer to  FIG. 2 , a perspective view showing a packaged sensor  201  and the proximal end containing the connectors  101 A,  102 A for the sensor  100  of  FIG. 1 , the distal end being defined during operation of the system as that end contacting the object (not shown separately) being tested. In select embodiments of the present invention, a device for measuring bulk stress along a first axis of an object, comprises: a housing  201  containing a sensor  100  having first  101  and second  102  elements and corresponding first  102 A and second  102 A connectors, the first  102 A and second  102 A connectors positioned on a proximal end of the housing  201 , the first connector  101 A affixed to the first element  101  and the second connector  102 A affixed to the second element  102 , such that the first element  101  facilitates communicating acoustic signals represented by a shear wave, and the second element  102  facilitates communicating acoustic signals represented by a longitudinal wave; one or more sources (shown in  FIG. 3  as part of  300 ) of acoustic signals, preferably ultrasonic, such that the sources produce first and second signals, preferably acoustic, the parameters of each signal being similar; one or more processors (shown in  FIG. 3  as part of  300 ) for processing the signals and reflections thereof from the distal end of the first axis of the object; and an algorithm loaded on a CPU  305 , the algorithm employing the measured shear and longitudinal wave velocities, V s  and V l , of the signals from the first  101  and second  102  elements, respectively, such that processing the algorithm provides an accurate quantitative measure of bulk stress in near real time. 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, a sensor  100  is incorporated in a housing  201  such that the connectors  101 A,  102 A are provided through an external surface of the proximal end of the housing  201  and the distal end of the housing  201  is at least partially coated with shear gel (e.g., shear honey) and suitable to transmit acoustic signals from the object to a processor. In select embodiments of the present invention, the housing  201  is a hollow configuration, such as a cylinder, with a wear plate  202  (shown lifted from the sensor housing  201  in  FIG. 2 ) at its distal end to permit the sensor  100  to contact the object being tested. The elements  101 ,  102  are epoxied (to facilitate the conduction of the acoustic waves, and particularly the shear wave) between the two metallized ends of the elements  101 ,  102  to the metallized face of the wear plate  202 , such as a silicon dioxide wear plate, which contacts the object via shear gel. 
   Refer to  FIGS. 1 and 2 . In select embodiments of the present invention, the first element  101  is a solid cylinder concentric with a longitudinal axis of the sensor  100  and the second element  102  is a hollow cylinder of wall thickness, t, arranged concentrically about the first element, such that t is approximately equal to the radius, r, of the first element  101 . 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, the source is one or more ultrasonic signal sources, such as a tone generator (represented at  308  in  FIG. 3 ). In select embodiments of the present invention, the algorithm employs Eqn. (1) to convert measures of shear and longitudinal wave velocity in the object to a measure of bulk stress along the first axis of the object. In select embodiments of the present invention, the first axis of the object (represented as Sample  320  in  FIG. 3 ) is established as the principal stress axis of the object, the length of the first axis being established a priori. 
   Refer to  FIG. 3 , a block diagram showing the relationships among various components of select embodiments of the present invention. In select embodiments of the present invention, the sources further comprise one or more drivers (represented as  307  in  FIG. 3 ) connected to each of the sources. 
   Refer to  FIG. 3 . In select embodiments of the present invention, the processor comprises: one or more amplifiers (represented as  303 ) communicating with the packaged sensor  200 , the amplifier  303  amplifying reflected signals; one or more digitizers (represented as  304 ) communicating with the amplifiers  303 ; one or more computers communicating with the digitizer  304 , the computer comprising: one or more central processing units (CPU) (represented as  305 ); one or more Read Only Memories (ROM) (represented as  301 ) communicating with the CPU  305 ; one or more Random Access Memories (RAM)  302  communicating with the CPU  305 ; one or more displays (represented as  313 ) communicating with the CPU  305 ; one or more keypads  306  communicating with the CPU  305 ; one or more Analog and Digital Input/Output (A&amp;D I/O) devices (represented as  312 ) communicating with the CPU  305 ; and one or more power supplies (represented as  311 ) communicating with the CPU  305 . 
   Refer to  FIG. 3 . In select embodiments of the present invention, the device further comprises one or more batteries (represented as  310 ) communicating with the power supply  311 . In select embodiments of the present invention, the device further comprises one or more battery chargers (represented as  309 ) suitable to be placed in communication with one or more batteries  310 . 
   Refer to  FIG. 1 . In select embodiments of the present invention, an acoustic sensor  100  for facilitating obtaining a measure of bulk stress along a first axis of an object, comprises: one each first  101  and second  102  elements and one each first  101 A and second  102 A connectors, the first  101 A and second  102 A connectors positioned on the proximal end of the sensor  100 , the first connector  101 A connected to the first element  101  and the second connector  102 A connected to the second element  102 , such that the first element  101  facilitates communicating an acoustic signal in the form of a shear wave and the second element  102  facilitates communicating an acoustic signal in the form of a longitudinal wave. 
   Refer to  FIG. 2 . In select embodiments of the present invention, the sensor  100  is incorporated in a housing  201  such that the connectors  101 A,  102 A are provided through an external surface of a proximal end of the housing  201  and the distal end of the housing  201  is at least partially coated with shear gel and suitable to transmit acoustic signals with minimal loss at the interface of the sensor  100  and the object. In select embodiments of the present invention, the sensor housing  201  is a cylinder. 
   Refer to  FIG. 1 . In select embodiments of the present invention, the first element  101  of the sensor  100  is a solid cylinder concentric with a longitudinal axis of the sensor  100  and the second element  102  is a hollow cylinder of wall thickness, t, arranged concentrically about the first element, such that t is approximately equal to the radius, r, of the first element  101 . 
   Refer to  FIG. 1 , illustrating an embodiment of the present invention, a dual wave sensor  100 , incorporating two elements  101 ,  102  that produce different modes of ultrasonic waves. The center element  101  of the sensor  100  is uniquely fashioned so that it produces shear waves that vibrate perpendicular to the sound propagation axis instead of longitudinal waves that vibrate parallel to the sound propagation axis. The outer annular element  102  of the sensor  100  produces longitudinal waves as would be expected from a conventional acoustic device. Individual sensors  100  are sized to the wavelength of the acoustic energy to be used with it and the intended object to be measured. 
   Example II 
   One example of material to use in a sensor  100  of the present invention is piezoelectric material. To use piezoelectric material to generate ultrasound, connect wires on either side of the piezoelectric material and connect these wires in parallel to a high voltage pulse generator (not shown separately) as well as to an overload protected high gain amplifier (not shown separately) with output connected to an oscilloscope (not shown separately). Impress the piezoelectric material on the object to be tested. When the high voltage pulse (signal) activates the piezoelectric material the sensor  100  changes shape, creating a “stress” pulse (signal) that is, in turn, impressed upon the object to be tested. If the acoustic impedance is small enough at the interface between the sensor  100  and the object, the signal propagates from the sensor  100  into the object, e.g., a piece of rebar under load. Use of a shear gel (shear honey) often insures a good acoustical contact, i.e., a sufficiently small impedance. A properly applied signal will propagate to the end of the object and reflect back to the sensor  100 . The reflected signal hits the boundary between the object and the sensor  100  and some of the reflected signal is transmitted to the sensor  100 . At this point the reflection distorts the shape of the piezoelectric material, producing a small voltage in the wires connecting the sensor to the high gain amplifier. The amplifier raises the voltage level to a point where the signal may be discerned on the oscilloscope display. From this round trip signal, the transit time of the signal in the material is determined. In this example, a spike corresponding to the high voltage pulse that starts the process appears at the left hand edge of the oscilloscope display. This is followed some time later by a smaller spike corresponding to the reflection that is closer to the right hand edge of the display. The time between the spikes corresponds to the roundtrip travel time of the impressed signal. 
   Eqn. (1) permits calculation of bulk stress by measuring the velocity of acoustic longitudinal and shear waves only, i.e., by using ultrasonic waves propagating parallel to the principal stress axis of the structure being tested. 
   Example III 
   Refer to  FIG. 3 , a block diagram of an ultrasonic instrument  300  that may be used in an embodiment of the present invention. In select embodiments of the present invention, a suitable ultrasonic instrument is a digitally based unit, Model DFX544, manufactured by Dakota Ultrasonics®. It offers precision, controllable ultrasonic pulse generation and accurate timing features. Any acoustic instrument, preferably ultrasonic, that provides the features of: generating a suitable tone; transmitting the tone to a sensor made in accordance with operating parameters of the present invention, receiving a reflected signal; and processing the transmitted and received signals for suitable display and analysis is satisfactory. 
   Refer to  FIG. 3 . A Central Processing Unit (CPU)  305  associated with Read Only Memory (ROM)  301  and Random Access Memory (RAM)  302 , all of which may be on one or more circuit boards within the instrument  300 , may be used to control the process of taking bulk stress measurements in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Associated with the CPU  305  are a display  313 , such as a CRT, an LCD, and the like; one or more Analog and Digital input/output devices (A&amp;D I/O)  312 ; a keypad  306 , such as a QWERTY keyboard or the like; and a power supply  311  such as may be used in either a desktop or laptop personal computer of conventional design or the like. The CPU  305  and any of the above peripherals may be incorporated in a single instrument, such as those marketed by Dakota Ultrasonics®. Further, the signal processing may be done entirely with analog devices so that an A/D converter is not required. 
   An embodiment of the present invention may be provided as a portable, stand-alone instrument with the addition of one or more batteries  310 . Further, a battery charger  309  may be incorporated in select embodiments of the present invention, capable of operating from sources that are either AC (such as commercial power) or DC (such as a 12 V automotive battery), or both. 
   A tone generator  308  provides an acoustic signal, preferably an ultrasonic signal, to a driver  307  for transmission to a sensor package  200  fabricated in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Once a signal is transmitted via a particular one of the two elements  101 ,  102 , into the sample  320  to be measured, the reflected analog acoustic signal is captured and amplified by amplifier  303  and passed to a digitizer  304  to be digitized prior to processing in the CPU  305 . For each measurement, a tone (acoustic signal) is generated and transmitted separately over each sensor element  101 ,  102  to yield a pair of “roundtrip” transmission times for the two separate tones (signals) used with each measurement. Preferably the two separate tones are sent using similar parameters, e.g., frequency, amplitude, modulation, and the like. The transmission times are processed in the CPU  305  using an algorithm employing Eqn. (1) and a measurement of the bulk stress in the sample is derived. 
   In select embodiments of the present invention, a sensor package  200  is mounted on a sample  320  that has had shear gel applied thereto to serve as an acoustical couplant. Note that conventional ultrasonic coupling substances, such as water, oil or grease and the like, are not suitable because they do not transmit the shear component of acoustic waves. The ultrasonic instrument  300  is then connected to the shear wave element  101  of the sensor package  200  at the appropriate connector  101 A, and a measurement is made of the roundtrip time of the ultrasonic pulse to and from the distal surface of the sample  320 . This process is then repeated, using the longitudinal wave element  102  and the appropriate connector  102 A. The measured longitudinal and shear travel times are each divided by twice the length of the sample  320 , and the resultant velocities, V l  and V s , are used in Eqn. (1) to calculate the bulk stress in the sample  320 . Multiple tests may be run and an average of the results used as necessary to assure consistency of data. 
   The sensor  200  generates both shear waves and longitudinal waves from the same housing  201 , eliminating problems associated with accurate shear and longitudinal sound velocity measurement taken conventionally in two separate mountings of the sensor. That is, both a shear wave and a longitudinal wave may be propagated from the exact same position of the sensor as mounted on the object to be measured. With conventional sensors, the sensor would need to be un-mounted to get a second reading for the wave not propagated the first time. Further, multiple mountings and readings may be taken with an embodiment of the present invention with little concern for errors from multiple mountings since the algorithm uses the difference between shear and longitudinal velocities. In select embodiments of the present invention, the distance over which the velocity of both shear and longitudinal waves are measured is the same as the ultrasonic coupling and propagation path. With three sources of variance eliminated accurate bulk stress measurements are made. Note that an embodiment of the present invention is not limited to any specific type of material. Further, an embodiment of the present invention is applied at a single point, i.e., it does not require access to a large surface area of the object. Note that an embodiment of the present invention provides an accurate quantitative measure of true bulk stress, not just simple surface stress. 
   Example IV with Test Results 
   A test load was applied to a steel bolt, 4.275 in. long with a shank diameter of 0.625 in. and a minimum thread area cross section of 0.85 square inches. The load was applied manually using a hydraulic jack and a hollow plunger cylinder with an effective area of 2.76 square inches. The applied hydraulic pressure was read from an analog gauge. The resulting load on the bolt and the resulting bolt tension were calculated from the applied hydraulic pressure, using the cylinder effective area for the first quantity and the bolt minimum cross sectional area for the second quantity. The settings used for this test are given in Table 1. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 1 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Test settings for tensioning a 4.275 in. steel bolt 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               LONGITUDINAL 
               SHEAR 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               FREQUENCY (MHz) 
               2.25 
               2.25 
             
             
                 
               AMPLITUDE (Volts) 
               200 
               200 
             
             
                 
               PULSE WIDTH (nsec) 
               280 
               280 
             
             
                 
               PRF (Hz) 
               35 
               35 
             
             
                 
               RECEIVER GAIN (dB) 
               25 
               25 
             
             
                 
               DAMPING (Ohms) 
               400 
               400 
             
             
                 
               DETECTION (RF) 
               FULL 
               FULL 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   Ultrasonic velocities were determined by using an embodiment of the present invention, a prototype ultrasonic bulk stress measurement sensor coupled to a Dakota Ultrasonics DFX-544 instrument to time the longitudinal and shear wave transits. Dividing the known bolt length by transit times yielded the required shear and longitudinal velocities, V s  and V l  for use in Eqn (1). The calculated bolt tension was found by using Eqn (1), referencing to zero, and multiplying by an appropriate experimental constant, 10293483, which is about ⅓ of Young&#39;s modulus of steel. Results are displayed in Table 2. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 2 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Test results from tensioning a 4.275 in. steel bolt. 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Velocity: 
               Velocity: 
                 
                 
             
             
               Bolt  
               Longitudinal 
               Shear 
               Calculated Bolt 
               Experimental 
             
             
               Tension (psi) 
               (in/s) 
               (in/s) 
               Tension (psi) 
               Error 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               0 
               233809 
               127421 
               0 
               0% 
             
             
               1625 
               233754 
               127405 
               658 
               −59% 
             
             
               3249 
               233645 
               127405 
               3553 
               9% 
             
             
               4874 
               233590 
               127389 
               4212 
               −14% 
             
             
               6498 
               233481 
               127372 
               6320 
               −3% 
             
             
               8123 
               233372 
               127340 
               7637 
               −6% 
             
             
               9747 
               233263 
               127324 
               9747 
               0% 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   From this laboratory test on a small object, the experimental error is greatest at small loads. The error was introduced in the measurement of the time for the shear wave to traverse the small object. If the bolt tension calculated from this erroneous time was instead calculated from the “no load” shear velocity value, the experimental error would be −11%. Looking at this another way, if a tensioned member expected to have a nominal loading exhibits tension values that are unexpectedly low then one might conclude that the tensioned member is broken or weakened and needs further investigation. 
   Example V 
   If one were to use an embodiment of the present invention for testing supporting infrastructure of a large concrete monolith, such as the Henry dam, the settings may be as those presented in Table 3. Thus, one can see that the settings are tailored to the application to which an embodiment of the present invention is put, one change being the provision of a much stronger signal for larger objects. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 3 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Test settings for tensioning steel rods of approximately 40 ft. in length. 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               LONGITUDINAL 
               SHEAR 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               FREQUENCY (MHz) 
               2.25 
               2.25 
             
             
                 
               AMPLITUDE (Volts) 
               400 
               400 
             
             
                 
               PULSE WIDTH (nsec) 
               250 
               250 
             
             
                 
               PRF (Hz) 
               35 
               35 
             
             
                 
               RECEIVER GAIN (dB) 
               92 
               108 
             
             
                 
               DAMPING (Ohms) 
               400 
               400 
             
             
                 
               DETECTION (RF) 
               FULL 
               FULL 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   In addition to determining the bulk stress of reinforcing material in critical structures, an embodiment of the present invention may be used to determine the strength of concrete structure, e.g., resistance to penetration. Select embodiments of the present invention may be used to assess the strength of structure, such as that damaged by terrorist action or during battle. Many engineered structures, such as bridges, dams, parking garages, and the like require periodic inspection and maintenance to identify and correct any deteriorating reinforcement members. Select embodiments of the present invention can assist owners in making “repair or replace” decisions, while simultaneously increasing the safety of the general public. 
   Select embodiments of the present invention aid researchers with real-time measurements of strength degradation during materials testing. Measurements of stress and strain are common in laboratories, however, conventional methods take stress measurements globally over the specimen. An embodiment of the present invention measures bulk stress in a small column-shaped section of interest. This offers early determination of the effects of degradation. That is, select embodiments of the present invention provide the ability to see strength degradation in pre-specified zones rather than just macroscopically. 
   It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as described. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of this invention as defined in the following claims. In the claims, means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described herein as performing the recited function and not only structural equivalents, but also equivalent structures. Thus, although a nail and a screw may not be structural equivalents in that a nail employs a cylindrical surface to secure wooden parts together, whereas a screw employs a helical surface, in the environment of fastening wooden parts, a nail and a screw may be equivalent structures. 
   The abstract is provided to comply with the rules requiring an abstract, which will allow a searcher to quickly ascertain the subject matter of the technical disclosure of any patent issued from this disclosure. 37 CFR § 1.72(b). Any advantages and benefits described may not apply to all embodiments of the invention.