Abstract:
Exemplary methods, computer-readable media, and systems are presented for leveraging question-answering knowledge from community sites by complementing product search services with a search of questions, answers, reviews and other Internet accessible content including user-generated content. Product or service information is obtained by crawling Internet-accessible Web sites including community sites. An integrated index of such information is generated. A user is able to browse questions by product or service feature, by topic, by identified comparative questions, and by question ranking (for example, interestingness or popularity).

Description:
BACKGROUND 
       [0001]    Prior to making purchases, consumers and others often conduct research, read reviews and search for best prices for products and services. Information about products and services can be found at a variety of types of Internet-accessible Web sites including community sites. Such information is abundant. Product developers, vendors, users and reviewers, among others, submit information to a variety of such sites. Some sites allow users to post opinions about products and services. Some sites also allow users to interact with each other by posting questions and receiving answers to their questions from other users. 
         [0002]    Ordinary search services yield thousands and even millions of results for any given product or service. A search of a community site often yields far too many hits with little filtering. Results of a search of a community site are typically presented one at a time and in reverse chronological order merely based on the presence of search terms. 
         [0003]    A search of typical question and answer community sites typically results in a listing of questions. For example, a search for a product such as a “Mokia L99” cellular telephone could yield hundreds of results. Only a few results would be viewed by a typical user from such a search. Each entry on a user interface to a search result could be made up of part or all of a question, all or part of an answer to the corresponding question and other miscellaneous information such as a user name of each user who submitted each respective question or answer. Other information presented would include when the question was presented and how many answers were received for a particular question. Each entry listed as a result of a search could be presented as a link so that a user could access a full set of information about a particular question or answer matching a search query. A user would have to follow each hyperlink to view the entire entry to attempt to find useful information. 
         [0004]    Such searching of products and services is time-consuming and is often not productive because search queries yield either too much information, not enough information, or just too much random information. Such searching also typically fails to lead a user to the most useful entries on community and other sites because there is little or no automatic parsing or filtering of the information—just a dump of entries matching one or more of desired search terms. Users would have to click through page after page and link after link with the result of spending excessive amounts of time looking for the most useful information responsive to a relatively simple inquiry. 
         [0005]    To further compound the problem, product and service information is spread over a myriad of sites and is presented in many different formats. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0006]    This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter. 
         [0007]    Information from question-answer community sites is combined with an indexing search service. Community and other Internet-accessible Web sites are crawled and information such as questions and answers are extracted from these sites. An integrated index is built from extracted information. The integrated index is used in conjunction with a search service and other information through an improved user interface to provide an enhanced searching service to users. 
         [0008]    To help users browse questions and answers efficiently, several features are provided. Each type of product or service is associated with a set of product or service features. In a search of community and other types of Web sites, questions, answers, and other types of information are grouped by feature. For example, questions are grouped around types of question. Sequential pattern mining, point of sale (POS) tags-based filtering, and other techniques are used to filter and group questions and other types of information. Grouping is also done by static ranking according to user interest or user-ranked input such as, for example, a tag of “interestingness.” For those bits of information that have not received a tag from a user, but likely would have been tagged by the user, a computer model automatically identifies and generates a user tag for such bits of information. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0009]    The Detailed Description is set forth and the teachings are described with reference to the accompanying figures. In the figures, the left-most digit(s) of a reference number identifies the figure in which the reference number first appears. The use of the same reference numbers in different figures indicates similar or identical items. 
           [0010]      FIG. 1  is an exemplary user interface showing exemplary results of a product or service information indexing and search. 
           [0011]      FIG. 2  shows an overview of the topology of the system described herein. 
           [0012]      FIG. 3  is a diagram showing parts of a product or service information indexing and search. 
           [0013]      FIG. 4  is flow chart showing a process for a product or service information indexing and search. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0014]    This disclosure is directed to finding, sorting, indexing and presenting information about products and services to users. Herein, while reference may be made to a product, a service or something else may just as easily be the subject of the features described herein. For the sake of brevity and clarity, not limitation, reference is made to a product. 
         [0015]    Previously, a user interested in a product would have had to use a search engine or other search tool to find product prices and would separately have had to search and then individually browse community sites, or at least individual entries from community sites, for reviews and other information. Community sites as understood herein include community-based question submission and question answering sites, and various forum sites, among others. Community sites as used herein include community question and answer (community QnA) sites. 
         [0016]    One problem has been that valuable information buried in question and answer sites is not readily accessible when a user wishes to research a product. Another problem is that what is considered interesting or useful to one user is not necessarily interesting to another user. Yet another problem is that newly submitted information may not get enough exposure for user interaction and thus information that would have been considered very interesting by many users is not identified when a user seeks information. 
         [0017]    As described herein, in a particular illustrative implementation, instead of a conventional search result, a user receives an enhanced and aggregated search result upon entering a query. The result  100  of such illustrative query is shown in  FIG. 1  using “Mokia L99,” an exemplary product. 
         [0018]    Exemplary User Interface and Search Results 
         [0019]    With reference to  FIG. 1 , a product summary  102  is provided to a user as part of the result  100 . Such a summary  102  includes by way of example, without limitation, a title  140 , a picture  142 , a range of prices  152  at which the product is being offered for sale, a link to a list of sites containing prices  154 , a composite average of ratings made by users  144 , a link to a list of Web pages of user reviews  148 , a composite average of ratings made by experts or commercial entities  146 , a link to a list of Web pages of expert or commercial reviews  150 , and an exemplary description of the product  156 . 
         [0020]    In one implementation, a product feature summary  104  is also provided to a user. This product feature summary  104  includes, by way of example, an overall summary of questions from community sites, some of which are flagged or tagged by users as “interesting”  106  and questions grouped according to product feature  108 . For example, in  FIG. 1 , about five percent of 1442 questions have been marked as “interesting.” In one implementation, questions flagged as “interesting” also include those questions which have programmatically been predicted as likely to be flagged as interesting according to a method described in more detail below. If a user desires more information about “all questions,” the “all questions” is presented as a link leading to a Web page which includes a listing of all questions, preferably where the questions tagged as “interesting” by users are presented first, grouped together, or otherwise set off from the others. 
         [0021]    Product features  108  may be generated by users, automatically generated by a computer process, or identified by some other method or means. These product features  108  may be presented as links to respective product feature Web pages which each contain listing of questions addressed to a single feature or group of related features. For example, in  FIG. 1 , a user is presented with a link to “sound” as a feature of the Mokia L99 cellular telephone. If a user selects the link to sound, questions addressing sound of the Mokia L99 would be listed on a separate Web page where one of the seven questions would be identified as “interesting” (about 14 percent of the seven questions as shown in  FIG. 1 ). 
         [0022]    Product feature Web pages preferably list questions marked as “interesting” ahead of, or differently from, other questions addressing the same product feature. A user would then be directed in a hierarchal fashion to specific product features and then to questions or answers or both questions and answers that have been marked by community site users as “interesting” or programmatically identified as likely to be “interesting.” Another designation other than “interesting” may be used and correlated or combined with those items flagged as “interesting.” 
         [0023]    In the lower left portion of  FIG. 1 , a user is also presented with a tag cloud  110  or listing of keywords or “hot topics” found in the 1442 indexed questions. The size or presentation of each keyword or phrase is in proportion to its relative frequency in the set of indexed questions. For example, the word “provider”  112  is smaller than the word “Microsoft”  114  because the word “Microsoft”  114  appears more frequently then provider  112  as to those results which pertain to “Mokia L99.” The number and sizes of words and phrases in the tag cloud vary depending on the set of indexed questions. 
         [0024]    With reference to  FIG. 1 , a sample of questions from the set of indexed questions is presented in a questions listing section  160 . Questions may be presented in a variety of ways in this section including most recent  116 , comparative  118 , interesting  120  and most popular  122 . In one implementation, a user is presented with a link for accessing information that is sorted in one of these ways. A set of sample comparative questions  118  is shown in  FIG. 1 ; the word “comparative”  118  is bolded to indicate this type of question. Each question in the comparative listing of questions addresses two or more products of the same type as that identified by the query or search terms. For example, the first sample question addresses “Mokia L99”  132  and “Samsun Q44” cellular telephone telephones. Questions, answers and other types of information may be identified and to a user interface or other destination in response to selecting a comparative  118  option. 
         [0025]    In one implementation, a summary of information about each question is presented in the questions listing section  160 . For example, such a question summary includes a user rating  130  for a particular question, a bolding of a search term in the question  132  or in an answer  134  to a question. The site from which the question appears  136  is also shown. A short summary of each answer and links or other navigation to see other answers  138  to a particular question are also provided. In  FIG. 1 , three comparative questions are shown. However, any number of questions may be shown on a single page of a user interface. 
         [0026]    In summary as to the user interface  100 , a user is simultaneously presented with a variety of features with which to check product details, compare prices provided by a plurality of sites, and gain access to opinions from many other users from one or more sites having questions or from users who have provided answers to questions about a particular product. 
         [0027]    Illustrative Network Topology 
         [0028]      FIG. 2  shows an exemplary network topology  200  of one implementation of an improved product and service search described herein. A single server  210  is shown, but many servers may be used. The server  210  houses memory  212  on which operates a crawler and extractor application  214  and an indexer application  216 . The crawler and extractor application  214  interoperates with the indexer application  216 . The crawler and extractor application  214  and indexer application  216  acquire, read and store data in one or more databases.  FIG. 2  shows a single database  220  for convenience. This database receives data from at least a plurality of community sites and community QnA sites  202 , as obtained by the crawler and extractor application  214 , and from the indexer application  216 . A processing unit  218  is shown and represents one or more processors as part of the one or more servers  210 . The server  210  connects to community sites  202  and to user machines  204  through a network  206  such as the Internet. 
         [0029]    An exemplary implementation of a process to generate the user interface shown in  FIG. 1  is shown in  FIG. 3  and  FIG. 4 . 
         [0030]    With reference to  FIG. 3 , one implementation of the process involves crawling and extracting information from community sites  202  and other sites including forum sites  302 . Crawling and extracting are done by a crawler and extractor appliance, application or process  214  operating on one or more servers  210 . For convenience, a single server is shown in  FIG. 3 . Crawling and extracting also takes information from forum site wrappers  304  and posts or threads of users&#39; discussions  306  of forum sites  302 . The crawling and extracting further takes information from community site wrappers  308  of community sites  202 . Questions and answers  326  are taken from the extracted information. 
         [0031]    Using a taxonomy of product names  310 , questions (and answers) are grouped by product names  328 . Metadata is prepared for each question (and answer)  330  from the extracted information. A metadata extractor  350  prepares such metadata through several functions. The metadata extractor  350  identifies comparative questions  312 , predicts question “interestingness”  314  (as explained more fully below), predicts question popularity  316 , extracts topics within questions  318 , and labels questions by product feature  320 . 
         [0032]    Metadata is then indexed by question ID  322  and answers are indexed by question ID  324 . Using the metadata, questions are grouped by product names  332  and questions are ranked by lexical relevance and using metadata  334 . 
         [0033]    Predicting question interestingness  314  includes flagging a question or other information as “interesting” when it has not been tagged as “interesting” or with some other user-generated label. Indexing also comprises labeling questions by feature  308  such as by product feature. While question or questions are referenced, the process described herein equally applies to answers to questions and to all varieties of information. 
         [0034]    When a search for information about a product or service is desired, a query is submitted  338  through a user device  204 . For example, a user submits a query for a “Mokia L99” in search of information about a particular cellular telephone. In response, the server  210  ranks questions, answers and other information by lexical relevance and by using metadata  334  and then generates search results  336  which are then delivered to the user device  204  or other destination. In one implementation, questions are sorted by a relevance score. A user can then interact  340  with the search results which may involve a re-ranking of questions  334 . 
         [0035]      FIG. 4  shows one implementation of a method to provide questions, answers and other product or service information sorted by relevance or other means. Community and other sites are crawled and certain information is extracted therefrom  402 . If any questions (or answers or other information) have not been tagged as interesting, a prediction  404  is done to identify which of these questions would likely have been tagged as interesting. Prediction is done by determining the number of answers provided in response to a question, similarity to other questions or answers that were tagged as interesting, or by other method such as one described herein. 
         [0036]    With reference to  FIG. 4 , questions, answers and other information are indexed, labeled or both indexed and labeled by feature  406 . Topics about products or services are extracted  408  from the information extracted from the community and other sites. Comparative questions, answers and other information are identified  410 . Questions, answers and other information are indexed  412 . In one implementation, these actions or steps are performed prior to receiving a query  414 . Indexing may use a relevance value to rank query results. 
         [0037]    Next, a query may be entered by a user or may be received programmatically from any source. Based on the query, questions and other information are ranked by lexical relevance or interestingness, or relevance and interestingness  416 . Then, questions, answers and other information are provided in a sorted or parsed format. In a preferred implementation, such information is provided sorted by relevance or a combined score  418 . 
         [0038]    In one implementation, through a user interface, after indexing and ranking are completed, a user is able to browse relevant questions, answers and other information addressing a particular product or service sorted by feature. Questions can also be browsed by topic since questions that address the same or similar topic are grouped together so as to provide a user-friendly and user-accessible interface. Further, search results from question and answer community sites and other types of sites are sorted and grouped by similar comparative questions. Product search is enhanced by providing an improved search of questions, answers and other information from community sites. The new search can save effort by users in browsing or searching community sites when users conduct a survey on certain products. 
         [0039]    An improved search of questions and answers helps users not only to make decisions when users want to purchase a product or service but also to get instructions after users have already purchased a product or service. Further implementation details for one embodiment are now presented. 
         [0040]    Product or Service Features 
         [0041]    Each type of product or service is associated with a respective set of features. For example, for digital cameras, product features are zoom, picture quality, size, and price. Other features can be added at any time (or dynamically) and the indexing and other processing can then be re-performed so as to incorporate any newly added feature. Features can be generated by one or more users, user community, or programmatically through one or more computer algorithms and processing. 
         [0042]    In one implementation, a feature indexing algorithm is implemented as part of a server operating crawling and indexing of community sites. The feature indexing algorithm uses an algorithm similar to an opinion indexing algorithm. This feature indexing algorithm is used to identify the features for each product or type of product from gathered data and metadata. Features are identified by using probability and identifying nouns and other parts of speech used in questions and answers submitted to community sites and, through probability, identifying the relationships between these parts of speech and the corresponding products or services. 
         [0043]    In particular, when provided with sentences from community sites, the feature algorithm or system identifies possible sequences of parts of speech of the sentence that are commonly used to express a feature and the probability that the sequence is the correct sequence for the sentence. For each sequence, the feature identifying system then retrieves a probability derived from training data that the sequence contains a word that expresses a feature. The feature identification system then retrieves a probability from the training data that the feature words of the sentence are used to express a feature. The feature identification system then combines the probabilities to generate an overall probability that a particular sentence with that sequence expresses a feature. Potential features are then identified. Potential features across a plurality of products of a given category of product are then gathered and compared. A set of features is then identified and used. A restricted set if features may be selected by ranking based on a probability score. 
         [0044]    In another embodiment, product or service features are determined using two kids of evidence within the gathered data and metadata. One is “surface string” evidence, and the other is “contextual evidence.” An edit distance can be used t compare the similarity between the surface strings of two product feature mentions in the text of questions and answers. Contextual similarity is used to reflect the semantic similarity between two identifiable product features. Surface string evidence or contextual evidence are used to determine the equivalence of a product or service feature in different forms (e.g. battery life and power). 
         [0045]    When using contextual similarity, all questions and answers are split into sentences. For each mention of a product feature, the feature “mention,” or term which may be a product feature, is taken as a query and search for all relevant sentences. Then, a vector is constructed for the product feature mention by taking each unique term in the relevant sentences as a dimension of the vector. The cosine similarity between two vectors of product feature mentions can then be present to measure the contextual similarity between the two feature mentions. 
         [0046]    Product or Service Topics 
         [0047]    Usually, a topic around which users ask questions cannot be predicted or fall within a fixed set of topics for a product or service. While some user questions may be about features, most questions are not. For example, a user may submit “How do I add songs to my Zoon music player?” Thus, the process described herein provides users with a mechanism to browse questions around topics that are automatically extracted from a corpus of questions. To extract the topics automatically, questions are grouped around types of question, and then sequential pattern mining and part-of-speech (POS) tags-based filtering are applied to each group of questions. 
         [0048]    POS tagging is also called grammatical tagging or word-category disambiguation. POS tagging is the process of marking up or finding words in a text as corresponding to a particular part of speech. The process is based on both its definition as well as its context—i.e., relationship with adjacent and related words in a phrase, sentence, or paragraph. A simplified form of POS tagging is commonly taught to school-age children, in the identification of words as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Once performed by hand, POS tagging is now done in the context of computational linguistics, using algorithms which associate discrete terms, as well as hidden parts of speech, in accordance with a set of descriptive tags. Questions, answers and other information extracted from sites are treated in this manner. 
         [0049]    Comparative Questions 
         [0050]    Sometimes, users not only care about the product or service that they want to purchase, but also want to compare two or more products or services. As shown in  FIG. 1 , comparative questions are found and presented on a user interface. Further, such batch of questions can be filtered or sorted according to “interestingness” making it easier for a user to find desired or usable information. 
         [0051]    User Labeling 
         [0052]    Some sites allow users to label, tag or vote certain questions, answers or other information as “interesting.” Other labels are possible. Such labels express whether or not users are interested in certain questions or whether users find such questions valuable. Another example is giving a vote of a thumb up or a thumb down on a product or service. The process described herein accounts for votes by users. These votes are not only presented in the search results but are also used as part of a static ranking of search results. For those questions without votes, a model programmatically predicts “interestingness” where interestingness is a measure evaluating whether or not a question is likely to be considered interesting by users in general. 
         [0053]    In one particular implementation, “interestingness” is defined as a quadruple (u, x, v, t) such that a user u (is an element of all users U) provides a vote v (interesting or not) for a question x which is posted at a specific time t (within R+). It is noted that v is contained within the set {1, 0} where 1 means that a user provides an “interesting” vote and 0 denotes no vote given. The set of questions with a positive “interestingness” label can be expressed as Q+={x: (u, x, v, t), v=1}. 
         [0054]    In this implementation, such a designation of “interesting” is a user-dependent property such that different users may have different preferences as to whether a question is interesting. It is assumed for purposes of this implementation that there is a commonality of “interestingness” over all users and this is referred to as “question interestingness.” This term is formally defined in this implementation as the likelihood that a question is considered “interesting” by most users. For any given question that is labeled as “interesting” by many users, it is probable that it is “interesting” for any individual user in U. 
         [0055]    A preference order 
         [0000]      x (1)           x (2)   (1) 
         [0000]    exists if and only if there exists (u, x (1) , v 1 , t 1 ) and (u, x (2) , v 2 , t 2 ) such that v 1 &gt;v 2 , |t 1 −t 2 |&lt;Δt, and Δt is contained in R+. 
         [0056]    Questions at community sites are usually sorted by posting time when they are presented to users as a list of ranked items. That is, the latest posted question is ranked highest, and then older questions are presented in reverse chronological order. The result is that questions with close posting times tend to be viewed by a particular user within a single page which means that they have about the same chance of being seen by user and about the same chance of being labeled as “interesting” by the user. With the assumption that a user u sees x (1)  and x (2)  at about the same time within a single page, it can lead to the result that x (1)  can be tagged as “interesting” and x (2)  left as not “interesting” by a user. Therefore, it is relatively safe to accept that for any given user, x (1)  is more “interesting” than x (2) . 
         [0057]    According to Equation 1, it is possible to build a set of ordered (question) instance pairs for any given user as follows: 
         [0000]      S u ={x i   (1) ,x i   (2) ,z i } i=1   l     u     (2) 
         [0000]    where z i  equals 1 for x (1)           x (2)  and −1 otherwise, and where i runs from 1 to l number of users. 
         [0058]    The number of sets is the size of all users U (denoted |U|). S is the union ∪S u . 
         [0059]    The assumption is that a majority of users share a common preference about “question interestingness.” 
         [0060]    Problem Statement 
         [0061]    It is assumed that question x comes from an input space X which is a subset of R n , where n denotes a number of features of a product. A set of ranking functions f exists where each f is an element of all functions F. Each function f can determine the preference relations between instances as follows: 
         [0000]      x i           x j  if and only if f(x i )&gt;f(x j )  (3) 
         [0062]    The best function f* is selected from F that respects the given set of ranked instances S. It is assumed that f is a linear function such that 
         [0000]        f   w ( x )=           w,x             (4) 
         [0000]    where w denotes a vector of weights and          •,•          denotes an inner product. Combining Equation 4 and Equation 3 yields 
         [0000]      x i           x j  if and only if          w,x i −x j           &gt;0  (5) 
         [0063]    Note that the relation x i           x j  between instance pairs x i  and x j  is expressed by a new vector x i −x j . A new vector is created from any instance pair and the relationship between the elements of the instance pair. From the given training data set S, a new training data set S′ is created that contains l (lower-case letter “L”) (=Σ u l u ) labeled vectors. 
         [0000]        S′={x   i   (1)   −x   i   (2)   ,z   i } i=1   l &gt;0  (6) 
         [0000]    Similarly, S′ u  is created for each user u. 
         [0064]    S′ is taken as classification data and a classification model is constructed that assigns either a positive label z=+1 or a negative label z=−1 to any vector x i   (1) −x i   (2) . 
         [0065]    A weight vector w* is learned by the classification model. The weight vector w* is used to form a scoring function f w*  for evaluating “interestingness” of a question x. 
         [0000]        f   w* ( x )=           w,x             (7) 
         [0066]    In one implementation, the Perceptron algorithm is adapted for the above presented learning problem by guiding the learned function by a majority of users. The Perceptron algorithm is a learning algorithm for linear classifiers. A particular variant of the Perceptron algorithm is used and is called the Perceptron algorithm with margins (PAM). The adaptation as disclosed herein is referred to as Perceptron algorithm for preference learning (PAPL). A pseudocode listing for PAPL is as follows. 
       Listing 1 
       [0067]      
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Input: 
                 training examples {x i   (1)  − x i   (2) ,z i } i=1   m , 
               
               
                   
                   
                 training rate η is an element in R+, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 margin parameter τ is an element in R+ 
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 w 0  = 0; t = 0; 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 repeat 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 3     for i ← 1 to m do 
               
               
                   
                 4      if z i             w t ,x i   (1)  − x i   (2)             ≦ τ then 
               
               
                   
                 5       w t+1  = w t  + ηz i ((x i   (1)  − x i   (2) ) ; 
               
               
                   
                 6                   bt+1  = b t  + ηz i  max j  || x j   (1)  − x j   (2)  || 2 ; 
               
               
                   
                 7       t ←t + 1; 
               
               
                   
                 8      end if 
               
               
                   
                 9     end for 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 10 
                 until no updates made within the for loop 
               
               
                   
                 11 
                 return w t ; 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0068]    In this implementation, PAPL makes two changes when compared to PAM. First, instance pairs (instead of instances) are used as input. Second, an estimation of an intercept is no longer necessary (as in line 6). The changes do not influence the convergence of the PAPL algorithm. 
         [0069]    For each user u, Listing 1 can learn a model (denoted by weight vector w u ) on the basis of S′ u . However, none of the users can be used for predicting “question interestingness” because such users are personal to a particular user, not to all users. 
         [0070]    An alternative implementation is to use the model (denoted by w 0 ) learned on the basis of S′. The insufficiency of the model w 0  originates from an inability to avoid influences of a minority of users which diverges from the majority of users in terms of preferences about “interesting.” This influence can be mitigated and w 0  can be boosted. 
         [0071]    Different users might provide different preference labels for a same set of instance pairs. The implementation herein uses the instance pairs from a majority of users and ignores as noise those instance pairs from a minority of users, and this process is done automatically by identifying the majority from the minority. A different weight is given to each instance of pairs where a bigger weight means the particular instance pair is more important. In this implementation, it is assumed that all instance pairs from a user u share the same weight au. The next step is to determine a weight for each user. 
         [0072]    Every w obtained by PAPL (from Listing 1) is treated as a directional vector. Predicting a preference order between two questions x i   (1)  and x i   (2)  is achieved by projecting x i   (1)  and x i   (2)  onto the direction denoted by w and then sorting them on a line. Thus, the directional vector w u  denoting a user u agreeing with a majority should be close to the directional vector w 0  denoting the majority. Furthermore, the closer a user vector is to w 0 , the more important the user data is. 
         [0073]    Cosine similarity is used to measure how close two directional vectors are to each other. A set of user weights {α u } is found as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     α 
                     u 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     
                       
                         〈 
                         
                           
                             w 
                             0 
                           
                           , 
                           
                             w 
                             u 
                           
                         
                         〉 
                       
                       N 
                     
                     = 
                     
                       
                         〈 
                         
                           
                             w 
                             0 
                           
                           , 
                           
                             w 
                             u 
                           
                         
                         〉 
                       
                       
                         
                            
                           
                             w 
                             0 
                           
                            
                         
                         · 
                         
                            
                           
                             w 
                             u 
                           
                            
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   8 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0074]    This implementation is termed majority-based perceptron algorithm (MBPA) and emphasizes its training on the instance pairs from a majority of users. Listing 2 provides pseudo code for one implementation of this method. 
       Listing 2 
       [0075]      
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Input: 
                 training examples {x i   (1)  − x i   (2) ,z i } i=1   m , 
               
               
                   
                   
                 training rate η is an element in R+, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 margin parameter τ is an element in R+ 
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 w 0  = 0; t = 0; 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 repeat 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 3     for i ← 1 to m do 
               
               
                   
                 4      if z i             w t ,x i   (1)  − x i   (2)             ≦ τ then 
               
               
                   
                 5       w t+1  = w t  + ηz i ((x i   (1)  − x i   (2) ) ; 
               
               
                   
                 6                   bt+1  = b t  + ηz i  max j  || x j   (1)  − x j   (2)  || 2 ; 
               
               
                   
                 7       t ←t + 1; 
               
               
                   
                 8      end if 
               
               
                   
                 9     end for 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 10 
                 until no updates made within the for loop 
               
               
                   
                 11 
                 return w t ; 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0076]    The subject matter described above can be implemented in hardware, or software, or in both hardware and software. Although the subject matter has been described in language specific to structural features or methodological acts, it is to be understood that the subject matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to the specific features or acts described above. Rather, the specific features and acts are disclosed as exemplary forms of implementing the claimed subject matter. For example, the methodological acts need not be performed in the order or combinations described herein, and may be performed in any combination of one or more acts.