Abstract:
A method is disclosed for controlling exhaust emissions from direct injected homogeneous charge compression ignition engines by combusting therein a fuel having a cetane number equal to or less than 50, and aromatic content equal to or greater than 15 wt %.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
   This present Application is related to co-pending Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/571,307 filed on May 14, 2004, and takes priority therefrom. The teachings of the related Application are incorporated herein by reference to the extent they do not conflict herewith 

   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   1. Field of the Invention 
   The present invention relates to direct injected homogeneous charge compression ignition engines and to a way to exercise control over exhaust emissions, and especially NO x  emissions therefrom by adjusting the characteristics of the fuel. 
   2. Related Art 
   In “Effects of Fuel Properties on Premixed Charge Compression Ignition Combustion in a Direct Injection Diesel Engine,” Kitano et al SAE 2003-01-1815, it is taught that NO x  emissions among three test fuels, two based on fuels having a boiling range of about 35° C. to 139° C. and of 25, 40 cetane, and one diesel of boiling range 170° C. to 355° C., and of 53 cetane number, respectively, showed a tendency to decrease as the cetane number is lowered and as the injection timing is advanced. 
   In “A Method of Defining Ignition Quality of Fuels in HCCI Engines,” Kalghatgi et al. SAE 2003-01-1816, it is taught that more sensitive fuels are likely to be better than less sensitive fuels of the same RON for HCCI engines. Fuel sensitivity is reported to increase as the aromatic/olefinic/oxygenate content of the fuel increases. 
   Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a rapidly evolving technology that offers great potential for meeting future exhaust emissions regulations while maintaining good fuel conversion efficiency. 
   The primary reason HCCI systems are being developed is because of their ultra-low NO x  and particulate matter emissions capability that will be needed to meet future worldwide emissions regulations, excellent fuel efficiency and the possible avoidance of costly aftertreatment systems. 
   HCCI systems will likely target the US on-highway 2010 and off-road Tier 4b regulations due to the extremely low NO x  emissions levels, although forms of HCCI could be used to meet practically all upcoming regulations. NO x  levels of 0.2–0.3 g/HP·h translate into &lt;50 ppm NO x  at all engine operating conditions (&lt;10 ppm at most), and the only other known methods to achieve these levels involve the use of expensive NO x  aftertreatment technology such as NO x  adsorbers and SCR systems. If a true homogeneous mixture is achieved, rich regions in the cylinder are avoided and solid carbon levels are effectively zero, avoiding the need for particulate traps. Hydrocarbon and CO levels are also legislated and HCCI combustion has inherently high levels of these emissions, especially at light loads (low equivalence ratios). So even if HCCI combustion methods are successful at eliminating the need for NO x  and PM traps, oxidation catalysts will still be needed. 
   The primary challenge of most HCCI development activities is achieving these ultra low NO x  and PM emissions over the entire power spectrum and legislated emissions cycles the engines must operate within. For certain applications such as passenger cars and light trucks, in some countries the emissions cycles only subject the vehicle to part load operation so an HCCI strategy that achieves low emissions up to ½ load and then uses more conventional methods at higher loads may be a perfectly acceptable solution. However, for on-highway trucks and off-road machines, the emissions cycles are such that the engines must produce ultra-low NO x  and PM levels from light load up to full load. Therefore, the ideal HCCI solution is one which works at all engine operating conditions and this has proven to be the most difficult obstacle to overcome by most researchers involved in HCCI development. The primary reason for this is the rapid increase in the rate of combustion as more fuel is injected to increase the power output of the engine. These high combustion rates can lead to cylinder pressures exceeding the structural limits of engine cylinder components (piston, rings, head, etc.) and often are accompanied by high NO x  emissions and increased heat loss. 
   HCCI engines have higher HC and CO emissions than standard diesel engines so control of these emissions is also important. 
   It would be desirable, therefore, to identify techniques for the control and reduction of NO x , particulate matter and other exhaust emissions which could be implemented independently of mechanical or operational control of the HCCI engine while extending the size of the fuel pool. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   It has been discovered that the exhaust emissions, especially the NO x  emissions from a direct injected HCCI engine can be controlled and held at a low level by combusting in the HCCI engine a fuel of reduced cetane number, fuels having a cetane number of between about 20–50, preferably between about 20–40, and more preferably between about 20 to 30. The total aromatic content of the fuel can be greater than 15 wt %, preferably greater than 28 wt %, and more preferably between 28 to 50 wt %. Fuel boiling range can be from 25° C. to 380° C. For gasoline fuels the average of research and motor octane numbers, (R+M)/2, can be 60 to 91, preferably 60 to 81, and more preferably 60 to 70. 

   
     DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
     Various embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to the figures, wherein: 
       FIGS. 1–5  show the effect of injection timing and cetane number (38.5–45.5 range) on NO x , AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1500 rpm, 50% load. 
       FIGS. 6–10  show the effect of injection timing and cetane number (46.7–55.4 range) on NO x , AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1200 rpm, 25% load. 
       FIGS. 11 and 12  show the effect of natural and enhanced cetane number on cylinder pressure and heat release rate, respectively, at 1200 rpm, 25% load. 
       FIGS. 13–17  show the effect of injection timing and aromatic content on NO x , AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1500 rpm, 25% load. 
       FIGS. 18–19  show the effect of fuel volatility on engine heat release and cylinder pressure, respectively, at 1200 rpm, 25% load. 
       FIGS. 20–24  show the effect of fuel volatility on NOx, AVL smoke number, HC, CO, and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1200 rpm and 1800 rpm. 
   

   DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   The exhaust emissions, and especially the NO x  emissions, from a direct injected homogeneous charge compression ignition engine can be controlled and held at a low level or reduced by combusting in the direct injected HCCI engine in which fuel is injected during the compression stroke, a fuel having a cetane number or derived cetane number as determined by ASTM D613 or ASTM D6890, respectively, of between about 20–50, preferably about 20–40, and more preferably about 20–30, with the fuel also having a total aromatics content of about 15 wt % or more, preferably 28 wt % or more, more preferably between about 15 to 50 wt %, and most preferably between about 28 to 50 wt %. Fuel boiling range can be from 25° C. to 380° C. For gasoline fuels the average of research and motor octane numbers, ((R+M)/2), can be 60 to 91, preferably 60 to 81, and more preferably 60 to 70. 
   Diesel fuel is defined as a mixture of hydrocarbons which boil at atmospheric pressure over a temperature range within about 150° C. to 380° C., whereas gasoline fuels are those which boil at atmospheric pressure over a temperature range within about 25° C. to 220° C. 
   The fuels used can also contain non-hydrocarbon components, such as oxygenates. They can also contain additives, e.g., dyes, antioxidants, cetane improvers, cold flow improvers, or lubricity improvers. 
   Experimental 
   A study was conducted to explore fuel property effects on HCCI engine performance and exhaust emissions, focusing on cetane number, aromatic content and volatility for all fuels, and octane number for gasoline fuels. The properties of diesel fuels used in this study are shown in Table 1. The properties of gasoline test fuels are presented in Table 2. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 1 
             
             
                 
             
             
               Properties of Diesel Test Fuels 
             
             
                 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Test 
               FUEL 
             
           
        
         
             
               PARAMETER 
               Method 
               D0 
               D1* 
               D2 
               D3 
               D4 
               D5 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               Density, g/cm3 
                 
               ASTM D4052 
               0.8502 
               0.8674 
               0.9109 
               0.8673 
               0.8503 
               0.8138 
             
             
               Cetane Number 
                 
               ASTM D613 
               44.7 
               45.9 
               31.7 
               38.5 
               45.5 
               46.2 
             
             
               Distillation, F 
               IBE 
               ASTM D86 
               317 
               349 
               482 
               349 
               368 
               359 
             
             
                 
                5% 
                 
               371 
               396 
               498 
               396 
               403 
               374 
             
             
                 
               10% 
                 
               399 
               415 
               500 
               415 
               411 
               375 
             
             
                 
               20% 
                 
               441 
               439 
               506 
               439 
               425 
               381 
             
             
                 
               30% 
                 
               474 
               462 
               512 
               462 
               442 
               387 
             
             
                 
               40% 
                 
               499 
               485 
               518 
               485 
               458 
               400 
             
             
                 
               50% 
                 
               520 
               507 
               527 
               507 
               481 
               430 
             
             
                 
               60% 
                 
               539 
               531 
               536 
               531 
               503 
               540 
             
             
                 
               70% 
                 
               559 
               555 
               549 
               555 
               537 
               604 
             
             
                 
               80% 
                 
               584 
               586 
               567 
               586 
               579 
               613 
             
             
                 
               90% 
                 
               618 
               625 
               597 
               625 
               615 
               622 
             
             
                 
               95% 
                 
               647 
               655 
               627 
               655 
               635 
               632 
             
             
                 
               EP 
                 
               662 
               671 
               630 
               671 
               649 
               641 
             
             
               SFC 
               1-ring 
               ASTM D5186 
               — 
               28.6 
               37.5 
               28.6 
               29.3 
               27.4 
             
             
               Aromatics, 
               2+ -ring 
                 
               — 
               14.8 
               9.2 
               14.8 
               15.4 
               3.1 
             
             
               wt % 
               Total 
                 
               28.0 
               43.4 
               46.7 
               43.4 
               44.7 
               30.5 
             
             
                 
             
             
               *Fuel D3 treated with 0.3 vol % of ethylhexyl nitrate cetane improver 
             
             
               **Fuel D9 treated with 0.15 vol % of ethylhexyl nitrate cetane improver 
             
             
               ***Fuel D9 treated with 0.4 vol % of ethylhexyl nitrate cetane improver 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 2 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Properties of Gasoline Test Fuels 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Test 
               FUEL 
             
           
        
         
             
               PARAMETER 
               Method 
               G1 
               G2 
               G3 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               Density, g/cm3 
               ASTM D4052 
               0.7286 
               0.7266 
               0.7239 
             
             
               RON 
               ASTM D2699 
               95.2 
               83.6 
               65.0 
             
             
               MON 
               ASTM D2700 
               87.1 
               78.9 
               61.4 
             
             
               (R + M)/2 
               — 
               91.2 
               81.2 
               63.2 
             
             
               Derived Cetane Number 
               ASTM D6890 
               20.4 
               26.7 
               31.2 
             
           
        
         
             
               Distillation, F 
               IBE 
               ASTM D86 
               93.4 
               97.7 
               99.0 
             
             
                 
                5% 
                 
               127.6 
               129.0 
               127.6 
             
             
                 
               10% 
                 
               140.5 
               141.6 
               138.4 
             
             
                 
               20% 
                 
               158.5 
               158.5 
               152.1 
             
             
                 
               30% 
                 
               176.5 
               174.7 
               166.5 
             
             
                 
               40% 
                 
               195.4 
               190.4 
               181.9 
             
             
                 
               50% 
                 
               212.2 
               205.5 
               199.6 
             
             
                 
               60% 
                 
               224.6 
               218.8 
               222.1 
             
             
                 
               70% 
                 
               236.5 
               234.5 
               248.4 
             
             
                 
               80% 
                 
               253.9 
               260.2 
               277.3 
             
             
                 
               90% 
                 
               298.6 
               308.7 
               315.3 
             
             
                 
               95% 
                 
               342.9 
               337.8 
               339.1 
             
             
                 
               EP 
                 
               385.9 
               380.5 
               372.6 
             
             
               PIONA, wt % 
               Saturates 
               ASTM D6839 
               65.4 
               65.4 
               82.6 
             
             
                 
               Olefins 
                 
               8.0 
               8.3 
               2.1 
             
             
                 
               Aromatics 
                 
               26.7 
               26.3 
               15.3 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   The engine used in this study was a single cylinder Caterpillar 3401 engine with specifications given in Table 3. A hydraulically intensified fuel injector was used to provide a uniform spray distribution. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 3 
             
             
                 
             
             
               Engine Specification 
             
             
                 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Displacement 
               2.44 dm 3   
             
             
                 
               Bore/Stroke 
               137.2/165.1 mm 
             
             
                 
               Valves per cylinder 
                 4 
             
             
                 
               Swirl Ratio 
               ~0.4 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   Intake and exhaust surge tanks were used to provide boost and backpressure levels that are representative of actual multi-cylinder turbocharger operation. No oxidation catalyst was used so the HC and CO levels reported are all engine-out values. Exhaust gas emissions of CO, HC, NO x  and CO 2  were measured with a Horiba EXSA analyzer. An AVL smoke meter was used for smoke measurement. 
   The fuels were tested at engine speeds of 1200, 1500 and 1800 rpm and engine loads of 25%, 50% and 70+%. 
   The study was focused on engine operating conditions characterized by NO x  emissions &lt;0.2 g/HP·h and AVL smoke numbers &lt;0.1. The former corresponds to US EPA 2010 NO x  emission standard for heavy-duty engines, while the latter is roughly equivalent to the 2010 particulate emission requirement of 0.01 g/HP·h. 
   The effect of cetane number on the performance and emissions of the HCCI engine was evaluated by comparing low cetane (38.5) diesel fuel D 3  with mid-range cetane (45.5) fuel D 4 , as well as mid-range cetane number (46.7) diesel fuel D 7  with high cetane (55.4) diesel fuel D 8 . The fuels in each pair had very similar distillation properties and aromatic content. 
   The effect of cetane number increase achieved through changes in the hydrocarbon composition of the fuel (natural cetane number) was also compared to cetane number enhancement achieved through the use of ethylhexyl nitrate ignition improver. This comparison involved testing of natural cetane fuels D 3  and D 4  alongside the cetane enhanced fuel D 1  (prepared by treating fuel D 3  with the ignition improver). The cetane number of fuel D 1  (45.9) was matched to that of fuel D 4  (45.5), along with aromatic content and distillation properties. In addition, diesel fuel D 2  whose cetane number was 31.7, and three gasolines, G 1 , G 2  and G 3 , whose derived cetane numbers equaled 20.4, 26.7 and 31.2, respectively, were tested to determine the effect of further reduction in cetane number on the operating range of the engine. Fuels G 1 , G 2  and G 3  also allowed the effect of octane number to be evaluated. 
   The effect of aromatic content was investigated using fuels D 4  and D 7  which contained 44.7 and 28.7 wt % of aromatics, respectively. 
   Volatility effects were investigated by comparing middle distillate fuels D 6  and D 7 . Fuel D 6  was more volatile than fuel D 7 , as its distillation range was lower, e.g. the 90% distillation temperatures of these fuels equaled 257° C. and 313° C., respectively. Fuel D 7  had the volatility of No. 2 diesel fuel, while Fuel D 6  had the volatility of No. 1 diesel fuel or kerosene. Volatility effects were also determined by comparing results for diesel and gasoline fuels. 
     FIGS. 1 through 5  show NO x , AVL smoke, HC, CO and thermal efficiency of the test engine operated on fuels D 3  and D 4  whose cetane numbers were 38.5 and 45.5, respectively. The same parameters are plotted in  FIGS. 6 through 10  for fuels D 7  and D 8  whose cetane numbers were 46.7 and 55.4, respectively. In each case, cetane effects are shown for a single speed/load condition but they did not vary significantly over the conditions tested. NO x  emissions increased as fuel injection timing was retarded, while smoke, HC and CO emissions were reduced or remained unchanged. 
   At early (advanced) injection timings, the NO x  emissions are very low since ample time for fuel to vaporize and mix with air leads to relatively homogeneous distribution of fuel within the combustion chamber at low combustion temperatures. For the late (retarded) combustion timings, fuel distribution within combustion chamber becomes less homogeneous leading to higher local combustion temperatures and increased NO x  emissions, but reduced HC, CO and smoke. An intermediate injection timing region is used where low NO x  and smoke can be realized with moderate levels of HC and CO. 
   Thermal efficiency tended to improve with retarded injection timing, in line with lower HC and CO emissions. Overall, the effects of differences in cetane number on engine performance and emissions were small and tended to disappear as injection timing was retarded at all engine operating conditions used in this study. Where its effect was detectable, cetane number increase seemed to improve CO, HC and smoke emissions at advanced fuel injection settings compared against low cetane number fuel. These small effects of cetane number which were observed may be attributed to increased fuel reactivity and advanced start of combustion timing associated with increased cetane number of the fuel. 
   While the higher cetane number fuel appeared to improve CO, HC and smoke emissions at advanced fuel injection settings as compared against lower cetane number fuel, the lower cetane number fuel appeared to hold NO x  reduction to the same low level or to improve it beyond that demonstrated with the high cetane number fuel over the injection setting range investigated (see  FIGS. 1–10  and Table 4). 
   The effects of natural and enhanced cetane number are compared in Table 4 which contains results of engine tests performed at 1200 rpm, 25% load. These results demonstrate roughly equivalent effect of the 45.5 cetane unadditized fuel D 4  and the 45.9 cetane ignition enhanced fuel D 1  on NOx, AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency of the HCCI engine relative to the 38.5 cetane base fuel D 3 . As shown in  FIGS. 11 and 12 , fuels D 1  and D 4  also advanced the start of combustion timing by about 6 degrees crank angle relative to fuel D 3 . This effect of cetane number on SOC timing is not desirable in HCCI engines. In fact, it is counterproductive from the point of achieving higher load operation on HCCI engines. Increasing cetane number makes it more difficult to achieve optimum combustion phasing at high loads and maximize thermal efficiency of the engine within the constraints of the cylinder pressure and rate of pressure rise limits. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 4 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Effects of Natural and Enhanced Cetane Number 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Fuel 
             
           
        
         
             
               Parameter 
               Unit 
               D1 
               D3 
               D4 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               NOx 
               ppm 
               40 
               12 
               35 
             
             
               AVL Smoke 
               Smoke Number 
               0.08 
               0.02 
               0.08 
             
             
               HC 
               ppm 
               556 
               792 
               536 
             
             
               CO 
               ppm 
               1955 
               3065 
               2110 
             
             
               Thermal Efficiency 
               % 
               32.6 
               34.3 
               32.2 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   As shown in Tables 5 and 6, diesel fuel D 2  and gasoline G 3  allowed the HCCI engine to operate over the broadest speed and load ranges. Fuel D 2  enabled engine operation at 72% at 1200 rpm, and 78% at 1800 rpm. Fuel G 3  enabled operation at 75% load at 1200 rpm, and 83% load at 1800 rpm. The cetane number of fuel D 2  and the derived cetane number of fuel G 3  were 31.7 and 31.2, respectively. On the other hand, gasolines G 1  and G 2  proved to be excessively resistant to autoignition and severely restricted the operating range of the engine. Fuel G 2  (derived cetane number of 26.7) allowed the engine to achieve 75% load at 1200 rpm, but limited its operation at 1800 rpm to a single load of 71%. At 1200 rpm, engine operation on fuel G 1  (derived cetane number of 20.4) was limited to the narrow load range of 50 to 75%. At 1800 rpm, HCCI combustion was not achieved on this fuel. 
   The testing results also show that engine operating range increases as fuel octane number is reduced. Fuel G 3  with (R+M)/2 octane number of 63.2 provided a larger operating range than G 2 , with R+M/2 of 81.2, which in turn provided a larger operating range than G 1  with R+M/2 of 91.2. Octane number is a measure of ignition resistance for gasoline fuels. Unlike a standard gasoline engine, HCCI engines do not have a spark plug to initiate ignite the fuel. If the ignition resistance of the fuel is too high then the fuel is too difficult to ignite and engine operation is restricted. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 5 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Load Range of the HCCI Engine Operated on Fuel D2 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               1200 rpm 
               1800 rpm 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Maximum Load Achieved, % 
               72% 
               78% 
             
             
                 
               Minimum Load Achieved, % 
               10% 
               15% 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 6 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Load Ranges of the HCCI Engine Operated on Fuels G1, G2 and G3 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Fuel G1 
               Fuel G2 
               Fuel G3 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               1200 rpm 
               1800 rpm 
               1200 rpm 
               1800 rpm 
               1200 rpm 
               1800 rpm 
             
             
                 
             
             
               Maximum Load 
               75 
               HCCI 
               75 
               71 
               75 
               83 
             
             
               Achieved, % 
                 
               operation 
                 
               HCCI 
             
             
               Minimum Load 
               50 
               was not 
               50 
               operation 
               25 
               25 
             
             
               Achieved, % 
               However, 
               achieved at 
               HCCI 
               was not 
               HCCI 
               HCCI 
             
             
                 
               engine 
               any engine 
               operation at 
               possible at 
               operation at 
               operation at 
             
             
                 
               operation 
               load 
               &lt;50% load 
               any other 
               &lt;25% load 
               &lt;25% load 
             
             
                 
               was unstable 
                 
               was not 
               load 
               was not 
               was not 
             
             
                 
                 
                 
               attempted 
                 
               attempted 
               attempted 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   The effect of aromatic content of the fuel on exhaust emissions and thermal efficiency is shown in  FIGS. 13 through 17  for the 1500 rpm, 25% load operating point. The comparison is based on fuels D 4  and D 7  whose total aromatic content equaled 44.7 and 28.7 wt %, respectively. In general, the observed effects were small and followed no clear trends for the engine operating conditions used in this study. These results suggest that this HCCI combustion system could be relatively insensitive to the aromatics content of diesel fuel. 
   HCCI combustion systems seem to be relatively insensitive to the aromatics content of diesel fuel, whereas conventional diesel combustion systems are sensitive to this parameter. 
   This insensitivity to aromatics along with the ability to run well and with low NO x  emissions using lower cetane number diesel fuel could significantly increase the size of the pool of useable diesel fuel. 
   As shown in Tables 5 and 6, the engine was able to operate up to 78% load with diesel fuel D 2  and up to 83% load with gasoline fuel G 3 . This demonstrates that a wide range of fuel volatility can be used in the engine.  FIGS. 18 and 19  compare cylinder pressure and heat release rate for fuels D 6  and D 7 . These fuels differed in volatility but their aromatic content and cetane number were well matched. Increased volatility had no significant effect on start of ignition timing and did not impact cylinder pressure, and rate of heat release. 
   The effect of fuel volatility on exhaust emissions and thermal efficiency is shown in  FIGS. 20 through 24  for engine loads of 25 and 50%, by comparing D 6  and D 7 . Increased volatility had a small effect on emissions and efficiency. NOx, smoke and HC emissions decreased with the more volatile fuel D 6 , while thermal efficiency was not affected. These effects could be caused by the more uniform distribution of the more volatile fuel D 6  within the combustion chamber of the engine at the time of ignition. However, CO emissions results were mixed. 
   These results indicate that a broad range of fuel volatility types can be utilized in this engine. More volatile fuels like kerosene or gasoline can provide emission benefits due to better fuel vaporization and mixing. There are also benefits to using less volatile fuels like diesel since these fuels have higher energy density and will therefore provide better mileage, which is very important to the trucking industry which is a known large consumer of diesel fuels.