Abstract:
In one embodiment described in the specification, a surgically implantable reciprocating pump employs a check valve as the piston, which is driven by a permanent magnet linear electric motor to assist either side of the natural heart. The pump is implanted in the aorta or pulmonary artery using vascular attachment cuffs such as flexible cuffs for suturing at each end with the pump output directly in line with the artery. The pump is powered by surgically implanted rechargeable batteries. In another embodiment, pairs of pumps are provided to replace or assist the natural heart or to provide temporary blood flow throughout the body, for example, during operations to correct problems with the natural heart.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a division of U.S. Ser. No. 08/201,806 filed on Feb. 25, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,676,651 which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 08/035,788 filed Mar. 23, 1993, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,290,227 on Mar. 1, 1994, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 07/926,779 filed Aug. 6, 1992 now abandoned. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to reciprocating pump arrangements for pumping fluids such as blood in a controlled manner. More specifically, this invention is directed to a reciprocating pump capable of providing optimal assistance for ventricular or cardiac support such as that for an ailing ventricle. It produces effective pumping action under minimum shear conditions. 
     Heretofore a number of pump designs have been proposed for pumping fluids such as blood. Such pumps must provide leak-free operation and must avoid contamination of the fluid by the pump components and the external environment. In addition, such pumps must effectively pump the fluid at a suitable rate without applying excessive Reynolds shear stress to the fluid. Damage due to excessive shear is particularly a problem when pumping fluids such as blood or blood products. 
     It is well known to those skilled in the art that lysis or cell destruction may result from application of shear stress to cell membranes. Red blood cells are particularly susceptible to shear stress damage as their cell membranes do not include a reinforcing cytoskeleton to maintain cell shape. Lysis of white blood cells and platelets also occurs upon application of high shear stress. Lysis of red blood cells can result in release of cell contents which trigger subsequent platelet aggregation. Sublytic shear stress leads to cellular alterations and direct activation and aggregation of platelets and white blood cells. 
     Several types of surgically implantable pumps have been developed in an effort to provide a mechanical device for augmenting or replacing the blood pumping action of damaged or diseased hearts. Some of these pumps are designed to support single ventricular function. Such pumps usually support the left ventricle, which pumps blood to the entire body except the lungs, since it becomes diseased far more commonly than the right ventricle, which pumps blood only to the lungs. Other devices have been tested and used for providing biventricular function. 
     Depending on the needs of a particular patient and the design of a pump, pumping units such as so-called &#34;VADs&#34; (ventricular assist devices) can be implanted to assist a functioning heart that does not have adequate pumping capability. Other types of pumps, such as the so-called &#34;Jarvik heart,&#34; can be used to completely replace a heart which has been surgically removed. 
     Temporary as well as permanent implantable pumps have been developed. &#34;Permanent&#34; in this sense refers to the remaining life of the patient; after a patient&#39;s death, any artificial pumping device is usually removed for analysis. &#34;Temporary&#34; implantation usually involves (1) an attempt to reduce the stress on a heart while it recovers from surgery or some other short-term problem, or (2) use of a pump as a &#34;bridge&#34; to forestall the death of a patient until a suitable donor heart can be found for cardiac transplantation. 
     The most widely tested and commonly used implantable blood pumps employ variable forms of flexible sacks (also spelled sacs) or diaphragms which are squeezed and released in a cyclical manner to cause pulsatile ejection of blood. Such pumps are discussed in books or articles such as Hogness and Antwerp 1991, DeVries et al 1984, and Farrar et al 1988, and in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,994,078 (Jarvik 1991), 4,704,120 (Slonina 1987), 4,936,758 (Coble 1990), and 4,969,864 (Schwarzmann et al 1990). Sack or diaphragm pumps are subject to fatigue failure of compliant elements and as such are mechanically and functionally quite different from the pump which is the subject of the present invention. 
     An entirely different class of implantable blood pumps uses rotary pumping mechanisms. Most rotary pumps can be classified into two categories: centrifugal pumps and axial pumps. Centrifugal pumps, which include pumps marketed by Sarns (a subsidiary of the 3M Company) and Biomedicus (a subsidiary of Medtronic, Eden Prairie, Minn.), direct blood into a chamber, against a spinning interior wall (which is a smooth disk in the Medtronic pump). A flow channel is provided so that the centrifugal force exerted on the blood generates flow. 
     By contrast, axial pumps provide blood flow along a cylindrical axis, which is in a straight (or nearly straight) line with the direction of the inflow and outflow. Depending on the pumping mechanism used inside an axial pump, this can in some cases reduce the shearing effects of the rapid acceleration and deceleration forces generated in centrifugal pumps. However, the mechanisms used by axial pumps can inflict other types of stress and damage on blood cells. 
     Some types of axial rotary pumps use impeller blades mounted on a center axle, which is mounted inside a tubular conduit. As the blade assembly spins, it functions like a fan, or an outboard motor propeller. As used herein, &#34;impeller&#34; refers to angled vanes (also called blades) which are constrained inside a flow conduit; an impeller imparts force to a fluid that flows through the conduit which encloses the impeller. By contrast, &#34;propeller&#34; usually refers to non-enclosed devices, which typically are used to propel vehicles such as boats or airplanes. 
     Another type of axial blood pump, called the &#34;Haemopump&#34; (sold by Nimbus) uses a screw-type impeller with a classic screw (also called an Archimedes screw; also called a helifoil, due to its helical shape and thin cross-section). Instead of using several relatively small vanes, the Haemopump screw-type impeller contains a single elongated helix, comparable to an auger used for drilling or digging holes. In screw-type axial pumps, the screw spins at very high speed (up to about 10,000 rpm). The entire Haemopump unit is usually less than a centimeter in diameter. The pump can be passed through a peripheral artery into the aorta, through the aortic valve, and into the left ventricle. It is powered by an external motor and drive unit. 
     Centrifugal or axial pumps are commonly used in three situations: (1) for brief support during cardiopulmonary operations, (2) for short-term support while awaiting recovery of the heart from surgery, or (3) as a bridge to keep a patient alive while awaiting heart transplantation. However, rotary pumps generally are not well tolerated for any prolonged period. Patients who must rely on these units for a substantial length of time often suffer from strokes, renal (kidney) failure, and other organ dysfunction. This is due to the fact that rotary devices, which must operate at relatively high speeds, may impose unacceptably high levels of turbulent and laminar shear forces on blood cells. These forces can damage or lyse (break apart) red blood cells. A low blood count (anemia) may result, and the disgorged contents of lysed blood cells (which include large quantities of hemoglobin) can cause renal failure and lead to platelet activation that can cause embolisms and stroke. 
     One of the most important problems in axial rotary pumps in the prior art involves the gaps that exist between the outer edges of the blades, and the walls of the flow conduit. These gaps are the site of severe turbulence and shear stresses, due to two factors. Since implantable axial pumps operate at very high speed, the outer edges of the blades move extremely fast and generate high levels of shear and turbulence. In addition, the gap between the blades and the wall is usually kept as small as possible to increase pumping efficiency and to reduce the number of cells that become entrained in the gap area. This can lead to high-speed compression of blood cells as they are caught in a narrow gap between the stationary interior wall of the conduit and the rapidly moving tips or edges of the blades. 
     An important factor that needs to be considered in the design and use of implantable blood pumps is &#34;residual cardiac function,&#34; which is present in the overwhelming majority of patients who would be candidates for mechanical circulatory assistance. The patient&#39;s heart is still present and still beating, even though, in patients who need mechanical pumping assistance, its output is not adequate for the patient&#39;s needs. In many patients, residual cardiac functioning often approaches the level of adequacy required to support the body, as evidenced by the fact that the patient is still alive when implantation of an artificial pump must be considered and decided. If cardiac function drops to a level of severe inadequacy, death quickly becomes imminent, and the need for immediate intervention to avert death becomes acute. 
     Most conventional ventricular assist devices are designed to assume complete circulatory responsibilities for the ventricle they are &#34;assisting.&#34; As such, there is no need, nor presumably any advantage, for the device to interact in harmony with the assisted ventricle. Typically, these devices utilize a &#34;fill-to-empty&#34; mode that, for the most part, results in emptying of the device in random association with native heart contraction. This type of interaction between the device and assisted ventricle ignores the fact that the overwhelming majority of patients who would be candidates for mechanical assistance have at least some significant residual cardiac function. 
     It is preferable to allow the natural heart, no matter how badly damaged or diseased it may be, to continue contributing to the required cardiac output whenever possible so that ventricular hemodynamics are disturbed as little as possible. This points away from the use of total cardiac replacements and suggests the use of &#34;assist&#34; devices whenever possible. However, the use of assist devices also poses a very difficult problem: in patients suffering from severe heart disease, temporary or intermittent crises often require artificial pumps to provide &#34;bridging&#34; support which is sufficient to entirely replace ventricular pumping capacity for limited periods of time, such as in the hours or days following a heart attack or cardiac arrest, or during periods of severe tachycardia or fibrillation. 
     Accordingly, an important goal during development of the described method of pump implantation and use and of the surgically implantable reciprocating pump was to design a method and a device which could cover a wide spectrum of requirements by providing two different and distinct functions. First, an ideal cardiac pumping device should be able to provide &#34;total&#34; or &#34;complete&#34; pumping support which can keep the patient alive for brief or even prolonged periods, if the patient&#39;s heart suffers from a period of total failure or severe inadequacy. Second, in addition to being able to provide total pumping support for the body during brief periods, the pump should also be able to provide a limited &#34;assist&#34; function. It should be able to interact with a beating heart in a cooperative manner, with minimal disruption of the blood flow generated by the natural heartbeat. If a ventricle is still functional and able to contribute to cardiac output, as is the case in the overwhelming majority of clinical applications, then the pump will assist or augment the residual cardiac output. This allows it to take advantage of the natural, non-hemolytic pumping action of the heart to the fullest extent possible; it minimizes red blood cell lysis, it reduces mechanical stress on the pump, and it allows longer pump life and longer battery life. 
     Several types of surgically implantable blood pumps containing a piston-like member have been developed to provide a mechanical device for augmenting or even totally replacing the blood pumping action of a damaged or diseased mammalian heart. 
     Pat. No. 3,842,440 to Karlson discloses an implantable linear motor prosthetic heart and control system containing a pump having a piston-like member which is reciprocal within a magnetic field. The piston-like member includes a compressible chamber in the prosthetic heart which communicates with the vein or aorta. 
     Pat. Nos. 3,911,897 and 3,911,898 to Leachman, Jr. disclose heart assist devices controlled in the normal mode of operation to copulsate and counterpulsate with the heart, respectively, and produce a blood flow waveform corresponding to the blood flow waveform of the heart being assisted. The heart assist device is a pump connected serially between the discharge of a heart ventricle and the vascular system. The pump may be connected to the aorta between the left ventricle discharge immediately adjacent the aortic valve and a ligation in the aorta a short distance from the discharge. This pump has coaxially aligned cylindrical inlet and discharge pumping chambers of the same diameter and a reciprocating piston in one chamber fixedly connected with a reciprocating piston of the other chamber. The piston pump further includes a passageway leading between the inlet and discharge chambers and a check valve in the passageway preventing flow from the discharge chamber into the inlet chamber. There is no flow through the movable element of the piston. 
     Pat. No. 4,102,610 to Taboada et al. discloses a magnetically operated constant volume reciprocating pump which can be used as a surgically implantable heart pump or assist. The reciprocating member is a piston carrying a tilting-disk type check valve positioned in a cylinder. While a tilting disk valve results in less turbulence and applied shear to surrounding fluid than a squeezed flexible sack or rotating impeller, the shear applied may still be sufficiently excessive so as to cause damage to red blood cells. 
     Pat. Nos. 4,210,409 and 4,375,941 to Child disclose a pump used to assist pumping action of the heart having a piston movable in a cylindrical casing in response to magnetic forces. A tilting-disk type check valve carried by the piston provides for flow of fluid into the cylindrical casing and restricts reverse flow. A plurality of longitudinal vanes integral with the inner wall of the cylindrical casing allow for limited reverse movement of blood around the piston which may result in compression and additional shearing of red blood cells. A second fixed valve is present in the inlet of the valve to prevent reversal of flow during piston reversal. 
     Pat. No. 4,965,864 to Roth discloses a linear motor using multiple coils and a reciprocating element containing permanent magnets which is driven by microprocessor-controlled power semiconductors. A plurality of permanent magnets is mounted on the reciprocating member. This design does not provide for self-synchronization of the linear motor in the event the stroke of the linear motor is greater than twice the pole pitch on the reciprocating element. During start-up of the motor, or if magnetic coupling is lost, the reciprocating element may slip from its synchronous position by any multiple of two times the pole pitch. As a result, a sensing arrangement must be included in the design to detect the position of the piston so that the controller will not drive it into one end of the closed cylinder. In addition, this design having equal pole pitch and slot pitch results in a &#34;jumpy&#34; motion of the reciprocating element along its stroke. 
     In addition to the piston position sensing arrangement discussed above, the Roth design may also include a temperature sensor and a pressure sensor as well as control circuitry responsive to the sensors to produce the intended piston motion. For applications such as implantable blood pumps where replacement of failed or malfunctioning sensors requires open heart surgery, it is unacceptable to have a linear motor drive and controller that relies on any such sensors. In addition, the Roth controller circuit uses only NPN transistors thereby restricting current flow to the motor windings to one direction only. 
     Pat. No. 4,541,787 to Delong describes a pump configuration wherein a piston containing a permanent magnet is driven in a reciprocating fashion along the length of a cylinder by energizing a sequence of coils positioned around the outside of the cylinder. However, the coil and control system configurations disclosed only allow current to flow through one individual winding at a time. This does not make effective use of the magnetic flux produced by each pole of the magnet in the piston. To maximize force applied to the piston in a given direction, current must flow in one direction in the coils surrounding the vicinity of the north pole of the permanent magnet while current flows in the opposite direction in the coils surrounding the vicinity of the south pole of the permanent magnet. Further, during starting of the pump disclosed by Delong, if the magnetic piston is not in the vicinity of the first coil energized, the sequence of coils that are subsequently energized will ultimately approach and repel the magnetic piston toward one end of the closed cylinder. Consequently, the piston must be driven into the end of the closed cylinder before the magnetic poles created by the external coils can become coupled with the poles of the magnetic piston in attraction. 
     Pat. No. 4,610,658 to Buchwald et al. discloses an implantable fluid displacement peritoneovenous shunt system. The system comprises a magnetically driven pump having a spool piston fitted with a disc flap valve. 
     Pat. No. 5,089,017 to Young et al. discloses a drive system for artificial hearts and left ventricular assist devices comprising one or more implantable pumps driven by external electromagnets. The pump utilizes working fluid, such as sulfur hexafluoride to apply pneumatic pressure to increase blood pressure and flow rate. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention also provides an electrical circuit for use in equipment requiring redundancy comprising redundant parallel current paths for current flow between a higher voltage level conductor and a lower voltage level conductor. A plurality of switches in each current path is connected in series between the higher and lower voltage level conductors for controlling current flow between the higher and lower voltage level conductors. Each of the parallel current paths has sensing points between adjacent switches. The current flowing through each path provides a voltage level at each sensing point. A comparator detects voltage differences between corresponding sensing points in the parallel current paths to indicate when one switch is not in the same state as another switch. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     Further objects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from a reading of the following description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
     FIG. 1 is a longitudinal sectional view illustrating a representative surgically implantable pump with a reciprocating piston-valve arranged in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 2 is a perspective view illustrating a representative arrangement for attachment of vascular grafts to a surgically implantable pump in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 2(a) is an enlarged fragmentary view illustrating another alternative arrangement for attachment of the pump to a blood vessel; 
     FIG. 3 is an enlarged fragmentary sectional view illustrating a representative quick connect locking system for attaching a surgically implantable pump with a blood vessel arranged in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 4 is an exploded perspective view showing the arrangement of a typical piston-valve for use in a surgically implantable pump in accordance with the invention; and 
     FIG. 5 is an exploded view showing an alternate configuration for assembling a piston-valve for use in a surgically implantable pump in accordance with the invention. 
     FIG. 6 is a fragmentary cross-sectional view showing an alternate magnet arrangement for use in a surgically implantable pump in accordance with the invention; 
     FIGS. 7(a)-7(j) are fragmentary cross-sectional views illustrating the stages in the energization of the coils of a linear motor drive in accordance with the invention; 
     FIGS. 8 and 8(a) are graphical representatives showing the timing of the application potential to the coils of the linear motor of FIG. 1 in accordance with the invention and a typical electrocardiogram signal respectively; 
     FIGS. 9(a)-9(c) are schematic circuit diagrams of a controller circuit in accordance with the invention; 
     FIGS. 10(a) and 10(b) are perspective views showing the opposite sides of an implantable controller arrangement in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 11 is a schematic illustration showing the anatomical arrangement of a surgically implantable pump with a reciprocating piston-valve in accordance with the invention implanted as a left ventricular assist device; 
     FIG. 12 is a schematic illustration showing the anatomical arrangement of a surgically implantable pump with a reciprocating piston-valve in accordance with the invention implanted as a simplex right ventricular assist device; 
     FIG. 13 is a schematic illustration showing the anatomical arrangement of a surgically implantable pump arrangement in accordance with the invention implanted as a duplex right ventricular assist device; 
     FIG. 14 is a longitudinal sectional view illustrating another embodiment of a surgically implantable pump arranged in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 15 is a schematic illustration showing the anatomical disposition of a surgically implantable pump arrangement in accordance with the invention in a duplex total artificial heart implantation; 
     FIG. 16 is a representative alternate surgically implantable pump arrangement in accordance with the invention in a duplex total artificial heart implantation; 
     FIG. 17 is a longitudinal sectional view showing a surgically implantable pump arranged in accordance with the invention and configured as a simplex total artificial heart; 
     FIG. 18 is a schematic illustration showing the anatomical arrangement of the surgically implantable pump shown in FIG. 17 implanted in a simplex total artificial heart configuration; 
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     In the representative embodiment of a pump according to the invention as shown in FIG. 1, a pump module arrangement 34, which is for example, no more than 6 cm in diameter and 7.5 cm long, includes a reciprocating piston-valve assembly 1 consisting of an annular piston with a central flow passage containing two pivoting valve leaflets 2 which act as a check valve to limit flow through the central passage during reciprocation to one direction only. The piston-valve assembly 1 is driven back and forth through an internal cylinder 3 in the pump module 34 to displace fluid from an inlet end to an outlet end. Smooth and vibration-free motion can be ensured by providing close-clearance, low friction interfaces between the cylinder inner diameter and the piston-valve. 
     The piston-valve 1, leaflets 2 and internal cylinder 3 are all preferably fabricated from highly corrosion-resistant material such as titanium or carbon, and are coated with low-friction, wear-resistant, non-thrombogenic material. One material which has been shown to have a good combination of biocompatibility and high strength is pyrolytic carbon, which is used to coat the housing and leaflets of various types of prosthetic heart valves, such as the St. Jude valve. The coating can be applied by a conventional vapor deposition process, resulting in a layer containing about 90% carbon and 10% silicon on the surface of a graphite structure. 
     When used as an implantable left ventricular assist device (LVAD), the pump module 34 is attached at its inlet end using a sewing cuff 4 to a patient&#39;s aorta 5 immediately downstream of the aortic valve (not shown in FIG. 1) using a suture 6. In this manner, the patient&#39;s own normally functioning aortic valve precludes back-flow of blood into the patient&#39;s left ventricle when the piston-valve makes its return stroke. Preferably the sewing cuff 4 is made from a synthetic surgical graft material such as woven Dacron™ available from the Dupont Corporation. The sewing cuff 4 can be attached to the LVAD using a retaining ring 7 which snaps into cantilevered barbs 8 or other similar retaining arrangements. The sewing cuff has an enlarged end 9 which becomes physically captured or entrapped by the retaining ring 7 when it is snapped into place. Compression of the sewing cuff 9 by the retaining ring 7 against the cylinder 3 forms a hemostatic seal. 
     At the outlet end of the cylinder 3 a retaining ring 15 is used in conjunction with a sewing cuff 16 in a similar manner as described herein above. The sewing cuff 16 is attached using a suture 17 to the patient&#39;s distal ascending aorta 18. 
     Returning to the pump arrangement shown in FIG. 1, a high energy density rare earth permanent magnet 19 having axially spaced north and south pole pieces 21 is mounted on the circumference of the piston-valve 1. A hermetically sealed enclosure 20 made from a highly corrosion-resistant material such as titanium surrounds the permanent magnet 19 and its pole pieces 21. Preferably, the high energy density rare earth material is neodymium-iron-boron. The pole pieces 21, which are made from soft ferromagnetic material, direct the magnetic flux so as to project outward radially from the axially oriented permanent magnet toward the circumference of the piston-valve. The radial magnetic flux thus intercepts the windings 12 of a linear motor that surrounds the cylinder 3 through which the piston-valve 1 slides, the windings being formed in slots separated by magnetically soft lamination material 14 of the type commonly used in commercial motors, generators and transformers. A magnetically soft backing 13 surrounds the winding slots to provide a low reluctance path for the flux generated by the piston-valve magnet to link the windings. The laminations are positioned so as to avoid slot harmonics which would cause non-uniform motion of the piston-valve and are sized to minimize the effective air gap across which the magnetic flux must pass. Particularly smooth motion is obtained by using odd/even ratios of winding slot pitch to magnetic pole pitch on the piston-valve, respectively, or vice versa. In this regard, multiple phase windings are required. 
     The linear motor windings and laminations are encased in a corrosion-resistant enclosure which includes a hermetically sealed penetration 26 for a linear motor lead bundle 30 leading to a linear motor controller 50 described hereinafter. This bundle further includes a pair of epicardial sensing leads 31. A seal weld 10 is provided at each end of the pump module 34 to form a hermetic seal between an outer housing 11 for the pump and the inner cylinder 3. The hermetic seal prevents moisture or other contaminants from attacking the linear motor windings 12, back iron material 13 or lamination material 14. 
     Suitable voltage is provided to the windings of the linear motor by wires in the bundle 30 which are connected to a battery associated with the controller 50. The wires which supply power to the motor are positioned outside the aorta and thus do not contact blood flowing through the aorta. 
     The outer housing 11 can be composed of any suitably hard biocompatible material, such as titanium, stainless steel, various other alloys, graphite, or plastic. It can be sealed with a standard waterproof epoxy coating. 
     In operation, as the piston-valve 1 moves toward the outlet end of the pump, i.e., the right end as viewed in FIG. 1, fluid on the downstream side of the piston-valve is ejected from the outlet end due to the fact that the piston-valve leaflets automatically move to their closed position 2 from their open position 25 shown in dotted lines when the piston-valve moves with respect to the fluid in the pump toward the outlet end of the pump or when fluid attempts to flow past the piston-valve in the direction toward the inlet. As the piston-valve 1 reaches the outlet end of its pumping stroke, its direction of travel is reversed by the controller 50 and, as the piston-valve begins its travel back toward the inlet end of the cylinder, i.e., the left end as viewed in FIG. 1, the piston-valve leaflets automatically move to the open position 25, allowing the fluid to flow from the upstream side of the piston-valve to the downstream side of the piston-valve as it moves along the cylinder. 
     If the linear motor malfunctions and attempts to drive the piston-valve beyond the ends of the cylinder 3, the retaining rings 7 and 15 are shaped so as to prevent the piston-valve from moving past the sewing cuffs 4. As another back-up mechanism, the shape of the retaining rings 7 and 15 is arranged so that the piston-valve will not become jammed in the sewing cuff or damage the sewing cuff in any way. In the outlet end of the pump used as a LVAD, a patient&#39;s aorta 32 bends sharply at the aorta arch 22. To smooth out the flow path, the retaining ring 15 may have a trimmed portion 23 at this location as shown in FIG. 1. The retaining rings 7 and 15 preferably have at least four equally spaced tool holes 24 to receive a tool for removing the retaining rings after they have been snapped into place as described above. 
     In LVAD applications, where the pump is positioned in the outflow duct of the left ventricle, the pump inlet is downstream of the left and right coronary artery ostia or openings. During normal operation, the piston travels back from the outlet end of the cylinder as slowly as possible during the patient&#39;s native heart diastole so that it arrives at the inlet end of the cylinder just before the patient&#39;s left ventricle begins to eject blood during systole. This ensures that the patient&#39;s coronary artery 32 receives adequate blood flow during diastole, when most of the blood that normally enters the coronary arteries is actually admitted. The slow motion of the piston-valve back toward the inlet end of the cylinder also limits shear stress in the blood flowing to the downstream side of the piston-valve and should result in a slight increased pressure at the inlet to the patient&#39;s coronary arteries, which will improve blood flow to the patient&#39;s native heart muscle during diastole. This is expected to compensate for the possibly slightly reduced pressure at the inlet to the patient&#39;s coronary arteries that will occur during systole caused by the pumping action of the piston-valve moving toward the outlet end of the cylinder. A seam 33 formed at the interfaces between each of the sewing cuffs 4 and 16 and the hollow cylinder 3 is compressed against the cylinder by the retaining rings 7 and 15. This ensures that the crevice formed at the seam will become covered with a smooth secure endothelial layer to preclude formation and release of blood clots in this area. 
     The hermetically sealed cable penetration 26 which is made from a highly corrosion-resistant material such as titanium houses the linear motor winding leads 27 and is seal welded to the outer housing 11. The main lead bundle 30 contains a shielded multi-conductor cable with a polyurethane jacket material similar to insulation currently used for pacemaker leads. Such cable is commercially available for machine tool and robotics application, and is rated in excess of 6 million bend cycles from straight to its minimum bend radius without failure of the insulation or conductors. The main lead bundle incorporates approximately 24 conductors required to drive the linear motor in VAD applications. The main lead bundle terminates at a hermetically sealed cylindrical connector at the linear motor controller 50. A molded polyurethane strain relief 29 attaches the polyurethane jacket of the shielded multi-conductor cable 30 which constitutes the main lead bundle to the linear motor to the cable penetration. An optional second strain relief attached to the polyurethane jacket includes the leads 31 which are routed to epicardial electrodes used to provide an ECG signal to the linear motor controller 50. 
     The operation of a linear motor pump module in accordance with the invention is described hereinafter in greater detail with reference to FIGS. 7(a)-7(j) which show a diagrammatic cross-section of the linear motor drive for the pump module. In these views, a piston 194, containing a magnet assembly 195 is free to slide through a cylinder 196 as previously discussed. Magnetic flux 197 generated by the magnet assembly 195 is made to link several of the windings 198 by the magnetically soft radial laminations 199 and circumferential laminations 200, which separate and surround the windings 198. The laminations 199 and 200 can be manufactured from thin sheets of material such as silicon iron or iron-cobalt bonded together to the proper thickness to accommodate the magnetic flux produced by the magnet 195. The radial laminations 199 also include an axially enlarged portion near the outer surface of the inner cylinder 196 to improve magnetic coupling between the piston magnet 195 and the windings. This enlargement may not be necessary if the motor performance otherwise satisfies the operation requirements. 
     FIG. 7(a) shows the piston 194 at the inlet end of the cylinder 196 with a series of windings 601-623 having energization leads 501-526 with the first five windings 601-605 all energized by current flowing in the same direction, i.e., into the plane of the drawings, represented by the symbol &#34;+&#34;, and all other windings 606-623 with no current represented by &#34;x&#34;. This current is produced by the &#34;high&#34; potentials applied at the leads 501 and 502 (e.g., 12 volts, designated by &#34;H&#34;) and the &#34;low&#34; potential applied at the leads 507 and 508 (e.g., 0 volts designated by &#34;L&#34;). All other leads are connected to an open circuit (designated by &#34;x&#34;). This energization pattern provides a holding mode to hold the piston 194 in a given position in the cylinder 196 until the next pumping or return stroke is initiated. Current through the windings at this stage is limited to a nominal level using pulse width modulation (PWM) or another efficient current limiting method to avoid excessive winding heating and power consumption. 
     FIG. 7(b) shows the piston 194 at the inlet end of the cylinder with the first five windings 601-605 of the series of windings 601-623 energized to begin a pumping stroke. For this purpose, the windings 601 and 602 are energized with current flowing into the plane of the drawing &#34;+&#34; while the windings 604 and 605 are energized with current flowing out of the plane of the drawing, represented by &#34;⊙&#34;. Given the orientation of the magnetic flux from the magnet 195 and the current in the energized windings, a force will be exerted on the piston driving it to the right. The controller 50 includes a current limiting arrangement to prevent damage to the windings as discussed earlier, but such current limitation is not expected to be required once the piston begins to move along the cylinder and generate a counter emf. 
     FIG. 7(c) shows the piston 194 progressing to the right. In this case, the winding 606 has been energized in the same direction as the windings 604 and 605 in anticipation of the leading edge of the magnet beginning to couple this winding. FIG. 7(d) shows a further progression of the piston to the right with the winding 603 energized like the windings 601 and 602 and the winding 604 being de-energized. All of the windings 601-623 are connected in series which allows the inductive flyback energy released when a winding such as the winding 604 is de-energized to be usefully transferred into the neighboring windings rather than being dissipated wastefully through the controller circuit. FIG. 7(e) shows the piston progressing still further along its stroke with the winding 601 now de-energized. The pattern of windings energized is now the same as it was in FIG. 7(b), except offset to the right by one winding. The pattern described by FIGS. 7(b) through 7(e) repeats until the piston reaches the end of its stroke, where it may be held momentarily as shown in FIG. 7(f). The pattern then begins again, except with current directions in the windings reversed, when the piston is driven back toward the inlet end of the cylinder as shown in FIG. 7(g). 
     In the arrangement shown in FIGS. 7(a)-7(j) the magnet pole pitch is not equal to an integral multiple of the winding slot pitch. This requires an out of phase energization of the coils which are being approached by the leading edge of the north pole of the magnet in contrast to those being approached by the south pole of the magnet. Although this complicates the timing used in the control circuit, the movement of the piston is smoother along its stroke when the energizing of approaching windings is divided into multiple transitions for a given displacement instead of one. 
     The timing used in the control circuit for the motor could be simplified if desired if both the magnetic pole width and the pole pitch were made equal to an integral multiple of the winding slot pitch. With this arrangement, the windings being approached by the leading edges of both magnetic poles can be energized at the same time that the windings being left behind by the trailing edges of both magnetic poles are de-energized. However, the piston will tend to move forward abruptly each time this combination of simultaneous energizing and de-energizing at multiple windings occurs. This would be undesirable for applications such as implantable circulatory assist devices where uniform motion of the piston is required to minimize vibration and high frequency pulsation of the fluid that could cause unnatural sensations. The most uniform motion of the piston can be obtained by making both the width and pitch of the magnetic poles unequal to an integral multiple of the slot pitch. This also results in the most complicated timing in the control circuit. In this case, the timing sequence proceeds as follows: the winding being approached by the leading edge of the first magnet pole is energized, then the winding being left by the trailing edge of the second magnet pole is de-energized, then the winding being left by the first pole is de-energized, then the winding being approached by the second pole is energized, and so on. However, with large scale programmable logic devices such as microcontrollers, programmable gate arrays, etc., it is possible to implement such complex winding energization timing algorithms without much difficulty. 
     It can be seen from FIG. 7(h) that the piston position will be automatically synchronized with the pattern of windings being energized during initial start-up of the motor, or if magnetic coupling between the piston and the windings is lost for some reason, without the piston ever being driven into the travel stops at the end of the cylinder. As shown in FIG. 7(h), the pattern of energized windings is initially that shown in FIG. 7(g). As the pattern of energized windings shown in FIG. 7(g) progresses to the left, it will approach the stationary piston in the middle of the cylinder. As the windings at the leading edge of the pattern of energized windings begins to interact with the flux emanating from the north pole of the stationary piston, as shown in FIG. 7(i), the piston will experience a force drawing it to the right, into the pattern of energized windings, even though the pattern is moving to the left. This is because the leading windings would normally act on the flux entering into the south pole of the piston magnet, which would cause the piston to experience a force drawing the piston to the left. The opposite direction of the magnetic flux emanating from the north pole causes the force acting on the piston to be reversed. The piston will continue to be drawn to the right until it becomes centered in the pattern of energized coils, as shown in FIG. 7(j), which is its normal synchronous position. Because of the energization pattern, it will continue, from that point on, to move synchronously in the same location with respect to the pattern of energized coils. This process of resynchronization will take place as long as the piston is anywhere within the travel limits of the cylinder which is physically ensured as long as end connections such as those depicted in FIGS. 2, 2(a) and 3 are provided. 
     It can also be seen that failure of a single lead in the series 501-526 will have no effect other than possibly to add an additional winding to the circuit that would not normally be energized. Referring to FIG. 7(b), if the lead 507 were to fail, the winding 606 would become energized in the direction ⊙, providing current out of plane of the drawing, which would have little effect on motor operation other than a slightly increased winding impedance. The same can be said for any other failure of an active lead for the pattern of lead potentials shown in FIG. 7. 
     A fault detection algorithm can be incorporated into the controller 50 for the linear motor drive by using a current sensor that provides a signal representing total current flowing through the motor windings to the controller logic circuit, which compares this value to an expected value or an average of previous values for the active set of windings. Any discontinuity as a result of a change in winding impedance due to a failed lead will be manifested as a departure from the expected or time averaged current level as the failed lead is energized. The fault can then be annunciated by the controller so that corrective action to repair the failed lead can be taken before a complete malfunction of the motor occurs. 
     The controller 50 can also be programmed to detect and flag a failed winding by monitoring for the associated discontinuity in electric current to the motor. The failed winding can then be selectively skipped over on subsequent cycles so that only one (i.e., the failed winding) out of the four or five windings in the pattern of energized windings influencing the piston at any one time will be lost. Further, the remaining windings may carry slightly greater current to compensate for the failed winding with no other adverse effects with the exception of slightly decreased efficiency and slightly increased winding operating temperature. 
     Referring to FIG. 7(c), if the winding 606 were to fail, then no current could pass from the leads 508 and 509 to the lead 505, but the windings 601 and 602 would still remain energized by the leads 501, 502 and 504. The current would be limited to these windings by the back emf generated by the moving magnetic pole or by the PWM current limiting feature discussed above. A motor designed for high reliability will incorporate windings rated to handle twice the normal current and permanent magnets that will not be demagnetized by this doubling of current so that a single failed winding will not cause a complete malfunction of the motor. Additionally, the motor controller 50 can be designed to detect a failed winding using an algorithm similar to that described above for detecting a failed lead, so that replacement of the motor can be accomplished before a complete malfunction occurs. A further improvement of the failed winding detection algorithm would be to use the magnitude of the current discontinuity detected by the controller 50 to distinguish between a failed lead 501-526 and a failed winding 601-623. This is advantageous for determining whether the pump module 34 must be replaced (i.e., due to winding failure) or possibly only the controller 50 must be replaced (i.e., due to a lead failure near or within the controller). This failed winding detection algorithm can be yet further enhanced by modifying the timing of lead potentials applied to the motor when a failed winding is identified such that only that winding is lost from the desired pattern of windings to be energized. For instance, referring to FIG. 7(b), if the winding 606 has been identified as a failed winding as described above, the controller 50 will maintain a high potential on the lead 507 in FIGS. 7(c), 7(d) and 7(e), instead of isolating current flow to this lead. A low potential will be applied to the lead 507 when this would normally have occurred in a subsequent transition of lead potentials. However, a low potential will also be applied to the lead 508 on the other side of the failed winding 606 at that time to maintain a current path on either side of the failed winding. A similar scheme will be used as the south pole of the piston magnet 195 passes by the failed winding except that the lead potentials will be reversed. This modification of the winding energization timing will ensure that all windings with the exception of the failed winding will receive electric current according to the desired timing sequence. 
     FIG. 8 comprises a series of timing diagrams that show the successive lead potentials required at the leads 501-526 to produce the normal pattern of energized windings described in connection with FIG. 7(a)-7(j). A typical ECG signal is also shown in FIG. 8(a). 
     The ECG signal shown in FIG. 8(a) illustrates the P, Q, R, S and T waves. This is an electrical signal generated by the heart and is sensed by ECG leads attached to the inner (endocardial) or outer (epicardial) surface of the heart muscles or may also be sensed on the outer surface of the body. The P wave is caused by the spread of depolarization of the atrial muscle, which initiates contraction of the atria. Approximately 0.16 seconds after the onset of the P wave, the QRS waves appear as a result of depolarization of the ventricular muscle, which initiates contraction of the ventricles. Finally, the T wave results from repolarization of the ventricles, which represents the onset of ventricular relaxation. The optimum starting point for the winding energization timing cycle in VAD applications to begin is expected to be on or about the R-wave peak 201. This peak value shown in FIG. 8(a) typically occurs just before the recipient&#39;s aortic (or pulmonary) valve would normally be pushed open by blood being ejected from the native left (or right) ventricle. For TAH applications, the entire QRST complex will be missing from the ECG signal. Therefore, the timing cycle shown will have to be initiated at some predetermined delay interval referenced to the P-wave peak 202 generated by the recipient&#39;s native sinus node. This predetermined delay interval will be a programmable setting that can be adjusted, if needed, via the controller&#39;s telemetry interface. 
     If the ventricular rate falls below a pre-set minimum (50-80 beats per minute), a pacemaker 39 (FIG. 11) may be used to trigger the timing cycle and restore heart rate. In the event the pacemaker becomes ineffective, the linear motor controller 50 may incorporate a telemetry programmable lower limit for the cycle rate of the piston-valve to ensure that adequate blood flow is maintained. This feature may also provide vital circulation in the event of total cardiac arrest. Accelerated heart rates such as premature ventricular contractions (PVC) and tachycardia may also occur. An implantable pacemaker alone does not have the ability to correct heart rates that are too rapid. However, the linear motor controller 50 may optionally incorporate features similar to currently available implantable cardioverter/defibrillators to restore normal cardiac rhythm. If this should prove unsuccessful in reducing heart rate, the controller 50 may be adjusted to alter the motion of the piston-valve to minimize the damage to the blood cells due to high velocity flow through the piston-valve. This alteration in motion may consist of slowing down or stopping the piston-valve momentarily on its return stroke if a PVC or any type of tachycardia is detected. If extended tachycardia is detected, the piston-valve cycle rate may be adjusted to synchronize with every other or every third, etc., heart beat as well as adjusted to slow down or stop on the return stroke as necessary to minimize high velocity blood flow during ventricular ejection. 
     FIGS. 9(a), 9(b) and 9(c) are schematic circuit diagrams of a controller circuit used to generate the lead outputs required, as shown in FIGS. 7(a)-7(j) and FIG. 8 as well as the failure mode correction, and fault indication previously discussed and the telemetry discussed hereinafter. The microcontroller 203 shown in FIG. 9(a) is used as the main logic unit. Many other types of programmable logic devices could be used in this application in place of the microcontroller 203, such as a programmable logic controller (PLC) or gate array (PGA) or even an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). These could be arranged to perform the required control algorithms for the linear motor. However, the microcontroller products currently available provide a relatively complete set of the features required for a controller for an implantable circulatory assist device using the linear motor drive described in FIGS. 1, 7 and 8. The components of the microcontroller 203 include: 
     A Central Processing Unit (CPU)--A coded binary instruction based logic unit similar to that used in microprocessors, programmable using machine language, assembler and high level compiled code such as that designated &#34;C&#34;. 
     A Read Only Memory (ROM), Electrically Programmable ROM (EPROM), and Erasable EPROM (EEPROM)--Memory spaces for program instructions, data and default values for variables. 
     A Random Access Memory (RAM)--Memory space for variables used by the program. 
     Input/Output (I/O) Ports A-H--Connections through which digital or analog data may be transferred to or from the microcontroller. These ports are used to control the switching sequence of the power semiconductors that control electrical current to the motor windings, send and receive serial data that can be used to adjust program variables within the microcontroller or send out information identifying faults or other performance data, as well as various related tasks. 
     An Analog and Digital (A/D) Converter--A portion of the microcontroller that converts analog signals acquired via the I/O ports, such as total current to the motor, to digital information that can be used by the CPU. 
     Pulse Width Modulators (PWM&#39;s)--Special output ports which can be programmed to rapidly switch on and off power semiconductors or other devices for programmable durations (pulse widths) that can vary in response to some feedback signal or other control. PWM&#39;s are useful in motor controls for current limiting algorithms as discussed above. 
     A Serial Communication Interface (SCI) and a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)--These interfaces transmit or receive serial information via the I/O ports. This serial information can be a digital representation of any of the analog signals being processed by the A/D converter being transmitted out to be interpreted for diagnostic purposes, or incoming data providing instructions to adjust variables in the linear motor control algorithm. 
     A Computer Operating Properly Watchdog Timer (COP)--This timer counts to a specified value and then resets the microcontroller to the beginning of the program currently being run, or one being pointed to by a reset vector, unless the program currently being run continually resets the timer to zero before it reaches the specified value. This serves to &#34;free-up&#34; a controller that has &#34;locked-up&#34; due to a corruption of program instructions due to a voltage transient or other outside influence. 
     The microcontroller 203 is provided with power from a regulated 5 volt voltage source. However, to minimize power consumption and heat generation, a 3 volt unit may be used, powered by a high efficiency 3 volt switching regulator. A reset circuit 205 with low voltage protection to avoid memory corruption is also used. The microcontroller shown includes a crystal or other timing reference 206 to drive the main clock. A voltage divider 207 provides a regulated voltage reference for the microcontroller&#39;s built-in analog-to-digital converter. A standby microcontroller 208 is included, which can automatically isolate power to the primary microcontroller 203 if more than a predetermined number of computer operating properly watchdog timer (COP) resets are detected on the primary microcontroller within a predetermined interval or it can be manually activated via a telemetry interface connected to the SCI on each microcontroller. The back-up microcontroller 208 operates in &#34;stop-mode&#34; until activated to ensure minimum power consumption. It requires a voltage regulator, reset circuit, reference crystal, and voltage reference, similar to the primary microcontroller 203. 
     The microcontroller I/O ports A through H are used to drive a power semiconductor array 213, which controls current flow through the motor windings. Each motor lead is provided with a thermal circuit breaker or other passive over-current protection device 214, a complementary pair of power transistors 215 which permits current flow in either direction through each motor lead, and associated driver electronics 216, required for operation of the power transistors 215 by the logic level outputs from the microcontroller. The array of power transistors 215 may optionally be configured to passively or actively permit current flow in the reverse direction from the applied potential, on selected or all leads, thereby permitting the linear motor to be regenerative (i.e., if the load on the piston reverses such that an applied force is assisting movement rather than opposing movement, the controller can use the assisting force to return energy to the rechargeable battery cells, thereby reducing power consumption). This may be useful near the end of the piston travel where piston momentum will tend to drive the piston forward while the motor is trying to slow it down. The stored kinetic energy in the piston can be partially recovered using regeneration. 
     Each microcontroller 203 and 208 is provided with independent signal conditioning and isolation arrangements 217 and 218 for all incoming analog signals. These analog signals comprise (1) an (amplified) ECG signal output from a separate implanted pacemaker (ECG1) which may be used as a synchronizing signal for reciprocation of the pump module in implantable applications (see FIG. 11), (2) an (amplified) marker channel signal output from a separate implanted pacemaker (MCH1) which may be used as an alternate synchronizing signal if ECG1 is not available (A marker channel output from a pacemaker is a logic signal that indicates when the pacemaker control logic has detected a particular electrocardiological event such as a P wave, a QRS wave, or when the pacemaker has transmitted its own electrical stimulus to the heart.), (3) an ECG signal acquired from the epicardial lead (ECG2), which can be used as a synchronizing signal, (4) a voltage signal from the current sensor or other device indicating total current to the motor windings (CUR1) which may be used in conjunction with a PWM algorithm to efficiently limit motor current, (5) a voltage signal from the current sensor or other device indicating total current delivered to the internal rechargeable battery by the charging circuit (CUR2), which can be used to control charging rate efficiently using a PWM algorithm, (6) a voltage signal indicating battery temperature (TEMP) generated by the voltage drop across a thermistor or other temperature indicating means which can be used to detect an overcharge condition in the internal rechargeable battery, (7) a voltage signal indicating total voltage output from the internal rechargeable battery (V1), which can be used to detect an overcharge condition or detect that one or more of the cells has reversed, and (8) a voltage signal sensed across all or a selected group of motor windings (V2), which can be used to detect movement of the piston caused by flow of fluid. 
     Because all of the windings shown in FIGS. 7(a)-7(j) are connected in series to each other, any movement of the piston will generate an emf that can be detected from motor leads on either side of the piston. The signal (V2) may thus be used to detect ejection by the recipient&#39;s native ventricle(s) in VAD applications or native atria in TAH applications so that the motor may be synchronized when all ECG and marker channel signals (ECG1, ECG2 and MCH1) are lost. If no signals are detected from analog inputs ECG1, ECG2, MCH1 or V2, the controller will default to a fixed cycle rate of the piston back and forth through the hollow cylinder based on a value programmed in the microcontroller. The microcontroller includes programming to sense when the motor current indicated by CUR1 increases or decreases during a given piston stroke relative to previous strokes and will delay or advance subsequent strokes to minimize the current being drawn by the motor. The changes in current drawn by the motor in VAD applications could be caused by residual functioning of the recipient&#39;s native heart. For example, if the piston is returning down the cylinder toward the proximal end with the pump implanted as a VAD in a ventricular outflow vessel and the ventricle ejects, the current drawn by the motor will increase due to the flow of blood moving in the opposite direction that the piston is moving. 
     By programming the controller to seek out the cycle rate of the piston that results in minimum current being drawn by the motor, the piston reciprocation can be indirectly synchronized with any residual cardiac function still present to the maximum extent possible. However, any adjustments made by the controller to the piston cycle rate in this mode of operation would not preclude the programmed minimum number of piston strokes per minute from being completed to maintain minimum circulatory system flow requirements. The reference ground for these analog inputs, as well as the reference ground for the microcontroller analog-to-digital converters, may be connected to an electrically conductive surface on the outside of the controller 50 so that charge equilibrium with the recipient&#39;s body is maintained. 
     Two analog outputs provided from pacemaker units 219 and 219(a) connected to each microcontroller in FIG. 9(a) may also be incorporated for providing single or dual chamber pacing. The output threshold voltage for these signals may be programmable via the telemetry interface discussed in more detail later. 
     Current to the motor windings is measured using a Hall effect current sensor 221 or other efficient current sensing means. This current signal is used by the active microcontroller 203 or 208 to PWM current to the motor using a power transistor bridge 222. The PWM current limiting algorithm in the microcontroller consists of a program segment that compares the current level indicated at analog input CUR1 to programmable upper and lower limits for current to the motor. As long as CUR1 is below the upper limit, no PWM current limiting will be active. Once the upper limit is exceeded, the PWM algorithm will shut off the power semiconductors in the bridge 222 until current drops below the lower limit, at which time, the power semiconductors in the bridge 222 will be turned back on. This will continue until CUR1 stops exceeding the upper limit for current. 
     The transistor bridge arrangement 222 is configured to provide one or more redundant back-ups for each power transistor. Comparators and logic gates 223 are incorporated to provide a logical fault indication back to the active microcontroller if one of the power transistors in the bridge has failed. In the configuration shown, two power transistors in series are placed in parallel with two other power transistors in series. A failure of any single power transistor will not cause the overall state of the bridge to be incorrect. The fault detection circuit relies on the fact that the potential at the midpoint between each pair of series power transistors should stay approximately half-way between the upper and lower rails of the bridge. A window comparator is used to detect when this potential deviates from the expected midpoint potential by more than an acceptable range. The motor current PWM algorithm is only expected to be active during lightly loaded conditions such as the piston return stroke or holding modes. During the piston drive stroke, it is expected that back emf generated by the motor will be sufficient to limit current through the windings without the use of PWM. 
     An internal rechargeable battery 224 shown in FIG. 9(b) consists of a number of high energy density secondary cells, such as nickel-metal-hydride. Charging current to these cells is indicated by a Hall effect current sensor 225 or other high efficiency current sensing device. The internal battery may also incorporate passive bypass diodes 226 which prevent the voltage drop and associated power loss resulting from a cell reversal from approaching an unacceptable level. The battery assembly may also incorporate one or more thermistors 227 or other temperature sensing devices which provide an indication of cell temperature to the active microcontroller for the purpose of terminating charging at a safe condition. This cell temperature indication may also be sensed by an optional independent battery charging supervisory circuit 228. This independent circuit may provide stand alone supervision of internal battery charging, thereby reducing demand on the active microcontroller, or simply act as a redundant back-up to provide additional protection from overcharging. In the latter configuration, the active microcontroller 203 or 208 and the independent charging supervisory circuit 228 can act through an OR gate to PWM or isolate current from the internal battery using a power transistor 229. 
     Power for the internal battery charging circuit is obtained via a subcutaneous secondary coil 230. This coil is connected to a capacitor/rectifier circuit 231 that is tuned to the carrier frequency being transmitted trancutaneously to the secondary coil 230. The rectifier may incorporate redundant diodes and a fault detection circuit as shown, which operates similar to the power transistor bridge 222 and logic circuit 223 of FIG. 9(a), except that the power transistors are replaced by diodes. This tuned capacitor/rectifier circuit may also incorporate a filter arrangement 211 to support serial communication interface (SCI) reception via the secondary coil 230. A level detection comparator 232 is provided to convert the analog signal produced by the filter 211 into a digital signal compatible with an SCI receiver 460. A power transistor 233 or other modulation device may also be incorporated to support SCI transmission via the secondary coil 230. A redundant transistor bridge such as the bridge 222 used for PWM current limiting may be used in place of the transistor 233 for improved fault tolerance. This SCI interface provides for changing programmable settings used by the control algorithm and monitoring of analog inputs to the microcontroller such as ECG1, ECG2, MCH1, CUR1, CUR2, TEMP, V1, and V2. 
     Although the invention has been described herein with reference to specific embodiments, many modifications and variations therein will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, all such variations and modifications are included within the intended scope of the invention.