Abstract:
The invention relates to a method for triggering triacylglycerols (TAG) accumulation in microalgae comprising the step of contacting a source of exogenous nitroxide (NO) with said microalgae in their growth medium.

Description:
FIELD 
       [0001]    The invention relates to a method for accumulating triacylglycerols (TAG) in microalgae by adding a nitric oxide donor to the growth medium. The invention also relates to a method for producing fatty acids, biofuels, pharmaceutical or cosmetic compositions, and also food supplements, comprising a triacylglycerols accumulation step in microalgae according to the invention. Finally, the invention relates to the use of a nitric oxide donor to accumulate triglycerides in microalgae. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    It is acknowledged that oilseed production from crops cannot be diverted from nutritional purpose (Durrett et al., The Plant Journal (2008) 54, 593-607). Therefore, efforts are directed towards the oil production in other organisms like algae (Chisti, Biotechnology Advances 25 (2007) 294-306; Chisti, Trends in Biotechnology, 2008, Vol 26, No. 3; Dismukes et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2008, 19:235-240; Scott et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2010, 21:277-286; Singh et al., Bioresource Technology 102 (2011) 26-34). Studies undergone on triacylglycerol (TAG, also called oil) production in algae (Table 1 below) have focused on the increase of TAG in cytosolic droplets. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Oil content of some algae (from Chisti, Biotechnology Advances 25 
               
               
                 (2007) 294-306) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Microalga 
                 Oil content (% dry wt) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   Botryococcus braunii 
                 
                 25-75 
               
               
                   
                   Chlorella  sp. 
                 28-32 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Crypthecodinium cohnii 
                 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                   Cylindrotheca  sp. 
                 16-37 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Dunaliella primolecta 
                 
                 23 
               
               
                   
                   Isochrysis  sp. 
                 25-33 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Monallanthus solina 
                 
                 &gt;20  
               
               
                   
                   Nannochloris  sp. 
                 20-35 
               
               
                   
                   Nannochloropsis  sp. 
                 31-68 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Neochloris oleoabundans 
                 
                 35-54 
               
               
                   
                   Niirschia  sp. 
                 45-47 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Phaeodacrylum tricomutum 
                 
                 20-30 
               
               
                   
                   Schizochytrium  sp. 
                 50-77 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Tetraselmis sueica 
                 
                 15-23 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0003]    The advantages of microalgae over land plants have been summarized in the EPOBIO report (Micro- and macro-algae: utility for industrial application, September 2007, Editor: Dianna Bowles). Both plants (crops) cultivable on arable lands and microalgae grown in open ponds or in confined reactors are potential sources of TAG and fatty acids for industrial purposes and biofuels (Dismukes et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2008, 19:235-240). However, serious concerns have been raised by the intensive agricultural practices, and the diversion of crops from food to non-food chains. Efforts are thus needed to develop novel generation biofuels based on photosynthetic microorganisms. 
         [0004]    The main advantages of microalgae in relation to plants for the production of TAG are the following:
       this bioresource does not compete with the agro-resources used for animal or human nutrition.   algal growth can be monitored in controlled and confined conditions in an environmental friendly process using recycled inorganic and organic wastes generated by other human activities and the use of microalgae allows trapping and converting industrial byproduct gases (e.g. CO 2 ) into valuable organic molecules (Chisti, Biotechnology Advances 25 (2007) 294-306; Chisti, Trends in Biotechnology, 2008, Vol 26, No. 3; Chisti, Journal of Biotechnology 167 (2013) 201-214).   the algal biomass productivity is high, microalgae showing a very high potential of productivity with cost savings when compared to land plants (see Table 2). Their yield is variable and determined by the culturing approach employed: it is relatively low in open pond systems while it can be significantly increased in closed photobioreactors where culture parameters can be controlled.   this bioresource does not depend on a geographical location, or on a season.       
 
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                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of biomass productivity of major crops (“C3” or “C4” type 
               
               
                 photosynthesis) and microalgae (extract from the            EPOBIO project            report, University of 
               
               
                 York (09/2007), Table 4). 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 “C 4 ” crops 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ( sorghum , 
                 “C 3 ” crops 
               
               
                   
                   
                 maize, 
                 (wheat, 
               
               
                   
                 Microalgae 
                 sugarcane . . . ) 
                 sunflower . . . ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Maximal productivity (T · ha −1  · y −1 ) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Microalgae (photobioreactors) 
                 130 to 150 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Higher plants (maximum productivity) 
                 — 
                 72 
                 30 
               
               
                 Average productivity in production systems 
               
               
                 (T · ha −1  · y −1 ) 
               
               
                 Microalgae (large scale) 
                 10 to 50 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Higher plants (field) 
                 — 
                 10 to 30 
                 8 to 18 
               
               
                 Biomass production costs (USD · kg −1 ) 
                 0.4-40 
                    0.04 
                    0.04 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0009]    The economic viability of this sector of bioindustry is challenged by the current limitation to combine the overall biomass yield, i.e. dry weight of algal organic matter produced per liter and the proportion of valuable molecules, i.e. sufficiently high proportion of TAG per dry weight for industrial extraction and processing (Chisti, Biotechnology Advances 25 (2007) 294-306; Chisti, Trends in Biotechnology, 2008, Vol 26, No. 3; Chisti, Journal of Biotechnology 167 (2013) 201-214). 
         [0010]    In particular, the lipid composition of microalgae is compatible with biodiesel production (Dismukes et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2008, 19:235-240; Scott et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2010, 21:277-286). The rationale for producing biodiesel from microalgae is to use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into biomass. This biomass is then specifically redirected towards the synthesis of oil for the generation of biofuels, by applying external stimuli like nutrient stresses, and/or by genetic engineering of metabolism (Dorval Courchesne et al., Journal of Biotechnology 141 (2009) 31-41). 
         [0011]    The three most important classes of micro-algae in terms of abundance are the green algae (class Chlorophyceae, group Viridiplantae), the diatoms (class Bacillariophyceae, phylum Heterokont, superphylum Chromalveolata) and the golden algae (class Chrysophyceae, phylum Heterokont, superphylum Chromalveolata) (EPOBIO definition). Diatoms are a major phylum of the phytoplankton biodiversity in oceans, fresh water and various soil habitats. They are responsible for up to 25% of the global primary productivity. Study of this group of eukaryotes has benefited from recent developments on  Phaeodactylum tricornutum , a model of pennate diatoms. Diatoms, like other microalgae, are considered a plausible alternative source of hydrocarbons to replace fossil fuels or chemicals from petrochemistry, with the advantage of having a neutral CO 2  balance, based on the hypotheses that CO 2  and water can be efficiently converted into biomass by photosynthesis and that the carbon metabolism could be controlled so that they accumulate energetically-rich TAG. Different phytoplanktonic organisms of the Chromalevolata superphylum have focused the attention for their ability to accumulate TAG, with promising initial yields and appropriate robustness and physical properties to be implemented in an industrial process, including  Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Phaeodactylum tricornutum  is currently used for the industrial production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids but industrial implementation for this application and for other applications such as biofuels is still limited by the growth retardation and low yield in biomass when TAG accumulation is triggered using conventional nutrient starvation approaches, such as nitrogen starvation (Chisti, Journal of Biotechnology 167 (2013) 201-214). 
         [0012]    Thus, currently, the reduction of the availability of nitrate (NO 3   − ) in the growth medium is the most used process to trigger the accumulation TAG in microalgae. However, the reduction of the availability of nitrate in the growth medium also blocks the growth of the cells (Adams C, Godfrey V, Wahlen B, Seefeldt L, Bugbee B. Bioresour Technol. 2013, 131, 188-194). Therefore, while the accumulation of TAG is really enhanced by such a process (TAG per microalgal cell), this accumulation is not sufficiently efficient to counterbalance the loss due to growth reduction and as a result, the gain in productivity (TAG per amount of triacylglycerol per volume of microalga culture and per day) is limited. 
         [0013]    These approaches have therefore an important drawback, which is the limitation of growth that the nitrogen starvation induces.  Phaeodactylum tricornutum  exhibits interesting properties for an industrial implementation, like the ability to grow in the absence of silicon or the sedimentation of cells that could be useful for harvesting techniques. Attempts to promote TAG accumulation can rely on various strategies that can be combined, including the stimulation of fatty acid and TAG biosynthesis, the blocking of pathways that divert carbon to alternative metabolic routes and eventually the arrest of TAG catabolism. Small molecules could act on each of these three aspects of TAG metabolism. 
         [0014]    As another approach, it is possible to promote the accumulation of oil in microorganisms by inhibiting or blocking metabolic pathways that direct the carbon fluxes to alternative metabolites. For instance, it is well known that blocking the accumulation of carbohydrate in storage sugars such as starch, can promote the accumulation of oils (Siaut et al., BMC Biotechnology 2011, 11:7). However, blocking the storage of carbohydrates has a negative impact on cell growth, especially in the dark when these storage carbohydrates are needed to feed cells (Ball et al. Plant Science 1990, 66:1-9), and hence on productivity. 
         [0015]    Other metabolic pathways using carbon might be blocked and allow a redirection of carbon metabolism towards TAG metabolism. Thus, an approach based on inhibition of metabolism of sterols has recently been developed (WO 2015/111029). 
         [0016]    However, there remains a need for alternative methods able to produce lipid at the highest biomass productivity with the highest lipid cell content. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0017]    Unexpectedly, the Inventors have now discovered a method of treatment of microalgae that advantageously enables to increase both their accumulation of TAG and also their productivity. More specifically, it has been shown that the accumulation of TAG in microalgae could be triggered by adding a source of the free radical, nitric oxide (.N═O, abbreviated NO), to the growth medium. As a further advantage, this method can be performed without need of reducing the supply of nitrate or of other nutrients, thereby allowing to also increase the productivity of TAG by microalgae. As an additional advantage, this method does not require blocking a metabolic pathway which can still be used for the proper functioning of the cell. 
         [0018]    Within the framework of the invention, the term microalgae refers to eukaryote microalgae, notably to Diatoms. 
         [0019]    Also in the sense of the present invention, the triacylglycerols also called triacylglycerides or TAG are esters resulting from the esterification of the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol, with three fatty acids. In the scheme below, TAG is synthesized by esterification of a glycerol backbone by three fatty acids (R 1 COOH, R 2 COOH, R 3 COOH). 
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         [0020]    As used herein, the expression “trigerring the accumulation of TAG in microalgae” means that the cell content of TAG in said microalgae (weight of TAG per weight of microalgal cell) is increased as compared to that observed under normal nutritional and cultivation conditions, that is in non-stressful cultural conditions, notably in nitrogen sufficiency. The method according to the invention typically enables to increase the cell lipid production from [120] to [300]% compared to untreated condition. 
         [0021]    As used herein, the term “productivity” or “biomass productivity” refers to the amount of TAG produced per volume of microalgal culture and per day and is expressed either by relative intensity of TAG, staining using Nile Red per liter and per day, or gram of TAG per liter and per day (g l −1  day −1 ). The method according to the invention advantageously enables to reach a productivity comprised in the range of 0.025 to 1 g l −1  day −1 , in particular with Diatoms. 
         [0022]    Thus, in one objet, the invention is directed to a method for triggering triacylglycerols (TAG) accumulation in microalgae comprising the step (i) of contacting a source of exogenous nitroxide (NO) with said microalgae in their growth medium. 
         [0023]    In one aspect, the growth medium is nitrogen sufficient, that is a growth medium wherein the content of nitrates (NO 3   − ) and/or nitrite (NO 2   − ) is sufficient. It may notably contain from 0.5 mM to 10 mM of nitrates (NO 3   − ) and/or nitrite (NO 2   − ). 
         [0024]    In another aspect, the microalgae are selected from microalgae of the Diatom phylum, the Chromalveolata phylum, and the Archaeplastidae phylum. 
         [0025]    In a preferred aspect, the microalgae are selected from the Diatom micro-algae species  Phaeodactylum tricornutum  and  Thalassiosira pseudonana , and the Archaeplastidae micro-algae species  Chlamydomonas, Ostreococcus, Chlorella . More preferably, the microalgae are selected from the diatom micro-algae species  Phaeodactylum tricornutum  and  Thalassiosira pseudonana . The source of exogenous nitroxide may be a nitroxide donor (NO donor), notably an organic nitroxide donor (organic NO donor). 
         [0026]    As used herein, the terms “nitroxide donor” mean a molecular carrier of NO able to stabilize the NO radical until such time its release is required. Preferred NO donors include those able to release NO. 
         [0027]    In a further aspect, the organic NO donor is selected from Diazeniumdiolates (NONOates), and S-Nitrosothiols. 
         [0028]    Diazeniumdiolates [R 1 R 2 N—(N + O − )═NO − ] consist of a diolate group bound to a nucleophile adduct, notably a primary or secondary amine or polyamine, via a nitrogen atom. NONOates decompose spontaneously in solution at physiological pH and temperature to generate up to 2 molar equivalents of NO, although prior cleavage of the molecule to release the terminal oxygen may be required (for example for V-PYRRO/NO and JS-K in the scheme below). Examples of NONOates can be found in publications (Miller et al., British Journal of Pharmacology (2007) 151, 305-321) and are represented in the following scheme: 
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         [0029]    S-Nitrosothiols class of NO donors covers a vast array of different compounds which contain a single chemical bond between a thiol (sulphydryl) group (R—SH) and the NO moiety. Examples of S-Nitrosothiols are reported in publications (e.g. Miller et al., British Journal of Pharmacology (2007) 151, 305-321) and include those reported in the following scheme: 
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         [0030]    Preferably, the organic NO donor is a S-Nitrosothiol, notably selected from S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP), le S-nitroso-N-valerylpenicillamine (SNVP), S-nitroso-glutathione (GSNO). 
         [0031]    The source of nitroxide may notably be incubated with the microalgae during 1 to 48 hours. 
         [0032]    In a further aspect, the concentration of NO present or released in the growth medium is from 0.25 mM to 5 mM. 
         [0033]    In another aspect, the method of the invention further comprises a step (ii) of recovering the accumulated triacylglycerols in microalgae, which may include one or more extraction steps. The extraction step may be implemented using solvents or another extraction method well known form the person skilled in the art. 
         [0034]    According to a second object, the invention relates to the use of a method for triggering accumulation of triacylglycerols in microalgae as defined hereabove, for producing fatty acids, biofuels, pharmaceutical or cosmetic compositions or food supplements. 
         [0035]    According to a further object, the invention relates to a method for producing biofuels comprising:
       steps (i) and (ii) as defined in the method for triggering accumulation of TAG hereabove;   a step (iii) of transesterifying the triacylglycerols recovered in step (ii), for example as described in as described by Zhang et al., Bioresource Technology 147 (2013) 59-64; and optionally   a step (iv) of recovering the obtained transesterified triacylglycerols.       
 
         [0039]    According to an additional object, the invention relates to the use of exogenous nitroxide, notably of a NO donor, for triggering accumulation of triacylglycerols (TAG) in microalgae. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0040]    In addition to the above provisions, the invention also comprises other provisions which will emerge from the remainder of the description which follows, and also to the appended drawings in which: 
           [0041]      FIGS. 1 to 4 : Effect of increasing concentrations of SNAP on the production of TAG in  Phaedocatylum tricornutum . The medium used was 10×ESAW; incubation was performed in 500 μl, inoculated at 1E+06 cells/ml, with immediate addition of chemicals. Measurements were performed after 2 days of incubation. Data of  FIGS. 1 and 2 and 3  are the results of 3 biological replicates,  FIG. 4  was a time course without replicates. NAP was used as a non-active analogue of SNAP. 
           [0042]      FIG. 1 : Effect of increasing concentrations of SNAP on growth. Growth is measured in cell/mL. 
           [0043]      FIG. 2 : Effect of increasing concentrations of SNAP on TAG level per cell. TAG level per cell is given in relative fluorescence units/10 6  cells. 
           [0044]      FIG. 3 : Effect of increasing concentrations of SNAP on TAG productivity. TAG productivity is given in relative fluorescence unit (Rfu) corresponding to the fluorescence of Nile Red per mL and per day. 
           [0045]      FIG. 4 : NO release following treatment with 1 mM or 3 mM SNAP compared to the untreated control. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Examples 
       [0046]    1) Materials &amp; Methods 
         [0047]    Cell Cultivation. 
         [0048]      Phaeodactylum tricornutum  (Pt1) Bohlin Strain 8.6 CCMP2561 (Culture Collection of Marine Phytoplankton, now known as NCMA: National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota) was used in all experiments. Pt1 was grown at 20° C. in 250 mL flask in artificial seawater (ESAW) medium (composition of the medium see table 1) using ten times enriched nitrogen and phosphate sources (5.49·10 −3  M NaNO 3  and 2.24·10 −4  NaH 3 PO 4 ) called “10×ESAW”, or nitrogen-depleted medium. Cells were grown on a 12:12 light (30 μE m −2 ·sec −1 )/dark cycle. Cells were sub-cultured twice a week by inoculating 1·10 6  cells/ml with fresh media. Growth was evaluated by cell counting using a Malassez counting chamber, or by the absorption at 750 nm using a plate reader. 
         [0000]                                                    TABLE 3                   Ingredients of solutions for ESAW 1 x cultivation medium..       ESAW-Medium Composition                Reagents   Per Liter                            NaCl   21.19   g           Na 2 SO 4     3.55   g           KCl   0.599   g           Na 2 HCO 3     0.174   g           KBr   0.0863   g           H 3 BO 3     0.023   g           NaF   0.0028   g           MgCl 2 *6H 2 O   9.592   g           CaCl 2 *2H 2 O   1.344   g           SrCl 2     0.0218   mg           NaNO 3     46.7   mg           NaH 2 PO 4 *H 2 O   3.09   mg           Na 2 SiO 3 *9H 2 O   30   mg           Metal Stock I   1   ml           Metal Stock II   1   ml           Vitamin Solution   1   ml           Metal Stock I           Na 2 EDTA*2H 2 O   3.09   g           FeCl 3 *6H 2 O   1.77   g           Metal Stock II           Na 2 EDTA*2H 2 O   2.44   g           ZnSO 4 *7H 2 O   0.073 g           CaSO 4 *7H 2 O   0.016   g           MnSO 4 *4H 2 O   0.54   g           Na 2 MoO 4 *2H 2 O   1.48   mg           Na 2 SeO 3     0.173   mg           NiCl2*6H 2 O   1.49   mg           Vitamin Solution           Biotin (Vitamin H)   1   mg           Thiamine HCl (Vitamin B i )   100   mg           Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B i2 )   2   mg           pH = 8.2                        
Incubation with a Nitric Oxide (NO) Donor Agent.
 
         [0049]    S-Nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) is a compound that spontaneously releases NO, when dissolved. Nitroso-acetylpenicillamine (NAP) is used as a non-active compound, which does not release NO and can therefore be used for control experiments. 
       Measure of Nitric Oxide Using a Fluorescent Reporter 
       [0050]    The fluorophore 4-amino-5-methylamino-2′,7′-difluororescein diacetate (DAF-FM) allows the sensitive detection of low levels of nitric peroxide (ONOO − ), which is in equilibrium with NO and thus indicates NO levels (St Laurent C D, Moon T C, Befus A D. 2015. Measurement of nitric oxide in mast cells with the fluorescent indicator DAF-FM diacetate. Methods Mol Biol. 1220:339-45) and was previously used to detect NO levels in  P. tricornutum  cells (Vardi et al., 2008). 10 ml culture were diluted to 10 6  cells/ml and cells were incubated with 20 μl 5 mM DAF-FM (1.5 h, room temperature, darkness, shaking). Cells were washed and resuspended in 10 ml 10×ESAW media and aliquoted to 500 μl cultures on a 48 well culture plate to which the SNAP was added. For the examination of DAF-FM-dependent detection of nitric peroxide, 150 μl of the culture were transferred into a 96 well plate and fluorescence was measured with a TECAN infinite M1000Pro plate reader (excitation wavelength at 488 nm, emission at 529 nm). 
       Measure of TAG Accumulation by Nile Red Staining 
       [0051]    Accumulation of TAG droplets was monitored by Nile Red (Sigma Aldrich) fluorescent staining (Excitation wavelength at 485 nm; emission at 525 nm) following the principles previously described (Abida et al., 2015). In brief, cells were diluted and adjusted to a cell density that was linearly correlated with Nile Red fluorescence. Nile Red solution (40 μl of 2.5 μg/mL stock concentration, in 100% DMSO) was added to 160 μl cell suspension. Oil bodies stained with Nile Red were then visualized using a Zeiss AxioScope.A1 microscope (FITC filter; Excitation wavelength at 488 nm; emission at 519 nm).The productivity, corresponding to the accumulation of TAG per volume and per time unit was calculated based on the staining by Nile Red, and expressed in relative fluorescence unit (Rfu) of Nile Red per mL and per day of incubation. Alternatively, Nile red fluorescence values were normalized to the cell concentration. 
         [0052]    2) Results 
         [0053]    A 2-day incubation of  P. tricornutum  with 1 mM SNAP, in a 500 μL volume, induces a reduction of cell growth ( FIG. 1 ), but triggers a 2.2 fold increase of TAG per cell ( FIG. 2 ) and also a &gt;2 fold increase of productivity, corresponding to the level of TAG per volume of culture and per day ( FIG. 3 ).