Abstract:
A method for processing forensic samples that include sperm cells from a perpetrator of sexual assault and epithelial cells that are primarily contributed by the victim is provided. The method includes providing a nanofiber filter that is formed of intermingled nanofibers having diameters of about 700 nm or less, selectively digesting the epithelial cells of a forensic sample and separating the sperm cells of the sample from the digested epithelial cells by filtration of the digest mixture through the nanofiber filter, the sperm cells becoming entrapped in the nanofiber filter. The captured sperm cells may then be digested to form a second digest mixture including digested sperm cell DNA. Using the first digest mixture filtrate and the second digest mixture, respectively, DNA samples may be isolated and DNA profiles may be obtained, the DNA profiles being useful for human identification. An apparatus and a kit for processing forensic samples obtained in sexual assault cases are also provided.

Description:
CLAIM OF PRIORITY 
       [0001]    This application makes reference to, incorporates the same herein, and claims all benefits accruing under 35 U.S.C. §119 from an application for METHOD, APPARATUS AND KIT FOR HUMAN IDENTIFICATION USING POLYMER FILTER MEANS FOR SEPARATION OF SPERM CELLS FROM BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES THAT INCLUDE OTHER CELL TYPES, earlier filed in the United State Patent and Trademark Office on 2 Apr. 2015 and there duly assigned Ser. No. 62/142,308, from an application for METHOD, APPARATUS AND KIT FOR SEPARATION OF SPERM CELLS, SPERM CELL DNA AND OTHER DNA FROM FORENSIC SAMPLES earlier filed in the United State Patent and Trademark Office on 13 Feb. 2015 and there duly assigned Ser. No. 62/115,965, and from an application for METHOD FOR SEPARATION OF SPERM CELLS FROM OTHER CELL TYPES IN BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES USING NANOFIBER MATERIALS FOR HUMAN IDENTIFICATION APPLICATIONS earlier filed in the United State Patent and Trademark Office on 4 Feb. 2015 and there duly assigned Ser. No. 62/111,911. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    The present application describes methods for separating sperm cells, sperm cell DNA, and other DNA from biological samples comprising both sperm cells and epithelial cells. The methods include selective digestion of epithelial cells and subsequent removal of sperm cells from the mixture by filtration through a nanofiber filter. DNA profiles obtained from the separated components of forensic samples are suitable for use in human identification. 
         [0004]    2. Description of the Related Art 
         [0005]    Forensic DNA testing has become widely used in sexual assault cases. However, because of the increasing use of DNA analysis and the lack of sufficient funding, a major backlog of cases waiting to be analyzed currently exists throughout the United States. The backlog of untested evidence in sexual assault cases is an important, controversial challenge facing our nation today. It is not uncommon for sexual assault kit (or “rape kit”) evidence to be stored for years before analysis, if analyzed at all. The backlog of rape kit evidence was estimated at 400,000 cases nationwide in 2014 (cnn.com, accessed Dec. 11, 2014: “400,000 rape kits left untested in U.S.”). 
         [0006]    The reasons that large numbers of sexual assault kits are stored untested in police property rooms around the country are complex. Based on various circumstances, investigators or prosecutors may not have submitted them to a laboratory and requested that they be analyzed. Law enforcement agencies often lack the technology to track untested rape kits and the personnel needed for shipping or transporting untested kits to a crime lab in a timely manner. These agencies further lack resources and staffing to investigate and follow up on leads resulting from rape kit testing. Once in the forensic science laboratory, laboratory directors fault the time and cost requirements of these analyses as the bottleneck to DNA analysis (V. W. Weedn &amp; J. W. Hicks,  The unrealized potential of DNA testing,  National Institute of Justice Journal, Issue 234 (December, 1997)). The most time-consuming step in DNA analysis of sexual assault evidence is the conventional differential extraction process that is used to separate sperm cells from other types of cells in a sexual assault sample (B. Budowle, et al.,  Simple protocols for typing forensic biological evidence: chemiluminescent detection for human DNA quantitation and restriction fragment length polymorphism  ( RFLP )  analyses and manual typing of polymerase chain reaction  ( PCR )  amplified polymorphisms,  Electrophoresis 16(9): 1559-1567 (1995)). Therefore, the development of a quick, accurate, and effective method to streamline the differential extraction process would be advantageous in reducing, the rape kit backlog that exists in crime laboratories across the country today. 
         [0007]    Forensic DNA analysis of sexual assault samples first requires extraction of the DNA in a differential manner to obtain separate male and female fractions of DNA from the sperm and epithelial cell donors, respectively. The female fraction can be used to verify the presence of the victim&#39;s DNA, and the male fraction to identify the perpetrator, or sperm donor. DNA extraction is typically followed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) quantitation, PCR amplification of genetic markers, separation of the PCR products, and data analysis. To date, efforts have been directed toward improving the speed and efficiency of sample processing for the latter steps, namely PCR (R. P. Oda, et al.,  Infrared - mediated thermocycling for ultrafirst polymerase chain reaction amplification of DNA,  Anal. Chem. 70(20): 4361-4368 (1998); A. F. R. Huhmer &amp; J. P. Landers,  Noncontact infrared - mediated thermocycling for effective polymerase chain reaction amplification of DNA in nanoliter volumes,  Anal. Chem. 72(21); 5507-5512 (2000); B. C. Giordano, et al.,  Polymerase chain reaction in polymeric microchips: DNA amplification in less than  240  seconds,  Anal. Biochem. 291(1): 124-132 (2001); E. T. Lagally, et al.,  Single - molecule DNA amplification and analysis in an integrated microfluidic device,  Anal. Chem. 73(3): 565-5μ(2001); E. T. Lagally, et al.,  Fully integrated PCR - capillary electrophoresis microsystem for DNA analysis,  Lab on a Chip 1(2): 102-107 (2001)), DNA separation (D. Schmalzing, et al.,  DNA typing in thirty seconds with a microfabricated device,  Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 94(19): 10273-10278 (1997); C. A. Emrich, et al.,  Microfabricated  384- lane capillary array electrophoresis bioanalyzer for ultrahigh - throughput genetic analysis,  Anal. Chem. 74(19): 5076-5083 (2002)), and data analysis (M. W. Perlin, et al.,  Validating TrueAllele® DNA mixture interpretation,  J. Forensic Sci. 56(6): 1430-1447 (2011)). The ability to reproducibly obtain clean sperm fraction DNA profiles from the differential extraction impacts the downstream processes, namely the time required for data analysis and interpretation is drastically less for a profile containing one donor versus one containing a mixture of donors. Sperm profiles containing a mixture of victim and perpetrator DNA oftentimes lead to difficult result interpretation, and this is currently a controversial topic in the forensic field (Brinkerhoff and Straehley,  FBI Errors Lead to Discovery that DNA Evidence May be Far Less Foolproof When It includes More than One Person,  http://www.allgov.com/news/unusual-news./fbi-errors-lead-to-discovery-that-dna-evidence-may-be-far-less-foolproof-when-it-includes-more-than-one-person-150910?news=857388) (accessed 2 Feb. 2016). However, little improvement has been made in the differential extraction process, which is the most important and most time-consuming step of the DNA analysis. In particular, robotic automation of the extensive differential extraction process has been shown to improve sample processing efficiency and throughput (12). 
         [0008]    Sperm cell donor DNA is typically most easily obtained from sperm cells collected on vaginal swabs, taken in the routine collection of sexual assault evidence. The majority of genetic material collected on such swabs is from the victim (P. Wiegand, et al.,  DNA extraction from mixtures of body fluid using mild preferential lysis,  Int. J. Legal Med. 104: 359-360 (1992)), mainly from epithelial cells that are collected from the vaginal lining. These cells, or DNA from these cells, must be separated from the sperm cells before sperm DNA is recovered and amplified for analysis by capillary electrophoresis. The standard process to isolate sperm cells from the victim&#39;s cells in forensic samples is performed in most crime laboratories by chemical means, involving differential lysis of the cells collected on the vaginal swab and exploiting the differential stability of the cell membranes reported in 1985 by P. Gill and coworkers (P. Gill, et al.,  Forensic application of DNA ‘fingerprints’,  Nature 318(6046): 577-579 (1985); Qiagen Supplementary Protocol: Purification of DNA from epithelial cells mixed with sperm cells using the MagAttract® DNA Mini M48 kit. Qiagen (2010); K. Yoshida, et al.,  The modified method of two - step differential extraction of sperm and vaginal epithelial cell DNA from vaginal fluid mixed with semen,  Forensic Sci. Int. 72(1): 25-33 (1995)). This multistep procedure begins by lysing the epithelial cells using mild conditions. The intact sperm cells (predominately heads because tails are often degraded) are pelleted by centrifugation, allowing the soluble DNA from the epithelial cells to be removed in the supernatant (this becomes known as the “epithelial” or “non-sperm” fraction). Several washing and centrifugation steps are involved in this process to remove non-sperm DNA from the sperm cells during which the analyst attempts to pipette as much of the supernatant (epithelial cell fraction) as possible from the tube with the sperm pellet without disturbing the sperm pellet. The several centrifugation and washing steps typically result in significant loss of valuable sperm cell evidence. The pelleted sperm cells are then suspended and lysed using a proteinase enzyme such as proteinase K in a buffer that contains detergent and a reducing agent such as dithiothreitol (DTT) for reduction of disulfide bonds. The DNA is extracted using phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol or other DNA isolation methods. This process of partial digestion is commonly referred as the differential digest procedure. This differential extraction procedure is time consuming, not amenable to automation, and prone to loss of valuable crime scene evidence (Budowle, et al., cited above). 
         [0009]    When the amount of epithelial cell DNA is very large and there are relatively few sperm cells, it is often difficult and sometimes impossible to remove enough of the epithelial DNA so that a clean sperm DNA profile is obtained, and the result oftentimes is a mixed DNA profile. Although this is the most common differential extraction method used by crime laboratories, it is very technique-dependent, and the quality of results can vary between analysts or technicians. The sperm pellet washing steps can be inefficient at removing soluble DNA from the cell pellet, leading to incomplete separation of sperm and non-sperm fractions, particularly in samples that contain large numbers of the victim&#39;s cells relative to sperm cells. In addition, the time-consuming nature of the process precludes this method as a viable solution in an efficiency-minded laboratory. 
         [0010]    Over the last 30 years, several attempts have been made to address the inherent complexity and drawbacks of this method, attempting to improve ease of use, ability to automate and yield of recovered sperm DNA from forensic samples, particularly sexual assault kits. Following are the different approaches previously proposed to replace the centrifugation based differential digest protocol: 
         [0011]    Density Medium Based Separation: 
         [0012]    The separation is done by contacting the aqueous sample with a non-aqueous liquid having a density greater than about 1.00 g/cm 3 , wherein the density of the non-aqueous liquid is sufficiently low to permit pelleting of at least a portion of the sperm cells in the sample. A commercial kit is available from Promega Corporation (A. Tereba, et al.,  Methods and kits for isolating sperm cells,  U.S. Pat. No. 7,320,891 B2, issued Jan. 22, 2008) and is in use in some laboratories. However, the process is still not easy to perform and sperm DNA separation/recovery can be variable and sub-optimal. Although it can be automated, this is much more complex than the manual method. 
         [0013]    Immunological or Other Affinity Based Methods: 
         [0014]    A reasonable alternative to the current method involves the separation of the sperm and epithelial cells before DNA extraction. Eisenberg (A. J. Eisenberg,  Development of a spermatozoa capture system for the differential extraction of sexual assault evidence,  presented at Profiling PCR and Beyond, Washington, D.C., Jun. 28, 2002) has addressed the separation of sperm and epithelial cells through the development of antibody-based separation schemes, using magnetic beads with covalently bound sperm-specific antibodies to selectively retain the sperm heads. There are potential problems associated with this approach, most notably clogging of the separation column by the large numbers of epithelial cells in casework samples. In addition to clogging, drawbacks of this technique include the cost of the materials required for the antibody/bead separation method, combined with the numerous steps requited to yield PCR-ready DNA. 
         [0015]    A second method for the selection of sperm cells was reported by Elliott and coworkers (K. Elliott, et al.,  Use of laser microdissection greatly improves the recovery of DNA from sperm on microscope slides,  Forensic Sci. Int. 137(1); 28-36 (2003)), who prepared slides from swabs and then selectively captured the sperm cells from the slide, using laser capture micro dissection. This method is also capable of isolating the sperm cells selectively; however, it is time-consuming, labor-intensive (to identify the sperm cells in the sample), and not likely to be amenable to high-throughput applications. In a similar process, Schoen and coworkers (W. M. Schoell, et al.,  Separation of sperm and vaginal cells with flow cytometry for DNA typing after sexual assault,  Obstet. Gynecol. 94(4): (23-627 (1999)) demonstrated a fluorescence-activated cell sorting method for the separation of sperm and vaginal cells. However, the authors indicate that the use of this method would require altering the collection of evidentiary samples from vaginal swabs to vaginal lavages. Several other variations of the antibody based approach have been attempted and reported in the literature (G. Sanders, et al.,  Method for purification and identification of sperm cells,  U.S. Pat. No. 8,703,416 B2, issued Apr. 22, 2014; Li, et al.,  Magnetic bead - based separation of sperm from buccal epithelial cells using a monoclonal antibody against MOSPD 3, Int. J. Legal Med. 128: 905-911 (2014). An affinity binding approach using sperm binding protein was suggested by Sinha (S. K. Sinha, et al.,  Novel method for separation of human sperm from biological samples for application in human identification,  U.S. Patent Application Pub. 2006/0141512 A1, published Jun. 29, 2006). 
         [0016]    Microfluidic Based Methods: 
         [0017]    The research group of Landers reported a microfluidic based platform to create an automated sperm separation apparatus (K. M. Horsman, et al.,  Separation of sperm and epithelial cells in a microfabricated device: potential application to forensic analysis of sexual assault evidence,  Anal. Chem. 77(3): 742-749 (2005)). This separation utilizes the differential physical properties of the cells that result in settling of the epithelial cells to the bottom of the inlet reservoir and subsequent adherence to the glass substrate. As a result, low flow rates can be used to separate the sperm cells from the epithelial cell-containing biological mixture. 
         [0018]    Another approach using a micro fabricated device used holographic optical trapping to sort objects and contaminants. This may be done using a chip for sorting utilizing holographic optical trapping (HOT), in the absence or presence of microfluidic streaming and sorting (T. Chakrabarty,  Method and apparatus for sorting objects in forensic DNA analysis and medical diagnostics,  U.S. Patent Application Pub. 2011/0223653 A1, published Sep. 15, 2011). 
         [0019]    DNAse Digestion Based Method: 
         [0020]    A promising method reported by Garvin and coworkers (A. M. Garvin, et al.,  DNA preparation from sexual assault cases by selective degradation of contaminating DNA from the victim,  J. Forensic Sci. 54(6): 1297-1303 (2009)) is based on purifying sperm DNA from vaginal swabs taken from rape victims by selectively digesting the victim&#39;s epithelial cells to solubilize the victim&#39;s DNA, and to remove the soluble victim&#39;s DNA by selectively degrading it using, a nuclease, DNase I. Although the method works (A. M. Garvin, et al.,  Isolating DNA from sexual assault cases: a comparison of standard methods with a nuclease - based approach,  Investigative Genetics 3: 25 (2012)), the fear of introducing a DNA degrading enzyme, in a valuable forensic DNA sample, is not appealing to forensic scientists. 
         [0021]    Selectively Lysing the Sperm Cells: 
         [0022]    In an approach opposite to the commonly used method whereby the non-sperm cells are lysed and intact sperm cells are recovered by centrifugation (P. Gill, et al., cited above), this method selectively lyses the sperm cells in presence of other cell types and collects the sperm DNA. The sperm cell lysis is effected by chemical reagents such as DTT in buffer (J. Y. Liu,  Method for recovering sperm nucleic acid from a forensic sample,  U.S. Patent Application Pub. No 2009/0042255 A1, published Feb. 12, 2009). 
         [0023]    Physical Separation by Filtration Based Methods: 
         [0024]    Chen and coworkers (J. Chen, et al.,  A physical method for separating spermatozoa from epithelial cells in sexual assault evidence,  J. Forensic Sci. 43(1): 114-118 (1 998)) demonstrated a separation of sperm cells from a mixture of sperm and epithelial cells using an 8-μm nylon mesh membrane filter, which retains the larger epithelial cells but allows the sperm cells to pass through it. In this method about 70% of the smaller sperm cells will pass through the filter whereas only 1-2% of the larger epithelial cells will pass through the membrane filter. However, the presence of female DNA in the sperm cell fraction is a factor in this method, because epithelial cells easily lyse, allowing free DNA or epithelial cell nuclei to in pass through the nylon mesh filter. Following the separation in all of these techniques, the purified sperm undergo normal forensic DNA analysis for genetic identification. 
         [0025]    Another filtration method proposed by Garvin reports separation of sperm and non-sperm cells utilizing a track-etched filter or a laser track etched filter, or a combination of the two. The track etched filter typically has a mean pore size of about 2 μm. This method is similar to the method reported by Chen (Id.), but instead of nylon filters uses a track etched filter of defined pore size (A. M. Garvin,  Filtration based DNA preparation for sexual assault cases,  J. Forensic Sci. 48(5): 1084-1087 (2003)). 
       Description of Polymers Useful in the Invention: 
       [0026]    Nanofibers are often defined as fibers with diameters of less than 100 nanometers (1×10 −7  m). However, for the present purpose, nanofibers having diameters as large as about 700 nm may be useful. Nanofibers can be produced by interfacial polymerization, electrospinning or electrostatic spinning, melt-blowing, bicomponent fiber spinning, phase separation, template synthesis, or self-assembly using a variety of materials. Nanofibers can be produced from many synthetic polymers such as vinyl polymers, acrylic polymers, polyesters, polyethers, polycarbonate and polyimides. Many other types of polymer and copolymers using several biocompatible polymers such as polycaprolactone have been reported to be used to produce nanofibers (H. Fong &amp; D. H. Reneker, in  Structure formation in polymeric fibers: Chapter  6,  Electrospinning and formation of nanofibers,  D. R. Salem, ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, pp. 225-246, 2001 (ISBN: 3-446-18203-9); T. J. Menkhaus, et al.,  Applications of electrospun nanofiber membranes for bioseparations,  Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers, 2010 (ISBN: 978-1608767823); Z.-M. Huang, et al.,  A review on polymer nanofibers by electrospinning and their applications in nanocomposites,  Composites Science and Technology 63: 2223-2253 (2003)). 
         [0027]    The electrospinning process provides the ability to produce nanofibers from various materials in large quantity with specific application based properties. Recently, nanofiber membranes have been used for many bio-separation applications (31). Nanofibers can be modified with specific functional groups and specific biomolecules can be covalently attached for affinity separations. Many biomolecules such as proteins, DNA, and pathogens can be captured on certain nanofibers using adsorption processes. 
         [0028]    Another way of producing nanofibers is by centrifugal spinning, which allows production of a variety of materials at high speed and low cost (Taghavi and Larson,  Regularized thin - fiber model for nanofiber formation by centrifugal spinning,  Phys. Rev. E 89 and Zhang and Lu,  Centrifugal Spinning: An Alternative Approach to Fabricate Nanofibers at High Speed and Low Cost,  Polymer Reviews Volume 54, Issue 4, 2014). In centrifugal spinning, the spinning fluid is placed in a rotating spinning head. When the rotating speed reaches a critical value, the centrifugal force overcomes the surface tension of the spinning fluid to eject a liquid jet from the nozzle tip of the spinning head. The jet then undergoes a stretching process and is eventually deposited on the collector, forming solidified nanofibers. Centrifugal spinning is simple and enables the rapid fabrication of nanofibers for various applications. Nanofibers composed of polypropylene, polyvinylidine fluoride, or polybutylene terephthalate can be produced with this method. 
         [0000]    Separation with Nanofiber Membranes: 
         [0029]    Separations with nanofiber membranes can be accomplished by using nanofiber layers of selected apparent pore size as a filtration membrane. Hollow nanofiber tube bundles can also be used by aligning the flow parallel to the nanofiber tube. Size based separations are routinely used for bioprocessing. Depth filtration and microfiltration are common operations used for clarification of fermentation broth where cells of approximately 20-200 nm and cellular debris 0.1-1 μm are removed from bioreactors (D. J. Roush &amp; Y. Lu,  Advances in primary recovery: centrifugation and membrane technology,  Biotechnology Progress 24(3): 488-49 (2008)). Nanofiltration with membranes is used for viral clearance and/or purification of 20-200 nm virus particles, and ultrafiltration is commonly used for purification or separation of proteins (R. van Reis &amp; A. Zydney,  Membrane separations in biotechnology,  Current Opinion in Biotechnology 12(2): 208-211 (2001)). In these cases, well defined pore size and size cutoff is needed to make effective separation. Also high porosity of materials is needed to avoid fouling and subsequent clogging of the membrane. Another important characteristic required when separating biomolecules with nanofiltration is chemical and physical robustness. Nanofiber felts can be produced from mechanically and chemically strong fibers with well controlled pore size among fibers or can be produced as collections of hollow fibers. These nanofiber production features offer a unique opportunity for using them as a size based separation medium for specific bio-particles or cells such as sperm cells. Polymer, carbon and ceramic nanofibers are also able to separate with high flux (R. S. Barhate, et al.,  Preparation and characterization of nanofibrous filtering media,  J. Membrane Sci. 283(1-2): 209-218 (2006)). Polymer nanofibers show in general the least amount nonspecific binding of molecules such as proteins or DNA but may suffer from less chemical robustness than the ceramic fibers. Ceramic fibers suffer from being brittle and have a potential for non-specific adsorption of bio-particles or bin-molecules resulting in fouling. However, ceramic nanofibers can withstand harsh chemical regeneration processes. 
         [0030]    Electrospun carbon nanofibers are made from the electrospun nanofibers including polyacrylonitrile (PAN) pitch cellulose, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofibers. Carbon nanofibers made from PAN nanofibers possess very ordered graphite crystalline structure. Pore sizes among the nanofibers can be controlled in the range from tens to hundreds of nanometers which makes the nanofiber capable of filtering contaminants with sizes larger than the apparent pore sizes of the nanofiber fabrics. This gives the nanofiber the ability to filter bacteria and viruses. Carbon nanofibers made of PVA possess a large amount of nano-sized pores (H. Fong &amp; D. H. Reneker, cited above). Another very interesting proper y of nanofiber is the ability to produce hollow nanofibers (D. Li &amp; Y. Xia,  Direct fabrication of composite and ceramic hollow nanofibers by electrospinning,  Nano Letters 4(5): 933-938 (2004)). Such hollow nanofiber bundles can be used for size based bio-separations with liquid flowing parallel to the fiber tube (C. A. Grimes,  Synthesis and application of highly ordered arrays of TiO   2   nanotubes,  J. Materials Chem. 17(15): 1451-1457 (2007)). 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0031]    The present invention utilizes a unique property of the nanofiber filter to overcome deficiencies that previous investigators have found to be associated with prior art methods. In a forensic sexual assault sample, the victim&#39;s epithelial cells are known to be fully chemically lysed in the presence of proteinase K and in the absence of DTT. Once lysed, the sample will contain lysed epithelial cells in the presence of perpetrator sperm cells. In a novel approach, nanofibers can be used to filter the epithelial/sperm mixture, capturing the sperm cells present in the sample on the nanofiber filter, with the lysed cellular debris going through the filter. Eluting the captured sperm cells then yields clean sperm fraction DNA fraction, which will contain only the DNA of the perpetrator&#39;s sperm cells, without any contamination from the victim&#39;s DNA or any other non-sperm DNA present in the sample. Nanofibers have several properties that allow sperm capture, including different materials, thread diameter, pore size and filter thickness. Instead of relying on a fixed pore size (which is prone to fouling and reduced yield), the nanofiber filter uses layers of nanofibers of apparent pore size small enough to trap sperm cells for effective separation of intact sperm cells from the digested non-sperm cell DNA. The method of the present invention is simple, allows for relatively clean separation of sperm cell DNA from other types of DNA in a sample, and does not necessarily require the use of sensitive antibodies, labor-intensive visual cell sorting steps, meticulous construction of microfluidic devices, or the risk of unwanted enzymatic degradation of valuable DNA evidence. 
         [0032]    The method of the present invention is convenient for use in existing forensic laboratories and can be used with classical filter cartridges and centrifugation based methods. The method can be easily adapted to automation and high throughput processing with robotic systems having a vacuum manifold or a micro fabricated device using a flow-through nanofiber filter. 
         [0033]    The method of the present invention makes use of nanofibers for separation of sperm cells from contaminant non-sperm cells in a forensic sample by using the nanofibers as a filtration medium. 
         [0034]    Accordingly, one object of the present invention is to provide an efficient differential extraction process that allows for the isolation of sperm cells, sperm cell DNA and DNA from other cells present in a biological sample including both sperm cells and epithelial cells. 
         [0035]    Another object of the present invention is to provide a DNA profiling method that allows for reliable identification of a sperm donor and an epithelial cell donor from a mixed biological sample including both sperm cells and epithelial cells. 
         [0036]    Another object of the present invention is to provide examples of materials and dimensions of nanofiber filters that effectively allow the isolation of sperm cells from a mixed biological sample including both sperm cells and epithelial cells. 
         [0037]    Another object of the present invention is to teach formats and structures that are appropriate for an apparatus for processing a forensic sample that includes sperm cells and not sperm cells. 
         [0038]    Another object of the present invention is to provide a kit for more efficient processing of forensic samples obtained using sexual assault kits. 
         [0039]    The present invention may include providing a method for processing forensic samples, the method comprising providing a nanofiber filter, the nanofiber filter comprising intermingled nanofibers, the nanofibers having diameters of about 700 nm or less, providing a biological sample comprising sperm cells from a sperm donor and epithelial cells from an epithelial cell donor, selectively digesting the epithelial cells of the sample using an epithelial cell digesting agent to form a first digest mixture, the first digest mixture including an E-fraction of digested epithelial cell DNA, and separating the sperm cells of the sample from the digested epithelial cells by filtration of the first digest mixture through the nanofiber filter, the sperm cells becoming entrapped in the nanofiber filter. 
         [0040]    The method may further comprise digesting the sperm cells entrapped in the nanofiber filter using a sperm cell digesting agent to form a second digest mixture, the second digest mixture including an S-fraction of digested sperm cell DNA, isolating the DNA from the E-fraction, isolating the DNA from the S-fraction, generating a DNA profile for determining the identity of the sperm donor, and generating a DNA profile for determining the identity of the epithelial cell donor. 
         [0041]    The method of the present invention may further comprise providing a first sample, the first sample being a saliva sample, a buccal sample, or a blood sample collected from a candidate sperm donor, providing a second sample, the second sample being a saliva sample, a buccal sample, or a blood sample collected from a candidate epithelial cell donor, mixing a portion of the first sample with a portion of the second sample to produce a mixture sample, generating DNA profiles corresponding to the first sample, the second sample and the mixture sample, and using the DNA profiles to determine whether the sperm donor corresponds to the candidate sperm donor and whether the epithelial cell donor corresponds to the candidate epithelial cell donor. 
         [0042]    In the methods of the present invention for processing forensic samples, the biological sample upon which the methods operate may be a forensic sample collected according to a protocol established for a sexual assault kit. 
         [0043]    In the methods of the present invention, the sperm cell digesting agent may be a chemical reducing agent. In some embodiments, the chemical reducing agent may be selected from the group consisting of dithiothreitol (DTT), β-mercaptoethanol (BME), glutathione (GSH) and combinations thereof. However, useful chemical reducing agents are not limited thereto. 
         [0044]    In embodiments of the present invention, the generated DNA profiles may be of sufficient quality to be used for human identification. In certain embodiments, the DNA to profiling methods of the present invention may further include searching a DNA profile database using the generated DNA profiles in order to identify the sperm donor. 
         [0045]    The DNA profiling method of the present invention may make use of a nanofiber filter comprising nanofibers, the nanofibers being formed of at least one polymer, the at least one polymer being selected from the group consisting of a vinyl polymer, an acrylic polymer, a polyester, a polyether, a polycarbonate, a polyimide and a polycaprolactone. However, the nanofiber composition is not limited thereto, and the nanofibers may be formed of other materials including other organic polymers. 
         [0046]    The nanofibers of the nanofiber filter ma be produced by at least one of interfacial polymerization, electrospinning and electrostatic spinning. However, methods of preparing suitable nanofibers are not limited thereto. 
         [0047]    In the methods of the present invention, the nanofiber filter may comprise an electrospun hybrid nanofiber felt, and the electrospun hybrid nanofiber felt may comprise a composite nanofiber and a single component nanofiber. 
         [0048]    In the methods of the present invention, a thickness of the nanofiber filter may be in a range of from about 70 μm to about 800 μm. Alternatively, a thickness of the nanofiber filter may be in a range of from about 70 μm to about 100 μm, from about 100 μm to about 200 μm, from about 200 μm to about 300 μm, from about 400 μm to about 600 μm, or from about 600 μm to about 800 μm. 
         [0049]    In the methods of the present invention, an effectiveness of the separating step may be affected by both a pore size and a thickness of the nanofiber filter 
         [0050]    In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the nanofiber filter may be made of polycaprolactone nanofibers, polyimide nanofibers, carbon nanofibers, or ceramic nanofibers. However, the composition of the nanofiber filter is not limited thereto, and the nanofiber filter may be made of other organic or inorganic materials or polymers. 
         [0051]    In certain embodiments of the present invention, the nanofiber filter may be comprised of bundles of nanofibers, the nanofibers being hollow, the nanofibers being oriented in a direction parallel to a direction of flow of the first digest mixture through the nanofiber filter. 
         [0052]    In certain preferred embodiments of the present invention, an apparent pore size of the nanofiber filter may be less than about 2.5 μm. In other embodiments, an apparent pore size of the nanofiber filter may be less than about 3.0 μm, less than about 2.3 μm, or less than about 2.0 μm. In some embodiments, an apparent pore size of the nanofiber filter may range from about 2.4 μm to about 2.6 μm, from about 2.3 μm to about 2.5 μm, from about 2.0 μm to about 2.5 μm, or from about 2.5 μm to about 2.7 μm. 
         [0053]    In certain embodiments, the methods of the present invention may further comprise providing a filter cartridge enclosing the nanofiber filter and using centrifugation methods to accomplish the separating step. In some embodiments, the DNA profiling methods of the present invention may further comprise enclosing the nanofiber filter in a manifold or housing and applying within the manifold or housing one or both of air pressure to a fluid entry side of the nanofiber filter and vacuum to a fluid exit side of the nanofiber filter in order to accomplish the separating step. 
         [0054]    In certain embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the sperm cells ma be recovered with higher than about 70% efficiency. In other embodiments, sperm cells may be recovered with higher than about 50% efficiency, about 60% efficiency, about 80% efficiency, about 90% efficiency, or about 95% efficiency. 
         [0055]    In some embodiments, the present invention may include an apparatus for processing a forensic sample including sperm cells and non-sperm cells. The apparatus may comprise a lysis chamber for selective lysing of non-sperm cells to form a first lysate, a nanofiber filter capable of entrapping sperm cells when the first lysate is passed through the filter, means for passing the first lysate from the lysis chamber onto the nanofiber filter, a first collection vessel for collecting the filtered first lysate, an enclosure including the nanofiber filter, the enclosure allowing for contact between sperm cells entrapped in the filter and a sperm lysing agent to be applied in order to form a second lysate, and a collection vessel for collecting the second lysate. 
         [0056]    In certain embodiments, the apparatus of the present invention may be formed as a micro fabricated device, the nanofiber filter being oriented in-line with the lysis chamber and the first collection vessel. 
         [0057]    In some embodiments, the apparatus may further comprise a capability for generating DNA profiles for both the sperm cell DNA and the non-sperm cell DNA in the sample 
         [0058]    In some embodiments, the passage of the first lysate through the nanofiber filter of the apparatus may be pressure-assisted or vacuum-assisted. 
         [0059]    In the apparatus of the present invention, the selective lysing of non-sperm cells may be effected by a combination of a detergent and proteinase enzyme. In some embodiments, the sperm cell lysing agent may be a mixture of a detergent, proteinase enzyme and a chemical reducing agent. The chemical reducing agent may be one of dithiothreitol (DTT) and β-mercaptoethanol, but it is not limited thereto. 
         [0060]    In certain embodiments, the apparatus of the present invention may allow for the isolation of sperm cell DNA and non-sperm cell DNA from the sample and subsequent DNA analysis and human identification. 
         [0061]    In certain embodiments, an apparatus of the present invention for processing forensic samples for human identification may comprise an automated robotic platform that is capable of using a nanofiber filter device to separate one of sperm cells and sperm cell DNA from one of non-sperm cells and non-sperm cell DNA. 
         [0062]    In certain embodiments, the present invention may include a kit for processing forensic samples. The kit may comprise a plurality of cup-shaped nanofiber filters, each filter held within a standard centrifuge spin column, each filter comprising intermingled nanofibers, the nanofibers having diameters of about 700 nm or less, a digest buffer comprising a buffer material for maintaining a solution pH in a physiological range, a chelating, agent, a surfactant and a cell digesting enzyme, a cell digesting enzyme solution to aid in cell digestion, a chemical reducing agent for lysing sperm cells, an eluting buffer solution comprising a buffer material for maintaining a solution pH in a physiological range, the eluting buffer being useful as an eluting solvent in purifying DNA, a DNA isolation kit, an InnoQuant™ kit for quantitating DNA and instructions for processing forensic samples. The nanofiber filters of the kit need not be cup-shaped, but may be disc-shaped, cone-shaped, or square-shaped, or may have another suitable shape. 
         [0063]    The kit for processing forensic samples may include a digest buffer, and the digest buffer may comprise tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and proteinase K. However, the digest buffer composition is not limited thereto. 
         [0064]    The kit for processing forensic samples may include a chemical reducing agent for lysing sperm cells, and the chemical reducing agent may be selected from the group consisting of dithiothreitol (DTT), β-mercaptoethanol (BME), glutathione (GSH) and combinations thereof. However, the chemical reducing agent for lysing sperm cells is not limited thereto. 
         [0065]    The kit for processing forensic samples may include an eluting buffer solution comprising a buffer material for maintaining a solution pH in a physiological range, and the eluting buffer may comprise tris and EDTA (TE buffer). However, the eluting buffer material is not limited thereto, and, in certain embodiments, the eluting buffer material may comprise a buffer material capable of maintaining the eluting solvent pH in a physiological range and a metal chelating agent. 
         [0066]    The kit for processing forensic samples may include a cell digesting enzyme solution to aid in cell digestion, and the cell digesting enzyme solution may be proteinase K (20 mg/L). 
         [0067]    The kit for processing forensic samples may comprise a nonofiber filtration device that is capable of isolating sperm cells or sperm DNA from one of epithelial cells and non-sperm cell DNA. 
         [0068]    The methods, apparatus and kit of the present invention may be used with classical filter cartridges and centrifugation based methods. These methods may easily be adapted to automation and high throughput processing with robotic systems having a vacuum manifold or with a micro fabricated device using a flow-through nanofiber filter. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         [0069]      FIG. 1  shows the structure of an intact sperm cell. 
           [0070]      FIG. 2  is a flow chart depicting the Detailed Extraction Protocol used for processing a simulated rape examination swab to test two nanofiber filters. 
           [0071]      FIG. 3  shows the DNA profile of the mixed epithelial and sperm sample B cell mixture sample prior to isolation using the nanofiber. As expected, this DNA profile is a mixture of the two known donors. 
           [0072]      FIG. 4  shows the Identifier® Plus STR DNA profile of an isolated sperm cell fraction after separation by Fiber 2, a filter having a thickness of 500 μm. The Y scale is zoomed in to 1500 RFU. 
           [0073]      FIG. 5  shows the Identifier® Plus STR DNA profile of an isolated epithelial cell fraction alter separation by Fiber 2, a filter having a thickness of 500 μm. The Y scale is zoomed in to 1500 RFU. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0074]    Of utmost importance in a forensic sexual assault case is the ability to separate sperm cells from other cells present in the sample matrix, thereby producing a dean sperm cell fraction. The DNA profile of the sperm cell fraction will clearly identify the perpetrator(s). Intact sperm cells have the structure depicted in  FIG. 1 . In most forensic samples, the sperm is degraded and only the head portion remains intact. The mean sizes of human sperm are reported as: length: 437 μm and width: 275 μm (G. Bellastella, et al.,  Dimensions of human ejaculated spermatozoa in Papanicolaou stained seminal and swim - up smears obtained from the Integrated Semen Analysis System  ( ISAS® ), Asian Journal of Andrology 12(6): 871-879 (2010)). The strong disulfide bonds present on the cell surface proteins of sperm cells makes them resistant to mild protease digestion. Hence when a mild proteinase digestion is performed in a forensic sample containing sperm cells and other skin cells such as epithelial cells from a rape examination swab, all other cell types digest, releasing the DNA; whereas the sperm cell acrosome containing male DNA remains intact. After the sperm cells are pelleted by centrifugation, the soluble DNA from the epithelial and non-sperm cells is removed in the supernatant, and this becomes known as the “epithelial” or “non-sperm” fraction. The sperm cells may then be washed three times to remove any remaining DNA from the non-sperm cells. Then the sperm cells are digested using a reducing agent chemical such as DTT to break the protein disulfide bonds and a proteinase enzyme such as proteinase K to digest the sperm cells. This methodology, commonly referred to as differential digest, works well and is capable of cleanly separating the male DNA profile from the female DNA profile used for identification of the sperm donor and the sexual assault victim associated with a sexual assault evidence sample. 
         [0075]    The present invention uses the similar proven differential digest chemistry, but utilizes a unique methodology for the separation of the sperm cells from the digested DNA of non-sperm cells. The unique properties of nanofiber filters (layers of nanofibers) allow separation of the sperm cells not only based on actual pore size but on the layers of the nanofiber filter that create a web like structure to trap the sperm cells without clogging the filter and with high flow rate. The results herein demonstrate that as high as 89% percent of the sperm cell DNA can be recovered after filtration through the nanofiber filter. The results also indicate that the yield can be further improved by creating nanofiber filters with materials which do not bind DNA by adsorption and have optimal thickness and pore size. It is also demonstrated that in a simulated rape examination swab containing a mixture of both epithelial and sperm cells, the method can separate the DNA of the two types of cells, and the resulting DNA profiles can be used by the criminal justice system to identify the sperm donor associated with sexual assault evidence. The method of the present invention makes use of these polymer filters for separation of sperm cells from other contaminant non-sperm cells in a forensic sample by using a nanofiber filter as a filtration medium. 
         [0076]    For the purposes of the present invention, a nanofiber is a slender and greatly elongated filament having a diameter of up to about 700 nm. A nanofiber filter is a mat comprising randomly overlaid or intermingled nanofibers, where gaps between the nanofibers form pores, the pores being interlinked to form tortuous pathways through the nanofiber filter mat. The nanofiber filter mat has an apparent pore size corresponding to its apparent maximum pore diameter. 
       EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Detailed Extraction Protocol Showing the Efficiency of Capturing Intact Sperm Cells on Nanofiber Filters, Recovery of Digested Sperm Cell DNA, and Evaluation of the Utility of the Method for Forensic DNA Analysis of Dried Mock Vaginal Swabs 
       [0077]    This Example demonstrates the efficacy of nanofiber filters for clean separation of epithelial cells from sperm cells found in a simulated forensic case sexual assault swab. Nanofiber filters of polycaprolactone nanofiber extracellular matrix (ECM PCL) having two different thicknesses, 500 μm and 600 μm (hereinafter ‘Fiber 1’ and ‘Fiber 2’, respectively), were used. A comparison of the efficiency of separation and recovery of sperm DNA by the two filters having different thicknesses is provided. The two types of nanofiber filters were evaluated using a simulated rape kit swab for the efficiency as well as the efficacy of separation of the sperm and non-sperm cell mixture by nanofiber filters. 
         [0078]    A simulated rape examination swab was created by adding sperm cells to epithelial (buccal) cells from two different individuals. Sperm were initially washed, and extraneous non-sperm cells removed through mild digestion (using Proteinase K, hereinafter ‘PK’). The washed sperm cells were mixed with epithelial cells (from a cheek swab) in 1:1 ratio. A small fraction of these unfiltered cells were removed before separation for use as a control mixture sample. (Alleles from both donors are expected in this control sample.) The remaining portion of the cell mixture was subjected to partial digestion with the expectation that epithelial DNA would be freed from the lysed epithelial cells and sperm cells would remain intact. Epithelial DNA plus sperm cell mixtures were filtered through different nanofiber filters. These mixtures were added in small volume directly to the nanofiber filter “cups”. Epithelial DNA within the flow-through was stored (referred to as the epithelial fraction), and sperm cells trapped on nanofibers were subjected to complete digestion. An additional digestion with DTT was performed to the flow through. This procedure revealed the extent to which sperm cells were not retained by the nanofiber and entered the flow-through. The AmpF         STR® Identifier® Plus PCR Amplification Kit from Life Technologies was used to determine the source of the DNA in each fraction. (Sperm and epithelial cells were from two distinct individuals and thus bad two distinct male profiles.) The sperm samples were subjected to mild digestion to remove any cell debris or epithelial cells from the sperm donor so that the quantification of DNA from the lysates after separation would give a correct measure of efficiency of separation. 
         [0079]    The Detailed Extraction Protocol for processing the simulated rape examination swab is illustrated in the flow chart presented as  FIG. 2  and was as follows: 
         [0080]    Step 1: Wash neat sperm (40 μL) in 1 mL 1× PBS (phosphate buffer saline). 
         [0081]    Step 2: Pellet sperm cells and additional cells that may be present in the ejaculate (epithelial cells, white blood cells, etc.) for 5′ at 10,000 rpm using an Eppendorff MiniSpin® centrifuge, which produces approximately 6,700 g at this speed. The Eppendorf MiniSpin® centrifuge was used for all centrifugation steps described in this disclosure. 
         [0082]    Step 3: Re-suspend cell pellet in 20 μL Digest Buffer. 
         [0083]    Step 4: Rehydrate epithelial cells on cheek swab by breaking swab into 1 mL 1× PBS and let sit for 30-60min. 
         [0084]    Step 5: Vortex swab in PBS and pellet cells for 5′ at 10,000 rpm. 
         [0085]    Step 6: Re-suspend epithelial cells in 110 μL Digest Buffer (10 mM tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, 10 mM ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), 50 mM NaCl, 2% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at pH=7.5). 
         [0086]    Step 7: Mix epithelial and sperm cells in given volume ratios: 1:1-10 μL epithelial+10 μL sperm+90 μL Digest Buffer. 
         [0087]    Step 8: Remove 10 μL from each mixture (Pre separation control sample): AG121. 
         [0088]    Step 9: Add 2.5 μL proteinase K (PK) (20 mg/mL) to remaining 100 μL mixture and digest for 1 hour at 56° C. to digest epithelial cells only. 
         [0089]    Step 10: Pre-soak nanofibers by adding 5 μL of Digest Buffer directly onto each nanofiber “cup”. 
         [0090]    Step 11: Add 50 μL digest mixture (from Step 9) into each of the appropriate nanofiber filters and spin for 1′ at 1,000 rpm. The nanofiber filters were spun a second time due to the liquid not flowing through in its entirety. The second spin was performed for 1′ at 3,000 rpm. This is the second flow through. Store 25 μL of this digest. Together, this is the PK flow through, or “E PK” fraction AG115/119). 
         [0091]    Step 12: Take the remaining volume of the E_PK digest flow through and add 5 μL PK and 10 μL DTT to it. This second flow through is the E_PK+DTT digest (AG107/111) and along with the epithelial cells that flowed through, will contain any lysed sperm cells that may have flowed through as well. 
         [0092]    Step 13: Place nanofiber into fresh tube with 200 μL Digest Buffer, 5 μL PK and 10 μL dithiothreitol (DTT) 
         [0093]    Step 14: Digest overnight at 56° C. 
         [0094]    Step 15: Remove nanofiber filter into a fresh basket/Eppendorf tube and centrifuge at 5,000 rpm for 1′ to collect DNA from soaked filter. This is the sperm fraction and will contain the digested sperm cells that remained on the filter (AG103). 
         [0095]    Step 16: Add ethanol in 1:1 volume with Digest Buffer and proceed to BioBasic mini-prep genomic DNA isolation kit (Bio Basic Inc., Amherst, N.Y.). 
         [0096]    Step 17: Elute in 50 μL DNA suspension buffer (TE). 
         [0097]    Step 18: Proceed to DNA quantification using InnoQuant™ kit (InnoGenomics Technologies, LLC, New Orleans, La.). The InnoQuant™ kit allows for separate quantitation of male DNA and female DNA for each fraction. 
         [0098]    The recovered DNA was then amplified using the AmpF         STR® Identifier® Plus PCR Amplification Kit from Life Technologies following manufacturer&#39;s standard DNA analysis protocols. The results were analyzed on an Applied Biosystems® 3130 Genetic Analyzer using Genemapper® ID-X or Genemapper software following standard protocols and using a minimum RFU threshold of 100 RFU. 
         [0099]    As described above, a simulated rape examination swab was created try adding sperm cells to buccal cells from two different individuals. The swab was processed according to the Detailed Extraction Protocol using NanoECM™ PCL Fiber 1 and Fiber 2 (Nanofiber Solutions, Columbus, Ohio). The recovery yields are shown in Table 1 as quantitation values for the resultant sperm and epithelial fractions from Fiber 2. The DNA quantitation values found in the sperm fractions confirm that DNA is successfully recovered from all tested nanofiber filters. In order to determine the efficacy of each filter to trap sperm cells, the quantity of DNA in the nanofibrous fraction is divided by the combined total DNA recovered from the nanofiber filter and flow-through fractions, and the result is given as a recovery percentage. For the two tested samples (A and B), Fiber 1 captured sperm cells at 11% and 32%, respectively. For the two tested samples (A and B), Fiber 2 captured sperm cells at 76% and 89%, respectively. Fiber 2 captured sperm cells at a higher efficiency. This experiment clearly established the high efficacy of the nanofibrous filter to capture sperm cells. 
         [0100]    DNA is successfully recovered from the filter. The robust DNA quantitation values found in the sperm fractions confirm that DNA is successfully up to 89% recovered from the nanofiber. Through the use of controls, the fact that the nanofiber filter itself does not contribute any contaminating DNA was confirmed. The observed DNA yield can be further improved by optimizing the extraction process and filter composition. 
         [0101]    Epithelial DNA effectively flows through nanofibers. Epithelial DNA was quantified in the flow-through fractions, indicating that epithelial DNA effectively passes through the nanofiber. The amount of epithelial DNA recovered varied between samples. This protocol uses low spin speeds in order to separate epithelial DNA from intact sperm cells. The separation efficiency was investigated by measuring the amount of DNA present in the flow-through of a single wash step. The majority of epithetial DNA is recovered after the first low speed spin. Only small amounts of epithelial DNA are trapped within the nanofiber after the wash step (5-15% of total epithelial DNA recovered). The results indicate that the nanofiber filters can effectively separate the undigested sperm cells from the digested epithelial cell DNA without clogging the filter and with a high flow rate. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 DNA quantitation values using InnoQuant ™ of simulated 
               
               
                 sexual assault swabs for Sample A and Sample B with Fiber 2 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Fractional 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 recovery of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Mean 
                   
                   
                   
                 sperm cell 
               
               
                   
                 Protocol 
                   
                   
                   
                 Quant 
                 Epith. 
                 Sperm 
                 ng 
                 DNA on 
               
               
                 ID 
                 Step 
                 Sample 
                 Digest 
                 Fraction 
                 (ng/μL) 
                 (μL) 
                 (μL) 
                 DNA 
                 filter 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 AG121 
                 8 
                 A 
                 PK + DTT 
                 Unfiltered 
                 0.53 
                 0.91 
                 0.91 
                 133.11 
                   
               
               
                 AG115/ 
                 11 
                 A 
                 PK Flow 
                 E_PK 
                 0.04 
                 4.55 
                 4.55 
                 2.36 
               
               
                 119 
                   
                   
                 Through 
               
               
                 AG107/ 
                 12 
                 A 
                 PK + DTT 
                 E_PK + DTT 
                 0.44 
                 4.55 
                 4.55 
                 23.34 
               
               
                 111 
                   
                   
                 Flow Through 
               
               
                 AG103 
                 15 
                 A 
                 PK + DTT 
                 Nanofiber 
                 1.59 
                 4.55 
                 4.55 
                 79.68 
                 76% 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (Sperm) 
               
               
                 AG116/ 
                 11 
                 B 
                 PK Flow 
                 E_PK 
                 0.17 
                 45.45 
                 4.55 
                 12.22 
               
               
                 120 
                   
                   
                 Through 
               
               
                 AG108 
                 12 
                 B 
                 PK + DTT 
                 E_PK + DTT 
                 — 
                 45.45 
                 4.55 
                 3.67 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Flow Through 
               
               
                 AG104 
                 15 
                 B 
                 PK + DTT 
                 Nanofiber 
                 2.51 
                 45.45 
                 4.55 
                 125.27 
                 89% 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (Sperm) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 2 
     Analysis of Isolated Sperm Cell DNA and Epithelial Cell DNA Using a Forensic Stir DNA Analysis Kit 
       [0102]    The recovered DNA was amplified using the AmpF         STR® Identifier® Plus PCR Amplification Kit following the manufacturer standard DNA analysis protocols. The extraction control, a negative control and a positive control DNA were analyzed with the isolated sperm cell DNA and epithelial cell DNA samples. The profiles of the known reference samples were generated as well as the profiles of the mixture samples prior to differential digestion and subjected to nanofiber filter separation as control results for comparison purposes. 
         [0103]    Table 2 shows the DNA profiles obtained from samples A and B using the Fiber 2 nanofiber filter and Table 3 shows the DNA profiles obtained from samples A and B using the Fiber 1 nanofiber filter. From this data, it is evident that the corresponding donor is correctly detected as the major component of each respective fraction irrespective of the fiber used (Fiber 1 or Fiber 2), and irrespective of whether sample A or sample B was tested. For example, the sperm cell donor is the major donor in all sperm fractions tested, with very little contribution from the epithelial donor. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Identifiler Plus ® results for Fiber 2 with Sample A and Sample 
               
               
                 B. Alleles with a peak height of less than 50% of the main peak in 
               
               
                 each locus are designated as weak alleles and are placed in parentheses. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sperm 
                 Sperm 
                 Epithelial 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Unfiltered 
                 Fraction 
                 Fraction 
                 Fraction 
               
               
                   
                 Sperm 
                 Epithelial 
                 Sample B 
                 Sample B 
                 Sample A 
                 Sample B 
               
               
                 Marker 
                 Reference 
                 Reference 
                 (AG122) 
                 (AG104) 
                 (AG103) 
                 (AG116) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 D8S1179 
                 13, 16 
                 10, 12 
                 (10, 12), 13, 16 
                 (10, 12), 13, 16 
                 13, 16 
                 10, 12 
               
               
                 D21S11 
                   30, 32.2 
                 29, 30 
                 (29), 30, 32.2 
                 (29), 30, 32.2 
                   30, 32.2 
                 29, 30 
               
               
                 D7S820 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
               
               
                 CSF1PO 
                  9, 10 
                 10 
                  9, 10 
                  9, 10 
                  9, 10 
                 10 
               
               
                 D3S1358 
                 16 
                 14, 16 
                 (14), 16      
                 (14), 16      
                 16 
                 14, 16 
               
               
                 TH01 
                   7, 9.3 
                 6, 7 
                 (6), 7, 9.3 
                   7, 9.3 
                   7, 9.3 
                 6, 7, (9.3) 
               
               
                 D13S317 
                 12 
                 11, 12 
                 (11), 12      
                 12 
                 12 
                 11, 12 
               
               
                 D16S539 
                  8, 11 
                 12 
                 8, 11, (12) 
                 8, 11, (12) 
                  8, 11 
                 12 
               
               
                 D2S1338 
                 23, 24 
                 22, 25 
                 (22), 23, 24, (25) 
                 (22), 23, 24 
                 (22), 23, 24 
                 22, (23, 24), 25 
               
               
                 D19S433 
                 13, 14 
                 14 
                 13, 14 
                 13, 14 
                 13, 14 
                 (13), 14      
               
               
                 vWA 
                 17, 18 
                 16, 18 
                 16, 17, 18 
                 17, 18 
                 17, 18 
                 16, (17), 18 
               
               
                 TPOX 
                  8 
                  8, 11 
                      8, (11) 
                  8 
                  8 
                  8, 11 
               
               
                 D18S51 
                 14, 15 
                 12, 18 
                 (12), 14, 15, (18) 
                 14, 15 
                 14, 15 
                 12, 18 
               
               
                 AMEL 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
               
               
                 D5S818 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
               
               
                 FGA 
                 19, 21 
                 21, 25 
                 19, 21, (25) 
                 19, 21 
                 19, 21 
                 21, 25 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Identifiler Plus ® results for Fiber 1, Samples A and B. Alleles with a peak height of 
               
               
                 less than 50% of the main peak in each locus are designated as weak alleles and are placed in parentheses. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Unfiltered 
                 Sperm Fraction 
                 Sperm Fraction 
                 Epithelial 
               
               
                   
                 Sperm 
                 Epithelial 
                 Sample B 
                 Sample B 
                 Sample A 
                 Sample B 
               
               
                 Marker 
                 Reference 
                 Reference 
                 (AG122) 
                 (AG101) 
                 (AG102) 
                 (AG114) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 D8S1179 
                 13, 16 
                 10, 12 
                 (10, 12), 13, 16 
                 (10, 12), 13, 16 
                 (10, 12), 13, 16 
                 10, 12 
               
               
                 D21S11 
                   30, 32.2 
                 29, 30 
                 (29), 30, 32.2 
                 (29), 30, 32.2 
                 (29), 30, 32.2 
                 29, 30 
               
               
                 D7S820 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
                 11 
               
               
                 CSF1PO 
                  9, 10 
                 10 
                         9, 10 
                  9, 10 
                  9, 10 
                 (9), 10 
               
               
                 D3S1358 
                 16 
                 14, 16 
                 (14), 16 
                 (14), 16 
                 16 
                 14, 16 
               
               
                 TH01 
                   7, 9.3 
                 6, 7 
                 (6), 7, 9.3 
                 (6), 7, 9.3 
                   7, 9.3 
                 6, 7, (9.3) 
               
               
                 D13S317 
                 12 
                 11, 12 
                 (11), 12 
                 (11), 12 
                 12 
                 11, 12 
               
               
                 D16S539 
                  8, 11 
                 12 
                 8, 11, (12) 
                 8, 11, 12 
                 8, 11, (12) 
                 (11), 12      
               
               
                 D2S1338 
                 23, 24 
                 22, 25 
                 (22), 23, 24, (25) 
                 (22), 23, 24, (25) 
                 23, 24 
                 22, (23, 24), 25 
               
               
                 D19S433 
                 13, 14 
                 14 
                      13, 14 
                     13, 14 
                 13, 14 
                 (13), 14      
               
               
                 vWA 
                 17, 18 
                 16, 18 
                 16, 17, 18 
                 16, 17, 18 
                 (16), 17, 18 
                 16, 18 
               
               
                 TPOX 
                  8 
                  8, 11 
                      8, (11) 
                   8, (11) 
                  8 
                  8, 11 
               
               
                 D18S51 
                 14, 15 
                 12, 18 
                 (12), 14, 15, (18) 
                 (12), 14, 15, (18) 
                 14, 15 
                 12, 18 
               
               
                 AMEL 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
                 X, Y 
               
               
                 D5S818 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
                 12 
               
               
                 FGA 
                 19, 21 
                 21, 25 
                 19, 21, (25) 
                 19, 21, (25) 
                 19, 21, (25) 
                 21, 25 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0104]      FIG. 3  shows the DNA profile prior to isolation using the nanofiber of sample B. As expected, this DNA profile is a mixture of the two known donors. 
         [0105]      FIG. 4  shows the DNA profile of the sperm fraction after separation using Fiber 2. The sperm fraction obtained from Fiber 2 produced a DNA profile consistent with the known sperm donor as the major contributor, with the epithelial donor being detected as a minor component at only 1 marker in the sample A mixture swab. This result is highly desirable in a forensic case, enabling simple result interpretation of a single male donor, and therefore, simple presentation to a jury in a court of law. 
         [0106]      FIG. 5  shows the DNA profile of the epithelial fraction after separation using Fiber 2. The epithelial fraction exhibits a mixture of the epithelial donor and the sperm donor at 4 of the 15 markers tested. The epithelial donor is the major contributor in the epithelial profile, with alleles from the sperm donor being detected as a minor component at only 4 markers. 
         [0107]    Regarding the probative fractions of interest, the sperm fractions, Fiber 2 performed more effectively in yielding a clean sperm profile than Fiber 1. The sperm fractions obtained from Fiber 2 produced a DNA profile consistent with the known sperm donor as the major contributor, with the epithelial donor being detected as a minor component at only 5 of 15 markers in the sample B mixture swab and only 1 marker in the sample A mixture swab. The sperm fractions obtained from Fiber 1 produced a DNA profile consistent with the known sperm donor as the major contributor, with the epithelial donor being detected at all 15 markers in the sample B mixture swab and at only 5 markers in the sample A mixture swab. It is observed that Fiber 2 was more effective in producing clean sperm profiles. The results indicate that the nanofiber filters can effectively separate the undigested sperm cells from the digested epithelial cell DNA. It is noted that the sperm fraction is the most probative fraction, which, in a sexual assault case, identifies the sperm donor in the sexual assault evidence. 
         [0108]    Differentiation of the Present Invention from Prior Art: 
         [0109]    Density medium based separation: Although this process is commercially available, it is still not easy to perform and clean sperm DNA separation/recovery can be variable and sub-optimal. The method is much more complex than the manual method to automate. The reason for the sub-optimal clean sperm DNA recovery of this method is any of the victim&#39;s epithelial cell DNA that remains in particulate form, due to incomplete digestion of the victim&#39;s cells, will contaminate the male DNA fraction purified using this method, yielding a mixture of male and female DNA in the sperm fraction. In comparison, nanofiber filters are easily automatable and simple to use, yielding reproducible and consistent results without any victim epithelial cell contamination in the sperm profile. This is because the sperm is trapped in the nanofiber, and all lysed victim epithelial cells will go through the filter. Therefore, nanofiber filters are a novel, unique way of obtaining a clean sperm fraction in the presence of contaminating victim epithelial cells. 
         [0110]    Immunological or other affinity based methods: This method is dependent on having intact sperm cells, which is a rare in a forensic case. Most forensic samples contain degraded cells due to the harsh environmental conditions samples are exposed to, or simply due to the passage of time. In this method, degraded protein from sperm cells may block the binding site of the antibody, making the binding unsuccessful. This interferes with the separation and is the reason why this method is not commercially successful. The affinity based approach previously suggested by Sinha uses other sperm binding proteins, but is subject to the same limitations as affinity binding due to protein debris present in the sample. On the other hand, nanofiber separation does not depend on affinity binding, but on size separation. In the examples provided, it is shown that any degraded cellular debris is digested and goes through the filter into the epithelial fraction, leaving a clean sperm fraction, providing a clean, single source sperm DNA profile, easily identifying a perpetrator. Therefore, the novel nanofiber filtration method of separation is not adversely affected by the presence of degraded cells in a forensic sample. 
         [0111]    Laser microdissection: Although this method leads to a clean sperm fraction, it depends on a costly microscope and supplies, complicated collection methods different from those currently used, and is not amenable to high throughput processing. This method is time-consuming and labor-intensive (to identify the sperm cells in the sample). The novel approach of nanofiber separation is low cost, automatable, and can be easily adapted to high throughput processing (i.e. in a 96-well plate format). 
         [0112]    Microfluidic based methods: This method works well for intact sperm, but is labor intensive, requires high cost and complex engineering design, and is not currently commercially available due to these reasons. On the other hand, the novel approach of nanofibers separation can easily be amenable to automation by creating a 96-well plate platform, and using a liquid handler robot equipped with vacuum manifold capabilities. There is no complex engineering design or high cost, and an automatable method, by definition, requires very little labor effort. 
         [0113]    DNAse digestion based method: Although this method is commercially available, the fear of introducing a DNA degrading enzyme into valuable forensic DNA samples that are already limited in quality and quantity commonly found in a forensic laboratory is not appealing to forensic scientists. Therefore, this method is available, but not widely accepted. The proposed novel nanofiber separation, however, does not depend on chemical separation means, but on the physical properties of the nanofibers. There is no use or introduction of any chemicals that can be detrimental to forensic samples and will therefore be widely accepted in the forensic field. 
         [0114]    Selectively lysing the sperm cells: The method described by Liu,  Selective lysis of sperm cells,  EP 2115123 A2 (published 11 Nov. 2009), lyses the sperm cells, leaving epithelial cells intact. It does not use any specific separation method other than chemical lysis. The Nanofiber method is novel and unique in terms of its ability to isolate clean sperm cell DNA from a forensic rape evidence collection kit and provide ability to obtain DNA profile to identify the sperm donor. 
         [0115]    Physical separation by filtration based methods (nylon filters and track etched filters of defined pore size): This method is most similar to the proposed method of using filtration to separate cells, but instead retains un-lysed victim epithelial cells in the nylon or track etched filter and allows the sperm to pass through. This method thus suffers from the same limitations as density medium based separation, which is the contamination of the sperm cell lysate with degraded or lysed victim epithelial or non-sperm cells, resulting in a sperm fraction contaminated with non-sperm DNA. Another drawback of all other filtration methods that have been proposed or used for forensic samples is the susceptibility to clogging of the filter by the excess of non-sperm cells, thereby not allowing the sperm cells to flow through and obtaining very low yields of sperm cell DNA. On the other hand, nanofiber separation is novel, unique and superior to other filter based separation methods due to the various properties of nanofibers that can be used to design an optimal filter that will only retain sperm cells, and not any other non-sperm cells or cellular debris present in the sample. The filter material and the thin thread diameter gives nanofiber filters their unique and novel property because the small fiber dimensions provide increased surface area and controlled pore size. By combining various materials, thread diameter, pore size and filter thickness, the highest flexibility is gained to design the best filter that will retain only sperm cells, thereby yielding, a clean, single source sperm fraction containing only the perpetrators&#39; DNA profile, which is the most desirable outcome in a forensic criminal sexual assault case. 
         [0116]    In summary, the use of nanofibers allows for effective separation of epithelial and sperm cell fractions from a rape kit simulated sample. Profiles for both epithelial and sperm cell fractions are consistent with the reference profiles of the epithelial and sperm donors, respectively, as well as the profile generated from the unfiltered mixed sample. The sperm cell profiles generated by both Fiber 2 and Fiber 1 were of a quality appropriate for court presentation and generated probative sperm fraction results of a quality superior to that of any method currently used by crime laboratories throughout the world. These results indicate that the nanofibers made from different filter thicknesses can be utilized for separation of sperm cells from epithelial cells. The efficiency of separation is dependent upon selection of the proper thickness of the nanofiber filter. The nanofiber filter having a 500 μm thickness (Fiber 1) provided 89% efficiency of collection of sperm cells from mixed samples, whereas the nanofiber filter having a 600 μm thickness (Fiber 2) provided an approximately 32% recovery of sperm cells. The tested nanofiber filter of 500 μm thickness produced a clean separation of the sperm cell DNA profile from the non-sperm cell DNA profile. The results also indicate that nanofibers of appropriate thickness from a variety of materials can be used to create a filter which can be used for the differential digest application of separating the sperm cells from a mixture of the epithelial or other non-sperm cells. The nanofiber separation, and the efficiency of recovery of valuable sperm sample crime scene evidence after separation, is not based solely on the pore size of the filter but on a combination of pore size and thickness. In comparison with other types of filters, the elevated surface area of nanofibers within a nanofiber sperm filtration system provides a more tortuous path and a greater chance to intercept sperm cells from the mixture to be filtered, while maintaining high porosity. The present invention utilizes this unique property of nanofibers for human identity application. 
         [0117]    While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the following claims.