Abstract:
An apparatus includes a stage that supports a substrate, an optical system having a last optical element, that projects an image onto the substrate that is positioned spaced apart from the last optical element by a gap at least partly filled with an immersion liquid, and a pressure control system having an actuator, that controls pressure of the immersion liquid in the gap using the actuator.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/628,960 filed Dec. 8, 2006 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,426,014), which is the U.S. National Stage of PCT/US2005/017161 filed May 18, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/584,543 filed on Jul. 1, 2004. The disclosure of each of the prior applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates to immersion lithography, and more particularly, to a dynamic fluid control system and method capable of compensating for dynamic changes in the forces exerted on the last optical element and stage by the immersion fluid caused by the motion of the immersion fluid and movements of the stage. 
     2. Related Art 
     A typical lithography machine includes a radiation source, an imaging element defining an image pattern, an optical system, and a wafer stage to support and move the wafer. A radiation-sensitive material, such as resist, is coated onto the wafer surface prior to placement onto the wafer table. During operation, radiation energy from the radiation source is used to project the image pattern defined by the imaging element through the optical system onto the wafer. The optical system typically includes a number of lenses. The lens or optical element closest to the wafer is sometimes referred to as the “last” or “final” optical element. 
     The projection area during an exposure is typically much smaller than the wafer. The wafer therefore has to be moved relative to the optical system to pattern the entire surface. In the semiconductor industry, two types of lithography machines are commonly used. With so-called “step and repeat” machines, the entire image pattern is projected at once in a single exposure onto a target area of the wafer. After the exposure, the wafer is moved or “stepped” in the x and/or y direction and a new target area is exposed. This step and repeat process is performed over and over until the entire wafer surface is exposed. With scanning type lithography machines, the target area is exposed in a continuous or “scanning” motion. The patterning element is moved in one direction while the wafer is moved in either the same or the opposite direction during exposure. The wafer is then moved in the x and y direction to the next scan target area. This process is repeated until all the desired areas on the wafer have been exposed. 
     Immersion lithography systems use a layer of fluid that fills the gap between the final optical element of the optical assembly and the wafer. The fluid enhances the resolution of the system by enabling exposures with numerical apertures (NA) greater than one, which is the theoretical limit for conventional “dry” lithography. The fluid in the gap permits the exposure with radiation that would otherwise be completely internally reflected at the optical-air interface. With immersion lithography, numerical apertures as high as the index of refraction of the fluid are possible. Immersion also increases the depth of focus for a given NA, which is the tolerable error in the vertical position of the wafer, compared to a conventional lithography system. Immersion lithography thus has the ability to provide resolution down to 50 nanometers or lower. 
     In immersion systems, the fluid essentially becomes part of the optical system of the lithography tool. The optical properties of the fluid therefore must be carefully controlled. The optical properties of the fluid are influenced by the composition of the fluid, temperature, the absence or presence of gas bubbles, and out-gassing from the resist on the wafer. 
     The pressure and forces exerted by the immersion fluid on the last optical element and wafer stage should be constant. This desired result, however, is very difficult to achieve for a number of reasons. 
     With immersion lithography, the fluid is constantly removed and replenished. The removal of the fluid helps recover any contaminants and heat generated during exposure. Ideally, the amount of fluid being supplied should equal the amount being removed. A precise equilibrium, however, is difficult to achieve in practice. An uneven flow rate, which may result in a varying volume of fluid under the last optical element, may cause the forces and pressures acting on the last optical element and wafer stage to be dynamic. 
     The movement of the wafer stage also creates dynamic forces on the last optical element due to the behavior of the immersion fluid. For example, when the wafer stage starts accelerating, the shape of the fluid at the fluid-air interface, sometimes called the meniscus, changes. The meniscus tends to extend outward at the leading edge and pull-in at the trailing edge of the movement. The change in the shape in the meniscus creates a change in the static pressure exerted on the last optical element and stage by the immersion fluid. 
     The motion of the stage also creates waves in the immersion fluid. These waves may cause the last optical element to oscillate up and down as well as perturb the wafer stage. If the oscillations are still occurring during an exposure due to the lingering effects of the waves, the accuracy and image quality may be adversely affected. 
     Vertical adjustments of the wafer may also cause the volume of the gap between the last optical element and the wafer to change. The surface of a wafer is not perfectly flat. Vertical adjustments are made by the wafer stage, depending on the surface topography of the wafer, to maintain the distance between the last optical element and the exposure area constant. The volume of the space between the wafer and last optical element changes when the wafer is moved up and down. As the volume changes, the pressure and forces of the immersion fluid acting on both the last optical element and the wafer stage also change. 
     The dynamic forces and pressures acting on the last optical element caused by the motion of the immersion fluid may cause the last optical element to become distorted and/or moved either up or down from its ideal position. As a result, the last optical element may be out of focus, resulting in a poor exposure. Similar forces acting on the wafer stage may affect its performance as well. 
     At high stage speeds the meniscus can be perturbed to the point where it breaks down, particularly at the leading edge. The breakdown is characterized by the escape and deposition of fluid droplets on the wafer where it emerges from the fluid. Such droplets are undesirable. They can entrap air, creating bubbles, when the wafer passes under the immersed lens on a subsequent scan. Also if the droplets dry on the wafer, any contaminants in the droplet, for example residues dissolved from the resist, remain deposited on the wafer. 
     A dynamic fluid control system and method capable of compensating for dynamic changes in the forces exerted on the last optical element and stage by the immersion fluid caused by the motion of the immersion fluid and movements of the stage is therefore needed. 
     SUMMARY 
     A dynamic fluid control system and method capable of reducing dynamic forces from the fluid on the last optical element and substrate stage, caused by the motion of the immersion fluid, is disclosed. The system includes an imaging element that defines an image and a stage configured to support a substrate. An optical system is provided to project the image defined by the imaging element onto the substrate. The optical system includes a last optical element. A gap filled with immersion fluid is provided between the substrate and the last optical element. A dynamic force control system is provided to maintain a substantially constant force on the last optical element and stage by compensating for dynamic changes of the immersion fluid caused by the motion of the immersion fluid through the gap and/or movement of the stage. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a diagram of a lithography machine according to the present invention. 
         FIG. 2  is a diagram of a dynamic force control system used with the immersion machine of the present invention. 
         FIG. 3A  is a top-down diagram of the sensors and actuators arranged around the last optical element of the dynamic force control system of the present invention. 
         FIG. 3B  is a top-down diagram of the dynamic force control system, showing the effects of stage motion on the fluid meniscus. 
         FIG. 3C  is a side view diagram of the dynamic force control system, showing the effects of stage motion on the fluid meniscus. 
         FIG. 4  is a diagram of a sensor used in the dynamic force control system according to one embodiment of the invention. 
         FIGS. 5A and 5B  are diagrams of other sensors according to additional embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic illustrating the operation of the control element according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 7  is another schematic illustrating operation of the control element according to another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIGS. 8A and 8B  are flow diagrams illustrating the sequence of fabricating semiconductor wafers according to the present invention. 
         FIG. 9  is a schematic illustrating the determination of a control algorithm for fluid pressure control. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , an immersion apparatus is shown. The immersion apparatus  10  includes an imaging element  12  which defines an image, a stage  14  configured to support a substrate  16 , and an optical system  18  configured to project the image defined by the imaging element  12  onto the substrate  16 . The optical system  18  includes a “last” or “final” optical element  20 . A gap  22  is provided between the substrate  16  and the last optical element  20 . A fluid injection and removal element  24  provides immersion fluid between the substrate  16  and the last optical element  20 . 
     In one embodiment, the imaging element  12  is a reticle or mask. In other embodiments, the imaging element is a programmable micro-mirror array capable of generating the image, such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,296,891, 5,523,193, and PCT applications WO 98/38597 and 98/33096, all incorporated herein by reference. In one embodiment, the stage  14  is a fine stage that is supported by a coarse stage (not shown). The fine stage is responsible for fine position adjustment of the substrate  16  in, depending on the design, anywhere from one to six degrees of freedom (x, y, z, Θx, Θy and Θz). Similarly, the coarse stage is responsible for moving the substrate  16  on the fine stage  14  in one to six degrees of freedom. According to various embodiments, the fine stage  14  may be supported on the coarse stage by magnetic levitation, air bellows, pistons, vacuum, or springs, as are all well known in the art. In yet other embodiments, the fluid injection and removal element  24  is a nozzle such as that described in PCT application No. PCT/US04/22915 filed Jul. 16, 2004 entitled “Apparatus and Method for Providing Fluid in Immersion Lithography” or the environmental system described in PCT Application PCT/IB2004/002704 filed Mar. 29, 2004 and entitled “Environmental System Including Vacuum Scavenge For Immersion Lithography Apparatus”, both incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. 
     Referring to  FIG. 2 , a diagram of a dynamic force control system  30  used with the immersion apparatus  10  is shown. The system  30  includes one or more pressure sensors  32  and one or more actuators  34  arranged adjacent to the last optical element  20  (for the sake of simplicity, only a single sensor  32  and actuator  34  pair is shown in  FIG. 2 ). The pressure sensors  32  are positioned adjacent the gap  22  in approximately the same plane as the bottom surface of the last optical element  20 . The bottom surface of the last optical element  20  is sometimes referred to as the “boundary” surface of the lens because it bounds or is in contact with the immersion fluid in the gap  22 . The last optical element  20  is held in position by a housing  38  of the optical system  18 . 
     The system  30  also includes a control element  36 . During operation, the sensors  32  measure pressure changes on the boundary surface of the last optical element  20 . The control element  36  generates control signals that control the actuators  34  in response to the measured pressure readings respectively. The actuators  34  create local changes in fluid pressure to compensate for the dynamic pressure changes caused by motion of the immersion fluid. For example, if the fluid pressure increases, the actuators act to relieve the pressure, and vice-versa. In one embodiment, the sensors  32  and actuators  34  are arranged on the housing  38  adjacent to and around the periphery of the boundary surface of the last optical element  20 . In another embodiment fluid flow sensors are also used to help define the fluid dynamic state, as described in more detail below. 
     Referring to  FIG. 3A , a top-down view of the sensors  32  and actuators  34  arranged around the last optical element  20  is shown. In the figure, the substrate  16  is shown positioned on the stage  14 . The last optical element  20  is positioned over the substrate  16  and defines an imaging field  40 . The sensors  32  and the actuators  34  are arranged adjacent to and around the periphery of the last optical element  20 . The fluid injection and removal element  24  provides and removes the immersion fluid to and from the gap  22  (not visible in this view) between the substrate  16  and the last optical element  20 . 
     The normal flow of the immersion fluid through the gap  22  creates static forces on the last optical element  20  and stage  14 . Changes in the flow rate of the immersion fluid, stage acceleration and motion, vertical adjustments of the wafer, etc., however, may all cause the immersion fluid to create dynamic forces on the last optical element  20  and wafer stage  14 . Sensors  32  positioned locally near or under the last optical element  20  monitor the local static and dynamic pressure changes and provide information to the control element  36 , so corrective measures can be taken. According to one embodiment, the pressure sensors  32  are positioned in the same horizontal plane as the boundary surface of the last optical element  20 . The pressure sensors  32  are oriented such that only the pressure normal to the surface of the boundary surface is measured. Since the immersion fluid is bounded by the horizontal plane defined by the boundary surface, there is no component of momentum in the direction normal to the boundary surface. 
       FIGS. 3B and 3C  show the effects of stage motion on the fluid meniscus  21 . In the figures the stage is moving to the right as designated by arrows  38 . This motion causes the shape of the fluid boundary to be different at the leading and trailing edges, as shown at  23   a  and  23   b  respectively. Specifically, the meniscus tends to extend outward at the leading edge  23   a  and pull-in at the trailing edge  23   b . This dynamic change of the immersion fluid creates dynamic changes in force on both the stage and the last optical element. In addition, these changes create waves  23   c  in the fluid which propagate along the meniscus around the lens region. These waves  23   c  also contribute to the dynamic pressure changes on the last optical element  20  and the wafer stage. 
     The pressure sensors  32  used with the system  30  may be a manometer, a capacitive manometer, a piezoelectric transducer or any other type of pressure sensor. The actuators  34  may be pistons, diaphragms, bellows, pressure head partial vacuum tubes, or electrocapillary pressure elements, such as described in M. Prins et al, Science 291, 277 (2001), incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. 
     In other embodiments fluid flow sensors are also used to help define the fluid dynamic state. Referring to  FIG. 4 , a fluid flow velocity sensor  50  according to one embodiment is shown. The sensor  50  is an “X-type” hot wire sensor that includes two non-contacting wires  52   a  and  52   b  of relatively short length that are mounted horizontally and at right angles with the flow direction of the immersion fluid. During operation, the temperature of the two wires  52   a  and  52   b  are monitored. From the measured temperature changes, the velocity of the immersion fluid in the normal direction can be monitored. Examples of X-type hot wire sensors are from TSI Inc. of Minneapolis, Minn. From the velocity measurements, in addition to the pressure measurements, the effects of changes in the immersion fluid momentum and transient forces acting on the last optical element and wafer stage can be determined. 
     Referring to  FIG. 5A , a diagram of another sensor  60  that can be used to measure both fluid pressure and velocity is shown. This sensor  60  includes a total head tube  62  with a wall static pressure tap  64 , such as one of the pressure sensors mentioned above, to measure both the stagnation pressure (p o ) and the static pressure (p). The stagnation pressure is the pressure measured by a pressure sensor at a point where the fluid is not moving relative to the sensor. 
     Alternatively, as shown in  FIG. 5B , a Pitot tube  66  is used to measure both static and stagnation pressures. The pressure measured at point  68  is the stagnation pressure (p o ) since the velocity of the local flow at the entrance of the tube is zero. The pressure (p) at point  70  is different because the local flow velocity is not zero. The velocity of the fluid can then be calculated using Bernoulli&#39;s equation and the following assumptions.
 
 p   o   =p+ ½ ρv   2 ,  (1)
 
where ρ is the fluid density. The fluid velocity can then be determined:
 
 v=[ 2( p   o   −p )/ρ] 1/2   (2)
 
     Both local fluid flow velocity and pressure are thus determined with this type of sensor. 
     There are several flow assumptions that restrict the use of Bernoulli&#39;s equation:
         1. steady flow   2. incompressible flow   3. frictionless flow (low viscosity)   4. flow along a streamline       

     Assumption 2 is assumed to be acceptable, because the flow velocities are much less than the speed of sound in the fluid. With assumption 4, it is assumed that the Pitot tube axis is aligned with the flow direction. Since the fluid, by design, will typically flow along the axis of the scanning stage, assumption 4 is acceptable. Assumption 3 is equivalent to requiring a high Reynolds number (but not too high for laminar flow to be maintained). Assumption 1 however is questionable. Therefore calibration will be required for accurate velocity and pressure determination. The Pitot tube is also limited in frequency response. If higher frequency response is desired, the hot wire velocity sensor may be used instead. 
     In unsteady flow, where streamline directions are changing, multiple Pitot tube heads, pointing in orthogonal directions, or directions where the flow is known from past measurements to point, may aid in operation of the sensor. 
     Referring to  FIG. 6 , a schematic illustrating the operation of the control element  36  is shown. For clarity, only a single pressure sensor  32  (such as the pressure and/or velocity sensors of  FIG. 3A ,  5 A or  5 B), and actuator  34  are used. The pressure sensor  32  generates a pressure control signal to the controller  36  that is indicative of the following: (i) the stage controller  62  directing the stage  14  to move in the horizontal and/or vertical directions, the resulting stage motion causing pressure change δPs at the pressure sensor  32 ; (ii) operation of the fluid injection/removal system  63  may cause an additional pressure change δPf at the pressure sensor; (iii) simultaneous operation of the actuator  34  causes an additional pressure change δPa; and (iv) the static pressure P 0  as measured by the sensor  32 . The total pressure as measured at the sensor  32  is therefore P 0 +δPs+δPf+δPa. Using an algorithm, the controller  36  uses information from the pressure sensor  32 , along with information from the stage controller to generate a control signal  64  to the actuator  34 . The actuator&#39;s response to the signal  64  is a pressure change δPa at the pressure sensor  32  which substantially cancels the pressure changes from the stage motion and fluid injection/removal system as specified by equation (3) below:
 
δ Pa=− (δ Ps+δPf ).  (3)
 
     Thus the effect of dynamic pressure changes on both the last optical element  22  and the wafer stage are minimized. In other embodiments signals from the velocity sensor or the stage controller may be absent, or information from the fluid injection/removal system may be provided to the controller. 
     In reducing the pressure fluctuations affecting the last lens element and wafer stage, the controller  36  is likely to also reduce somewhat the amplitudes of the waves  23   c . This in turn may improve the performance of the fluid injection/removal system. It may also reduce the chances of breakdown of the leading edge meniscus and thus avoid the formation of isolated fluid droplets on the wafer. 
     The above description is appropriate for a linear system, where the pressure change δPs created by the stage motion is independent of the pressure change δPf created by the fluid injection/removal system, and the pressure change δPa from the actuator. In reality, the fluid motion may make the system response non-linear, so that δPs, δPf and δPa are functions of one another. However Eq. 3 remains valid. Also, if the pressure changes are small enough, the system response may be approximated as linear. 
     Satisfying Eq. 3 is complicated by the fact that the controller can&#39;t respond instantaneously to the pressure sensor signal, nor can the separate contributions to the pressure sensor signal, δPs, δPf, δPa, be measured. Additionally, since fluid is moving, the rate of change of the pressures will be important as well. The controller therefore needs an algorithm to use information from the stage and fluid injection/removal systems, as well as the total pressure signal, over a period of time to estimate the appropriate signal to send to the pressure actuator. The algorithm may be obtained in a number of ways: 
     1. A fluid dynamic model may be constructed of the fluid cell and the fluid dynamic forces associated with stage motion and fluid injection or removal calculated. Pressure changes at the pressure sensor resulting from these effects are then calculated, resulting in an estimate of the required pressure actuator signal. The model may have some adjustable parameters, whose setting will minimize the total pressure change at the pressure sensor, Eq. 3. 
     2. The algorithm may be established empirically, using an adaptive filter to create a model of the fluid cell and its response to stage and fluid injection/removal perturbations.  FIG. 9  illustrates such a filter and its training process. An adaptive filter is a linear filter with adjustable weights which are altered to make the output signal agree with a desired signal. In  FIG. 9  signals from the stage  14  and fluid injection/removal element  24  also go to the adaptive filter as inputs. The output of the adaptive filter  92  is an estimate of the pressure at the pressure sensor  32  caused by the actuator. The relation between the actuator signal and the pressure at the sensor  32  is established in an earlier calibration, in the absence of perturbations from the stage and fluid injection/removal systems. In  FIG. 9  the desired signal is the signal from the pressure sensor  32  caused by perturbations from the stage  14  and fluid of the injection/removal element  24 . The error signal ε between the pressure sensor signal and the pressure sensor signal predicted by the adaptive filter  92  is fed back to the filter and the weights adjusted to minimize ε. Note that the polarities of the summing junction lead to the relation ε=δPs+δPf+δPa. Thus if the weights can be successfully adjusted to make ε negligibly small, we have established the condition of Eq. 3. 
     After successfully training the adaptive filter  92 , the controller  36  containing the adaptive filter is connected to the system as in  FIG. 6 . 
     3. Adaptive filters are most appropriate for systems which are linear or only weakly non-linear. If the fluid dynamics of the fluid cell couple the pressure changes caused by the stage and fluid injection/removal systems and the actuator together too strongly, the adaptive filter may be replaced with a neural network system, which can represent non-linear relations. The neural network is trained and utilized essentially the same way as the adaptive filter. 
     If the environmental conditions of the fluid cell change, the optimal parameters of the controller algorithm may change as well. The controller may include an adaptive feature which allows it to continue to train the algorithm, as environmental conditions change. Thus, if the algorithm is based on a fluid dynamic model, certain adjustable parameters in the model may be changed to minimize the total pressure change at the pressure sensor. If the algorithm is an adaptive filter or a neural network, the adjustable weights may be changed to minimize the total pressure change at the pressure sensor. 
     Referring to  FIG. 7 , another schematic illustrating operation of the control element  36  coupled to multiple pressure and/or flow velocity sensors  32  and multiple actuators  34  is shown. In  FIG. 3A , the number of actuators was equal to the number of pressure and velocity sensors. In alternative embodiments, however, the number of actuators  34 , pressure sensors  32 , and/or flow velocity sensors may be different. In  FIG. 7  there are n actuators  34   a - 34   n , m pressure sensors  32   a - 32   m , and k flow velocity sensors V 1 -Vk. Each sensor  32   a - 32   m  generates a pressure signal P 1 -Pm derived from the four pressure components (i) through (iv) as discussed above. Each actuator  34   a - 34   n  creates a pressure change at each of the pressure sensors  32   a - 32   m , so that the measured δPa at each pressure sensor is the accumulation of the pressure changes caused by all the actuators  34   a - 34   n . More specifically, actuator i generates a pressure change δPaij at pressure sensor j. The total pressure change at sensor j from all the n actuators is given by Σ i=1, n  δPaij. The controller  36  processes the m pressure sensor signals, the k flow velocity sensor signals, and information from the stage controller and fluid injection/removal system, and generates actuator signals a 1 -an to the actuators  34   a - 34   n , so that the actuator pressures at the pressure sensors satisfy the relations:
 
Σ i=1, n   δPaij =−(δ Psj+δPfj ), for  j= 1, m.   (4)
 
     This insures that the effects of dynamic pressure changes on both the last optical element and the wafer stage are minimized. In other words, controlling the actuators  34   a - 34   n  enables the dynamic net forces and net moments (i.e., torque) acting on the final optical element  20  and stage caused by the dynamics of the immersion fluid to be minimized. When the stage is moving, the contact angle of the immersion fluid is different at the leading edge versus the trailing edge. This creates different forces acting on the leading edge and trailing edges of housing  38  and the last optical element  20 . These different forces may create net moments or torques on the last optical element or wafer stage, which can be corrected using the aforementioned equation. 
     In one embodiment, as illustrated in  FIG. 3B , the plurality of sensors  32  and actuators  34  are arranged around the periphery of the last optical element  20 . With this arrangement, the waves  23   c  created at the meniscus of the immersion fluid are controlled, and breakdown of the leading edge meniscus during stage motion is avoided or minimized. In other embodiments, the sensors  32  and actuators  34  can be arranged at different locations adjacent the last optical element  20 . 
     Designing an algorithm to satisfy Eqs. 4 is analogous to the description above in connection with  FIG. 6  and Eq. 3. 
     Throughout this discussion, the terms force and pressure have been used interchangeably. It should be noted, however, that technically, the two terms are slightly different. Pressure is a measure of force per unit area. Many of the sensors that are commercially available are designed to measure pressure. Sensors, however, could be calibrated to measure force and could be used with the present invention. 
     In normal operation the actuator signals will typically lie within a limited range of values, which are determined by the limited range of fluid perturbations allowed by the controller  36 . However if the fluid system is strongly perturbed, some actuator signals may fall outside the above range. For example, if the fluid injection fails to completely fill the gap  22 , leaving an air void under the part of the last optical element, the actuator signals predicted by the controller  36  are likely to differ substantially from their normal values. Or if the leading edge meniscus breaks down, leaving isolated droplets on the wafer, air may be drawn into the gap  22 , and the actuator values predicted by the controller  36  may depart from normal values. It may not be possible for the controller to recover from such pathological conditions, but the aberrant actuator signals can serve as a message to the lithography tool controller that proper immersion conditions in the gap  22  have been lost, and lithographic exposure must be halted until the condition is corrected. 
     Semiconductor devices can be fabricated using the above described systems, by the process shown generally in  FIG. 8A . In step  801  the device&#39;s function and performance characteristics are designed. Next, in step  802 , a mask (reticle) having a pattern is designed according to the previous designing step, and in a parallel step  803  a wafer is made from a silicon material. The mask pattern designed in step  802  is exposed onto the wafer from step  803  in step  804  by a photolithography system described hereinabove in accordance with the present invention. In step  805  the semiconductor device is assembled (including the dicing process, bonding process and packaging process), finally, the device is then inspected in step  806 . 
       FIG. 8B  illustrates a detailed flowchart example of the above-mentioned step  804  in the case of fabricating semiconductor devices. In  FIG. 8B , in step  811  (oxidation step), the wafer surface is oxidized. In step  812  (CVD step), an insulation film is formed on the wafer surface. In step  813  (electrode formation step), electrodes are formed on the wafer by vapor deposition. In step  814  (ion implantation step), ions are implanted in the wafer. The above mentioned steps  811 - 814  form the preprocessing steps for wafers during wafer processing, and selection is made at each step according to processing requirements. 
     It should be noted that the particular embodiments described herein are merely illustrative and should not be construed as limiting. For example, the substrate described herein does not necessarily have to be a semiconductor wafer. It could also be a flat panel used for making flat panel displays. Rather, the true scope of the invention is determined by the scope of the accompanying claims.