Abstract:
Battery cells are provided that can include: a housing defining a chamber having a fluid inlet and outlet; an anode at one side of the housing; a cathode at another side of the housing opposing and spaced apart from the anode a sufficient amount to allow for electrolyte between the anode and cathode; and the other side of the chamber defined by an ion permeable member. Methods for in situ battery electrode analysis are provided and these methods can include: providing a battery cell having an anode and a cathode; exposing the battery cell to an ion beam while the battery cell is operational to form secondary ions; and detecting the secondary ions to analyze the battery.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/056,880 filed Feb. 29, 2016, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/050,144 filed Oct. 9, 2013, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,274,059, which is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/047,025 filed Mar. 14, 2011, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,555,710, which references are incorporated in their entirety herein. 
     
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING RIGHTS TO DISCLOSURE MADE UNDER FEDERALLY-SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 
       [0002]    This disclosure was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the disclosure. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE 
       [0003]    The present disclosure relates generally to electrochemical devices and processes. More particularly, the disclosure relates to a battery cell and in situ battery electrode analysis methods. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE 
       [0004]    For rechargeable batteries such as lithium (i.e., Li + ) ion batteries, performance and battery life depend on structural and chemical stability of electrodes in the battery, minimizing the rate of degradation of electrolytes, and controlling formation of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layers at or on the surface of the electrodes during repeated charge-discharge cycles. However, knowledge of the dynamic structural and chemical evolution of ionic and molecular species at the electrode-liquid electrolyte interface for a rechargeable battery remains limited due to an inability to directly probe the interface during operation under reaction conditions. Because electrode surfaces are normally enclosed in a liquid electrolyte, traditional analyses of electrode surfaces require disassembling the battery and examining the electrodes and their chemical composition using imaging and spectroscopic methods ex-situ. Unfortunately, post-operation examination does not provide real-time information about molecular and ionic species that form SEI layers, structural and chemical characteristics of SEI layers during formation, or the ability to correlate real-time data to the transport of ions of interest. 
         [0005]    For example, solvation-desolvation reactions involving active ions in electrolytes have been mostly studied using electrospray ionization (ESI) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) coupled with theoretical calculations. However, ESI and NMR are bulk analysis techniques that are not effective for studying solvation-desolvation processes occurring at the electrode-electrolyte interface. Hence, formation and evolution of SEI layers during the charge and discharge cycles of Li-ion conducting batteries, as well as the associated structures and chemical species associated with the SEI layers, and an ability to correlate data from these events to the transport of the Li +  ions remains elusive. A key shortcoming of observations related to formation of SEI layers is the lack of molecular information that is spatially adjacent to the electrolyte/electrode interface. Direct molecular level observation of structural and chemical evolution of electrode surface in a rechargeable battery has not previously been possible. Lack of data in these representative areas has limited advancements in performance of rechargeable Li-ion batteries to date. Accordingly, new devices and methods are needed that provide in-situ analyses of electrodes and evolution of SEI layers at the electrode and electrode-electrolyte interface during operation rather than relying on ex-situ analyses to advance performance of rechargeable batteries. The present disclosure addresses these needs. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0006]    Battery cells are provided that can include: a housing defining a chamber having a fluid inlet and outlet; an anode at one side of the housing; a cathode at another side of the housing opposing and spaced apart from the anode a sufficient amount to allow for electrolyte between the anode and cathode; and the other side of the chamber defined by an ion permeable member. 
         [0007]    Methods for in situ battery electrode analysis are provided and these methods can include: providing a battery cell having an anode and a cathode; exposing the battery cell to an ion beam while the battery cell is operational to form secondary ions; and detecting the secondary ions to analyze the battery. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0008]      FIG. 1  illustrates one embodiment of a battery cell of the present disclosure. 
           [0009]      FIGS. 2A-2C  show a series of battery cell intermediates formed during an example battery cell fabrication method according to an embodiment of the disclosure. 
           [0010]      FIG. 3  is an example battery cell having an ion beam applied thereto according to an embodiment of the disclosure. 
           [0011]      FIG. 4  is a series of in situ transmission electron microscope (TEM) images, providing morphorlogy information of the formation of SEI layer during a cyclic voltammetric scan at the surface of a platinum anode. 
           [0012]      FIGS. 5A-5C  provide a depiction of a typical galvanostic charge and discharge curve of a cell; a positive ion mass spectrum and two representative ion images, the third being an overlay of the previous two. 
           [0013]      FIG. 6  depicts ToF-SIMS depth profiles of 8 representative ions collected from a fresh cell. 
           [0014]      FIG. 7  depicts ToF-SIMS depth profiles of 8 representative ions collected from a cell charged to 3.6 V. 
           [0015]      FIG. 8  depicts ToF-SIMS depth profiles of 8 representative ions collected from a cell discharged to 0.5 V. 
           [0016]      FIGS. 9A-9B  depict a schematic illustration showing the molecular level stripping and clustering at the Cu anode-electrolyte interface during the charge and discharge of a Li-ion battery cell. 
       
    
    
     DESCRIPTION 
       [0017]    The battery cells and methods of the present disclosure are provided with reference to  FIGS. 1-9B . Generally, the present disclosure includes a rechargeable battery testing device that enables direct probing and characterization of ionic and molecular species at the electrode surface and at the solid electrode-electrolyte interface during operation (i.e., charge-discharge) of the battery. The present disclosure modifies a microfluidic device for electrochemical analysis of fluids detailed, e.g., in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/050,144 filed Oct. 9, 2013, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,274,059 which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety herein. Also incorporated by reference herein is the entirety of  In Situ Mass Spectrometric Determination of Molecular Structural Evolution at the Solid Electrolyte interphase in Lithium - ion batteries  by Zihua Zhu et al appearing in Nano Lett. 2015 pgs. 6170-6176. 
         [0018]    Referring to  FIG. 1 , a battery cell  10  is shown that includes a housing  12 . Housing  12  can be constructed of PEEK® material, for example, and can be constructed of multiple components, including a frame component to be described later. Inlets and outlets to chamber  14  can be within housing  12 . These inlets and outlets are shown as  16  and  18 , respectively. On opposing sides of chamber  14  can be cathode  20  and anode  22 . Cathode  20  can be associated with a sidewall housing  12  and anode  22  can be associated with an opposing sidewall of housing  12 . Between cathode  20  and anode  22  can be space within chamber  14  to allow for electrolyte solution to exist therebetween. This electrolyte solution can be provided through the inlets and outlets  16  and  18 , respectively. Along at least one sidewall of housing  12  can be ion permeable member  24 . Ion permeable member  24  can have a construction described herein, and this ion permeable member can form a portion of a frame  26 , which includes ion permeable member  24 , cathode  22  as well as frame  28 . Frame  28  can be constructed of Si. In accordance with example implementations, frame  28  can have a beveled edge providing an opening to expose ion permeable member  24 . In accordance with example implementations, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) can be performed in a small opening  18  (˜2 microns diameter) located at the center of ion permeable member  24 . Primary ions  32  can be provided to this opening, and secondary ions can be collected for detection at  34 . In accordance with example implementations, this SIMS analysis and detection is provided at  30 . 
         [0019]    Referring next to  FIGS. 2A-2C , an exemplary exploded view of one embodiment of battery cell  50  is shown. Referring first to  FIG. 2A , housing  12  can be formed within a block of material such as PEEK® material, and extending and defined within housing  12  can be a chamber  14 . In accordance with an example implementation, a cathode can be constructed of two components,  52  and  54 , wherein  54  is an example aluminum foil component and  52  is a lithium cobalt oxide component. The lithium cobalt oxide component can be physically coated on the aluminum foil  54  to form cathode  20 . In accordance with another example implementation, frame  26  can be constructed of a frame support  28 , an ion permeable member  24 , and an anode  22 . In accordance with example implementations, the frame  28  can be a silica frame. Ion permeable member  24  can be a silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ) membrane, and anode  22  can be a copper film. In accordance with example implementations and with reference to  FIG. 2B , the anode  22  can have an electrical coupling  56  and cathode  20  can have an electrical coupling  58 . Openings for these couplings can be formed within housing  12 , and fluid conduits  60  can be provided to within housing  12  as well. Referring next to  FIG. 2C , frame  26  can be aligned as one sidewall of chamber  14 , and opposing frame  26  within housing  12 . Across from chamber  14  is cathode  20 . Electrolyte fluid can be provided via conduit  60  to flow between frame  26  and anode  20 . 
         [0020]    Referring next to  FIG. 3 , an example implementation of a battery cell  100  is provided showing frame component  26  that includes frame member  28  that can include a silicon frame at about 200 μm of thickness, a silicon nitride ion permeable member  24  that can be approximately 100 nm in thickness, and anode  22  constructed of copper that can be approximately 70 nm in thickness. Within chamber  14  can be an electrolyte solution provided through inlets and outlets  16  and  18 . This electrolyte solution can be a LiPF 6  in organic solvent. An example organic solvent can be 1:2 (v/v) ethylene carbonate:dimethyl carbonate (EC:DMC). Cell  100  can further include cathode construction  20  that includes a lithium cobalt oxide layer over an aluminum foil layer, with the aluminum foil layer being approximately 20 μm in thickness. 
         [0021]    In some embodiments, the battery cell can be positioned on a substrate such as glass or a silicon nitride membrane attached on a silicon frame. Electrodes in the battery testing device may be in the form of wires, thin films (e.g., sputter-deposited thin films) and suitable dimensioned forms. 
         [0022]    The separation space between the electrodes fills with liquid electrolyte when the liquid electrolyte is introduced to the chamber. Electrolyte transports conducting ions between the anode and the cathode in the chamber. 
         [0023]    The disclosure provides methods for fabrication of the battery cell. The methods can include multiple steps that are described herein. 
         [0024]    The housing can be machined from a block, for example a polymeric material such as an epoxy block. The block can be a thermoplastic polymer such as polyetherimide (PEI) polymer sold commercially under the tradename ULTEM® or PEEK® or another high-performance polymer such as a semi-transparent polymer. The polymer can be an inexpensive or low-cost material that allows for low-cost fabrication and replacement. In one embodiment, the initial block can be 50.0 mm×40.0 mm×6.0 mm. In another embodiment, the block may include dimensions of 30.0 mm×10.0 mm×6.0 mm (L×W×H). 
         [0025]    A battery chamber can be machined within the block. In one embodiment, dimensions of the chamber can be 6.5 mm×6.5 mm×1.0 mm (L×W×D). Size can be selected to be consistent with the size of the metal-coated SiN membrane assembly  26 , which size is 7.5 mm×7.5 mm×0.2 mm (L×W×H) with the SiN window (0.5 mm×0.5 mm) positioned at the center of the Si frame. 
         [0026]    The length and width of the battery chamber can be changed according to the size of anode assembly  26 . For example, a size of 3.5 mm×3.5 mm (L×W) can be selected when a 5.0 mm×5.0 mm×0.2 mm (L×W×H) SiN membrane assembly  26  is used. In addition, the depth of the chamber is also variable, allowing changing of distance between anode and cathode. 
         [0027]    Openings can be provided into the chambers that can be configured to receive tubing that introduces the liquid electrolyte and metallic wiring to each of the chamber electrodes. These openings can have a diameter of 1/32 or 1/16 inches for example. In one embodiment, tubing for the liquid electrolyte is constructed of PEEK® with a diameter of 1/32 inches. The tubing and copper wires can be placed in the openings and received within the chamber. 
         [0028]    The cell can include at least two electrodes in the chamber, an anode and a cathode, constructed of various or selected metals including, e.g., aluminum (Al), gold (Au), platinum (Pt), Li metal, tin (Sn) and copper (Cu); metal oxides including, e.g., CuO, CoO, LiCoO 2 , LiFePO 4 , and V 2 O 5 ; carbon (C) such as graphene, and silicon (Si). The cell can be configured without a reference electrode. 
         [0029]    Anodes may be constructed of, or include, metals, metal oxides, carbon, graphene, silicon or other suitable electrode materials including combinations of these various materials. According to one embodiment, a metal thin film (˜70 nm thick) can be deposited onto a 100 nm thick SiN film to form the anode. The metal thin film may include, but is not limited to Cu and/or Pt. Exemplary dimensions of the metal film are 1.5 mm×1.5 mm×70 nm. Exemplary dimensions of the SiN membrane are 7.5 mm×7.5 mm. 
         [0030]    The cathode can include a thin film of active materials deposited on a metal conductive substrate. For example, the cathode can be constructed on a LiCoO 2  film of deposited on an Al substrate with lateral dimensions of 3.0 mm×3.0 mm. 
         [0031]    The cell preparation method can include attaching a conducting metal wire made of copper or another conducting metal at the top of the battery chamber and securing same thereto using a conductive epoxy. The copper wire may be connected to the internal electrode through a pre-fabricated hole. 
         [0032]    In the exemplary embodiment, the cathode can be constructed of a LiCoO 2  film coated on aluminum (Al) metal foil. The aluminum foil coated with a LiCoO 2  (thin film) can be associated with another wall of the battery chamber  14  to form a second electrode (cathode). 
         [0033]    Tubes may be secured in the battery chamber after insertion into the entry holes on the battery chamber with a non-conductive epoxy. 
         [0034]    The frame  26  can be sealed to the block to complete the housing using an epoxy resin. 
         [0035]    The battery cell can be filled with liquid electrolyte in an argon-filled glove box using a syringe. The electrolyte of 1.0 M LiPF 6  in 1:2 (v/v) ethylene carbonate:dimethyl carbonate (LiPF 6  in EC:DMC) can be provided through the tubes and into the chamber between the electrodes. Following assembly of the cell, liquid electrolyte is sealed at the ends of the fill-tubes in the glovebox filled with argon. 
         [0036]    The battery testing cell can be configured to allow for analysis and characterization of SEI layers when formed at the electrode surface or at the electrode-electrolyte interface in-situ during operation of the battery testing device. In-situ=a “space zone” measurement in which data is collected from inside the battery device. The term does not equate with real time (time zone). The term encompasses collection of data in-situ (i.e., internal to the battery device) and in-operando (during operation). Data analysis is performed at a later time. However, the term does not exclude analysis of data during operation or during data collection. No limitations are intended. 
         [0037]    The cell can be placed on a SIMS stage for bombardment with primary ions and detection of secondary ions and subsequent mass spectrometry. 
         [0038]    In some embodiments, vacuum pressure in the vacuum chamber during measurements was 2.0×10 −7  Torr to 5.5×10 −7  Torr. 
         [0039]    Surface-sensitive analytical instruments suitable for use with the present disclosure include, for example, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS); scanning electron microscopy (SEM); FIB/SEM; transmission electron microscopy (TEM); time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometer (ToF-SIMS); helium ion microscopy (HeIM); Auger electron spectroscopy (AES); and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS). 
         [0040]    Probe beams from these various analytical instruments may be delivered through the SiN window into the battery chamber (that is under vacuum), which exposes liquid electrolytes to the probe beams and provides chemical analysis of ionic and molecular species at the surface of the electrodes, and at the electrode-electrolyte interface. Probe beams may be delivered into the liquid electrolyte at selected depths, and at selected locations of the electrodes, and at electrode-electrolyte interface. 
         [0041]    In various embodiments, probe beams from selected analytical instrument(s) may be delivered to selected depths in the battery chamber  14  to interrogate or probe liquid electrolytes, electrode-electrolyte interfaces, and electrodes therein. 
         [0042]    In an exemplary embodiment, for example, probe beams from the ToF-SIMS instrument may interrogate liquid electrolytes, electrode-electrolyte interfaces, and electrodes to a depth of from a few nm to hundreds of nm. However, no depth limitations are intended by the exemplary instrument. 
         [0043]    In an exemplary embodiment, the cell enables the structure of the dual electrodes to be characterized in-situ using probe beams delivered from a combined Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB) instrument. 
         [0044]    In some applications, depth of probe beams may be selected that permit selected regions or layers of the electrode/liquid sample interface to be probed. For example, at selected depths, adsorbed molecules, SEI layers (e.g., 2 nm to 20 nm), diffuse-layers (1 nm to 1 μm), and/or modified films (e.g., 1 nm to 1 μm) may be investigated. In the instant embodiment, the liquid electrolyte to be analyzed is exposed by introducing a primary probe beam into the electrolyte to interact with the electrolyte. 
         [0045]    In some embodiments, the device enables characterization of the structure of the electrodes in operando using a combined Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and a Focused Ion Beam (FIB) instrument in-situ. 
         [0046]    The present disclosure also includes a process for direct study of the chemical composition of SEI layers that form at the electrode surface or electrode-electrolyte interface of rechargeable batteries in-situ. The method includes examining the rechargeable battery device in operando under high vacuum in the high vacuum chamber of a Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometer during the charge-discharge cycles of the battery. 
         [0047]    The cell is a new miniature battery cell that can provide direct probing and analysis of the structure and chemical components at the electrode surface or electrode-electrolyte layer in-situ under battery charge and discharge conditions in-situ that enables direct analysis of the electrode-electrolyte interface during dynamic operation of a rechargeable battery, such as lithium ion battery. 
         [0048]    In-situ liquid secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) is performed for the first time to directly observe the molecular structural evolution at the solid-liquid electrolyte interface for a lithium (Li)-ion battery under dynamic operating conditions. 
         [0049]    The cell and methods provide in-situ, or more precisely, in operando, SIMS study of the interface between the liquid electrolyte and the lithium metal (anode) electrode. The device can also be used for in-situ SEM/FIB study of the structure of the electrodes and formation and evolution of SEI layers during operation. 
         [0050]    The present disclosure provides characterization data regarding the evolution of ionic and molecular species as well as the chemical composition of SEI layers in ion-conducting batteries as they evolve at the electrode-electrolyte interface in-situ during charging and discharging cycles of the battery cell as a function of time. As an example, SEI layers may be probed and chemically characterized in-operando in concert with secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) in-situ. 
         [0051]    The cell can be charged and discharged in the vacuum chamber of the SIMS instrument under a constant current during SIMS analysis to study the chemical composition of the Cu/Li metal electrode by SIMS. The methods can include chemical imaging the electrode “structure” and “SEI layers” and other solid-liquid interfaces. 
         [0052]    The Chemical imaging (as quantitative-chemical mapping) can provide the analytical capability to create a visual image of the distribution of components in the probe area from simultaneous measurement of spectra and spatial, time information. 
         [0053]    Molecular and ionic species of interest at the SEI can be imaged including, for example, salts derived from the battery electrolyte, desolvation compounds, chemical species at the electrode-electrolyte interface that shows the evolution of the SEI layer over time, or changes to the electrode structure over time. 
         [0054]    Further details of the process for chemical imaging is described, for example, by Zhu et al. (“In-Situ Mass Spectrometric Determination of Molecular Structural Evolution at the Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium-Ion Batteries ”, Nano Lett.  2015, 15, 6170-6176) incorporated in its entirety herein by reference. 
         [0055]    In an exemplary embodiment, the cell can be configured as a lithium-ion battery cell that can have the interface between the liquid electrolyte and the lithium metal electrode to be characterized in operando using in-situ secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). 
         [0056]    Results show that deposition of Li metal on the copper electrode leads to condensation of solvent molecules around the electrode. Chemically, this layer of solvent condensate tends to be depleted of the salt anions and with reduced concentration of Li +  ions, essentially leading to the formation of a lean electrolyte layer adjacent to the electrode that contribute to over-potential of the cell. This observation alone provides unprecedented molecular level dynamic information on initial formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer. 
         [0057]    Li +  ions in the electrolyte are usually solvated. Upon entering the electrode, the solvated ions will be desolvated, leading to the accumulation of desolvation sheath components on or at the electrode. These accumulated components contribute to the formation of the SEI layers. Formation of the SEI layer affects transport of Li +  ions through the electrolyte and degrades performance of the battery over time. 
         [0058]    Referring next to  FIG. 4 , STEM high-angle annular dark field (HAADF) images of Li deposition and dissolution at the interface between the Pt working electrode and the LiPF 6 /PC electrolyte during the charge discharge cycles using in situ liquid cell TEM. The formation of the SEI layer is indicated by the arrows in the second frame. 
         [0059]    Referring next to  FIG. 5A , a typical galvanostatic charge and discharge curve of an example battery cell is shown. The charging regions are left blank while the discharging regions are speckled. SIMS data are collected at (1) fresh cell, (2) after the third charging, and (3) after the third discharging. In  FIGS. 5B and 5C , a typical positive ion mass spectrum and two ion images (Li +  and Si + ) are shown (these are typically provided in color; (/////, orange,  74 ), (----, green,  76 ), (blank, white,  70 ), and (####, yellow,  72 ). 
         [0060]    Referring next to  FIGS. 6-8 , ToF-SIMS depth profiling and the re-constructed 3-dimensional configuration of several representative positive and negative secondary ions at the vicinity of the anode surface before and after charging/discharging of the battery cell are shown. (m/z=146, PF 6   − ,  80 ), (m/z=28, Si − ,  82 ), (m/z=31, OCH 3   − ,  84 ), (m/z=7, Li − ,  86 ), (m/z=6,  6 Li + ,  87 ), (m/z=63, Cu + ,  88 ), (m/z=42, SiN + ,  90 ), (m/z=15, CH 3   + ,  92 ), 
         [0061]    Depth profiles of eight representative secondary ions (four positive ions and four negative ions) before charge and discharge cycle of the battery are shown in  FIG. 6 . Molecular information captured at this stage (the fresh battery cell) essentially reflects structural modifications of the electrode surface as a consequence of the static interaction between the electrolyte and the electrode. 
         [0062]    Due to the porous granular structure of the deposited copper (Cu) film, Li +  and PF 6   −  signals were detected immediately following the Si 3 N 4  film was sputtered through, indicating that the electrolyte with the ionized species can permeate to the Si 3 N 4 /Cu interface. In addition, Cu +  signals can be observed after sputtering through the Si 3 N 4  film. However, we noticed that although the Si 3 N 4 /Cu interface can be exposed and readily identified, it is very hard to sputter through the Cu layer even for more than 800 s sputtering. In contrast, for a control experiment of sputtering of a 70 nm thick Cu film on a Si 3 N 4  film (without electrolyte), it took only ˜40 s to penetrate the Cu film. As demonstrated in a later stage, the use of porous Cu film actually offers the advantage of allowing the detection of electrode surface reactions. 
         [0063]    Identification of ion species and understanding the depth profiles from the solvent species at this initial stage is of interest as it provides the baseline for comparing the species observed after charge and discharge of the battery. Significant identifiable ion species include H + , C + , CH + , CH 2   + , CH 3   + , OCH 3   + , H − , C − , CH − , C 2   − , C 2 H − , and OCH 3   − , with many other minor peaks. For the reader&#39;s convenience, the CH 3   +  and OCH 3   −  are used as two representative ions in  FIGS. 6-8 . These species show a significant background in the Si 3 N 4  film and a mild and slow increase after sputtering through the Si 3 N 4  film, which is quite different from the jumping up behavior of the Li +  and PF 6   −  signals. The high background of these signals may attribute to the relatively high pressure (˜1.5×10 −6  mbar) of residual gases in the analysis chamber. It is reasonable to expect more of a jump behavior when the Si 3 N 4  is penetrated for these solvent-related ion species if the pressure in the analysis chamber can be significantly reduced (e.g., &lt;1×10 −8  mbar). 
         [0064]    Upon charging the battery to 3.6 V, the depth profiles of the eight representative secondary ions are shown in  FIG. 7  (the galvanostatic charge curve is shown as  FIG. 5A ). As compared with the fresh cell, four features were typically observed for the charged sample: 
         [0065]    (1) Following the charging, the Li +  signal shows a steeper increase upon sputtering through of the Si 3 N 4  film, likely indicating the deposition of Li metal on the Cu electrode surface, which is morphologically very well illustrated by the recent in situ TEM observations. Consistent with the argument of the deposition of Li metal on the Cu electrode is the observation of a decrease of the Cu +  signal when compared to the data before charging. 
         [0066]    (2) There is a dramatic relative decrease of the PF 6   −  signal as compared with the case of the fresh sample, indicating that during the charging of the battery PF 6   −  ions migrate toward the cathode direction and leading to the significantly decreased concentration of PF 6   −  at the vicinity of the anode. 
         [0067]    (3) Interestingly, following the charging, the solvent signals from negative ion depth profiles (e.g., H − , C − , CH − , C 2   − , C 2 H − , OCH 3   − ; with OCH 3   −  used as a representative in  FIG. 7 ) show an immediate jump after sputtering through the Si 3 N 4  film and gradually decrease with time with the balance signal intensity being still higher than that in the Si 3 N 4  film. The Li −  signal can be detected, and it does not show an immediate jump as soon as the sputtering through of the Si 3 N 4  film occurs. 
         [0068]    (4) Based on charge calculation, it is estimated that for each charging the Li deposited on the Cu electrode is ˜50 nm in thickness. However, it is very difficult to sputter through the Li layer to reach the Cu layer even after long-time sputtering. These observations are all consistent with the formation of a solvent-enriched layer between the Si 3 N 4  film and the Li/Cu electrode. This point is further consistently supported by the observation following the discharging of the battery as described in the subsequent section. 
         [0069]    After discharging the battery, the SIMS depth profiles are shown in  FIG. 8 . As compared with the case of the charged state of the battery, following the discharging, the Li +  signal only decreases slightly, and correspondingly, the PF 6   −  signal only shows a moderate increase. These observations clearly indicate that, upon the discharging of the battery, the deposited Li metal layer is not fully reversibly stripped off, suggesting formation of a dead Li layer. At the same time, the PF 6   −  anions are not totally recovered to the case of before charging. These observations are consistent with the direct in situ TEM observation of the nonreversible stripping of Li metal from the Cu electrode upon discharging. The formation of non-reversible Li species is also supported by the behaviors of the Cu signals. Following the discharging, the Cu +  signal increases dramatically. At the same time, the Cu layer can be sputtered through as demonstrated by a dramatic increase of solvent-related signals at the end stage of depth profiles (as shown in  FIG. 8 , &gt;510 s for positive secondary ion depth profiles, or &gt;335 s for negative secondary ion depth profiles). Collectively these observations can be explained by the postulation that, after discharging, most of the channels in the porous Cu film are filled or covered by the dead Li species, blocking or inhibiting the liquid to reach the Si 3 N 4 /electrode interface. This explanation is supported by the cyclic galvanostatic charge/discharge curves shown in  FIG. 5A , where the charging time is much longer than the discharging time for each charging/discharging cycle. Since a constant current was used during the charge/discharge, a shorter discharging time than that of charging indicates either certain fraction of Li +  reacts with solvent to form insoluble Li salts or the covering up of the formed Li metal by the insoluble Li salts. The nonreversible Li species is essentially part of the SEI layer, which is apparently thickening with each cyclic progression of charging and discharging the battery, contributing to depletion of active Li in the battery system and therefore leading to the capacity fading and eventual failure of the battery. 
         [0070]    Referring next to  FIGS. 9A-9B , a schematic illustration showing the molecular level stripping and clustering during the charge and discharge of a Li-ion battery. The top panel,  FIG. 9A , shows the chare-discharge curves and the corresponding molecular migration is illustrated in A-D ( FIG. 9B ). (A) At the fresh cell State, PF 6   −  and solvated Li +  ion are evenly distributed in the electrolyte. (B) When a potential is applied on the anode Cu nanoparticles, the PF 6   −  ions are repelled from the electrolyte around the Cu nanoparticles. When the potential increases to around 3.6V, solvated Li +  ions start to lose solvent molecules and are reduced to metallic Li. (C) Immediately after charging, a layer of metallic Li forms on the Cu surface, while a solvent layer with a low concentration of Li +  and depletion of PF 6   −  forms around the Cu nanoparticle. (D) After discharging partial of metallic Li was stripped back into electrolyte; however, some cannot be stripped because of the formation of an inert Li salt layer on top of the metallic Li. 
         [0071]    While preferred embodiments of the present disclosure have been shown and described, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that many changes and modifications may be made without departing from the disclosure in its true scope and broader aspects. Appended claims are therefore intended to cover all such changes and modifications as fall within the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.