Abstract:
A method for estimating formation quality factor includes determining an upgoing pressure wavefield of seismic signals recorded using a collocated pressure responsive sensor and motion responsive sensor deployed in a body of water The upgoing wavefield has spectral effect of water surface ghosting attenuated by combining the pressure responsive signals and motion responsive signals. The quality factor is determined by determining a difference in amplitude spectra between a first seismic event and a second seismic event in the upgoing pressure wavefield.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    Not applicable. 
       STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
       [0002]    Not applicable. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0003]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0004]    The invention relates generally to the field of marine seismic data acquisition and processing. More particularly, the invention relates to methods for processing marine seismic signals to determine certain characteristics of subsurface rock formations. 
         [0005]    2. Background Art 
         [0006]    Seismic surveying is known in the art for determining structures and acoustic properties of rock formations below the earth&#39;s surface. Seismic surveying generally includes deploying an array of seismic sensors at the surface of the earth in a selected pattern, and selectively actuating a seismic energy source positioned near the seismic sensors. The energy source may be an explosive, a vibrator, or in the case of seismic surveying performed in a body of water such as a lake or the ocean, one or more air guns or water guns. 
         [0007]    Seismic energy which emanates from the source travels through the subsurface rock formations until it reaches an acoustic impedance boundary in the formations. Acoustic impedance boundaries typically occur where the composition and/or mechanical properties of the earth formation change. Such boundaries are typically referred to as “bed boundaries.” At a bed boundary, some of the seismic energy is reflected back toward the earth&#39;s surface. The reflected energy may be detected by one or more of the seismic sensors deployed on the surface. Seismic signal processing known in the art has as one of a number of objectives the determination of the depths and geographic locations of bed boundaries below the earth&#39;s surface. The depth and location of the bed boundaries is inferred from the travel time of the seismic energy to the bed boundaries and back to the sensors at the surface. 
         [0008]    Seismic surveying is performed in the ocean and other bodies of water (“marine seismic surveying”) to determine the structure and acoustic properties of rock formations below the water bottom. Marine seismic surveying systems known in the art include a vessel which tows one or more seismic energy sources, and the same or a different vessel which tows one or more “streamers.” A streamer is an array of seismic sensors in a cable that is towed by the vessel. Typically, a seismic vessel will tow a plurality of such streamers arranged to be separated by a selected lateral distance from each other, in a pattern selected to enable relatively complete determination of geologic structures in three dimensions. Typically, the sensors in the streamers are pressure responsive sensors such as hydrophones. More recently, streamers have been devised which include both pressure responsive sensors and particle motion responsive sensors. In some of the foregoing streamers, the pressure responsive sensors and motion responsive sensors are substantially collocated. One type of such streamer, referred to as a “dual sensor” streamer is described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,239,577 issued to Tenghamn et al. and assigned to an affiliate of the assignee of the present invention. 
         [0009]    One characteristic of subsurface formations of interest is the so called “quality factor.” The quality factor is a measure of frequency dependent attenuation of seismic energy, that is, a measure of the relationship between seismic energy frequency and the attenuation rate of particular formations. Quality factor has been used as a direct indicator of the presence of hydrocarbons, among other uses. Estimation of attenuation of seismic waves can be as important as the estimation of interval velocities in the field of seismic data interpretation. Estimates of attenuation of seismic waves provide an additional perspective of the lithology (rock mineral composition) and reservoir characteristics (rock pore space fluid content, fluid composition, fluid pressure and rock permeability to fluid flow). 
         [0010]    Using marine seismic signals for estimating quality factor has proven difficult because marine seismic signals are susceptible to degrading as a result of seismic energy reflection from the water surface. Such reflection can destructively interfere with detected upgoing seismic signals reflected from subsurface features of interest. The frequency spectrum of the seismic energy is typically attenuated within a band referred to as the “ghost notch.” Presence of the ghost notch makes interpretation of frequency dependent attenuation difficult and inaccurate. 
         [0011]    There continues to be a need for techniques for estimating quality factor of subsurface formations from marine seismic data. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0012]    A method for estimating formation quality factor according to one aspect of the invention includes determining an upgoing pressure wavefield of seismic signals recorded using a collocated pressure responsive sensor and motion responsive sensor deployed at a selected depth in a body of water. The upgoing wavefield has the spectral effect of water surface ghosting attenuated by combining the pressure responsive signals and motion responsive signals. The quality factor is determined by determining a difference in amplitude spectra between a first seismic event and a second seismic event in the upgoing pressure wavefield. 
         [0013]    A method for seismic surveying according to another aspect of the invention includes deploying a plurality of collocated pressure responsive seismic sensors and motion responsive seismic sensors at spaced apart locations in a body of water. A seismic energy source is actuated in the body of water at selected times. Signals produced in response to seismic energy by the collocated sensors are recorded. An upgoing pressure wavefield is determined having the spectral effect of water surface ghosting attenuated by combining collocated pressure responsive signals and motion responsive signals from each of the plurality of collocated sensors. Quality factor of a formation below the bottom of the body of water is estimated by determining a difference in amplitude spectra between a first seismic event and a second seismic event in the upgoing pressure wavefield. 
         [0014]    Other aspects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description and the appended claims. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0015]      FIG. 1  shows an example of acquiring seismic data for use with a method according to the invention. 
           [0016]      FIG. 2  shows a flow chart of processing dual sensor data. 
           [0017]      FIG. 3  shows an amplitude spectrum of a typical marine seismic source towed at 7 m depth, with signals recorded at normal incidence at 8 m depth, and an amplitude spectrum for signals from the same marine seismic source with the filtering effect of the receiver ghost removed. 
           [0018]      FIG. 4  shows the effect of filtering of subsurface formations on the amplitude spectra shown in  FIG. 2 . 
           [0019]      FIGS. 5A and 5B  show, respectively, normalized amplitude spectra for contemporaneously acquired up-going pressure field and total pressure field signals. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0020]      FIG. 1  shows an example of acquiring marine seismic data that can be used with methods according to the invention. A seismic vessel  101  moves along the surface  108  of a body of water  102  above a portion  103  of the subsurface that is to be surveyed. Beneath the water bottom  104 , the portion  103  of the subsurface contains rock formations of interest such as a layer  105  positioned between an upper boundary  106  and lower boundary  107  thereof. The seismic vessel  101  has disposed thereon seismic acquisition control equipment, designated generally at  109 . The seismic acquisition control equipment  109  includes (none shown separately) navigation control, seismic energy source control, seismic sensor control, and signal recording equipment, all of which can be of types well known in the art. 
         [0021]    The seismic acquisition control equipment  109  causes a seismic source  110  towed in the body of water  102  by the seismic vessel  101  (or by a different vessel) to actuate at selected times. The seismic source  110  may be of any type well known in the art of seismic acquisition, including air guns or water guns, or particularly, arrays of air guns. One or more seismic streamers  111  are also towed in the body of water  102  by the seismic vessel  101  (or by a different vessel) to detect the acoustic wavefields initiated by the seismic source  110  and reflected from interfaces in the environment. Although only one seismic streamer  111  is shown in  FIG. 1  for illustrative purposes, typically a plurality of laterally spaced apart seismic streamers  111  are towed behind the seismic vessel  101 . The seismic streamers  111  contain sensors to detect the reflected wavefields initiated by the seismic source  110 . In the present example the seismic streamers  111  contain pressure responsive sensors such as hydrophones  112 , and water particle motion responsive sensors such as geophones  113 . The hydrophones  112  and geophones  113  are typically co-located in pairs or pairs of sensor arrays at regular intervals along the seismic streamers  111 . However, the type of sensors  112 ,  113  and their particular locations along the seismic streamers  111  are not intended to be limitations on the scope of the present invention. It is to be clearly understood that the pressure responsive sensor can be any type of device that generates a signal related to pressure in the water or its time gradient. Correspondingly, the motion responsive sensor can be any device that responds to motion, acceleration or velocity. Non-limiting examples of such devices include velocity sensors (geophones) and accelerometers. 
         [0022]    Each time the seismic source  110  is actuated, an acoustic wavefield travels in spherically expanding wave fronts. The propagation of the wave fronts will be illustrated herein by ray paths which are perpendicular to the wave fronts. An upwardly traveling wavefield, designated by ray path  114 , will reflect off the water-air interface at the water surface  108  and then travel downwardly, as in ray path  115 , where the wavefield may be detected by the hydrophones  112  and geophones  113  in the seismic streamers  111 . Such a reflection from the water surface  108 , as in ray path  115  contains no useful information about the subsurface formations of interest. However, such surface reflections, also known as ghosts, act as secondary seismic sources with a time delay from initiation of the seismic source  110 . 
         [0023]    The downwardly traveling wavefield, in ray path  116 , will reflect off the earth-water interface at the water bottom  104  and then travel upwardly, as in ray path  117 , where the wavefield may be detected by the hydrophones  112  and geophones  113 . Such a reflection at the water bottom  104 , as in ray path  117 , contains information about the water bottom  104 . Ray path  117  is an example of a “primary” reflection, that is, a reflection originating from a boundary in the subsurface. The downwardly traveling wavefield, as in ray path  116 , may transmit through the water bottom  104  as in ray path  118 , reflect off a layer boundary, such as  107 , of a layer, such as  105 , and then travel upwardly, as in ray path  119 . The upwardly traveling wavefield, ray path  119 , may then be detected by the hydrophones  112  and geophones  113 . Such a reflection off a layer boundary  107  contains useful information about a formation of interest  105  and is also an example of a primary reflection. 
         [0024]    The acoustic wavefields will continue to reflect off interfaces such as the water bottom  104 , water surface  108 , and layer boundaries  106 ,  107  in combinations. For example, the upwardly traveling wavefield in ray path  117  will reflect off the water surface  108 , continue traveling downwardly in ray path  120 , may reflect off the water bottom  104 , and continue traveling upwardly again in ray path  121 , where the wavefield may be detected by the hydrophones  112  and geophones  113 . Ray path  121  is an example of a multiple reflection, also called simply a “multiple”, having multiple reflections from interfaces. Similarly, the upwardly traveling wavefield in ray path  119  will reflect off the water surface  108 , continue traveling downwardly in ray path  122 , may reflect off a layer boundary  106  and continue traveling upwardly again in ray path  123 , where the wavefield may be detected by the hydrophones  112  and geophones  113 . Ray path  123  is another example of a multiple reflection, also having multiple reflections in the subterranean earth. 
         [0025]    For purposes of the present invention, the ray path of principal concern is the reflection of seismic energy from the water surface in the vicinity of the hydrophones  112  and geophones  113 . Such reflection causes attenuation of certain frequencies of the seismic energy as detected by the hydrophones  112 . Methods according to the invention make use of the signals detected by the geophones  113  to reduce the effects of such “ghost notch” in the hydrophone signals. 
         [0026]    For purposes of simplifying the following explanation, the terms “hydrophone” and “geophone” will be used as shorthand descriptions for the types of signals being processed. It is to be clearly understood that the term “hydrophone” in the following description is intended to mean a signal detected by any form of pressure responsive or pressure time gradient responsive sensor. Correspondingly, “geophone” signals are interned to mean a signal detected by any form of particle motion responsive sensor, including accelerometers, velocity meters, geophones and the like. 
         [0027]    A method according to the invention begins using the recorded hydrophone and geophone signals corresponding to each actuation of the source. The recordings should be compensated for their respective sensor and recording channels&#39; impulse responses and the transduction constant of each type of sensor used. Each such record of hydrophone and geophone recordings corresponding to a particular actuation of the source may be referred to as a “common shot” record or common shot “gather.” The signal recordings may be indexed with respect to time of actuation of the seismic source, and may be identified by the geodetic position of each seismic sensor at the time of recording. The geophone signals may be normalized with respect to the angle of incidence of the seismic wavefront detected by each geophone. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,359,283 issued to Vaage et al. and assigned to an affiliate of the assignee of the present invention for a description of such normalization. The hydrophone response is substantially omni-directional and does not require correction or normalization for angle of incidence. 
         [0028]    Referring to  FIG. 2 , a flow chart outlining an example process for using geophone and hydrophone signals may include, at  21 , transforming the hydrophone and geophone signals from the space-time domain to the frequency-wavenumber (f−k) domain. At  22  in  FIG. 2 , the transformed hydrophone and geophone signals, H (f, k)  and G (f, k) , respectively, from the domain transform at  21  are corrected for relative differences between the sensor transfer functions, which correspond to sensor impulse responses in the time domain. Such corrections could include, for example, correcting the amplitude and phase of the hydrophone signals to match the geophone signals, correcting the geophone signals to match the hydrophone signals, or correcting both sets of signals to a common basis. Correcting for relative differences in sensor impulse responses is well known in the art. Finally, an amplitude scaling equal to the inverse of the acoustic impedance in the water may be applied to the geophone signals to correct for the relative differences in amplitudes of pressure and particle velocity. Such scaling is also well known in the art. 
         [0029]    At  23  in  FIG. 2 , the corrected geophone signals from  22  are further corrected for angle of incidence. While a hydrophone records the total pressure wavefield, a vertical geophone will only record the vertical component of the particle motion wavefield. The vertical part will be equal to the total particle motion wavefield only for signals which are propagating vertically, i.e. for which the angle of incidence equals zero. For any other angle of incidence the geophone signals need to be scaled, for example, substantially as described in the Vaage et al. &#39;283 patent. 
         [0030]    At  24  in  FIG. 2 , a low frequency part of the geophone signal can be calculated or estimated from the recorded hydrophone signal. The foregoing may also be performed substantially as explained in the Vaage et al. &#39;283 patent. 
         [0031]    At  25  in  FIG. 2 , a full bandwidth geophone signal can be calculated or estimated by merging the calculated low frequency portion thereof with the measured geophone signals in an upper part of the frequency spectrum, including some overlap. The foregoing may also be performed substantially as explained in the Vaage et al. &#39;283 patent. 
         [0032]    At  26  in  FIG. 2 , a full bandwidth geophone data set and the recorded hydrophone data set are added or subtracted to calculate a full bandwidth up-going and down-going wavefield. The foregoing can be performed substantially as explained in the Vaage et al. &#39;283 patent. 
         [0033]    A result of combining the full bandwidth geophone signals with the hydrophone signals is an upgoing pressure wavefield that has reduced effect of the surface ghost. More specifically, the frequency filtering effect of the surface ghost is reduced. The combined geophone and hydrophone signals may be interpreted to determine two way seismic energy travel times from the water surface to seismic reflectors in the subsurface, e.g.,  104 ,  106  and  107  in  FIG. 1 . Using such two way travel times, it is possible to estimate formation quality factor (“Q”) for subsurface formations occurring between two two-way reflection times, t 1  and t 2 . Amplitude of seismic energy as a function of frequency is related to attenuation characteristics of the subsurface formations as shown in the following expressions: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           A 
                           2 
                         
                          
                         
                           ( 
                           f 
                           ) 
                         
                       
                       = 
                       
                         
                           
                             A 
                             1 
                           
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             f 
                             ) 
                           
                         
                          
                         
                           exp 
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             
                               
                                 
                                   - 
                                   π 
                                 
                                  
                                 
                                     
                                 
                                  
                                 
                                   f 
                                    
                                   
                                     ( 
                                     
                                       
                                         t 
                                         2 
                                       
                                       - 
                                       
                                         t 
                                         1 
                                       
                                     
                                     ) 
                                   
                                 
                               
                               Q 
                             
                             ) 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                     ; 
                   
                    
                   
                     
 
                   
                    
                   
                     Q 
                     = 
                     
                       
                         - 
                         
                           1 
                           
                             π 
                              
                             
                                 
                             
                              
                             
                               f 
                                
                               
                                 ( 
                                 
                                   
                                     t 
                                     2 
                                   
                                   - 
                                   
                                     t 
                                     1 
                                   
                                 
                                 ) 
                               
                             
                           
                         
                       
                        
                       
                         ln 
                          
                         
                           ( 
                           
                             
                               
                                 A 
                                 2 
                               
                                
                               
                                 ( 
                                 f 
                                 ) 
                               
                             
                             
                               
                                 A 
                                 1 
                               
                                
                               
                                 ( 
                                 f 
                                 ) 
                               
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   1 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0034]    If both sides of the second expression for Q above are multiplied by the frequency f, the resulting expression is: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     
                       - 
                       
                         1 
                         
                           π 
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             
                               
                                 t 
                                 2 
                               
                               - 
                               
                                 t 
                                 1 
                               
                             
                             ) 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                      
                     ln 
                      
                     
                       { 
                       
                         
                           
                             A 
                             2 
                           
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             f 
                             ) 
                           
                         
                         
                           
                             A 
                             1 
                           
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             f 
                             ) 
                           
                         
                       
                       } 
                     
                   
                   = 
                   
                     Q 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     f 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   2 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0035]    The above expression is a form of equation of a straight line in the amplitude-frequency plane, that is, it has the form: 
         [0000]    
       
      
       y=mf+b  
      
     
         [0036]    in which Q is the slope of the line and the intercept, b, (at frequency of zero) is equal to zero. Therefore, to estimate the Q of the subsurface formations from seismic data between selected seismic events, e.g., reflection times t 1  and t 2 , the amplitude spectra (magnitudes of the complex spectra) may be computed from two selected length data windows centered on each of the two selected seismic events (reflection times). The amplitude spectra at each time may be represented by A 1 (f) and A 2 (f). Using the amplitude spectra, the function of frequency on the left-hand side of equation (2) above may be calculated, and a straight line may be fit (such as by least squares) to the amplitude spectra function. The slope of the best-fit line is an estimate of Q for the subsurface formations disposed between seismic reflection times t 1  and t 2 . 
         [0037]    In practice however, the linear regression as described in the application never assumes the intercept b is zero. The slope (m) from which Q is derived is calculated as if there were a non-zero value of the intercept, b, although the intercept itself is never explicitly calculated The reason for considering a non-zero intercept is that amplitudes are typically not properly balanced and the spectral ratios therefore do not cancel out at zero frequency. The intercept could also be calculated and could be used to exactly calibrate the amplitude. 
         [0038]    Using hydrophone-only streamers as is known in the art produced intercept calculations that were considered even more unreliable than calculations of the slope, which calculations themselves were considered unreliable using hydrophone-only streamers. The additional low frequency content provided by using streamers having both pressure responsive sensors and motion responsive sensors, and combining the pressure and motion signals as explained herein makes the intercept calculations substantially more reliable. Thus, using combined pressure responsive and motions responsive signals is believed to provide more accurate estimation of the slope and intercept of the amplitude spectra. The foregoing would provide not only better estimates for Q but also the opportunity to precisely calibrate seismic signal amplitude decay. 
         [0039]      FIG. 3  shows, at curve  40 , an amplitude spectrum of a typical marine seismic source towed at 7 meters depth, normal incidence, at an acquisition depth of about 8 meters. Energy at 0 Hz and about 107 Hz is suppressed due to the water surface reflection near the seismic source (the “source ghost”). The receiver ghost imposes spectral notches at 0 Hz and about 94 Hz. Also shown is the amplitude spectrum, at curve  42 , for seismic signals recorded from the same source, but with the filtering effect of the receiver ghost removed. The spectrum of curve  42  has been multiplied by two to facilitate comparison. 
         [0040]    The modeled amplitude spectra shown in  FIG. 3  are shown in  FIGS. 4  at  44  and  46 , having been modified by an earth filter having response characteristics shown by line  48 . 
         [0041]      FIGS. 5A and 5B  show, respectively, example amplitude spectra for a contemporaneously acquired up-going pressure wavefield ( 50  in  FIG. 5A ), and total pressure wavefield ( 52  in  FIG. 5B ). The forgoing amplitude spectra are consistent with the modeling shown in  FIG. 4 , and demonstrate that the amplitude gradient with respect to frequency cannot easily be estimated from the total pressure field data. The receiver ghost must be removed, which can be readily performed using data from a dual sensor streamer. 
         [0042]    While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, those skilled in the art, having benefit of this disclosure, will appreciate that other embodiments can be devised which do not depart from the scope of the invention as disclosed herein. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be limited only by the attached claims.