Abstract:
A method for detecting herbs or plants of the  Aristolochia  genus in herbal products and botanicals may be based on the sequence information in the trnL-trnF region and/or the psbA-trnH region. The trnL-trnF region and/or the psbA-trnH of the chloroplast DNA contain a number of segments which are highly characteristic of the plants of the  Aristolochia  genus. By this method, the degree of similarity in one or more of these segments between an herbal or plant material of unknown identification and reference DNA sequence of a known material can be used to authenticate the unknown material.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD  
       [0001]    This invention relates to a method for distinguishing herbal products and botanicals. Particularly, it relates to a molecular method for distinguishing plant materials of the  Aristolochia  genus from herbs derived from other plant families used in Chinese medicine. The method is based on the sequences of the trnL-trnF region and the psbA-trnH region of the chloroplast DNA. 
       BACKGROUND  
       [0002]    Herbal materials from the  Aristolochia  genus are known to contain aristolochic acids and related chemical compounds that could induce nephropathy and carcinoma. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), materials derived from  Aristolochia  species are sometimes used as alternatives or adulterants of other herbal products and botanicals such as Muxiang, Mutong, Fangji, Baiying, Madouling and Zhushalian. The relevant information is as follows:
       1) The herb Muxiang can come from the roots of  Aucklandia lappa  (Muxiang) and other species of the daisy family (Compositae), and  Aristolochia debilis  (Qingmuxiang) and related  Aristolochia  species.   2) The herb Mutong can come from the roots of  Akebia quinata, Akebia trifoliata, Akebia trifoliata  var.  australis  (Mutong),  Clematis armandii Clematis montana  (Chuanmutong), and  Aristolochia manshuriensis  (Guangmutong) and related  Aristolochia  species.   3) The herb Fangji can come from the roots of  Stephania tetrandra  (Fangji) and  Aristolochia fangchi  (Guangfangji) and related  Aristolochia  species.   4) The herb Baiying should be from  Solanum lyratum  but it has sometimes been confused with another herb Xungufeng derived from  Aristolochia mollissima  and related  Aristolochia  species.   5) The herb Madouling can come from the fruits of  Aristolochia contorta, Aristolochia debilis,  and Dabaihe derived from the fruits or seeds of  Cardiocrinum  and related taxa in Liliaceae.   6) The Herb Zhushalian can come from the root of  Aristolochia kaempferi  and related species of  Aristolochia  and may be confused by  Dioscorea cirrhosa  and related species in Dioscoreaceae.       
 
         [0009]    Since the early 1990s, hundreds of poisoning cases due to consumption of herbs and botanicals derived from or containing  Aristolochia  plants were reported in many parts of the world. The toxic substances in the  Aristolochia  plants are aristolochic acids and related compounds. In many countries and regions, plant materials from  Aristolochia  genus are banned in all herbal products and botanicals. For example, they are banned in Hong Kong and Taiwan. In mainland China, however, some  Aristolochia  species are still allowed for use as herbal products and botanicals. Where such  Aristolochia  materials are permitted to be used as herb medicines, it should be advised that the true source identity of such materials be revealed so that particular caution can be exercised on the part of the doctor and the patient. For the countries where all  Aristolochia  materials are banned, there are chances for inadvertent shipment or mix of materials derived from  Aristolochia  species. It is thus important to be able to tell if a particular herbal product and botanical contains materials derived from plant species belonging to the genus of  Aristolochia.  Thus, an accurate and definitive method is needed to reveal their presence in herbal products and botanicals to help protect consumers, to reinforce good manufacturing practices (GMP), and to generate evidences for legal proceedings. 
         [0010]    The existing methods in identifying Chinese herbal medicines are usually based on organoleptic approaches which are very much dependent on subjective judgment of the inspectors or dispensers. Morphological characters for identification are usually of limited value because the genuine herbal species and its adulterants are usually sharing very similar characters. Anatomical and chemical (e.g. TLC, HPLC, GC-MS) studies are affected by factors such as the growing stage and the post-harvest processing. 
       SUMMARY  
       [0011]    Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a method that can determine whether an herbal material is derived from a plant of the  Aristolochia  genus or whether an herbal product and botanical contains a material derived from an  Aristolochia  plant. 
         [0012]    This and other objects of the present invention is realized by making use of the sequence information in the trnL-trnF and the psbA-trnH regions of the chloroplast DNA to distinguish  Aristolochia  materials from other herbal materials commonly used in TCM. 
         [0013]    According to an embodiment of the present invention, the method involves the following steps: (a) obtaining a set of reference (or standard) DNA sequences; (b) extracting total DNA from one or more herbal samples in question; (c) amplifying the trnL-trnF and/or the psbA-trnH regions with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology or other technologies; (d) determining the nucleotide sequences of the amplified DNA regions; (e) aligning the nucleotide sequences of the trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH regions (or a portion of the regions) of the samples with the reference DNA sequences; and (f) optionally, generating a dendrogram based on the nucleotide sequences of the trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH regions of the samples and the references. In a typical example, after the DNA extraction, PCR amplification and DNA sequencing steps, one can compare and match the resulting trnL-trnF and/or psbA-trnH sequences of the sample to those of the reference DNA sequences of the  Aristolochia  herbs. If a match is found, the sample belongs to  Aristolochia.    
         [0014]    As used here, the term “reference DNA sequence” refers to a DNA sequence which is, or encompasses, or is part of, the trnL-trnF region or the psbA-trnH region of the chloroplast DNA of an authenticated herbal material of a plant species. 
         [0015]    The methods and techniques suitable for amplifying the trnL-trnF and/or the psbA-trnH regions are well known and are within ordinary skill of people in the art, as are the methods and techniques for DNA sequence alignment and generating dendrograms using computer programs such as BioEdit and MEGA. 
         [0016]    In sum, with the method of the present invention, any herbal medicines derived from an  Aristolochia  species can be detected and distinguished from herbal medicines derived from other plant species, as exemplified by the examples described in the following: 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
         [0017]      FIG. 1   a  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of Muxiang and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0018]      FIG. 1   b  shows a dendrogram of Muxiang and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the trnL-trnF sequence alignment. 
           [0019]      FIG. 2   a  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of Muxiang and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0020]      FIG. 2   b  shows a dendrogram of Muxiang and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the psbA-trnH sequence alignment. 
           [0021]      FIG. 3   a  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of Mutong and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0022]      FIG. 3   b  shows a dendrogram of Mutong and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the trnL-trnF sequence alignment. 
           [0023]      FIG. 4   a  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of Mutong and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0024]      FIG. 4   b  shows a dendrogram of Mutong and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the psbA-trnH sequence alignment. 
           [0025]      FIG. 5   a  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of Fangji and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0026]      FIG. 5   b  shows a dendrogram of Fangji and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the trnL-trnF sequence alignment. 
           [0027]      FIG. 6   a  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of Fangji and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0028]      FIG. 6   b  shows a dendrogram of Fangji and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the psbA-trnH sequence alignment. 
           [0029]      FIG. 7   a  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of Baiying and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0030]      FIG. 7   b  shows a dendrogram of Baiying and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the trnL-trnF sequence alignment. 
           [0031]      FIG. 8   a  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of Baiying and related  Aristolochia  species. 
           [0032]      FIG. 8   b  shows a dendrogram of Baiying and related  Aristolochia  species constructed based on the psbA-trnH sequence alignment. 
           [0033]      FIG. 9   a  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of Madouling and related species. 
           [0034]      FIG. 9   b  shows a dendrogram of Madouling and related species constructed based on the trnL-trnF sequence alignment. 
           [0035]      FIG. 10   a  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of Madouling and related species. 
           [0036]      FIG. 10   b  shows a dendrogram of Madouling and related species constructed based on the psbA-trnH sequence alignment. 
           [0037]      FIG. 11   a  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of Zhushalian and related species. 
           [0038]      FIG. 11   b  shows a dendrogram of Zhushalian and related species constructed based on the trnL-trnF sequence alignment. 
           [0039]      FIG. 12   a  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of Zhushalian and related species. 
           [0040]      FIG. 12   b  shows a dendrogram of Zhushalian and related species constructed based on the psbA-trnH sequence alignment. 
           [0041]      FIG. 13  shows a trnL-trnF sequence alignment of  Aristolochia  adulterants or alternatives and the genuine species. 
           [0042]      FIG. 14  shows a psbA-trnH sequence alignment of  Aristolochia  adulterants or alternatives and the genuine species. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [0043]    Reference will now be made in detail to a number of particular embodiments of the invention as examples to facilitate the understanding of the present invention. Exemplary embodiments of the invention are described in detail, although it will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art that some features that are not particularly important to an understanding of the invention may not be shown for the sake of clarity. On the other hand, details provided in connection with the particular embodiment are by example only, of which various changes and modifications may be effected by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. 
       EXAMPLE 1  
     Muxiang  
       [0044]    According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People&#39;s Republic of China (the 2005 edition), the Chinese herb Muxiang (or           in Chinese) is derived from  Aucklandia lappa  and some species of the daisy family (Compositae). It is sometimes adulterated by  Aristolochia debilis,  which is better known as Qingmuxiang (or           in Chinese) and contains the carcinogenic aristolochic acids. As shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the trnL-trnF ( FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b ) and psbA-trnH ( FIG. 2   a  and  2   b ) sequences can be used to differentiate the genuine and adulterate species of Muxiang. 
         [0045]    By aligning the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF sequences with those of genuine Muxiang species ( FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b ), it is clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are shown below:
       (i) ‘TTAAAA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TTMTAAAA’ in genuine Muxiang species (bases 93-101 in  FIG. 1   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 1;   (ii) ‘GTACTGAAATA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ATMTA’ in genuine Muxiang species (bases 367-377 in  FIG. 1   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 2.       
 
         [0048]    Similarly, aligning the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH sequences with those of the genuine Muxiang species ( FIGS. 2   a  and  2   b ), shows that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are shown below:
       (i) ‘GMGGA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘GMCTAAAAAAGGA’ in genuine Muxiang species (bases 106-119 in  FIG. 2   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 3;   (ii) ‘CAGG’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘CTAAAATAGATAAAAATTA TAATTTTGATTATTTATTGCTTTTATTTCAGAAATAAGAAAGA MTAATATGCTCTTTTTTTTATGTTMTGGAAAAATAAAATAT AGTAATAGTAGATAATACTAGATMTAGG’ in genuine Muxiang species (bases 335-468 in  FIG. 2   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 4.       
 
       EXAMPLE 2  
     Mutong  
       [0051]    According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People&#39;s Republic of China (the 2005 edition), Mutong (or           in Chinese) is derived from  Akebia quinata, Akebia trifoliata, Akebia trifoliata  var.  australis  and may also include Chuanmutong (or           in Chinese), which is derived from  Clematis armandii  and  Clematis montana.  Mutong is sometimes adulterated by Guanmutong ( Aristolochia manshuriensis ), known as           in Chinese, which contains carcinogenic aristolochic acids. As shown in  FIGS. 3 and 4 , the trnL-trnF (FIGS.  3   a  and  3   b ) and psbA-trnH ( FIGS. 4   a  and  4   b ) sequences can be used to differentiate the genuine and adulterate species of Mutong. Although the sequences of trnL-trnF region of Akebia quinata (Genbank AY651844; AF335297),  Akebia trifoliata,  (Genbank AF335294) and  Aristolochia manshuriensis  (Genbank AY689184), respectively, have been published for phylogenetic studies by three independent research groups (Quandt et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2002; Neinhuis et al., 2005), they have never been considered for any authentication purposes. 
         [0052]    By aligning the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF sequences with those of genuine Mutong species ( FIGS. 3   a  and  3   b ), the differences are clear. The more prominent ones are shown below:
       (i) ‘AGAGTGGGA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘AGAAAGGA’ in genuine Mutong species (bases 299-307 in  FIG. 3   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 5;   (ii) ‘GACTATCA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘AGTCA’ in genuine Mutong species (bases 498-505 in  FIG. 3   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 6.       
 
         [0055]    Similarly, by aligning the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH sequences with those of the genuine Mutong species ( FIGS. 4   a  and  4   b ), it can be noted that among many differences, the more prominent ones are shown below:
       (i) Absent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘GAAAC’ in genuine Mutong species (bases 421-425 in  FIG. 4   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 7;   (ii) Absent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TTTGAG’ in genuine Mutong species (bases 608-613 in  FIG. 4   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 8.       
 
       EXAMPLE 3  
     Fangi  
       [0058]    According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People&#39;s Republic of China (the 2005 edition), Fangji (or           in Chinese) is derived from  Stephania tetrandra.  It is sometimes adulterated by Guangfangji ( Aristolochia fangchi  and related  Aristolochia  species) referred to as           in Chinese, which contains carcinogenic aristolochic acids. It can also be confused with Mufangji (or          ” in Chinese) derived from  Cocculus trilobus  and related  Cocculus  species. As detailed in  FIGS. 5 and 6 , the trnL-trnF ( FIGS. 5   a  and  5   b ) and psbA-trnH ( FIGS. 6   a  and  6   b ) sequences can be used to differentiate  Aristolochia  species from other plant species used as Fangji. 
         [0059]    By aligning the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF sequences with those of genuine Fangji species ( FIGS. 5   a  and  5   b ), it is clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (i) ‘GTGGGA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘AAAGGA’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 298-303 in  FIG. 5   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 9;   (ii) ‘ATCGACTATCA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ATCAGTCA’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 479-489 in  FIG. 5   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 10;   (iii) ‘TTTTTCACTTACT’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TTTCTCGTTCA CT’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 764-776 in  FIG. 5   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 11;   (iv) ‘TCCATATATGG’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TCT’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 868-878 in  FIG. 5   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 12;   (v) ‘ATT’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ATTCCAAGG’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 981-988 in  FIG. 5   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 13;   (vi) ‘TAGTAGGA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TATGGGGA’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 1096-1103 in  FIG. 5   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 14.       
 
         [0066]    Similarly, by aligning the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH sequences with those of the genuine Fangji species ( FIGS. 6   a  and  6   b ), it becomes clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (i) ‘CGT’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘CGTTGAA’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 102-108 in  FIG. 6   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 15;       
 
         [0068]      1 (ii) Absent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘GTTTCCCGACATC’ in genuine Fangji species (bases 385-397 in  FIG. 6   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 16. 
       EXAMPLE 4  
     Baiying  
       [0069]    According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People&#39;s Republic of China (1977 edition), Baiying (or           in Chinese) is derived from  Solanum lyratum.  It is sometimes adulterated by Xungufeng ( Aristolochia mollissima ), known as           in Chinese, which contains carcinogenic aristolochic acids. As detailed in  FIGS. 7 and 8 , the trnL-trnF ( FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b ) and psbA-trnH ( FIGS. 8   a  and  8   b ) sequences can be used to differentiate the genuine from the adulterate species of Baiying. 
         [0070]    Aligning the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF sequences with those of genuine Baiying species ( FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b ), reveals that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (i) ‘TAAAAA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TAACAAAAA’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 94-102 in  FIG. 7   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 17;   (ii) ‘GAAATA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘GAATACTATA’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 370-379 in  FIG. 7   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 18;   (iii) ‘ACTGTG’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ACAAGCCTTTATG’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 827-839 in  FIG. 7   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 19;   (iv) ‘TTTATTTAGGTAAGTTA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TTTGAGAAAATTTTTTA’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 991-1007 in  FIG. 7   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 20;   (v) ‘GAGAAT’ bsent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘GAGATTGGAAT’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 1108-1119 in  FIG. 7   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 21.       
 
         [0076]    Similarly, by aligning the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH sequences with those of the genuine Baiying derived from  Solanum  species ( FIGS. 8   a  and  8   b ), it is clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (i) ‘GAAGGA’ bsent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘GAAAAGAAAGG A’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 106-117 in  FIG. 8   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 22;   (ii) Absent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TGTTCCTCTTGTTGCTAAT GTTACTATATCTTTTTTATTTCATTTCACAAAAAATATAATTTT TACTTCATATTCTTATCTTTGAAATAATAA’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 327-419 in  FIG. 8   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 23;   (iii) Absent in  Aristolochia  species but ‘AAATAATAATATCATTGAA ATAAGAAAGAAGAGAAATATTCGAACTTTA’ in genuine Baiying species (bases 434-483 in  FIG. 8   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 24.       
 
       EXAMPLE 5  
     Madouling  
       [0080]    According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People&#39;s Republic of China (the 2005 edition), Madouling (or           in Chinese) is derived from  Aristolochia contorta  and  Aristolochia debilis,  which contain carcinogenic aristolochic acids and thus must be used more carefully. Its alternatives include Dabaihe, which is known as           in Chinese and is derived from  Cardiocrinum giganteum  and related Liliaceae plants. The trnL-trnF ( FIGS. 9   a  and  9   b ) and psbA-trnH ( FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b ) sequences can used to differentiate the genuine and alternative species of Madouling. 
         [0081]    By aligning the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF sequences with those of Dabaihe species ( FIGS. 9   a  and  9   b ), it is clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (i) ‘TTTCACAAA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TTTAGTCTC’ in Dabaihe species (bases 807-815 in  FIG. 9   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 25;   (ii) ‘TACGTACAAATGCCCATCCATATATGG’ in  Aristolochia  species but absent in Dabaihe species (bases 865-891 in  FIG. 9   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 26.       
 
         [0084]    Similarly, by aligning the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH sequences with those of Dabaihe species ( FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b ), it becomes clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (i) ‘CG’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘CATTCT’ in Dabaihe species (bases 82-87 in  FIG. 10   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 27;   (ii) ‘TACCCAA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TACCTTTGTATCTTG CTAAAGATATTGCTCCCTTTTTTTGGCCAA’ in Dabaihe species (bases 120-164 in  FIG. 10   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 28;   (iii) ‘AAGG’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘AAGCTAAAATCTTTT AGCTAGA’ in Dabaihe species (bases 412-433 in  FIG. 10   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 29.       
 
       EXAMPLE 6  
     Zhushalian  
       [0088]    According to GuanMuTongShenDuXingYanJiu           Chinese) Zhushalian (or           in Chinese) is derived from  Aristolochia kaempferi  and related species. Its alternatives include roots derived from  Dioscorea cirrhosa,  known as Shuliang (or           in Chinese), and related species in the family Dioscoreaceae. The trnL-trnF ( FIGS. 11   a  and  11   b ) and psbA-trnH ( FIGS. 12   a  and  12   b ) sequences can used to differentiate the genuine and alternative species of Zhushalian. 
         [0089]    By aligning the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF sequences with those of Shuliang species ( FIGS. 11   a  and  11   b ), it is clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (iii) ‘ATCCTGTT’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ATCTTTATTTGTT TTGTT’ in Shuliang species (bases 118-135 in  FIG. 11   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 30;   (iv) ‘TCAGAAGCAGA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TCAACCGA AGTTGA’ in Shuliang species (bases 471-484 in  FIG. 11   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 31;   (v) ‘ATCGACTATCACACCAGA’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ATCATTGATTCTAGA’ in Shuliang species (bases 512-529 in  FIG. 11   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 32;   (vi) ‘TGCATCGAGAATGGTCGG’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘TGCGAGAAAAGAAAATGGTTGGG’ in Shuliang species (bases 1074-1098 in  FIG. 11   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 33.       
 
         [0094]    Similarly, by aligning the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH sequences with those of Shuliang ( FIGS. 12   a  and  12   b ), it is clear that there are many differences; the more prominent ones are listed below:
       (iv) ‘ACCTGGC’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ACTTAGC’ in Shuliang species (bases 38-44 in  FIG. 12   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 34;   (v) ‘ATACCCAAT’ in  Aristolochia  species but ‘ATATCAATA’ in Shuliang species (bases 115-123 in  FIG. 12   a ), referred to as Genetic Marker 35.       
 
         [0097]    When the sequences of all the herbs in the above five examples are aligned together, it is noted that, in general, the  Aristolochia  trnL-trnF region has specific sequence segments which are characteristic of the plants of the  Aristolochia  genus when compared with the other plant species of Muxiang, Mutong, Fangji, Baiying and Dabaihe ( FIG. 13 ). Some examples of the characteristic segments are as follows:
       (i) ‘AGTGGGATG’ in  Aristolochia  species (bases 313-321 in  FIG. 11 ), referred to as Genetic Marker 36;   (ii) ‘AATTTCAGAAG’ in  Aristolochia  species (bases 472-482 in  FIG. 11 ), referred to as Genetic Marker 37;   (iii) ‘ACTATCACACC’ in  Aristolochia  species (bases 525-535  FIG. 11 ), referred to as Genetic Marker 38.       
 
         [0101]    Similarly, the  Aristolochia  psbA-trnH region also has some specific segments which are characteristic of plants of the  Aristolochia  genus compared with the other plant species Muxiang, Mutong, Fangji, Baiying and Dabaihe ( FIG. 14 ). An example is:
       (i) ‘CTCAATTCACTA’ in  Aristolochia  species (bases 172-183 in  FIG. 12 ), referred to as Genetic Marker 39.       
 
         [0103]    In the above, each genetic marker (i.e., of Genetic Markers 1-39) comprises a number of sequences, each for a particular species as defined and aligned together in the corresponding FIGS. The sequences of each genetic marker are of the same or different length, also detailed in the corresponding FIGS. 
         [0104]    The method of the present invention as exemplified in the foregoing examples can be utilized in many circumstances to determine whether  Aristolochia  herbs are present in botanicals or herbal products by making an extract of the total DNA from the samples of concern, followed by amplification of either or both of the trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH regions by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and then by DNA sequencing. By comparing and matching the resulting trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH sequences to those of the  Aristolochia  herbs, the matched samples would belong to  Aristolochia.  As demonstrated in the foregoing examples, there are a number of sequence segments within the trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH regions that are characteristic of the plants of the  Aristolochia  genus. For particular cases, it may not be necessary to amplify and sequence the entire trnL-trnF region and/or the entire psbA-trnH region, but amplifying and sequencing a portion of the trnL-trnF region and/or the psbA-trnH region may be sufficient for a particular purpose in a particular situation. 
         [0105]    For PCR and DNA sequencing of the trnL-trnF region, the forward primer is Tab C (5′-CGAAATCGGTAGACGCTACG-3′), and the reverse primer is Tab F (5′-ATTTGAACTGGTGACACGAG-3′). For PCR and DNA sequencing of psbA-trnH region, the forward primer is (5′-GGTATGCATGMCGTMTGCTC-3′), and the reverse primer is (5′-CGCGCATGGTGGATTCACAAATC-3′). 
         [0106]    While there have been described and pointed out fundamental novel features of the invention as applied to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood that various omissions and substitutions and changes, in the form and details of the processes and methods illustrated, may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of the invention. For example, it is expressly intended that all combinations of those elements of method steps which perform substantially the same function in substantially the same way to achieve the same results are within the scope of the invention. 
         [0107]    The invention is not limited by the embodiments described above which are presented as examples only but can be modified in various ways within the scope of protection defined by the appended patent claims. 
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         U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2001) Consumer advisory—FDA warns consumers to discontinue use of botanical products that contain aristolochic acid 
         U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2001) List of botanical ingredients of concern—FDA concerned about botanical products, including dietary supplements, containing aristolochic acid 
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         U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2001) Letter to industry associations regarding safety concerns related to the use of botanical products containing aristolochic acid 
         Department of Health of Hong Kong (2004) Press release of Department of Health (8 Jun. 2004): updated control measures for medicinal herbs announced 
         Department of Health of Hong Kong (2004) Press release of Department of Health (24 Apr. 2004): Import and sale of specific Chinese herbs prohibited 
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