Abstract:
The subject invention relates to antisense oligonucleotides of the human Chk1 gene and to uses thereof. The human ChK1 gene is a major G2/M checkpoint gene that is activated in response to DNA damage. In particular, the gene transduces the inhibitory signal from DNA damage sensors to the basic cell cycle machinery. Thus, antisense oligonucleotides to the human Chk1 gene may be used, for example, to inhibit the gene thereby preventing G2 arrest induced by DNA damaging agents. Such antisense oligonucleotides should also further sensitize tumor cells thereby making them more sensitive to therapy than normal cells.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Technical Field 
     The subject invention relates to the construction of antisense oligonucleotides of the human Chk1 gene and to uses thereof. The human Chk1 gene is a major G2/M checkpoint gene that is activated in response to DNA damage. In particular, the gene transduces the inhibitory signal from DNA damage sensors to the basic cell cycle machinery. Thus, antisense oligonucleotides to the human Chk1 gene may be used to inhibit gene expression thereby preventing G2 arrest induced by DNA damaging agents. Additionally, antisense oligonucleotides may act to sensitize tumor cells thereby making them more sensitive to therapy than normal cells. 
     2. Background Information 
     Many cancer therapeutic reagents cause cell death by inducing severe cellular DNA damage. Such DNA damage elicits two responses in normal, eukaryotic cells: 1) cell cycle arrest and 2) DNA repair to maintain genetic fidelity. In particular, checkpoint genes are activated in response to DNA damage. The gene products of these checkpoint genes form signal transduction pathways that transduce inhibitory signals from the DNA damage sensors to the basic cell cycle machinery and result in cell cycle arrest at both the G1 and G2 phases. Simultaneously, DNA damage also induces activation of transcription and production enzymes that facilitate DNA repair (Paulovich et al.,  Cell  88:315-321 (1997))). 
     p53 is the major G1 phase checkpoint gene. This protein is activated in the event of DNA damage (Shieh et al.,  Cell  91:325-34 (1997); Kastan et al.,  Cancer Research  51:6304-11 (1991)). (It transcriptionally activates cell cycle inhibitors such as p21, which, in turn, inhibit G1 cyclin-Cdks, thereby preventing cells from traversing the G1/S boundary (el-Deiry et al.,  Cancer Research  54:1169-74 (1994); Dulic et al.,  Cell  76:1013-1023 (1994)). 
     At the G2/M boundary, the onset of mitosis depends on the active cyclin B-Cdc2 kinase complex (King et al.,  Cell  79:563-71 (1994); Lew et al.,  Current Opinion in Cell Biology  8:795-804 (1996)). Weel kinase and Cdc25C phosphatase regulate Cdc2 activity. In particular, Weel phosphorylates Cdc2 at tyrosine 15 which inactivates Cdc2. Cdc25C removes this inhibitory phosphate and keeps Cdc2 active (Nurse et al.,  Cell  91: 865-7 (1997)). 
     During the G2 phase, DNA damages leads to Chk1 phosphorylation and activation in an ATM dependent manner (Walworth et al.,  Science  271:353-6 (1996)). Active Chk1 phosphorylates Cdc25C at serine 216, and 14-3-3 proteins export the phosphorylated Cdc25c out of the nucleus of the cell. Thus, Cdc2 is inhibited by the phosphorylation at tyrosine 15, and cells are halted at G2 for DNA repair (Furnari et al.,  Science  277:1495-7 (1997); Furnari et al.,  Molecular Biology of the Cell  10:833-45 (1999); Sanchez et al.,  Science  277:1497-501 (1997); Peng et al.,  Science  277:1501-5 (1997)). 
     It has been known for some time that the majority of tumors have defects in G1 checkpoint machinery, many of them due to p53 mutations (Kastan et al. (1991) Cancer Research 51:6304-11). In the event of DNA damage, these G1 checkpoint-defective tumor cells depend primarily on the G2 checkpoint for DNA repair. The inability to repair DNA at the G1 checkpoint is consistent with the observation that tumor cells are more sensitive to DNA damaging therapeutics than are normal cells. Given this observation, the toxicity to normal tissues is still a common side effect in cancer therapy. Significant effort has therefore been expended to specifically sensitize tumors to cancer drugs or radiotherapy. 
     One such approach is to abrogate G2 arrest in response to DNA damage (Powell et al.,  Cancer Research  55: 1643-8 (1995); Yao et al.,  Nature Medicine  2:1140-3 (1996)). Since G1 checkpoint-defective tumor cells can only repair DNA in G2 phase, inhibition of the Chk1 gene is expected to a brogate the G2 arrest in DNA damage response and increase the sensitivity to chemotherapy/radiotherapy more profoundly in tumor cells than in normal cells. 
     All U.S. patents and publications are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The subject invention encompasses an isolated antisense nucleotide sequence of a mammalian Chk1 gene which inhibits expression of Chk1 protein. This sequence may be represented by SEQ ID NO:1 (oligo 7), SEQ ID NO:2 (oligo 8), SEQ ID NO:3 (oligo 9), SEQ ID NO:4 (oligo 14), or a fragment thereof which specifically hybridizes to the complement of one of these sequences. The sequence may also have at least 40% identity to SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID:3 or SEQ:4, or it may be a fragment thereof which hybridizes to the complement of the sequence having 40% identity to the sequence having at least 40% identity to SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3 or SEQ ID NO:4. 
     Additionally, the present method includes a method of preventing expression of Chk1 protein by a cell comprising the step of introducing into the cell a vector comprising at least one of the above nucleotide sequences or fragments thereof. 
     Furthermore, the present invention also encompasses a method of preventing expression of Chk1 protein by a cell comprising the step of introducing into the cell a vector comprising an isolated nucleotide sequence having at least 40% identity to a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, and a fragment thereof which specifically hybridizes to the complement of the isolated nucleotide sequence. 
     The present invention also includes a method of screening a compound for ability to inhibit expression of Chk1 protein by a cell comprising the steps of exposing the cell to the compound of interest and measuring expression of Chk1 protein by the cell, lack of expression of Chk1 protein indicating a compound having the ability to inhibit expression of Chk1 protein. 
     Additionally, the invention also encompasses a pharmaceutical composition comprising an isolated antisense nucleotide sequence of a mammalian Chk1 gene or homologue thereof which inhibits expression of a Chk1 protein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 
     The present invention also includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising: 1) an isolated nucleotide sequence having at least 40% identity to a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3 and SEQ ID NO:4 or 2) a fragment thereof which specifically hybridizes to the complement of the isolated nucleotide sequence, and 3) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. More than one of the sequences and/or fragments thereof may be included in the composition. 
     Additionally, the present invention encompasses a method of sensitizing malignant cells to chemotherapy, in a patient in need of such treatment, comprising the step of administering to the patient an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition or compositions described above. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 illustrates the half-life of the Chk1 protein. 
     FIG. 2 illustrates Western blots showing expression of Chk1 in NCI-H1299 cells transfected with a vector containing full length sense or antisense Chk1 cDNA. Expression of Chk1 protein was two-fold over the endogenous level when transfected with Chk1 sense cDNA. Expression of the full length Chk1 antisense cDNA blocked about 50-70% of endogenous Chk1 expression. 
     FIG. 3 illustrates the percent of cells that died when Chk1 expression was blocked as a result of transfection with a vector expressing Chk1 antisense cDNA. The expression of Chk1 sense cDNA moderately protected the transfected cells from cell death. 
     FIG. 4 represents the nucleotide sequences of the designed antisense Chk1 oligonucleotides (SEQ ID NO: 1-14). 
     FIG. 5 illustrates the level of Chk1 expression in cells transfected with antisense oligonucleotides 1 (SEQ ID NO:5), 2 (SEQ ID NO:6), 3 (SEQ ID NO:7), 4 (SEQ ID NO:8), 5 (SEQ ID NO:9), 6 (SEQ ID NO:10), 7 (SEQ ID NO:1), 8 (SEQ ID NO:2), 9 (SEQ ID NO:3), 10 (SEQ ID NO:11), 11 (SEQ ID NO:12), 12 (SEQ ID NO:13), 13 (SEQ ID NO:14) and 14 (SEQ ID NO:4). Chk1 expression was blocked significantly in cells transfected with oligonucleotides 7, 8, 9 and 14. 
     FIG. 6 illustrates the percentage of cells that escaped from the G2 arrest induced by DNA damaging reagents. More of the full length Chk1 antisense cDNA transfected cells escaped the G2 arrest than that of vector transfected cells. 
     FIG. 7 illustrates the percentage of cell death induced by adriamycin and Chk1 full length antisense cDNA transfection. The cell death caused by adriamycin is additive to that induced by Chk1 full length antisense cDNA transfection. 
     FIG. 8 represents the complete DNA sequence (sense strand SEQ ID NO:15 and antisense strand SEQ ID NO:17) and peptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 16) of the Chk1 gene. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The subject invention relates to the design of novel antisense oligonucleotides of Chk1 that may be used for several purposes including, for example, therapeutic purposes. In particular, such oligonucleotides may be used to inhibit expression of the Chk1 protein, thereby enhancing specific defects in tumor cells and making those cells more sensitive to radiation or chemotherapy, as compared to normal cells. 
     The Antisense Oligonucleotides of Chk1 
     The nucleotide sequences of the designed antisense oligonucleotides of the Chk1 gene are shown in FIG.  4 . The present invention encompasses these sequences, fragments thereof, complements of the sequences and fragments, as well as sequences corresponding to (i.e., having identity to) or complementary to at least about 40%, preferably at least about 50%, and more preferably at least about 70% of the nucleotides in FIG.  4 . Furthermore, the present invention also includes fragments and complements of these sequences as well. 
     For purposes of the present invention, a “fragment” is of a nucleotide sequence is defined as a contiguous sequence of approximately at least 6, preferably at least about 8, more preferably at least about 10-12 nucleotides, and even more preferably at least about 15-18 nucleotides corresponding to a region of the specified nucleotide sequence. 
     Furthermore, for purposes of the present invention, a “complement” is defined as a sequence which pairs to a given sequence based upon base-pairing rules. For example, a sequence A-G-T in one nucleotide strand is “complementary” to T-C-A in the other strand. 
     Sequence identity or percent identity is the number of exact matches between two aligned sequences divided by the length of the shorter sequence and multiplied by 100. An approximate alignment for nucleic acid sequences is provided by the local homology algorithm of Smith and Waterman,  Advances in Applied Mathematics  2:482-489 (1981). This algorithm may be extended to use with peptide or protein sequences using the scoring matrix created by Dayhoff,  Atlas of Protein Sequences and Structure , M. O. Dayhoff ed., 5 Suppl. 3:353-358, National Biomedical Research Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA, and normalized by Gribskov,  Nucl. Acids Res.  14(6):6745-66763 (1986). An implementation of this algorithm for nucleic acid and peptide sequences is provided by the Genetics Computer Group (Madison, Wis.) in the BestFit utility application. The default parameters for this method are described in the Wisconsin Sequence Analysis Package Program Manual, Version 8 (1995) (available from Genetics Computer Group, Madison, Wis.). Other equally suitable programs for calculating the percent identity or similarity between sequences are generally known in the art. 
     Sequences related to the anti-sense oligonucleotides may be derived from non-human sources (e.g., bacterial, viral, mammalian, etc.) and are also covered by the present invention. Functional equivalents of the above-sequences (i.e., sequences having the ability to inhibit partial or complete expression of the Chk1 gene) and, in particular, sequences that have the ability to hybridize to the equivalent regions of Chk1 genes present in non-mammalian species, are also encompassed by the present invention. More specifically, such equivalents have the ability to hybridize to the Chk1 protein coding region of the Chk1 nucleotide sequence. 
     A nucleic acid molecule is “hybridizable” to another nucleic acid molecule when a single-stranded form of the nucleic acid molecule can anneal to the other nucleic acid molecule under the appropriate conditions of temperature and ionic strength (see Sambrook et al., “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition (1989), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.). The conditions of temperature and ionic strength determine the “stringency” of the hybridization. “Hybridization” requires that two nucleic acid sequences contain complementary sequences. However, depending on the stringency of the hybridization, mismatches between bases may occur. The appropriate stringency for hybridizing nucleic acids depends on the length of the nucleic acids and the degree of complementation. Such variables are well known in the art. More specifically, the greater the degree of similarity or homology between two nucleotide sequences, the greater the value of Tm for hybrids of nucleic acids having those sequences. For hybrids of greater than 100 nucleotides in length, equations for calculating Tm have been derived (see Sambrook et al., supra). For hybridization with shorter nucleic acids, the position of mismatches becomes more important, and the length of the oligonucleotide determines its specificity (see Sambrook et al., supra). 
     Additionally, the present invention encompasses the purified polypeptides encoded by the translated amino acid sequences corresponding to the nucleotide sequences illustrated in FIG.  4 . The invention also includes those peptides, polypeptides or proteins, or fragments thereof, having an amino acid sequence that has at least about 60% amino acid similarity, preferably at least about 70% amino acid similarity, and more preferably at least about 80% amino acid similarity to the amino acid sequences resulting from the translation of those nucleotide sequences present in FIG.  4 . The present invention also includes purified peptides, polypeptides or proteins represented by these amino acid sequences which are, in turn, encoded by the above-described translated nucleotide sequences. For purposes of the present invention, “similarity” is defined as the exact amino acid to amino acid comparison of two or more polypeptides at the appropriate place, where amino acids are identical or possess similar chemical and/or physical properties such as charge or hydrophobicity. “Percent similarity” is calculated between the compared polypeptide sequences using programs known in the art (see above). 
     Transfection of the Sequence(s) into a Host Cell 
     One or more of the antisense oligonucleotides of Chk1, or fragments thereof, may be introduced into either a prokaryotic or eukaryotic host cell through the use of one or more transfection reagents in order to block Chk1 protein expression in the host cell. 
     The transfection reagent or vector, for example, a bacteriophage, cosmid or plasmid, may comprise full length Chk1 sense or antisense cDNA as well as any promoter which is functional in the host cell and is able to elicit expression of the peptide or protein encoded by the nucleotide sequence. The promoter is in operable association with or operably linked to the nucleotide sequence. (A promoter is said to be “operably linked” with a coding sequence if the promoter affects transcription or expression of the coding sequence.) Suitable promoters include, for example, CMV-based promoters (including but not limited to tetracyclin-regulated CMV promoters), the ecdysone-responsive promoter and the 5′ LTR, for expression in mammalian cells, GL4 (galactose inducible) and ADH1, for expression in yeast, and T7, T3, Sp6 and Lac, for expression in bacteria. 
     Additionally, other nucleotide sequences may also be included within the vector as well as other regulatory sequences, for example, a replication origin which maintains the vector in the cells after dividing and/or an antibiotic resistance gene (e.g., an ampicillin resistance gene) which confers antibiotic resistance. The choice of sequences present in the construct or vector is dependent upon the desired expression product or products as well as the nature of the host cell. 
     Once the vector has been constructed, it may then be introduced into the host cell of choice (e.g., eukaryotic or prokaryotic) by methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art including, for example, transfection, transformation and electroporation (see  Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual , 2 nd  ed., Vol. 1-3, ed. Sambrook et al., Cold Spring Harbor Press (1989)). Suitable examples of eukaryotic host cells include, for example, mammalian cells (e.g., human, rat and murine cells) and yeast cells. Human cells include, for example, primary cells (e.g., fibroblasts), immortalized cell lines (e.g., 184B5), and tumor cell lines (e.g., NCI-H1299, Hela cells, HCT116, MCF7, PC-3, A431 and SW684). Rat cells include, for example, primary cells, immortalized cell lines, and tumor cell lines (e.g., Matlylu). Mouse cells include, for example, primary cells, immortalized cells lines (e.g., NIH3T3). Suitable yeast cells include, for example, Saccharomyces spp. (e.g.,  S. cerevisiae ) and Candida spp. (e.g.,  C. albicans ). 
     Expression in a host cell can be accomplished in a transient or stable fashion. Transient expression can occur from introduced constructs which contain expression signals functional in the host cell, but which constructs do not replicate and rarely integrate in the host cell, or where the host cell is not proliferating. Transient expression also can be accomplished by inducing the activity of a regulatable promoter operably linked to the gene of interest, although such inducible systems frequently exhibit a low basal level of expression. Stable expression can be achieved by introduction of a construct that can integrate into the host genome or that autonomously replicates in the host cell. Stable expression of the gene product of interest can be selected for through the use of a selectable marker located on, or transfected with, the expression construct, followed by selection for cells expressing the marker. When stable expression results from integration, the site of the construct&#39;s integration may occur randomly within the host genome or can be targeted through the use of constructs containing regions of homology with the host genome sufficient to target recombination with the host locus. Where constructs are targeted to an endogenous locus, all or some of the transcriptional and translational regulatory regions can be provided by the endogenous locus. 
     Uses of the Antisense Oligonucleotides of Chk1 
     The uses of the antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention are many. For example, the oligonucleotides, as noted above, may be introduced into a host cell in order to block translation of the nucleotide sequence encoding the Chk1 protein, thereby enhancing defects in tumor or malignant cells and causing specific killing of tumor cells. 
     In particular, the antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention, or fragments thereof, may also be used as pharmaceuticals which inhibit translation of the Chk1 protein. Thus, the pharmaceutical comprising one or more of the antisense oligonucleotides, will inhibit production of the protein thereby preventing G2 arrest of cells during chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Most chemotherapy reagents or radiotherapy induce DNA damage. Normally, cells will be arrested at both the G1 and G2 phase in order to repair DNA (Nurse et al., (1997) Cell 91:865-7). The majority of tumors have some defects in G1 checkpoints. Indeed, about 50% of tumor cells are defective in p53 function. Others have defects in other G1 checkpoint genes. Thus, G2 arrest is the only chance for the tumor cells to repair DNA. Inhibition of Chk1 protein expression will induce a defect in the G2 checkpoint. Thus, this mechanism impacts the tumor or malignant cells more profoundly than normal cells, thereby making them more sensitive to therapy (e.g., chemotherapy and radiation) as compared to normal cells. Consequently, specific killing of tumor cells will result, thereby maintaining the viability of healthy, normal cells in the patient and resulting in a better outcome. Thus, one may also increase the therapeutic window in this manner. 
     The pharmaceutical composition may comprise one or more of the antisense oligonucleotides or fragments thereof as well as a standard, well-known, non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable, carrier, adjuvant or vehicle such as, for example, phosphate buffered saline (PBS), water, ethanol, a polyol, a vegetable oil, a wetting agent, or an emulsion such as a water/oil emulsion. The composition may be either in a liquid or solid form. For example, the composition may be in the form of a tablet, capsule or injectible. The dosage of the composition as well as the form may be readily determined by one of ordinary skill in the art. 
     In addition, the isolated nucleotide sequences of the present invention, as well as the related sequences described above with respect to sequence identity, may be used in order to create primers and probes. The probes may be used to detect nucleic acids in test samples, and the primers may be used for amplification purposes. 
     The design of such probes, for optimization in assays, is well within the knowledge of one of ordinary skill in the art. Generally, nucleic acid probes are developed from non-conserved regions when maximum specificity is desired, and nucleic acid probes are developed from conserved regions when assaying for nucleotide regions that are closely related to, for example, different members of a multi-gene family or in related species. 
     The probes (nucleotide sequences) of the present invention may be used, for example, to discover other antisense oligonucleotides related to those of the present invention. Thus, the probes would hybridize to portions of the Chk1 nucleotide sequence which may then be utilized, for example, for therapeutic purposes. 
     Primers may also be developed, using the antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention, for utilization in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,195 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202). PCR is a technique for amplifying a desired nucleic acid sequence contained in a nucleic acid or mixture thereof. The primers are each extended by a polymerase using the target nucleic acid as a template. The extension products become target sequences, following dissociation from the original target strand. New primers are then hybridized and extended by a polymerase, and the cycle is repeated in order to increase the number of target sequence molecules. 
     The present invention also encompasses a method comprising blocking Chk1 expression by mammalian cells by transfecting vectors with polynucleotides that contain nucleic acid sequences with at least 40%, preferably at least 60% and more preferably at least 90% identity to the Chk1 antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention. 
     The present invention may be illustrated by the use of the following non-limiting examples: 
     Example I 
     Blocking of Chk1 Expression in Mammalian Cells Using Vectors Expressing Full Length Chk1 Antisense cDNA 
     The coding regions of the full length Chk1 sense cDNA (see FIG. 8) and antisense cDNA were cloned in the pCMV5 or pCMV4 vector (Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Tex.). Construction of pCMV1 and pCMV4 have been described in Anderson et al.,  J. Biol. Chem.  264:82222-9 (1988). To create pCMV5, a segment of DNA between HpaI and EcoRI restriction sites closest to the SV40 origin were deleted from pCMV1. The pCMV5 vector contains a CMV promoter which expresses the downstream gene in mammalian cells. Clones were confirmed by sequencing. 
     Since the expression level of a protein with a short half life is more likely to be reduced in a transient transfection experiment, the half life of Chk1 proteins was measured and determined to be 3-5 hours (FIG.  1 ). Transient transfection experiments were carried out to examine the effect of Chk1 antisense cDNA. In particular, NCI-H1299 cells (ATCC, Catalogue Number CRL-5803) were grown at 37° C. in a 5% CO 2  atmosphere in Roswell Park Memorial Institute 1640 (RPMI 1640 media) (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, Md.) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 1 mM N-[2-Hydroxyethyl]piperazine-N′-[2-ethanesulfonic acid](HEPES), 1 mM glutamine, and 4 g/L glucose. The cells were then plated on 10 cm tissue culture plates the day before transfection and were 80% confluent at the time of transfection. Transfection was carried out according to the vendor&#39;s instructions (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, Md.). In particular, 1.5 μg/ml of the appropriate DNA was mixed with lipofectamine plus reagent in 750 μl serum free RPMI 1640 media (solution I) (Life Technologies, Gathersburg, Md., Catalogue Number 10964-013) and incubated for 15 minutes at room temperature. Solution I was then added to a mixture containing lipofectamine reagent in 750 μl serum free RPMI 1640 media (solution II), mixed, incubated for an additional 15 minutes at room temperature to allow for DNA complexes to form. After the final 15 minute incubation, the NCI-H1299 cells that were to be transfected were washed once with Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS), and 3.5 ml serum free media was added to each 10 cm dish. The mixture of solution I and solution II (transfection mixture) was then added dropwise to 3.5 ml of serum free RPMI 1640 that had already been added to the 10 cm tissue culture dish. The cells were incubated at 37° C. for 4 hours. After 4 hours of incubation, the transfection mixture was aspirated from the cells. The cells were then washed once with serum free media, and RPMI 1640 media (containing 10% fetal bovine serum, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 1 mM HEPES, 1 mM glutamine, and 4 g/L glucose) was added to the tissue culture containing the transfected NCIOH1299 cells. At 24 hours post-transfection, the cells were harvested and subjected to Western blot analysis to assess antisense activity based upon the decrease in protein levels of Chk1. 
     Western blot analysis revealed that the expression of Chk1 sense cDNA resulted in about two-fold Chk1 expression compared with the endogenous level. In contrast, full length Chk1 antisense cDNA blocked about 50-70% of endogenous Chk1 expression (see FIG.  2 ). 
     Normally,  S. pombe  cells with Δ-chk1 alleles are viable except that they are defective in gamma irradiation-induced delay of mitosis in a weeI-50Δ-mikI background. An examination was made of the apoptosis rate of cells transfected with Chk1 antisense oligonucleotides or control oligonucleotides. Specifically, 24 hours after transfection, the cells were harvested by trypsinization, washed with PBS and stained with 2 μg/ml 4′, 6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) stain (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo., Cat. Number D-8417). The apoptotic cells were scored on the basis of chromosomal condensation and fragmentation. At least 600 cells were examined for each data point. 
     Cell death in NCI-H1299 cells was observed as a consequence of reduced Chk1 protein levels. In contrast, cells exhibiting a two-fold increase in Chk1 protein expression, due to Chk1 cDNA expression, were protected moderately from cell death (see FIG.  3 ). The same results were also observed in Hela cells (data not shown). 
     EXAMPLE II 
     Blocking of Chk1 Expression in Mammalian Cells By Use of Antisense Oligonucleotides 
     Antisense oligonucleotides of Chk1 were designed so that they consisted of 19 nucleotides with a core of 9 phosphothiol-substituted nucleotides flanked by five 2-O-methyl-substituted nucleotides at each end. The sequences of the oligonucleotides are shown in FIG.  4 . In particular, antisense oligonucleotides 7, 8, 9, and 10 were designed to hybridize to the region of the Chk1 nucleotide sequence around the ATG start codon. Antisense oligonucleotides 11, 12, 13 and 14 were designed to hybridize to different sites of the coding region that contain a GGGA sequence. 
     The day before transfection, NCI-H1299 cells were seeded onto a 10 cm tissue culture plate at a density of 1.3×10 6 /dish. On the day of antisense oligonucleotide transfection, the density of NCI-H1299 cells reached 2.6×10 6  or 80% confluence per 10 cm dish. 1 μM of the appropriate Chk1 antisense oligonucleotide was co-incubated with 4 μg/ml of the cytofectin GSV transfection reagent (Glen Research, Sterlilng, Va., Catalogue Number G810502) at room temperature for 15 minutes. The DNA complex solution was then added dropwise to the cells as previously described (Wagner et al.,  Nature  372: 333-5 (1994)). At 24 hours post-transfection, NCI-H1299 cells were harvested and subjected to Western blot analysis to assess antisense activity based on the decrease in protein levels of Chk1. 
     Antisense oligonucleotides 7, 8, 9 and 14 reduced about 50% of Chk1 protein expression. Furthermore, since Chk1 full-length antisense cDNA blocked Chk1 expression and the decreased level of Chk1 protein resulted in cell death, Chk1 antisense oligonucleotides 7, 8, 9 and 14 may also induce cell death. 
     EXAMPLE III 
     Response of Transfected Cells to Adriamycin 
     It has been shown that Chk1 is phosphorylated and activated upon DNA damage (Walworth et al.,  Science  271:353-56 (1996)). Given that Chk1 can phosphorylate and inactivate Cdc25C which is required for Cdc2 activation, Chk1 has been thought to be involved in the DNA damage response in mammalian cells. ( S. pombe  Chk1 is required for G2 arrest induced by DNA damaging reagents.) 
     In the present experiment, the effect of adriamycin on transfected cells was examined. A milder transfection reagent Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, Md.), Cat. Number 11668-019) was used in the following experiments in an effort to decrease the extent of cells death of the transfected cells in order to adequately observe the effect of adriamycin. As a result of using the Lipofectamine 2000 transfection reagent, transfection efficiency decreased by about 10%; however, the transfected cells responded much better to adriamcyin and etoposide treatment 24 hours after transfection compared to lipofectamine plus transfected cells (data not shown). In particular, NCI-H1299 cells were treated with 300 ng/ml of adriamycin 24 hours after transfection. Eight hours after exposure to adriamycin, 40 ng/ml of nocodazole was added to the transfected cells in order to trap any cells that escaped G2 arrest induced by adriamcyin. Sixteen hours after the nocodazole treatment, cells were harvested by trypsinization. The cells were then washed with PBS, swelled with hypotonic buffer containing 75 μM KCl, and stained using the Diff-qwik stain set according to the vendor&#39;s instructions (Dade Behring, Inc., Newark, Del., Cat. Number B4132-2). Mitotic cells were scored based upon the chromosomal condensation and the disappearance of the nuclear membrane. At least 600 cells were counted for each data point. 
     The mitotic index of cells that were transfected with Chk1 antisense CDNA was much higher than that of cells transfected with either vector control or Chk1 sense cDNA (FIG.  6 ). This indicated that more antisense transfectants progressed through the G2/M boundary without being arrested than as compared to the vector transfected cells. Thus, a decreased Chk1 protein level resulted in a defect in G2 arrest during the damage response. 
     It is expected that the antisense oligonucleotide transfected cells would show a similar phenotype to the cells transfected with full-length antisense Chk1 cDNA discussed above. 
     EXAMPLE IV 
     Apoptosis Rate of Chk1 Sense and Antisense cDNA Transfected Cells Upon Treatment With Adriamycin 
     The apoptosis rate of full-length sense or antisense Chk1 cDNA transfected cells treated with adriamycin was examined. In particular, 24 hours after transfection, the transfected NCI-H1299 cells were treated with 600 ng/ml of adriamycin for 48 hours. The cells were then harvested by trypsinization, washed once with PBS and stained with 2 μg/ml DAPI. The apoptotic cells were then scored on the basis of chromosomal condensation and fragmentation. In particular, at least 600 cells were examined for each data point. 
     Adriamycin killed tumor cells in addition to the killing effect of Chk1 antisense cDNA. The synergy between adriamycin and Chk1 antisense cDNA is weak if any (see FIG.  7 ). (The same results are expected in connection with the Chk1 antisense oligonucleotides.) 
     This experiment may also be done utilizing a pair of cell lines that differ only in their Gl checkpoint status. Such cell lines would mimic normal cells and tumor cells since most tumor cells are defective in the G1 checkpoint. Such an experiment would uncover whether an inhibitor of Chk1 may confer specific sensitization of tumors being treated with cancer therapy. 
     
       
         
           
             17 
           
           
             1 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as7 
             
           
            1
cgagcaccuc ggcggacug                                                  19 
           
             2 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as8 
             
           
            2
gccaugacuc caccgagca                                                  19 
           
             3 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as9 
             
           
            3
ggcacugcca ugacuccac                                                  19 
           
             4 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as14 
             
           
            4
gguugguccc auggcaauu                                                  19 
           
             5 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as1 
             
           
            5
uuacucuauu cacagcaag                                                  19 
           
             6 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as2 
             
           
            6
aguugaugga agaaucucu                                                  19 
           
             7 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as3 
             
           
            7
gagguuaucc cuuucaucc                                                  19 
           
             8 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as4 
             
           
            8
caagccaaag ucugagauu                                                  19 
           
             9 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as5 
             
           
            9
uucucuucuc uucagaagu                                                  19 
           
             10 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as6 
             
           
            10
augaaauucu cuucucuuc                                                  19 
           
             11 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as10 
             
           
            11
cacaaagggc acugccaug                                                  19 
           
             12 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as11 
             
           
            12
caccaagucc cagucuucc                                                  19 
           
             13 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as12 
             
           
            13
gcaccuucuc ccaggguuu                                                  19 
           
             14 
             19 
             DNA 
             Artificial Sequence 
             
               CHK1-as13 
             
           
            14
uuuaauaucc cugugaguu                                                  19 
           
             15 
             1821 
             DNA 
             Homo sapiens 
             
               CDS 
               (35)...(1463) 
             
           
            15
ggccggacag tccgccgagg tgctcggtgg agtc atg gca gtg ccc ttt gtg gaa     55
                                      Met Ala Val Pro Phe Val Glu
                                       1               5
gac tgg gac ttg gtg caa acc ctg gga gaa ggt gcc tat gga gaa gtt      103
Asp Trp Asp Leu Val Gln Thr Leu Gly Glu Gly Ala Tyr Gly Glu Val
         10                  15                  20
caa ctt gct gtg aat aga gta act gaa gaa gca gtc gca gtg aag att      151
Gln Leu Ala Val Asn Arg Val Thr Glu Glu Ala Val Ala Val Lys Ile
     25                  30                  35
gta gat atg aag cgt gcc gta gac tgt cca gaa aat att aag aaa gag      199
Val Asp Met Lys Arg Ala Val Asp Cys Pro Glu Asn Ile Lys Lys Glu
 40                  45                  50                  55
atc tgt atc aat aaa atg cta aat cat gaa aat gta gta aaa ttc tat      247
Ile Cys Ile Asn Lys Met Leu Asn His Glu Asn Val Val Lys Phe Tyr
                 60                  65                  70
ggt cac agg aga gaa ggc aat atc caa tat tta ttt ctg gag tac tgt      295
Gly His Arg Arg Glu Gly Asn Ile Gln Tyr Leu Phe Leu Glu Tyr Cys
             75                  80                  85
agt gga gga gag ctt ttt gac aga ata gag cca gac ata ggc atg cct      343
Ser Gly Gly Glu Leu Phe Asp Arg Ile Glu Pro Asp Ile Gly Met Pro
         90                  95                 100
gaa cca gat gct cag aga ttc ttc cat caa ctc atg gca ggg gtg gtt      391
Glu Pro Asp Ala Gln Arg Phe Phe His Gln Leu Met Ala Gly Val Val
    105                 110                 115
tat ctg cat ggt att gga ata act cac agg gat att aaa cca gaa aat      439
Tyr Leu His Gly Ile Gly Ile Thr His Arg Asp Ile Lys Pro Glu Asn
120                 125                 130                 135
ctt ctg ttg gat gaa agg gat aac ctc aaa atc tca gac ttt ggc ttg      487
Leu Leu Leu Asp Glu Arg Asp Asn Leu Lys Ile Ser Asp Phe Gly Leu
                140                 145                 150
gca aca gta ttt cgg tat aat aat cgt gag cgt ttg ttg aac aag atg      535
Ala Thr Val Phe Arg Tyr Asn Asn Arg Glu Arg Leu Leu Asn Lys Met
            155                 160                 165
tgt ggt act tta cca tat gtt gct cca gaa ctt ctg aag aga aga gaa      583
Cys Gly Thr Leu Pro Tyr Val Ala Pro Glu Leu Leu Lys Arg Arg Glu
        170                 175                 180
ttt cat gca gaa cca gtt gat gtt tgg tcc tgt gga ata gta ctt act      631
Phe His Ala Glu Pro Val Asp Val Trp Ser Cys Gly Ile Val Leu Thr
    185                 190                 195
gca atg ctc gct gga gaa ttg cca tgg gac caa ccc agt gac agc tgt      679
Ala Met Leu Ala Gly Glu Leu Pro Trp Asp Gln Pro Ser Asp Ser Cys
200                 205                 210                 215
cag gag tat tct gac tgg aaa gaa aaa aaa aca tac ctc aac cct tgg      727
Gln Glu Tyr Ser Asp Trp Lys Glu Lys Lys Thr Tyr Leu Asn Pro Trp
                220                 225                 230
aaa aaa atc gat tct gct cct cta gct ctg ctg cat aaa atc tta gtt      775
Lys Lys Ile Asp Ser Ala Pro Leu Ala Leu Leu His Lys Ile Leu Val
            235                 240                 245
gag aat cca tca gca aga att acc att cca gac atc aaa aaa gat aga      823
Glu Asn Pro Ser Ala Arg Ile Thr Ile Pro Asp Ile Lys Lys Asp Arg
        250                 255                 260
tgg tac aac aaa ccc ctc aag aaa ggg gca aaa agg ccc cga gtc act      871
Trp Tyr Asn Lys Pro Leu Lys Lys Gly Ala Lys Arg Pro Arg Val Thr
    265                 270                 275
tca ggt ggt gtg tca gag tct ccc agt gga ttt tct aag cac att caa      919
Ser Gly Gly Val Ser Glu Ser Pro Ser Gly Phe Ser Lys His Ile Gln
280                 285                 290                 295
tcc aat ttg gac ttc tct cca gta aac agt gct tct agt gaa gaa aat      967
Ser Asn Leu Asp Phe Ser Pro Val Asn Ser Ala Ser Ser Glu Glu Asn
                300                 305                 310
gtg aag tac tcc agt tct cag cca gaa ccc cgc aca ggt ctt tcc tta     1015
Val Lys Tyr Ser Ser Ser Gln Pro Glu Pro Arg Thr Gly Leu Ser Leu
            315                 320                 325
tgg gat acc agc ccc tca tac att gat aaa ttg gta caa ggg atc agc     1063
Trp Asp Thr Ser Pro Ser Tyr Ile Asp Lys Leu Val Gln Gly Ile Ser
        330                 335                 340
ttt tcc cag ccc aca tgt cct gat cat atg ctt ttg aat agt cag tta     1111
Phe Ser Gln Pro Thr Cys Pro Asp His Met Leu Leu Asn Ser Gln Leu
    345                 350                 355
ctt ggc acc cca gga tcc tca cag aac ccc tgg cag cgg ttg gtc aaa     1159
Leu Gly Thr Pro Gly Ser Ser Gln Asn Pro Trp Gln Arg Leu Val Lys
360                 365                 370                 375
aga atg aca cga ttc ttt acc aaa ttg gat gca gac aaa tct tat caa     1207
Arg Met Thr Arg Phe Phe Thr Lys Leu Asp Ala Asp Lys Ser Tyr Gln
                380                 385                 390
tgc ctg aaa gag act tgt gag aag ttg ggc tat caa tgg aag aaa agt     1255
Cys Leu Lys Glu Thr Cys Glu Lys Leu Gly Tyr Gln Trp Lys Lys Ser
            395                 400                 405
tgt atg aat cag gtt act ata tca aca act gat agg aga aac aat aaa     1303
Cys Met Asn Gln Val Thr Ile Ser Thr Thr Asp Arg Arg Asn Asn Lys
        410                 415                 420
ctc att ttc aaa gtg aat ttg tta gaa atg gat gat aaa ata ttg gtt     1351
Leu Ile Phe Lys Val Asn Leu Leu Glu Met Asp Asp Lys Ile Leu Val
    425                 430                 435
gac ttc cgg ctt tct aag ggt gat gga ttg gag ttc aag aga cac ttc     1399
Asp Phe Arg Leu Ser Lys Gly Asp Gly Leu Glu Phe Lys Arg His Phe
440                 445                 450                 455
ctg aag att aaa ggg aag ctg att gat att gtg agc agc cag aag gtt     1447
Leu Lys Ile Lys Gly Lys Leu Ile Asp Ile Val Ser Ser Gln Lys Val
                460                 465                 470
tgg ctt cct gcc aca t gatcggacca tcggctctgg ggaatcctgg tgaatatagt   1503
Trp Leu Pro Ala Thr
            475
gctgctatgt tgacattatt cttcctagag aagattatcc tgtcctgcaa actgcaaata   1563
gtagttcctg aagtgttcac ttccctgttt atccaaacat cttccaattt attttgtttg   1623
ttcggcatac aaataatacc tatatcttaa ttgtaagcaa aactttgggg aaaggatgaa   1683
tagaattcat ttgattattt cttcatgtgt gtttagtatc tgaatttgaa actcatctgg   1743
tggaaaccaa gtttcagggg acatgagttt tccagctttt atacacacgt atctcatttt   1803
tatcaaaaca ttttgttt                                                 1821 
           
             16 
             476 
             PRT 
             Homo sapiens 
           
            16
Met Ala Val Pro Phe Val Glu Asp Trp Asp Leu Val Gln Thr Leu Gly
 1               5                  10                  15
Glu Gly Ala Tyr Gly Glu Val Gln Leu Ala Val Asn Arg Val Thr Glu
            20                  25                  30
Glu Ala Val Ala Val Lys Ile Val Asp Met Lys Arg Ala Val Asp Cys
        35                  40                  45
Pro Glu Asn Ile Lys Lys Glu Ile Cys Ile Asn Lys Met Leu Asn His
    50                  55                  60
Glu Asn Val Val Lys Phe Tyr Gly His Arg Arg Glu Gly Asn Ile Gln
65                  70                  75                  80
Tyr Leu Phe Leu Glu Tyr Cys Ser Gly Gly Glu Leu Phe Asp Arg Ile
                85                  90                  95
Glu Pro Asp Ile Gly Met Pro Glu Pro Asp Ala Gln Arg Phe Phe His
            100                 105                 110
Gln Leu Met Ala Gly Val Val Tyr Leu His Gly Ile Gly Ile Thr His
        115                 120                 125
Arg Asp Ile Lys Pro Glu Asn Leu Leu Leu Asp Glu Arg Asp Asn Leu
    130                 135                 140
Lys Ile Ser Asp Phe Gly Leu Ala Thr Val Phe Arg Tyr Asn Asn Arg
145                 150                 155                 160
Glu Arg Leu Leu Asn Lys Met Cys Gly Thr Leu Pro Tyr Val Ala Pro
                165                 170                 175
Glu Leu Leu Lys Arg Arg Glu Phe His Ala Glu Pro Val Asp Val Trp
            180                 185                 190
Ser Cys Gly Ile Val Leu Thr Ala Met Leu Ala Gly Glu Leu Pro Trp
        195                 200                 205
Asp Gln Pro Ser Asp Ser Cys Gln Glu Tyr Ser Asp Trp Lys Glu Lys
    210                 215                 220
Lys Thr Tyr Leu Asn Pro Trp Lys Lys Ile Asp Ser Ala Pro Leu Ala
225                 230                 235                 240
Leu Leu His Lys Ile Leu Val Glu Asn Pro Ser Ala Arg Ile Thr Ile
                245                 250                 255
Pro Asp Ile Lys Lys Asp Arg Trp Tyr Asn Lys Pro Leu Lys Lys Gly
            260                 265                 270
Ala Lys Arg Pro Arg Val Thr Ser Gly Gly Val Ser Glu Ser Pro Ser
        275                 280                 285
Gly Phe Ser Lys His Ile Gln Ser Asn Leu Asp Phe Ser Pro Val Asn
    290                 295                 300
Ser Ala Ser Ser Glu Glu Asn Val Lys Tyr Ser Ser Ser Gln Pro Glu
305                 310                 315                 320
Pro Arg Thr Gly Leu Ser Leu Trp Asp Thr Ser Pro Ser Tyr Ile Asp
                325                 330                 335
Lys Leu Val Gln Gly Ile Ser Phe Ser Gln Pro Thr Cys Pro Asp His
            340                 345                 350
Met Leu Leu Asn Ser Gln Leu Leu Gly Thr Pro Gly Ser Ser Gln Asn
        355                 360                 365
Pro Trp Gln Arg Leu Val Lys Arg Met Thr Arg Phe Phe Thr Lys Leu
    370                 375                 380
Asp Ala Asp Lys Ser Tyr Gln Cys Leu Lys Glu Thr Cys Glu Lys Leu
385                 390                 395                 400
Gly Tyr Gln Trp Lys Lys Ser Cys Met Asn Gln Val Thr Ile Ser Thr
                405                 410                 415
Thr Asp Arg Arg Asn Asn Lys Leu Ile Phe Lys Val Asn Leu Leu Glu
            420                 425                 430
Met Asp Asp Lys Ile Leu Val Asp Phe Arg Leu Ser Lys Gly Asp Gly
        435                 440                 445
Leu Glu Phe Lys Arg His Phe Leu Lys Ile Lys Gly Lys Leu Ile Asp
    450                 455                 460
Ile Val Ser Ser Gln Lys Val Trp Leu Pro Ala Thr
465                 470                 475 
           
             17 
             1821 
             DNA 
             Homo sapiens 
           
            17
aaacaaaatg ttttgataaa aatgagatac gtgtgtataa aagctggaaa actcatgtcc     60
cctgaaactt ggtttccacc agatgagttt caaattcaga tactaaacac acatgaagaa    120
ataatcaaat gaattctatt catcctttcc ccaaagtttt gcttacaatt aagatatagg    180
tattatttgt atgccgaaca aacaaaataa attggaagat gtttggataa acagggaagt    240
gaacacttca ggaactacta tttgcagttt gcaggacagg ataatcttct ctaggaagaa    300
taatgtcaac atagcagcac tatattcacc aggattcccc agagccgatg gtccgatcat    360
gtggcaggaa gccaaacctt ctggctgctc acaatatcaa tcagcttccc tttaatcttc    420
aggaagtgtc tcttgaactc caatccatca cccttagaaa gccggaagtc aaccaatatt    480
ttatcatcca tttctaacaa attcactttg aaaatgagtt tattgtttct cctatcagtt    540
gttgatatag taacctgatt catacaactt ttcttccatt gatagcccaa cttctcacaa    600
gtctctttca ggcattgata agatttgtct gcatccaatt tggtaaagaa tcgtgtcatt    660
cttttgacca accgctgcca ggggttctgt gaggatcctg gggtgccaag taactgacta    720
ttcaaaagca tatgatcagg acatgtgggc tgggaaaagc tgatcccttg taccaattta    780
tcaatgtatg aggggctggt atcccataag gaaagacctg tgcggggttc tggctgagaa    840
ctggagtact tcacattttc ttcactagaa gcactgttta ctggagagaa gtccaaattg    900
gattgaatgt gcttagaaaa tccactggga gactctgaca caccacctga agtgactcgg    960
ggcctttttg cccctttctt gaggggtttg ttgtaccatc tatctttttt gatgtctgga   1020
atggtaattc ttgctgatgg attctcaact aagattttat gcagcagagc tagaggagca   1080
gaatcgattt ttttccaagg gttgaggtat gttttttttt ctttccagtc agaatactcc   1140
tgacagctgt cactgggttg gtcccatggc aattctccag cgagcattgc agtaagtact   1200
attccacagg accaaacatc aactggttct gcatgaaatt ctcttctctt cagaagttct   1260
ggagcaacat atggtaaagt accacacatc ttgttcaaca aacgctcacg attattatac   1320
cgaaatactg ttgccaagcc aaagtctgag attttgaggt tatccctttc atccaacaga   1380
agattttctg gtttaatatc cctgtgagtt attccaatac catgcagata aaccacccct   1440
gccatgagtt gatggaagaa tctctgagca tctggttcag gcatgcctat gtctggctct   1500
attctgtcaa aaagctctcc tccactacag tactccagaa ataaatattg gatattgcct   1560
tctctcctgt gaccatagaa ttttactaca ttttcatgat ttagcatttt attgatacag   1620
atctctttct taatattttc tggacagtct acggcacgct tcatatctac aatcttcact   1680
gcgactgctt cttcagttac tctattcaca gcaagttgaa cttctccata ggcaccttct   1740
cccagggttt gcaccaagtc ccagtcttcc acaaagggca ctgccatgac tccaccgagc   1800
acctcggcgg actgtccggc c                                             1821