Abstract:
Compositions and methods for treating diabetes are presented herein. In particular, the present disclosure teaches compositions and methods for treating diabetes utilizing a gastrointestinal microbiome modulating composition.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present Application is a Continuation Application, which claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 14/238,960, filed on Feb. 14, 2014, winch is a U.S. National Stage Application pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §371 of International Application No. PCT/US2012/051408, filed on Aug. 17, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/524,524, filed on Aug. 17, 2011, each of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates to weigh control and metabolic fitness. More particularly, the present invention relates to compositions and methods for increasing desirable microbiota in the human gut and reducing therein undesirable microbiota to achieve a healthy glucose regulation, metabolic fitness, inclusive intestinal health, and a healthy body weight. 
     2. General Background of the Invention 
     During the past 5 years a large international effort, called the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) by the National Institutes of Health, and known more broadly as the International Human Microbiome Consortium (IHMC), is aimed at characterizing the microbes living in and on our bodies (see http://hmpdace.org/data_browser.php). In the large intestine an estimated 100 trillion microorganisms reside that appear to play essential roles in metabolizing food, drugs, and dietary supplements that are not absorbed by the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In addition, some of those microorganisms manufacture essential nutrients and vitamins necessary to sustain health. Such microbial interactions in the intestinal environment exert critical roles in signaling metabolic-, behavior-, and immune-regulatory systems of the human host. 
     The first GI microbiomes to be partially characterized are those obtained in the feces of obese and lean individuals (1,2). Microbiota of the Firmicutes phylum are in abundance in the feces of obese individuals when compared to that of lean volunteers. Microbiota of the other major division, Bacteroidetes, are more abundant than those of Firmicutes division in lean individuals. Thus, during metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes, an imbalance between these 2 dominant groups of bacteria reflecting a wealth of Firmuetes species to Bacteroidetes species (B:F ratio) is one characteristic of individuals with an unhealthy body mass. These findings are confirmed in obese and lean mice (3). Further, sterile mice can be inoculated with microbiomes obtained from human feces of either obese or lean individuals. When fed a standard mouse chow, they either become obese or remain lean depending on the source of their GI microbiota transplant (4). Mice transplanted with human GI microbiota will become obese when fed a chow rich in simple sugars and fat after several week. The B:F ratio of those mice increased when the diet is switched to one low in both fat and sugar but rich in plain polysaccharides (5,6). 
     Microbiota belonging to the Bacteriodetes phylum are specialists at transporting and metabolizing carbohydrates (7). They appear to forage on any available carbohydrate in their environment. Most sugars and starches, however, are metabolized by the host and are absorbed by the upper GI. Indigestible (by the host) carbohydrates do make it to the lower GI where they are consumed by members of the Bacteriodetes. The end products of this process are small chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that have health benefits for the host. Many of these indigestible carbohydrates are plant polysaccharides or more commonly called fiber or resistant starch and are classified as prebiotics (8). Microbiomes characterized in the feces of children maintained on a high fiber diet have a greater B:F ratio than those analyzed from feces of children consuming a typical European diet (9). 
     The follow U.S. and other patent documents are incorporated herein by reference: 
     US20020009436 Methods and compositions for inhibiting adhesion by microorganisms 
     US20040132164 Methods and compositions for inhibiting adhesion by microorganisms 
     US20050239706 Modulation of fiaf and the gastrointestinal microbiota as a means to control energy storage in a subject 
     US20070036836 Amino acid supplementation for a healthy microbiota ecosystem 
     US20070196890 Prebiotic effect analysis 
     US20080102162 Prebiotic Preparation 
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     US20080274127 AMINO ACID SUPPLEMENTATION FOR A HEALTHY MICROBIOTA ECOSYSTEM 
     US20090142442 GUT MICROBIOTA IN INFANTS 
     US20090143414 Novel Composition to Improve Gut Health and Animal Performance and Methods of Making the Same 
     US20090170141 GHRELIN O-ACYLTRANSFERASE (GOAT) BIOCHEMICAL ASSAY 
     US20100048595 USE OF ARCHAEA TO MODULATE THE NUTRIENT HARVESTING FUNCTIONS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOTA 
     US20100086527 SYMBIOTIC TO IMPROVE GUT MICROBIOTA 
     US20100086955 Small Molecule Inhibitors of Ghrelin O-Acyltransferase 
     US20100129816 Microbial Population Analyse 
     US20100172874 GUT MICROBIOME AS A BIOMARKER AND THERAPEUTIC TARGET FOR TREATING OBESITY OR AN OBESITY RELATED DISORDER 
     US20100254949 PREBIOTIC OLIGOSACCHARIDES 
     US20100317573 PEDIATRIC FIBER MIXTURE 
     US20110009359 USE OF NON-DIGESTIBLE CARBOHYDRATES FOR IMPROVING INTESTINAL MICROBIOTA 
     US20110034407 USE OF SPHINGOMYELIN AND NON-DIGESTIBLE CARBOHYDRATES FOR IMPROVING INTESTINAL MICROBIOTA 
     US20110123504 GUT FLORA AND WEIGHT MANAGEMENT 
     US20050239706 MODULATION OF FIAF AND THE GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOTA AS A MEANS TO CONTROL ENERGY STORAGE IN A SUBJECT 
     US20110280840 COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR TREATING OBESITY AND RELATED DISORDERS BY CHARACTERIZING AND RESTORING MAMMALIAN BACTERIAL MICROBIOTA 
     US20120027724 METHODS OF TREATING IMPAIRED GLUCOSE METABOLISM VIA ADMINISTRATION OF ALGAL BIOMASS 
     US20120058094 COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR TREATING OBESITY AND RELATED DISORDERS BY CHARACTERIZING AND RESTORING MAMMALIAN BACTERIAL MICROBIOTA 
     US20120135957 COMPOSITIONS CONTAINING MIXTURES OF FERMENTABLE FIBERS 
     WO/2012/024638A2 COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR TREATING OBESITY AND RELATED DISORDERS BY CHARACTERIZING AND RESTORING MAMMALIAN BACTERIAL MICROBIOTA 
     WO/2011/107482A9 METHOD OF DIAGNOSTIC OF OBESITY 
     WO/2011/103123A2 REDUCING SHORT-CHAIN FATTY ACIDS AND ENERGY UPTAKE IN OBESE HUMANS BY MANAGING THEIR INTESTINAL MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES 
     WO/2011/022660A1 METHODS OF DIAGNOSING AND TREATING MICROBIOME-ASSOCIATED DISEASE USING INTERACTION NETWORK PARAMETERS 
     WO/2008/076696A2 THE GUT MICROBIOME AS A BIOMARKER AND THERAPEUTIC TARGET FOR TREATING OBESITY OR AN OBESITY RELATED DISORDER 
     WO/2008/076006A3 THE GUT MICROBIOME AS A BIOMARKER AND THERAPEUTIC TARGET FOR TREATING OBESITY OR AN OBESITY RELATED DISORDER 
     WO/2010/002890A2 METHODS OF PROMOTING WEIGHT LOSS AND ASSOCIATED ARRAYS 
     WO/2010/002890A3 METHODS OF PROMOTING WEIGHT LOSS AND ASSOCIATED ARRAYS 
     WO/2010/15842A2 METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS 
     EP2102350A2 THE GUT MICROBIOME AS A BIOMARKER AND THERAPEUTIC TARGET FOR TREATING OBESITY OR AN OBESITY RELATED DISORDER 
     Also incorporated herein by reference are the following references, which are referenced above and below:
     1. Peter J. Turnbaugh, Ruth E. Ley, Michael A. Mahowald, Vincent Magrini, Elaine R. Mardis, Jeffrey I. Gordon. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444, 1027-1031, 2006.   2. Peter J. Turnbaugh, Micah Hamady, Tanya Yatsunenko, Brandi L. Cantarel, Alexis Duncan, Ruth E. Ley, Mitchell L. Sogin, William J. Jones, Bruce A. Roc, Jason P. Affourtit, et al. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins, Nature 457,480-484, 2008.   3. Ruth E. Ley, Fradrik Bäckhed, Peter Turnbaugh, Catherine A. Lozapone, Robin D. Knight, and Jeffrey I. Gordon. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. PNAS 102: 11070-11075, 2005.   4. Peter J. Turnbaugh, Ruth E. Ley, Michael A. Mahowald, Vincent Magrini, Elaine R. Mardis &amp; Jeffrey I. Gordon. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444: 1027-1031, 2006.   5. Andrew L. Goodman, George Kallstrom, Jeremiah J. Faith, Alejandro Reyes, Aimee Moore, Gautam Dantas, and Jeffrey I. Gordon. Extensive personal human gut microbiota culture collections characterized and manipulated in gnotobiotic mice. PNAS 108: 6252-6257,2011.   6. Peter J. Turnbaugh, Vanessa K. Ridaura, Jeremiah J. Faith, Federico E. Rey, Rob Knight, and Jeffrey I. Gordon. The Effect of Diet on the Human Gut Microbiome: A Metagenomic Analysis in Humanized Gnotobiotic Mice. Sci Transl Med 1:1-10. 2009.   7. Justin L. Sonnenburg, Jian Xu, Douglas D. Leip, Chien-Huan Chen, Benjamin P. Westover, Jeremy Weatherford, Jeremy D. Buhler, and Jeffrey I. Gordon. Glycan Foraging in Vivo by an Intestine-Adapted Bacterial Symbiont. Science 307: 1955-1959, 2005.   8. Glenn R. Gibson, Hollie M. Probert, Jan Van Loo, Robert A. Rastall and Marcel B. Roberfroid. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: updating the concept of prebiotics. Nutr. Res. Rev. 17: 259-275, 2004.   9. Carlotta De Filippo, Duccio Cavalieri, Monica Di Paola, Matteo Ramazzotti, Jean Baptiste Poullet, Sebastein Massart, Silvia Collini, Giuseppe Pieraccini, and Paolo Lionetti. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. PNAS 107: 14691-14696, 2010.   10. Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, Nakazato M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K. 1999 Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402: 656-60.   11. Carine De Vriese, Francoise Gregoire, Roger Lema-Kisoka, Magali Waelbroeck, Patrick Robberecht and Christine Delporte. Ghrelin Degradation by Serum and Tissue Homogenates: Identification of the Cleavage Sites. Endocrinol 145: 1 4997-5005, 2005.   12. Carlotta Gauna, Rosalie M. Kiewiet, Joop A, M. J. L. Janssen, Bedette van de Zande, Patric J. D, Delhanty, Ezio Ghigo, Leo J. Hofland, Axel P. N. Thermmen, and Aart Jan van der Lely. Unacylated ghrelin acts as a potent insulin secretagogue in glucose-stimulated conditions  Am J Physical Endocrinol Metab  293: E697-E704,2007.   13. Gutierrez, J. A. et al. Ghrelin octanoylation mediated by an orphan lipid transferase.  Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A  105, 6320-5 (2008).   14. Yang, J., Brown, M. S., Liang, G., Grishin, N. V. &amp; Goldstein, J. L. Identification of the acyltransferase that octanoylates ghrelin, an appetite-stimulating peptide hormone.  Cell  132, 387-96 (2008).   15. Matsumoto M, Hosoda H, Kitajima Y, Morozumi N, Minamitake Y, Tanaka S, Matsuo H, Kojima M, Hayashi Y, Kangawa K. Structure-activity relationship of ghrelin: pharmacological study of ghrelin peptides.  Biochem Biophys Res Commun.  2001 Sep. 14;287(1):142-6.   16. Kirchner, H., Gutierrez, J. A., Solenberg, P. J., Plluger, P. T., Czyzyk, T. A., Willency, J. A., Schurmann, A., Joost, H. G., Jandacek, R. J., Hale, J. E., et al. (2009). Nat. Med. 15, 741-745.   17. Yvette van Kooyk and Gabriel A Rabinovich. Protein-glycan interactions in the control of innate and adaptive immune responses. Nat Immunol 9: 593-601, 2008.   18. Claudine Manach, Augustin Scalbert, Christine Morand, Christian Rémésy, and Liliana Jiménez. Polyphenols: food sources and bioavailability. Am J Clin Nutr 79:727-47, 2004.   19. Kathrin Kahle, Michael Kraus, Wolfgang Scheppach, Matthias Ackermann, Friederike Ridder, and Elke Richling. Studies on apple and blueberry fruit constituents: do the polyphenols reach the colon after ingestion? Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 50: 418-423, 2006.   20. R. Puupponen-Pimiä, L. Nohynek, C. Meier, M. K{hacek over (a)}hkönen, M. Heinonen, A. Hopia, and K.-M. Oksman-Caldentey. Antimicrobial properties of phenolic compounds from berries. J Appl Microbiol 90: 494-507, 2001.   21. R. Ruupponen-Pimiä, L. Nohynek, S. Hartmann-Schmidlin, M. K{hacek over (a)}hkönen, M. Heinonen, K. Määttä Riihinen and K.-M. Oksman-Caldentey. Berry phenolics selectively inhibit the growth of intestinal pathogens. J Appl Microbiol 98: 991-1000, 2005.   22. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2010. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata   23. A. J. Smith, K. C. Cash, W. D. Johnson, C. M. Champagne, and W. T. Cefalu. Bioactives in Blueberries Improve Insulin Sensitivity in Obese, Insulin-Resistant Men and Women. J. Nutr. 140: 1764-1768, 2010.   24. K. B. M. S Islam, S. Fukiya, M. Hagio, N. Fujii, S. Ishizuka, T. Ooka, Y. Ogura, T. Hayashi, A. Yokota. Bile Acid is a Host Factor that Regulates the Composition of the Cecal Microbiota in Rats. Gastroenterology (2011).   doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.07.046.25. L. Agot Lia, G. Hallmans, A. Sandberg, B. Sundberg, P. Aman, and H. Andersson. Oat Beta glucan increases bile acid excretion and a fiber-rich barley fraction increases cholesterol excretion in ileostomy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62:1245-51.   26. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(suppl. I):S11-S63.   27. Nandona P, Fonseca V, Mier A, Beckett A. Diarrhea and metformin in a diabetic clinic. Diabetes Care. 1983:6:472-4.   28. M. Rajilic-Stojanović. E. Biagii, H. G. H. J. Heilig, K. Kajander, R. A. Kekkonen, S. Tims, and W. M. de Vos Global and Deep Molecular Analysis of Microbiota Signatures in Fecal Samples from Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Gastroenterology 2011 November;141(5):1792-801.   29. T. J. Borody and A. Khoruts. Fecal micorbiota transplantation and emerging applications. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology 9, 88-96, 2012.   30. A. Vrieze, E. van Nood, F. Holleman, J. Saloj{hacek over (a)}rvi, R. S. Kootte, J. F. W. M. Bartelsman, G. M. Dallinga-Thie, M. T. Ackermans, M. J. Serlie, R. Oozeer, M. Derrien, A. Druesne, J. E. T. van Hylckama Vlieg, V. W. Bloks, A. K. Groen, H. G. H. J. Heilig, E. G. Zoetendal, E. S. Stroes, W. M. de Vos, J. B. L. Hoekstra, M. Nieuwdorp. Transfer of Intestinal Microbiota from Lean Donors Increases Insulin Sensitivity in Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome.  Gastroenterology  (2012), doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.031.   31. M. Ore{hacek over (s)}i{hacek over (c)}, T. Seppäaen-Laakso, L. Yetukuri, F. Bäckhed, and V. Hänninen. Gut microbiota affects lens and retinal lipid composition. Experimental Eye Research 89 (2009) 604-607.   32. M. Roland and M. Zierhut. The Ocular Surface and Tear Film and Their Dysfunction in Dry Eye Disease. Survey of Opthalamology 45, Suppl 2, S203-S210, 2001.   

     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention includes a composition and use of a formulation to increase the ratio of gastrointestinal microbiota in phylum Bacteroidetes to microbiota of Firmicutes phylum. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a further understanding of the nature, objects, and advantages of the prevent invention, reference should be had to the following detailed description, read in conjunction with the following drawing, wherein: 
         FIG. 1  shows fasting blood glucose levels for 60 days of treatment; and 
         FIG. 2  shows fasting blood glucose levels for 60 days of treatment divided into 10 day periods. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     One aspect of the present invention is to include an indigestible carbohydrate such as inulin, oligofructoses, fructo-oligosaccharides, lactulose, galcto-oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, resistant starches, in the formula. In addition to offering food for species of Bacteriodetes and selecting for their growth, production of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the colon will suppress pathogenic bacteria and viruses from invading and colonizing the GI tract, partially inhibit hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis, serve as nutrients for colonocytes, reduce colon pH, increase mineral absorption, and serve as ligands to stimulate release of peptide YY (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) into the blood. PYY and GLP-1 are hormones produced and released from the colon into the blood. PYY signals satiety. GLP-1 stimulates the glucose sensing ability of the insulin secreting cell, prevents that cell from apoptosis, stimulates proliferation of those pancreatic beta cells and inhibits gastric emptying. GLP-1 also stimulates satiety but this may be due to its important role in decreasing gastric emptying. 
     Ghrelin is a hormone secreted by the stomach that stimulates appetite. Ghrelin is unique because it must be acylated with a medium chain fatty acid (MCFA) on the 3rd residue to bind and trigger its receptor (GHS-R1a) (10). Ghrelin comprised with octanoic (C-8)- or decanoic (C-10)-MCFAs are the most common forms of active ghrelin (10). There are also circulating carboxylesterases that cleave the acyl bond linking the fatty acid to the ghrelin backbone and render ghrelin inactive (11) with respect to appetite and nutrient consumption but may be beneficial for the treatment of T2DM (12). The acylating enzyme in the stomach cell that synthesizes ghrelin was identified about 3 years ago (13,14) and is now a drug target for several groups. The enzyme termed GOAT (ghrelin O-acyltransferase), has a high affinity for MCFAs but can acetylate ghrelin with fatty acids of different lengths. Not only does GOAT prefer MCFAs, but ghrelin that is acylated with a MCFA is much more potent than ghrelin forced to be synthesized with either a small or long chain fatty acid (15). Interestingly, levels of circulating medium chain fatty acids at any time point are relatively low when compared to long chain fatty acids. This is primarily a result of diet. Modern diets and most foods are rich in long chain fatty acids. MCFAs are abundant in coconut oil and human breast milk. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are also rarely in the food chain; they can be found in small quantities in butter and coconut. However, they are produced in large quantities by the microflora in the colon as a byproduct of polysaccharide consumption by the microbiota of the Bacteriodetes division. Recent evidence indicates that GOAT can use a SCFA to acylate ghrelin, rendering the hormone inactive at its receptor (16). 
     Thus, another novel aspect of the present invention is a formula designed to significantly enhance production or SCFAs by microbiota to serve as substrates for GOAT, render an inactive ghrelin and consequently decrease appetite. 
     While aspects of the present invention are aimed at increasing the population of colonic microbiota that garners carbohydrates, there is the possibility of those microorganisms redirecting their carbohydrate-harvesting activities from dietary to host polysaccharides according to nutrient availability (7). The colon mucus layer is comprises of mucins, which are glycoproteins that have O-linked oligosaccharides or O-glycans, which account for up to 80% of the mass of mucin (17). This mucus layer covers the gastrointestinal epithelium where it provides a protective layer from the rich intestinal microbiome as well as any pathogens. Such engogenous source of glycans in the microbiome habitat could offer alternative nutrients. However, when dietary glycans are present, it appears that harvesting energy from the diet is preferred (7). 
     Recently, evidence that bile salts are bacteriostatic to cecal microbiota was presented (24). Moreover, the data indicate that microbiota of the Bacteroidetes phylum are most sensitive to bile salts. Secretion of bile salts into the intestinal tract is stimulated by fat ingestion. Thus, ingestion of fat containing food increases bile secretion, which in turn decreases the numbers of Bacteriodetes microbiota. Viscous beta-glucan encapsulates or sequesters bile acids (25) and thus has the ability to preserve members of the Bacteroidetes, even when fat is ingested. 
     Thus, an important aspect of the present invention includes dietary glycans. Most are indigestible carbohydrates. Since glycans are also in abundance in yeast walls, one source of dietary glycans is from yeast. Other sources include dietary beta-glucan. Beta-glucan is a natural polysaccharide that can be isolated from oat, barley and wheat most commonly, but also from baker&#39;s yeast, certain fungi, mushrooms, and bacteria. Addition of beta-glucan is an important component of the present invention to maintain the mucosa protective barrier as well as to offer nutrients to microbiota that prefer to forage on carbohydrates and would increase the B:F ratio. 
     Another means to alter an imbalance between microbiota belonging to Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes phyla is to suppress the growth of members of one division. Such bacteriostatic or bactericidal actions for members of Firmicutes division are reported for a number of phenolic compounds that are present in large quantities in berries and other fruits (18). Anthocyanins are the predominating group of phenolic compounds present in berries and are especially abundant (18). A large proportion of dietary polyphenolics remain unabsorbed in the gut lumen where they become concentrated in the ileum and colon. Up to 85% of blueberry anthocyanins enter the colon (19) and appear to exert more growth suppressing effects on members of the Firmicutes division than the Bacteroidetes division (20, 21). Although blueberry powder, blueberry pomace, or blueberry extract containing such polyphenolics is preferred, the present invention preferably includes any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. The three preferred classes of ingredients, fermentable polysaccharides, beta-glucans, and berry extracts, can be prepared in any type of edible product such as powder to mix in liquid, a bar, smoothie, yogurt, shake, etc. The blend may also be prepared in a capsule or compressed into a tablet. Preferably, the formulation is to be ingested twice per day in between the first and second meals as well as between the second and third meals. 
     It is preferred that each dose of the formulation contain at least about 4 g of indigestible polysaccharide, at least about 2 g beta-glucan and at least about 4 g of berry powder extract (the equivalent of 2 cups (16 ounces) or 0.47 liters whole blueberries containing about 800 mg of total phenolics. 100 mg of anthocyanins and 6900 μmoles TE antioxidant activity). It is preferred that the dose be administered twice per day within 1 hour prior to meal 1 or within 1 hour prior to meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3. These are our best estimates but the formulation may change. 
     Ranges of ingredients preferably include about 2-120 mg/kg of body weight of indigestible polysaccharide, about 2-80 mg/kg of body weight of beta-glucan and about 2-120 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry powdered extract or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. Ranges of these ingredients more preferably include about 10-80 mg/kg of body weight of indigestible polysaccharide, about 5-50 mg/kg of body weight of beta-glucan and about 10-80 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry powder or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. Ranges of these ingredients most preferably include about 20-60 mg/kg of body weight of indigestible polysaccharide that is a fermentable fiber or resistant starch, about 10-30 mg/kg of body weight of beta-glucan and about 20-60-320 mg/kg of body weight of blueberry powdered extract or any fruit or berry ingredient preparation containing similar phenolics such as those listed in Reference 18. One of these ingredients in a formulation is preferable to none, any two are preferable to only one, and most preferably all three are present in a formulation of the present invention that contains less than 70 usable Calories (Cal or keal) (293 Kilojoules). The calorie or joule content of the formulation can be calculated from derived constants determined for macronutrients in the formula. However, the majority of ingredients in the formula is not digested and absorbed and thus is not assimilated or utilized for energy in the human body. A usable calorie or joule is only the calorie or joule that is assimilated or utilized for energy in the human body. 
     A preferred indigestible carbohydrate is inulin and can be found naturally in banana, asparagus, garlic, onions and wheat flour at low levels. To consume a sufficient quantity to achieve levels in the most preferred dose is possible but that would contribute significant usable calories or joules to the daily caloric intake of individuals who already have an unhealthy weight (see Table below) because the foods also contains usable calories or joules. Inulin content of raw Jerusalem artichoke, chicory root, and agave is high. Ingestion of a purified preparation of inulin contributes significantly less usable calories or joules to daily caloric intake than does ingestion of a vegetable containing inulin (see Table 1). To obtain the desired dose of inulin by eating the more common vegetable would contribute about 40-times the calories or joules that purified inulin contributes. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantity and Calorie or Kilojoule Content  
               
               
                 for Preferred Dose of Indigestible Carbohydrate 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ingredient 
                 Quantity 
                 Calories/Kilojoules 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Purified Inulin 
                 4 g 
                 0.48/2.01 
               
               
                 Banana 
                 6 bananas 
                 630/2,638 
               
               
                 Raw Asparagus 
                 1 cup (0.237 liters) 
                 27/113 
               
               
                 Raw Garlic 
                 15 cloves 
                 60/251 
               
               
                 Raw Onion 
                 10 tablespoons chopped 
                 40/167 
               
               
                 Wheat Flour 
                 1 cup (0.237 liters) 
                 455/1,905 
               
               
                 Raw Jerusalem Artichoke 
                 ¼ cup (0.059 liters) 
                 18/75 
               
               
                 Raw Chicory Root 
                 ½ root 
                 20/84 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Beta-glucan can be found naturally in oats, barley, mushrooms and Baker&#39;s yeast. To consume a sufficient quantity of these foods to achieve levels in the most preferred dose is possible but that would contribute significant useable calories or joules to the daily caloric intake of individuals who already have an unhealthy weight (see Table 2) because the foods also contains usable calories or joules. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantity and Calorie or Kilojoule Content  
               
               
                 for Preferred Dose of Beta-Glucan 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ingredient 
                 Quantity 
                 Calories/Kilojoules 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PromOat Ingredient 
                 2 g 
                 5.26/22.02 
               
               
                 OatWell 22% 
                 2 g 
                 4.3/18.0 
               
               
                 Old Fashion Rolled Oats 
                 ½ cup dry (0.118 liters) 
                 150/628 
               
               
                 Barley 
                 ½ cup dry (0.118 liters) 
                 350/1,465 
               
               
                 Shitake Mushrooms 
                 5 cups pieces (1.18 liters) 
                 400/1,675 
               
               
                 Baker&#39;s Yeast 
                 2 cakes (34 g) 
                 35.8/149.9 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Polyphenolics can be divided into major groups of anthocyanidins and flavonoids. They are found naturally in blueberry, cranberry, raspberry, and strawberry. These berries contain different levels of anthocyanidins and flavonoids according to Reference 22 and the abbreviated table below. Blueberries contain the broadest spectrum of polyphenolic compounds. Further, ingestion of the equivalent of 2 cups (16 ounces or 0.47 liters) of fresh blueberries provides sufficient bioactive compounds to improve insulin sensitivity in insulin resistant patients as demonstrated in Reference 23. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 USDA Database for the Anthocyanin Content of 
               
               
                 Selected Foods, Release 2.1 (2007). Values are 
               
               
                 the mean in mg/100 g edible portion whole raw berry. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Cyanidin 
                 Delphinidin 
                 Malvidin 
                 Petunidin 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Anthrocyanin - Raw Blueberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 16.97 
                 47.40 
                 61.35 
                 26.42 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Anthrocyanin - Raw Cranberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 41.81 
                 7.66 
                 0.31 
                 0 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Anthrocyanin - Raw Raspberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 35.84 
                 0.29 
                 0.70 
                 0 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Anthrocyanin - Raw Strawberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1.96 
                 0.32 
                 0 
                 0.08 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of  
               
               
                 Selected Foods, Release 2.1 (2007). Values are the 
               
               
                 mean in mg/100 g edible portion whole raw berry. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Epicatechin 
                 Catechin 
                 Myricetin 
                 Quercetin 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Flavonoid - Raw Blueberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 13.69 
                 37.24 
                 2.66 
                 5.05 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Flavonoid - Raw Cranberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 4.37 
                 0.39 
                 6.78 
                 15.09 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Flavoid - Raw Raspberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 4.07 
                 1.56 
                 0 
                 1.23 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Flavonoid - Raw Strawberry 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 0.12 
                 3.32 
                 0 
                 1.14 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     To consume a sufficient quantity (2 cups (16 ounces) or 0.47 liters) to achieve levels in the most preferred dose of blueberry is possible but that would contribute significant useable calories or joules to the daily caloric intake of individuals who already have an unhealthy weight (see Table 5) because the food also contains usable calories or joules, especially sugar. Pomace is the solid remains of blueberry after pressing for juice and thus removes sugar and water when manufacturing berry juice. Pomace contains indigestible carbohydrate that accounts for 85% of calories or joules. Pomace can be extracted with solvents such as alcohol or water to remove other useable calories. Blueberry extracts of pomace contain less than 10 useable Calories (42 Kilojoules). 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantity and (Calorie or Kilojoule Content  
               
               
                 for Preferred Dose of Berry Pomace 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Calories (kcal)/(kilojoule) 
                 Calories/Kilojoule Berry 
               
               
                 Berry 
                 Fresh Whole Berry 
                 Pomace (sugar removed) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Blueberry (2 cups) 
                  158/662 
                   53.2/223 
               
               
                 (0.47 liters) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cranberry (5.38 cups) 
                  323/1,352 
                  179.7/752.4 
               
               
                 (1.27 liters) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Raspberry (9.41 cups) 
                  60/2,520 
                   398/1,666 
               
               
                 (2.23 liters) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Strawberry (59.3 cups) 
                 2965/12,414 
                 1209.7/5,064.7 
               
               
                 (14.03 liters) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     In some cases dosing may be once a day to initiate treatment and to acclimate the GI microbiome for up to 1 week and then switched to twice daily dosing. In other cases twice daily administration of half the optimal dose is desired such as in children or the elderly. In some cases optimal twice daily dosing may be changed to a daily dosing regimen to maintain the changes stimulated by twice daily dosing. In other cases the twice daily dosing may be switched to twice daily dosing of half the most preferred dose such as in children or adults who cannot tolerate preferred dosing. 
     The present invention can be used in combination with drugs. For example, broad spectrum antibiotics prescribed for systemic infections are not completely absorbed by the upper GI system and make it to the microbiota environment. This will temporarily alter the GI microbiome and it may be desirable to ingest the formulation of the present invention during antibiotic therapy, in preparation for a course of antibiotics, or following such intervention. Specific antibiotics may target Gram positive or Gram negative bacteria. Treatment with a Gram positive antibiotic before-, during-, or following ingestion of the above combination of prebiotics of the present invention could improve the desired outcome. Because the formulation of the present invention is expected to increase GLP-1 levels, it may be desirable to combine that intervention with a DPP-IV (dipeptidy peptidase type IV) inhibitor such as Vildagliptin, Sitagliptin, or others in this class. This will greatly prolong the half-life of GLP-1 released from the colon and the combination would be preferred over the DPP-IV inhibitor alone or an injection of a GLP-1 peptide agonist such as Byetta. The present invention can also be combined with other diabetes interventions such as biguanides. An example includes metformin (Glucophage, Glucophage XR, Riomet, Fortamet, and Glumetza). In fact, combined use of the present invention with metformin may not only improve blood glucose regulation but will counter the diarrhea side effect often associated with metformin (see Example 5). This is a potentially important clinical observation. Metformin is recommended as the initial drug of choice for the treatment of type-2 diabetes (26). Metformin has been reported to cause a 20% incidence of diarrhea in diabetic patients taking the drug compared to only 6% of diabetic patients not taking metformin (27). In fact, diarrhea with metformin is a sufficient problem that some diabetic patients cannot tolerate the drug. Since metformin has a good safety record causes an approximate 2-3 kg weight loss and is a low-cost generic medication, increasing the tolerance to metformin while increasing its efficacy using a safe food supplement could have beneficial public health consequences. The present invention may also be combined with alpha-glucosidase inhibitors such as Precose (acarbose) and Glyset (miglitol) that are effective in controlling blood glucose but are poorly tolerated because of associated diarrhea. In addition, some drugs such as atypical antipsychotics and insulin cause weight gain in some patients. The present invention could be combined with such drugs to combat the weight gain without intervening with antipsychotic efficacy. 
     The present invention can be used to treat other diseases and syndromes. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a disorder characterized by abdominal pain or discomfort, and altered bowel habit (chronic or recurrent diarrhea, constipation, or both—either mixed or in alternation). IBS with constipation is sometimes referred to as IBS-C or constipation-predominant IBS. IBS with diarrhea is sometimes referred to as IBS-D. The key symptom of IBS is abdominal pain or discomfort anywhere in the abdomen. It may change over time. The impact of IBS can range from mild inconvenience to severe debilitation. Persons with moderate to severe IBS must struggle with symptoms that often impair their physical, emotional, economic, educational and social well-being. The exact cause of IBS is not known. Treatments are available for IBS to help manage symptoms but none appear to address the etiology. Fecal microbiota of patients suffering with IBS have a 2-fold decrease in the ratio of the Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes when compared with healthy individuals (28). Thus, the present invention that stimulates an increase in the ratio of members of the Bacteroidetes phylum to the Firmicutes phylum should be an efficacious and safe therapeutic to treat IBS. 
     The present invention can be used in preparation for fecal transplant or fecal bacteriotherapy and its follow up. Fecal microbiota transplantation is the process of transplantation of fecal microbiota from a healthy individual into a recipient as a treatment for diseases such as infection by  Clostridium difficile  (29) or more recently, type 2 diabetes (30). Guidelines for both the donor and the recipient are being prepared and will likely indicate strategies for both the donor and the recipient. The use of the present invention in preparation of both subjects for the procedure and continued use by the recipient after transplantation will increase the probability of a successful outcome. The present invention can also be used in preparation for fecal banking. Such practice will permit a subject to prepare a specific fecal sample for banking until needed. This may occur in preparation of prolonged antibiotic surgery, cancer chemotherapy and an unforeseen chronic illness. 
     The present invention can be used to treat ocular diseases. Recently, it was demonstrated that the microbiota of a conventional raised laboratory mouse adversely alters the ocular lens (31). The present invention is designed to cause a shift in the GI microbiome. Thus, the invention will be useful in prevention of cataracts. Another eye syndrome is commonly called dry-eye syndrome (DES). Traditionally, DES has been thought of as a deficiency of tears at the ocular surface. In recent years, however, investigators have shown that DES is much more complex than previously thought, and that “tear film dysfunction syndrome” might more accurately describe the condition. Tear film dysfunction can be broken down into two basic etiologic classifications: insufficient tear production or increased evaporation of tears from the eye surface (32). The tear film is made up of lipid, aqueous and mucin components. Individuals with dry eye syndrome can be deficient in any of these components and all appear to be related, in part, to healthy GI function. Thus, the present invention will be useful in treating DES. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Most Preferred Formulation with Function 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ingredient 
                 Mass (g/dose) 
                 Function 
                 Reference 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Blueberry  
                 4.7 
                 Weight loss, antimicrobial, 
                  1-5 
               
               
                 extract 
                   
                 antioxidant 
                   
               
               
                 β-Glucan 
                 2 
                 ↑satiey, ↓LDL chol,↑PYY, 
                  6-11 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ↑GLP-1, ↓ghrelin, ↓hunger 
                   
               
               
                 Inulin 
                 4 
                 ↑GLP-1, ↑PYY, ↑satiety, ↓ 
                 12-15 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ghrelin, ↓TG, Support GI 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Immune System 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ↑indicates an increase in reported 
               
               
                 ↓indicates that a decrease is reported 
               
               
                 TG is triglyceride 
               
               
                  1. J. Nutr. 140: 1764-1768, 2010. 
               
               
                  2. Chemico-Biological Interactions 189: 1-8, 2011 
               
               
                  3. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58: 3970, 2010 
               
               
                  4. J Appl Microbiol. 90: 494, 2001 
               
               
                  5. Am J Clin Nutr. 79:727, 2004 
               
               
                  6. J Med Food 10: 720, 2007 
               
               
                  7. Nutr Res 26: 644, 2006. 
               
               
                  8. J. Nutr. 138: 732, 2008 
               
               
                  9. J Am. Coll Nutr. 26: 639, 2007. 
               
               
                 10. Appetite 53: 338, 2009 
               
               
                 11. Eur J Clin Nutr 62: 600, 2008. 
               
               
                 12. Am J Clin Nutr 89:1751, 2009 
               
               
                 13. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 35: 9-16 (2010) 
               
               
                 14. J. Nutr. 137: 2552S-2556S, 2007 
               
               
                 15. J. Nutr. 137: 2547S-2551S, 2007 
               
             
          
         
       
     
                                           TABLE 7               Quantity of Ingredients to Formulate Efficacious Doses Containing       No More than 70 Useable Calories (293 Kilojoules)       (amount of inulin and beta glucan are pure - quantities       of product containing them will be higher):                                Row   In-   Inulin   Beta Glucan   Blueberry Pomace       1   gredient       from Oat   Extract Powder       Row   Al-   oligofructoses,   Beta-glucan   dietary       2   ternative   fructo-oligosaccharides,   from:   polyphenolic               lactulose,   baker&#39;s yeast,   compounds               galcto-oligosaccharides,   oat, barley,   such as those               arabinoxylans, resistant   wheat, fungi   present in               starch,   mushrooms,   extracts of               xylo-oligosaccharides,   bacteria, and   pomace                polydextrose, soybean   other biocompatible   from               oligosaccharides, isomalto-   sources   berries,               oligosaccharides, gluco-       grapes,                oligosaccharides, palatinose,       melons               gentio-oligosaccharides,                       lactitol, sorbitol, maltitol.                       xylitol               Row   Function   Stimulates production of   Decreased total   Inhibit growth       3       Short chain fatty acids in   cholesterol, decrease   of some GI               colon, suppress pathogenic   LDL cholesterol,    microbiota induce                bacteria and viruses from   increase HDL   a reduced intestinal               colonizing the GI tract,   cholesterol, decrease   microbiome or serve               inhibit hepatic cholesterol   blood glucose, protect   as an antioxidant,               biosynthesis, provide   intestinal mucosa,   stimulate growth of               colonocytes nutrients,   prime the GI immune   microbiota that thrive               reduce colon pH, increase   systems, increase   in a reduced environment.               colon mineral absorption,   viscosity of GI                   provide ligands to stimulate   microbiome, absorb                   release of peptide YY (PYY)   excess water in colon.                   and glucagon-like peptide-1                       (GLP-1) into the blood.                       produce inactive ghrelin.               Row   Preferred   1-12 g   0.5-6 g   1-15 g       4   Range                   Row   More   2-8 g   0.75-4 g   2-10 g       5   Preferred                       Range                   Row   Most   3-5 g   1-3 g   2-6 g       6   Preferred                       Range                   Row   Example   4 g   2 g   4.7 g       7                    
Formula A
 
     FORMULA A is made of 4.7 g dried blueberry pomace extract powder from Milne Fruit Products (Prosser, Wash., product no. FG20155), 9.22 g OatWell 22®beta glucan from CreaNutrition (Sweden), 4.4 g agave inulin (Inufib) from The Iidea Company (Tlaquepaque, Jal., Mexico), with inactive ingredients preferably added for flavor, mouth feel, texture and mixing, including 8.5 g erythritol, 0.5 g soy protein, 0.4 g xanthan gum, 0.38 g citric acid, 0.14 g stevia, and 0.4 g natural flavor that are not believed to affect the efficacy of Formula A. FORMULA A is to be added to a liquid such as 180 ml of water, milk, juice, etc., mixed and consumed as a suspension. The dried blueberry pomace extract powder used in connection with the present invention is preferably blueberry extract powder, product no. FG20155, available from Milne Fruit Products of Prosser, Wash. 
     Formula A is used in the examples below. One dose of FORMULA A provides 120% of the recommended daily dietary allowance (RDA) of antioxidant activity for children and adults as well as 30% dietary fiber for men and 50% dietary fiber for women, 60% dietary fiber for children aged 1-3, 45% dietary fiber for children aged 4-8, 36% dietary fiber for boys of ages 9-13, and 45% of dietary fiber for girls of ages 9-13. 
     Preferably a dose of Formula A is taken at least once per day, more preferably at least twice per day, and even more preferably at least 3 times per day. Each dose of FORMULA A is analyzed to contain active and inactive ingredients described in the table 8: 
                                                                                                                   TABLE 8                   Active and Inactive Ingredients Measured        in the Most Preferred Dose of FORMULA A.                Analyte   Mass/dose                        Active Ingredients                Total anthrocyanins   162.53    mg           Total polyphenolics   723.99    mg                Antioxidant activity   6969.4 μmoles TE                Beta glucan   2.03    g           Inulin   3.79    g           Other soluble fiber   3.03    g           Insoluble fiber   2.30    g            Inactive Ingredients                Protein   2.87   g           Fat   0.34    g           Calcium   54.81    mg           Iron   1.63    mg           Sodium   52.99    mg           Potassium   132.32    mg           Erythritol   8.39    g           Sucrose   0.17    g           Fructose   1.54    g           Glucose &amp; Galactose   0.71    g                        
Further analysis of the phenolic content of FORMULA A is described by the table 9:
 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Finger Print Analysis of Polyphenolics  
               
               
                 Present in the Most Preferred Dose of 
               
               
                 Formula A. 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Catechins 1   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Epigallocatechin Gallate 
                 158.2  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Epicatechin Gallate 
                 110.5  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Epigallocatechin 
                 21.9  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Catechin 
                 6.7  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Epicathecin 
                 3.5  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Quercetin 
                 3.2  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Gallocatechin Gallate 
                 1.1 
                 mg 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Gallocatechin 
                 ND 
               
               
                   
                 Catechin Gallate 
                 ND 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Anthocyanins 2   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Malvidin 3-O-Galactoside 
                 30.9 
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Malvidin 3-O-Arabinoside 
                 17.7  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Malvidin 3-O-Glucoside 
                 12.4  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Delphinidin 3-O-Arabinoside 
                 9.4  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Delphinidin 3-O-Galactoside 
                 7.5  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Petunidin 3-O-Galactoside 
                 6.8  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Petunidin 3-O-Arabinoside 
                 6.4  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Petunidin 3-O-Glucoside 
                 5.0  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Delphinidin 3-O-Glucoside 
                 4.5  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Peonidin Chloride 
                 1.5  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Cyanidin 3-O-Arabinoside 
                 1.2  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Peonidin 3-O-Glucoside 
                 1.2  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Cyanidin 3-O-Glucoside 
                 0.7  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Delphinidin Chloride 
                 0.6  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Peonidin 3-O-Arabinoside 
                 0.5  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Peonidin 3-O-Galactoside 
                 0.4  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Petunidin Chloride 
                 0.4  
                 mg 
               
               
                   
                 Cyanidin Chloride 
                 0.4  
                 mg 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Cyanidin 3-O-Galactoside 
                 ND 
               
               
                   
                 Cyanidin 3-O-Rutinoside 
                 ND 
               
               
                   
                 Malvidin Chloride 
                 ND 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   1 HPLC anaylsis, 
               
               
                   
                   2 ORAC trolox equivalents, 
               
               
                   
                 ND = not detectable 
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 1 
     Human Study Utilizing FORMULA A to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal  Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum, Improve  Glucose Regulation and Improve Body Composition 
     Subject and Methods 
     
         
         a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications. 
         b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed, 
         c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded, 
         d) adverse events are documented, and 
         e) patients are adequately followed-up.
 
Overview
 
       
    
     This study is expected to demonstrate that overweight subjects with impaired fasting blood glucose on an ad libitum diet who take FORMULA A either within 1 hour prior to meal 1 or within 1 hour prior to meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 for 4 weeks:
         1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio of microbiota in their stool at the start of the intervention, and when compared to subjects consuming a placebo, and   2. Have an improved oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as measured by blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and when compared to subjects consuming placebo, and   3. Have lower overnight fasting blood glucose levels as measured by a blood glucose monitor before ingesting a morning meal when compared to their overnight fasting blood glucose values at the start of the intervention, and when compared to subjects consuming placebo,   4. Experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements, and   5. Experience decreased appetite before a meal, increased satiety during the meal, when compared to subjects consuming placebo, and   6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced active ghrelin levels after a standardized meal when the values are compared to those of subjects consuming placebo on week 3 of the intervention.
 
General
       

     In this study, subjects consume either 180 ml of FORMULA A formula or a placebo containing the same total dietary fiber level as FORMULA A but as inactive cellulose orally within 1 hour prior to consumption of either meal 1 or meal 2 and within 1 hour prior to consumption of meal 3 each day. Placebo formula contains cellulose with food coloring and flavor to match the total dietary fiber content (8.75 g) of FORMULA A. Placebo is prepared by Merlin Development a the same time they prepare FORMULA A 
     Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initiating either FORMULA A or placebo intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to record any side effects and their frequency (checklist assessment). They are asked to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) during the standardized meal at the 3 rd  week of intervention. They are provided with the proper paper work to record these. 
     Subject Screening and Selection 
     A total of 30 subjects is selected, 15 assigned to FORMULA A and 15 assigned to placebo. 
     Qualifications of Subjects 
     1) Healthy men and women between the ages of 18 and 70 with a BMI between 25 and 35 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dl. 3) Stable weight over 2 months 
     Subjects Excluded from the Study 
     People who:
     a) take medications affecting glucose,   b) take medications affecting insulin,   c) take medications affecting body weight,   d) take medications affecting bacterial flora,   e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,   f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,   g) are hypothyroid,   h) are pregnant,   i) have heart disease.
 
Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation
   

     Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period. 
     1) Screening: 
     Subjects are screened to exclude hypothyroidism, pregnancy, and heart disease. The following tests can suffice for this: T4 (thyroxin), T3 (triiodotyronine), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), urine pregnancy test, blood pressure &amp; ECG (electrocardiogram). 
     2) Beginning of Study: 
     Subjects passing the initial screen are evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:
         a) Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels.   b) SMA 20 (Sequential multi-channel analysis with computer-20, a metabolic panel with 20 different analytes), including, uric acid, and liver function tests   c) Triglycerides   d) Cholesterol, including fractions   e) Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (HgbA1)   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry).   h) Height   i) Waist and hip measurements   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses to a 75 g oral glucose challenge   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety using a visual analog scale   l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the end of study.       

     3) End of Study Assessment:
         a) all labs and assessments done in step  2  at beginning of study,   b) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial sample and the final sample.
 
Study Design
       

     Subjects selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum diet and are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite and satiety before and after a meal. Foods excluded include alcohol. Low calorie or joule liquids are stressed in place of high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit juices, milk, sweet tea (tea with sugar), regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar, etc. The subjects are randomly assigned to either FORMULA A or placebo treatments. Both the experimenter and the subjects are blinded to who receive FORMULA A or the placebo. The subjects are encouraged to consume either treatment within 1 hour prior to either breakfast or lurch and within 1 hour prior to dinner. 
     Duration 
     Subject are given a 4 weeks supply of either FORMULA A or placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire 180 ml volume within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2, as well as another 180 ml volume containing either FORMULA A or placebo within 1 hour prior to meal 3. Ad libitum diets are followed for 4 weeks, but the volunteers are instructed to consume either FORMULA A or placebo as their only between meal snack. 
     Outcome 
     This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A:
         1) Increases the ratio Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are compared to samples at the onset of study; and when the ratio of species is compared to samples from the placebo group   2) Improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved insulin sensitivity);   3) Decrease fasting blood glucose values   4) Produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of body fat %   5) Increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels at 1 hour after the both the OGTT and the standardized meal when comparing final values to the initial measurements of the OGTT, and when comparing to those findings of the placebo group during the standardized meal; and   6) Decreases stool pH;   7) Increases stool SCFA.       

     If subjects took FORMULA A for periods longer than 4 weeks, particularly for at least 8 weeks, the subjects would experience significant weight loss that was primarily fat loss. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     Human Study Utilizing Either FORMULA A or a Placebo Snack Replacement to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum, Improve Glucose Regulation and Improve Body Composition 
     Subject and Methods 
     
         
         a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications, 
         b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed, 
         c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded, 
         d) adverse events are documented, and 
         e) patients are adequately followed-up.
 
Overview
 
       
    
     This study is expected to demonstrate that overweight subjects with impaired fasting blood glucose on an ad libitum diet who take FORMULA A, but not those assigned to consume a placebo, within 2 hours prior to consuming either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 2 hours prior to consuming meal 3 as a snack replacement for 4 weeks:
         1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio of microbiota in their stool at the start of the intervention, and   2. Have an improved oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as measured by blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and   3. Experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements, and   4. Experience lower fasting blood glucose levels when compared to either the initial values or those of the placebo group, and   5. Experience decreased appetite before a meal, increased satiety during the meal, and   6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced active ghrelin levels at 1 hour after both the OGTT and the standardized meal when the values are compared to those at the initiation of the trial (OGTT) or the placebo group (standardized meal test).
 
General
       

     In this study, subjects are randomly selected to consume 180 ml of either FORMULA A formula or placebo formula orally within 2 hours prior to ingestion of either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 2 hours prior to consumption of meal 3 each day. The subjects and experimenters are blinded to the treatment assignments. Placebo formula contains cellulose with food coloring and flavor to match the total dietary fiber content (8.75 g) of FORMULA A. Placebo is prepared by Merlin Development at the same time they prepare FORMULA A. Both formulations are coded by Merlin Development and the code is maintained with them as well as is held in confidence by a pharmacist at the study clinic until all data are collected at the end of study. 
     Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initialing FORMULA A or Placebo intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to record any side effects and their frequency (checklist assessment). They are asked to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) during the OGTT at both the onset and at the end of the trial as well as during a 3 rd  standardized meal. They are provided with the proper paper work to record these. 
     Subject Screening and Selection 
     A total of 30 subjects is selected. Fifteen subjects are randomly assigned to consume FORMULA A and the remaining 15 subjects are assigned to the FORMULA A group. The demographics of each group are carefully matched. 
     Qualifications of Subjects 
     1) Healthy men and women between the ages of 18 and 70 with a BMI between 25 and 35 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dl. 3) Stable weight over 2 months 
     Subjects Excluded from the Study 
     People who:
     a) take medications affecting glucose,   b) take medications affecting insulin,   c) take medications affecting body weight,   d) take medication affecting bacterial flora,   e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,   f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,   g) are hypothyroid,   h) are pregnant,   i) have heart disease.
 
Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation
   

     Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period. 
     4) Screening: 
     Subjects are screened to exclude hypothyroidism, pregnancy, and heart disease. The following tests can suffice for this: T4 (thyroxin), T3 (triiodotyronine), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), urine pregnancy test, blood pressure &amp; ECG (electrocardiogram). 
     5) Beginning of Study: 
     Subjects passing the initial screen are evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:
         a) Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels.   b) SMA 20 (Sequential multi-channel analysis with computer-20, a metabolic panel with 20 different analytes), including, uric acid, and liver function tests   c) Triglycerides   d) Cholesterol, including fractions   e) Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (HgbA1)   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry).   h) Height   i) Waist and hip measurements   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses to a 75 g oral glucose challenge   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety using a visual analog scale   l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the end of study.       

     6) End of Study Assessment:
         c) all labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of study,   d) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial sample and the final sample.
 
Study Design
       

     Subjects selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum diet and are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite and satiety before and after a meal. Foods excluded include alcohol. Low calorie or joule liquids are stressed in place of high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit juices, milk, sweet tea (tea with sugar), regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar, etc. The subjects are encouraged to consume either FORMULA A or Placebo as their only between meal snack. 
     Duration 
     Subjects are given a 4 weeks supply of ether FORMULA A or Placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire 180 ml volume containing either formula within 2 hours prior to either meals 1 or 2, as well as another 180 ml volume containing either formula within 2 hours prior to meal 3. Ad libitum diets are followed for 4 weeks, but the volunteers are instructed to consume either FORMULA A or Placebo as their only between meal snack. 
     Outcome 
     This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A and not Placebo:
         1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are compared to samples at the onset of study;   2) Improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved insulin sensitivity);   3) produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of body fat %;   4) Increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels prior to the OGTT when comparing final values to the initial measurements;   5) Decreases stool pH;   6) Increases stool SCFA.       

     If subjects took FORMULA A as a snack replacement for periods longer than 4 weeks, particularly for at least 8 weeks, the subjects would experience significant weight loss that was primarily fat loss. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     Human Study Utilizing FORMULA A in Combination with an Inhibitor of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum and Improve Glucose Regulation by Sustained Elevation of GLP-1 
     Subject and Methods 
     
         
         a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications, 
         b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed, 
         c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome response are recorded, 
         d) adverse events are documented, and 
         e) patients are adequately followed-up.
 
Overview
 
       
    
     This study is expected to demonstrate that Type 2 diabetic (T2D) subjects with insulin resistance on an ad libitum diet who take a DPP-4 inhibitor and FORMULA A within 1 hour prior to either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 for 4 weeks:
         1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio of microbiota in their stool at the start of the intervention and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and   2. Have improved insulin sensitivity when compared to both initiation of the study and when compared to those only taking a DPP-4 inhibitor. Insulin sensitivity is measured by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). This is performed by measuring blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and   3. Have improved fasting blood glucose values when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and   4. experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements when compared to their baseline values and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and   5. experience decreased appetite before a standardized meal, increased satiety during that meal when compared to their baseline values and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor, and   6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced ghrelin levels at 1 hour after the both the OGTT and the standardized meal when the values are compared to their baseline values and when compared to those only taking the DPP-4 inhibitor.
 
General
       

     In this study, T2D patients are randomly assigned to either consume 180 ml of FORMULA A or a placebo formula containing cellulose orally within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 each day. Patients and experimenters are blinded to this assignment. All patients are also instructed to take sitagliptin (Januvia®) at the recommended dose of 100 mg, once per day in the morning prior to meal 1 as a treatment to manage their diabetes. 
     Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before the initiation of the trial as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to record any side effects and their frequency (checklist assessment). They are asked to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) during the OGTT at both the onset and at the end of the trial as well as before and during a standardized meal at the 3 rd  week of treatments. They are provided with the proper paper work to record these. 
     Subject Screening and Selection 
     A total of 24 subjects is selected. 12 will be randomly assigned to receive Januvia®+placebo (a cellulose solution that contains the same total dietary fiber content as FORMULA A and mimics FORMULA A in color and taste) or Januvia®+FORMULA A. 
     Qualifications of Subjects 
     1) T2D men and women between the ages of 18 and 70 with a BMI between 25 and 35 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between greater than 125 mg/dl. 3) Stable weight over 2 months 
     Subjects Excluded from the Study 
     People who:
     a) take medications affecting glucose other than Januvia,   b) take medications affecting insulin other than Januvia,   c) take medications affecting body weight,   d) take medications affecting bacterial flora,   e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,   f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,   g) are hypothyroid,   h) are pregnant,   i) have heart disease.
 
Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation
   

     Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period. 
     7) Screening: 
     Subjects are screened to exclude hypothyroidism, pregnancy, and heart disease. The following tests can suffice for this: T4, T3, TSH, urine pregnancy test, blood pressure &amp; ECG. Fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin and HgbA1 levels are also measured as an assessment of their diabetic state. 
     8) Beginning of Study: 
     Subjects passing the initial screen are evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:
         a) Fasting blood glucose, insulin, and HgbA1 levels.   b) SMA 20, including uric acid and liver function tests   c) Triglycerides   d) Cholesterol, including fractions   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each time   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA.   h) Height   i) Waist and hip measurements   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses to a 75 g oral glucose challenge   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety before, during and after a standardized meal using a visual analog scale   l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the end of study.       

     9) End of Study Assessment:
         e) all labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of study,   f) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial sample and the final sample.
 
Study Design
       

     Patients selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum diet and are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite and satiety. Foods excluded include alcohol. Low calorie or joule liquids are stressed in place of high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit juices, milk, sweet tea (tea with sugar), regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar, etc. All 24 patients are also instructed to take sitagliptin (Januvia®) at the recommended dose of 100 mg, once per day in the morning with or without food as a treatment to manage their diabetes. 12 patients are randomly selected to also consume FORMULA A before 2 of 3 daily meals and the remaining 12 patients are instructed to consume a placebo before 2 of 3 daily meals. Patients and investigators are blinded to whether the snack replacement is placebo or FORMULA A. 
     Duration 
     Subjects are given a 4 weeks supply of sitagliptin and either FORMULA A or placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire 180 ml volume of either snack replacement within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2, as well as another 180 ml volume of snack replacement within 1 hour prior to meal 3. All subjects are required to take 1 tablet of sitagliptin daily (100 mg) in the morning with or without food. Ad libitum diets are followed for 4 weeks. 
     This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A:
         1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study from those assigned to FORMULA A are compared to samples at the onset of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo.   2) Improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved insulin sensitivity) when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo   3) produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of body fat % when patients assigned to FORMULA A are compared to samples at the onset of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo.   4) produces decreased fasting blood glucose levels when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo, and   5) increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels prior to the OGTT when patients assigned to FORMULA A are compared to samples at the onset of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo,   6) Decreases stool pH when patients assigned to the FORMULA A arm are compared to samples at the onset of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo   7) Increases stool SCFA when patents assigned to the FORMULA A arm are compared to samples at the onset of study and when subjects taking Januvia+FORMULA A are compared to patients taking Januvia+placebo       

     If subjects took FORMULA A with other DPP-IV inhibitors or other formulations of Januvia, the subjects are expected to also have significantly improved glucose regulation. 
     EXAMPLE 4 
     Study Utilizing FORMULA A Snack Replacement to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum, Improve Glucose Regulation and Improve Body Composition in Overweight Children 
     Subject and Methods 
     
         
         a) The required number of children are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications and their parental consent is obtained, 
         b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed, 
         c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded, 
         d) adverse events are documented, and 
         e) children and their parents are adequately followed-up.
 
Overview
 
       
    
     This study is expected to demonstrate that overweight children with prediabetes or at high risk of developing T2D (type 2 diabetes) on an ad libitum diet who take FORMULA B (identical active ingredients to FORMULA A but formulated in a child friendly delivery system such as ice cream, jelled animals, cookies, etc.) within 1 hour prior to either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 for 4 weeks:
         1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum than this ratio in their stool at the start of the intervention, and   2. Have an improved oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as measured by blood glucose and insulin levels before, during, and at 120 minutes after ingestion of 1.75 g glucose/kg body weight up to 75 g glucose when compared to their initial OGTT, and   3. experience an improved body composition as measured by a decrease in body weight, a decrease in body fat or % body fat, a decrease in waist circumference measurements, and   4. Experience decreased fasting blood glucose levels   5. experience decreased appetite before a meal, increased satiety during the meal, and   6. are found to have elevated GLP-1 as well as PYY levels with reduced ghrelin levels 1 hour after the OGTT when the values are compared to those at the initiation of the trial.
 
General
       

     In this study, children consume 6 jelled animals of FORMULA B formula (each jelled animal contains about 20 g of FORMULA B) within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 1 hour prior to meal 3 each day. 
     Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect s stool sample before initiating FORMULA B intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. They are also asked to report side effects to their parents who record them and their frequency (checklist assessment). The parents are instructed to ask and to record appetite (how hungry are you) and satiety (how full are you) before, during, and after a standardized 3 rd  meal at the beginning of study and at the end. The investigators score the same assessment during the OGTT at both the onset and at the end of the trial as well as at home. The parents are provided with the proper paper work to record these. 
     Subject Screening and Selection 
     A total of 10 children is selected. 
     Qualifications of Subjects: 
     1) Healthy prepubertal boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 12 with a BMI between 25 and 30 are eligible. 2) Fasting blood glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dl. 
     Subjects Excluded from the Study 
     Children who:
     a) take medications affecting glucose,   b) take medications affecting insulin,   c) take medications affecting body weight,   d) take medications affecting bacterial flora.   e) have intestinal disease or a recent history of intestinal disease,   f) have had surgery on stomach or intestine,   g) are hypothyroid,
 
Appropriate Laboratory Evaluation
   

     Different tests are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period. 
     Screening: 
     Children are screened to exclude hypothyroidism and puberty. The following tests can suffice for this: T4, T3, TSH, a physical exam, and in questionable cases based on the physical exam or peripubertal presentations, a gonadotropin-releasing hormone challenge test. 
     Beginning of Study: 
     Children passing the initial screen are evaluated at the beginning of WEEK #1 as follows:
     a) Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels.   b) SMA 20, including uric acid and liver function tests   c) Triglycerides   d) Cholesterol, including fractions   e) Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (HgbA1)   f) Weight, taken on the same scale each tine   g) Body fat % and total body fat, determined by DXA.   h) Height   i) Waist and hip measurements   j) Blood glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin responses to a 1.75 g/kg (up to 75 g) oral glucose challenge   k) Assessment of appetite and satiety using a visual analog scale   (l) Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the end of study.
 
End of Study Assessment:
       a) all labs and assessments done in step 2 at beginning of study,   b) Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial sample and the final sample.
 
Study Design
   
       

     Children selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum diet and their parents are given an evaluation sheet to assess their appetite and satiety. Low calorie or joule liquids are stressed in place of high calorie or joule liquids such as fruit juices, milk, regular soft drinks, coffee with sugar, etc. The children are encouraged to consume FORMULA B as their only between meal snack. Other snacks such as candy, ice cream, milk shakes, cookies, potato chips, etc. are discouraged. 
     Duration 
     Children are given a 4 weeks supply of FORMULA B at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire 6 jelled animals containing FORMULA B within 1 hour prior to either meal 1 or 2, as well as another 6 jelled animals containing FORMULA B within 1 hour prior to meal 3. Ad libitum diets are followed for 4 weeks, but the children are instructed to consume FORMULA B as their only between meal snack. 
     Outcome 
     This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA B:
         1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are compared to samples at the onset of study.   2) Improves the blood glucose and insulin responses to an OGTT by decreasing the areas under the insulin curve (improved insulin sensitivity)   3) produces weight loss, loss of body fat, and (or) decrease of body fat %   4) Increases GLP-1 and PYY response to the oral glucose challenge and decreases the fasting ghrelin levels prior to the OGTT when comparing final values to the initial measurements.   5) Decreases stool pH   6) Increases stool SCFA       

     If children took FORMULA A for periods longer than 4 weeks as a snack replacement, particularly for at least 8 weeks, the children would experience significant weight loss that was primarily fat loss. 
     EXAMPLE 5 
     Formula A Augments the Efficacy and Gastrointestinal Tolerability of Metformin: A Case report 
     Subject 
     JH was a 30 year old Caucasian male who gained 10 kg over the course of 8 months and developed lower back pain. He presented to his primary physician with that complaint. 
     The patient was taking omeprazole (20 mg/d), lisinopril (40 mg/d), metoprolol (100 mg/d), and hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg/d) at the time of his presentation, had no allergies and had undergone no surgeries. He denied past hospitalizations, trauma with residua or blood transfusions. He had never smoked, drank 3-4 alcoholic drinks per week on average and had no history of intravenous drug use. He was a full-time law student and had no exposures to occupational toxins. During the 6 months prior to his presentation he had been sexually active with one woman. The patient&#39;s mother and father were living and well. He had one sister who was living and well, and he had no children. There was no family history of diabetes. He had no complaint other than lower back pain. On physical examination he was 104 kg with a height of 165 cm and a body mass index (BMI) of 38.3 kg/m 2 . His blood pressure was 116/70 with a pulse rate of 80/min and he was afebrile. Urinalysis demonstrated presence of glucose, that was followed up by a non-fasting capillary blood glucose of 450 mg/dl glucose and a hemoglobin A1c of 8.8% and a microalbumin/creatine ratio of 147. His physician made the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes mellitus based on his age, lack of acidosis and a fasting blood sugar of 375 mg/dL. He was started on metformin 500 mg twice a day and was instructed to measure his fasting blood sugar on a daily basis. Over the course of 7 days he was instructed to increase metformin to 1000 mg twice a day. Over the course of the next 9 days he developed persistent watery stools and his fasting blood sugar decreased to about 325 mg/dL. He knew from his contact with NuMe Health, LLC that the company was developing and testing a dietary supplement with a goal of increase insulin sensitivity through a salutary effect on the stool microbiome. On the 9th day of his treatment with 1000 mg metformin dose, he added FORMULA A taken twice a day within an hour before breakfast or lunch and within an hour before dinner. Within two days of starting FORMULA A his fasting glucose dropped from 325 mg/dL to 175 mg/dL and after 5 weeks of taking the FORMULA A along with the metformin, his fasting blood glucose was 100 mg/dL ( FIG. 1 ). 
       FIG. 1  shows fasting blood glucose levels at the start of 1000 mg metformin twice daily. Formula A was added twice daily on day 9 and the combination was continued except from days 49 to 51 when daily dosing of FORMULA A wax missed. Diarrhea was associated with metformin except when Formula A was added. 
     Dividing the first 60 days of diabetes treatment into 10 day periods, his blood sugar and its variance (standard deviation) decreased from 344±44.1 mg/dL in the first 10 days, to 182.2±14.7 in the second 10 days, 144.3±9.6 during the third 10 days, 114.5±11.8 during the fourth 10 days, 123.0±9.6 during the fifth 10 days, and 121.0±11.8 during the sixth 10 days ( FIG. 2 ). 
     During this period, his weight decreased by 5.5 kg, and his watery stools reverted to soft regular formed bowel movements. After an additional month, he ran out of his FORMULA A for 2 days. During that period, his blood sugar increased from 100 mg/dL to 131 mg/dL and his diarrhea returned. After resuming FORMULA A his blood sugar returned to 113 mg/dL and his stools return to being formed and soft. His diabetic control and stools have remained under control on the combination of metformin and FORMULA A at the time of this writing and he has lost about 5.5 kg body weight. His hemoglobin A1c decreased to 6.3% and a microalbumin/creatine ratio was 16. 
     Discussion 
     This case report is encouraging. Not only did FORMULA A appear to have a positive effect on fasting blood sugar, but the watery stools induced by treatment with metformin were normalized. This is a potentially important clinical observation. Metformin has been recommended as the initial drug of choice for the treatment of type-2 diabetes (26). Metformin has been reported to cause a 20% incidence of diarrhea in diabetic patients taking the drug compared to only 6% of diabetic patients not taking metformin (27). In fact, diarrhea with metformin is a sufficient problem that some diabetic patients cannot tolerate the drug. Since metformin has a good safety record, causes an approximate 2-3 kg weight loss and is a low-cost generic medication, increasing the tolerance to metformin while increasing its efficacy using a safe food supplement could have beneficial public health consequences. 
     Acarbose is another drug used to treat diabetes that is associated with the side effect of a watery stool because of its mechanisms of action. If FORMULA A is used in conjunction with acarbose to treat type 2 diabetes, both better control of blood glucose and solid stool formation are expected. 
     EXAMPLE 6 
     Human Study Utilizing Either FORMULA A or a Placebo to Increase the Ratio of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Phylum Bacteroidetes to Microbiota of Firmicutes Phylum and Improve Symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) 
     Subject and Methods 
     
         
         a) The required number of subjects are properly screened to fulfill the necessary qualifications, 
         b) appropriate laboratory evaluations are performed, 
         c) measures of positive primary and secondary outcome responses are recorded, 
         d) adverse events are documented, and 
         e) patients are adequately followed-dup.
 
Overview
 
       
    
     This randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial is expected to demonstrate the efficacy and tolerability of FORMULA A in diarrhea-predominant humans with IBS. Subjects assigned to consume FORMULA A but not a placebo, within 1 hour prior to consuming either meal 1 or meal 2, as well as within 1 hour prior to consuming meal 3 for 4 weeks:
         1. Eliminate stool containing a greater ratio of microbiota species from the Bacteroidetes phylum to Firmicutes phylum, and   2. Report adequate relief for all 4 weeks, and   3. Report decreased urgency, and   4. Report decreased stool frequency, and   5. Have firm stools within 1 week of starting treatment.
 
General
       

     In this study, subjects are randomly selected to consume 180 ml of either FORMULA A formula or placebo formula orally within 1 hour prior to ingestion of either meals 1 or 2 as well as within 1 hour prior to consumption of meal 3 each day. The subjects and experimenters are blinded to the treatment assignments. Placebo formula contains cellulose with food coloring and flavor to match the total dietary fiber content (8.72 g) of FORMULA A. Placebo is prepared by Merlin Development at the same time they prepare FORMULA A. Both formulations are coded by Merlin Development and the code is maintained with them as well as is held in confidence by a pharmacist at the study clinic until all data are collected at the end of study. 
     Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of any side effects. They are asked to collect a stool sample before initiating FORMULA A or Placebo intervention as well as at the end of the 4 week treatment period. During the screening, treatment, and follow-up periods, daily and weekly symptom data are collected using an interactive telephone-based system. 
     Pain and bowel function data are collected during the screening phase to ensure that patients had a suitable symptom level at study entry. Severity of pain and discomfort was assessed daily on a 5-point scale (0, none; 1, mild; 2, moderate; 3, intense; and 4, severe). Stool consistency data are monitored daily and scored as follows: 1, very hard; 2, hard; 3, formed; 4, loose; and 5, watery. Absence of stool was assigned a value of 0. Patients also record their IBS symptoms urgency (0%, feel no need to evacuate-100%, feel severe need to evacuate), stool frequency (# of stools per day), bloating (0, no sensation of extended abdomen; 1, mild; 2, moderate; 3, severe) and sense of incomplete evacuation (0, sensation of complete evacuation; 1, incomplete; 2, constipated) daily during the treatment and follow-up phases. 
     Subject Screening and Selection 
     Patients with IBS and a diarrhea-predominant bowel pattern aged 18 years or older are enrolled in this study if their symptoms fulfilled the Rome I criteria for IBS for at least 6 months. Patients undergo a 2-week screening evaluation to confirm sufficient level of pain and stool consistency before randomization. Since no objective criteria exist for subgrouping of IBS patients, physicians are asked to assess patients according to predominant pattern of bowel function based on the patient&#39;s disease history. Physicians are provided with a guideline based on the percentage of time the patient had experienced diarrhea. If diarrhea is present for ≧75% of the time, then the patient is classified as being diarrhea predominant. 
     Patients are excluded if they are pregnant, breastfeeding, or not using approved methods of contraception (if of child-bearing potential); if an unstable medical or other gastrointestinal condition exists; if there is a major psychiatric disorder or substance abuse within the previous 2 years; if an investigational drug was used within 30 days of the screening phase; or if a prohibited concurrent medication (likely to interfere with gastrointestinal tract function or analgesia) was used within 7 days before entering the screening phase. 
     Pain and bowel function data are collected during the screening phase to ensure that patients has a suitable symptom level at study entry as described above. 
     Appropriate Symptom and Laboratory Evaluation 
     Evaluations are performed at the screening of potential participants, at the beginning of the study, daily, and at the end of the 4 week treatment period. 
     1) Beginning of Study and Daily:
         a) Severity of pain and discomfort is assessed on a 5-point scale (0, none; 1,. mild; 2, moderate; 3, intense; and 4, severe).   b) Stool consistency data are scored as follows: 1, very hard; 2, hard; 3, formed; 4, loose; and 5, watery. Absence of stool was assigned a value of 0.   c) Urgency (0%, feel no need to evacuate-100%, feel severe need to evacuate).   d) Stool frequency (# of stools per day)   e) Bloating (0, no sensation of extended abdomen; 1, mild; 2, moderate; 3, severe)   f) Sense of incomplete evacuation (0, sensation of complete evacuation; 1, incomplete; 2, constipated)   g) Body weight.       

     2) Beginning of Study: 
     Stool is collected and stored frozen but not analyzed until the end of study. 
     3) End of Study Assessment: 
     Analysis of the fecal microbiome DNA from both the initial sample and the final sample. 
     Study Design 
     Subjects selected for participation are allowed an ad libitum diet. Foods excluded include alcohol. The subjects are encouraged to consume either FORMULA A or Placebo within 1 hour prior to 2 meals each day with ingestion of the test agent being mandatory prior to the 3 rd  meal. 
     Subjects are given a 4 week supply of ether FORMULA A or Placebo at the onset and are instructed to consume the entire 180 ml volume containing either formula within 1 hour prior to either meals 1 and 2, as well as another 180 ml volume containing either formula within 1 hour prior to meal 3. 
     Subjects report weekly for measurements and assessment of IBS symptoms. During the screening and treatment periods, daily symptom data are collected using an interactive telephone-based system. 
     Outcome 
     This study is expected to demonstrate that FORMULA A and not Placebo:
         1) Increases the ratio of Bacteroidetes species to Firmicutes species in fecal samples when samples at the end of study are compared to samples at the onset of study;   2) Improves severity of pain and discomfort;   3) Increases stool consistency;   4) Decreases urgency to evacuate;   5) Decreases stool frequency;   6) Decreases bloating   7) Increases sense of complete evacuation.       

     Utilization of FORMULA A to treat idiopathic diarrhea such as a parasitic infection, a viral infection and a symptomatic response to a food is expected to also improve the severity of pain and discomfort, increase stool consistency, decrease the urgency to evacuate, decrease stool frequency, and decrease the sensation of bloating. 
     EXAMPLE 7 
     Case Report of FORMULA A Use in Fecal Bacteriotherapy 
     A 55 year old woman with chronic diarrhea that was associated with  C. difficile  infection initially presents to her primary care physician diarrhea of 8 months duration that originally started shortly following treatment with cephalosporin and quinolone antibiotics for back surgery and a pulmonary infection. During these eight months, she is repeatedly treated with metronidazole and vancomycin, and required several hospitalizations for intravenous hydration. The patient complains of loose small bowel movements every 15 minutes, accompanied by great urgency and rectal tenesmus. She wears diapers at all times and loses 10% of her body weight. Flexible sigmoidoscopy demonstrates classic pseudomembranous colitis. Stool samples are positive for  C. difficile  toxins A and B, and stool culture confirms heavy growth of this bacterium. The patient is again treated with vancomycin, but fails to respond. She is subsequently prescribed nitazoxanide (2-acetyloxy-N-(5-nitro-2-thiazolyl)benzamide), 500 mg orally, twice daily. Ten day after discontinuation of Nitazoxanide, the patient has recurrence of her original diarrheal symptoms. Endoscopic analysis indicates return of pseudomembranous colitis, and stool studies are again positive for  C. difficile . Despite two more cycles of Nitazoxanide, including one lasting a full month, and continuous administration of Florastor, a probiotic containing  Saccharomyces boulardii , the  C. difficile -induced colitis reoccurrs. 
     Since conventional treatment fails to resolve the  C. diff , fecal bacteriotherapy is offered to break the cycle of recurrences and achieve a potential cure. Informed consent is obtained from both the patient and the donor following discussion with each of the potential risks, benefits, and alternative options. The patient is maintained on Nitazoxanide until the day before the procedure. The patient&#39;s husband of 44 years (donor) is prescribed FORMULA A 3 times a day for 2 weeks. Fecal donor material is taken from him, who has no risk factors for blood-borne communicable diseases, has no recent exposure to antibiotics, has no gastrointestinal symptoms of any kind, and tests negative for common stool pathogens and  C. difficile . Bacteriotherapy is delivered into the patient&#39;s right colon by way of a colonoscopy. The patient is expected to have her first solid bowel movement on the second day following treatment. It is expected that her abdominal pain gradually subsides, and at one month following bacteriotherapy and it is expected that her stool samples will be negative for  C. difficile . The patient is expected to commence FORMULA A twice a day. At six months follow-up, the patient is expected to report once-daily formed stools. 
     All measurements disclosed herein are at standard temperature and pressure, at sea level on Earth, unless indicated otherwise. All materials used or intended to be used in a human being are biocompatible, unless indicated otherwise. 
     The foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only; the scope of the present invention is to be limited only by the following claims.