Abstract:
Electrical pumping of photonic crystal (PC) nanocavities using a lateral p-i-n junction is described. Ion implantation doping can be used to form the junction, which under forward bias pumps a gallium arsenide photonic crystal nanocavity with indium arsenide quantum dots. Efficient cavity-coupled electroluminescence is demonstrated in a first experimental device. Electrically pumped lasing is demonstrated in a second experimental device. This approach provides several significant advantages. Ease of fabrication is improved because difficult timed etch steps are not required. Any kind of PC design can be employed. Current flow can be lithographically controlled to focus current flow to the active region of the device, thereby improving efficiency, reducing resistance, improving speed, and reducing threshold. Insulating substrates can be employed, which facilitates inclusion of these devices in photonic integrated circuits.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application 61/341,881, filed on Apr. 5, 2010, entitled “Practical Electrically Pumped Photonic Crystal Nanocavity”, and hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Optical interconnects have been proposed as a replacement for electrical interconnects because the loss in electrical wires at high frequencies is becoming a major limitation in information processing devices. To be practical, optical interconnects must therefore consume very little power. For example, one study found that in order for an on-chip optical interconnect to be useful, the entire optical link must consume less than 10 fJ/bit. Semiconductor nanocavity lasers are promising optical sources for this application because they consume little power due to the small active volume and the Purcell effect threshold reduction. The optically pumped photonic crystal (PC) nanocavity laser has been extensively studied because it has been shown to have nanowatt thresholds and high speed modulation rates. In addition, it has been demonstrated that it can operate in continuous wave mode at room temperature, and can be easily integrated with passive elements, such as PC waveguides, making them promising for optoelectronic integrated circuits. However, in order for them to be practical, electrical pumping techniques must be developed. 
     The main challenge of electrically pumping PC membrane nanocavities is how to efficiently inject current into the cavity region. A vertical p-i-n junction in the membrane has been used to electrically pump GaAs PC cavities and to demonstrate reduction of emission rate for cavity coupled electroluminescence (EL). However, due to the limited current spreading ability of the thin conductive layers, most of the electroluminescence is not coupled to the cavity. A PC nanocavity can be efficiently pumped by using a central current post, and lasing has been demonstrated using this technique (Park et al., Science v305 n5689 pp 1444-1447, 2004). One disadvantage of the approach of Park et al. is that the fabrication is complicated, requiring a precisely timed undercut step, and an arbitrary PC design cannot be used since the size and position of the PC holes determine the current post size. In addition, the lasers had a high threshold compared to other electrically pumped microcavity lasers such as micropillars, suggesting that the PC lasers suffered from undesirable leakage current. Thus, practical electrical pumping of PC semiconductor devices has not yet been demonstrated. 
     One example of PC nanocavities in the art is the work of Tanabe et al., (e.g., as described in Applied Physics Letters v96, pp 101103-1 to 101103-3 and in Optics Express v17n25, pp 22505-22513) relating to PC photodetectors and modulators. Other examples of PC nanocavities in the art include U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,784,400, 7,079,240 and 7,492,979, where lasing in such nanocavities is considered. However, as indicated above, electrical pumping of PC nanocavities is difficult, and none of these patent references demonstrate electrical pumping of a PC laser. 
     SUMMARY 
     To address this issue, a technique to electrically pump photonic crystal nanocavities using a lateral p-i-n junction is described. In two examples described below, ion implantation doping is used to form the junction, which under forward bias pumps a gallium arsenide photonic crystal nanocavity with indium arsenide quantum dots. Efficient cavity-coupled electroluminescence is demonstrated in a first experimental device. Electrically pumped lasing is demonstrated in a second experimental device. 
     A lateral p-i-n junction presents a solution to the above-described problem since the current flow can be defined lithographically and therefore is compatible with arbitrary photonic crystal designs. Ion implantation is a standard method of doping in the electronics industry, and can also be used to dope III-V materials with a lateral junction on a sub-micron scale. Previous studies of edge-emitting lateral current injection lasers found that the performance was worse than in comparable vertical injection lasers due to a nonuniform carrier distribution in the active region. This is because the lasers were fabricated with intrinsic regions wider than the ambipolar diffusion length, which in most III-V materials is approximately 1 μm. Improvements in fabrication techniques should allow the intrinsic region width to be reduced significantly, leading to better performance. 
     This approach provides several significant advantages. Ease of fabrication is improved because difficult timed etch steps are not required. Any kind of PC design can be employed. Current flow can be lithographically controlled to focus current flow to the active region of the device, thereby improving efficiency, reducing resistance, improving speed, and reducing threshold. Insulating substrates can be employed, which facilitates inclusion of these devices in photonic integrated circuits. 
       FIG. 1   e  shows a top view of an exemplary embodiment of the invention. In this example, a semiconductor layer  108  is a direct gap material (e.g., GaAs, InP, InGaAs, etc.). An optical resonator  132  is disposed in layer  108 , and has its lateral confinement (i.e., confinement in the plane of layer  108 ) provided by a photonic crystal structure  124 . In this example, the photonic crystal structure is an array of holes substantially on a hexagonal lattice, as shown. A lateral P-I-N structure is also present in layer  108 . More specifically, region  114  is an n-type region, region  116  is a p-type region, and region  130  is an intrinsic region. Optical resonator  132  is included in intrinsic region  130  and is adjacent to n-type region  114  and to p-type region  116 . 
     Preferably, intrinsic region  130  includes a focus zone  134  having width substantially less than other zones of the intrinsic region, and has optical resonator  132  disposed in this focus zone, as shown on  FIG. 1   e . Here, the term “width” refers to the lateral separation between the p-type and n-type regions provided by intrinsic region  130  (i.e., “width” is the vertical dimension on  FIG. 1   e ). More preferably, focus zone  134  has a width of ¼ or less of a nominal width of other zones of the intrinsic region (e.g., the width of zone  136 ). This geometry for the intrinsic region provides lateral current confinement, such that current flow between the p-type and n-type regions primarily occurs through focus zone  134  of intrinsic region  130 . In more physical terms, it is preferred for the width of focus zone  134  to be less than the ambipolar diffusion length in the material of layer  108 , and for the width of other zones of intrinsic region  130  to be greater than this ambipolar diffusion length. It is also preferred for the lateral dimensions of focus zone  134  to be substantially the same as the lateral dimensions of optical resonator  132  (e.g., as shown on  FIG. 1   e ). 
     The optical resonator can be any type of optical resonator having photonic crystal lateral confinement. In the example of  FIG. 1   e , the optical resonator is formed by a defect including one or more linearly adjacent missing holes of the photonic crystal array. In this example, the defect is referred to as an L3 defect because 3 adjacent holes are missing. The defect that forms the optical resonator can also include holes having their positions shifted from nominal lattice positions. Missing and/or shifted holes can be used in any combination to form the optical resonator. For example, holes near the missing holes of an L3 defect can be shifted to improve cavity quality factor (e.g., as described in greater detail in articles by Akahane et al. (Nature 425, 944-947 2004) and Ellis et al. (APL 90, 151102 2007), both of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety). 
     Optical resonator  132  can include quantum wells, quantum wires, and/or quantum dots to improve device performance (e.g., by increasing optical gain). Such inclusions can be provided by including them in semiconductor layer  108  using any suitable fabrication approach, such as molecular beam epitaxy, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, and vapor phase epitaxy. 
     Photonic crystal structure  124  can include one or more waveguides to provide in-plane optical coupling to resonator  132 . Such waveguides can have any design that is compatible with the photonic crystal structure. For example, extended linear defects in the photonic crystal structure can be used to form waveguides. 
     These lateral P-I-N structures can be applied to several kinds of optoelectronic devices. A laser having such a structure may provide a practical approach for electrical pumping of photonic crystal lasers. A modulator having such a structure may provide efficient injection of carriers to provide modulation (e.g. due to the refractive index shift provided by injected carriers). A detector having such a structure may provide efficient transport of photo-generated carriers from the resonator to contacts at the p-type and n-type regions. There are also many other applications of this structure. For example, light emitting diodes, electrically driven PC electro-optic devices (e.g., splitters), solar cells, and controllably charging a quantum dot in a photonic crystal cavity. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIGS. 1   a - d  show an exemplary fabrication sequence for use in connection with embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 1   e  shows a top view of an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 2  shows ion implantation profiles from an experiment relating to an example of the invention. 
         FIG. 3  shows pre-anneal and post-anneal quantum dot luminescence. 
         FIG. 4  shows a top view SEM photograph of an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 5  shows an experimentally measured I-V curve. 
         FIG. 6  shows experimental electroluminescence results. 
         FIGS. 7   a - b  show experimental lasing results from an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIGS. 8   a - b  show further experimental results from the embodiment of  FIGS. 7   a - b.    
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The following description relates to an experimental investigation relating to the above described principles. 
     A schematic of the fabrication process is shown in  FIGS. 1   a - d . Briefly, Si and Mg ions are implanted through a silicon nitride mask patterned by electron beam lithography ( FIGS. 1   a - b ). Next, the implanted dopants are activated by annealing at 900 C for 30 s with a nitride cap which is subsequently removed by dry etching. ( FIG. 1   b ). Next, the photonic crystal pattern is defined in a resist by electron beam lithography and transferred into the GaAs membrane by dry etching ( FIGS. 1   c - d ). Finally, the Al 0.9 Ga 0.1  As sacrificial layer is oxidized and the p and n contacts are deposited by photolithography and liftoff.} 
     The wafer used in this experiment has a 1 μm Al 0.9 Ga 0.1 As sacrificial layer  104  and a 130 nm GaAs membrane  108  with one layer  110  of high density (1×10 10  cm −2 ) InAs quantum dots in the middle. These layers were disposed as shown on a GaAs substrate  102 . First, a dry-etcher is used to define alignment marks. Next Si ions at an energy of 71 keV and a dose of 4×10 13  cm −2  and Mg ions at an energy of 55 keV and a dose of 5×10 13  cm −2  are implanted through a 330 nm nitride mask  112  that is patterned by electron beam lithography. Si and Mg ions are chosen because they offer the best combination of low damage, high activation efficiency, and a low diffusion coefficient.  FIG. 1   a  shows the nitride mask for the Si implantation that provides n-type region  114 . A similar nitride mask was used for the Mg implantation that provides p-type region  116 . Any other doping method can also be employed (e.g., regrowth and diffusion doping). 
       FIG. 2  shows the simulated ion distribution as a function of depth. The energies of the ions are chosen so that the maximum of the dopant distribution is in the middle of membrane  108  and the doses are chosen to be well below the amorphization dose. Next, the samples are annealed at 900° C. for 30 seconds to remove most of the ion implantation induced damage and activate the dopants. It was found that use of a 30 nm nitride cap ( 118  on  FIG. 1   b ) was helpful to prevent As outdiffusion during the anneal step. After the anneal, the PC pattern  122  was defined by electron beam lithography of a resist  120  ( FIG. 1   c ) and dry-etched into membrane  108  to form the PC  124  ( FIG. 1   d ). The Al 0.9 Ga 0.1 As sacrificial layer  104  underneath the GaAs membrane  108  was then oxidized in an oxidation furnace to form aluminum oxide  106  ( FIG. 1   d ). Next a Au—Ge—Ni—Au n-type contact  126  and a Au—Zn—Au p-type contact  128  were deposited, and the contacts were annealed at 450° C. for one minute ( FIG. 1   d ). Based on the results of Hall effect and electrochemical capacitance voltage (ECV) measurements we estimate the maximum n-type doping concentration in the middle of the membrane to be about 8×10 17  cm −3  and the maximum p-type doping concentration to be about 3×10 18  cm −3 . These concentrations are consistent with dopant activation efficiencies measured elsewhere. 
     To study the effect of the doping process on the quantum dot photoluminescence, the samples were cooled to 30K. The cooling was performed because the shallow-confinement InAs quantum dots do not emit at room temperature.  FIG. 3  shows the quantum dot photoluminescence (PL) from a region with no implanted ions before and after the activation anneal. The quantum dot density in our wafer is too high to see the emission lines of individual quantum dots, and we instead see a Gaussian distribution of emission where the full-width half maximum (FWHM) is determined by the inhomogeneous broadening of the dot ensemble. The quantum dot emission is grown to be centered at 940 nm; however the activation anneal step causes the dots to blue shift by about 30 nm. Interestingly, the FWHM of the quantum dot emission is reduced by a factor of 2, indicating a reduction of the inhomogeneous broadening. Previous studies of this effect have found that rapid thermal annealing of quantum dots can actually be beneficial for laser applications because the FWHM of the dot distribution narrows, increasing the available gain; however the blue shift of the emission wavelength must be compensated for during the growth. Ion implantation induced damage introduces nonradiative recombination centers, and the PL intensity was observed to decrease significantly in the implanted regions, similar to what has been observed in other experiments. The unimplanted regions are left undamaged, so the emission intensity there is unaffected. 
     The doping layout is shown in  FIG. 4  (and also on  FIG. 1   e ).  FIG. 4  is an SEM photograph of an experimental device. The edges of the p and n doped regions are indicated by white dashed lines on  FIG. 4 . We employ a linear, three hole defect PC cavity design where the end holes have been shifted to increase the quality factor (as described in greater detail in the above-referenced articles by Akahane et al. and Ellis et al). Away from the cavity region the intrinsic region is wider than the ambipolar diffusion length. The combination of the wide intrinsic region of the diode and the PC holes form a high resistance region reducing leakage current. In the cavity region the intrinsic region of the diode is designed to be between 200 and 400 nm wide. To confirm that dopant diffusion during the activation anneal does not drastically change the dopant layout, a scanning capacitance atomic force microscope was used to image the dopant distribution on devices without PCs. These results (not shown here) indicate the presence of the desired doping without topographical effects. To make the cavities easier to test electrically, the cavities were electrically connected in parallel, ten of them per pair of contacts. The IV curve of ten cavities in parallel is shown in  FIG. 5 . From this we infer that the current density in the cavity region is high, around 10 3  A/cm 2  at an applied voltage of 1.5V. Previous studies of the electrical properties of doped photonic crystals have found that the surface depletion region around the holes affects the series resistance. This is because the depletion region at the hole edges, and at the top and bottom of the membrane decreases the available volume for conduction. Carrier transport in the photonic crystal is determined by the electrical effective air fill factor f elec (π/2√{square root over (3)})[(d+2δ) 2 /a 2 ], where δ is the depletion width, d is the membrane thickness, and a is the spacing between photonic crystal holes. We estimate that the depletion width δ is approximately 45 nm and 30 nm in the n and p-type regions, respectively, indicating that the membrane is likely not fully depleted. 
     Next, the sample was cooled to 30K, 1.6V of forward bias was applied to the cavity, and the EL was imaged by a confocal microscope. The EL was seen to be confined to the cavity region, confirming that the devices have a low leakage current. A pinhole was used to collect the emission from only one cavity, and the spectrum of a single cavity is shown in  FIG. 6 . The insets show Lorentzian fits to the experimental cavity spectrum to determine the quality factor. Two cavity modes are observed with quality factors of approximately 400. FDTD simulations indicate that the highest wavelength mode is the fundamental mode of the cavity. The simulated Q of the cavity is approximately 2000, and is limited by the high refractive index (n≈1.72) aluminum oxide layer  106  under the cavity. No lasing was observed from the cavities even at high current and pulsed pumping conditions. However, the demonstrated structures are also interesting for a variety of electrically injected devices such as LEDs and modulators that do not require gain in addition to lasers. 
     We now consider the properties of the this experimental device which prevent it from reaching the lasing regime. Lasing from photonic crystal nanocavities has been previously demonstrated with optical pumping in this material. The condition for optical gain is the Bernard-Duraffourg condition, (F c −F v )&gt;           ω, where (F c −F v ) is the separation of the quasi-Fermi levels and          ω is the emission energy. From Poisson simulations, we conclude that the doping densities in our device are not high enough to satisfy this condition. This indicates that the doping must be increased to reach population inversion and lasing. Simulations of the ion implantation induced damage indicate that the ion doses for both the Si and Mg doping steps can be increased by about a factor of 5 before the damage begins to amorphize the membrane. Because some of this damage will be annealed out in the activation step, it is not clear how much the ion dose can be increased before there is too much damage to achieve lasing. Alternatively a lighter dopant such as Be will generate fewer vacancies during implantation and therefore can be used to achieve higher doping densities. Be has been used to demonstrate ion implantation doped edge emitting lasers in GaAs before.
     In a second experimental device, lasing has been demonstrated. For this second device, the intrinsic region is designed to be 400 nm wide in the cavity region and extends to 5 μm wide to the sides of the cavity. This design efficiently directs the current flow through the cavity region. We choose a modified 3-hole defect PC cavity design. FDTD simulations the fundamental cavity mode give a theoretically estimated quality factor of 115,000, comparable to previous studies of similar cavities. 
     Ion implantation of Be and Si ions is used to dope the p- and n-type regions respectively. Because implantation of high energy ions causes some lattice damage that will reduce the gain, it is important that the p and n regions are precisely aligned to the PC cavity to avoid damaging the active region. We developed a fabrication procedure where the ions are implanted through silicon nitride masks patterned by electron beam lithography to achieve approximately 30 nm alignment accuracy. The gain material for the laser is three layers of high density (300 μm −2 ) InAs quantum dots. In order to activate the ion implanted dopants, we perform a high temperature anneal. We optimized this anneal procedure to give sufficient dopant activation without significantly changing the emission properties of the quantum dots. After the activation anneal we find that the peak photoluminescence wavelength of the quantum dots is 1175 nm at 100 K. We find that the average doping density in the membrane (after dopant activation) is 6.0×10 17  cm −3  and 2.5×10 19  cm −3  in the n and p regions respectively. 
     Further details on the growth and fabrication of this sample follow. The wafer was grown using molecular beam epitaxy. Starting with a semi-insulating substrate, a 1 μm Al 0.95 Ga 0.05 As sacrificial layer was grown, followed by a 220 nm GaAs membrane that contained three layers of InAs quantum dots separated by 50 nm GaAs spacers. The dots were formed by depositing 2.8 monolayers of InAs at 510° C. using a growth rate of 0.05 monolayers/s. The dots were capped with a 6 nm In 0.15 Ga 0.85 As strain reducing layer. The resulting dot density was approximately 300 dots/μm 2  as confirmed by atomic force microscopy measurements of uncapped quantum dot samples. 
     In fabrication, alignment marks were defined on the unpatterned wafer using electron beam lithography and dry-etched around 100 nm into the membrane using an Ar/Cl 2 /BCl 3  electron-cyclotron resonance reactive ion etch (ECR-RIE). Next, a 330 nm layer of silicon nitride was deposited on the sample using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) to serve as a mask for ion implantation of Si. Electron beam lithography was used to pattern the n-type doping region, and an SF 6 /C 2 F 6  dry etch was used to remove the nitride from the n-type doping area. Si ions were implanted at an energy of 115 keV and a dose of 3e14/cm 2 . An SF 6 /C 2 F 6  dry etch was used to remove the remaining silicon nitride, and another 330 nm layer of silicon nitride was deposited on the sample using PECVD to serve as the mask for ion implantation of Be. Electron beam lithography was used to pattern the p-type doping region and an SF 6 /C 2 F 6  dry etch was used to remove the silicon nitride from the p-type doping area. Be ions were implanted at an energy of 32 keV and a dose of 2.5e15/cm 2 . An SF 6 /C 2 F 6  dry etch was used to remove the remaining silicon nitride. A 40 nm tensile strained silicon nitride cap was deposited using PECVD to prevent As out-diffusion during the subsequent high temperature anneal. The samples were then annealed at 850° C. for 15 s in a rapid thermal annealer to activate the dopants and remove almost all of the lattice damage caused by the ion implantation. An SF 6 /C 2 F 6  dry etch was used to remove the nitride cap. The photonic crystal pattern was defined using electron beam lithography and etched into the membrane using an Ar/Cl 2 /BCl 3 ECR-RIE. Simultaneously with the photonic crystal, trenches were etched to the sides of the cavity and all the way around each of the contacts; this was found to reduce the leakage current to reasonable levels. Next, the photonic crystal was loaded in a wet thermal oxidation furnace and the sacrificial layer was oxidized at 465° C. for 7 minutes. Photolithography and electron beam evaporation were used to define Au/Ge/Ni/Au n-type contacts in a lift-off process. Photolithography and sputtering were used to define Au/Zn/Au p-type contacts also in a lift-off process. The contacts were then annealed at 415° C. for 15 s to achieve minimum contact resistance. Finally, 45% potassium hydroxide solution in water was used to remove the oxidized sacrificial layer underneath the cavity leaving an air-clad photonic crystal membrane. 
     To confirm the doping layout before fabrication of the PC cavity we use scanning capacitance atomic force microscopy (SCM). Hall effect was used to find the carrier sheet concentration in semi-insulating GaAs test samples implanted with the same conditions as the laser samples. The doping profile was measured using an electrochemical capacitance voltage measurement using 0.1 M NaOH with Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) surfactant as the electrolyte. An atomic force microscope with a scanning capacitance attachment was used to measure the doping layout on the actual laser samples on devices without photonic crystals. A two plate capacitor setup for scanning consisted of the sample, native surface oxide, and a gold coated AFM tip used in contact mode with a scanning bias of 1 V. 
     It has been found that the diffusion coefficient of Be in GaAs is much higher than that of Si, especially for Be concentrations above 10 19  cm −3 . Therefore, it was expected that the activation anneal will redistribute the dopants significantly. We used high resolution scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM) to approximate the extent of dopant diffusion. SCM data is a combination of the phase and amplitude of capacitance data taken spatially across the sample where the gold AFM tip and sample act as the capacitor plates and the native oxide as an insulator between them. The strength of the signal is directly proportional to the intensity of doping in the local region underneath the tip. The technique relies on the fact that the silicon nitride implant mask introduces some surface roughness that is visible on the AFM topography scan. This surface roughness can then be compared to the location of the edge of the doping to determine the amount of dopant diffusion during the activation anneal. 
     With this method, we determine that the Be doping edge is approximately 300 nm from the mask edge and the Si doping edge is approximately 150 nm from the mask edge. This allows us to determine the precise location of the dopants and position the photonic crystal cavity directly in the center of the intrinsic region. 
     AFM topography and SCM data for similar structures without PCs demonstrated that the desired dopant layout is achieved. From this data we can identify the exact locations of the doping regions and precisely position the PC cavity in the center of the intrinsic region. The parameters of the cavity are chosen so that the fundamental cavity mode is at a wavelength of 1174 nm at low temperature, within the ground state emission of the quantum dots. We confirm that this mode is the fundamental mode of the cavity by identifying the higher order cavity modes in the electroluminescence spectra and comparing them with FDTD results. 
     As mentioned above, a high temperature anneal is performed to activate the ion implanted dopants and remove most of the lattice damage caused during implantation. In order to optimize the annealing conditions to achieve a high doping density, we implanted semi-insulating GaAs samples under the same conditions as the laser samples. We tested the activation efficiency of our dopants for rapid thermal anneal temperatures between 800° C. and 900° C. for a range of times between 10 and 30 s. We found that Be activates most efficiently at 800° C. while Si activates most efficiently at 900° C. We chose an intermediate anneal temperature of 850° C. for 15 s. Room temperature Hall effect measurements were used to characterize the doping density of the test samples. Using Hall effect, we found a sheet carrier density of 7.9*10 14  cm −2  (1.1*10 13  cm −2 ) and a mobility of 126 cm 2 /Vs (1930 cm 2 /Vs) for the p-type (n-type) sample. The high mobility values indicate that the anneal step was effective in removing much of the lattice damage. Electrochemical capacitance voltage (ECV) measurements were used to determine the doping density as a function of depth. The sheet carrier density found by integrating the ECV data is comparable to the sheet density measured using Hall effect. 
     The high temperature anneal also affects the emission properties of the quantum dots. Previous studies of this effect have found that high temperature anneals tend to blueshift the quantum dot photoluminescence and narrow the inhomogeneous broadening of the quantum dot ensemble. This could be beneficial for laser applications because theoretically the quantum dot gain could be increased by annealing. The effects of the activation anneal on the quantum dots are summarized as follows. We observe no significant narrowing of the photoluminescence full width half maximum, but there is a significant blueshift. The photonic crystal cavities are designed to have the fundamental mode resonant with the ground state of the quantum dot photoluminescence after annealing when the sample is at low temperature. 
     For optical testing, the sample was epoxied to an alumina chip carrier using nonconductive, vacuum-safe epoxy. Aluminum wirebonds were used to connect individual devices to the leads of the chip carrier, and the chip carrier was loaded into a continuous flow helium cryostat with custom designed coldfinger and electrical feedthroughs. The temperature was stabilized to within half a degree Kelvin. Currents were applied using a sourcemeter with sub nA accuracy. The emission from the sample was collected using an objective lens with numerical aperture 0.5 in the direction perpendicular to the sample surface. Emission spectra were measured using a spectrometer with a liquid-nitrogen cooled InGaAs charge coupled device (CCD) detector and luminescence images were taken with an InGaAs CCD camera. 
       FIG. 7   a  shows the optical output power of the laser as a function of continuous wave pump current at several different temperatures. We observe a clear lasing threshold for temperatures below 150 K. As the temperature increases, the quantum dot resonance wavelength and the cavity resonance wavelength red-shift at different rates. At higher temperatures, the photonic crystal cavity resonances are no longer within the gain bandwidth of the quantum dots. A measurement on the same structure at 200 K where no lasing is observed is included for comparison. To determine the threshold of our laser we use a linear fit to the above threshold characteristics and extrapolate it to zero-output power (lines in  FIG. 7   a ). We find that the threshold of our laser is 181 nA at 50 K and 287 nA at 150 K. To the best of our knowledge, this is the lowest threshold ever demonstrated in an electrically pumped semiconductor laser. It is 3 orders of magnitude better than the 260 μA threshold demonstrated in quantum well PC cavity lasers and more than an order of magnitude better than the thresholds demonstrated in metal-clad lasers and micropost lasers. The low thresholds demonstrated herein can be attributed to the better control over the current flow, and the reduced surface recombination in quantum dot based photonic crystal lasers. At threshold, the applied voltage is only 1.15 V at 50 K and 1.03 V at 150 K, meaning that at threshold the lasers consume only 208 nW at 50 K and 296 nW at 150 K. From the collected power, we estimate the total power radiated by the laser to be on the order of a few nW well above threshold.  FIG. 7   b  shows the experimental far-field radiation pattern of the cavity at various current levels. 
     The laser linewidth (full width half maximum) as a function of current is plotted in  FIG. 8   a . The linewidth narrows from around 1.35 nm just below threshold to 0.95 nm well above threshold. The quality factor of the cavity mode at threshold is approximately 1130. This quality factor is significantly smaller than expected from FDTD simulations. The low quality factor is likely due to free carrier absorption or surface roughness introduced by the fabrication procedure. Room-temperature optically pumped lasing in nanocavities with similar quantum dots has recently been demonstrated, and we believe that further refinements to the fabrication procedure will allow us to demonstrate electrically pumped lasing at room temperature. 
     Although we have optimized our device design to reduce leakage current, at low voltages before the diode has fully turned on we observe leakage current bypassing the cavity through the sacrificial layer and substrate. Therefore, if the device design is further improved to reduce this leakage, the threshold could be significantly lower. To find the potential threshold reduction, we fit the current voltage characteristics to an ideal diode equation to determine the fraction of current flowing through the cavity as a function of applied voltage. The light output of the laser as a function of the current after subtracting the leakage is plotted in  FIG. 8   b  (points) along with a fit to the laser rate equations (line). From the fit and simulations of the Purcell factor in our cavity we determine that the fraction of spontaneous emission that is coupled to the cavity mode (commonly called the β-factor) is between 0.29 and 0.41 in our laser. The laser threshold after correcting for the leakage current is only 70 nA. 
     In summary, we have demonstrated that a lateral p-i-n junction can be used to electrically pump a GaAs PC nanocavity. The properties of an ion implantation doped PC light emitting diode are studied, and efficient electroluminescence from an L3 nanocavity is demonstrated. The electrical properties of the device and the improvements necessary to make a laser are presented. 
     We have also designed and demonstrated an electrically pumped quantum dot photonic crystal nanocavity laser. The laser operates in continuous wave mode at temperatures up to 150 K, and exhibits ultralow thresholds of 181 nA at 50 K and 287 nA at 150 K. If we subtract the leakage current flowing into the substrate, the threshold current is estimated to be around 70 nA. These lasing thresholds are three orders of magnitude lower than previous demonstrations of electrically pumped PC nanocavity lasers, and lower than any electrically injected laser so far. We believe that room temperature operation is possible if the quality factors of the cavity can be improved, and if the cavity resonances are better aligned to the quantum dot gain spectrum at room temperature. In addition, it should be possible to integrate this laser on a Si chip by wafer bonding techniques if the high temperature steps are performed before bonding. The low power dissipation of these lasers makes them very promising for applications in optical interconnects and high speed communications as well as for fundamental studies of the properties of electrically pumped thresholdless lasers and lasers with single-emitter gain.