Abstract:
Devices, systems, and methods are disclosed that analyze a biological or other fluid sample using an electrophoresis or other separation method and then emit the fluid sample with separated constituents using an electrohydrodynamic spray to form a Taylor cone and jet, without dispersion into droplets, onto a substrate that moves with respect to the emitter. Electrodes can be shared between the electrophoresis and electrospray elements, and an adjunct fluid can help draw the separated sample into the Taylor cone. A micro-machined capillary channel on a chip can supply multiple lines to a substrate.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/024,256, filed Jul. 14, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. 
     
    
     STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 
     Not Applicable 
     BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    Generally, this application relates to molecular biology and bioanalytical chemistry processes and apparatuses including testing means. Certain embodiments relate to devices, systems, and methods for preparing protein assays. 
         [0004]    2. Background 
         [0005]    Western blotting is a ubiquitous technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins in complex biological samples. The proteins are separated using gel electrophoresis by their molecular weight (or isoelectric point), and then the proteins are transferred to a membrane, such as nitrocellulose or PVDF. The proteins on the membrane are then stained with antibodies of the targeted proteins for identification and/or confirmation of the proteins. 
         [0006]    Capillary electrophoresis is sometimes an alternative to gel electrophoresis. Less touch labor is typically necessary, and smaller samples can be used. Microfluidic channels on a ‘chip’ have been studied as an extremely efficient version of capillary electrophoresis, and wicking the output of microfluidic channels directly onto a x-y translating membrane has been studied as an alternative to creating Western blots (U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2013/0213811 A1, published Aug. 22, 2013). Unfortunately, uneven wicking into the membrane has been found to cause adverse effects such as high background and inconsistent fluid flow. Further, the geometry must be carefully set up lest there be damage to the solid-support, damage to the microchip, and occasional loss of electrical current when the contact is interrupted. 
         [0007]    There is a need in the art for improvements in sample preparation for Western blots, Northern blots, Southern blots, and other 1-dimensional or 2-dimensional membrane analysis methods. 
       BRIEF SUMMARY 
       [0008]    Generally, devices, systems, and methods are described that separate a fluidic sample of proteins or other analyte and then transfer the separated analyte to a moving medium using an electrohydrodynamic (EHD) sprayer. An electrode charges the fluid by removing or adding electrons from molecules in the fluid and/or fluid from an auxiliary sheath fluid. The EHD sprayer then emits the charged fluid through an electrospray head, creating a Taylor cone and associated jet. Before the charged fluid in the jet repels into a mist, it hits a substrate in which the fluid is blotted. That is, a gap between the electrospray head and the substrate is small enough that the fluid is still in cohesive jet or stream when it hits the substrate. While the jet of liquid is transferring fluid to the substrate, the substrate translates in a direction perpendicular to the sprayer tip (i.e., laterally with respect to the sprayer tip) in order to keep the gap size constant. Alternatively, the sprayer tip can move (laterally) and the medium stays fixed. 
         [0009]    In some embodiments in which electrophoresis is used for the separation, a conductor electrode used for electrophoresis is shared with a conductor electrode for the EHD sprayer. The upstream voltage for electrophoresis and substrate voltage for electrospraying are adjusted selected in relation to the common, shared conductor. 
         [0010]    Multiple spray heads can be lined in a row and emit different analytes in multiple columns on the membrane. A lab-on-a-chip configuration, with multiple channels terminating in EHD sprayers, can shoot several lines of output from separation columns etched in the chip substrate. 
         [0011]    Some embodiments of the present invention are related to an apparatus for separating and continuously blotting a fluid sample. The apparatus includes a separator with a fluid path filled with a separation matrix, the fluid path having an input end and an output end, the input end of the fluid path having an opening configured to accept a fluid sample for separation, an electrohydrodynamic (EHD) electrode in connection with the output end of the fluid path, the EHD electrode configured for imparting an electric charge to a fluid sample within the fluid path and creating a stream of charged fluid, a substrate positioned across a gap from the output end, a substrate electrode connected with the substrate, and a motor connecting the substrate to the separator, the motor configured to laterally and continuously move the substrate and separator with respect to each other. 
         [0012]    The apparatus can include a third electrode coupled with the fluid path upstream of the output end of the fluid path, wherein the third electrode and EHD electrode are configured to apply an electric field within the fluid path for electrophoresis. The apparatus can include an adjunct tube with an output in fluidic contact with the output end of the fluid path, the adjunct tube configured to present a second fluid at the output end of the fluid path and entrain an output of the separation matrix with the second fluid. The fluid path can include a lumen of a capillary tube, and the adjunct tube can include a sheath surrounding a portion of the capillary tube. 
         [0013]    The apparatus can include a pump configured to pump the second fluid through the adjunct tube. The apparatus can include a pump configured to load the fluid sample onto the fluid path. The gap can be a distance of about 0 5 mm to about 10 mm, including a distance of about 0.5 mm to about 3 mm. The gap can be less than that in which the stream of charged fluid begins to disperse into droplets. The gap can be configured to be greater than a height of a Taylor cone of charged fluid from the output end. 
         [0014]    The separator can be selected from the group consisting of a capillary tube and a micro-fabricated chip. A voltage source can be operatively connected with at least one of the electrodes. A fluid sample can be present within the fluid path. The separation matrix can be selected from the group consisting of nanoparticles, beads, a gel, and macromolecules in solution. The gel can be selected from the group consisting of cross-linked polymers, an acrylamide gel, and an agarose gel. The nanoparticles can comprise silica spheres between about 1 nm and about 2000 nm in diameter arranged in a crystal structure. The separator can be adapted to move and the substrate is fixed, and/or the substrate can be adapted to move and the separator is fixed. 
         [0015]    The substrate can have an axis of rotation, the axis having a center of rotation displaced from a target area for the charged fluid, the axis being parallel to the gap between the output end and the substrate such that rotating the substrate moves the substrate laterally. The apparatus can include a plurality of fluid paths with outputs coupled with respective EHD electrodes, the EHD electrodes configured parallel to one another, wherein the substrate is adapted to be moved perpendicular to a line between two of the outputs. 
         [0016]    Some embodiments relate to a method for separating and blotting a fluid sample. The method includes providing a fluid path filled with a separation matrix, the fluid path having an input end and an output end, the input end of the fluid path having an opening configured to accept a fluid sample for separation, administering the fluid sample to the input end, separating analytes within the fluid sample, imparting an electrical charge to the fluid sample at the output end of the fluid path in order to charge the fluid sample into a charged fluid, causing a voltage potential across a gap between the output end and a substrate, the voltage potential sufficient to cause the charged fluid to form a Taylor cone and jet, moving the substrate with respect to the fluid path, and blotting the charged fluid of the jet onto the substrate, the blotting occurring during the moving. 
         [0017]    The method can include generating an electric field between the input end and output end of the fluid path, the electric field helping to separate the analytes by electrophoresis. The method can include mixing sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) with the fluid sample, thereby preparing the fluid sample for SDS electrophoresis. The method can include applying pressure to the input end, thereby forcing the fluid sample through the fluid path by pressure. The method can include presenting a second fluid at the output end of the fluid path, and entraining an output of the separation matrix with the second fluid. 
         [0018]    The method can include detecting an analyte on the substrate using a detection reagent. The detection reagent can comprise an antibody. The antibody can comprise a primary antibody and a secondary antibody. The fluid sample can be a biological sample selected from the group consisting of proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. The fluid sample can include a protein ladder mixture. 
         [0019]    The charged fluid can be positively or negatively charged. 
         [0020]    The method, devices, systems and other aspects, objects and advantages will become more apparent when read with the detailed description and figures which follow. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0021]      FIG. 1  compares a conventional electrosprayer with an electrospray device truncated by a substrate in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0022]      FIG. 2  illustrates an electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Taylor cone jet blotter with a moving substrate in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0023]      FIG. 3  illustrates electrophoresis separation with an electrohydrodynamic Taylor cone jet blotter in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0024]      FIG. 4  illustrates high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation with an electrohydrodynamic Taylor cone jet blotter in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0025]      FIG. 5  is a picture of a prototype apparatus in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0026]      FIG. 6  is a close up picture of Taylor cone jet from the prototype apparatus of  FIG. 5 . 
           [0027]      FIG. 7  is a perspective illustration of lab-on-a-chip based electrohydrodynamic spray blotters in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0028]      FIG. 8  is a perspective illustration of a turntable apparatus for mass spectroscopy in accordance with an embodiment. 
           [0029]      FIG. 9  is a flowchart illustrating a process in accordance with an embodiment. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0030]    In general, embodiments enable the direct-blotting of proteins (or other molecules) by an electrohydrodynamic technique from a separation column onto a solid support for subsequent immuno-probing. The solid support moves with respect to the separation column, and liquid is transferred from the separation column to the solid support by electrospray techniques so that the solid support does not necessarily have to touch the separation column. 
         [0031]    “Electrohydrodynamics” includes the study and application of fluid flow induced by an applied electric field, or as otherwise known in the art. An electrospray device is an example of an electrohydrodynamic application. 
         [0032]    An “electrospray” includes techniques related to charging a fluid and expelling it so that it forms a Taylor cone and jet, or as otherwise known in the art. An electrospray can include devices that spray the charged fluid into a fine mist as well as devices that shoot a stream of charged fluid that does not have time to disperse into a mist before hitting an object, such as a substrate. 
         [0033]    A technical advantage of using electrohydrodynamics is that there is no requirement for solid contact between a separation column output and a membrane substrate. This can alleviate problems such as high background, damage to the solid-support, damage to the microchip, inconsistent fluid flow, and occasional loss of electrical current when the contact is interrupted. Further, it generally simplifies the instrument design while being compatible with various separation techniques (e.g. chromatography, electrophoresis, etc.) and media (e.g. linear acrylamide, silica colloidal crystals, etc.). 
         [0034]    A further technical advantage is that it enables high-resolution (spatial) blotting of molecules onto a solid support as they elute from a separation column. It also can work with wide variety of flow rates (e.g. 10 nL/min-10 uL/min), does not fragment (damage) biomolecules during the process, physically isolates the separation column from the solid support (no need to maintain liquid connection), and enables easy and fast control of the blotting process (i.e. turn on/off voltage potential, minimal “inertia” to stop/start). In some instances, it can be used to deliver antibodies and/or blocking reagents for low volume consumption (i.e. possible uses beyond separated samples). 
         [0035]      FIG. 1  illustrates a conventional electrospray apparatus dispersing fine droplets (on the left side of the figure) as well as an electrospray device with its jet truncated by a substrate (on the right side of the figure). 
         [0036]    For traditional electrosprays, a positively charged electrode (i.e., an electrode missing many electrons) pulls electrons from molecules in a fluid (because of the voltage potential). This charges the molecules positively. Then, the positively charged molecules in the fluid are attracted out of the spray head toward a negatively charged electrode. Because of the balance of surface tension forces and electric stresses, the charged fluid forms a Taylor cone and jet. As the jet moves away from the Taylor cone, the positively charged molecules repel each other through Coulomb forces. At a certain point, the repulsion forces overcome the surface tension of the jet and break free, forming a spray plume of fine droplets. 
         [0037]    Of course, the same holds true if the charges are reversed (and electrons are donated from the sprayer electrode to the molecules in the fluid to make them negatively charged). 
         [0038]    In the figure, capillary  102  has lumen  101  that holds fluid  106 , which is charged by voltage source  104 . In the example, fluid  106  is deprived of electrons by voltage source  104  and becomes positively charged. 
         [0039]    The voltage source creates a potential with a target (e.g. 1-10 kV). Fluid  106  exits the end of the capillary and forms Taylor cone  108 . Jet  110  of fluid is emitted out of the apex of the Taylor cone  108 . Simultaneously, the liquid sample  106  is subjected to a flow rate induced by pressure, such as a syringe pump. At distance A  109  from the apex of Taylor cone  108 , jet  110  disperses into plume  112 , which is a mist of fine droplets. Distance A  109  depends on the voltage potential set up by voltage source  104  between the end of capillary  102  and the ground, among other things. The droplets continue to break apart until evaporation completely eliminates the liquid surrounding the sample ions. As the droplets get smaller, the static charge repels them from one another causing the spray to diverge. 
         [0040]    On the right hand side of the figure, substrate  114  intercepts jet  110  before it disperses. That is, gap G  118  is less than that in which stream  110  of charged fluid begins to disperse into droplets. The geometry can generally be determined based on diameter D  116  of capillary tube  103 , the voltage potential between power source  104  and grounded substrate  114 , and the viscosity, surface tension, conductivity, and relative permittivity of the fluid. 
         [0041]    Embodiments using electrohydrodynamic blotting employ some of the same physics as an electrospray, but with differing goals for the application. In electrospray ionization (and deposition) it is intended that the sample be ionized into a gaseous state, whereas with blotting it is not necessary to ionize the sample directly or evaporate it out of solution. This allows the substrate to be placed closer to the Taylor cone. Preferably, the substrate would be located between the end of the cone and before droplet formation. This zone would enable the highest spatial resolution of blotting (the resolution may be adequate even with the spray plume). 
         [0042]    Another major difference between electrospray dispersion and EHD blotting is the sample contents. When ionization and mass spectra are desired, there are strict requirements on the contents of the sample. For example, surfactants can be troublesome. For blotting, however, there is little-to-no requirement for sample ionization and almost no interest in the mass spectra. Therefore, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS; typically required for size separation) normally does not pose a problem. 
         [0043]      FIG. 2  illustrates an electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Taylor cone jet blotter with a moving substrate in accordance with an embodiment. In system  200 , capillary  202  with lumen  201  carries fluid sample  206  to an output end  266  of the fluid path. There, electrode  203 , connected with voltage source  204 , imparts a charge to fluid sample  206 , charging it. Based on a voltage potential between electrode  203  and substrate  222 , which is connected to ground  207 , the charged fluid sample is attracted across gap  218 . It forms Taylor cone  208  and jet  210  before being deposited on substrate  222 . 
         [0044]    Substrate  222  is configured to move while the charged fluid is blotted on blotting portion  221  of substrate  222 . Motor  330  turns rollers  328  in order to move substrate  222  in a direction that is perpendicular to capillary  202 , that is laterally. 
         [0045]    In other embodiments, the capillary may be configured to move while the substrate stays fixed. Either way, substrate  222  and capillary separator  202  move with respect to one another. 
         [0046]      FIG. 3  illustrates electrophoresis separation with an electrohydrodynamic Taylor cone jet blotter in accordance with an embodiment. In system  300 , capillary  302  has fluid path  301  and two electrodes: a first, electrohydrodynamic (EHD) electrode  303  connected with output end  366  of fluid path  301 ; and another electrode  305  upstream from output end  366 . In the exemplary figure, electrode  305  is below input end  364 . The region of capillary  302  above electrode  305  is an entryway region  326 . 
         [0047]    Fluid path  301  is filled with a separation matrix of acrylamide gel. A voltage source holds voltage  324  at a different voltage from voltage  304 . The difference in voltages causes analytes in the fluid sample to separate from one another, a technique known as electrophoresis. 
         [0048]    “Electrophoresis” includes the induced motion of particles suspended in a fluid by an electric field, or as otherwise known in the art. Electrophoresis of positively charged particles (cations) is often called cataphoresis, while electrophoresis of negatively charged particles (anions) is often called anaphoresis. 
         [0049]    A “protein ladder” includes a mixture of known-kDa proteins that can be used for calibrating electrophoresis and other separation techniques. Comparison between the protein ladder and a sample can help an analyst determine unified atomic mass units (i.e., Daltons) of items of interest in the sample. A protein ladder can be employed in separation column  302 . 
         [0050]    Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) can be mixed with the fluid sample before entering it into the separation matrix, such as in region  326  or before, thereby preparing the fluid sample for SDS-denatured electrophoresis 
         [0051]    The central capillary can be filled with nanoparticles, beads, a gel (e.g., acrylamide gel, agarose gel), macromolecules in a solution, colloidal crystal (1 nm to about 2000 nm in diameter), or other separation matrix. 
         [0052]    At the bottom of the figure, substrate electrode  322  is connected with substrate  321 , which moves laterally. Voltage source  307 , which connects to electrode  322 , has a positive charge of 1 kV to 10 kV in relation to electrode  303 . However, it can have negative voltages and other magnitudes as well. 
         [0053]    In the exemplary embodiment, substrate  321  moves to the left while the capillary tube is fixed. Output from the separation matrix forms Taylor cone  308  and jet  310 . The jet extends across a gap between the tip of the capillary tube, effectively an EHD ‘sprayer,’ and is deposited onto substrate  321 . 
         [0054]    The deposition occurs continuously while the substrate moves steadily to the left. 
         [0055]    By adjusting the speed of the substrate and voltage of the electrophoresis, a large resolution of separation can be obtained. 
         [0056]    Notably in this embodiment, three electrodes are present. The top electrode is connected with the capillary and is for electrophoresis. Typically, it has a negative charge of 1 kV to 10 kV in relation to the second electrode. However, it can have positive voltages and other magnitudes as well. The second (middle) electrode is connected with the output end of the capillary and is for both electrophoresis and for electrohydrodynamic spraying. The second electrode can be grounded or held at a particular voltage. The voltage difference between the top electrode and second electrode is what creates an electric field in the fluid path of the capillary and electrokinetically drives the motion of dispersed particles in the fluid sample. The third (bottom) electrode is held at a value that induces the liquid exiting the output end  366  of the fluid path to form a Taylor cone and jet. The jet contacts substrate  321  and blots upon the substrate while the substrate moves. 
         [0057]      FIG. 4  illustrates high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation with an electrohydrodynamic Taylor cone jet blotter in accordance with an embodiment. 
         [0058]    Since one may intend to blot size-separated biomolecules, one can use a sheath flow to carry the molecules, leaving behind the separation matrix. If using the silica colloidal crystal as the separation matrix in the separation column, it can be advantageous as there will be little-to-no risk of losing the separation matrix into the sheath flow via mixing/diffusion. 
         [0059]    In system  400 , capillary  402  with fluid path  401  is pressurized by pump  440  in order to move fluid sample  406  through a separation matrix. 
         [0060]    Adjunct tube  432  concentrically surrounds the lower portion of the capillary tube in an annular fashion as a “sheath.” The adjunct tube delivers a shaping fluid, such as an aqueous and organic mixture solution, to output end  466  of fluid path  401  of capillary tube  402 . Pump  422  pressurizes the sheath flow so that it exits the sheath tube at an acceptable rate. The shaping fluid entrains output from the capillary tube, establishing enough flow for there to be a Taylor cone and associated jet of charged fluid. 
         [0061]    In this embodiment, the sample fluid blots onto a conductive, or semi-conductive, surface of the substrate  421 . Below this surface is substrate electrode  422 , which is held at a voltage potential by voltage source  407  with respect to the electrospray tip in order to induce the Taylor cone and jet. Substrate  421  moves to the left at a fixed speed while the separated fluid sample is deposited. 
         [0062]    In some embodiments with a pressurized fluid path, no adjunct flow is necessary. Separation proceeds via pressure through the separation tube as opposed to electrophoresis. Pressure is applied at the top of the separation capillary, and the bottom, output end of the separation capillary is kept at atmospheric pressure. The separated sample fluid exits at the end of the capillary and is charged (or grounded) at the tip by an effective EHD sprayer tip. A Taylor cone and jet are formed, as before, and they are attracted to the oppositely charged substrate below. 
         [0063]      FIG. 5  is a picture of a prototype apparatus in accordance with an embodiment. A capillary separation tube is set in place over a substrate at a fixed distance (i.e., a gap). The substrate is mounted on translating support that is moved by stepper motors. The substrate includes a conductive plate that is held at a fixed voltage and a nonconductive membrane that rests atop the conductive plate. 
         [0064]    An adjunct, sheath flow is supplied from a tube that comes in horizontally from the left. The adjunct flow turns downward within the T fitting and travels downward through a channel that surrounds the separation capillary. The adjunct flow continues through a sheath, which surrounds the separation capillary until just before the end of the separation capillary. In the picture, the separation capillary is shown poking out the bottom of the larger sheath tube, just above the membrane. 
         [0065]    An electrical wire is connected to a metal clamp that holds the T fitting. This allows the conductive metal T fitting, and the metal sheath that is electrically coupled to it, to be held at a voltage. Another electrical wire connects to the conductive portion of the substrate. The difference in voltages between the sheath and substrate charges the sheath flow and mixed output from the separation capillary and promotes the Taylor cone and jet of the charged fluid that drops to the substrate across the gap. 
         [0066]      FIG. 6  is a close up picture of Taylor cone jet from the prototype apparatus of  FIG. 5 . For this example, the flow rate was 5 μl per minute, the voltage between the EHD spray head and substrate was −1500 V, and the height of the spray tip from the substrate was approximately 1.0 mm. 
         [0067]    As evident from the photograph, a stable cone jet is formed with a thin jet at the end, and no dispersion of the jet occurs before it hits the substrate medium and is blotted thereon. 
         [0068]    Gap distances of between about 0.5 mm to about 10 mm, preferably about 0 5 mm to about 3 mm, produce acceptable blotting. A gap that is less than that in which the stream of charged fluid begins to disperse into droplets is a gap that may work. The gap may be greater in height than a Taylor cone of charged fluid from the EHD sprayer. 
         [0069]    In some embodiments, a fluid sample flows in the fluid path at a rate of 10 nL/min to 10 μL/min. 
         [0070]      FIG. 7  is a perspective illustration of multiple microchip-based electrohydrodynamic spray blotters in accordance with an embodiment. In system  700 , a single biological microchip  750  has three separation channels  702  that are etched into it, each separation channel terminating into a sharp, chamfered tip. Electrodes at each tip are grounded, while electrodes  705  at the top of each separation chamber are held at a constant voltage. 
         [0071]    Sheath flows are provided by lines  734 . The sheath flows entrain fluid sample with separated analytes. The combined flows are charged by the voltage potential between the grounded tips and voltage source  707  of substrate  722 . 
         [0072]    In the exemplary embodiment, microchip  750 , and thus the EHD spray tips at the bottom of the chamfered tips, are moved perpendicularly to a line between the spray tips, depositing three even lines of separated samples on the substrate below. The chip does not necessarily need to be perpendicular to substrate  722  as shown. Substrate  722  is held at a voltage with respect to the tips of the spray heads. 
         [0073]    More or fewer separation channels can be used, including hundreds of channels in a row on a single chip for massively parallel applications. 
         [0074]      FIG. 8  is a perspective illustration of a turntable apparatus for mass spectroscopy in accordance with an embodiment. Electrophoresis separation capillary  802  includes electrodes  805  and  803  at opposite ends. An electric potential is held between the electrodes by power supply  824  for electrophoresis. 
         [0075]    An EHD spray head of capillary  802  is suspended over turntable  822 . Turntable  822  is held at a voltage potential from electrode  803  of the separation capillary. While turntable  822  rotates around axis  854 , separated sample fluid is emitted from the electrospray head onto the turntable, producing a track  820 . 
         [0076]    The turntable substrate can include a layer of silica colloidal nanoparticles or other neutral substrate compatible with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). 
         [0077]    At an opposite end of the turntable, a MALDI/mass spectrometer laser  860  and detector  862  are aligned to perform matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization. Thus, as output from the separation tube is deposited on the turntable, the track of deposited material is analyzed by a MALDI apparatus without human intervention. 
         [0078]      FIG. 9  is a flowchart illustrating a process  900  in accordance with an embodiment. 
         [0079]    In operation  901 , a fluid path filled with a separation matrix is provided. The fluid path has an input end and an output end. The input end of the fluid path has an opening configured to accept a fluid sample for separation. In operation  902 , the fluid sample is administered into the input end of the fluid path. In operation  903 , analytes within the fluid sample are separated. In operation  904 , an electric charge is imparted to the fluid sample at the output end of the fluid path in order to charge the fluid sample into a charged fluid. In operation  905 , a voltage potential across a gap between the output end and a substrate is caused, the voltage potential sufficient to cause the charged fluid to form a Taylor cone and jet. In operation  906 , the substrate is moved with respect to the fluid path. In operation  907 , the charged fluid of the jet is blotted onto the substrate, the blotting occurring during the movement of the substrate. 
         [0080]    It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications, websites, and databases cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes.