Abstract:
The determination of the concentration of compounds such as CO 2  having an influence on the pH of a medium during polarography is described. Characteristics of polarograms when obtained in unbuffered electrolytes (the polarogram plateau slope position of the upper knee and half-wave potential thereof) are pH-sensitive. These can be detected electronically and signals processed to provide a measure of such concentrations. 
     In one preferred embodiment (FIG. 2) a miniature pO 2  polarographic sensor has cathode channels (A) and (B) biased respecitvely at -750 mV and -950 mV. The output of channel (A) provides pO 2  as in normal polarography. The output of (B) is divided (6) and further corrected for pO 2  (8,10) to provide pCO 2 . 
     The apparatus is especially useful for simultaneous pO 2 , pCO 2  monitoring in physiological fluids without the need for a separate pCO 2  sensor.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to polarography and in particular to apparatus for the simultaneous polarographic sensing of pO 2  and pCO 2  in physiological media. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Measurement of gas partial pressures in physiological fluids by polarography is well-known. Polarographic sensors are used extensively, for example, in the monitoring of pO 2  in blood. 
     The pO 2  sensors are generally based on a design described by L. C. Clark (e.g. see U.S. Pat. No. 2,913,386) and include a noble metal cathode, a buffered electrolyte and a reference anode. The cathode is normally isolated from the medium under investigation by a permeable membrane, but such a membrane is not essential. 
     A D.C. potential is applied to electrodes. Oxygen present in the electrolyte (having migrated from the medium under investigation through the permeable membrane or through the skin) is electrochemically reduced at the cathode, and the magnitude of current flow is employed as a measure of pO 2 . 
     The well-known current versus cathode voltage polarogram for pO 2  sensing consists of a curve of increasing current with increasing cathode voltage (to more negative values). The curve has pronounced &#34;knees&#34; at about -600 and -900 mV (all cathode potentials quoted herein are relative to a silver/silver chloride reference anode) with a near horizontal plateau between these values. For pO 2  measurement it is customary to set the cathode polarising voltage on this plateau (typically -750 mV) whereby, as O 2  is reduced at the cathode, current flow is directly proportional to oxygen concentration. 
     The sensing of pCO 2  in physiological media such as blood is conducted using miniature pH electrodes such as those described by J. W. Severinghaus &amp; A. F. Bradley (1958), J. Appl. Physiol. 13, pp 515-520. Such sensors include a pH electrode (normally a small glass electrode), a reference electrode, and an unbuffered electrolyte. The pH electrode is generally isolated from the medium under investigation by a permeable membrane. Carbon dioxide migrates through the membrane from the medium to dissolve as carbonic acid in the electrolyte. This results in a change in pH which is monitored by the change in EMF between the electrodes. The latter provides a (logarithmic) measurement of pCO 2 . 
     Combined sensors for both pO 2  and pCO 2  measurements have been proposed. One such is described in U.K. Patent Specification No. 2005418 and includes a glass pH electrode for pCO 2  sensing, a silver cathode for pO 2  sensing, a common silver/silver chloride reference electrode and an unbuffered alkaline electrolyte. The components of the sensor were isolated from the medium to be investigated by a permeable membrane. It was somewhat surprising that the pO 2  electrode measurements were unaffected by pCO 2  and vice-versa. Despite the advantages of this combined sensor, it does include glass components (the glass pH electrode) and there may be resistance to its use in in vivo sensing--e.g. intravascularly. 
     We have now devised an apparatus for simultaneous pO 2  and pCO 2  sensing by polarography and which employs a simple sensor avoiding the use of a separate pH electrode for the pCO 2  measurement. 
     In an unbuffered electrolyte (i.e. one sensitive to pH changes brought about, say, by changes in pCO 2  certain characteristics of the above-described pO 2  polarogram are pH-sensitive. Not only may these characteristics be employed to measure pO 2 , but also pCO 2 . This would not have been possible with early designs of pO 2  sensors since the change in pH brought about by the production of hydroxyl ions would itself be significant. However with miniature pO 2  sensors now in use, the current flow on O 2  reduction is so small (measured in nanoamperes) that the corresponding change in the number of hydroxyl ions does not significantly alter the overall pH even in an unbuffered electrolyte. 
     Thus, based upon these facts, we have now realised that features of a pO 2  polarogram may be employed to measure both pO 2  and pCO 2 , thus avoiding the need for a separate pCO 2  sensor. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with the invention we provide an apparatus for the determination of the concentration of a component having an influence on the pH of a medium, which comprises a polarographic sensor which, in use, is in contact with said medium, and means for processing the output of the sensor to provide pH-dependent signals and for processing the latter to provide an output which is a measure of said concentration. 
     We also provide a method of determining the concentration of a component having an influence on the pH of a medium which comprises providing a polarographically-sensed signal representative of said medium, processing said signal to provide a pH-dependent signal and processing the latter to provide an output which is a measure of said concentration. 
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 illustrates four schematic O 2  polarograms obtained in the presence of varying concentrations of CO 2 , as measured by a miniature Clark-type membrane-covered polarographic sensor, and which will be employed to explain the present invention. 
     FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 illustrate respectively block electronic diagrams of circuits for processing the signals from a pO 2  polarographic sensor so as to obtain pCO 2  and pO 2  results, in accordance with three preferred embodiments of the invention. 
     FIG. 5 is a schematic cross-section through a dual cathode transcutaneous, sensor for use in a further embodiment of the invention, and 
     FIG. 6 is a diagram of the electric circuit employed to obtain pO 2  and pCO 2  measurements from the sensor of FIG. 5. 
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     Referring to FIG. 1, the four polarograms are shown with the characteristic knees at about -600 and -900 mV with a near horizontal plateau therebetween. The absolute values of the current flowing have been normalised at a polarising voltage of -750 mV. Various characteristics of the curve are pH dependent, and these (either alone or in combination) may be employed to give a measure of pCO 2  without the need for a separate pH electrode. We have found that the exact position of both upper and lower knees, the slope of the plateau, and the half-wave potential can all be employed to determine pCO 2 . Of these, we have so far found that the half-wave potential provides the most convenient measurement (it is less subject to variations in pO 2 ) and the embodiment described later in relation to FIGS. 5 and 6 relates to this. In FIG. 1, the change of plateau slope with pCO 2  has been omitted for clarity: in fact the slope increases slightly with increasing pCO 2 . 
     Referring to FIG. 2, a circuit is shown for use with a standard miniature pO 2  polarographic sensor with an unbuffered electrolyte. Measurements are made at polarising voltages of -750 and -950 mV. Very roughly: 
     
         i.sub.750 =f(pO.sub.2) 
    
     
         i.sub.950 =f(pO.sub.2)·f(pCO.sub.2) 
    
     where i 750 , i 950  are the respective currents at -750, -950 mV. 
     Therefore 
     
         (i.sub.950 /i.sub.750)≈f(pCO.sub.2). 
    
     Either a single cathode successively switched between these two voltages may be employed, or a pair of cathodes, one at each voltage. In FIG. 2, two separate cathodes have been shown. 
     In either case, the cathode signals at these two voltages are processed in separate channels (A) and (B), each initially being fed to current-to-voltage converters 2 and 4 respectively. The output of converter 2 provides a representation of pO 2  as in normal polarography, whereas the output of converter 4 is divided by the pO 2  signal from converter 2 in divider 6. To a rough approximation this gives a measure of pCO 2 , but for more accurate next order results this signal may be further divided by a function of the pO 2  signal with a function generator 8 and divider 10. The output of the latter provides the next order pCO 2  result (for a description of this next order correction, see later). 
     Referring to FIG. 3, a circuit is again shown for use with a standard miniature pO 2  polarographic sensor with an unbuffered electrolyte. In this instance the slope of the plateau is directly measured to provide the pCO 2  result. 
     A ramp generator 20 provides a sawtooth output to actuate a voltage driver 22 which provides a sawtooth cathode bias between -600 and -900 mV. The cathode output is supplied to a current-to-voltage converter 24 which supplies a sample-and-hold circuit 26 triggered from a Schmidt trigger 28 actuated at the mid-point of the cathode ramp voltage (-750 mV). The output of the sample-and-hold circuit 26 (proportional to the current flow at -750 mV) provides a measure of pO 2 . The output of current-to-voltage converter 24 is additionally applied to a slope detector (a differentiator) 30, the output of which at -750 mV approximates to pCO 2 . This output is supplied to a sample-and-hold circuit 32 which is also triggered at -750 mV. The circuit 32 output provides the pCO 2  measurement. As with the FIG. 2 circuit, a more accurate next order approximation is obtained by correcting the output of the slope detector as a function of pO 2 . This is obtained by generating a function of pO 2  with function generator 42 and dividing the signals in divider 44. The output of the latter provides the pCO 2  measurement. 
     Referring to FIG. 4, a circuit is once more shown for use with a standard miniature pO 2  polarographic sensor with an unbuffered electrolyte. In this embodiment the position of the upper knee (pCO 2  -sensitive) is detected by determining the rate of change of current as the cathode is scanned over a voltage range near the top of the plateau: e.g. -900 to -1000 mV. Either a single cathode may be employed, first at -750 mV to give the pO 2  result and secondly scanned over -900 to -1000 mV, or separate cathodes may be employed for these functions. 
     As in the FIG. 2 embodiment these signals are processed in separate channels (A) and (B). The -750 mV cathode signal is supplied to a current-to-voltage converter 50, the output of which provides pO 2 . A ramp generator 52 actuates a voltage driver 54 to provide, to the second channel (B), a sawtooth cathode bias between -900 and -1000 mV. The second channel signal is supplied to a current-to-voltage converter 56, and the latter drives a slope detector 58. The output of the slope detector 58 is compared to a reference voltage in comparator 60, the reference voltage being selected such that the comparator detects the rapid change in slope at the knee. The comparator output, when valid, closes analog switch 62, which supplies the output of the driver 54 to a sample-and-hold circuit 64 triggered by the comparator output. To a first approximation the result is a measure of pCO 2  and a more accurate result is obtained by correcting for pO 2  by means of function generator 66 and divider 68. 
     The correction of the rough pCO 2  measurement in these embodiments for pO 2  may, to a first approximation, be made by creating, in function generators 8, 42, and 66, a linear function of pO 2 . However, in practice, it will be possible by calibration to provide more accurate results by applying a more complex, non-linear function of pO 2 . 
     The embodiment shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 is designed to detect the half-wave potential for pO 2  in the presence of CO 2 . The half-wave potential, as is well-known, is the potential which will provide half the plateau current. It is the point of inflection for the polarogram before it reaches the lower knee of the curve. It is normally used in polarography for identifying the ionic species being electrochemically discharged. We have found that the half-wave potential is proportional to pCO 2  and is relatively insensitive to changes in pO 2 . 
     A dual cathode transcutaneous sensor for use in such half-wave potential detection is shown in FIG. 5. One cathode is connected to circuitry (FIG. 6) to determine the plateau current (and hence gave a measure of pO 2 ) whereas the other cathode applies half the thus-measured cathode current and hence supplies the half-wave potential. The latter is proportional to pCO 2 . 
     Referring to FIG. 5, the sensor comprises a housing 80 containing a pair of polarographic cathodes 82, 84 and a central anode 86 electrically connected via a terminal board to a connector cable 88. The latter leads to the electrical circuit of FIG. 6. A heater 90 is lodged within housing 80 and temperature control is provided by means of a thermistor 92 as is known. The electrodes, thermistor and heater are potted in an epoxy resin 94. A permeable membrane 96 covers the electrodes. The electrodes may be of standard materials, typically platinum. 
     Referring to FIG. 6, one cathode is polarised at a voltage of -750 mV to ensure that the cathode is held on the plateau and the cathode current is proportional to pO 2 . The input from this cathode is supplied to a current-to-voltage converter 100 and thence to operational amplifier 102. The output of the latter is taken as the pO 2  measurement but is also supplied as one input to comparator 104, (after division by two by means of resistor chain 110). 
     The input from the second cathode passes through current-to-voltage converter 106, operational amplifier 108, and is supplied as the second input to comparator 104. The output of the latter is taken as a feedback line 112 to a second input of current-to-voltage converter 106 and is also employed as the polarising voltage for the second cathode. 
     This arrangement ensures that the second cathode is supplied with the appropriate voltage to maintain the cathode at the current equal to half the plateau current. The output from the amplifier 108 is therefore also taken as the pCO 2  measurement from the system. 
     Although much of the above-described signal processing may be accomplished by hard-wired logic circuits, it may be desirable to generate the pO 2  and pCO 2  results by signal processing with a microprocessor. The latter would enable the cathode signals to be processed with a high degree of precision. 
     Although the invention thus far has been described in the context of the influence of pCO 2  on O 2  polarograms because, for many physiological conditions, it is desirable to monitor both pO 2  and pCO 2 , the invention has much wider implications. 
     For example, if it is not desired to sense pO 2  whilst monitoring pCO 2 , then it is not essential to monitor the influence of CO 2  on an O 2  polarogram--it might be more desirable to select a different electrochemically-reducible medium and electrolyte system upon which pCO 2  has a more marked and measureable effect. 
     Furthermore, since the invention measures pCO 2  as a consequence of pH influence on polarograms, it could possibly be employed to measure concentrations of pH-influencing components other than CO 2 , for example SO 2  or NH 3 . 
     Although in the above-described embodiments it has been assumed that the hydroxyl ion production is insufficient to upset the pH measurements, if desired their effect may be reduced by employment of the technique described by J. W. Severinghaus, J. Appl. Physiol. 51, pp 1027, 1032. This involves the use of a counter electrode (e.g. of anodised aluminium or platinum) which generates sufficient hydrogen ions to balance stoichiometrically the production of hydroxyl ions. The influence of the latter on the system is thus negated.