Abstract:
Readout integrated circuits placed below the suspended sensor elements detect changes of electrical resistance of sensor elements and digitize the signals with digital to analog convertor for each element. Readout electronics provides low parasitics, high signal to noise ratio, high data rate, high dynamic range and instantaneous global readout.

Description:
RELATED U.S. APPLICATION DATA 
       [0001]    Provisional application No. 61/704,145 filed on Sep. 21, 2012. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) microbolometers are wavelength-independent detectors that sense incident electromagnetic radiation by the temperature increase caused by the radiation&#39;s absorption in sensing elements. The sensing element includes a temperature-sensing material whose resistivity is dependent on temperature. The temperature (or rather temperature change) of the element then can be read-out by measuring the resistance of sensing element using associated circuitry. Detectors can be used as single elements to monitor temperature or arrayed in a focal plane array (FPA) to form an image. 
         [0003]    Microbolometers are typically optimized to detect infrared wavelengths in the 2-14 μm region where traditional photonic sensors are insensitive (as in the case of silicon-based charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors) or expensive to fabricate (as in the case of quantum-well devices). They can be used in cameras that have applications in night vision, surveillance/security, medical imaging, and search and rescue. Alternatively, single elements or several elements can be used for non-contact temperatures sensing in mobile phones and other devices. 
         [0004]    Relative to visible light imaging, infrared (IR) imaging using MEMS microbolometers suffers serious shortcomings in image and video performance. In addition to the fact that current IR imaging greatly lags visible imaging in resolution, modern IR imagers exhibit insufficient dynamic range and insufficient grey-scale allocated to areas of interest such as human subjects or other warm objects. In scenes with motion, scrolling shutter artifacts occur such as wobble, skew, smear, partial exposure, and aliasing. Because of readout and sensor limitations, capture times are long and consequently, frame rates are low. Finally, de-noising, image enhancement, and image post-processing are inadequate. While performance of the microbolometer structure itself has made advancements with new designs, materials and fabrication methods, implementation of improved readout technology has yet to follow to match sensor gains. 
         [0005]    Furthermore, although infrared imaging using microbolometers has found widespread applications in military, industrial and consumer products, their use has generally been limited to high-cost, low-volume products primarily because of the high cost of the microbolometer imager itself, which can account for about 50% of the total imaging system cost. Major contributors to the imager cost are the relatively large pixel size required to achieve acceptable device sensitivity and typically high yield loss due to pixel to pixel performance variation (among other contributors). State-of-the-art microbolometer pixel pitch is currently 17 um, or roughly 200 times the area of state-of-the-art visible-light CMOS image sensor pixels. Such relatively large pixel size results in a large array area, a large die size, and therefore fewer die-per-wafer, lower yields and high cost. Furthermore, a large array necessitates larger optics and optical paths which contribute to larger and more expensive systems. Therefore, improved yield and smaller pixel size can reduce imager and system costs in various ways enabling adoption of microbolometer infrared imaging into more price sensitive and higher volume products. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0006]    Design, architecture, and implementation of readout integrated circuitry that is capable of detecting and measuring very small changes in resistance (and consequently small changes of voltage or current) in a device such as a sensor is disclosed. The readout circuitry performs the analog measurement and subsequent analog to digital conversion (ADC) at high-frequency while maintaining a footprint of in 100 square micron range. The small readout circuitry footprint allows its implementation within each single pixel (in-pixel ADC) of a microbolometer focal plane array enabling improved and novel capabilities including: 
         [0000]    1) Fast readout and multiple image captures
 
2) Global shutter capability
 
3) Expanded dynamic range where needed
 
4) Pixel-by-pixel calibration and compensation
 
5) Improved noise reduction process, especially  1 /frequency (1/f).
 
         [0007]    Fast sampling and frame capture in conjunction with global shutter that are uniquely possible with in-pixel ADC allow for high frame rates and reduced motion artifacts enabling motion and gesture sensing applications such as automotive night vision and gaming. 
         [0008]    Fast sampling also enables the unique capability of initial sub-sampling of each pixel and subsequent dynamic setting of the integration time on a pixel-by-pixel basis within the period of a single frame. Therefore, the integration time for each pixel can be customized during each frame, based on the pixel&#39;s brightness. This allows expansion of the dynamic range around any region of interest. Memory registers used for storage of individual pixel integration times can also be linked to non-volatile memory registers that store the predetermined ADC schedules which map the DAC voltage sub-ranges to the different integration time. The schedules are based on the average IR intensity level, contrast, type of scene, and different applications. These values are also adjusted during a power-on calibration routine using a shutter. In this manner, pixel response can be calibrated on a pixel-by-pixel basis, thereby compensating for variation arising from fabrication. Such compensation reduces one of the main sources of chip-sort yield loss. 
         [0009]    Finally, fast sampling, frame capture, and storage are essential for noise cancelation and reduction using auto-correlation methods in which a pixel is probed at a sufficiently short interval such that there should be no appreciable readout value change due to actual radiation absorption. Therefore, any readout value change between very short intervals is the result of sensor or readout noise. Such noise power can then be identified and filtered. 
     
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         [0010]      FIG. 1  shows a prior art of a system having a single ADC shared by the whole pixel array. Since ADC is shared, all the pixel ADC operations are performed sequentially. 
           [0011]      FIG. 2  is also a prior art showing the column based ADC. An ADC is shared by all the pixels in the same column. All the column ADC operations are done in parallel. But it&#39;s still sequential operation within a column. 
           [0012]      FIG. 3  shows the in-pixel ADC. In this case each pixel contains an ADC and a sense amplifier (SA) is shared by pixels in the same column 
           [0013]      FIG. 4  is a block diagram showing the microbolometer array, in-pixel ADC including a common Digital to Analog Converter (DAC), and other interface blocks. 
           [0014]      FIG. 5  shows the current flow through a microbolometer pixel over time. The charge stored in Cstore in  FIG. 7  is an integration of microbolometer current over time. 
           [0015]      FIG. 6  shows the DAC output (reference input to in-pixel comparator) schedule versus integration time. 
           [0016]      FIG. 7  is a circuit diagram of the pixel based on constant voltage. This voltage is converted to a variable current through a microbolomer, which is stored in Cstore during integration. The Cstore is connected to a source follower and followed by a differential amplifier and another stage of amplication. The output is connected to the bit line through the row_en switch. 
           [0017]      FIG. 8  shows the system with a constant current source. The voltage across the microbolometer is captured and stored in Cstore. The source follower is not implemented; instead a capacitor to store the comparator output is shown. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0018]    This description relates to design, architecture, and implementation of imaging devices based on Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) microbolometer structures integrated with CMOS circuits. The invention specifically relates to design, architecture, and implementation of readout integrated circuitry that has significantly improved performance and yield of the imager. 
         [0019]    Microbolometer detectors sense incident electromagnetic radiation by the temperature increase caused by the radiation&#39;s absorption in a sensing element. The sensing element includes a temperature-sensing material whose resistivity is dependent on temperature. The temperature (or rather temperature change) of the element then can be read-out by measuring the resistance change of sensing element using associated circuitry. Either a constant current or constant voltage source converts this resistance change to a readout voltage or current respectively. This resultant voltage or current is integrated in a capacitor for a certain time. The resulting capacitor charge or voltage is then sampled and converted to a digital signal through an ADC. 
         [0020]    Infrared imager is composed of a large number of the sensing elements or pixels that are arranged typically in two dimensional array as schematically shown in  FIG. 1 . The sensing elements  110  are connected to the row decorder  120  by the set of electrical lines  150  and to column multiplexer  130  by another set of electrical lines  160 . 
         [0021]    Chip-level ADC architecture, in which one or a few ADCs  140  are used to readout the whole array, is the prior art approach for arrayed image sensor readout. In this method, pixels are readout one-by-one, serially, limiting the frame rate and pixel number (array size). 
         [0022]    In visible-light image sensors, column-parallel ADC is often implemented, as shown schematically in  FIG. 2 . In this case, the sensing elements  210  are again interconnected with the set of electrical lines  250  to the row decoder  220 , in the similar way as in chip-level ADC architecture. These sensing elements  210  are also interconnected with another set of electrical lines  260  to analog storage circuitry  270  which is in turn connected to the column ADCs  240 . This improved prior art architecture allows simultaneous readout of signals from all columns and increases readout speed over chip-level ADC. The same column-parallel processing method can be applied to microbolometer-based image sensors. While this accommodates increasing array size and higher frame rate to some extent, the frame rate is still limited to the single ADC time multiplied by the number of rows. This practically limits the maximum frame capture rate to the imager refresh rate which is typically less than 30 frames per second, leaving no room to perform oversampling that is needed to process extra noise filtering and dynamic range extension. In addition, the readout time is a function of the array size, so large arrays also require faster ADC that consume higher power and result in higher noise. 
         [0023]    Further performance improvements can be achieved by including ADCs with each sensing element, as illustrated in  FIG. 3 . For microbolometer-based infrared imaging, pixel size is governed by the microbolometer structure size. Microbolometer structure reduction is limited by diffraction when the pixel dimensions approach the wavelength of detected light and by sensitivity losses because of increased noise in small pixels. Currently, state-of-the-art pixel pitch is 17 um and is generally expected to shrink to the diffraction limit of 10-12 um in the future. The relatively large area of imaging pixels in comparison to visible-light pixels gives flexibility to readout circuit implementation in the area underneath the individual sensing elements. 
         [0024]    In addition, in visible-light sensors, the photodiode sensor area is generally shared with readout circuitry limiting readout circuitry to a fraction of total pixel area. For microbolometers, the pixel area allowed for circuit implementation is not constrained by or competing with the sensor area since the readout electronics are generally placed underneath the sensor element. 
         [0025]    Furthermore, in visible-light imagers, the pixel area limitation is even worse since the routing of interconnect metal or polysilicon lines is constrained such that it must not obscure the photodiode from incoming light. Whereas, in microbolometer technology, the entire pixel area can be utilized for readout circuits, because sensors reside above readout circuits with vertical stacking. 
         [0026]    Because of relatively large pixel size and the physical separation of the readout circuitry from the infrared sensor element and interconnect, the silicon area under the sensor element is generally not fully utilized. In one embodiment of the invention, we describe methods to use this area by placing parts of the ADC circuitry under the sensing pixels such that each pixels has its own ADC and therefore digitization of signals from all pixels can be performed simultaneously. 
         [0027]    The schematic diagram of the pixel level ADC architecture is illustrated in  FIG. 3 . The sensing elements  310  are again interconnected to the row decoder  320  with the set of interconnecting electrical lines  350 . Each sensing elements is also connected to its own ADC  340 . The readout of these ADCs is enabled through the sensing circuits SA,  380 . It should be understood that the sensing elements are occupying the whole area and that the interconnecting electrical lines  350  and  360  and ADCs  340  are placed underneath of the array of the sensing elements  310 , even though they are shown at one level on the drawing in  FIG. 3 . 
         [0028]    For the pixel based ADC, an illustrative example of the simplified pixel readout schematics for global shutter operation is shown in  FIG. 4 . At the beginning of frame capture, all integration capacitors are reset and then begin storing charge from the current driven through the microbolometer sensor elements. After a short sub-sample time, the voltage of the integration capacitor is sampled, and the result is stored in a storage capacitor. The voltage of the storage capacitor is converted to a binary number through the in-pixel ADC. The digital output of the ADC operation, a binary number, is the result of the comparator operation. Each comparator output in a column is connected to the bit line one row at a time and the bit line data is fed into the column based sense amplifier  450 . If the output changes from 0 to 1, this indicates that the sample capacitor voltage level is matched with the reference DAC value. In this case, the DAC digital input values are stored in the corresponding memory location in the frame buffer  490  and the status flag is set to 1. 
         [0029]    The main consideration in this approach is that the in-pixel ADC conversion time should be sufficiently fast for ADC circuitry implemented within a single pixel area. The conversion time can be as fast as tens of microseconds at an ADC precision of 10 bits. If more precision is needed, the conversion time doubles per additional bit precision. This approach can be implemented in visible-light sensors given enough silicon area; however, it is usually not practical since the pixel area is typically very limited. However, in microbolometer arrays, the pixel area is significantly larger and limited by sensing element size; therefore, microbolometer pixels are ideal candidates for pixel-level ADC implementation. 
         [0030]    In this pixel-level ADC embodiment, the analog output voltage of the sensor is compared with the input DAC value which is stored in on-chip non-volatile memory. The output of a comparator, either high or low, is fed into a sense amplifier  490  located outside of the array in a preferred embodiment. This digital output is not necessarily rail-to-rail but should be able to toggle a CMOS switch with enough noise margin between high and low levels. This output signal is then converted to a standard logic signal through a voltage or current based sense amplifier  450  and then stored. In one embodiment, there is a single sense amplifier per column to read the digital output from a bit line. In this case, the total readout time is simply the single ADC conversion time plus the column readout time multiplied by the number of rows. 
         [0031]    In this embodiment, the speed of the ADC operation is limited by the number of comparison steps, the DAC signal settling time, the speed of the comparator, and the sense amplifier settling delay. Since each pixel contains a comparator, the comparator delay is lower than that of a shared comparator where multiple source followers are connected in parallel giving larger loading. 
         [0032]    The sense amplifier settling delay can be minimized especially if it is current switched. Since the sense amplifier operation in the column readout can be done at the rate of tens or hundreds of millions samples per second, readout rate is not limited by column readout. 
         [0033]    If the pixel DAC input to the comparator is required to settle to 95% of the target value, the settling time may be as high as hundreds of nanoseconds since the DAC has to drive many nanoFarads of loading. Thus, if limited by DAC settling delay, the total ADC operation might take as much as 0.1 msec (1000 thermometer code steps×100 nsec) per frame. This apparently limits the readout frame rate to ten thousand frames per second. 
         [0034]    To improve conversion speed, either the DAC settling time needs to be shortened or the number of conversion steps should be reduced. The settling time can be minimized by optimizing the DAC driver, the wire loading, and the input capacitor of the comparators. To reduce the number of ADC conversions, the binary search method can be applied. This method reduces the number of conversion cycles to a half compared to a thermometer-coded conversion. For example, a single slope or thermometer coded 10 bit ADC will require 1024 conversion cycles, while the binary search method will require 512 conversion cycles. The trade-off is higher noise due to large step change. 
         [0035]    Unlike the chip based and column or row based parallel ADCs, the pixel based ADC transfers the digital signal through the bit line. This will reduce the error caused by readout noise introduced by charge sharing and the settling time that occurs when analog signal is transferred through the bit line in shared ADC architectures. 
         [0036]    Finally, since the readout is done for all pixels simultaneously, the readout time is independent of array size thereby enabling large arrays without impact on frame rate. 
         [0037]    Although the nominal sensor resistance value is fixed once the chip is fabricated, the amount of charge delivered to the integration capacitor can be programmed to optimize sensor performance for each pixel when applying in-pixel ADC architecture. Specifically, the value of constant current or voltage that converts the bolometer resistance change into voltage or current pulses can be adjusted on a pixel-by-pixel basis affording unique capabilities and advantages. These constant bias currents or voltages, can affect the sensor performance in the areas of 1) time constant, 2) electrical dynamic range, 3) noise performance, and 4) power consumption. 
         [0038]    In the preferred embodiment, the charge stored in the integration capacitor is not shared nor perturbed by the sampling operation. Instead, it continues to accumulate until the frame reset operation. The integration capacitor can be continuously sampled for further processing in this multi-sampling approach. The charge sampled in the storage cap does not change during the ADC and readout operations, and therefore can be frequently sub-sampled during an integration cycle allowing complex functionality such as dynamic range expansion and noise reduction via auto-correlation. 
         [0039]    In traditional readout using linear dynamic range, a single image frame contains signals ranging from the highest to the lowest value of the dynamic range occupying the full range of ADC. In one embodiment, in-pixel ADC architecture is used to expand the dynamic range using the multi-sampling capability described above. In this example, as depicted in  FIG. 4 , all integrating capacitors are reset, then start integrating at the same time, but each pixel has a unique integration time based on the pixel&#39;s responsiveness and its brightness in the image as determined by sub-sampling the pixel. This is done by the pre-programmed DAC output level that is compared with the storage cap values; the resultant comparator output is read out. If the output changes the polarity for a particular pixel—the flag value changes from 0 to 1—then the DAC input values are stored in the corresponding frame buffer location along with the status bit. For this pixel, the frame data is extracted. However, for the rest of the array for which the status bits are not set, the ADC operation continues until all the pixels are compared with the entire DAC range. 
         [0040]    In a standard approach, the ADC operation is done as fast as possible from one bit to the next at a fixed time interval giving a linear, uniform dynamic range. However, in this embodiment, the dynamic range can be expanded for a certain region of interest by extending integration time intervals for pixels of certain intensity. For example, if the human body is of interest, the ADC range and therefore depth of grey scale in the vicinity of 37 C (human body temperature) is expanded. This will improve the picture quality and recognizability of a human subject, while deemphasizing the background. As in  FIG. 5 , ADC samples from t1 to t2 (from DN=2n to DN max, where DN represents DAC input value) as fast as possible deemphasizing this range, but from t2 thru t3, sampling is done at much larger incremental time steps. The charge stored in the integration capacitor that is sampled at different times is proportional to the integration of the current that indicates the current change, which is in turn inversely proportional to the resistance change of microbolometer. The average rate of change of the microbolometer is simply the integration of current through microbolometer over the integration time which is equivalent to the digitized integration capacitance value, divided by the integration times. 
         [0041]    Theoretically, time intervals can be set arbitrarily, so that the dynamic expansion level of the bolometer is done at any precision. If an output with a linear scale is desired, the number of bits can be increased beyond the DAC range in the frame buffer, so that the binary zeros are tagged to the pixels in the un-extended range. Although ADC&#39;s comparison steps from t1 to t2 and t3 to t4 are preceded as fast as possible, the delays between the bit comparisons can be compensated in the slope calculation. Once all the bits of a full DAC range are compared and all frame buffer locations are filled, the current frame capture is completed, the next frame capture will start, and the same procedure will repeat again. Extension of the dynamic range is shown in  FIG. 5 , where the average rate of resistance change with dynamic range extension is plotted and compared with a linear dynamic range. 
         [0042]    Microbolometer sensitivity is limited by the sensor&#39;s noise performance—specifically 1/f noise originating from the sensor material and small volume of that material used as the thermistor, resistor that changes its resistance with temperature. The problem is particularly severe in microbolometer technology and mitigating this problem has been one of the main challenges of the microbolometer IR imagers. New sensor designs and materials have been the focus to reduce 1/f noise, but novel electronic readout approaches can be also very beneficial. 
         [0043]    The relationship between the reference voltages versus the detector&#39;s ultimate sensitivity—the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD)—is such that the higher the sensor bias voltage, the lower the temporal NETD. However, the higher the voltage across the microbolometer is applied, the higher the current flow through the microbolometer will be. This translates to undesirable self-heating effects and higher overall power consumption. Hence, the optimal bias voltage setting will be a trade-off between the low noise and low power consumption. As in the pixel circuit diagram,  FIG. 7 , the bias voltage across the microbolometer sets the integration current lint. This can be approximated as follows: 
         [0000]      lint=(Vin_bias−Vt_sf)/Rmb,
 
         [0000]    Where Vin_bias is the input bias voltage,
 
Vt_sf is the threshold voltage of the source follower,
 
Rmb is the resistance of the microbolometer
 
         [0044]    The same principle can be applied to the pixel system depicted in  FIG. 8 . In this implementation, a constant current, instead of constant voltage, is applied to the microbolometer which is equivalent to a variable resistor. As mentioned above, the higher the current flows through the microbolometer, the higher the voltage across the microbolometer, as well as the dynamic range of the voltage output and the signal-to-noise ratio will be. 
         [0045]    Noise in a microbolometer IR sensor is mainly comprised of fixed pattern noise, 1/f noise and thermal noise. In the following embodiments, three noise reduction solutions are proposed—a digital Correlated Double Sampling (CDS), signal averaging, and 1/f noise reduction based on autocorrelation and adaptive filtering. Each of these methods complements the shortcomings of the other methods. In particular, for sensors with in-pixel ADC, these methods are much more effective due to multisampling and high frame capture rate. 
         [0046]    Analog and digital signal processing both during and after the images are captured and stored can be applied to reduce image noise. For signal processing and noise filtering, CDS or auto-correlation techniques can be used. CDS, which itself is a simple autocorrelation technique, can correct 1/f noise only to a limited level. Other auto-correlation techniques are especially promising if a high level of noise cancellation is required. 
         [0047]    High pixel sampling rates possible with in-pixel ADC uniquely enables effective auto-correlation for 1/f noise reduction. In order to fully utilize the autocorrelation technique for the 1/f noise cancellation, the sampling rate needs be high—the sampling bandwidth should be wider than the 1/f noise frequency spectrum, so that the result will cover the entire 1/f noise bandwidth. 
         [0048]    CDS (Correlated Double Sampling) is often used for noise cancellation in an IR image capture system. In this proposal, the following procedure is used. 1) With the shutter closed, after settling time, a voltage across the microbolometer element  710  in  FIG. 7  is sampled and stored in the capture capacitor  720 . The capture capacitor voltage is read out through an in-pixel ADC and the digital outputs are stored in a memory array. The row by row readout continues until the last (bottom) row is complete. This completes the capture of the reference frame. 2) The capture capacitor  720  is reset again and all in-pixel current sources including the microbolometer current mirror and the bias current mirrors for the amplifiers are powered down. This will reduce the power consumption and prevent the devices from accumulating noise. 3) After a preset integration time, the current sources are powered on, capture is repeated and storing and ADC conversion procedure is completed. The previously stored value is then subtracted from the new digital value. This sequence is repeated for next read until finishing the entire frame. In a multisampling system, the second and third procedures are repeated, and the dark value stored in the memory is subtracted again from the newly captured values. The difference accounts for the net current change due to the temperature change in the bolometer as a result of exposure to the IR light. All other background signals including the differences in resistance from one bolometer element to another, capacitor mismatch, thermal noise and variations in amplifier gain are cancelled out. Although this scheme will mainly subtract the fixed pattern noise, it also reduces some white noise. 
         [0049]    Advantages of the digital CDS proposed in this embodiment include being free from errors caused by mismatching of two or more capacitors and other noises incurred during readout including the current leakage from the capacitors and extra charge coupling during conversion. 
         [0050]    Although the CDS scheme cancels the fixed pattern noise and reduces the white noise including 1/f noise like DC offsets and low frequency noise, its effectiveness with regards to 1/f noise is limited and dependent on the bandwidth of the sampling frequency. If the sampling frequency is lower than the corner frequency of 1/f noise density function, the high frequency noise will not be corrected. 
         [0051]    In order to supplement the shortcomings of CDS and reduce any residual noise after CDS, extra post-process digital filtering is proposed. A simple and popular filtering scheme is signal averaging, which smoothes out all high frequency noise. However, averaging causes blurring of sharp edges. The next description will help reduce 1/f noise as well as thermal noise, and improve the edge profile. 
         [0052]    Since the temporal noise, including the 1/f noise, is time-variant, the frame by frame data are stored and processed, where the pixel-to-pixel values in fixed time interval are compared, averaged and filtered. Averaging, which has normally bandpass nature, will reduce the high frequency noise and is effective in reducing noise such as thermal noise but is not as effective in reducing 1/f noise. 
         [0053]    Reduction of residual 1/f noise after CDS is achieved by a post digital noise filtering based on adaptive filtering and autocorrelation function. A method is described as follows. First, the noise signal spectral density is calculated based on autocorrelation method. 
         [0054]    Discrete Fourier Transform of the power spectrum density is the autocorrelation function. If temporally separated by sampling period, the pixel values are stationary, and the autocorrelation function values should be 1. If the sampling frequency is fast enough, captured scenes won&#39;t change much. The autocorrelation function will still be close to 1. If any white noise is added to the signals, the autocorrelation function will be reduced, where the autocorrelation function of the pure white noise with a flat frequency response is 0. 1/f noise is band limited, but the autocorrelation function follows similarly to the white noise. 1/f noise that has a long time constant behaves like a fixed pattern noise and can be cancelled by CDS in time domain. The high frequency portion of the white noise is reduced by averaging. In a method of this embodiment, in order to reduce the residual noise and increase the overall frame Signal/Noise ratio (S/N) is to keep signal magnitude of the pixel with high correlation factor, but attenuate the pixel signals with low correlation factors. If the signals are amplified, less gain is assigned to the latter. 
         [0055]    The post signal processing utilizing filters like Wiener filter can further reduce the noise. The signal with embedded noise is also converted to a frequency domain by a Fourier transform. Also, the autocorrelation of the noise estimate is calculated by the Digital Fourier transform. These values are converted back to time domain by the Inverse Digital Fourier Transform and used to calculate the filter coefficient. An expected or estimated output is compared with the output of a filter and the error is observed. This error is then minimized by the adjusting the filter coefficient. One of the algorithm used to find the next coefficients can be LMS (Least Mean Square), that is, coefficients are changed to minimize the mean square error between the filtered output and the input signals coupled with noise. 
         [0056]    One advantage of a digital system with an in-pixel ADC, as proposed in this embodiment, is that the calibration data captured and stored in a nonvolatile memory during final testing are compatible with any readout stage output. Hence, the data can be used as feedback signals to compensate component mismatches, decrease noise and extend the dynamic range. 
         [0057]    Initial calibration needs to be performed during the test stage and can be done as follows: 
         [0058]    First, at room temperature, with the shutter closed, the settled voltage across the bolometer with the constant current source (sample and measure voltages of the storage capacitor) is measured. 
         [0059]    Next, all voltage levels are recorded and the measurement with a known IR intensity is taken. Per pixel difference is the response of a bolometer and that allows calculation of thermal coefficient of resistance (TCR) from the results. In addition, the mean value is calculated and subtracted from the pixel value. These differences represent the variation of bolometer sensitivity and are recorded into a nonvolatile memory. These numbers are used for compensation during real image capture. Individual pixel TCR variations are recorded. The same procedure is repeated at an elevated temperature, for example at 70 deg C. The results are also recorded in the nonvolatile memory. 
         [0060]    During normal usage, the chip temperature is measured through an on-chip bandgap or a junction diode temperature sensor. The stored sensitivity values in the nonvolatile memory are interpolated, or extrapolated if the temperature is out of the reference range used for calibration. When the sensitivity of a bolometer or TCR is higher, the bolometer resistance change will be higher, but the voltage change across the storage cap will be lower with the constant current flow through the bolometer. Thus, in order to equalize the response, the stored sensitivity variations are simply multiplied by the sampled data. This compensation can be performed before the captured data is stored in the memory and doesn&#39;t require any extra memory space. This calibration method will be also used to screen out the dead pixels, opens or shorts, or any part of readout circuits and path, and hot or cold pixels. The hot pixels are pixels that are too sensitive and the cold pixels have insufficient sensitivity. The dead pixels are recorded in the nonvolatile memory and excluded during normal usage. These pixel values are estimated based on neighboring pixel values. The values are interpolated or averaged between neighboring pixels or the edge rule if they are located at the transition area. If the rendered image of a cluster of dead pixels is visible and a multiple number of clusters are detected, these defective arrays can be screened out. Definition of a cluster and the threshold of the number of clusters to fail are predetermined and also stored in the nonvolatile memory. Since the proposed per pixel ADC can compensate per pixel difference, and hot or cold pixels can be further compensated using an extended bias current, or voltage range. Additionally, ADC range can be extended if the circuit can tolerate it. Otherwise, the ADC range can be extended in expense of precision. In this way some hot and cold pixels can be salvaged, and thus the yield can be raised. Since input voltage (or current) levels affect the dynamic operating range, noise and power levels, the average, max and mean output levels are measured or calculated over temperature range, and the optimal input levels are derived from these values. These values are stored in nonvolatile memory and used in image capture. 
         [0061]    The auto-correlation signal processing and filtering is done in the companion image processor which is advantageous since modern digital signal processing can be done fairly cheaply and with high performance (density, power and speed). Furthermore, since all the signals transferred and processed beyond the pixel are in the digital domain when using in-pixel ADC, they are immune to additional noise coupling (assuming the signal transfer out of the imager chip to the signal processor or equivalent are error free). 
         [0062]    The multiple frame data received by the image processor are averaged pixel by pixel from frame to frame to remove the temporal noise. Images are smoothed by spatial low pass filtering along with the edge sharpening process where the high frequency component is maintained. 
         [0063]    For the multiple reference black columns, the IR is blocked so that the output simply represents the microbolometer resistance that varies with the background temperature and heat conduction. 
         [0064]    In a system with the pixel-based ADC, comparator operations for all pixels are done at the same time, thereby providing global shutter capability. The pixel-based comparator changes state when the input voltage passes the DAC voltage threshold. At that instant, the corresponding digital input data to DAC is buffered, then stored in the frame buffer, and the status flag is set to indicate the completion of conversion of that pixel. The ADC operation is continued until the full range of DAC output is compared with the stored voltage and all pixel status bits are set for completion. 
         [0065]    Since a global shutter captures and stores an instantaneous image, it is useful in capturing scenes containing motion without image artifacts that are characteristic of sensor arrays using a scrolling shutter. If rows or pixels in an array are sampled at different times (as in column-parallel ADC), a fast moving objects can exhibit phenomenon such as wobble, skew, smear, partial exposure, and aliasing that degrade image quality and can cause image processing algorithms to fail. Furthermore, the dynamic range extension methods discussed earlier can only be implemented when using global shutter since it requires determining the full brightness range of an image at one instance in time. Global shutter can be implemented using two different methods: the first uses global sampling and storage of analog voltages along with shared ADCs in chip level or column level based system, the second uses pixel-based operations where the ADC operation is done globally. 
         [0066]    In a shared ADC system, the ADC operation is performed pixel by pixel or row by row sequentially (i.e. one pixel or row at a time). In order to implement a global shutter it is necessary to sample and store all the pixels at the same time. However, since there is a time lag between one ADC operation to the next, variation of the individual capacitance value, large leakage and coupling of thermal noise of the switching transistor are problematic. Because the thermal noise and capacitance variation are usually in a fixed pattern, the noise can be cancelled by the CDS operation previously described. However, the leakage cannot be filtered with CDS. Moreover, if the time lag between the first and last ADC operations is large, the leakage will considerably affect overall system performance. 
         [0067]    With in-pixel ADC, the whole array only requires one ADC time, although a readout time is required per row. Since readout time is done digitally, precise settling of bit line voltage is not necessary and the time to complete whole frame readout, compared to the ADC conversion time per pixel or row, can be orders of magnitude shorter than in the system with shared ADCs. 
         [0068]    In an alternative embodiment, it is possible to include a storage capacitor to store the comparator output where the stored value is a digital binary number instead of an analog voltage that is an instantaneous sample of the integration capacitor. Since the stored value is digital, the leakage of storage capacitor which is placed after the in-pixel comparator does not affect the outcome as much as an analog output system. Furthermore, the sampled analog value of the integration capacitor does not need to be stored and the system S/N will not be dependent upon the artifact created by sampling and storing of the storage capacitor signal value. If the sampling frequency is fast, errors caused by the delay due do a global ADC and frame readout will be very small. However, in order to minimize this delay, each bit comparison time as well as the number of comparison steps need to be minimized without sacrificing the precision and dynamic range. 
         [0069]    The option implementing a current based readout is depicted in  FIG. 8 . In this figure, a constant current flows through the microbolometer, the voltage across the bolometer pixel  810  is sampled and stored in Cstore  820 . The ADC operation starts and the result of each binary weighted bit comparison is stored in Cread_hold capacitor  830 . After reading the whole frame, ADC moves to the next most significant binary bit comparison until all bits, DAC output, are compared and the outputs stored. The DAC outputs can also be thermometer coded in order to reduce the switching noise. In this case, the frame time will increase because the number of comparisons will increase. In the case of  FIG. 8 , while the bit lines are being read out, the current sources to the amplifiers can be switched off in order to save power. 
         [0070]    In a multi-sample system, the storage capacitor is sampled again and the whole ADC operation is repeated. Otherwise, the storage capacitor is updated at the beginning of next frame readout. 
         [0071]    In  FIG. 7 , a constant voltage mode is depicted, and the figure shows the possibility of sharing a part of differential amplifier as well as the following stage amplifiers by a multiple pixels in order to save the circuit area and power. 
         [0072]    In a column-based ADC system, the sequence is the same, except the ADCs are placed outside of the array and the ADC operation is done row by row. The storage capacitor output is connected to the bit line through a source follower. This bit line voltage is sampled and fed into the column-based ADC. At the ADC input, the bit line voltage can be sampled in another sampling capacitor which is shared by all the pixels in the same column. However, if each pixel has a storage cap, an extra capacitor in the ADC is not always necessary. This is because the bit line voltage will be held steady during a full ADC conversion period. 
         [0073]    When multiple samples per frame are not needed, the storage capacitor can be omitted for a global frame capture. The integration capacitor  740  is sampled in lieu of the storage capacitor  720 , and the output is fed into the bit line through a source follower directly. ADC conversion for this analog input is performed for all bit levels, and after completion of one row ADC, the next row is selected and the ADC conversion procedure is repeated until the last row. As the in-pixel ADC, the column based ADC reference inputs and analog signals, can be generated either in binary coded sequence, for example from most significant bit to least significant bit as in a successive approximation ADC, or in ramp fashion, as in a single slope ADC. Any other type of ADC, including a sigma-delta, successive approximation, or cyclic converter is also possible for column based implementation. 
         [0074]    As the IR imager cost approaches that of a visible image sensor, with improved resolution and image quality, as well as high frame rate capture and global shutter capability, new possible applications emerge. One such application is gesture recognition. Existing technologies either rely on time-of-flight or the emission of near-IR laser dots to recognize 3D structure. These technologies require a light source that is invisible to the human eye at wavelength in the 850-950 nm range. Although these technologies perform well, the light source consumes significant power. High illumination intensity is often needed to provide adequate signal-to-noise ratio if the ambient brightness is high and, the system often requires a cooling fan. Also high light intensity in the visual band can bloom or smear into the Near IR band, deteriorating the image quality and necessitating visible light filtering components. 
         [0075]    In contrast, a microbolometer IR sensor is passive, relying on the detection of distinctive infrared radiation emitted by warm objects; therefore, it does not require an external light source. In a typical scene, the human body temperature is usually easily distinguishable from the background, because the body temperature of a person is relatively constant and uniform around 37 deg C. and the emissivity of the bare skin is approximately 0.98, and consequently there is little variation in filtering the images of human body or parts out of a captured image. This is true for both indoor and outdoor imagers. Especially the exposed body parts like hands or a face can be readily isolated and identified from the background and the detailed motion can be analyzed. An easier and preferred way of analyzing the motion is to use the symbolic presentation instead of three dimensional (3D) image reconstructed from the time-of-flight methods. As image quality improves and more detailed images become available, temperature contour maps and data points such as finger tips or valleys in between fingers can be extracted, as done in facial or finger print recognition systems, and used for 3D analysis. By these symbolic lines and points along with a fast frame capture, the 3D motion tracking can be done without costing too much memory space, power and computation time. 
         [0076]    IR recognition systems do not require an extra light source and are suitable for low power portable devices. 
         [0077]    The imaging array and processing electronics described above are combined with the optical elements and control electronics to form the optical imaging systems such as cameras for imaging applications in the infrared spectral range. 
         [0078]    Those skilled in the art will recognize that such design, architecture, and implementation of readout electronics can be applied to a multitude of devices that require readout of an array of sensors.