Abstract:
A tunable antimicrobial-loaded hydrogel formulation has a mechanical strength can be altered by changing the salt composition. The hydrogel formulation is preferably a Gellan film. The ion concentration in the gel material may be altered to obtain the desired gel strength. The hydrogel formulation is layered directly upon a skin area such as burnt skin. The hydrogel formulation includes a dosage of free antibiotic, such as the antibiotic is preferably vancomycin, for rapid release. The hydrogel formulation also includes microparticles and/or nanoparticles such as activated carbon powder that has adsorbed additional antibiotic. The particles are used to aid in attaining a timely or sustained release of the antibiotic drug.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/080,218 filed Nov. 14, 2014, which is incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    The subject disclosure relates to tunable antimicrobial-loaded polymer base formulations having a two-part, rapid and sustained, delivery of a drug. 
         [0004]    2. Background of the Related Art 
         [0005]    In the United States, there are millions of infections per year from resistant bacteria. Some of these infections even result in death. The monetary costs associated with these infections are billions of dollars, not to mention the burden of the actual infections themselves. In burn victims, wound infection is particularly troublesome as it is the leading cause of death in ICUs for burn victims, in the United States. Some of the bacterial or fungal pathogens are  Staphylococcus aureus , methicillin-resistant  Staphylococcus aureus  (MRSA) and  Candida albicans.    
         [0006]    Current treatments are usually some combination of sterile gauze, systemic drug administration, and hydrogels to promote wound healing, provide moisture, and soothe the wound. For example, see U.S. Pat. No. 4,931,279 to Bawa et al. However promising, these treatments have limitations. One such treatment is silver sulfadiazine, which is often the active antimicrobial agent in existing topical therapies. Silver sulfadiazine has high toxicity for keratinocytes and fibroblasts, key wound healing cells, thus preventing optimal wound healing. Silver sulfadiazine must also be applied several times per day. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0007]    In view of the above, a need exists for a wound treatment that would effectively inhibit bacterial infection growth, promote wound healing, prevent repeated daily application, not require systemic delivery, and/or have tunable delivery. The subject technology addresses all of these needs by providing polymer base formulations that provide a topical drug delivery system with tunable release and mechanical properties. As a result of the topical delivery, off-site toxicity and bacterial resistance are limited or prevented. Preferably, the treatment delivers small molecules including antibiotics. 
         [0008]    A preferred polymer base forms a hydrogel such as Gellan gum. The hydrogel formulation may be ointment, semi-crystalline, or a sheet. The hydrogel formulation may quickly release a free form of the drug as well as release a drug contained therein over a period of hours or days. The subsequent sustained release reduces the need for reapplication, which enhances patient compliance as patients often suffer pain and inconvenience in changing bandages. 
         [0009]    Gellan gum, a natural anionic heteropolysaccharide, provides strength and versatility. Along with high ion concentration, Gellan gum improves the strength of the hydrogel formulation. Gellan gum also improves long term drug release. One version of the Gellan gum varies from ointment to sheet form, without the need for covalent or harsh chemical crosslinking modifications. 
         [0010]    Preferably, the hydrogel formulation can fit a variety of wound configurations. By using a hydrogel formulation, the high water content enhances tissue repair by promoting cell viability and autolytic debridement. Further, the hydrogel formulation can fill in dead space and prevent excessive dosing by providing slow sustained release. 
         [0011]    In one embodiment, the subject technology is directed towards tunable antimicrobial-loaded hydrogel formulations. In one embodiment, the subject technology is a hydrogel formulation, where the pH level can be altered by changing the salt composition. The hydrogel formulation is preferably a Gellan film. In one method, the hydrogel formulation is layered directly upon a skin area such as burnt skin. The hydrogel formulation includes any dosage of antibiotic. One preferred antibiotic is vancomycin. The hydrogel formulation can also include microparticles and/or nanoparticles that are preferably selected from an ion exchange resin, activated carbon powder, or a combination of the two. The particles are used to aid in attaining a timely or sustained release of the antibiotic drug. The polymer and ion concentration in the gel material may be altered to obtain the desired gel strength. 
         [0012]    It should be appreciated that the subject technology can be implemented and utilized in numerous ways, including without limitation as a process, an apparatus, a system, a device, and a method for applications now known and later developed. These and other unique features of the system disclosed herein will become more readily apparent from the following description and the accompanying drawings. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0013]    So that those having ordinary skill in the art to which the disclosed system appertains will more readily understand how to make and use the same, reference may be had to the following drawings. 
           [0014]      FIG. 1  illustrates a method of forming a hydrogel in accordance with the subject disclosure. 
           [0015]      FIG. 2  illustrates another method of forming a hydrogel in accordance with the subject disclosure. 
           [0016]      FIG. 3  illustrates release profiles of free vancomycin and vancomycin loaded carbon nanopowder particles loaded within hydrogels constructed in accordance with the subject technology. 
           [0017]      FIG. 4  is a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) cross-sectional image of a freeze-dried sheet hydrogel in accordance with the subject disclosure. 
           [0018]      FIG. 5  illustrates how release kinetics are influenced by swelling-based diffusion for hydrogels in accordance with the subject disclosure. 
           [0019]      FIG. 6  is a table summarizing the mechanical properties of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology. 
           [0020]      FIG. 7  illustrates a modified agar plate assay of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology. 
           [0021]      FIG. 8  illustrates a microdilution assay of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology. 
           [0022]      FIG. 9  illustrates in vivo mouse experiments in accordance with the subject technology. 
           [0023]      FIG. 10  illustrates long-term in vitro water uptake of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
       [0024]    The subject technology overcomes many of the prior art problems associated with treating wounds. The advantages, and other features of the system disclosed herein, will become more readily apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art from the following detailed description of certain preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the drawings which set forth representative embodiments of the present invention and wherein like reference numerals identify similar structural elements. 
         [0025]    Hydrogels are three-dimensional, water-swollen structures comprised of hydrophilic cross-linked networks. Hydrogels range from ointment, to semi-crystalline, to sheet structures. Hydrogels are diluted cross-linked systems, demonstrating no flow at steady state and are capable of absorbing large amounts of water. For wounds, hydrogels are desirable because hydrogels create a moist healing environment and prevent adherence to wounds because of low interfacial tension. Hydrogels have a polymer base such as Gellan gum, alginate, and/or pectin. The following discussion relates to Gellan gum for simplicity but as noted other bases now known and later developed may be utilized. The chemical structure of Gellan gum is below. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0026]    The strength and release properties of hydrogels is a function of pH, Gellan concentration, and ion concentration. Table 1 below illustrates a table for ointment and sheet formulations of hydrogels. As a sheet, the hydrogel may be formed or cut into any desired shape, applied to a wound, and held in place with a dressing such as sterile gauze. The ointment hydrogel can be extruded from a needle (e.g., 3 mL 25.5 gauge) directly onto a site. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 ION CONCENTRATION 
                 GEL CONCEN- 
                   
               
               
                 TYPE 
                 (mM CaCl 2 ) 
                 TRATION 
                 pH 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 OINTMENT 
                 1 
                 1 
                 5.5 
                 7.4 
               
               
                 SHEET 
                 7 
                 4 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0027]    Referring now to  FIG. 1 , a method  100  of forming a hydrogel in sheet form is shown. At step S 101 , Gellan gum and deionized water are mixed together and autoclaved from 15 to 45 minutes at 121° C. or until the Gellan gum is dissolved in the deionized water. Step S 102  is a cooling step in order to prevent exposing the drug additive to high temperature. A typical cooling time is 30 seconds. At step S 103 , a solution of CaCl 2  is added and mixed thoroughly to increase the ion concentration. The solution of CaCl 2  also includes a drug such as vancomycin. Vancomycin is preferred because vancomycin is highly effective against several Gram-positive bacteria with a relatively low minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). 
         [0028]    At step S 104 , the solution is poured into the desired molds and allowed to set at room temperature. An ointment or semi-crystalline hydrogel is formed in a similar manner. As would be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, a hydrogel produced in accordance with the method  100  would provide ample free vancomycin for quick release. However, an alternative hydrogel that provides a sustained release over a multi-day period would also be beneficial. To obtain a more tunable and long-term release, vancomycin can be incorporated into nanoparticles for subsequent incorporation into the hydrogel. 
         [0029]    For example, ion exchange resins can be used to reverse ion exchange, mix the drug in ionic form to form resinate, release in conditions with a counter ion, and load a drug (e.g., vancomycin) at a high pH and release at a low pH. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles are activated carbon with an average diameter of 35 nm possessing a pentagonal configuration and forming aggregates to the 400 nm range. The carbon nanoparticles are structurally homogenous with graphite-like domains, low functional groups, and low occurrences of imperfections. Typical generation is from pure charcoal through carbonization and activation processes. Such resulting micro-, meso-, and macro-pores are able to adsorb many different size molecules within the pores for subsequent release under appropriate conditions. As the activated carbon turns the resulting hydrogel formation black, such hydrogel formations are easily recognized. 
         [0030]    In one embodiment, a hydrogel formation in a sheet form provides drug release over a nine day period. Several formulations are possible including the following: Gellan gum, free vancomycin, and vancomycin loaded NC; Gellan gum, free vancomycin, and vancomycin loaded ion-exchange resins; and Gellan gum, free vancomycin, vancomycin loaded NC, and vancomycin loaded ion-exchange resins. The hydrogel formation may be in an ointment form to provide extended drug release. 
         [0031]    Table 2 below illustrates several possible compositions for ointment and sheet formulations of hydrogels. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Free 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 vanco- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Gellan 
                 CaCl2 
                 mycin 
                 Carbon 
                 Total 
               
               
                   
                   
                 concen- 
                 concen- 
                 concen- 
                 concen- 
                 vanco- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 tration 
                 tration 
                 tration 
                 tration 
                 mycin 
               
               
                 Form 
                 Sample Type 
                 (% w/v) 
                 (mM) 
                 (% w/v) 
                 (% w/v) 
                 (% w/v) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Oint- 
                 Gellan 
                 1 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 ment 
               
               
                 Oint- 
                 Gellan + 
                 1 
                 1 
                 0.06 
                 0 
                 0.06 
               
               
                 ment 
                 vancomycin 
               
               
                 Oint- 
                 Gellan + 
                 1 
                 1 
                 0.06 
                 0.04 
                 0.06 
               
               
                 ment 
                 vancomycin + 
               
               
                   
                 vancomycin 
               
               
                   
                 loaded carbons 
               
               
                 Sheet 
                 Gellan 
                 4 
                 7 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Sheet 
                 Gellan + 
                 4 
                 7 
                 0.06 
                 0 
                 0.06 
               
               
                   
                 vancomycin 
               
               
                 Sheet 
                 Gellan + 
                 4 
                 7 
                 0.06 
                 0.04 
                 0.06 
               
               
                   
                 vancomycin + 
               
               
                   
                 vancomycin 
               
               
                   
                 loaded carbons 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0032]    Referring now to  FIG. 2 , another method  200  of forming a hydrogel in sheet form is shown. At step S 201 , vancomycin and carbon nanopowder are combined. The vancomycin and carbon nanopowder may be combined by placement in a container that is agitated for a period of time. The agitation may be for just 10 minutes, hours, a day, or even days. Activated carbon is highly porous. In other words, the carbon particles have branching inner passages into which gases and/or chemicals enter. The agitation over an extended period facilitates entry of the vancomycin effectively into the inner passages. In one embodiment, the nanopowder activated carbon has a typical diameter of 500 nm with a typical pore diameter of 13.7 nm. 
         [0033]    At step S 202 , Gellan powder and deionized water are combined and autoclaved. For example, the materials are heated to 120 degrees C. for 15 to 45 minutes until a homogenous state is reached. At step S 203 , the combination of Gellan powder and water are cooled. For example, the cooling can be at room temperature for 30 seconds. At step S 204 , the cooling Gellan powder and water are combined with a warm solution of CaCl 2 , free vancomycin and the agitated vancomycin loaded carbon nanopowder particle solution. The CaCl 2  provides Ca 2+  ions that facilitate gelation. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod to obtain even distribution. 
         [0034]    High Gellan gum and ion concentration improves gel strength. The activated carbon increases the amount of vancomycin loaded in the hydrogel, which is then subsequently released over an extended duration. The resulting hydrogel formulation can take the form of an ointment or a sheet for placement directly on a wounded area. A sheet form may include 4% w/v Gellan, 7 mM CaCl 2 , and 0.6 mg/mL vancomycin. An ointment form may include 1% w/v Gellan, 1 mM CaCl 2 , and 0.6 mg/mL vancomycin. Strength of the hydrogel formulation is a function of ion concentration (e.g., CaCl 2 ) and gel concentration. At step  205 , the mixture is poured into molds for setting in sheet form or put in a container for the ointment form. 
         [0035]    Generally, drug release is directly proportional to drug concentration. However, by including free vancomycin and vancomycin loaded in carbon nanoparticles, a sustained release of vancomycin follows the rapid release that occurs initially.  FIG. 3  illustrates two release profiles of Gellan hydrogels. One of the release profiles outlines free vancomycin release from the hydrogels and the other outlines release from vancomycin loaded carbon nanopowder particles incorporated within gellan hydrogels. As can be seen, the dual release will allow for infrequent bandage changes and application, which will facilitate patient compliance. Without being limited to any particular theory, the slow release is due to the highly porous nanoparticle with different types of pores. Once adsorbed, the vancomycin has to navigate through the tortuous path of the nanoparticle pores, through the Gellan crosslinks, and into the surrounding environment whereas the free vancomycin only has to navigate through the hydrogel. 
         [0036]      FIG. 4  is a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image taken of a sheet hydrogel sample to visualize the microstructure using a fully automated LEO 1530 VP ultra-high resolution field emitter SEM at 10 kV at ultra high vacuum. The hydrogel sample was freeze-dried in liquid nitrogen and fractured prior to placing it in the SEM vacuum chamber. 
         [0037]    In comparing sheet hydrogels to ointment hydrogels, it is envisioned that the hydrogels would provide greater cumulative release as a result of swelling-based diffusion. Swelling-based diffusion depends upon polymer concentration, ion concentration, solvent ion concentration, and osmotic pressure. Since the sheet form has a higher concentration of polymer and ions, a relatively higher concentration of counterions is present, which leads to a larger osmotic pressure difference. The osmotic pressure difference leads to greater swelling of the sheet hydrogel. This higher uptake of water causes a more rapid drug release as illustrated in 
         [0038]    Referring now to  FIG. 6 , a table summarizes the mechanical properties of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology. The different symbols indicate significance between the corresponding samples. In order to optimize performance of the hydrogel formulation, one should consider the following properties: compression; shear stress; Young&#39;s modulus; and linear viscoelastic measurement. The hydrogel formulation can further be characterized in terms of physical properties such as mesh size, visual appearance, and in vitro degradation. In vitro drug release analysis has demonstrated the effectiveness of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology. 
         [0039]    The sheet hydrogel mechanical properties were evaluated using a Bose Enduratec® ELF 3200 compression instrument. The initial gel height (W) was measured and gel base was moved closer to the indenter. The indenter was manually moved down until contact (spike in load). The initial displacement at contact was recorded (X). The indenter was manually moved down until 0.5 g constant load was achieved and the displacement at 0.5 g load was recorded (Y). Distance traveled (Z) was calculated by subtracting Y from X. Z was subtracted from W to obtain actual test height (AW). 10% of AW was used as a compressive strain (ε) boundary and compressive load (σ) was recorded. Engineering Young&#39;s moduli (E) was determined by using the slope of the linear portion of the graph, i.e., E=σ/ε. 
         [0040]    As it is impractical to perform compression analysis on ointment samples, we utilized rheometry to determine the mechanical properties, as has been done previously. A TA Advanced Rheometer 2000 was used to evaluate the dynamic Young&#39;s moduli. Briefly, ointment hydrogel samples were poured into the surface of the instrument, taking care as to not over/under flow the volume. The upper plate was lowered to the contact height of the ointment hydrogel and rotated manually to ensure complete contact. Using a 3% strain, a frequency sweep was run starting at 1 rad/s angular frequency and ramping to 50 rad/s. Using the software provided with the instrument, dynamic Young&#39;s moduli were calculated. 
         [0041]    As shown in  FIG. 6 , the Young&#39;s moduli values of all three types of sheet hydrogels are significantly higher (indicated by the +) than the ointment hydrogels (order of magnitude 10 5  vs. 10 1 ). This difference demonstrates the mechanical tenability of the hydrogels ranging from very low mechanical strength in ointment form to several orders of magnitude higher in sheet form. Changes in polymer and ion concentration contributed to the vast difference in mechanical strength as ointment hydrogels are weaker than sheet hydrogels due to fewer polymer crosslinks and lower amount of counterions to preserve the helical structure. 
         [0042]    There is also significant differences in Young&#39;s moduli between empty, vancomycin loaded, and nanoparticle loaded hydrogels (indicated by *, #, @). For both ointment and sheet, the carbon nanopowder particles significantly increase the mechanical strength, which can be attributed to their size and reinforcement of the polymer crosslinks. These carbon nanoparticles, particularly when aggregated, embed between the microporous structure of the hydrogel, increasing mechanical stability. In contrast, vancomycin does not play a role in affecting Young&#39;s moduli values due to its significantly smaller size. 
         [0043]    Referring now to  FIG. 7 , a modified agar plate assay of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology is shown. Inhibition of  S. aureus  25923 and MRSA MW2 growth by the hydrogels and the hydrogel release samples was determined using a modified agar plate assay, microdilution assay, and bacteria solution clearance assay.  S. aureus  and MRSA were chosen due to their prevalence in burn wound infection and recommendation by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). 
         [0044]    For the modified agar plate assays, agar plates were formulated using Bacto™ agar and CMHB. The plates were then coated evenly with  S. aureus  or MRSA at a concentration of 10 8  CFU/mL for 16-18 hours, ensuring that the bacteria are in their exponential growth phase. After coating the agar with bacteria, hydrogels loaded with vancomycin and vancomycin-loaded activated carbon were placed on the plates along with unloaded gellan hydrogels as negative controls and 30 ug vancomycin susceptibility discs as positive controls. Following 18 hours of incubation at 37° C., agar plates were imaged and the zones of inhibition were measured with successful results. 
         [0045]    Referring now to  FIG. 8 , a microdilution assay of hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology is shown. Frozen release samples were added to 96 well clear bottom plates. The release samples were sterile filtered and added in triplicate and diluted with an equal volume of 2×CMHB, resulting in a final concentration of 1×CMHB. The samples were then serially diluted in 1×CMHB. As a control, sterile 0.01 M PBS without any vancomycin was also diluted.  S. aureus  was isolated and added to the diluted release samples at a final concentration of 10 5  CFU/mL, along with the positive controls of PBS. Negative controls of PBS did not contain any bacteria. Controls of fresh, non-hydrogel incorporated vancomycin with a known concentration were used as well. The plates were incubated at 37° C. for 18 hours with low agitation. After incubation, the optical density (OD) of all the wells in the plates was measured at 600 nm using a Cytation3 plate reader. The normalized bacteria density was calculated, wherein the normalized bacteria density is equal to the (OD 600, sample  minus OD 600, negative control ) divided by (OD 600, positive control  minus OD 600, negative control ). 
         [0046]    The results of bacterial solution clearance assays were also successful. For bacteria solution clearance assays, 5 mL of  S. aureus  at a concentration of 10 6  CFU/mL was added to a 15 mL test tube. Hydrogel samples with carbons, positive vancomycin SensiDiscs™, and empty negative control samples were submerged directly in the bacteria solution. After three and 11 days, I mL of the solution was removed and remaining CFU/mL was measured in a cuvette at 600 nm using a Spectronic 200® Spectrophotometer. 1 mL of fresh 1×CMHB was added to the test tubes to keep the volume consistent. Digital images of the solutions were also obtained at each time point. All of the bacteria experiments were repeated with MRSA at the same concentrations and OD measured at 600 nm to evaluate the hydrogel efficacy against resistant strains. 
         [0047]    Referring to  FIG. 9 , in vivo hydrogel antibacterial efficacy was also proven.  FIG. 9  illustrates in vivo mouse experiments in accordance with the subject technology. In order to test the hydrogel efficacy, a bacteria concentration that is able to provide 100% death of the animal within 7 days of infection is needed. Briefly, mice are anesthetized via intraperitoneal injection and a burn is applied to the dorsal side of mice, using a heated brass block directly applied against exposed skin. The wound is infected with bacteria including  S. aureus  25923 or MRSA MW2 strains of bacteria at 1×10 8  cells/mouse, 1×10 9  cells/mouse, or 1×10 10  cells/mouse. Animals are monitored to evaluate at what concentration death is achieved within 7 days. Painkillers (Buprenorphine) are also provided to the animals subcutaneously at a concentration of 1 mg/kg. 
         [0048]    Topical treatment is initiated after 24 hours of applying the burn infections to evaluate the effect of topical hydrogel dressings on animal survival. Treatment is provided and animals were followed for a 7 day period. At the conclusion of the experiments, live animals will be euthanized via CO 2  inhalation and cervical dislocation. Treatment conditions include: saline, empty hydrogels, vancomycin, vancomycin hydrogels, and vancomycin hydrogels with vancomycin loaded carbon nanopowders. Both ointment and sheet hydrogels will be evaluated. 
         [0049]    Animals were anesthetized with ketamine-xylazine (90-100 mg/kg ketamine and 510 mg/kg xylazine) intraperitoneal injection and infection is applied by adding predetermined concentrations of bacteria in a solution using a needle. Wound size is evaluated immediately after burn application and again at the conclusion of the experiment using calipers to measure any changes in wound site post hydrogel application. Proper painkillers according to the IACUC protocols are administered throughout the course of the experiment. 
         [0050]    The bacterial burden within blood was evaluated. At day 5, animals are anesthetized with ketamine-xylazine and the thoracic cavity is opened to expose the heart. Approximately 1 mL of blood via cardiac puncture is collected and interrogated for bacteria colony forming unit (CFU) content. Subsequently the liver, lung, spleen, kidneys, and brain are harvested; the tissue is then disrupted and the material is tested to determine the number of colony forming units within the tissues. 
         [0051]    Hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology uptake water over time as shown in  FIG. 10 . Hydrogel mass was evaluated by assessing the percent mass change over 74 days of sheet hydrogel samples in two different solutions: 0.01 M PBS and deionized water. The samples were also placed in two different temperatures: room temperature (20° C.) and physiological temperature (37° C.). No significant mass change was noticed in all of the samples except those stored at 37° C. in deionized water. There was 12.5±5.6% mass change over 74 days in these samples, indicating that the hydrogel undergoes some degradation. The degradation can be attributed to the lack of ions in the deionized water, leading to an ion diffusion gradient out of the hydrogel therefore instability due to breaking of polymer crosslinks. 
         [0052]    Burn wound infections seen clinically can easily become infected with resistant and non-resistant strains of  S. aureus . By using a hydrogel system in accordance with the subject technology, one is able to combat both of the strain type to effectively eradicate and prevent future infections. By utilizing inexpensive, FDA approved, biocompatible, and easily available and modifiable materials, the instant wound dressings have an easier path to translation and FDA approval. Recurring burn infections are debilitating due to the weakened immune system. By providing a therapy that prevents bacteria growth recurrence, chances for subsequent infection onset are greatly reduced. 
         [0053]    The time release of small molecule antibiotics such as vancomycin from hydrogel systems is tunable. One timescale is 0-48 hours. By controlling the time release of vancomycin, gellan hydrogel systems are a more long-term treatment option. Through using vancomycin, other Gram-positive bacteria infections are treatable as well. 
         [0054]    Several studies have been conducted relating patient compliance to pain associated with frequent dressing changes. Patients are therefore more reluctant to adopt a therapy where daily reapplication is required, because of the severe pain associated with dressing removal and adherence. Although the rapid release over 24 hours is able to eradicate bacteria growth, it is the sustained release above effective concentration that prevents daily reapplication of wound dressings. This is in agreement with past studies that have been done to show the need for a high concentration of antibiotics to completely eradicate bacteria growth. Currently, vancomycin is often provided through intravenous (IV) injections, requiring a hospital stay and increasing care costs. Hence, there is a potential savings to hospital care cost because the hydrogel dressing can be provided in the clinic or with outpatient care. 
         [0055]    Due to the patient-specific tunability of the hydrogels of the subject technology, patients and clinicians alike will likely be more willing to use the dressings compared to those that require frequent reapplication. The simplicity of the composition is highly desirable in terms of clinical translation of the wound dressing. Hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology may also include one or more additional compounds such as antibiotics (e.g., gentamicin, clindamycin and the like), antifungal compounds, anti-inflammatory compounds, proteins (e.g., growth factors) and enzymes to promote wound healing, hemostatic agents, diagnostic and contrast agents, extracellular matrix components, and combinations thereof. 
         [0056]    The subject technology is useful for treatment of wounds such as ulcers, burns and the like. A bandage can be used over the hydrogels for holding the hydrogels in place at the wound site. The subject technology is particularly useful for military applications where immediate care upon the battlefield may otherwise not be available. Ointments could effectively cover irregular wound spaces whereas standalone hydrogel sheet dressings could cover more superficial wounds and infections. By covering wounds, hydrogels in accordance with the subject technology would not only reduce bacteria exposure but inhibit bacteria colonization as well. Another potential use is in the agriculture industry for time-dependent fertilization or pesticide application. 
         [0057]    It will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the pertinent art that the functions of several elements may, in alternative embodiments, be carried out by fewer elements, or a single element. Similarly, in some embodiments, any functional element may perform fewer, or different, operations than those described with respect to the illustrated embodiment. Also, functional elements shown as distinct for purposes of illustration may be incorporated within other functional elements in a particular implementation. All patents, patent applications and other references disclosed herein are hereby expressly incorporated in their entireties by reference. 
         [0058]    While the subject technology has been described with respect to preferred embodiments, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that various changes and/or modifications can be made to the subject technology without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.