Abstract:
A power source apparatus has a power factor improving circuit which uses switching elements (4) as buildup transistors. According to the power source apparatus of the present invention, a current carrying ratio of the switching elements is decided to be a value which is obtained by subtracting a number of proportional value of the power source current waveform from the maximum current carrying ratio. Since the device of the present invention does not necessitate a detecting circuit of the power source voltage waveform for outputting an instruction waveform, the circuit thereof is simple and is not affected by the voltage change of the power source and noise generated at the power source.

Description:
This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 243,615, filed Sept. 13, 1988, now abandoned. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a power source circuit for converting an AC power source into a direct current using a rectifying circuit and a smoothing circuit. More particularly, the invention relates to power source apparatus adapted to suppress higher harmonics in the power source current. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     A conventional rectifying circuit which rectifies an AC power source to convert it into a DC power source has been disclosed in FIGS. 4 and 6 of Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 59-198873 published on Nov. 10, 1984 in the title of &#34;Power source rectifying circuit&#34; which is provided with a circuit for suppressing higher harmonics in the source current. According to this publication, a switching element is connected to an output terminal of the rectifier circuit, a current waveform is compared with a synchronizing error signal obtained by multiplying a difference between the DC output voltage and a setpoint voltage by a voltage signal of the AC power source, and the switching element is turned on and off depending upon the polarity of the difference. 
     According to the above-mentioned prior art, the AC current instruction waveform for improving the power factor is formed relying upon an AC voltage waveform. When the AC voltage undergoes a change or when noise is generated the current instruction waveform is directly affected imposing a problem with regard to reliability. 
     Furthermore, a device must be provided to detect AC voltage waveforms, thus causing the circuit to become complex and bulky. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     An object of the present invention is to provide a power source apparatus which is able to improve the power factor without using an AC current instruction waveform and, at the same time, suppress ripples in the DC voltage. 
     The object of the present invention is achieved by providing a power source current detecting and amplifying circuit for detecting and amplifying a power source current, and a current carrying ratio instruction preparation means for preparing a current carrying ratio instruction value of the switching element. A current carrying ratio instruction value of the switching element is obtained by subtracting the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit from the current carrying ratio instruction value that gives a maximum current carrying ratio, and the switching element is operated based upon this current carrying ratio instruction value. 
     In other words, the circuit for improving the power factor of the power source current according to the present invention fundamentally consists of a reactor, a switching element, a power source current detecting and amplifying circuit and a current carrying ratio instruction preparation means. The current carrying ratio instruction value of the switching element is obtained by subtracting the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit from the current carrying ratio instruction value that gives a maximum current carrying ratio, and the switching element is operated relying upon the current carrying ratio instruction value. 
     The operation of the present invention will now be described. The current carrying ratio x is determined in compliance with the following equation. 
     
         x=C-KIs                                                    (1) 
    
     where Is denotes a detected power source current, K denotes a proportional coefficient, and C denotes a constant. 
     Further, the equation of the circuit can be approximated by the following equation, ##EQU1## where I 0  denotes an initial current of Is, L denotes the inductance of the reactor, and Vs denotes an absolute value of the power source voltage. 
     By substituting the equation (1) for the equation (2), and regarding that Vs=Vm sin ωt, we obtain the following equation. ##EQU2## where I 0  is an initial value of Is, and α=K·Ed/L. Here, if α is sufficiently great, i.e., if α&gt;&gt;ω and e - αt ≃0, then, there is obtained the following equation, ##EQU3## 
     Here, if K and Ed remain constant, then the power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform which is in synchronism with the power source voltage, and the power factor can be controlled to become nearly 1. 
     The aforementioned principle will now be described in further detail in conjunction with FIG. 3 which shows a power source voltage, a power source current, and a current carrying ratio of a transistor. When the transistor is not performing the switching operation, the power source current flows into the capacitor only when it is to be electrically charged and contains much higher harmonic components as represented by a solid line in FIG. 3(B). Therefore, in order to control the power source current so that it assumes a sinusoidal waveform as shown in dotted line of FIG. 3(B), the current carrying ratio must be increased in the region of a small power source voltage, and the current carrying ratio must be decreased to suppress the current in the region of a high power source voltage. That is, the current carrying ratio must be controlled as shown in FIG. 3(C). Here, if a current carrying ratio instruction value is obtained by subtracting the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit from the current carrying ratio instruction value that gives a maximum current carrying ratio, i.e., 1, the current carrying ratio decreases in the region of a large power source current, i.e., decreases in the region of a high power source voltage, and the current carrying ratio increases in the region of a small power source current, i.e., increases in the region of a low power source voltage. Therefore, the power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform which is close to the current carrying ratio waveform shown in FIG. 3(C), and the amount of higher harmonic components can be decreased. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 shows a diagram illustrating a circuit structure of one embodiment of the present invention; 
     FIG. 2 is the first embodiment of a flow chart showing a DC voltage control process executed by a microcomputer denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 1; 
     FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating the principle of the apparatus shown in FIG. 1 of the present invention; 
     FIG. 4 is the second embodiment of a flow chart showing a DC voltage control processing executed by a microcomputer denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 1; 
     FIG. 5 shows a diagram illustrating a circuit structure of the third embodiment of the present invention; 
     FIG. 6 is a diagram of an output waveform of a position detect signal denoted by reference numeral 22 in FIG. 5; 
     FIG. 7 is a flow chart of a speed control processing executed by a microcomputer denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 5; 
     FIG. 8 shows a diagram illustrating a circuit structure of the 4th embodiment of the present invention; 
     FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing a DC voltage control processing executed by a microcomputer denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 8; 
     FIG. 10 is a diagram of the circuit structure of a power source apparatus according to the 5th embodiment which inputs a power from a three-phase AC power source; 
     FIG. 11 shows a diagram illustrating a circuit structure of the 6th embodiment of the present invention; 
     FIG. 12 is a diagram which illustrates the operation of a power source apparatus shown in FIG. 11; 
     FIG. 13 shows a diagram illustrating a circuit structure the 7th embodiment of the present invention; and 
     FIG. 14 is a diagram of the circuit structure of the 8th embodiment which inputs a power from a three-phase AC power source. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     Referring to FIG. 1, an AC power source 1 is converted into a DC voltage Ed through a reactor 2, a rectifying circuit 3, a transistor 4, and a capacitor 5, to supply electric power to a load 6. 
     A control circuit for controlling the DC voltage Ed consists of a power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7 for detecting and amplifying a power source current, a current carrying ratio instruction preparation means 8 which produces a current carrying ratio instruction value 9 based on the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7, a comparator 11 that produces a chopper signal for the transistor 4 by comparing the current carrying ratio instruction value 9 with a triangular wave which is the output of a triangular wave oscillator 10, a chopper driver 12 for the transistor 4, a DC voltage detector 13 for detecting the DC voltage Ed, and a microcomputer 16 which calculates a proportional gain K based upon a DC voltage detect signal 14 (E d ) and a DC voltage instruction 15 (E d ). As is well known in the art, the combination of comparator 11 and triangular wave oscillator 10 constitutes a pulse-width modulation circuit for outputting a variable duty ratio signal. 
     The power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7 consists of a detect resistor 7-1 which detects the power source current, a power source current amplifier 7-2 which amplifies the output of the detect resistor 7-1 a predetermined number of times, and a D/A converter 7-3 with a multiplication function which multiplies the output signal K1 of the power source current amplifier 7-2 by the proportional gain K which is a digital input 7-4, and produces the multiplied result. 
     The current carrying ratio instruction preparation means 8 consists of a reference voltage generating circuit 8-1, and an operational amplifier 8-2 which produces a current carrying ratio instruction value 9(Vx) by subtracting the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7 from the output Vc of the reference voltage generating circuit 8-1. Here, the output Vc of the reference voltage generating circuit 8-1 is selected to become nearly equal to a maximum value (V H ) of the triangular wave oscillator 10. 
     In the thus constructed control circuit, if the resistance of the detect resistor 7-1 is denoted by R, the amplification factor of the power source current amplifier 7-2 by K 1 , the power source current by Is, and the current carrying ratio instruction 9 by Vx, then, 
     
         Vx=Vc-K·K.sub.1 R·Is                     (5) 
    
     Here, if the output Vc of the reference voltage generating circuit 8-1 is selected to become equal to a maximum value V H  of and the output of the triangular wave oscillator 10 then the current carrying ratio x is given by, ##EQU4## whereby the power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform because of the same reasons as mentioned above, and the power factor can be controlled to become nearly 1. Here, the current carrying ratio x can be changed by changing the proportional gain K. 
     In addition to calculating the proportional gain K from the DC voltage detect signal 14 and the DC voltage instruction 15 as mentioned above, the microcomputer 16 executes a variety of programs necessary for controlling the DC voltage Ed, such as receiving the DC voltage detect signal 14 and the DC voltage instruction 15, and sending the proportional gain K to the D/A converter 7-3 with multiplication function. 
     Hereunder, we will explain a control method of the DC voltage Ed. In FIG. 1, a difference is calculated between the DC voltage detect signal 14 and the DC voltage instruction 15, and the proportional gain K is increased when the DC voltage detect signal 14 is greater, and is decreased when the DC voltage instruction 15 is greater. For instance, the proportional gain K increases and the current carrying ratio instruction value 9 decreases when the DC voltage detect signal 14 is greater. Therefore, the input current decreases and an increased amount of electric power is sent to the side of the DC electric power, causing the DC voltage Ed to drop. The above-mentioned operation is repeated until the deviation becomes zero between the DC voltage detect signal 14 and the DC voltage instruction 15, so that the DC voltage Ed is controlled. 
     FIG. 2 illustrates the contents of the DC voltage control process executed by the microcomputer 16 based upon this idea, i.e., illustrates the procedure for preparing a proportional gain which will be sent to the D/A converter 7-3 with multiplication function. 
     In a process I of FIG. 2, the microcomputer 16 of FIG. 1 receives a DC voltage instruction E d  and a DC voltage detect signal E d . In a process II, the microcomputer obtains a proportional term P and an integration term In from a deviation voltage ΔEd=E d  -E d  between the DC voltage instruction E d  and the DC voltage detect signal E d , and obtains a proportional gain K as an inverse number of the sum thereof. Here, the proportional term P is a product of the proportional gain Kp and the deviation voltage ΔEd, and the integration term In is obtained by adding the product of the integration gain K 1  and the deviation voltage ΔEd to the second to last integration term I n-1 . In a process III, the proportional gain K is sent to the D/A converter 7-3 with multiplication function. The DC voltage Ed is controlled by repeating the above-mentioned DC voltage control processing. 
     FIG. 4 illustrates a power source apparatus according to a second embodiment of the present invention, i.e., illustrates the contents of the DC voltage control processing that will be executed by the microcomputer (designated by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 1). The circuit structure is the same as that of the case of FIG. 1. What makes a difference from FIG. 2 is only with regard to means for obtaining a proportional gain K; i.e., the proportional gain K is obtained by subtracting from 1 the sum of the proportional term P and the integration term I n . According to the second embodiment, therefore, no calculation for division is needed, enabling the calculating to be simplified. 
     FIGS. 5 to 7 illustrate a third embodiment of the power source apparatus of the present invention. The third embodiment of the present invention is adapted to controlling the speed of a brushless DC motor, and the circuit structure thereof is shown in FIG. 5. 
     In FIG. 5, the AC power source 1 is converted into a DC voltage Ed through a reactor 2, a rectifying circuit 3, a transistor 4 and a capacitor 5; i.e., the DC electric power is supplied to an inverter 17 to drive a synchronous motor 18. 
     A control circuit for controlling the speed of the synchronous motor 18 consists of a microcomputer 16, a position detecting circuit 20 for detecting the magnetic pole position of the rotor 18-1 of the synchronous motor 18 from a motor terminal voltage 19, a driver 21 for transistors TR1 to TR6 that constitute an inverter 17, a power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7 for detecting and amplifying the power source current, a current carrying ratio instruction preparation means 8 for preparing a current carrying ratio instruction value 9 from the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7, a comparator 11 which produces a chopper signal for the transistor 4 by comparing the current carrying ratio instruction value 9 with a triangular wave which is the output of the triangular wave oscillator 10, and a chopper driver 12 for the transistor 4. Here, the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7 and the current carrying ratio instruction preparation means 8 are constructed in the same manner as those of FIG. 1. 
     The microcomputer 16 executes a variety of programs necessary for driving the synchronous motor 18, such as receiving a position detect signal 22 from the position detecting circuit 20 and a speed instruction 23, sending an inverter drive signal to the inverter driver 21, calculating a proportional gain K, and sending the proportional gain K to the D/A converter 7-3 with a multiplication function. 
     FIG. 6 is a diagram which illustrates the output waveform of a position detect signal denoted by reference numeral 22 in FIG. 5, and wherein the condition of the three-phase signal changes after every 60°. The times t 1  to t 6  are measured every after 60°, and the time T of one cycle is found to detect the speed of the synchronous motor 18. 
     FIG. 7 illustrates the contents of a speed control process executed by the microcomputer which is denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 5, i.e., illustrates the procedure for producing a proportional gain K that will be sent to the D/A converter 7-3 with multiplication function. 
     In a process I of FIG. 7, the microcomputer denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 5 calculates an instruction speed N* based on a speed instruction 23 sent from an external unit. A process II finds the time T of one cycle of the position detect signal, and a process III calculates the speed N from the time T of one cycle and the proportional constant K N . In a process IV, furthermore, a proportional term P and a integration term I n  are prepared from the deviation speed ΔN=N*-N between the instruction speed N* and the detected speed N, and a proportional gain K is obtained as an inverse number of the sum thereof. Here, the proportional term P is a product of the proportional gain K p  and the deviation speed ΔN, and the integration term I n  is obtained by adding the product of the proportional gain K I  and the deviation speed ΔN to the second to last integration term I n-1 . 
     In a process V, the proportional gain K is sent to the D/A converter 7-3 with multiplication function. By repeating the above-mentioned speed control process, the proportional gain K is corrected until the instruction speed N* and the detected speed N become equal to each other, so that the speed of the synchronous motor is controlled. 
     In this embodiment, the proportional gain K is directly found from the deviation speed. By combining this embodiment with the first embodiment, furthermore, it is also possible to find the proportional gain K utilizing the sum of the proportional term and integration term of deviation speed as the DC voltage instruction E d . 
     In FIG. 8, the same parts as in FIG. 5 are indicated by the same symbols. Different from the previous embodiment in FIG. 5 is that a DC voltage detector 24 is connected to the position terminal of the condenser 5, and outputs a DC voltage detecting signal E d  to the microcomputer 16. 
     In a process I of FIG. 9, the microcomputer denoted by reference numeral 16 in FIG. 8 calculates an instruction speed N* based on a speed instruction 23 sent from an external unit. A process II finds the time T of one cycle of the position detect signal, and a process III calculates the speed N from the time T of one cycle and the proportional constant K N . In a process IV, furthermore, a proportional term P 1  and an integration term I 1 (n) are prepared from the deviation speed ΔN=N*-N between the instruction speed N* and the detected speed N, and obtains a DC voltage instruction E d . Here, the proportional term P 1  is a product of the proportional gain K P1  and the deviation speed ΔN, and the integration term I 1 (n) is obtained by adding the product of the proportional gain K I1  and the deviation speed ΔN to the second to last integration term I 1 (n-1). 
     In a process V, the DC voltage detecting signal E d  is read out of the DC voltage detector (24). In a process VI, a proportional term P 2  and an integration term I 2 (n) are prepared from the deviation voltage ΔE=E d  -E d  between the DC voltage instruction E d  and the DC voltage detecting signal E d , and a proportional gain K is obtained as an inverse number of the sum thereof. Here, the proportional term P 2  is a product of the proportional gain K P2  and the deviation voltage ΔEd, and the integration term I 2 (n) is obtained by adding the product of the proportional gain K I2  and the deviation voltage ΔEd to the second last integration term I.sub.(n-1). In a process VII, the proportional gain K is sent to the D/A converter 7-3 with multiplication function. By repeating the above-mentioned speed control process, the proportional gain K is corrected until the instruction speed N* and the detected speed N become equal to each other, so that the speed of the synchronous motor is controlled. 
     FIG. 10, illustrates a power source apparatus according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention, wherein a three-phase AC power source 25 is input. In FIG. 10, three single-phase power source apparatuses are combined together. The method of operation and the principle of operation are the same as those of the single-phase power source apparatus. 
     As will be obvious from the description of the various embodiments, the present invention does not require a sinusoidal current instruction waveform for improving the power factor and also does not require the power source voltage detecting circuit, for preparing a current instruction waveform, thus enabling the circuit to be simplified and reduced in size. Furthermore, since the current instruction waveform is not directly affected by the voltage change on the power source voltage or the noise, the power source apparatus features improved reliability against voltage change and noise. 
     In the above embodiments, we explained the power source apparatuses in which the DC output voltage Ed does not contain ripple components. 
     In practice, however, the DC output voltage Ed contains ripple components and does not remain constant. Therefore, the power supply current undergoes change, and a neat sinusoidal waveform is not obtained causing the power factor to decrease. 
     When the DC output voltage Ed increases according to the equation (4), the power source current Is decreases. When the DC output voltage Ed decreases, on the other hand, the power current is increased. 
     As represented by the equation (1), the power source current Is undergoes the change due to ripple component ΔEd in the DC output voltage Ed and the current carrying ratio x changes. Therefore, the current carrying ratio x is given by the following equation such that the change thereof can be suppressed by the ripple component ΔEd in the DC output voltage Ed, 
     
         x=C-K.sub.1 Is+K.sub.2 ΔEd                           (7) 
    
     This helps prevent the power factor from being decreased by the ripple components in the DC voltage and makes it possible to eliminate the ripple components in the DC output voltage. 
     The aforementioned principle will now be described with reference to FIG. 12. 
     FIG. 12 shows waveforms of a power source voltage, a power source current, a current carrying ratio of a transistor and a ripple component in the DC output voltage. When the transistor does not perform the switching operation, the power source current waveform contains much higher harmonic components as represented by a solid line in FIG. 12(B) since the power source current flows into the capacitor only when it is to be electrically charged. In order for the power source current to assume a sinusoidal waveform, the current carrying ratio must be increased in a region of a low power source voltage and must be decreased in a region of a high power source voltage. Therefore, when the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit produces an output of the positive sign, the above output is subtracted from a current carrying ratio instruction value that gives a maximum current carrying ratio, i.e., that gives 1 thereby to obtain a current carrying ratio instruction value. When the output is of the negative sign, the output is added thereto. Then, the current carrying ratio instruction value assumes a waveform as shown in FIG. 12(C); i.e., the current carrying ratio decreases in a region of a large power source current, i.e., decreases in a region of a high power source voltage, and the current carrying ratio increases in a region of a small power source current, i.e., increases in a region of a low power source voltage. The power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform as represented by a broken line in FIG. 12(B), whereby the amount of higher harmonic components decreases and the power factor is improved. 
     When ripple components are contained in the DC output voltage as shown in FIG. 12(D), however, the power source current decreases with the increase in the DC voltage in compliance with the aforementioned equation (4) due to ripple components, and increases with the decrease in the DC voltage. Since the power source current changes as represented by a solid line in FIG. 12(E) due to ripple components in the DC output voltage, the current carrying ratio instruction varies, too, whereby the DC output voltage assumes a waveform that contains ripple components as represented by a solid line in FIG. 12(F). Namely, the change of the power source can not be suppressed so that the power source current no longer assumes the sinusoidal waveform and the power factor decreases. 
     Therefore, when the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit produces an output of the positive sign, the current ratio instruction value is obtained by subtracting the above output from a current carrying ratio instruction value that gives a maximum current carrying ratio, for example, 1. When the above output has the negative sign, the output is added thereto. When the ripple component output of the DC voltage ripple detecting and amplifying circuit is not inverted, the output is added thereto and when the ripple component output is inverted, the output is subtracted therefrom. Namely, change in the power source current caused by ripple components in the DC output voltage is corrected, so that the power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform as indicated by a broken line in FIG. 12(E). 
     As the DC output voltage increases due to ripples, the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit decreases so that the current carrying ratio increases. However, the change of the power source current can not be compensated completely. Thus, the output of the DC voltage ripple detecting and amplifying circuit assists to increase the current carrying ratio. Conversely, when the DC output voltage decreases due to ripples, the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit increases so that the current carrying ratio decreases. However, the change of the power source current can not be compensated completely. Thus, the output of the DC voltage ripple detecting and amplifying circuit assists to decrease the current carrying ratio. By controlling the current carrying ratio, the power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform to suppress ripples in the DC output voltage. 
     In FIG. 11, the same parts as in FIG. 1 are indicated by the same symbols. Different from the embodiment in FIG. 1 is that a DC voltage ripple detecting and amplifying circuit 24 is provided for detecting and amplifying ripple components in the DC output voltage. 
     The DC voltage ripple detecting and amplifying circuit 24 consists of a low-pass filter 24-1 which removes ripple components from the DC output voltage Ed and produces a means value of the DC output voltage Ed, and a ripple detector and amplifier 24-2 which compares the output thereof with the DC output voltage Ed, detects the ripple components only, and amplifies the ripple components a predetermined number of times. 
     The operational amplifier 8-2 inputs the output Vc from the reference voltage generating circuit 8-1 and the ripple detector and amplifier 24-2 to the inverse terminals thereof, and the D/A converter 7-3 to the non-inverse terminal thereof. 
     The current carrying ratio instruction preparation means 8 consists of a reference voltage generating circuit 8-1, and an operational amplifier 8-2 which, when the output of the power source current detecting and amplifying circuit 7 has the positive sign, subtracts the output from the output Vc, which, when the output has the negative sign, adds the output thereto, which further adds the output thereto when the ripple component output of the DC voltage ripple detecting and amplifying circuit is not inverted, and which subtracts the output when the ripple component output is inverted, thereby preparing a current-carrying ratio instruction value 9. Here, the output Vc of the reference voltage generating circuit 8-1 is selected to become nearly equal to a maximum value of the triangular wave oscillator 10. 
     In this control circuit, if the resistance of the detect resistor 7-1 is denoted by R, the amplification factor of the power source current amplifier 7-2 by K 1 , the power source current by Is, the ripple component in the DC voltage by ΔEd, and the amplification factor of the ripple detector and amplifier 24-2 by K 2 , then the current carrying ratio instruction value 9, i.e., Vx is give by, 
     
         Vx=Vc-KK.sub.1 RIs+K.sub.2 ΔEd                       (8) 
    
     If the output Vc of the reference voltage generating circuit 8-1 is selected to become equal to a maximum output V H  of the triangular wave oscillator, the current carrying ratio x is given by, ##EQU5## whereby the power source current assumes a sinusoidal waveform because of the same reasons as mentioned above, and a unity power factor is obtained. The current carrying ratio x can be changed by changing the proportional gain K. 
     A DC voltage control procedure executed by the microcomputer 16 shown in FIG. 11 is similar to that shown in FIGS. 2 and 4. 
     In FIG. 13, the same parts as in FIGS. 5 and 11 are indicated by the same symbols The output waveform of the position detecting signal 22 and the flow chart of the speed control procedure carried out by the microcomputer 16 in FIG. 13 are similar to that shown in FIGS. 6 and 7, respectively. 
     FIG. 14 illustrates a power source apparatus which inputs a three-phase AC power source 25 according to a still further embodiment. In this case, three single-phase power source apparatuses are combined together. The method of operation and the principle of operation are the same as those of the single-phase power source apparatus shown in FIG. 11. 
     The embodiments shown in FIGS. 11-14 obtain the same effect as those in FIGS. 1-8.