Abstract:
Problem to be Solved 
     An object of the present invention is to provide a separase sensor for visualizing separase activity in a living cell. Another object is to develop a function analysis system of cell division using the separase sensor and further obtain a simple screening method for an anticancer agent. 
     Solution 
     The separase sensor of the present invention has two types of fluorescent proteins different in fluorescence wavelength at both ends of an amino acid sequence containing a separase cleavage site and a localization-targeting sequence targeting to a specific site within a cell. Since timing of activating separase and location of separase in a cell can be specified by use of the sensor, cell division can be analyzed and an anticancer agent can be screened.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
       [0001]    The present invention relates to a biosensor that can visualize the activation of separase in vivo. 
       BACKGROUND ART 
       [0002]    Cell division is a basic process for developing and growing living organisms, needless to say, which is the most dynamic behavior in a biological cell cycle. It is widely known that abnormal regulation of cell division leads to “malignant alteration”. Cell division is a very important process but still many points remain unexplained. One of these points (riddles) is synchronized motion of chromosomes that momentarily occurs and observed in cell division. 
         [0003]    It has been known for 100 years or more that the number of chromosomes of a cancer cell differs from that of a normal cell. It has been also known that the number of chromosomes of a cancer cell easily varies, and that cancer cells having different number of chromosomes are produced in a cancer-cell proliferation. Such variation in the number of chromosomes, in other words, chromosomal instability, contributes to diversity of cancer cells, furthermore, a high grade of malignancy. The diversity of cancer cells constituting a tumor is the biggest factor that makes it difficult to treat cancer. In other words, due to the presence of diversified cancer cells different in resistance to an anticancer agent, it difficult to kill all cancer cells. 
         [0004]    From the above background, analyzing a molecular mechanism underlying chromosomal instability may lead to develop a new treatment of cancer. From the expectation, attention has been focused on importance of genes involved in cohesion or segregation of sister chromatids. In particular, overexpression of separase, which is a protease cleaving an adhesion factor called cohesin present between sister chromatids, and securin, which is a one of regulatory factor for separase, has been reported to cause chromosomal instability, leading to canceration of the cell. Overexpression of separase and securin is considered as a significant factor in the “malignant alteration” process. 
         [0005]    Basically, in the progression process of a normal cell division, segregation of sister chromatids is an important event and strictly controlled. In the segregation of sister chromatids, two events, i.e., removal of cohesin and poleward movement of chromatids, are controlled to simultaneously proceed (Non Patent Literatures 1, 2). 
         [0006]    The former is started when cohesin, a protein complex that holds sister chromatids together, is decomposed by the protease separase (Non Patent Literatures 3, 4). Separase is known to be activated by control of securin (Non Patent Literatures 5-7). 
         [0007]    The latter involves proteins that regulate microtubule, including kinesins that promote microtubule depolymerization (Non Patent Literature 8), and chromokinesins (Non Patent Literature 9). Little is known about the mechanism that controls these proteins, but it is said that the mechanism depends on a decrease in cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk1) activity (Non Patent Literatures 9-11). 
         [0008]    It is considered that the two processes, i.e., removal of cohesin and poleward movement of chromosomes are cooperatively, orderly and strictly controlled, in consideration that all chromosomes segregate and move poleward in an extremely short time. 
       CITATION LIST 
     Non Patent Literatures 
       [0000]    
       
         Non Patent Literature 1: Oliveira, R. A., and Nasmyth, K. (2010) Biochem. Soc. Trans., Vol. 38, p. 1639-1644 
         Non Patent Literature 2: Yanagida, M. (2009) Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol., Vol. 10, p. 489-496 
         Non Patent Literature 3: Uhlmann, F., et al. (1999) Nature, Vol. 400, p. 37-42 
         Non Patent Literature 4: Uhlmann, F., et al. (2000) Cell, Vol. 103, p. 375-386 
         Non Patent Literature 5: Funabiki, H., et al. (1996) EMBO J., Vol. 15, p. 6617-6628 
         Non Patent Literature 6: Ciosk, R., et al. (1998) Cell, Vol. 93, p. 1067-1076 Non Patent Literature 7: Zou, H., et al. (1999) Science, vol. 285, p. 418-422 Non Patent Literature 8: Rogers, G. C., et al. (2004) Nature, Vol. 427, p. 364-370 Non Patent Literature 9: Wolf, F., et al. (2006) EMBO J., Vol. 25, p. 2802-2813 Non Patent Literature 10: Higuchi. T, and Uhlmann, F. (2005) Nature, Vol. 433, p. 171-176 
         Non Patent Literature 11: Oliveira, R. A., et al. (2010) Nat. Cell Biol., Vol. 12, p. 185-192 
         Non Patent Literature 12: Hauf, S., et al. (2001) Science, Vol. 293, p. 1320-1323 
         Non Patent Literature 13: Sigal, C. T., (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 91, p. 12253-12257 
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         [0019]    Non Patent Literature 15: Hornig, N. C. D., and Uhlmann, F. (2004) EMBO J., Vol. 23, p. 3144-3153 
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         [0023]    Non Patent Literature 19: Jallepalli, P. V., et al., (2001) Cell, Vol. 105, p. 445-457 
         [0024]    Non Patent Literature 20: Mei, J., et al., (2001) Curr. Biol., Vol. 11, p. 1197-1201
   Non Patent Literature 21: Wang, Z., et al., (2001) Mol. Endocrinol., Vol. 15, p. 1870-1879   
 
         [0026]    Non Patent Literature 22: Pfleghaar, K., et al., (2005) PLoS Biol Vol. 3, e416
   Non Patent Literature 23: Stemmann, O., et al., (2001). Cell, Vol. 107, p. 715-726   Non Patent Literature 24: Gorr, I. H. et al., (2005) Mol. Cell, Vol. 19, p. 135-141   Non Patent Literature 25: Huang, X., et al., (2005) Mol. Biol. Cell, Vol. 16, p. 4725-4732   Non Patent Literature 26: Holland, A. J. and Taylor, S. S. (2006) J. Cell Sci., Vol. 119, p. 3325-3336   Non Patent Literature 27: Poser, L., et al., (2008) Nat. Methods Vol. 5, p. 409-415   Non Patent Literature 28: Zou, H. et al., (2002) FEBS Left. Vol. 528, p. 246-250   Non Patent Literature 29: Waizenegger, I., et al., (2002) Curr. Biol. Vol. 12, p. 1368-1378   Non Patent Literature 30: Goto, H. K., et al., (2006) Nat. Cell Biol. Vol. 8, p. 180-187   
 
       SUMMARY OF INVENTION 
     Technical Problem 
       [0035]    How to control and proceed a chromosomal segregation process strictly synchronized has not yet been utterly elucidated. A key for elucidating the chromosomal segregation process is conceivably understanding a mechanism of controlling separase, which breaks junction of sister chromatids; however, timing of activating separase has not so far been elucidated. In the cell division process, which cooperatively proceeds in a short time of only 60 seconds, it is extremely difficult to biochemically analyze the timing of activating separase. 
         [0036]    Mechanism of activating separase has not long been elucidated. It is still unclear when and where in the cell division process, separase is activated. If in-vivo behavior of separase including its mechanism and timing of activation is elucidated, pathologic conditions of a cell such as chromosomal instability found in a cancer cell, pathologic conditions in connection with malignant transformation of cancer such as metastasis and infiltration, and a clue to finding therapeutic strategy may successfully be found. 
         [0037]    An object of the present invention is to provide a biosensor, which visualizes separase activity in living cells. If the activation of separase can be visualized in the living cell to be divided, timing of separase activation and location of separase within the cell can be elucidated. Another object of the present invention is to elucidate a mechanism which enables short-time chromosomal segregation, thereby obtaining a screening method for an anticancer agent. 
       Solution to Problem 
       [0038]    The separase sensor of the present invention for visualizing separase activity has two types of fluorescent substances different in fluorescence wavelength at both ends of a amino acid sequence containing a separase cleavage site and a localization-targeting sequence. 
         [0039]    The separase sensor of the present invention has a localization-targeting sequence, which is designed to instruct the sensor to locate in a predetermined site within a cell such as chromosome. Two types of fluorescent substances are arranged at both ends of the cleavage site of separase. Since the sensor is separated at the cleavage site upon activation of separase, activation of separase can be determined based on extinction of light from one of the fluorescent substances as an index. 
         [0040]    The separase sensor of the present invention has a partial sequence at positions 142 to 467 of the amino acid sequence of human Scc1 including the separase cleavage site, as a pseudo substrate. 
         [0041]    Owing to use of the sequence, i.e., a partial sequence of Scc1, serving as a substrate of separase, activation of separase can be sensitively determined. 
         [0042]    Since the partial sequence of Scc1 includes two separase cleavage sites and serves as a pseudo substrate satisfactorily recognized by separase and cleaved, a highly sensitive separase sensor can be constructed. 
         [0043]    In the separase sensor of the present invention, the fluorescent substances are fluorescent proteins. 
         [0044]    Owing to use of fluorescent proteins, a sensor labeled with two types of fluorescent proteins can be prepared without labeling with fluorescent dyes. 
         [0045]    In the separase sensor of the present invention, the localization-targeting sequence is a sequence targeting localization of the sensor in centromere, chromosome, cytoplasmic membrane or mitochondria. 
         [0046]    If the sensor is localized in centromere, chromosome, cytoplasmic membrane or mitochondria within a cell, it is possible to specify where separase is activated. 
         [0047]    In the separase sensor of the present invention, the localization-targeting sequence is a sequence targeting localization in centromere or chromosome, more specifically, is CENP-B or histone H2B. 
         [0048]    Since separase has an important role in chromosomal segregation, a fusion protein is designed by adding CENP-B for localization in centromere and histone H2B for localization in chromosome, as the localization-targeting sequence. 
         [0049]    Owing to this, the separase sensor of the present invention is allowed to localize in centromere or chromosome. Thus, the timing of separase activation in centromere or chromosome and the position of chromosome where separase is activated can be sensitively observed. 
         [0050]    A method for analyzing a chromosomal segregation mechanism of the present invention includes expressing an expression vector for expressing the separase sensor within a cell, and visualizing separase activity in a living cell. 
         [0051]    A localization-targeting sequence and a separase cleavage site sandwiched between two types of fluorescent proteins are fused and the fusion protein is integrated into an expression vector and the vector is allowed to express within a cell. In this manner, activation of separase can be simply and sensitively visualized. 
         [0052]    A method for screening an anticancer agent of the present invention includes introducing an expression vector for expressing the separase sensor into a cell and administering a test substance to visualize the separase activity at a cell level, thereby screening an anticancer agent targeting a separase molecule based on the separase activity serving an index. 
         [0053]    Chromosomal instability is a pathologic condition of a cancer cell itself and involved in malignant transformation of cancer, such as metastasis and infiltration; however, an anticancer agent targeting a separase molecule has not so far been developed. The separase sensor of the present invention can sensitively visualize and analyze the activation of separase. Therefore, in order to obtain an anticancer agent targeting a separase molecule, it can be expected to use the separase sensor for screening compounds. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         [0054]      FIG. 1  shows design of a separase sensor. 
           [0055]      FIG. 2  shows kinetics of separase activation. 
           [0056]      FIG. 3  shows that securin binds and inhibits separase in great extent of metaphase. 
           [0057]      FIG. 4  shows physiological relevance of cyclin B1 binding to separase before anaphase. 
           [0058]      FIG. 5  shows that securin and cyclin B1 not only suppress separase activity but also support chromosomal localization of separase. 
           [0059]      FIG. 6  shows binding between separase and cyclin B1 in anaphase. 
           [0060]      FIG. 7  shows that activated separase inhibits a cyclin B1-cdk1 complex in anaphase. 
           [0061]      FIG. 8  shows a model of a control mechanism by separase in anaphase of cell division. 
       
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
       [0062]    The present invention will be more specifically described by way of Examples, below. 
       Example 1 
     Preparation of Fluorescent Sensor for Analyzing Activation Profile of Separase 
       [0063]    To analyze the timing of separase activation, a fluorescence-based sensor that enables the detection of separase activity at a single-cell level was developed. 
         [0064]    To the N terminal of a Scc1 polypeptide containing a separase cleavage site, EGFP emitting green fluorescence was added. To the C terminal of the polypeptide, mCherry emitting red fluorescence was added. In this manner, a fusion protein ( FIG. 1 ) to be expressed was prepared. 
         [0065]    As Scc1, which is used as a pseudo substrate of the separase sensor, an amino acid sequence of separase corresponding to 142nd to 467th (wild-type) thereof and containing two separase cleavage sites is used. In accordance with the report (Non Patent Literature 12) by Hauf et al., the non-cleavable site (not cleaved by separase) of Scc1 of a control sensor (non-cleavable) was prepared by replacing arginine with glutamic acid and glutamic acid with arginine (underlined as shown in  FIG. 1 ). Note that full length Scc1 cannot be used as a sensor since its expression amount is extremely low (data is not shown). It is also noted that it is known that a partial sequence of Scc1 containing only a single cleavage site is not cleaved. 
         [0066]    The localization-targeting sequences used herein are as follow: human CENP-B (full-length) is used as a sequence for targeting localization in centromere; human histone H2B (full-length) for targeting localization in chromosome; a myristoylation signal from c-src (Non Patent Literature 13) for targeting localization in cytoplasmic membrane; and the N-terminal sorting signal of Tom70p (Non Patent Literature 14) for targeting localization in mitochondria. Any sequence may be used as long as it is known in the art and it induces localization within a cell. 
         [0067]    The fusion protein, which is prepared by sandwiching a separase cleavage site between two types of fluorescent proteins different in wavelength and further fusing a localization-targeting sequence, as described above, is integrated in an expression vector such that two proteins falls in-frame. In this mariner, the sensor is designed such that the fusion protein can be expressed within the cell. As the vector used herein, pIRESpuro2 (manufactured by Invitrogen) is used; however, any vector may be used as long as it can be efficiently expressed within a cell. 
         [0068]    As the two types of fluorescent substances, fluorescent dyes such as FITC and Alexa 594 can be used; however, in consideration of expression within a cell, it is preferable to construct the sensor as a fusion protein by fusing a fluorescent protein. As the two types of fluorescent proteins, any fluorescent proteins may be used as long as they are known in the art and different in wavelength. 
         [0069]    (Analysis Method) 
         [0070]    Now, analysis using the separase sensor of the present invention and a method used in connection with analysis will be described below. 
         [0071]    1. Image Analysis 
         [0072]    Cells were seeded in a Lab-Tek chambered slide system (manufactured by NUNC) using CO 2 -independent medium without phenol red (manufactured by GIBCO). The chamber lids were sealed with silicon grease and then put in use. 
         [0073]    An image was observed by an inverted microscope (IX-71; manufactured by Olympus Corporation) using a Plan Apochromat oil objective lens (1003/1.40 NA) and recorded every 10 s, with 50 ms exposure time by a CoolSNAP HQ CCD camera (manufactured by Photometrics). Data of the obtained image was analyzed by ImageJ software (NIH). 
         [0074]    Regions of centromeres (CENP-B) and chromosomes (histone H2B) were determined in the mCherry channel by thresholding. After the regions are determined, the mean fluorescence intensity of each of the regions is normalized to the value at time point −350 s before anaphase onset (I EGFP  or I mCherry , respectively). 
         [0075]    The R cut  values from each time point were obtained in accordance with the following expression and plotted to form a graph. 
         [0000]        R   cut =1− I   EGFP   /I   mCherry  
 
         [0000]    Curves are fitted for R cut  values of each experiment, and times when the curve cross the 50% of the R cut  at the anaphase onset is defined as T 50 . 
         [0076]    2. Immunoprecipitation 
         [0077]    Cells were lysed in a solution prepared by adding 100 nM okadaic acid and 0.25 U/L benzonase nuclease (manufactured by Novagen) to IP buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl, pH7.5, 150 mM sodium chloride, 20 mM β-glycerophosphoric acid, 50 mM magnesium chloride, 0.1% NP-40, protease inhibitor cocktail (Complete Mini EDTA-free, manufactured by Roche), 1 mM DTT) for 20 min on ice. 
         [0078]    The resultant cell extracts, after removing the insoluble by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm for 30 min at 4° C., were used for immunoprecipitation. 
         [0079]    Typically, the cell extracts are mixed with 10 IA of agarose beads conjugated to anti-myc tag (manufactured by MBL), or protein A beads (manufactured by Bio-RAD) coupled to the desired antibodies, and incubated for 2 hr at 4° C., then washed three times with IP buffer and three times with TBS-T (150 mM sodium chloride, 20 mM Tris pH 8.0, 0.05% (v/v) Tween 20) and then subjected to analysis. 
         [0080]    3. Synchronisms of Cell Cycles and Chromosome Spreads 
         [0081]    To obtain synchronous cell population traversing the transition from metaphase to anaphase, logarithmically proliferating HeLa cells are treated with 100 μM monastrol (manufactured by Tocris Biosciences) for 12 hr. Cells in the mitotic period were collected and treated with 5 μM ZM447439 (manufactured by Tocris Biosciences) for a predetermined time and collected for subjecting them to immunoprecipitation or size exclusion analysis. 
         [0082]    4. Size-Exclusion Chromatography 
         [0083]    The collected cells were washed twice with ice-cold PBS and snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen. The cells were resuspended in IP buffer supplemented with 100 nM okadaic acid and 0.25 U/L Benzonase nuclease (manufactured by Novagen), and incubated for 20 min on ice. Subsequently, the cells were centrifuged at 15,000×g for 10 min, filtered by an Ultrafree Centrifugal Filter unit (Ultrafree Centrifugal Filters, 0.45 μm, manufactured by Millipore) and fractionated by Superose 6 10/300 GL (manufactured by GE Healthcare). The column was run at a flow rate of 0.4 ml/min in IP buffer, and 250 μl fractions were collected. 
         [0084]    5. Chromatin Fractionation 
         [0085]    Nocodazole-arrested mitoric HeLa cells were collected by shake off. After washing with PBS, cells were lysed on ice 10 min in 10 mM HEPES (pH 7.9), 10 mM potassium chloride, 15 mM magnesium chloride, 0.34 M sucrose, 10% glycerol, 1 mM DTT, 0.25% Trioton X-100, and protease inhibitor cocktail (Complete Mini EDTA-free, manufactured by Roche). Chromosome-enriched fractions were collected by low-speed centrifugation at 1,300×g for 5 min and were washed twice with the above buffer. 
         [0086]    6. Histone H1 Kinase Assay 
         [0087]    After extensive washing, immunoprecipitated samples were put in IP buffer supplemented with 100 nM okadaic acid, 0.1 mg/ml histone H1 (manufactured by Roche), 80 nM ATP (pH 7.5), and 10 μCi [γ 32 P] ATP and incubated for 20 min at room temperature. The reaction was stopped by the addition of SDS sample buffer, and phosphorylated substrates were detected by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. 
       Example 2 
     Analysis of Intracellular Localization of Separase by Separase Sensor 
       [0088]    The results obtained by use of the separase sensor of the present invention are shown below. As the localization-targeting sequences, CENP-B and histone H2B are used and the sensor is localized respectively in centromere and the entire chromosome ( FIG. 2A ). 
         [0089]    A separase sensor, which has 142nd-467th amino acids of a wild-type Scc1 containing a site to be cleaved with separase or a separase sensor, which has a non-cleavable site obtained by replacing arginine and glutamic acid, is introduced into a cell. Localization and activation of separase, which are observed in a mitotic living cell are shown in  FIG. 2 . Static images taken at every 100 seconds are shown (onset of anaphase is represented by 0). 
         [0090]    It is observed that a separase sensor having CENP-B as a localization-targeting sequence and designed so as to localize in centromere, is localized in centromere and a separase sensor having histone H2B as a localization-targeting sequence and designed so as to localize in chromosome, is localized in chromosome. 
         [0091]    If the fusion protein is not cleaved at a separase cleavage site, two fluorophores are co-localized and color tone exhibited by the mixture of two fluorescence colors is observed. Since EGFP emitting green fluorescence and mCherry emitting red fluorescence are used herein, the sensor before cleaved is expressed by yellow, which is a mixture of green and red converged on the image. 
         [0092]    When separase is activated, an Scc1 peptide (pseudo substrate) is cleaved and two fluorescent proteins are separated. Since the red fluorophore is fused with a localization-targeting sequence, it remains in centromere or chromosome. In contrast, since the green fluorophore (EGFP) is cleaved in the Scc1 peptide, disintegrated from the localization-targeting sequence and disappear from centromere or chromosome. Accordingly, yellow signal changes to red. 
         [0093]    When a non-cleavable sensor is used, extinction of green fluorescence, in other words, a color change from yellow to red fluorescence, is not observed (in  FIG. 2A , which is a black and white photograph, since red color has dark tone, a color change from yellow to red occurring in a wild-type sensor is observed as extinction of fluorescence. In contrast, in the non-cleavable sensor, more specifically, both in non-cleavable sensors localized in centromere and chromosome, extinction of fluorescence is not observed at time points of 0, 100 or 200 seconds, unlike the wild-type sensor). In contrast, in the sensor having a wild-type Scc1 sequence, which is cleavable with separase, the color tone of the sensor changes from yellow to red at the onset (time-point of 0) of anaphase (in  FIG. 2A , since red color has dark tone, extinction of fluorescence is observed; however, actually red fluorescence is emitted). The color-tone change is not observed also when separase is depleted by RNAi. 
         [0094]    Using the separase sensor of the present invention, it was elucidated that activation of separase is observed not only at centromeres, where cohesin as a substrate is most abundant, but also along the entire lengths of mitotic chromosomes. Activation of separase occurs simultaneously and evenly on all over the chromosomes ( FIG. 2A ). 
         [0095]    To quantitatively determine which sensor of those positioned in different sites is cleaved during a predetermined period in anaphase, fluorescent intensities of EGFP and mCherry on centromeres and chromosomes were measured and the parameter R cut  was calculated. The parameter R cut  is calculated in accordance with the expression: 
         [0000]        R   cut =1− I   EGFP   /I   mCherry .
 
         [0000]    R cut  reflects the cumulative ratio of Scc1 peptide cleaved by separase activity. Wild-type and non-cleavable Scc1 sensors are applied to a plurality of cells. Based on the observation results, R cut  was analyzed. The results are shown in  FIG. 2B . In the figure, arrow heads represent T 50  (described later). 
         [0096]    The quantitative analysis results revealed that activation of separase is suppressed during much of metaphase until it becomes active shortly before anaphase onset. To provide an index for the timing of separase activation with respect to the point where chromosome segregation, a time point of activation, T 50 , was determined. T 50  is defined as a point where an R cut  value has progressed beyond 50% of the R cut  at anaphase onset. 
         [0097]    The mean T 50  value of the sensors localized in centromere was 39.0 s (±8.4 s, n=12) before anaphase onset; whereas the mean T 50  value of the sensors localized in chromosome was 47.2 s (±9.7 s, n=16) ( FIG. 2C ). 
         [0098]    To analyze whether activation of separase occurs in the cytoplasm, sensors having targeting sequence to mitochondria, or cytoplasmic membrane and a sensor not having localization-targeting sequence was prepared. Localization of the sensor was observed by a fluorescence microscope and biochemical analysis was performed ( FIG. 2D ). 
         [0099]    Sensors having a localization-targeting sequence targeting chromosome (Chromosome), cytoplasm (Unanchored), cytoplasmic membrane (Membrane) and mitochondria (Mitochondria) and a non-cleavable sensor having a chromosome localization-targeting sequence were expressed in cells. The cell was subjected to synchronized culture. The resultant cell extract was subjected to immunoblot with a anti-GFP antibody. As is confirmed by expression of cyclin B1, the cells are synchronized. In  FIG. 2D , M represents metaphase and A represents anaphase. 
         [0100]    The separase sensor localized in chromosome in the cells in anaphase is cleaved; however in other sites of a cell, a cleaved separase sensor, can be detected but only slightly, even if the cell is in anaphase. This shows that most of separase activation occurs in chromosome. 
         [0101]    In consideration that chromosome-bound cohesin is a preferential substrate (Non Patent Literature 15) and in-vitro results that cleavage of cohesin is enhanced in the presence of DNA (Non Patent Literature 16), it is suggested that the sequence of pseudo substrate within the sensor of the present invention is cleaved in an analogous mariner to that of endogenous cohesin. 
         [0102]    The present invention makes it possible to not only visualize activation of separase but also quantitatively determine activation of separase by use of R cut  and T 50 . 
       Binding of Securin to Separase During Metaphase, Inhibition of Separase Activity, and Verification of the Results Obtained by Separase Sensor by a Biochemical Approach 
       [0103]    As described above, the activation of separase is suppressed during much of metaphase. Then, to elucidate its mechanism, the following experiment was performed. 
         [0104]      FIG. 3A  shows the results of immunoprecipitation assay using spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC)-arrested cell extract. HeLa cells with myc-tag and expressing separase were treated with RNAi to deplete endogenic separase (separase RNAi) and treated with nocodazole to arrest cell division at metaphase. The cells were subjected to immunoprecipitation with an anti-myc antibody. As a control, cells having endogenic separase (not depleted with RNAi) were used. 
         [0105]    A cell extract (extract), an unbound fraction (flow-thru) and a bound fraction to anti-myc antibody (myc-IP) were analyzed by immunoblot for the presence or absence of the proteins shown in the left-hand of  FIG. 3A . As a result, it was found that even after the fraction having separase binding is removed from the extract, a considerable amount of securin is present (see  FIG. 3A , “flow-thru”). This is considered because the amount of securin exceeds the amount of separase in the HeLa cell. 
         [0106]    Furthermore, proteins bound to separase were analyzed by size-exclusion chromatography. 
         [0107]    The SAC-arrested cell extract was treated with nocodazole and subjected to gel filtration. The presence or absence of separase, securin and cyclin B1 in each fraction was analyzed by immunoblot. The results are shown in  FIG. 3B . Relative protein amounts of individual fractions are normalized based on that of fraction 23 and shown in  FIG. 3C . It was elucidated that an extremely small amount of securin alone is fractionated together with separase near a molecular weight of 500 kDa and a most part of securin is present in a fraction where no binding to separase was observed ( FIG. 3B ,  3 C). 
         [0108]    The surplus amount of securin over separase may prevent activation of separase as soon as APC/C activates. In order to biochemically verify this, it is necessary to obtain a cell population that progressed synchronously from metaphase to anaphase. 
         [0109]    As a result of research on many protocols for obtaining synchronized cells, the present inventors found that the release of SAC-arrested cells by inhibiting Aurora B (Non Patent Literatures 17, 18) provided the best synchronous population to transit from metaphase to anaphase. 
         [0110]    Ten minute later SAC-arrested cells were treated with an Aurora B inhibitor, i.e., ZM447439, to release checkpoint, collection of a sample was started at the time intervals of 5 minutes. A cell extract (total cell extract) and a separase-bound fraction were analyzed for the presence or absence of Cdc27 and securin by immunoblot. The results of the immunoblot are shown in  FIG. 3D  and the results quantitatively analyzed are shown in  FIG. 3E . It was found that twenty minutes after addition of the Aurora B inhibitor (ZM447439), the amount of securin in extracts began to decline and dropped to a basal level after 30 min. 
         [0111]    However, the amount of separase-bound securin remained unchanged and began to decline only after 30 min, when the majority of the cells entered anaphase, as indicated by the reversal of the upshift of Cdc27. In  FIG. 3D , electrophoretic mobility of Cdc27 changes. This indicates that a cell population transited to an anaphase-like state ( FIGS. 3D ,  3 E). 
         [0112]    The results of gel filtration analysis are also consistent with the above results ( FIGS. 3F ,  3 G). At the time points of 0, 15 and 30 minutes after addition of ZM447439, cells were taken and a cell extract was prepared and subjected to gel filtration. The presence of securin and separase in individual fractions was analyzed by immunoblot. The results of the immunoblot are shown in  FIG. 3F  and a relative change in amount of securin is shown in  FIG. 3G . Securin observed around a molecular weight of 150 kDa, which is not fractionated together with separase, reduces in amount in the first place; whereas the amount of securin observed around a molecular weight of 500 kDa, which is fractionated together with separase is almost unchanged during the time of the analysis. 
         [0113]    Thus, a predetermined amount of securin persistently binds separase throughout much of metaphase in the presence of APC/C activity and inhibits activation of separase. This might be because separase-free securin serves as a better substrate for the APC/C-mediated proteolysis or because a high binding affinity of securin to separase maintains a fraction of securin bound to separase. 
       Example 3 
     Physiological Relevance of Cyclin B1 Binding to Separase Before Anaphase 
       [0114]    The persistent binding of securin to separase would explain how separase remains inactive during much of metaphase. However, there are a number of observations that question the significance of securin in regulating separase activity in mammalian cells (Non Patent Literatures 19-22). 
         [0115]    An alternative regulation pathway for suppressing separase activity is through an interaction with cyclin B1, which depends on the phosphorylation of Ser1126 residue in human separase (Non Patent Literatures 23, 24). 
         [0116]    Despite the biochemical evidence for cyclin B1 having the ability to inhibit separase, its role of cyclin B1 in preventing chromosomal segregation has been demonstrated only conditionally (Non Patent Literatures 25, 26). The present inventors observed that the bulk of cyclin B1 did not cofractionate with separase in a SAC-arrested cell extract ( FIG. 3B ), discounting the significance of inhibitory activity of cyclin B1 before anaphase. 
         [0117]    With the use of our the separase sensor of the present invention, the present inventors sought to reinvestigate the role of cyclin B1 in controlling the proteolytic activity of separase. To do this, the present inventors generated HeLa cells that stably express myc-tagged mouse separase bearing an alanine mutant at serine 1121 (SA). A serine 1121 (SA) mutant (hereinafter referred to as an SA mutant) of separase abolishes the binding ability to cyclin B1. Furthermore, HeLa cells expressing wild-type (WT) separase were generated as a control and used in analysis. Separase and securin expressed in the cells thus prepared are shown in  FIG. 4A . 
         [0118]    To obtain expression at a physiological level, a gene introduction technique based on a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) (Non Patent Literature 27) is used. Expression cells for a wild-type (WT) and alanine-replaced mutant (SA) were treated with RNAi to deplete endogenic separase and securin. In these cell strains, the cells treated with RNAi to deplete endogenic separase express myc-tagged mouse separase, in place (see  FIG. 4A , lanes 4 and 6). 
         [0119]    Although data were not shown herein, in cells having a substitution with wild-type mouse separase, cell division occurs equivalently. From this, it was shown that mouse separase is functional in human cells. Furthermore, it was confirmed that wild-type separase binds to cyclin B1 more efficiently in the absence of securin. This is consistent with the results shown before (Non Patent Literature 24). It was also confirmed that SA separase lacks binding ability, irrespective of the level of securin. 
         [0120]    Activation of separase was analyzed by using HeLa cells in which endogenic separase was replaced with the above wild-type mouse separase or SA mutant mouse separase, and by use of the separase sensor of the present invention. Using wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-repl.) and SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell (SA-repl.), activation of separase was analyzed based on static images of living cells in the same manner as in  FIG. 2A  and R cut  values were calculated. The results are shown in  FIG. 4B  (left).  FIG. 4B  (right) shows relative activity of separase at onset of anaphase. It was elucidated that even in a SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell, kinetics of separase activation are almost the same as that in a wild-type mouse separase replaced cell. 
         [0121]    The activity of separase is conceivably reflected by first derivation of R cut ; however, both in cells replaced with a wild-type separase and an SA mutant mouse separase, separase activity levels of them are equivalent, as shown in  FIG. 4B  (right). In addition, T 50  values of them are also equivalent ( FIG. 4C ). 
         [0122]    These results support that the binding of cyclin B1 to separase is dispensable for separase regulation prior to anaphase. 
         [0123]    Subsequently, securin and separase were both inactivated and function in regulating separase was analyzed. To describe more specifically, in an SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell, both mechanisms were inactivated by depleting securin with RNAi ( FIG. 4A , lanes 8 and 10). 
         [0124]    An SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell (SA-repl.) and a wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-repl.) were treated with RNAi to deplete securin (securin RNAi), and treated with nocodazole for 12 hours. Cells in mitotic period were collected and chromosomes were spread out, stained with Giemsa and subjected to analysis. In the cells treated with nocodazole, sister chromatids are separated and dispersed in the cytoplasm ( FIG. 4D ). In about 80% of securin-depleted SA mutant mouse separase replaced cells, mispairing of chromosomes occurs; however, the percentage of other cells in which such mispairing is observed is only about 5% or less. 
         [0125]    Furthermore, using cells not treated with nocodazole, roles of securin and separase were analyzed in cell division. HeLa cells (parent strain), SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell (SA-repl.) and wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-repl.) were treated with RNAi to suppress securin expression for 24 hours. Images of about 50 living cells in the period of cell division were analyzed. The case where all paired sister chromatids are simultaneously separated is denoted by “normal anaphase”; the case where chromatids are separated at random during continuous mitotic division is denoted by “premature disjunction”, and the case classified in neither one of them is denoted by “unclassified” ( FIG. 4E ). 
         [0126]    As a result, in most of the securin-depleted SA mutant replaced cells, it was found that sister chromatids are prematurely separated during prolonged metaphase ( FIG. 4E ). 
         [0127]    Such premature disjunction is rarely observed in wild-type separase replaced and securin-depleted cells serving as a control. 
       Example 4 
     Securin and Cyclin B1 not Only Suppress Separase Activity but Also Act in Localization in Chromosome 
       [0128]    In the wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-repl.), SA mutant mouse separase cell (SA-repl.), securin was depleted and activation of separase was analyzed. Histone 2B was used as a localization-targeting sequence and activation of separase was analyzed by use of a separase sensor localized in chromosome ( FIGS. 5A ,  5 B). 
         [0129]      FIG. 5A  shows image analysis of living cells, more specifically, arrangement of static images of cells during mitosis chronologically from nuclear envelope breakdown (NEBD). In the securin-depleted SA mutant mouse separase replaced cells, metaphase is prolonged and sister chromatids are separated at random. 
         [0130]    From the above analysis of the experiment using a separase sensor, R cut  values were obtained and plotted with time (NEBD was determined as a time point of 0). Compared to the securin-depleted wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-repl.), in the securin-depleted SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell (SA-repl.), the activity of separase is high but only very slightly. 
         [0131]    In these securin-depleted SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell (SA), instead of being completely inactivated through metaphase, the R cut  value followed linear increase from nuclear envelope breakdown ( FIG. 5B ). This means that a certain level of separase activity is detected on chromosomes as soon as the nuclear envelope disintegrated. Based on these observations, it is found that separase is constitutively activated when it does not bind to securin or cyclin B1, but its activation level remains low. 
         [0132]    From the above results, it is suggested that separase must be bound to securin or cyclin B1 for activating separase in chromosome. 
         [0133]    In the wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-replaced) and SA mutant mouse separase cell (SA-replaced), myc-tagged separase was expressed and stained with an anti-myc antibody. In this mariner, localization of separase was analyzed. It is reported that in the mitotic phase, a separase fraction is localized in chromosome (Non Patent Literature 16). In addition, the present inventors found that separase cannot be localized in chromosome under the condition that separase cannot be bound to securin or cyclin B1 ( FIG. 5C ). 
         [0134]    The above results were biochemically analyzed ( FIG. 5D ). The wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT-repl.) and SA mutant mouse separase cell (SA-repl.) expressing myc-tagged separase, were treated with RNAi to deplete securin, and treated with nocodazole. In this manner cells in the mitotic period were collected to prepare cell extracts. In cell extracts (Total cell extracts) and chromosome enriched fractions (Chroms.-enriched fractions), expression levels of myc-tagged separase, securin and cyclin B1 were analyzed by immunoblot. Note that α-tubulin and histone H2B were used in the analysis in order to indicate that the amounts of proteins are almost equivalent. 
         [0135]    Consistent with the results of microscope analysis, in chromosome fractionation analysis, although the amount of separase in the cell extract from securin-depleted SA mouse separase mutant replaced cells was rarely changed, a decrease in amount of separase was observed in the chromatin enriched fraction. These results suggest that chromosomal localization of separase depends on securin or cyclin B1. 
         [0136]    The finding that depletion of securin causes premature separase activation and chromosome disjunction in SA mutant replaced cells is consistent with the proposed idea that cyclin B1 can bind separase and restrain its precocious activation before anaphase (Non Patent Literatures 25, 26). 
         [0137]    However, the present inventors found that in the SA mutant replaced cell, even if anaphase is completed, failed to carry out the rapid movement of unpaired sister chromatids toward opposite poles, and sisters stayed in the vicinity of the equatorial plate for a longer periods of time.  FIG. 6A  shows kymographs of typical separation of sister chromatids. Time-lapse motion images of a cell expressing H2B-mCherry were taken at the intervals of 10 seconds after onset of anaphase. Of these images, images of the equatorial plane during the mitotic period are chosen and chronologically arranged. The bar along the vertical axis indicates 30 seconds; whereas the bar along the transverse axis indicates 10 m. The velocity of poleward movement of a separated sister chromatid was determined from the image taken above and indicated in  FIG. 6A  (right graph). The mean velocity of movement of the sister chromatid in the wild-type mouse separase replaced cell was 39.0±12.2 nm/s and that of the SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell was 28.6±8.3 nm/s (t test, p=0.017). 
         [0138]    The above results prompts us to analyze the interaction between separase and cyclin B1 in anaphase in the same manner as in  FIG. 3D . The interaction between securin and cyclin B1 in metaphase-to-anaphase transition time was analyzed by immunoblot ( FIGS. 6B ,  6 C). 
         [0139]    The cells were treated with Monastrol and a checkpoint was released by Aurora B inhibitor. From this time point, the cells were collected at the time intervals of 5 minutes. From the cell population, which transits toward anaphase, a cell extract was obtained. The total cell extract (TCE) and a separase-bound fraction (separase-bound) were subjected to immunoblot. Behaviors of myc-tagged separase, securin and cyclin B1 were analyzed. 
         [0140]    As a result, it was found that cyclin B1 coprecipitates with separase at later time points during M/A transition ( FIG. 6B ). Binding of cyclin B1 to separase was abolished in a 1121 (serine to alanine) mutant, i.e., SA mutant replaced cell, suggesting that the rapid poleward movement of chromosome was related to separase&#39;s inability to associate with cyclin B1 in anaphase ( FIG. 6C ). Therefore, although the binding of cyclin B1 to separase is dispensable in metaphase, it seems to become relevant in anaphase. 
         [0141]    Furthermore, in immunoprecipitation experiment, it was found that securin binds to full-length separase, whereas cyclin B1 binds to cleaved separase in an extract of cells in anaphase ( FIG. 7A ). 
         [0142]    In the wild-type mouse separase replaced cell and SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell, the cell cycle arrest by Monastrol, was cancelled. Forty minutes after cancellation of the cell cycle arrest by Monastrol a cell population enriched in anaphase cells was prepared. Then, a cell extract was obtained and subjected to immunoprecipitation with cyclin B1 and securin to analyze the presence or absence of separase-myc. As a result, separase having a small molecular weight, i.e., cleaved separase, is observed. Because the cleaved separase is generated by its own proteolytic activity (Non Patent Literatures 28, 29), these results imply that binding to cyclin B1 occurs after separase is activated. 
         [0143]    To study whether separase inhibits cdk1 in anaphase, cyclin B1-associated cdk1 activity was measured, and asked whether the activity of cdk1 declines in anaphase of SA mutant replaced cells. 
         [0144]    Contrary to our expectations, no difference in the cdk1 activity was observed between the SA mutant replaced cell and the wild-type replaced cell against expectation when cyclin B1 was immunoprecipitated from the cell extracts of cell populations enriched in anaphase cell, ( FIG. 7A , lower left, H1 kinase activity). 
         [0145]    However, a fraction in which a cyclin B1-cdk1 complex binds to separase was prepared and compared to a fraction in which the complex did not bind to separase, it was elucidated that cdk1 activity was markedly inhibited in the separase-bound fraction ( FIG. 7B ). 
         [0146]    A cell population containing a large number of anaphase cells was prepared from wild-type mouse separase replaced cells, and subjected to immunoprecipitation with a separase antibody. A separase-bound cyclin B1-cdk1 fraction and a separase-free cyclin B1-cdk1 fraction were analyzed for the amounts of cyclin B1 and cdk1 contained in the fractions and the activity of kinase to histone H1 as a substrate. The results are shown in  FIG. 7B  (right). 
         [0147]    In these experiments, it was found that a detectable amount of cyclin B1-cdk1 is present and kinase activity is present even after removing the separase-bound fraction from the extract ( FIG. 7B ; separase-free cyclin B1-cdk1). It was also found that, in the separase-bound fraction, kinase activity is inhibited (separase-bound cyclin B1-cdk1). 
         [0148]    In the extract enriched in anaphase cells was concentrated, the bulk of cyclin B1 had already been degraded, separase binds to a part of cyclin B1 and inhibits the cdk1 activity. 
         [0149]    From wild-type mouse separase replaced cells (WT) and SA mutant mouse separase replaced cells (SA) in metaphase (M) and anaphase (A), chromosomes were concentrated to collect fractions (chromos-enriched fractions), subjected to immunoprecipitation with an anti-myc antibody and analyzed by immunoblot. The analysis results are shown in  FIG. 7C  in which TCE represents a total cell extract. 
         [0150]    Remarkably, a significant amount of separase-bound cyclin B1 in chromosome-enriched fraction prepared from an anaphase population was detected. It is estimated that more than 20% of cyclin B1 in immunoprecipitated cyclin B1 was bound to separase. 
         [0151]    To verify these biochemical data in cell populations, which transit toward anaphase, the stability of cdk1-mediated phosphorylation of INCENP, specifically the threonine at position 59 (Thr59), was assessed. It has been known that the threonine at position 59 is dephosphorylated simultaneously upon the onset of anaphase (Non Patent Literature 30). 
         [0152]    A wild-type mouse separase replaced cell (WT) and an SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell (SA) are immobilized, and stained with an INCENP antibody (INCENP), antibody (p59) capable of detecting phosphorylation of the threonine at position 59 of an INCENP and DAPI ( FIG. 7D ). Since DAPI stains DNA, anaphase cells where chromosomes are segregated are detected. As a result of observation by an immunofluorescence microscope, it was shown that INCENP Thr59 in chromosome of SA mutant mouse separase replaced cell remains phosphorylated during anaphase. 
         [0153]    These results indicate that activated separase binds to and inhibits a cyclin B1-cdk1 complex including a cyclin B1-cdk1 fraction distributed in chromosome. In consideration that separase is activated in chromosome, a plausible possibility is that separase-mediated inhibition of cdk1 on chromosomes is required for the rapid poleward movement of sister chromatids. 
         [0154]    Based on the results obtained by use of the separase sensor and the results obtained by biochemical approach,  FIG. 8  illustrates a model how separase, securin, cyclin B1 and cdk1 functionally interact with each other. 
         [0155]    The present inventors successfully visualized activation of separase by use of a separase sensor. Since separase activity can be visualized by the separase sensor of the present invention, the timing of separase activation and localization of separase within a cell are clarified. Furthermore, not only visualization can be made but also kinetically analysis can be made based on the obtained results by the sensor of the present invention, with the result that separase activation can be quantitatively evaluated. 
         [0156]    As is described in the above, since detailed mechanism of cell division can be analyzed by the separase sensor of the present invention, abnormal cell division, i.e., chromosomal instability and canceration mechanism can be analyzed, and furthermore, screening of anticancer agents can be also made.