Abstract:
A process is provided for the in-situ removal of carbon dioxide out of natural gas by diverting a stream of the natural gas to a hydrocarbon reformation unit, which converts this diverted stream of the natural gas into a hydrogen-containing gas, and feeding this hydrogen-containing gas and the (undiverted) natural gas into a methanation unit, where the hydrogen reacts with carbon dioxide to form methane, thereby decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the natural gas. A second steam of the natural gas may be diverted from the natural gas and combusted, thereby generating heat which may be used for catalyst regeneration and/or for providing any heat necessary for the reactions occurring in the methanation unit or the hydrocarbon reformation unit.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The invention pertains to a method and an apparatus for the improvement in the quality of well-head natural gas and in the prevention of pipeline corrosion in natural gas transport through the removal carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) naturally occurring in the gas. 
     2. Brief Description of the Problem and the Prior Art 
     The term natural gas refers to mixtures of inert and light hydrocarbon components as well as non-hydrocarbon components which are recovered from natural gas wells or from gas coproduced in the production of oil. The removal of CO 2  as well as other gaseous impurities has been the subject of much work in the past. The overwhelming majority of this work is directed toward the separation of CO 2  from natural gas as opposed to its conversion to a different molecular species. These separations are typically performed through absorption or adsorption methodologies or alternatively through chemical scrubbing using techniques such as chemical chelation. The disadvantage of these current techniques lies mainly in their cumbersome characteristics which require replenishment of consumable chemical absorbents, adsorbents, or complexing agents. This renders these techniques less than optimal for remote application at a well-head. 
     The presence of CO 2  and water is well known to play a role in the corrosion of pipelines. Corrosion of natural gas pipelines raises costs by both necessitating the replacement of pipelines and by the concomitant production loss during the resulting downtime. CO 2  in the presence of water is in equilibrium with carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate ions. The pH-modifying nature of these species renders them corrosive to the pipelines used in natural gas transport. The chemistry is represented below: 
     
       
         CO 2 +H 2 O⇄H 2 CO 3   
       
     
     
       
         H 2 CO 3 ⇄HCO 3   − +H +   
       
     
     
       
         HCO 3   −⇄CO   3   −2 +H +   
       
     
     The problem can be alleviated by the removal of water, CO 2 , or both. One way to remove water is to lower the water dew point below the pipeline temperature. Temperature control through the expected distances of a natural gas pipeline is likely to be logistically difficult and cost prohibitive. Water may also be remove by various adsorption and absorption techniques that can be applied to CO 2 . Again, the regeneration or replacement of consumable chemical adsorbents and absorbents is a disadvantage of this method. Traditional natural gas purification by CO 2  removal alone has also been based on adsorption and absorption. 
     An object of the present invention is a chemical process that is a self contained with respect to the replenishment of chemical reactants and heat, and which converts carbon dioxide in well-head natural gas to methane prior to pipeline shipment to non-remote locations. The primary goal of the present invention is the prevention of corrosion to transmission pipelines of natural gas through the removal of carbon dioxide, while a further object of the present invention is an environmentally friendly mechanism to remove CO 2  from natural gas without venting to the atmosphere. Additionally, the present invention is useful for the improvement in quality of a natural gas effluent from a well-head prior to transmission to other locations. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,938,819 describes the bulk separation of carbon dioxide from methane using natural clinoptilolite. This is a zeolite-type chemical species whose mode of action is inclusion complexation, a non-covalent form of binding which is generally reversible under mild conditions. Purification of the gas stream is achieved through selective inclusion complexation. These types of adsorption systems are characterized by the need to regenerate the adsorbent species. In the &#39;819 patent, this is achieved through a technique commonly known as pressure swing adsorption (PSA). The system requires a supply of dry air for regeneration of the CO 2  adsorbate. The requirement that reactants and/or adsorbents must be replenished or regenerated with an external supply of dry air detracts from the ease of remote application of the process at the well-head. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,721 describes the removal of CO 2  from natural gas through a combination system utilizing membrane permeability selective techniques as well as pressure swing adsorption. Separation systems based on membrane permeability typically require high pressures, while those that rely on pressure swing adsorption are relatively inefficient at higher pressures. The &#39;721 patent combines the two techniques in such a way that the permeate feedstream is fed to the PSA system after passing the membrane. This nicely takes advantage of the pressure drop across the membrane in a a two step system is employed which minimizes pressure constraints and results in high purity, but has the disadvantage of a relatively high degree of complexity. The more complex a system of purification is, the less amenable it is to remote application at the well-head. The systems amenable to remote applications are ideally less cumbersome. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,089,034 uses multiple stage temperature swing adsorption (TSA) to purify natural gas by stepwise removal of H 2 O and CO 2 . By first removing water, the gas stream can later be treated at a lower temperature in the second adsorption zone for more efficient and less expensive carbon dioxide removal. This is based upon different chemistry and is of greater complexity than the present invention which makes the system less desirable for remote applications. 
     Still other systems separate impurities from natural gas streams through techniques of countercurrent chromatography. This technique is essentially a liquid-gas extraction. U.S. Pat. No. 5,660,603 uses an aqueous liquid, ideally seawater, as the liquid extraction medium. By using seawater at selected temperatures and pressures, hydrates of CO 2  or other light hydrocarbons are formed. The liquid extraction medium is regenerated by the release of the complexed impurity gases by variations in temperature or pressure. It differs from the present invention in having the obvious disadvantages of requiring externally supplied heat and pressure. This results in a complex operation again not optimally suited for remote application at the well-head. Rather it is better suited for downstream use at a gas processing facility prior to distribution to gas customers. 
     Other and further chemistries are employed to selectively remove gaseous impurities from natural gas streams. U.S. Pat. No. 4,871,468 describes a method of removing hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide using a mixture of a polyvalent metal chelate in a carbon dioxide selective absorbent solvent at varying values of pH. Replenishment of solvents and reagents necessary to control pH are disadvantages here. The overall process involves reasonably complex solution chemistry it is better suited for a processing facility than a remote location such as well-head. 
     Numerous other patents exist that are variations on the same themes. Unlike the present invention, they variously employ complexation chemistry or selective adsorption and/or absorption as the separatory step. U.S. Pat. No. 4,741,745 employs a liquid-gas extraction technique where a liquid adsorbent is judiciously chosen. U.S. Pat. No. 4,409,102 combines a liquid-gas adsorption in a countercurrent extraction mode with a chemical scrubbing step. 
     All of this prior art differs fundamentally from the present invention in the chemistries employed. None of them are based on the removal of CO 2  through its conversion to methane, and all are characterized by the need to regularly replenish reagents or require an external supply of heat and/or pressure. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In the preferred embodiment, a method and processor is used to purify a natural gas stream by removal of carbon dioxide through a methanation reaction which converts the carbon dioxide to methane by using molecular hydrogen obtained by chemical means from a portion of the natural gas stream to be purified. The system therefore consists of two reaction chemistries. 
     In one embodiment, a side stream of the main natural gas stream is diverted to a combustion device to generate heat that may be used to drive one or both of the chemical reactions. Such heat is also used to internally regenerate catalyst. The transfer of heat from the combustion device to one or both of the reactions may be regulated by ordinary means. 
     In the preferred embodiment, the methanation reaction is catalytic. In this embodiment, the catalyst interface may be configured in any number of conventional ways. Typically, this takes the form of columns or beds. Non-conventional forms may be used as well. One example of the methanation reaction is that commonly used in analytical gas chromatographic applications for the detection of carbon dioxide. This involves the use of a nickel-based catalyst and a temperature of 380° C. 
     The hydrogen separator reaction chamber consists of a hydrocarbon reformation reactor in the preferred embodiment. Preferred chemistries are those commonly used in hydrocarbon reformation chemistry, particularly fuel cell technology. These typically use nickel, platinum, or palladium based catalyst. 
     The process involves redirection of side streams of raw natural gas to the hydrogen separator reaction chamber where the molecular hydrogen is extracted for subsequent use in combination with the main natural gas stream in the methanation reaction chamber. Upon methanation of the carbon dioxide in the raw natural gas stream, a purified stream emerges which is less concentrated in carbon dioxide than is the raw stream. 
     Further objects of the present invention utilize analogous chemistries substituted for the methanation reaction chemistry and/or for the hydrogen separator reaction. They involve the extraction of hydrogen from the main gas stream and the subsequent use of the extracted hydrogen to convert carbon dioxide to methane. 
     Other and further objects, features, and advantages would be apparent and eventually more readily understood upon a reading of the specification and by reference to the accompanying drawings forming a part thereof, and the examples given therein of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of the core of the processor in block diagram demonstrating how the main stream of raw natural gas is cleansed of carbon dioxide in a self-contained process. 
     FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic of the processor in block diagram including heat generating elements. 
     FIG. 3 is a schematic of the multiple column mode of the methanation reaction. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     It is readily apparent to one skilled in the art that various embodiments and modifications may be made to the invention disclosed in this application without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. 
     As used herein a “conduit” means any means for transferring gaseous material. Examples are a pipe or hose. 
     As used herein the term “hydrocarbon reformation” refers to the chemical conversion of hydrocarbons to solid carbon or to oxides of carbon and gaseous hydrogen. 
     As used herein the term “hydrogen separator reaction chamber” refers to the reaction chamber where the hydrocarbon reformation occurs. 
     As used herein the term “methanation reaction chamber” refers to the reaction chamber wherein carbon dioxide is converted to methane. 
     One embodiment of the present invention is seen in FIG.  1  and includes an apparatus  1  for in-situ removal of CO 2  from natural gas streams at the well-head by the chemical conversion of CO 2  to methane. The exit port of the well-head  3  is connected to one end of main conduit  4  and the other end of main conduit  4  is connected to inlet port  28  of the methanation reaction chamber  25  within apparatus  1 . As the natural gas exits the well-head, it flows through main conduit  4  into apparatus  1 . One end of side stream conduit  7  is tapped into the main conduit  4  for the diversion of a first small stream of natural gas, and the other end of side stream conduit  7  is connected to the hydrogen separator reaction chamber  10  through inlet port  13 . The natural gas flowing through side stream conduit  7  enters the hydrogen separator reaction chamber  10 , and is chemically converted to hydrogen and solid carbon or to oxides of carbon and hydrogen. The hydrogen flows from the hydrogen separator reaction chamber  10  through the outlet port  16  into one end of the conduit  19  connected to said outlet port  16 . The other end of the said conduit  19  is connected to the inlet port  22  of the methanation reaction chamber  25  where it combines with the natural gas flowing into the methanation reaction chamber  25  through inlet port  28  from the main pipe  4 . The methanation reaction chamber  25  combines the hydrogen gas from the methanation reaction chamber  25 , and the CO 2  in the natural gas in the presence of a catalyst to convert the hydrogen gas and CO 2  to CH 4 . The resulting CH 4  is mixed with the natural gas and this mixture flows through outlet port  31  which is connected to conduit  33  for further delivery of lower-CO 2  natural gas to the user. 
     One skilled in the art recognizes that the natural gas could be delivered to a storage facility or other facility prior to delivery to the methanation reaction chamber. Further, the lower CO 2  wellhead gas can be delivered to a storage facility or other facility prior to distribution. 
     In another specific embodiment, the apparatus can be modified as shown in FIG.  2 . In this embodiment, the end of a second side stream conduit  34  is tapped into the main conduit  4  for diversion of a second small stream of natural gas into combustion devices  37  and  38 . Although FIG. 2 shows separate combustion devices  37  and  38 , one skilled in the art recognizes that one combustion device could be used. The single combustion device could be used to heat both the hydrogen separator reaction chamber  10  and the methanation reaction chamber  25 . Alternatively, only one of the hydrogen separator reaction chamber  10  or methanation reaction chamber  25  is heated. Reference number  43  represents the thermal contact-between respective combustion device and the chamber to be heated. 
     Although the inlet port  22  on the methanation reaction chamber  25  for the connecting conduit  19  and the inlet port  28  on the methanation reaction chamber  25  are depicted as separate ports on FIG. 1, one skilled in the art recognizes they can be single ports in which both conduits  19  and  4  attach on conduit  19  and feed into conduit  4  at a location upstream to conduit  4 &#39;s attachment to inlet port  28 . 
     In specific embodiments, any or all of the main conduit  4 , first side stream conduit  7 , second side stream conduit  34 , connecting conduit  19  and pipeline  33  can have flow regulators  40  attached to regulate the flow of gas in the pipes. 
     In a specific method of the present invention, the fraction of the well-head gas which flows through first side stream conduit  7  is usually less than 5% of the overall volume of well-head gas flowing through main conduit  4  but may be more depending upon the relative CO 2  content of the well-head gas. 
     The catalytic reaction of the preferred embodiment may also be configured in any number of ways so as to maximize surface contact area between the gaseous reactants and the catalyst. A specific embodiment includes a scaled-up version of methanation as it is performed in analytical gas chromatographic applications. Solid catalyst of good porosity in the form of small pellets or powder are immobilized in a column. The column may be stainless steel or any other material having good strength and preferably little tendency to corrode. While the simplest column configuration would consist of a single column, alternatively, a multi-column configuration could be employed, as depicted in FIG.  3 . The incoming feedstream of hydrogen of conduit  19  and well-head gas from main conduit  4 , upon mixing, could be split by a manifold  24  into multiple parallel columns  27  with pressure or flow regulation  40 . The multi-column mode is particularly useful where regeneration of catalyst using a regeneration cycle is envisioned. Such regeneration is further discussed below. The purified effluent streams are recombined as output  18 . The column or columns are housed in the reaction chamber which is heated to the reaction operating temperature, typically 380° C. Prior to entering the column or manifold, the stream is mixed with the gaseous effluent from the hydrocarbon reformation reaction chamber. It is preferable to incorporate a form of pressure regulation for the incoming hydrocarbon reformation effluent to regulate the partial pressure of hydrogen from the incoming gaseous mixture to optimize the methanation reaction. This can be achieved by considering such variables as 1) flow or pressure of the incoming main gas stream, 2) relative-CO 2  content of the incoming gas stream, 3) the nature of the catalytic reaction chemistry employed. The relative CO 2 -content of the incoming gas stream is a characteristic of the gas being recovered and this measurement may be performed remotely or directly at the well-head. It is envisioned that a computer-controlled feedback loop analytical system may be employed which continuously varies the pressure of the incoming hydrocarbon reformation effluent in real time to keep the methanation reaction optimized. 
     It should be noted that there are numerous variations to the aforementioned methanation reaction chemistry and the present invention envisions the use of any catalytic system useful for methanation that is appropriate given the level of carbon dioxide removal that is desired. In the preferred embodiment, the methanation reaction chamber consists of a scale-up of a gas chromatographic apparatus utilizing methanation chemistry for the enhanced detection of carbon dioxide. 
     In a preferred embodiment, the use of multiple layers or stages of of catalytic beds may be employed. In this configuration, the natural gas effluent emerging from the well-head is passed over the multiple catalytic beds or stages at the temperatures, pressures, and flow rates optimized to the nature of the catalytic reaction employed and the physical characteristics of the catalyst such as surface area, porosity, etc. 
     The invention herein disclosed does not involve a separation step in the main natural gas stream wherein a low level, undesirable gaseous impurity is separated. Rather, the removal of CO 2  is effected by the catalytic conversion of it to methane, CH 4 . The catalyst is neither produced not consumed in a catalytic chemical reaction. The remaining chemical reactants, apart from the catalyst, are inherently present in the system itself. The hydrogen used to perform the conversion is obtained from the hydrocarbon reformation of the methane in the natural gas stream. Heat required for the reaction is obtained by burning a small side stream of the natural gas effluent. The methane product is a major component of natural gas; the substitution of it for carbon dioxide represents an enhancement in the quality of the natural gas stream. 
     By decreasing the CO 2  content of the natural gas stream at or near the well-head, transmission pipeline corrosion is minimized. Concerns regarding the venting of CO 2  to the atmosphere from an environmental standpoint may be obviated because the invention involves the conversion of CO 2  to a useful molecular species and not merely its separation. The present invention is amenable to the elimination of disposal problems and thereby addresses environmental concerns. As carbon dioxide is merely being separated by prior methods, disposal would still be an issue. Typically, this disposal is simply venting to the atmosphere. For environmental reasons, this disposal method is becoming increasingly unacceptable. CO 2  is a known greenhouse gas which is suspected to cause global warming. Various international agreements has mandated reductions in the atmospheric release of the gas over scheduled periods. Thus the removal of the gas from the natural gas stream has environmental benefits in addition to the economic advantages that should accrue from the improvement in pipeline transmission efficiencies. 
     From the standpoint of logistics and feasibility, the improvement lies in the relatively self contained nature of the process, its novel combination of known and proven chemistries, its relative simplicity, and the resulting amenability to application at remote locations; in particular, at the well-head. It affords improvements in the pipeline transport of natural gas streams by purification at the well-head or immediately after its emergence from the well-head. 
     A standard methanation reaction is to be used for carbon dioxide removal. Presently, such reactions are used on an analytical scale in the gas chromatographic analysis of CO 2 . By converting CO 2  to CH 4  prior to flame ionization detection in a gas chromatograph, analytical sensitivity is greatly enhanced and much lower limits of detection may be achieved. The preferred embodiment of the present invention lies, in part, on a scale-up of this analytical conversion. 
     Methanation has also been applied on a larger scale in the petroleum industry in the past. The chemistry is treated in detail in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,052,482, 4,706,751, 4,372,386, and 4,893,391, among others. These patents use the methanation process for its heat releasing properties. Unlike the present invention, the conversion of CO 2  or CO to CH 4  in the aforementioned references is incidental. The exothermic reaction releases heat which is then used to vaporize water. The heat generated steam was the desired product in those technologies. The technique of steam injection downhole into a well to lower the viscosity of heavy oil and thereby enhance recovery has been in use for a number of years. Prior to the use of the methanation process to produce high quality steam, the “huff and puff” method was used to inject steam down a well hole to enhance oil recovery. This had a number of disadvantages, the primary disadvantage being the loss of heat during transport down the well hole. Thus a system was desired which would yield high quality steam at the point of use or as close to the point of use as possible to minimize heat losses. As a result, the methanation step was applied downhole. The heat released inside the well would be used to heat water and create steam which was then used to enhance heavy oil recovery. The patents using methanation reactions for petroleum recovery differ additionally from the present invention in that they use an externally supplied Syngas feed to supply the required hydrogen (H 2 ) for the methanation reaction. The present invention uses the natural gas stream itself as its hydrogen source, obviating the need for an external supply of hydrogen. This attribute partially accounts for the self-contained nature of the present apparatus and process. 
     Known hydrocarbon reformation reactions are employed to produce hydrogen used for methanation. These reactions may be divided into CO 2 -forming and non-CO 2 -forming reactions. The non-CO 2 -forming reactions are well-known processes, and are commonly termed “thermal decomposition” when applied to natural gas. U.S. Pat. No. 3,284,161 describes the use of alumina, silica-alumina, among others, to convert gaseous hydrocarbons to carbon and gaseous hydrogen. Other references have exploited the higher catalytic activities of metal-based catalysts such as cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, iron, platinum, palladium, and ruthenium. See Callahan, M.  Proceedings of  26 th Power Sources Symposium,  PSC Publishers; Red Bank, N.J., 1974, p. 181; and Parmon, V.; Kuvshinov, G.; Sobyanian, V.  Proceedings of the  11 th World Hydrogen Energy Conference,  Stuttgart; Schon &amp; Wetzel GmbH; Frankfurt am Main, 1996; pp. 2439-2448. These typically take the form of metal-oxides. The temperature-dependant activities of various metal and metal-oxide thermal decomposition catalysts have been studied. See Muradov, N. Z.;  Proceedings of the  11 th World Hydrogen Energy Conference,  Stuttgart; Schon &amp; Wetzel GmbH; Frankfurt am Main, 1996; pp. 697-702. Recently, results for carbon-based catalysis and metal-based catalysis have been compared. See Muradov, N. Z.  Energy  &amp;  Fuels,  1998, 12, 41-48. The buildup of carbon on the surface of the metal-based catalysts resulted in the eventual poisoning of the catalyst. This is reversed by the burn-off of carbon to carbon dioxide. In the case of carbon-based catalysts, a fluidized bed reactor for the continuous removal of carbon from the catalytic surface is employed to remove carbon byproduct which is less tightly bound to the catalyst in such cases. Basic hydrocarbon reformation chemistry is well-known in the art and is described in detail in many literature sources in the field. See, e.g., Fuel Cell Systems, edited by Leo M. J. Blomen and Michael Mugerwa, Plenum Press, New York, 1993. The catalyst system may also be a combination of different individual catalyst species. 
     In the present invention, either catalytic system is employed for hydrogen generation. In cases where the accumulation of solid carbon by-product necessitates regeneration of catalyst, multi-column or multi-bed catalysts arrangement are used in conjunction with a multi-stage process. In one stage (the catalytic stage), one or more columns or beds are used in the catalytic reaction to remove CO 2 . When regeneration is required, a regeneration stage (typically a burn-off cycle) is applied to these previously used columns or beds. The flow of raw natural gas is redirected to a series of new or previously regenerated columns or beds such that the overall process may proceed unabated, if desired. During this regeneration stage, the original columns or beds are regenerated with a burn off cycle which effectively removes the carbon product by conversion to oxides of carbon by the application of heat. These oxides of carbon are directed away from the natural gas stream and may be sequestered or otherwise disposed of. In the case of carbon-based catalyst, mechanical or chemical methods are employed in lieu of the burn out method to removed the less tightly bound carbon byproduct. 
     Alternatively, CO 2 -producing methods of hydrocarbon reformation are employed, but this requires employing techniques of CO 2  sequestration to avoid CO 2  introduction into the downstream methanation process. Techniques such as those applied in fuel cell applications to output only the desired hydrogen while sequestering the carbonaceous by-product are equally applicable here. See, e.g.,  Fuel Cell Systems,  Leo M. J. Blomen and Michael Mugerwa, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 1993; Blok, K.; Williams, R. Katofsky, R., Hendriks, C.  Energy,  1997, 22, pp. 161-168: Andus, H.; Kaarstad, O.; Kowal, M.;  Proceedings of the  11 th World Hydrogen Energy Conference,  Stuttgart; Schon &amp; Wetzel GmbH; Frankfurt am Main, 1996; pp. 525-534. 
     In the preferred embodiment of the methanation reaction, the raw stream of natural gas is combined with hydrogen from the reformation reaction and passed over a catalytic bed typically consisting of a catalyst and solid support of high surface area. As discussed, large scale methanation is currently used in oil recovery technology where the by-product of heat is used to produce steam which is used downhole to enhance oil recovery. As is the case in oil recovery applications, improvements in methanation chemistry, be they catalytic or non-catalytic, would enjoy application in the present apparatus and process. 
     The catalytic reaction of the preferred embodiment may also be configured in any number of ways so as to maximize surface contact area between the gaseous reactants and the catalyst. A specific configuration is one which is a scaled-up version of methanation as it is performed in analytical gas chromatographic applications. Solid catalyst of good porosity in the form of small pellets or powder are immobilized in a column. The column may be stainless steel or any other material having good strength and preferably little tendency to corrode. 
     REFERENCES 
     All patents and publications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the level of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. All patents and publications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. 
     U.S. Patent Documents 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 5,938,819 
                 6/1988 
                 Seery 
               
               
                   
                 5,411,721 
                 5/1995 
                 Doshi et al. 
               
               
                   
                 5,089,034 
                 2/1992 
                 James, Jr. et al. 
               
               
                   
                 5,660,603 
                 8/1997 
                 Chen et al. 
               
               
                   
                 4,871,468 
                 10/1989  
                 Jeffrey 
               
               
                   
                 4,741,745 
                 3/1988 
                 Saotome et al. 
               
               
                   
                 4,409,102 
                 10/1983  
                 Tanner 
               
               
                   
                 5,052,482 
                 10/1991  
                 Gonduin 
               
               
                   
                 4,706,751 
                 11/1987  
                 Gonduin 
               
               
                   
                 4,372,386 
                 2/1983 
                 Meeks et al. 
               
               
                   
                 4,839,391 
                 6/1989 
                 Range et al. 
               
               
                   
                 3,284,161 
                 11/1966  
                 Scott et al. 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Other Publications 
     (1) Callahan, M.  Proceedings of  26 th    Power Sources Symposium,  PSC Publishers; Red Bank, N.J., 1974, p. 181. 
     (2) Parmon, V.; Kuvshinov, G.; Sobyanian, V.  Proceedings of the  11 th    World Hydrogen Energy Conference,  Stuttgart; Schon &amp; Wetzel GmbH; Frankfurt am Main, 1996; pp. 2439-2448. 
     (3) Muradov, N. Z.;  Proceedings of the  11 th    World Hydrogen Energy Conference,  Stuttgart; Schon &amp; Wetzel GmbH; Frankfurt am Main, 1996; pp. 697-702. 
     (4) Muradov, N. Z.  Energy  &amp;  Fuels,  1998, 12, 41-48. 
     (5) See, e.g.,  Fuel Cell Systems,  edited by Leo M. J. Blumen and Michael Mugerwa, Plenum Press, New York, 1993. 
     (6) Blok, K.; Williams, R. Katofsky, R., Hendriks, C.  Energy,  1997, 22, pp. 161-168. 
     (7) Andus, H.; Kaarstad, O.; Kowal, M.;  Proceedings of the  11 th    World Hydrogen Energy Conference,  Stuttgart; Schon &amp; Wetzel GmbH; Frankfurt am Main, 1996; pp. 525-534. 
     One skilled in the art readily appreciates that the present invention is well adapted to carry out the objectives and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned as well as those inherent therein. Systems, methods, procedures and techniques described herein are presently representative of the preferred embodiments and are intended to be exemplary and are not intended as limitations of the scope. Changes therein and other uses will occur to those skilled in the art which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention or defined by the scope of the pending claims.