Abstract:
A solar energy converter comprises a thin panel enclosure, at least one solar cell contained within the enclosure, and a thin layer of gel contained within the thin panel enclosure and enclosing the at least one solar cell. The thin panel enclosure has a two-dimensional flat base, short side walls, and a transparent lid separated from the flat base by the short side walls, the short side walls enclosing an interior cavity having a depth substantially smaller than either of the two-dimensional base dimensions. The at least one solar cell has a front surface and a back surface. The thin layer of gel wets both the front surface and back surface of the at least one solar cell and holds the at least one solar cell separate from the base and lid.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION  
   The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/154,668, filed May 22, 2002, entitled “Solar Energy Converter Using A Solar Cell In A Shallow Liquid Layer”, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,583,349 that is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/887,416, filed Jun. 22, 2001, entitled “Solar Energy Converter Using Optical Concentration Through A Liquid”, now abandoned. 

   BACKGROUND 
   Solar energy systems have been used to provide electricity and heat for decades. Designers of all types of energy generation systems continually strive to improve output power efficiency. One current problem in a solar cell energy conversion system is the efficient extraction of low-cost electricity. The conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is the proportion of sunlight energy that the cell converts to electrical energy. Improving efficiency is vital to producing solar cells that are competitive with traditional energy sources, such as fossil fuels and nuclear power. The efficiency of solar cells has increased substantially for the earliest conventional photovoltaic devices from about 1 to 2% efficiency. Current conventional photovoltaic systems convert 7% to 17% of light energy into electrical energy. 
   What is first needed is a system and method for converting energy in a solar cell with extremely high efficiency. What are also needed are solar cell materials and structures, and solar cell fabrication procedures that are inexpensive while attaining high levels of efficiency in energy generation. A further need is a solar cell configuration that permits collection of sunlight energy for conversion to electricity to increase output power generation. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   Solar cells operating in liquid and/or gel have an increased operating efficiency resulting from two independent physical phenomena, an increase in output current from the solar cells from simply wetting the solar cells, and enhanced collection of light through refraction and inner reflection of light in the liquid. Dielectric liquids and gels are found to increase energy conversion efficiency of n/p junction solar cells and also function as a medium for optical collection. The properties of dielectric liquid or gel permit the construction of a solar cell panel with a suitable geometry for functioning as an optical collector. 
   A dielectric liquid or gel immersing one or more junction photovoltaic cells increases the energy conversion efficiency of the photovoltaic cells. The dielectric liquid or gel also is a highly suitable medium for usage as an optical collector. The dielectric liquid or gel in combination with the junction photovoltaic cells operates as a highly efficient and low-cost optical collector. 
   According to some embodiments, a solar energy converter comprises a thin panel enclosure, at least one solar cell contained within the enclosure, and a thin layer of gel contained within the thin panel enclosure and enclosing the at least one solar cell. The thin panel enclosure has a two-dimensional flat base, short side walls, and a transparent lid separated from the flat base by the short side walls, the short side walls enclosing an interior cavity having a depth substantially smaller than either of the two-dimensional base dimensions. The at least one solar cell has a front surface and a back surface. The thin layer of gel wets both the front surface and back surface of the at least one solar cell and holds the at least one solar cell separate from the base and lid. 
   In accordance with another embodiment, a solar energy converter comprises a thin panel container enclosing an interior cavity, at least one solar cell disposed within the thin panel container, and a thin layer of gel contained within the thin panel container and enclosing the at least one solar cell. The at least one solar cell has a front surface and back surface that are separated from interior walls of the thin panel container. The thin layer of gel wets both the front surface and back surface of the at least one solar cell and covers the front surface of the at least one solar cell by a gel depth of 15 mm or less. 
   According to other embodiments, a solar energy converter comprises a gel, at least one solar cell, and an encapsulation system enclosing the gel and the at least one solar cell. The at least one solar cell each has an n-type semiconductor layer and a p-type semiconductor layer forming a single n/p junction distributed such that a front surface and a back surface of said at least one solar cell are in contact with the gel. The encapsulation system has a flat base that supports the at least one solar cell, and one or more transparent surfaces that collect solar illumination through the gel to the at least one solar cell. The gel covers the front surface of the at least one solar cell by 15 mm or less. 
   Any organic dielectric liquid or gel, whether polar or nonpolar, is suitable for usage in a solar panel. Greater energy conversion efficiency is attained for a polar organic dielectric liquid or gel with increasing efficiency for liquids or gels with a relatively higher index of refraction. The organic dielectric liquid or gel can be further selected based on the melting point and the boiling point of various liquids or gels for solar energy systems according to seasonal weather and climate of practical usage. For example, the liquid or gel can be selected based on values of the lowest and highest temperature of the geographical area in which the solar energy system is used. 
   According to a further embodiment, a solar energy converter comprises a thin panel container enclosing an interior cavity, at least one solar cell disposed within the thin panel container, and a plurality of thin gel layers overlying and underlying the at least one solar cell and contained within the thin panel container. The at least one solar cell has a front surface and back surface that are separated from interior walls of the thin panel container. The plurality of thin gel layers wets both the front surface and back surface of the at least one solar cell. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The features of the described embodiments believed to be novel are specifically set forth in the appended claims. However, embodiments of the invention relating to both structure and method of operation, may best be understood by referring to the following description and accompanying drawings. 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic block diagram showing an example of a solar panel in a configuration for improving energy conversion efficiency. 
       FIG. 2  is a schematic pictorial diagram that illustrates an example of a photovoltaic cell that is suitable for usage in the solar panel. 
       FIG. 3  is a graph showing two photovoltaic response plots with current-voltage (I–V) characteristics for two different commercial silicon (Si) solar cells operated under natural illumination under cloudy or rainy conditions. 
       FIG. 4  is a graph that illustrates a photovoltaic response plot including current-voltage (I–V) characteristics for a commercial silicon (Si) solar cell operated under natural illumination under an air mass value AM 1.5 on natural solar radiation of a clear sky. 
       FIG. 5  is a graph of a photovoltaic response plot showing current-voltage (I–V) characteristics for a commercial silicon (Si) solar cell immersed in various depths of organic dielectric liquid. 
       FIG. 6  is a graph that depicts the relationship of output power to the angle of light incident on the photovoltaic cell. 
       FIG. 7  is a graph that illustrates the ratio of maximum output power received from a photovoltaic cell immersed in organic dielectric liquid as a function of incident light angle. 
       FIGS. 8A and 8B  depict the structure for testing a solar cell in accordance with this invention; 
       FIGS. 9A and 9B  illustrate a side and top view, respectively, of an embodiment of a solar cell panel encapsulating system including a solar cell mounting table. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
   Referring to  FIG. 1 , a schematic block diagram depicts an example of a solar panel  100  in a suitable configuration for improving energy conversion efficiency. The solar panel  100  includes a panel base or tray  102  that forms a lower surface wall of the solar panel  100 , and panel walls  104  on all sides of the solar panel  100 . The solar panel  100  can have any shape. In one set of highly suitable examples, the solar panel  100  has the form of a low height cylindrical structure with the panel tray  102  covering one end of the cylinder and a panel lid  112  covering a second end of the cylinder. All or a portion of the panel walls  104  and the panel lid  112  are transparent to promote functionality as a light collector. The horizontal cross-section of the cylinder can have any suitable shape such as a circle, an ellipse, an oval, an egg-shape, a rectangle, a triangle, and a square. The cross-section of the cylinder can be symmetric or asymmetric. Generally a solar panel  100  with a simple shape is generally most cost-effective. 
   The panel walls  104  improve the output power efficiency of the solar panel  100  in two ways. First, the panel walls  104  hold the liquid or gel  110  in the panel tray  102  and the liquid or gel increases the energy conversion efficiency of photovoltaic cells  106 . Second, the panel walls  104  can be transparent to function as a light collector that can add additional large increases to the output power of the solar cell. The panel walls  104  can be geometrically configured to operate as a lens containing the refractive liquid or gel, forming an optical system that amplifies the power-enhancing effect of the liquid or gel. In one example, the panel walls  104  can have the form of a curved lens for focusing the sunlight on the photovoltaic cell  106 . In other examples, the liquid or gel alone may increase energy efficiency without sunlight focusing. 
   In one example, the solar panel  100  has a rectangular shape and accordingly has four panel walls  104 . Many other examples can have different geometric forms including various numbers of straight sides, curved forms, or combinations of straight and curved forms or other shapes. The panel walls  104  and panel tray  102  intersect in liquid-tight connections so that the solar panel  100  holds liquid or gel essentially without leakage. 
   The solar panel  100  is configured as an encapsulation system or container that contains the photovoltaic cells  106  and the liquid and gel  110  in a suitable geometry for refracting illumination through the liquid or gel  110 , further enhancing the output power. The panel walls  104  have suitable transparency for operation as a light beam collector. Illumination collected through the light beam collector refracts at the boundary with the liquid or gel  110  and enhances the photoelectric effect of the photovoltaic cells  106 . 
   One or more junction photovoltaic cells  106  are arranged in the panel tray  102  in such a manner that both front and rear surfaces of the solar cells  106  are wetted with the liquid or gel  110 . A solar panel  100  typically has many photovoltaic cells  106 . Power leads  108  are connected to the photovoltaic cells  106  for connection to an external load (not shown). The photovoltaic cells  106  can be arranged in any suitable configuration in the panel tray  102 , either removed from or in connection with any of the panel walls  104 . 
   In some embodiments, the encapsulation system has a base or a panel tray  102  and a cover or a panel lid  112  area that is substantially larger than total surface area covered by the one or more photovoltaic cells  106  so that more illumination through the panel walls  104  is collected to convert to electricity. 
   In one example the photovoltaic cells  106  can be silicon junction solar cells. Other types of photovoltaic cells  106  can be used such as gallium-arsenide cells and the like. 
   The panel tray  102  contains the liquid or gel  110  that partially or fully immerses the one or more photovoltaic cells  106 . The liquid or gel  110  increases the efficiency of junction photovoltaic cells  106 . The liquid or gel  110  also has the property of a highly suitable medium for usage as an optical guide. The liquid or gel  110  in combination with the junction photovoltaic cells  106  operates as a highly efficient and low-cost photo-electric generator. 
   The particular liquid or gel  110  can be selected based on various conditions of usage. In some embodiments the liquid or gel  110  is an organic dielectric liquid or gel. Other embodiments may use other types of liquid or gels. The output power of photovoltaic cells  106  increases simply by wetting the surfaces of the photovoltaic cells  106  with an electrically nonconductive liquid or gel  110 , for example even water. The amount of increase in output power of the photovoltaic cells  106  due to wetting depends on properties of the particular liquid such as polar or non-polar character, index of refraction, and other properties. The increase in output power occurs even when only a single surface of the photovoltaic cell  106  becomes wet. 
   A gel is a colloid in which the disperse phase has combined with the dispersion medium to produce a semisolid material, such as a jelly. A gel may be considered to be a high viscosity liquid. 
   In various embodiments, solar cells are immersed within a thin layer of substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate is a fluid, liquid, or gel. For some applications and conditions, fluids can be prone leakage, evaporation, or mechanical instability. Therefore in some embodiments, a gel, for example an optical gel, can be used as the substrate. Various gels are available with a wide range of clarity, stability, index of refraction, temperature serviceability, and service life durability. Gels are commonly synthetic materials that can be selected and processed to have a particular combination of characteristics. 
   The viscoelasticity of a gel can supply strain relief inside a solar panel while encasing the solar cells to cushion the cells against stresses, movements, and small dimensional changes caused by thermal expansion, mechanical shock, and vibration. 
   Typically optical gels are available in various forms including optical fluids, curing gels, and non-curing gels. Curing gels are formed from a combination of optical fluid and soluble thickening agents. The fluid component and thickening agent component are either mixed or heated to cause a chemical reaction that produces a soft cured elastomeric gel. Before curing, the components have a low viscosity enabling rapid dispensing on a production line and a capability to enter tight spaces within an assembly. After curing, the gels are chemically stable to temperatures greater than 200° C. Non-curing gels are generally usable without mixing or other processing and have a variety of consistencies. 
   Various gels may be selected for using in a solar energy converter based on a particular application or conditions. Index of refraction is a property used to select among the various gel materials. Generally, a higher index of refraction is desired in comparison to a lower index of refraction. An index of refraction of at least 1.43 is desired for a solar energy converter although in some applications and conditions a lower index of refraction may be suitable. Index of refraction of the gel determines light transmission. 
   Apparent viscosity is another gel property that is selected for a particular application. A softer gel is suitable if a small amount of gel movement occurs during device assembly. A more stiff gel is used in devices subject to high mechanical shock. Depending on manufacturing techniques and practices, a softer gel may be suitable for a solar collector in which gel is flowed into the thin planes above and below the solar cells. A stiffer gel may be used in manufacturing techniques in which thin planar layers of gel are placed on upper and lower sides of the solar cells. 
   Gels may also be selected according to hardness. Some gels may be gelatin-like with self-healing properties. Other gels can be hard nonmalleable substances. Harder gels enable higher dimensional stability. Softer gels are better for strain relief. 
   Temperature service for gels typically ranges between −65° C. and +250° C. Viscosity, set time, and refractive index are related to temperature. The particular gel may also be selected according to evaporation rate. A lower evaporation rate is generally desired to avoid micro-bubble formation and drying that reduces energy efficiency of a solar collector. 
   Thermooxidative stability influences gel resistance to yellowing, hardening, and softening due to gradual chemical changes. Gel is also selected according to cleanliness, clarity, and material compatibility. 
   One example of a suitable gel for usage with a solar cell is a gel formed from a room temperature ionic liquid and a stable polymer as described by Michael Freemantle in “New Gel for Solar Cell”, in SCIENCE Volume 80, Number 51, CENEAR 80 51, p. 6 ISSN 0009-2347. Other suitable gels and optical fluids are available from Nye Optical Products of Fairhaven Mass. including optical fluid nos. OCF-446, OCF-452, OCF-463, optical curing gels OC-431-LVP, OC-440, OC-459, OC-462, and curing gels OCK-433, and OCK-451. These gels and fluids are merely representative of specific products that can be used to enhance solar efficiency in a solar energy system. Any suitable fluid or gel with an appropriate index of refraction, typically greater than 1.43, can be used. Other examples of suitable gels are manufactured and sold by Lightstream Photonics of Boulder, Colo., such as LS-3357. 
   Referring to  FIG. 2 , a schematic pictorial diagram illustrates an example of an n/p junction photovoltaic cell  106  that is suitable for usage in the solar panel  100 . The photovoltaic cell  106  includes a plurality of semiconductor layers including an n-type semiconductor  210  and a p-type semiconductor  212 . The semiconductor layers including n/p junction generate an electric current in response to application of sunlight impinging on the photovoltaic cell  106 . Various materials are suitable for usage in the semiconductor layers including single crystal silicon, multicrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, multicrystalline silicon thin films, single crystal silicon thin films, III–V compounds including gallium-arsenide (GaAs), Gallium-Indium-Phosphorus (GaInP), Gallium-Indium-Arsenide (GaInAs), and others. In addition to the semiconductor n/p layers, the photovoltaic cell  106  includes a top metallic grip  214  or other electrical contact for collecting electric current from the cell and transferring electric current to an external load. A back contact layer  216  is included to complete the electrical circuit. On the top surface of the complete cell, a transparent encapsulant  218  constructed from a material such as glass or plastic seals the cell. An antireflective coating  220  on a top surface of the photovoltaic cell  106  is included to prevent light  222  from reflecting away from the photovoltaic cell  106 . A transparent adhesive layer  224  affixes the transparent encapsulant  218  to the photovoltaic cell  106 . 
   Referring to  FIG. 3 , two photovoltaic response plots show current-voltage (I–V) characteristics for two different commercial silicon (Si) solar cells operated under natural illumination under cloudy or rainy conditions with an illumination intensity of 4400 Lx. An I–V response curve  312  and an I–V response curve  322  illustrate photovoltaic responses of conventional operation of solar cell A  310  and solar cell b  320 , respectively, set in a shallow, wide panel tray  102 . In the example, solar cell A  310  has a square form with an effective front area of 5×5 mm 2 . Solar cell B  320  has a rectangular form with an effective front area of approximately 10×20 mm 2 . 
   In conventional operation, liquid is not added to the tray. An I–V response curve  314  and an I–V response curve  324  illustrate photovoltaic responses for the solar cell A  310  and solar cell B  320 , respectively, for operation of the photovoltaic cells  106  immersed in liquid or gel  110 . In the illustrative example, solar cell A  310  and solar cell B  320  are immersed in glycerin which fills the panel tray  102  to a level slightly above the front face of the respective solar cell. The improvement in output power of the photovoltaic cells  106  is depicted by an increment in short circuit current I SC . The short circuit current I SC  increment  316  for solar cell A  310  is approximately 40% and the short circuit current I SC  increment  326  for solar cell B  320  is approximately 36%. Output power for the solar cell depends on the load applied to the cell. For example, the incremental output power of solar cell B  320  for a 200 Ω load is approximately 47% when the solar cell is immersed in the glycerin fluid. 
   Under the same illumination condition, performance of the solar cells is substantially improved by operating the photovoltaic cells  106  partly or fully immersed in liquid or gel  110 . Improvements in output power performance of a solar cell vary according to numerous factors including composition of the liquid and depth of the liquid in relation to solar cell size. 
   Referring to  FIG. 4 , a photovoltaic response plot shows current-voltage (I–V) characteristics for a commercial silicon (Si) solar cell A  310  operated under natural illumination under an air mass value AM 1.5 on natural solar radiation of a clear sky. Curve  401  shows the I–V characteristic for operation of a solar cell in air. Curve  402  shows the I–V characteristic with the solar cell immersed in ethyl alcohol. The improvement of short circuit current I SC  and open current voltage V OC  for the solar cell in liquid is about 38% and about 10%, respectively. The improvement in output power is approximately 64% when the solar cell is connected to a 250 Ω load and approximately 23% when the solar cell is connected to a 1000 Ω load. 
   Referring to  FIG. 5 , a photovoltaic response plot shows current-voltage (I–V) characteristics for commercial silicon (Si) solar cell immersed in various depths of liquid or gel  110  under vertical illumination with 10000 Lx from a 500 W/5500° K. color temperature reflection lamp. In one example, the photovoltaic cell  106  is the solar cell B  320  and the liquid or gel  110  is trichloroethylene. A curve  500  shows an I–V characteristic for a conventional condition with no liquid. The trichloroethylene fluid has a shallow depth to produce a curve  501  in which the fluid only coats the surface of solar cell B  320  nearest the panel tray  102 . Output power efficiency improves simply by wetting the back surface of the photovoltaic cell  106 . Efficiency is further improved by increasing the fluid depth to cover the entire photovoltaic cell  106 . Curve  502  results when the fluid depth covers the photovoltaic cell  106  so that the fluid level is 1 mm above the top surface of the photovoltaic cell  106 . In the illustrative example, the optimum fluid depth of trichloroethylene for solar cell B  320  covers the top surface of the cell by 7 mm, as shown by curve  503 . Additional fluid reduces the efficiency of solar cell B  320  as shown by curve  504  and  505 . Curve  504  results when the solar cell B  320  is covered by 10 mm over the top surface of the cell. Curve  505  results when the solar cell B  320  is covered by 15 mm over the top surface of the cell. 
   Similar measurements result when photovoltaic cells  106  are immersed in various organic dielectric liquids  110  such as toluene, isopropyl alcohol, and glycerin. The maximum output power from the solar cell occurs at the depth of 7±1 mm above the upper surface of the cells for the listed organic dielectric liquids  110 . In other examples, the optimum fluid depth may vary according to the particular liquid or gel  110  that is selected and configuration of the tray such as tray diameter. 
   The most suitable depth of the liquid or gel  110  appears to relate to light focusing over the location of the photovoltaic cell  106  in the panel tray  102 . 
   Maximum output power measurements acquired under illumination from a 500 W/5500° K. color temperature lamp using organic dielectric liquids  110  of glycerin, isopropyl alcohol, toluene, and trichloroethylene shown in Table I. Table I illustrates the maximum increment of short circuit current I SC , (ΔI SC /I SC ) max , in solar cell B  320  in a liquid depth D. The specific weight p and refractive index N are given for the organic dielectric liquids  110 . Among the organic dielectric liquids, glycerin is a non-polar dielectric. Isopropyl alcohol, toluene, and trichloroethylene are polar dielectric. 
   
     
       
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE I 
             
             
                 
             
             
               Liquid 
               ρ 
               N 
               (ΔI SC /I SC ) max   
               D (mm) 
             
             
                 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               Tricholorethylene 
               1.459 
               1.477 
               0.44 
               7 ± 1 
             
             
               Toluene 
               0.8669 
               1.496 
               0.42 
               7 ± 1 
             
             
               Isopropylalcohol 
               0.7855 
               1.3776 
               0.31 
               7 ± 1 
             
             
               Flyxwein 
               1.2613 
               1.4746 
               0.27 
               7 ± 1 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   As shown in Table I, any polar dielectric liquid with a high index of refraction N is suitable to enhance greater output power of junction solar cells due to wetting effect. 
   The increment of power increase using a dielectric is related to the dielectric constant. Two materials have been found to be particularly appropriate for use as the dielectric overlying the solar cell. These materials have an index of refraction greater than 1.43, a freezing point less than −40° centigrade and a boiling point greater than 200° centigrade. Thus the dielectric material with these characteristics can be used at most points on earth, including the Arctic and the tropics. The dielectric material should be free of chlorine, iodine or bromine because such materials are not suitable in case of fire. One appropriate material which resulted in a 42% power increase when used on top of a solar cell was propylene glycol (N=1.433). Propylene glycol is used for antifreeze in automobiles and has been discovered to be safe for use as a dielectric fluid in covering a solar cell to increase power output. In case of fire, the byproducts of burning propylene glycol are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO). 
   Another material which resulted in a 63% increase in power output is from Cargille and is a dielectric liquid for optics. In particular, the Cargille material is described in Cargille literature as an immersion liquid for lasers. The index of refraction is 1.535, the material freezes at −45° centigrade, boils at greater than 370° centigrade, and is highly viscous. The material is safe in that it produces CO 2  if burned and is stable for greater than 10 years in sunlight. The material was tested to determine the increase of solar cell output. The structure in which tests were run is shown in  FIGS. 8A and 8B .  FIG. 8A  shows a ceramic bowl  81  the walls of which are covered by a white 3M Scotch™ tape  85 . 
   Cross sections  85   a  and  85   b  of this tape are shown in  FIG. 8A  while in  FIG. 8B  a top view of the structure of  FIG. 8A  shows the 3M Scotch™ tape placed around the interior of the bowl below the top edge. Solar cell  82  is spaced a distance “d” (1 mm) from the epoxy base  84  which is glued to the bottom of the ceramic bowl. The solar cell  82  has two lead wires  82   a  and  82   b  which support the solar cell the 1 mm distance above the epoxy base  84  in a cantilevered fashion. Lead wires  82   a  and  82   b  are attached to the epoxy base  84  by glue  86   a  and  86   b.  Tests showed that ΔI SC /I SC , which is the ratio of the short circuit current improvement over the normal short circuit current were such that the maximum power improvement was 62.6% using the Cargille™ immersion liquid code  1160  with a refractive index of 1.535. This liquid  83  is manufactured by R.P. Cargille Laboratories, Inc., at 55 Commerce Rd., Cedar Grove, N.J., 07009. The characteristics of this material are given in the material safety data sheet produced by Cargille relating to this material. 
   Output power efficiency increases when a solar cell is operated in a highly electrically resistive and optically transparent liquid. Generally, any liquid that is electrically resistive and optically transparent in the wavelength region from 3000 Å to 20000 Å is suitable. Any organic dielectric liquid, whether polar or nonpolar, is suitable for usage in a solar panel. Greater energy conversion efficiency is attained for a polar organic dielectric liquid with increasing efficiency for liquids with a relatively higher index of refraction such as toluene or trichloroethylene. In a practical application, the organic dielectric liquid can also be selected according to the climate and likely seasonal weather conditions of the solar energy panel installation based on the melting point and the boiling point of various liquids. Generally, an organic dielectric liquid  110  with a lower freezing temperature and a higher boiling temperature is advantageous to prevent damage from freezing in cold conditions and to more efficiently utilize solar energy in hot conditions. 
   In some embodiments, the liquid or gel need not be an organic dielectric liquid or gel  110  but rather can be an electrically nonconductive and optically transparent dielectric such as pure water to observe an increase of output power of junction solar cells. 
   Referring to  FIG. 6 , a graph depicts the relationship of output power to the angle of light incident on the photovoltaic cell  106 . In the illustrative example, the maximum output power is measured from a solar cell as a function of the angle of incidence at which sunlight strikes the front face of the solar cell  106  and/or a side wall of the solar panel system  104 . Measurements are taken with the photovoltaic cell  106  in air or in liquid or gel  110 . Data are collected in conditions of natural sunlight with a clear sky. At a plurality of angles of the sun, a point on a control curve  601  is acquired in air. For the multiple angles, ethanol is poured into a 10 cm diameter Petri dish holding the photovoltaic cell  106  to a depth level 7 mm higher than the top surface of the photovoltaic cell  106 , and a point on an illuminated test curve  602  is acquired. Also for each angle, an inserted shutter  114  blocks the sunlight to the side wall of the Petri dish that is refracted through the side wall to the photovoltaic cell  106 , and a point on a blocked-illumination test curve  603  is acquired. At all angles of the incident light, the difference between the blocked-illumination test curve  603  and the control curve  601  is caused by wetting the photovoltaic cell with liquid or gel  110 . For all angles of the incident light, the difference between the illuminated test curve  602  and the blocked-illumination test curve  603  results from differences in illumination by sunlight refracted through the side wall of the Petri dish. 
   In the illustrative test, the presence of ethanol around the photovoltaic cell  106  results in an increase of approximately 33% in the output power during daylight, as is shown by blocked-illumination test curve  603 . More than 35% of the increase in output power results from sunlight refracted through the side wall of the dish to the photovoltaic cell  106 . In total, approximately a 68% increase in output power is obtained during a sunny day. 
   Referring to  FIG. 7 , a graph  701  illustrates the ratio of maximum output power curve  602  from a photovoltaic cell  106  immersed in ethanol  110  to that of control curve  601  in air in  FIG. 6 . Similar experimental test points  702  show the same power ratios obtained comparing cell efficiency in liquid to cell efficiency in air for benzene fluid baths. The geometry of the solar panel  100  including aspects of the transparent panel lid  112 , the transparent panel walls  104 , the geometry of the panel walls  104  to focus solar energy in the liquid or gel  110 , operates to increase solar cell efficiency. 
   A solar panel  100  that utilizes the disclosed geometry and organic dielectric liquid extracts an enhanced output power from the solar cells at incident illumination angles from 10° to 75°, the full range of effective sunlight angles, without tracking sun position. The illustrative example  701  shows an increase of approximately 70% in the output power for a day using a solar cell immersed in ethanol. The example  702  shows an increase of approximately 120% in the output power for a day using a solar cell immersed in benzene. 
   During a year, as the season changes, an angle of elevation of the sun at noon varies between Φ+23.5° and Φ−23.5° at a point with the latitude Φ on the earth. A result derived from  FIGS. 6 and 7  suggests that the direction of the solar panel plane needs to be selected to effectively utilize the fallen light on the side wall of the system according to the latitude of the location on the earth. 
   The increased efficiency at low angles of incidence results from the collection of incident light through the side wall of the panel. A large efficiency increase is attained not only in bright sunlight, but also during hazy or cloudy conditions. Referring to the example shown in  FIG. 3 , a nearly 50% increase in output power is observed in the operation of solar cells immersed in ethanol under a cloudy sky with an illumination intensity of about 4800 Lx. 
   The structure of the illustrative solar panel, including solar cells immersed in liquid and encapsulated within the panel, can have various other benefits for extraction of additional power. For example, the solar panel can include pumps or other devices for circulating the liquid, so solar cells can be cooled to depress the decrease in output power that results from a rise in liquid temperature. Circulating the liquid also permits simultaneous collection of solar thermal energy from the liquid. 
   In additional embodiment of this invention, a solid dielectric film is deposited over the surfaces of the p-n junction cells. The dipoles of the solid dielectric film are polarized along the self-induced electric field across the p-n junction. 
   Referring again to  FIG. 5 , curve  501  illustrates a result of wetting rear surface  1014  of solar cell  1010  with dielectric liquid  1016 . In this embodiment, the ratio of the I SC  of curve  501  to that of curve  500  indicates that about an 11% increase in the short circuit current can be obtained by wetting the rear surface of the solar cell with, for example, trichloroethylene. Although,  FIGS. 10A and 10B  provide one exemplary embodiment for the design of mounting table  1002 , the design of the solar cell mounting table can be designed in any manner which ensures that the rear solar cell surface is allowed to be wet. 
     FIGS. 9A and 9B  are illustration of the side and top view, respectively, of solar panel encapsulating system  1000  including a solar cell mounting table  1002 . In this embodiment, encapsulating system  1000  includes a transparent lid  1004 , a tray  1006 , and transparent side walls  1008 . Encapsulation system  1000  encloses an array of solar cells  1010  mounted or placed on mounting table  1002 , which defines a set of holes  1012 . Holes  1012  are located on mounting table  1002  to provide a space  1018  proximate to the rear surface  1014  of solar cell  1010 . Space  1018  allows a dielectric liquid  1016  to pool proximate to rear surface  1014  such that the entire rear surface can be made wet. In one example, space  1018  provides no less than a 1 mm gap. 
   While the present disclosure describes various embodiments, these embodiments are to be understood as illustrative and do not limit the claim scope. Many variations, modifications, additions and improvements of the described embodiments are possible. For example, those having ordinary skill in the art will readily implement the steps necessary to provide the structures and methods disclosed herein, and will understand that the process parameters, materials, and dimensions are given by way of example only. The parameters, materials, and dimensions can be varied to achieve the desired structure as well as modifications, which are within the scope of the claims. Variations and modifications of the embodiments disclosed herein may also be made while remaining within the scope of the following claims.