Abstract:
An apparatus for heating a semiconductor wafer includes the following: a microwave source; an applicator cavity; and, a fixture for supporting a wafer in the applicator cavity. The fixture comprises a dielectric member providing mechanical support for the wafer and a metallic ring disposed generally parallel to and concentric with the wafer at a selected distance from the wafer, whereby the application of microwave power to the wafer may be adjusted to compensate for edge effects. An associated method for heating a semiconductor wafer comprises the steps of: a. placing the wafer in a microwave applicator cavity; b. supporting the wafer on a fixture, the fixture comprising a dielectric supporting member in contact with the wafer and a metallic ring member disposed generally parallel to and concentric with the wafer at a selected distance from the wafer; and, c. introducing microwave power into the applicator cavity in order to heat the wafer, with the metallic ring serving to modify the power distribution near the wafer edge. The apparatus may be adapted to various operations in semiconductor device fabrication and testing.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/784,017 filed by the present inventors on Mar. 20, 2006, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    The invention pertains to apparatus and methods for heating semiconductor wafers using microwave energy, and more particularly to systems in which shaped metallic fixtures are used to improve control over thermal distribution within a heated wafer or heated wafers 
         [0004]    2. Description of Related Art 
         [0005]    In the field of semiconductor processing it is standard practice to grow large cylindrical boules of silicon, which are then sliced and polished to create wafers, upon which various circuit features are constructed, generally by multiple steps of masking, deposition, etching, etc. This layer-by-layer build up includes process steps that involve heating the silicon wafer. Both the deposited material and the base semiconductor substrate are heated during these process steps. Because of the large size of the wafer and the small size of the circuit features, it is critical that heating be as controlled as possible (either uniform thermal distribution or controlled non-uniform thermal distribution). Sometimes a controlled non-uniform thermal distribution is helpful to alleviate residual stresses induced in the wafer during treatment. Furthermore, as the industry continues to move toward smaller circuit dimensions, the thermal parameters become even more critical. Specifically, it is desirable to achieve rapid heating to the process temperature, while at the same time the target process temperatures are lower than before. Heating methods such as infrared lamps become inefficient as the process temperature decreases, and microwave heating has emerged as an attractive alternative. As known to those skilled in the state of the art, microwave energy can beneficially enhance reaction kinetics. Furthermore, microwave processing may enhance the properties of certain materials; important properties may include mechanical, electrical or optical characteristics. 
         [0006]    The process of microwave heating generally involves the absorption or coupling of microwave power to a lossy medium (in this case a semiconducting wafer, possibly containing one or more layers or features containing other elements) wherein heat is generated through one or more mechanisms of dielectric loss. The layered materials or thin films are typically metals or dielectrics. Heat is lost from the wafer and the layered material of interest through conduction, convection, and radiation. It can be seen that in order to achieve uniform heating across the entire area of a large wafer, all of these phenomena must be properly balanced. One thing in particular that can give rise to non-uniformity is the influence of edge effects or concentrations of the microwave power along the periphery of the wafer. Innovative considerations are needed to mitigate these wafer boundary conditions. 
         [0007]    One attempt to improve microwave heating to achieve uniformity (or controlled non-uniformity) involves sweeping the microwave source over a relatively large bandwidth in order to create many independent modes within the heating cavity, as taught generally by Bible et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 5,321,222 and further work by the same workers. Although that method can produce good uniformity in an empty cavity, it cannot, by itself, compensate for the large perturbations of the electric field around a large, thin wafer or for the added complication arising from metallizations on the wafer. 
         [0008]    U.S. Pat. No. 6,222,170 by Tucker et al. discloses the use of metallic tooling specifically to concentrate the microwave power in a variable-frequency microwave plasma system. The &#39;170 patent also discloses the use of a fixture for supporting a silicon wafer, the fixture consisting of several layers of different materials intended to smooth the electric field distribution around the edge of the wafer so that plasma deposition will be more uniform. 
       OBJECTS AND ADVANTAGES  
       [0009]    Objects of the present invention include the following: providing an apparatus for controllably heating a semiconductor wafer via microwave power; providing a fixture for supporting a silicon wafer in a microwave oven while compensating for edge effects; providing a field-compensating supporting fixture for a microwave oven; providing a fixture for modifying the electric field applied to a workpiece in a microwave oven while minimizing thermal contact between the fixture and the workpiece; providing a field-compensating supporting fixture for a microwave oven that can be adjusted to adapt to workpieces having different electrical properties; providing a method for heating a silicon wafer either uniformly or with controlled non-uniformity via microwave power; providing a method for supporting a planar workpiece in a microwave oven while compensating for edge effects; providing an apparatus and method for heating a semiconducting wafer while minimzing residual stresses in either the wafer or in coatings or films thereon; and, providing a method for heating a semiconductor wafer uniformly or with controlled non-uniformity via microwave power while adjusting to compensate for the specific electrical properties of the wafer being processed. These and other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from consideration of the following specification, read in conjunction with the drawings. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0010]    According to one aspect of the invention, an apparatus for heating a semiconductor wafer includes the following: a microwave source; an applicator cavity; and, a fixture for supporting a wafer in the applicator cavity, the fixture comprising a structural member providing mechanical support for the wafer and a metallic ring disposed generally parallel to and coaxial with the wafer at a selected distance from the wafer, whereby the application of microwave power to the wafer may be adjusted to compensate for edge effects. 
         [0011]    According to another aspect of the invention, a method for heating a semiconductor wafer comprises the steps of:
   a. placing the wafer in a microwave applicator cavity;   b. supporting the wafer on a fixture, the fixture comprising a structural supporting member in contact with the wafer and a metallic ring member disposed generally parallel to and coaxial with the wafer at a selected distance from the wafer; and,   c. introducing microwave power into the applicator cavity in order to heat the wafer, with the metallic ring serving to modify the power distribution near the wafer edge.   
 
         [0015]    According to another aspect of the invention, a fixture for heating a semiconductor wafer in a microwave oven comprises the following: a structural member providing mechanical support for the wafer and a metallic ring disposed generally parallel to and coaxial with the wafer at a selected distance from the wafer, whereby the application of microwave power to the wafer may be adjusted to compensate for edge effects. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0016]    The drawings accompanying and forming part of this specification are included to depict certain aspects of the invention. A clearer conception of the invention, and of the components and operation of systems provided with the invention, will become more readily apparent by referring to the exemplary, and therefore non-limiting embodiments illustrated in the drawing figures, wherein like numerals (if they occur in more than one view) designate the same elements. The features in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. 
           [0017]      FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of the present invention. 
           [0018]      FIG. 2  is a schematic diagram in cross-section of one embodiment of the fixture of the present invention. 
           [0019]      FIG. 3  is a schematic diagram in cross-section of several alternate embodiments of the present invention. 
           [0020]      FIG. 4  is a schematic plot of typical heating results using the inventive method. 
           [0021]      FIG. 5  is a schematic diagram in cross-section of an embodiment of the present invention adapted to maintain a controlled atmosphere around the wafer. 
           [0022]      FIG. 6  is a schematic diagram in cross-section of the present invention in which the metal ring is hollow and further serves as a gas diffuser. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0023]    In its most general form, the invention comprises an apparatus and method for heating an individual semiconductor wafer in a microwave oven, while compensating for the perturbation of the electric field caused by the thin, planar geometry of the wafer. This compensation is provided by a metallic ring disposed generally parallel to and coaxial with the wafer at some distance from the wafer. The metal ring is preferably of a larger diameter than the wafer, so that it extends past the edge of the wafer for some distance all around the periphery of the wafer. The metal ring preferably has in inner diameter at least half of its outer diameter. A structural support is provided to support the wafer at a selected distance from the ring. The metal ring and the structural support may be combined into a fixture assembly. The assembly may be adjustable to some degree if the user intends to process wafers having different properties; the assembly may also be dynamically adjustable to compensate in real time for property changes that occur as the wafer heats or cools. Conversely, the assembly may be non-adjustable if the user intends to process only one type of wafer and therefore desires a fixture that will provide maximum run-to-run repeatability. The fixture may optionally contain or be used in conjunction with various lossy materials to provide a desired amount of “hybrid” heating. Optional cooling means may be provided to reduce the total treatment cycle time. Optional means may further be provided to rotate the wafer to improve heating uniformity. Additional means to raise or lower the wafer and/or to interface with robots or other conventional wafer handling equipment may be provided. 
         [0024]    In the examples that follow, the features and uses of the invention will be more clearly enumerated and various alternate embodiments will be described. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0025]    A microwave heating cavity employing the inventive fixture is shown schematically at  10  in  FIG. 1 . A microwave heating cavity  11  is energized by a microwave source  12 , preferably via a waveguide  13 . A generally planar semiconductor workpiece  14  to be heated rests on dielectric supports  15 . A conductive ring  16  is disposed generally parallel to the workpiece at a distance or gap G from the surface of the workpiece. Ring  16  rests on supports  17 , which are preferably metallic and which may optionally include means such as screw threads or actuators, whereby the position of ring  16  may be adjusted, as shown schematically in  FIG. 2 . 
         [0026]    It will be appreciated that the inventive fixture may be constructed from many materials. The metal ring may be any suitable conductor, such as aluminum, copper, steel, stainless steel, etc. and may be fabricated by any convenient process such as milling, turning, stamping, electroplating, etc. It may be plated or coated to improve surface conductivity, hardness, chemical resistance, etc. For many applications, anodized aluminum is particularly suitable. The structural supports may likewise be fabricated from any convenient material, and in many applications a relatively low-loss dielectric material is preferred. Ceramics are particularly suitable, and for many applications it is preferable to use several (typically three) quartz posts distributed around the periphery of the wafer. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0027]    Several alternative embodiments of the inventive fixture are shown schematically in  FIG. 3 . 
         [0028]    In  FIG. 3A  the ring  16  is generally planar. It is disposed at a selected distance from the wafer to be heated, thereby establishing a gap G. The optimal gap G will depend to some extent on the resistivity of the wafer  14  as well as on other process variables and processing objectives, as will be presently described. As shown, the ring preferably has an inner diameter less than that of the wafer and an outer diameter greater than that of the wafer, leading to radial overhang R o  and radial underhang R u  as shown. Although the inner diameter of ring  16  is not critical, good results have been obtained when R o  and R u  are roughly equal (in other words, the edge of the wafer lies roughly halfway between the inner and outer diameters of the ring). 
         [0029]    In  FIG. 3B , the ring  16 ′ is generally cylindrical. In this case, both the inner and outer diameters of ring  16 ′ are larger than the diameter of wafer  14 ; the ring  16 ′ and wafer  14  are coaxial, as in the previous example, and this geometry establishes a radial gap G R . The relative position of wafer  14  in the vertical direction establishes upper and lower gaps G u  and G L , respectively. 
         [0030]    The planar and cylindrical rings  16  and  16 ′ respectively, may be combined into a structure  16 ″ as shown schematically in  FIG. 3C . As indicated by the arrows, the outer (cylindrical) part may be movable relative to the inner (planar) part, whereby gap G may be changed independently of gaps G u  and G L . 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0031]    Using the setup described in the foregoing example, a series of heating experiments were performed. Tests were conducted at various frequencies including S-band, C-band, X-band, and Ku-band. It was found that the optimal gaps for best uniformity are different in the respective frequency bands. To describe one series of tests, conducted at 5.85-7 GHz (C-band) reference is made to  FIG. 4 , which is a plot of the temperature difference between the edge and center of the wafer as a function of the gap G. When the gap was 0.08″ the wafer edge was cooler than the center by about 7° C., whereas with a gap of 0.47″ the edge was about 13° C. hotter than the center. A gap of about 0.23″ yielded a very uniform temperature distribution across the wafer. (By contrast, using the same conditions but without the inventive ring fixture, the edge was observed to be as much as 70° C. hotter than the center of the wafer.) Thus it can be seen that the user may establish a temperature distribution across the wafer that may be very uniform or it may vary radially in either a positive or a negative way depending on the choice of the gap. Skilled artisans will appreciate that a wafer having a different resistivity will display generally similar behavior and the optimal gap for a particular application may thus be readily determined through routine experimentation. 
         [0032]    Thus it will be appreciated that the inventive fixture may be adjusted to accommodate wafers having different properties, or different processing objectives, and the skilled artisan, through routine experimentation, can optimize the various dimensions and spacings for a particular job. In applications where overall temperature uniformity is critical, the gap G is adjusted for maximum uniformity. It will also be appreciated that in some cases, the ultimate goal is not uniform heating per se, but rather minimal overall residual stress, and in some cases a controlled, non-uniform heat distribution will produce the best (lowest) residual stress in the wafer. 
         [0033]    Stresses may arise at various stages of processing and may be attributable to various causes, such as differing rates of thermal expansion, changes in a coating layer, or other factors. Thus, the strategies employed to mitigate such stresses may also involve various stages of the process and not just the initial heating phase. For example, it is possible to alleviate stress during the cooling phase, in which case a uniform heating treatment or soak may be followed by a controlled cooling phase in which some microwave energy is applied to prevent the edges of the wafer from cooling too quickly and locking in undesirable stress levels. The inventive fixture provides the user with a convenient means of managing this process, where, for example, the gap G is maintained at one value during the soak phase and then G is increased during the cooling phase to allow more microwave power to reach the edge regions for a controlled, gradual cool-down. 
         [0034]    It is well known in the art of semiconductor manufacturing that wafers are available with many different levels of doping and therefore exhibit a wide range of electrical properties. The electrical resistivity may range from 0.001 to 100 Ω-cm, and so it is desirable that the user be able to adjust the setup to accommodate a wide range of properties. It will further be appreciated that wafers of other semiconducting materials are commercially available and the inventive process may equally well be applied to heating those materials. Some examples of other semiconducting materials include Ge, SiGe, GaAs, GaN, and many others. The semiconductor wafer may be a substantially single crystal or it may be polycrystalline. It will also be understood that a “silicon wafer” might comprise a layer of Si that has been deposited upon a sapphire substrate. 
         [0035]    It will be further appreciated that in some steps in the manufacture of semiconductor wafers, a highly conductive coating such as copper or aluminum may be applied to the wafer. The effect of such conductive coatings may be compensated by adjusting the gap or gaps. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0036]    The inventive fixture was used to improve the heating uniformity in a commercial variable frequency microwave oven (MicroCure 2100™ and 3100™ from Lambda Technologies, Morrisville, N.C.). The system is intended to heat 300-mm single wafers. This system includes several features such as vacuum pump, oxygen sensor, nitrogen purge and backfill, IR temperature monitor, quartz structural components, and a metallic ring. This system demonstrated good heating uniformity over a 300-mm wafer in conjunction with other process operations including temperature ramp, temperature soak, gas purge, and cool down. This test shows that the inventive fixture is compatible with familiar ancillary equipment and accessories commonly used in microwave processing operations. 
         [0037]    In further experiments, Applicants have discovered, surprisingly, that the inventive fixture is also suitable for use in fixed frequency systems, including heating cavities employing low-cost magnetrons operating in one of the ISM bands. One exemplary system is described in the following example. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0038]    A system was designed to heat a 300-mm wafer to 300° C. in 60 sec with a high degree of repeatability and wafer uniformity. The cavity was 14×14×7 inches and was energized by magnetron sources placed at several locations in the chamber walls. A rotating mode stirrer was mounted under the fixture and a 300-mm silicon disk several mm thick served to support the wafer and also to provide some hybrid heating. The metal ring was placed below the supporting disk and above the rotating mode stirrer. The outer diameter of the ring was larger than the 300-mm wafer diameter, and the inner diameter of the ring was chosen so that the radial overhang and underhang were about equal (reference is made to  FIG. 3A  for an illustration of the basic geometry). The upper wall of the microwave cavity was fitted with optical ports to accommodate thermal sensors. Air flow was provided through small holes in the door and back wall of the cavity. Very uniform heating was achieved during repetitive runs in which the temperature of the wafer was cycled between 200 and 400° C. while monitoring temperatures at nine separate locations across the surface of the wafer. The performance of this system demonstrates the usefulness of the inventive ring fixture in a fixed frequency system. It also demonstrates the use of the invention in conjunction with hybrid heating provided by a lossy susceptor. 
         [0039]    It will be appreciated that the multi-layer, functionally graded fixture disclosed by Tucker et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,222,170 (illustrated specifically in  FIG. 6   b  in the &#39;170 patent) has several shortcomings. First, a large mass of material is in contact with the wafer; the added thermal mass will make it more difficult to manage the rapid heating and cooling and will increase cycle time between runs because of the time needed to cool the fixture. Furthermore, small variations in physical contact between wafer and fixture can lead to inconsistent results. Second, direct contact with the wafer will provide opportunities for chemical contamination. Third, the close fit at the edge of the wafer has the potential to generate debris particles, which would generate defects and adversely affect yield. Also, thermal expansion mismatch between wafer and fixture could lead to stress in the wafer and possibly even fracture. Fourth, the entire tool would need to be changed (size, shape, materials, etc.) to process a wafer with greatly different characteristics. Applicants&#39; inventive fixture eliminates these shortcomings and, additionally, is simple and inexpensive to make and use. 
         [0040]    As mentioned previously, the inventive fixture may contain adjusting means such as screws to adjust the spacing G between the metal ring and the semiconductor wafer, so that the user may compensate for wafers having different electrical properties. In the case of adjusting screws, the adjustment is preferably made before the start of the run and not changed during the run. It will be appreciated that some circumstances may arise in which the user desires to adjust the spacing dynamically during the run, for example, if the properties of the workpiece will change significantly during processing. In this case, the adjusting screws may be replaced by actuators that may be placed under manual control by the operator or included in the process recipe programmed into the system at the start of the run. Such actuators are well known in the art and include various mechanical linkages, electromechanical actuators, pneumatic or hydraulic actuators, etc. 
         [0041]    For simplicity,  FIGS. 1-3  in the drawings have shown a single metal ring, generally located under the wafer. It will be clear that the ring may equally well be disposed above the wafer or two substantially similar rings may be disposed above and below the wafer, respectively. When two rings are used, they may be separated by an air gap, by small dielectric posts, or by a cylindrical section of metal or dielectric, depending on the electrical requirements of the cavity being used. Alternatively, the metal ring may be configured such that both its inner and outer diameters are larger than the wafer diameter and its axial dimension increased whereby it resembles a short cylinder more than a disk (as illustrated in  FIG. 3B ). In this configuration the metal ring will substantially surround the wafer at some radial distance from the edge of the wafer. Thus, through routine experimentation the skilled artisan may adjust the heating characteristics to optimize the process for the specific positions of the input waveguide(s) and other characteristics of the cavity and the wafer. 
         [0042]    Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the inventive apparatus and method may be adapted to microwave processing systems operating at any selected frequency or frequency range. Suitable microwave power sources include solid-state power supplies as well as vacuum electron devices such as magnetrons, klystrons, gyrotrons, traveling wave tubes, and others. Such sources may be used alone and in combination. 
         [0043]    Those skilled in the art will further appreciate that the inventive apparatus and method may also usefully be employed with other ancillary devices to manage the flow of heat, process gases, etc., as well as to generate or contain a plasma or other selected environment. Familiar structures such as microwave-transparent insulation or a bell jar, for instance, may be placed above, below, or surrounding the inventive fixture and workpiece. The inventive fixture may incorporate features that perform some of these ancillary functions as shown in the following examples. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0044]      FIG. 5  illustrates in cross-section an embodiment of the present invention  50  in which the inventive metal rings  16 ″ are disposed above and below wafer  14  and each ring further contains a substantially microwave transparent window  51 . At least one of the rings further has at least one passage  52  through which vacuum may be established or a selected atmosphere introduced (gas flow is indicated by arrows). The rings  16 ″ preferably engage one another with an O-ring seal  53  or other conventional mechanism. Wafer supports  15 ′ may be attached to the lower ring  16 ″ or they may be part of a separate, substantially free-standing assembly disposed within the space created when rings  16 ″ are brought together. In this configuration, the rings and windows thus form an environmental enclosure while also preserving the electrical function of modifying the microwave power distribution near the wafer edge regions. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0045]    The metal ring may be substantially hollow.  FIG. 6  illustrates in cross-section an embodiment of the present invention  60  in which the inventive metal ring  16 ′″ is disposed below wafer  14  and the ring further contains a gas inlet line  61  and a plurality of gas outlet orifices  62  (gas flow is indicated by arrows). At selected times during the treatment cycle, gas may thereby be injected for distribution for various purposes. For example, the gas may be dry air injected at the end of the cycle in order to gently cool the wafer and fixture. By combining the electrical function of the ring with that of a gas-diffuser the present invention may be even more useful. 
         [0046]    It will also be appreciated that the invention may be used simply for heating a wafer, as for example, to form a polymer coating, anneal a deposited layer (e.g., Cu, Al, or other metallizations), drive off volatile contaminants, oxidize the surface, and so on. The cavity may contain air or various process gases, and may be operated at a suitable pressure or partial vacuum. In other applications, the invention may be used in conjunction with processes that involve more than just heating the workpiece. Some exemplary processes include plasma processing, CVD, etching, etc. as are well known in the art of semiconductor processing. 
         [0047]    For simplicity, the apparatus shown in the FIGS contains a single workpiece  14 . Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the inventive apparatus may readily be adapted to contain a plurality of workpieces  14 . This may preferably be configured in a stacked arrangement, with rings  16  and workpieces  14  spaced appropriately in the axial direction. It will be further appreciated that the particular orientation of the wafer is not critical to the practice of Applicants&#39; invention. Although the wafer and fixture are shown in the FIGS in a substantially horizontal arrangement, the entire assembly may be oriented vertically or at any other angle, provided that the general parallel and coaxial relationships between wafer and ring(s) are maintained. 
         [0048]    As used herein, the inventive ring is defined as a metal structure having the following characteristics: a center of rotational symmetry, an inner diameter, an outer diameter, and a selected cross-sectional shape. In  FIGS. 1 ,  2 , and  3 A the cross-section is a rectangle whose width (in the radial direction) is greater than its height (in the axial direction), giving the ring the general shape of a flat washer. In  FIG. 3B  the cross-section is a rectangle whose width is less than its height, giving the ring the general shape of a short section of pipe. In  FIG. 3C  the two previously described shapes are combined, and are optionally movable relative to one another, creating the possibility of a generally T-shaped cross-section, a generally L-shaped cross-section, or various intermediate shapes. In  FIG. 5  two rings, each with a generally L-shaped cross-section, are brought into contact with each other, thereby creating the electrical equivalent of a ring with a generally U-shaped cross section. In  FIG. 6  a ring is shown having a hollow cross-section, thereby creating a passage through which gas may flow for cooling or other selected purposes. 
         [0049]    In conventional semiconductor processing, it is generally standard practice to deposit circuit features on only one face of the wafer or substrate. Just as the inventive ring may be disposed either above or below the wafer, it will be appreciated that the wafer may be oriented either face-up or face-down during processing 
         [0050]    Some useful applications of the invention are described in the following examples. Modern integrated circuit technology uses both metallic and non-metallic films. Metallic films include pure copper, aluminum, and tungsten as well as various alloys. Non-metallic films are typically dielectric materials used to separate metallic features and/or semiconducting features to prevent direct electrical short or to prevent leakage currents between circuit elements. The dielectric properties of these materials are important for minimizing leakage current and also for minimizing signal delays. Conventional dielectric materials include silicon dioxide, silicon nitride and others. 
         [0051]    It is well known that the formation of the metallic or dielectric films with acceptable properties depends on the deposition conditions and on subsequent thermal treatments of the deposited layers. Proper heat treatments assure that the deposited materials develop better and more stable properties. Some of the reactions that occur during heat treatment are chemically driven and some are physically driven. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0052]    Copper is normally deposited on a semiconductor substrate by electroplating. Thermal treatments develop the correct electrical conductivity or resistivity, primarily by increasing the grain size and reducing the grain boundary area. Thermal treatments are carried out in a substantially inert atmosphere to avoid oxidizing the copper. Typical inert atmospheres include nitrogen, argon, and various mixtures such as N 2 -4%H 2 . 
         [0053]    Other processing objectives with respect to copper annealing include modifying the grain morphology and grain size distribution. Ultimately, the best thermal treatment for copper is the one that leads to good grain distribution, grain morphology and crystalline orientation. These characteristics are desirable because copper with the right characteristics is more resistant to electro-migration. It will be appreciated that the user may wish to select a particular microwave frequency that is appropriate for a particular film material or film thickness (for instance, to match the microwave skin depth to the film thickness). In this case, the gap G may be changed to provide optimal results at the particular frequency selected. 
       EXAMPLE 
       [0054]    When using dielectric materials, whether organic or inorganic, the sequence is similar to that of metallic films, in that a first process deposits the film and a subsequent thermal treatment develops the final properties. In this case the thermal treatment leads to chemical and/or physical changes. The originally deposited chemistry can undergo a chemical reaction from a highly reactive chemistry to a very stable chemistry, for example conversion of a silane or siloxane to silicon dioxide. Sometimes additional reactive species (referred to as porogens) are included that evaporate upon heating to leave behind very small microscopic voids that form morphological discontinuities in the resultant dielectric layer. This controlled porosity is intended to lower the effective dielectric constant of the film. 
         [0055]    In all of the foregoing examples it can be seen that semiconductor processing involves carefully controlled heating of a semiconducting wafer, upon which might be one or more layers with greatly different electrical, chemical, and physical properties. Thermal treatments must be carefully controlled to avoid deleterious effects, which can include the following: thermal stresses in the wafer or the coatings; diffusion of dopants away from their optimal locations in the circuit elements; excessive grain growth or changes in grain morphology; non-uniform electrical or dielectric properties or other yield-limiting defects; over-annealing or breakage of conductor lines; and other undesired phenomena. Applicants&#39; invention may be usefully employed to improve process control in the foregoing situations as well as many others as will be apparent to those skilled in the art.