Abstract:
The invention relates to doped nickelate-containing material with the general formula: A a M v   1 M w   2 M x   3 M y   4 M z   5 O 2-δ  wherein A comprises one or more alkali metals selected from sodium, lithium and potassium; M 1  is nickel in oxidation state 2+, M 2  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+, M 3  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 2+, M 4  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+, and M 5  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 3+ wherein 0.4≦a&lt;0.9, 0&lt;v&lt;0.5, at least one of w and y is &gt;0, x&gt;0, z≧0, 0≦δ≦0.1, and wherein a, v, w, x, y and z are chosen to maintain electroneutrality.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    The present invention relates to novel doped nickelate materials, to a process for making such doped nickelate materials, to electrodes containing such materials, to the use of such materials, for example in energy storage devices. In addition the present invention relates to a process of storing electrical charge using a device comprising such doped nickelate materials, and to rechargeable batteries comprising such materials. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    Sodium-ion batteries are analogous in many ways to the lithium-ion batteries that are in common use today; they are both reusable secondary batteries that comprise an anode (negative electrode), a cathode (positive electrode) and an electrolyte material, both are capable of storing energy, and they both charge and discharge via a similar reaction mechanism. When a sodium-ion (or lithium-ion battery) is charging, Na +  (or Li + ) ions de-intercalate from the cathode and insert into the anode. Meanwhile charge balancing electrons pass from the cathode through the external circuit containing the charger and into the anode of the battery. During discharge the same process occurs but in the opposite direction. 
         [0003]    Lithium-ion battery technology has enjoyed a lot of attention in recent years and provides the preferred portable battery for most electronic devices in use today; however lithium is not a cheap metal to source and is considered too expensive for use in large scale applications. By contrast sodium-ion battery technology is still in its relative infancy but is seen as advantageous; sodium is much more abundant than lithium and some researchers predict this will provide a cheaper and more durable way to store energy into the future, particularly for large scale applications such as storing energy on the electrical grid. Nevertheless a lot of work has yet to be done before sodium-ion batteries are a commercial reality. 
         [0004]    Metal oxides with the general formula A x MO 2  (where A represents one or more alkali metal ions and M represents one or more metal ions at least one of which has several oxidation states, for example a transition metal) are known to crystallise in a number of different layered structures. This is described in detail by C. Delmas et al in “Structural Classification and Properties of the Layered Oxides”, Physica 99B (1980) 81-85. In summary, the structures are all made up of MO 6  edge sharing octahedra which form (MO 2 ) n  sheets. These sheets are stacked one on top the other and are separated by the alkali metal atoms and the exact position of the alkali metal will dictate whether the overall structure of the metal oxide is to be described as octahedral (O), tetrahedral (T) or prismatic (P). In a lattice made up of hexagonal sheets, there are three possible positions for the oxygen atoms, conventionally named A, B and C. It is the order in which these sheets are packed together that leads to the O, T and P environments. The number 2 or 3 is also used to describe the number of alkali metal layers in the repeat unit perpendicular to the layering. For example, when the layers are packed in the order ABCABC, an 03 structure is obtained. This translates to 3 alkali metal layers in the repeat unit and each alkali metal being in an octahedral environment. Such materials are characterised by the alkali metal ions being in octahedral orientation and typical compounds of this structure are A x MO 2  (x≦1). The order ABAB with the alkali metal ions in tetrahedral orientation will yield a T1 structure which is typified by A 2 MO 2  compounds. Packing the sheets in ABBA order gives a P2 structure in which one half of the prism shares edges with MO 6  octahedra and the other half shares faces and typical compounds are A =0.7 MO 2 . And finally, packing in ABBCCA order results in a P3 structure type in which all prisms share one face with one MO 6  octahedron and three edges with three MO 6  octahedra of the next sheet. A =0.5 MO 2  compounds are found to adopt the P3 structure. It will be noted that the amount of alkali metal present in the A x MO 2  material has a direct bearing on the overall structure of the metal oxide. 
         [0005]    Over the last ten years, numerous workers have investigated the electrochemical properties of single phase metal oxides with a P2 structure. For example C. Delmas et al report the phase transformations and electrochemical behaviour of P2-Na x CoO 2 , see for example J. Solid State Chem., 2004, 177, 2790-2802 and Inorg. Chem., 2009, 48, 9671-9683. Further, Lu and Dahn, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2001, 148, A710-715, demonstrate that the P2-layered oxide Na 2/3 [Ni 1/3 Mn 2/3 ]O 2  can reversibly exchange Na-ions in sodium half cells however, these oxide compounds are expected to show poor cycling ability, especially between 2.3-4.5 V at C/100. 
         [0006]    More recently, Kim et al Adv. Energy Mater., 2011, 1, 333-336 reported that the presence of lithium in single phase P2 lithium substituted compounds such as Na 1.0 Li 0.2 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.75 O 2 , provides some improvement in the structural stability during cycling, but the reversible capacity of these compounds is still too low due to the limited amount (25%) of redox active divalent Ni. And in another recent paper by Y. Shirley Meng and D. H. Lee, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2013, 15, 3304, P2-Na 2/3 [Ni 1/3 Mn 2/3 ]O 2  is reported to exhibit excellent cycling and a high rate capability, however these results are only achieved when the material is charged below 4.22V; above 4.22V, the charge capacity is not maintained during cycling due to the phase transformation from P2 to 02. 
         [0007]    In conclusion, the metal oxides that are discussed above are hampered by poor cycling stability, especially across a wide range of charge voltages. As a consequence, the commercial application of these compounds in Na-ion cells is limited. 
         [0008]    The current workers have developed novel compounds which are doped-nickelate-containing materials (hereafter referred to as Target Active Materials) that are capable of delivering specific capacity performance with little or no fading on cycling. Moreover ideally, the doped nickelate-containing materials of the present invention have been found to achieve these excellent results under voltage conditions that would typically result in the phase transformation from P2 to O2; this is a significant improvement over compounds described in the prior art. Thus the Target Active Materials of the present invention may be used to provide an electrode, preferably a positive electrode, which is able to be recharged multiple times without significant loss in charge capacity. In particular the Target Active Materials of the present invention will provide an energy storage device for example a battery for use in a sodium-ion cell or a sodium metal cell. 
         [0009]    The present invention therefore provides doped nickelate-containing materials (Target Active Materials) with the general formula: 
         [0000]      A a M v   1 M w   2 M x   3 M y   4 M z   5 O 2-δ         wherein   A comprises one or more alkali metals selected from sodium, lithium and potassium;   M 1  is nickel in oxidation state 2+,   M 2  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+,   M 3  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 2+,   M 4  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+, and   M 5  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 3+   wherein   0.4≦a&lt;0.9, preferably 0.5≦a&lt;0.85, further preferably 0.6≦a≦0.75,   0&lt;v&lt;0.5, preferably 0&lt;v≦0.45 and ideally 0&lt;v≦0.333,   at least one of w and y is &gt;0,   x&gt;0,   z≧0,   0≦δ≦0.1,   and wherein a, v, w, x, y and z are chosen to maintain electroneutrality.         
         [0025]    Preferably δ=0. 
         [0026]    Preferred doped nickelate-containing materials (Target Active Materials) are of the general formula: 
         [0000]      A a M v   1 M w   2 M x   3 M y   4 M z   5 O 2-δ         wherein   A comprises one or more alkali metals selected from sodium, lithium and potassium;   M 1  is nickel in oxidation state 2+,   M 2  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+,   M 3  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 2+,   M 4  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+, and   M 5  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 3+   wherein   0.55&lt;a&lt;0.85,   0.25&lt;v≦0.333,   at least one of w and y is &gt;0,   x&gt;0,   z≧0,   0≦δ≦0.1,   and wherein a, v, w, x, y and z are chosen to maintain electroneutrality.         
         [0042]    Preferably the alkali metal A is selected from either sodium or a mixed alkali metal in which sodium is the major constituent. 
         [0043]    In particularly preferred Target Active Materials, v+w+x+y+z=1. 
         [0044]    Preferred Target Active Materials include:
       Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2 ,   Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.0067 Ti 0.133 O 2 ,   Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.1 O 2 ,   Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2 ,   Na 0.7 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2      Na 0.6 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2      Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2      Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2      Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.100 O 2  and   Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Al 0.100 O 2 .       
 
         [0055]    Metals M 2  and M 4  may be the same or different metal(s) in oxidation state 4+. Moreover M 2  and M 4  are interchangeable with each other. When M 2 =M 4 , then the structure may be written either as: 
         [0000]      A a M V   1 M W   2 M X   3 M Y   4 M Z   5 O 2-δ , 
         [0000]      or 
         [0000]      A a M V   1 M W+Y   2 M X   3 M Z   5 O 2-δ , 
         [0000]      or 
         [0000]      A a M V   1 M X   3 M Y+W   4 M Z   5 O 2-δ , 
         [0000]    and all of these forms of the equation are to be regarded as equivalent. 
         [0056]    Preferably the doped nickelate-containing materials of the present invention (Target Active Materials) comprise sodium alone as the chosen alkali metal. 
         [0057]    Also, in further preferred doped nickelate-containing Target Active Materials, M 2  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+ selected from manganese, titanium and zirconium; M 3  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 2+ selected from magnesium, calcium, copper, zinc and cobalt; M 4  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 4+ selected from manganese, titanium and zirconium; and M 5  comprises one or more metals in oxidation state 3+ selected from aluminium, iron, cobalt, molybdenum, chromium, vanadium, scandium and yttrium. 
         [0058]    Target Active Materials comprising a layered P2-type structure are particularly advantageous. 
         [0059]    The Target Active Materials may be prepared by any known and/or convenient process. For example, one or more precursor materials for the Target Active Materials may be heated (for example in a furnace) in order to facilitate a solid state reaction process. Such a process may be conveniently performed in the presence of air, but it may also be performed under an inert atmosphere. Ideally, the one or more precursor materials for the Target Active Materials comprise one or more metals selected from A, M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , M 4  and M 5 , which are as defined above. Particularly preferably, these one or more metals are present in the precursor materials in a stoichiometric ratio that corresponds with the amounts of the respective one or more metals present in the Target Active Material. 
         [0060]    The doped nickelate-containing materials (Target Active Materials) of the present invention are suitable for use in many different applications including sodium ion and/or lithium ion and/or potassium ion cells which may be widely used for example in energy storage devices, such as batteries, rechargeable batteries, electrochemical devices and electrochromic devices. 
         [0061]    Advantageously, one or more Target Active Materials may be used in an electrode, preferably a positive electrode (cathode), and further preferably in conjunction with a counter electrode and one or more electrolyte materials. The electrolyte materials may be any conventional or known materials and may comprise either aqueous electrolyte(s) or non-aqueous electrolyte(s). 
         [0062]    It is also possible to convert sodium-ion derivatives into mixed lithium-ion/sodium-ion materials using an ion exchange process. 
         [0063]    Typical ways to achieve Na to Li-ion exchange include:
   1. Mixing the sodium-ion material with a lithium-containing material e.g. LiNO 3 , heating to above the melting point of LiNO 3  (264° C.), cooling and then washing to remove the excess LiNO 3  and side-reaction product   2. Treating the Na-ion material with an aqueous solution of lithium salts, for example 1M LiCl in water; and   3. Treating the Na-ion material with a non-aqueous solution of lithium salts, for example LiBr in one or more aliphatic alcohols such as hexanol, propanol etc.   
 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0067]    The present invention will now be described with reference to the following figures in which: 
           [0068]      FIG. 1(A)  is the XRD profile for the known compound P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  used in Example 1 (comparative example); 
           [0069]      FIG. 1(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  cell; 
           [0070]      FIG. 1(C)  shows the Constant current cycling (CC/CV) of full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.2V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaClO 4 , with propylene carbonate (PC) and glass fibre filter paper (Whatman Grade GF/A) used as a separator; 
           [0071]      FIG. 2(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2 , as made in Example 2; 
           [0072]      FIG. 2(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2  cell; 
           [0073]      FIG. 2(C)  shows the Constant current cycling (CC/CV) of full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.2V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaClO 4 , propylene carbonate (PC) and GF/A; 
           [0074]      FIG. 3(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2 , as made in Example 3; 
           [0075]      FIG. 3(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2  cell; 
           [0076]      FIG. 3(C)  shows the Constant current cycling (CC/CV) of full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.2V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaClO 4 , propylene carbonate (PC) and GF/A; 
           [0077]      FIG. 4(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2 , as made in Example 4; 
           [0078]      FIG. 4(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.83 O 2  cell 
           [0079]      FIG. 4(C)  shows the Constant current cycling (CC/CV) of full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.2V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaClO 4 , propylene carbonate (PC) and GF/A; 
           [0080]      FIG. 5(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.10 O 2 , as made in Example 5; 
           [0081]      FIG. 5(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.10 O 2  cell; 
           [0082]      FIG. 5(C)  shows the Constant current cycling (CC/CV) of full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.1 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.2V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaClO 4 , propylene carbonate (PC) and GF/A; 
           [0083]      FIG. 6(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.70 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2 , as made in Example 6; 
           [0084]      FIG. 6(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.70 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2  cell; 
           [0085]      FIG. 6(C)  shows the Constant current cycle life profile (cathode specific capacity for discharge versus cycle number) for a full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.70 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.3V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate; 
           [0086]      FIG. 7(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2 , as made in Example 7; 
           [0087]      FIG. 7(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.1 67O 2  cell; 
           [0088]      FIG. 7(C)  shows the Constant current cycle life profile (Cathode specific Capacity for Discharge versus cycle number) for a full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.3V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate; 
           [0089]      FIG. 8(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2 , as made in Example 8; 
           [0090]      FIG. 8(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.1 33O 2  cell; 
           [0091]      FIG. 8(C)  shows the Constant current cycle life profile (Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge versus cycle number) for a full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.24 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.3V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate; 
           [0092]      FIG. 9(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2 , as made in Example 9; 
           [0093]      FIG. 9(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.1 92O 2  cell; 
           [0094]      FIG. 9(C)  shows the Constant current cycle life profile (Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge versus cycle number) for a full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.3V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaPF 6 , in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate; 
           [0095]      FIG. 10(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.100 O 2 , as used in Example 10; 
           [0096]      FIG. 10(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.100 O 2  cell; 
           [0097]      FIG. 10(C)  shows the Constant current cycle life profile (Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge versus cycle number) for a full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and a Target Active Composition of the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn- 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.100 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.3V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaPF 6 , in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate; 
           [0098]      FIG. 11(A)  is the XRD profile for the P2-Target Active Material of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.03 Al 0.100 O 2 , as used in Example 11; 
           [0099]      FIG. 11(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.83 Al 0.100 O 2  cell; 
           [0100]      FIG. 11(C)  shows the Constant current cycle life profile (Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge versus cycle number) for a full Na-ion Cell comprising hard carbon (Carbotron P(J) Kureha) and a P2-Target Active Composition of the present invention with the formula: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Al 0.100 O 2  in the voltage range 1.0-4.3V at 30° C. in 0.5M NaPF 6 , in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0101]    Any convenient process may be used to make the Target Active Materials of the present invention and a convenient chemical reaction may use the following general method: 
       General Method: 
       [0000]    
       
         
           
             1) Intimately mix together the starting materials (i.e. the precursors for the Target Active Material) in the correct stoichiometric ratio for the particular Target Active Material, and press into a pellet; 
             2) Heat the resulting mixture in a furnace under a suitable atmosphere comprising for example ambient air, or an inert atmosphere (e.g. argon, nitrogen) (the gases may be flowing if desired), at a single temperature or over a range of temperatures between 400° C. and 1500° C. until reaction product forms; and optionally 
             3) Allow the product to cool before grinding it to a powder. 
           
         
       
     
         [0105]    Table 1 below lists the starting materials and heating conditions used to prepare a known (comparative) composition (Example 1) and the Target Active Materials of the present invention (Examples 2 to 11). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Example 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 No. 
               
               
                 (Sample 
                   
                   
                 Furnace 
               
               
                 No.) 
                 Target Composition 
                 Starting Materials 
                 Conditions 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 1 
                 P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2   
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1657) 
                 (Known material) 
                 0.333 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.667 MnO 2   
               
               
                 2 
                 P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2   
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1659) 
                 General formula: Na (2/3) Ni (1/3)−x Mn (2/3)−y Mg x Ti y O 2 , 
                 0.300 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                 where x = 1/30 and y = 1/15 
                 0.600 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.033 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.067 TiO 2   
               
               
                 3 
                 P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2   
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1663) 
                 General formula: Na (2/3) Ni (1/3)−x Mn (2/3)−y Mg x Ti y O 2 , 
                 0.267 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                 where x = 1/15 and y = 2/15 
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.067 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.133 TiO 2   
               
               
                 4 
                 P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2   
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1684) 
                 General formula: Na (2/3) Ni (1/3)−x Mn (2/3) Mg x O 2 , 
                 0.250 NiCO 3   
                 10 hours 
               
               
                   
                 where x = 1/12 
                 0.667 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.083 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                 5 
                 P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.1 O 2   
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1713) 
                 General formula: Na (2/3) Ni (1/3)−x Mn (2/3)−y Mg x Ti y O 2 , 
                 0.283 NiCO 3   
                 10 hours 
               
               
                   
                 where x = 1/20 and y = 1/10 
                 0.567 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.050 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.100 TiO 2   
               
               
                 6 
                 P2-Na 0.7 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2   
                 0.350 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1919) 
                   
                 0.240 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.110 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.117 TiO 2   
               
               
                 7 
                 P2-Na 0.6 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2   
                 0.300 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1921) 
                   
                 0.240 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.060 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.167 TiO 2   
               
               
                 8 
                 P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2   
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1922) 
                   
                 0.240 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.093 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.133 TiO 2   
               
               
                 9 
                 P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2   
                 0.275 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1923) 
                   
                 0.240 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.035 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.192 TiO 2   
               
               
                 10  
                 P2- 
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1926) 
                 Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.100 O 2   
                 0.240 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.043 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.083 TiO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.050 Fe 2 O 3   
               
               
                 11  
                 P2- 
                 0.333 Na 2 CO 3   
                 900° C., air, 
               
               
                 (X1927) 
                 Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Al 0.100 O 2   
                 0.240 NiCO 3   
                 8 hours 
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.533 MnO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.043 Mg(OH) 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.083 TiO 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                 0.100 Al(OH) 3   
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Product Analysis Using XRD 
       [0106]    Analysis by X-ray diffraction techniques was conducted using a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer to confirm that the desired target materials had been prepared, to establish the phase purity of the product material and to determine the types of impurities present. From this information it is possible to determine the lattice parameters of the unit cells. 
         [0107]    The general XRD operating conditions used to analyse the materials are as follows:
   Slits sizes: 1 mm, 1 mm, 0.1 mm   Range: 20=5°-60°   X-ray Wavelength=1.5418 Å (Angstroms) (Cu Kα)   Speed: 1.0 seconds/step   Increment: 0.025°   
 
       Electrochemical Results 
       [0113]    The target materials were tested using a Na-ion test cell using a hard carbon anode. Cells may be made using the following procedures: 
         [0114]    A Na-ion electrochemical test cell containing the active material is constructed as follows: 
       Generic Procedure to Make a Hard Carbon Na-Ion Cell 
       [0115]    The positive electrode is prepared by solvent-casting a slurry of the active material, conductive carbon, binder and solvent. The conductive carbon used is Super P (Timcal). PVdF is used as the binder, and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is employed as the solvent. The slurry is then cast onto aluminium foil and heated until most of the solvent evaporates and an electrode film is formed. The electrode is then dried under dynamic vacuum at about 120° C. The electrode film contains the following components, expressed in percent by weight: 88% active material, 6% Super P carbon, and 6% PVdF binder. 
         [0116]    The negative electrode is prepared by solvent-casting a slurry of the hard carbon active material (Carbotron P/J, supplied by Kureha), conductive carbon, binder and solvent. The conductive carbon used is Super P (Timcal). PVdF is used as the binder, and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is employed as the solvent. The slurry is then cast onto aluminium foil and heated until most of the solvent evaporates and an electrode film is formed. The electrode is then dried further under dynamic vacuum at about 120° C. The electrode film contains the following components, expressed in percent by weight: 89% active material, 2% Super P carbon, and 9% PVdF binder. 
       Cell Testing 
       [0117]    The cells are tested as follows, using Constant Current Cycling techniques. 
         [0118]    The cell is cycled at a given current density between pre-set voltage limits. A commercial battery cycler from Maccor Inc. (Tulsa, Okla., USA) is used. On charge, alkali ions are extracted from the cathode active material. During discharge, alkali ions are re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
       Discussion of the Results 
     Example 1: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2    
       [0119]      FIG. 1(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of the known material Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  (sample number X1657). The pattern shows that this material conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  1 (B)-(C): 
       [0120]    The data shown in  FIG. 1(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#311044) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaClO 4  in propylene carbonate (PC). The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.20 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.2 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0121]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0122]      FIG. 1(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is large indicating the relatively poor kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0123]      FIG. 1(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.67 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 127 mAh/g. For cycle 20 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 61 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 52% over 20 cycles or an average of 2.6% per cycle. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates relatively poor capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 2: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2    
       [0124]      FIG. 2(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.3 Mn 0.6 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2  (sample number X1659). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  2 (B)-(C): 
       [0125]    The data shown in  FIG. 2(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.30 Mn 0.60 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#311051) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaClO 4  in propylene carbonate (PC). The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.2 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.2 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0126]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0127]      FIG. 2(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.30 Mn 0.60 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small, indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions. In addition, the generally symmetrical nature of the charge/discharge voltage profile confirms the excellent reversibility of the extraction-insertion reactions. 
         [0128]      FIG. 2(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.30 Mn 0.60 Mg 0.033 Ti 0.067 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 117 mAh/g. For cycle 30 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 106 mAh/g. This represent a capacity fade of about 9.4% over 30 cycles or an average of 0.3% per cycle. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates excellent capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 3: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2    
       [0129]      FIG. 3(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2  (sample number X1663). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  3 (B)-(C): 
       [0130]    The data shown in  FIG. 3(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#311058) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaClO 4  in propylene carbonate (PC). The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.2 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.2 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0131]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0132]      FIG. 3(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small, indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions. In addition, the generally symmetrical nature of the charge/discharge voltage profile confirms the excellent reversibility of the extraction-insertion reactions. 
         [0133]      FIG. 3(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.267 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.067 Ti 0.133 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 105 mAh/g. For cycle 30 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 101 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 3.8% over 30 cycles or an average of 0.13% per cycle. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates excellent capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 4: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2    
       [0134]      FIG. 4(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2  (sample number X1684). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  4 (B)-(C): 
       [0135]    The data shown in  FIG. 4(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#312020) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaClO 4  in propylene carbonate (PC). The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.20 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.2 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0136]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0137]      FIG. 4(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small, indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions. In addition, the generally symmetrical nature of the charge/discharge voltage profile confirms the excellent reversibility of the extraction-insertion reactions. 
         [0138]      FIG. 4(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.25 Mn 0.667 Mg 0.083 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 96 mAh/g. For cycle 30 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 95 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 1.0% over 30 cycles or an average of 0.03% per cycle. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates excellent capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 5: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.1 O 2    
       [0139]      FIG. 5(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.1 O 2  (sample number X1713). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  5 (B)-(C): 
       [0140]    The data shown in  FIG. 5(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.10 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#401018) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaClO 4  in propylene carbonate (PC). The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.20 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.2 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0141]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0142]      FIG. 5(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.10 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small, indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions. In addition, the generally symmetrical nature of the charge/discharge voltage profile confirms the excellent reversibility of the extraction-insertion reactions. 
         [0143]      FIG. 5(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.283 Mn 0.567 Mg 0.05 Ti 0.10 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 97 mAh/g. For cycle 30 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 92 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 5.2% over 30 cycles or an average of 0.17% per cycle. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates excellent capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 6: P2-Na 0.7 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.1 100Ti 0.117 O 2    
       [0144]      FIG. 6(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.7 Ni 0.24 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2  (sample number X1919). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  6 (B)-(C). 
       [0145]    The data shown in  FIG. 6(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.70 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#410001) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.30 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.3 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0146]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0147]      FIG. 6(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.70 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0148]      FIG. 6(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.70 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.110 Ti 0.117 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 108 mAh/g. For cycle 6 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 108 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 0% over 4 cycles. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates excellent capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 7: P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2    
       [0149]      FIG. 7(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.6 Ni 0.24 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2  (sample number X1921). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  7 (B)-(C). 
       [0150]    The data shown in  FIG. 7(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#410003) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.30 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.3 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0151]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0152]      FIG. 7(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0153]      FIG. 7(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.60 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.060 Ti 0.167 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 94 mAh/g. For cycle 7 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 91 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 3% over 7 cycles. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates good capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 8: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2    
       [0154]      FIG. 8(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2  (sample number X1922). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  8 (B)-(C). 
       [0155]    The data shown in  FIG. 8(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#410004) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.30 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.3 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0156]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0157]      FIG. 8(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small confirming the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0158]      FIG. 8(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.093 Ti 0.133 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 100 mAh/g. For cycle 5 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 99 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 1% over 5 cycles. The cathode material under test clearly demonstrates excellent capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 9: P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2    
       [0159]      FIG. 9(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2  (sample number X1923). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  9 (B)-(C). 
       [0160]    The data shown in  FIG. 9(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#410005) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.30 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.3 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0161]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0162]      FIG. 9(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0163]      FIG. 9(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.55 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.035 Ti 0.192 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 93 mAh/g. For cycle 4 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 89 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 4% over 4 cycles. The cathode material under test demonstrates reasonable capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 10: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.1 O 2    
       [0164]      FIG. 10(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.1 O 2  (sample number X1926). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  10 (B)-(C). 
       [0165]    The data shown in  FIG. 10(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.1 O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#410006) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.30 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.3 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0166]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0167]      FIG. 10(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.1 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0168]      FIG. 10(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Fe 0.1 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 101 mAh/g. For cycle 3 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 97 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 4% over 3 cycles. The cathode material under test demonstrates reasonable capacity retention behaviour. 
       Example 11: P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 A 0.1 O 2    
       [0169]      FIG. 11(A)  shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Al 0.1 O 2  (sample number X1927). The pattern shows that the sample conforms to a layered P2-type structure. 
       Referring to FIG.  11 (B)-(C). 
       [0170]    The data shown in  FIG. 11(B) -(C) are derived from the constant current cycling data for a P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.83 Al 0.1  O 2  cathode active material in a Na-ion cell (Cell#410007) where this cathode material was coupled with a Hard Carbon (Carbotron P(J)) anode material. The electrolyte used was a 0.5 M solution of NaPF 6  in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/propylene carbonate. The constant current data were collected at an approximate current density of 0.2 mA/cm 2  between voltage limits of 1.00 and 4.30 V. To ensure that the Na-ion cell was fully charged, the cell was potentiostatically held at 4.3 V at the end of the constant current charging process until the current density dropped to 10% of the constant current value. The testing was carried out at 30° C. 
         [0171]    During the cell charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode active material, and inserted into the Hard Carbon anode. During the subsequent discharge process, sodium ions are extracted from the Hard Carbon and re-inserted into the cathode active material. 
         [0172]      FIG. 11(B)  shows the cell voltage profile (i.e. Na-ion Cell Voltage [V] versus Cumulative Cathode Specific Capacity [mAh/g]) for the first 4 charge/discharge cycles of the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Al 0.1 O 2  cell. These data demonstrate that the level of voltage hysteresis (i.e. the voltage difference between the charge and discharge processes) is small indicating the excellent kinetic reversibility of the Na-ion extraction-insertion reactions in this cathode material. 
         [0173]      FIG. 11(C)  shows the constant current cycle life profile, i.e. the relationship between Cathode Specific Capacity for Discharge [mAh/g] and cycle number for the Hard Carbon//P2-Na 0.67 Ni 0.240 Mn 0.533 Mg 0.043 Ti 0.083 Al 0.1 O 2  cell. For cycle 1 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 101 mAh/g. For cycle 3 the discharge specific capacity for the cathode is about 97 mAh/g. This represents a capacity fade of about 4% over 3 cycles. The cathode material under test demonstrates reasonable capacity retention behaviour.