Abstract:
A process for generating aqueous chlorine dioxide solutions includes adding a solid phase alkali metal chlorite, a solid phase acid, and a solid phase oxidizing agent to an aqueous solution, wherein the solid phase acid ahs a pKa less than 4. Also disclosed are compositions for producing chlorine dioxide solutions.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/665,020 filed on Mar. 24, 2005, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     This disclosure generally relates to methods for generating aqueous chlorine dioxide solutions. More particularly, the disclosure relates to batch production of chlorine dioxide solutions by adding a solid phase alkali metal chlorite, a solid phase acid, and a solid phase oxidizing agent to an aqueous solution. 
     With the decline of gaseous chlorine as a microbiocide, various alternatives have been explored, including bleach, bleach with bromide, bromo-chlorodimethyl hydantoin, ozone, and chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ). Of these, chlorine dioxide has generated a great deal of interest for control of microbiological growth in a number of different industries, including the dairy industry, the beverage industry, the pulp and paper industries, the fruit and vegetable processing industries, various canning plants, the poultry industry, the beef processing industry and miscellaneous other food processing applications. Chlorine dioxide is also seeing increased use in municipal potable water treatment facilities and in industrial waste treatment facilities, because of its selectivity towards specific environmentally-objectionable waste materials, including phenols, sulfides, cyanides, thiosulfates, and mercaptans. In addition, chlorine dioxide is being used in the oil and gas industry for downhole applications as a well stimulation enhancement additive. 
     Unlike chlorine, chlorine dioxide remains a gas when dissolved in aqueous solutions and does not ionize to form weak acids. This property is at least partly responsible for the biocidal effectiveness of chlorine dioxide over a wide pH range. Moreover, chlorine dioxide is a highly effective microbiocide at concentrations as low as 0.1 parts per million (ppm) over a wide pH range. 
     The biocidal activity of chlorine dioxide is believed to be due to its ability to penetrate bacterial cell walls and react with essential amino acids within the cell cytoplasm to disrupt cell metabolism. This mechanism is more efficient than other oxidizers that “burn” on contact and is highly effective against legionella, algae and amoebal cysts, giardia cysts, coliforms, salmonella, shigella, and cryptosporidium. 
     Unfortunately, chlorine dioxide in solution is unstable with an extremely short shelf life and thus, is not commercially available. Chlorine dioxide solutions must typically be generated at its point of use such as, for example, by a reaction between a metal chlorate or metal chlorite in aqueous solution and a liquid phase strong acid. However, the use of liquid phase strong acids poses handling issues and safety concerns. In view of this, it would be desirable to develop point of use systems that do not employ liquid acids. 
     Electrochemical processes provide a means for continuously generating chlorine dioxide for point of use applications. One difficulty with electrochemical processes is that it can be difficult to control the generation of undesirable species. Moreover, the electrochemical processes generally require a power source and an electrochemical apparatus, which can be relatively expensive, can require a large footprint, and can require plumbing configurations with the source to be treated with the chlorine dioxide. 
     Chlorine dioxide has also been continuously produced from a chlorine dioxide precursor solution by contacting the precursor solution with a catalyst (e.g., catalysts containing a metal such as described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 5,008,096) in the absence of an electrical field or electrochemical cell. However, it has been found that the support materials for the catalytic sites tend to quickly degrade due to the oxidizing nature of chlorine dioxide. Moreover, the continuous processes are not effective for batch production. 
     Accordingly, there is a need for an economical batch process and composition for generating chlorine dioxide that does not pose safety concerns. 
     SUMMARY 
     Disclosed herein are methods and compositions for producing chlorine dioxide solutions and compositions thereof. In one embodiment, a batch process for generating an aqueous solution of chlorine dioxide comprises adding a solid phase alkali metal chlorite salt, a solid phase oxidizing agent and a solid phase acid to an aqueous solution, wherein the solid phase acid has a pKa of less than 4.0; and generating chlorine dioxide in the aqueous solution. 
     A point of use process for producing a chlorine dioxide solution comprises adding a solid phase alkali metal chlorite salt, a solid phase oxidizing agent consisting of dichlorocyanurate, and a solid phase acid to an aqueous solution, wherein the solid phase acid has a pKa of less than 4; and generating chlorine dioxide in the solution, wherein the chlorine dioxide solution has a concentration that remains substantially the same after a period of 90 days. 
     In another embodiment, a process for generating chlorine dioxide in solution comprises adding a first solid phase material consisting essentially of an acid and a second solid phase material consisting essentially of a mixture of an alkali metal chlorite and an alkali metal hypochlorite to an aqueous solution; and dissolving the first and second solid phase materials and generating chlorine dioxide in the aqueous solution. 
     The above described and other features are exemplified by the following FIGURE and detailed description. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Referring now to the FIGURE, which are exemplary embodiments, and wherein the like elements are numbered alike: 
       The FIGURE graphically illustrates chlorine dioxide concentration as a function of storage time. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Mixing a solid phase alkali metal chlorite salt, a solid phase acid and a solid phase oxidizing agent in an aqueous solution can be used to produce aqueous batch solutions of chlorine dioxide. In some embodiments, a second salt may also be added to the mixture. In still other embodiments, a catalyst can be added to the mixture. In another embodiment, two solid phase materials are combined in an aqueous solution to produce chlorine dioxide. The first solid phase material consisting essentially of an acid. The second solid phase material consisting essentially of a mixture of an alkali metal chlorite and an alkali metal hypochlorite. Preferably, the solid phase materials are substantially non-reactive when in contact with each other while in the solid phase. In some embodiments, the solid phase chlorite salt and solid phase oxidizing agent can be mixed to form one powder prior to addition to an aqueous solution. 
     In the first embodiment, the solid phase chlorite material is a water-soluble alkali metal chlorite compound. Suitable alkali metals include sodium, potassium, lithium, and the like, with preference given to sodium salt considering its commercial availability. Suitable commercially available chlorite solutions may contain byproducts from the manufacturing process as well as include stabilizing agents for shipping and storage purposes, the selection of which will depend on the intended application. For example, some commercially available alkali metal chlorite solutions may contain small percentages of chlorates, chlorides, hydrogen peroxide, water, hydroxide ions, and the like. Depending on the application, certain governmental regulatory requirements may dictate the maximum allowable limits for these byproducts or agents since commercially available chlorites solutions are not approved for all applications. For example, drinking water applications generally have maximum allowable limits that are substantially lower than, for example, applications related to the pulp and paper industry. 
     During operation, the solid phase alkali metal chlorite material is diluted by the system. The term “dilute” refers to aqueous alkali metal halite solutions containing less than about 50,000 milligrams alkali metal halite per liter of solution (mg/L). 
     The solid phase acid can be organic or inorganic and is selected to have an acid ionization constant (pKa) less than 4.0. The negative log of the acid ionization constant (pKa) is defined as the ability of an ionizable group of an organic compound to donate a proton (H + ) in an aqueous media. The computed quantity is a measure of its apparent pKa, or macroscopic dissociation constant, at equilibrium, normally taken at 25° C. Preferably, the solid phase organic or inorganic acid has a pKa and is added in an amount effective to adjust the pH of the solution from about 1 to about 3. 
     Suitable solid phase organic or inorganic acids include, but are not limited to, amidosulfonic acids, aspartic acids, sodium hydrogen sulfate, sodium hydrogen phosphate, potassium hydrogen phthalate, bromoacetic, chloroacetic, citric, glutamic, maleic, malic, oxalic, succinic, sulfamic, sulfuric, tartaric, and the like. Other suitable solid phase acids will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of this disclosure. The use of solid phase acids, compared to liquids, provide better handling capabilities. 
     An oxidizing agent is generally defined as a substance that gives up oxygen easily, removes hydrogen from another substance, or attracts electrons. Suitable solid phase oxidizing agents include, but are not limited to, perborates, peroxides, persulfates, peroxydisulfates, permanganate, trichloroisocyanurates, dichloroisocynaurate hypochlorites, hydantoins, perchlorates, chlorates, nitrates, dichromate, and the like. Specific examples that are commercially available include trichloro-s-triazinetrione, trichloro isocyanuric acid, calcium hypochlorite, sodium dichloroisocyanuric acid, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, dichloroisocyanuric acid, sodium/potassium dichromate, sodium/potassium persulfate, sodium/potassium perborate, sodium/potassium perchlorate, sodium/potassium permanganate, among others. Other suitable solid phase oxidizing agents will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of this disclosure. Where appropriate, the solid phase oxidizing agent can exist in either anhydrous or hydrated forms. Advantageously, compared to liquids, solid phase oxidizing agent materials are relatively safe, are less corrosive, and provide better handling capabilities. 
     The solid phase oxidizing agents and solid phase acids can be of any size, shape, and geometry as may be desired for a given application including, but not limited to, tablets, pellets, rods, or granules having spherical, cylindrical, or other various polygonal shapes. In addition, regulatory requirements should be taken into consideration when selecting suitable commercial sources since different applications will be governed by different requirements. 
     In some embodiments, the addition of a soluble salt (in the solid phase) to the solution can advantageously be used to generate an acid in situ and react with the water-soluble chlorite. A salt is the substance formed between the anion of an acid and the cation of a base. An example is sodium chloride (NaCl). When NaCl is added to sodium bisulfate (NaHSO 4 ), a reaction occurs which produces sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) as shown below. HCl is a strong acid that is known to react very efficiently with water-soluble chlorite.
 
NaCl+NaHSO 4 →Na 2 SO 4 +HCl
 
     After mixing the various components, the solution is allowed to rest for a period of time effective to generate a desired amount of chlorine dioxide. In addition the particular reactants employed, the amount of time is generally dependent on the temperature of the solution. The time period decreases with increasing solution temperatures. 
     Optionally, the time period can also be shortened by aid of a ‘carrier free’ or ‘supported’ catalyst. The types of acid and oxidizing chemicals used will determine the type of catalyst required. Examples of such catalyst include, but not limited to, the metals, oxides, and salts of the transition-metal (elements found between the Group IIA Elements and the Group IIB Elements in the periodic table), valve-metal (selected from the group consisting of titanium, tantalum, niobium, and alloys thereof), and precious-metal (selected from the group consisting of gold, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium, and ruthenium) groups, elements found in Group VIIA Elements in the periodic table (chloride, bromide, fluoride and iodide ions), or a mixture thereof. They may also be present in their ionic form. 
     The prepared chlorine dioxide solution is then diluted to a concentration from about 0.01 to 25 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of total available chlorine dioxide prior to use. The method for dilution is dependent on the volume of the prepared chlorine dioxide solution. Small volumes can be carefully diluted manually. Some methods for diluting large volumes include, but not limited to, the use of an eductor, water driven pump, metering pump or the like. 
     In another embodiment, the process comprises mixing two solid phase materials that when combined in an aqueous solution will generate a chlorine dioxide solution. It is generally desirable to have both solid material with State and Federal registrations and approvals. Solid phase forms are preferred such that accidental mixing of the two materials will not immediately generate chlorine dioxide at hazardous levels. 
     The first solid phase material is any acid that is regarded as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) acid in that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The second solid phase material consists of a mixture of alkali metal chlorite and alkali metal hypochlorite. Preferred alkali metal chlorites are sodium or potassium chlorite. A preferred alkali metal hypochlorite is sodium hypochlorite. 
     Preferred metal chlorite is sodium chlorite solid which is readily available. Preferred metal hypochlorite is sodium hypochlorite, which is only available in liquid form. Calcium hypochlorite is available in solid form, but is not desirable due to its ability to form a calcium salt precipitate as a reaction byproduct. 
     In order to use sodium hypochlorite, it must be put into a solid form. This can be accomplished by using an inert material desiccant or drying agent. Preferred desiccants include, but not limited to, inert and hydroscopic salts, such as sodium sulfate or potassium chloride. Other suitable supports include, but are not limited to, carboxymethyl cellulose, methylcellulose, lactose, dextrose, and the like. 
     This disclosure is further illustrated by the following non-limiting examples. 
     In these examples, which are directed towards the batch production of chlorine dioxide, a properly calibrated Direct Reading Spectrophotometer, Model No. DR/2010, was used to measure the chlorine dioxide concentration (mg/L) in the effluent using Hach Company Method 8138. For calibration, a pure chlorine dioxide solution was prepared and titrated according to Iodometric Method 4500-ClO 2  in Standard Methods for the Examinations of Water and Wastewater 20 th  edition 1998. Before the spectrophotometer was calibrated for ClO 2  readings, the U.V. lamp was replaced and the wavelength calibrated according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions for calibrating wavelength on 2010 series meters. Using the pure chlorine dioxide solution obtained from method 4500-ClO 2 , the spectrophotometer was then given a calibration factor where it deviated from the titrated ClO 2  concentration. 
     Measurement of the yield provided a standard for evaluating actual performance of the process/system and was determined in accordance with the following mathematical relationship: 
               %   ⁢           ⁢   Yield     =       actual   theoretical     ×   100           
wherein the actual yield was obtained from the amount of chlorine dioxide generated, and wherein the theoretical yield was calculated by the amount of chlorine dioxide that could be generated from the concentration of the sodium chlorite in the starting solution. The theoretical yield was calculated using the following mathematical relationship:
 
               %   ⁢           ⁢   TheoreticalYield     =         [     ClO   2     ]     product           [     X   Y     ]     ⁡     [     NaClO   2     ]       feed             
wherein the X is the number of moles of chlorine dioxide produced and Y is the number of moles of chlorite ions required to produce X moles of chlorine dioxide based on the stoichiometry of the particular reaction.
 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     In this example, various solid phase acids were reacted with an aqueous sodium chlorite solution without the solid phase oxidizer. The protocol consisted of the following: 0.45 grams of sodium chlorite (technical grade) was added to a 500 mL amber bottle containing 450 mL of deionized water at 16° C. The solid acid, at a 1 to 1 molar ratio of hydrogen ion to sodium chlorite, was added to the amber bottle (already containing the sodium chlorite) after 5 minutes. The bottle was securely capped and placed in a room at 16° C. The bottle was agitated gently prior to each concentration and pH measurement at the 1, 2, and 24 hours. The acids evaluated are listed in Table 1. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Acid Type 
                 Formula 
                 MW 
                 (rxn) pKa @ 25° C. 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                 H 3 NSO 3   
                 97.10 
                 0.996 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 C 2 H 2 O 4   
                 90.04 
                 (1) 1.23, (2) 4.19 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 C 2 H 3 BrO 2   
                 138.95 
                 2.69 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 C 2 H 3 ClO 2   
                 94.50 
                 2.85 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 C 4 H 4 O 4   
                 116.07 
                 (1) 1.83, (2) 6.07 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 C 6 H 8 O 7   
                 192.13 
                 (1) 3.14, (2) 4.77, (3) 6.39 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The expected reaction stoichiometry of the sodium chlorite and the acids is:
 
5NaClO 2 +4H + →4ClO 2 +NaCl+Na + +2H 2 O
 
     Table 2 displays the results of the reaction of sodium chlorite with the acids after 1, 2 and 24 hours: 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 1 hr 
                 Yield - 2 hrs 
                 Yield - 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Acid Type 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                 34.4 
                 34.7 
                 39.8 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 39.8 
                 40.1 
                 46.2 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 56.7 
                 78.1 
                 81.5 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 39.1 
                 40.1 
                 45.2 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 42.5 
                 42.8 
                 50.4 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 14.1 
                 23.1 
                 38.3 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The stoichiometry of equation above (5 ClO 2   − →4ClO 2 ) shows that 20% of the chlorite ions do not produce ClO 2 , indicating that when all of the chlorite ions are consumed, only 80% is converted to ClO 2 : 
               %   ⁢           ⁢   Yield     =         [     ClO   2     ]         (     4   5     )     ⁡     [     NaClO   2     ]         ×   100           
A high conversion efficiency does not result is a high yield. Typically, high concentrations of sodium chlorite and necessarily excess acid are required for high ClO 2  conversion and purity.
 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     In this example, various solid phase oxidizer solid phase acids were reacted with an aqueous sodium chlorite solution without the solid phase acids. The protocol consisted of the following; 0.45 grams of sodium chlorite (technical grade) was added to a 500 mL amber bottle containing 450 mL of deionized water at 16° C. The oxidizer, at a 1 to 1 molar ratio of the sodium chlorite, was added to the amber bottle (already containing the sodium chlorite) after 5 minutes. The bottle was securely capped and placed in a room a 16° C. The bottle was agitated gently prior to each concentration and pH measurement at the 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 hours. The sold phase oxidizing agents evaluated are listed in Table 3. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Oxidizing Chemical Name 
                 Formula 
                 MW 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate 
                 C 3 Cl 2 N 3 NaO 3   
                 219.95 
               
               
                   
                 Trichloroisocyanuric Acid 
                 C 3 N 3 O 3 Cl 3   
                 232.41 
               
               
                   
                 Calcium Hypochlorite 
                 CaCl 2 O 2   
                 142.99 
               
               
                   
                 1,3-Dichloro-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
                 (CH) 3 N 2 O 2 Cl 2   
                 197.02 
               
               
                   
                 1,3-Dibromo-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
                 (CH) 3 N 2 O 2 Br 2   
                 285.93 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Table 4 displays the reaction of sodium chlorite with the oxidizer after 1, 2, and 24 hours: 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
               
               
                   
                 1 hr 
                 2 hrs 
                 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Oxidizer Type 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate 
                 18.1 
                 55.6 
                 65.0 
               
               
                 Trichloroisocyanuric Acid 
                 52.6 
                 74.8 
                 79.5 
               
               
                 Calcium Hypochlorite 
                  0.8 
                  0.8 
                  0.8 
               
               
                 1,3-Dichloro-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
                 11.8 
                 24.4 
                 74.6 
               
               
                 1,3-Dibromo-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
                 16.6 
                 34.0 
                 65.4 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The yield % was calculated assuming a stoichiometry of equation of 1 to 1 (5 ClO 2   − →5 ClO 2 ), indicating that 100% of the chlorite ions can be converted to ClO 2 : 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               Yield 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     ClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     NaClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     As shown in Table 4, the solution containing the calcium hypochlorite did not generate any significant quantity chlorine dioxide (less than 1% yield) and its pH was extremely high at a value of 11. The chlorine dioxide reaction rate, yield and purity are strongly dependent on the reaction medium pH (and pKa of the solid phase acid). Some oxidizers may contain stabilizing agents that increase the alkalinity (e.g., hydroxyl, bicarbonate, and/or carbonate ions). For example, calcium hypochlorite is typically shipped as 3Ca(OCl) 2 2Ca(OH) 2 3H 2 O, where Ca(OH) 2  is calcium hydroxide. Ca(OH) 2  must be neutralized with acid in order to lower the pH to optimum conditions. Thus, the yield is expected to increase with increasing solution pH. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     The protocol consisted of the following; 0.45 grams of sodium chlorite (technical grade) was added to a 500 mL amber bottle containing 450 mL of deionized water at 16° C. The oxidizer and acid were added, in amounts that corresponded to the stoichiometry of the corresponding reaction, to the amber bottle (already containing the sodium chlorite) after 5 minutes. The bottle was securely capped and placed in a room a 16° C. The bottle was agitated gently prior to each concentration and pH measurement at the 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 hours. All of the oxidizers were evaluated with each of the acids; amidosulfonic, oxalic, bromoacetic, chloroacetic, maleic, and citric acids. Table 5 shows the oxidizer and chemical reactions evaluated. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Oxidizer/Reaction 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate 
               
               
                   
                 4 NaClO 2  + C 3 Cl 2 N 3 NaO 3  + 2 H +  → 
               
               
                   
                 4 ClO 2  + 2 NaCl + 2 Na +  + C 3 N 3 O 3 NaH 2   
               
               
                   
                 Trichloroisocyanuric Acid 
               
               
                   
                 6 NaClO 2  + C 3 N 3 O 3 Cl 3  + 3 H +  → 
               
               
                   
                 6 ClO 2  + 3 Na +  + 3 NaCl + C 3 N 3 O 3 H 3   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium Hypochlorite 
               
               
                   
                 4 NaClO 2  + CaCl 2 O 2  + 4 H +  → 
               
               
                   
                 4 ClO 2  + 4 Na +  + 2 CaCl 2  + 2 H 2 O 
               
               
                   
                 1,3-Dichloro-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
               
               
                   
                 4 NaClO 2  + (CH) 3 N 2 O 2 Br 2  + 2 H +  → 
               
               
                   
                 4 ClO 2  + 2 Na +  + 2 NaBr + (CH) 3 N 2 O 2 H 2   
               
               
                   
                 1,3-Dibromo-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
               
               
                   
                 4 NaClO 2  + (CH) 3 N 2 O 2 Cl 2  + 2 H +  → 
               
               
                   
                 4 ClO 2  + 2 NaCl + 2 Na +  + (CH) 3 N 2 O 2 H 2   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Tables 6 to 10 show the results of the reaction of sodium chlorite with the acid and oxidizer after 1, 2, and 24 hours: 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sodium 
                 Yield - 1 hr 
                 Yield - 2 hrs 
                 Yield - 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Dichloroisocyanurate 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                  5.4 
                 9.7 
                 28.5 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 83.0 
                 100.0 
                 99.9 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 32.6 
                 61.5 
                 88.1 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 31.5 
                 66.6 
                 98.5 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 98.5 
                 100.0 
                 97.8 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 32.2 
                 57.9 
                 78.7 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Trichloroisocyanuric 
                 Yield - 1 hr 
                 Yield - 2 hrs 
                 Yield - 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Acid 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                  6.5 
                 12.4 
                 42.2 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 33.8 
                 39.4 
                 75.0 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 30.3 
                 37.1 
                 77.0 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 20.7 
                 27.5 
                 66.0 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 11.1 
                 19.3 
                 68.3 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 21.1 
                 29.1 
                 60.7 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 1 hr 
                 Yield - 2 hrs 
                 Yield - 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Calcium Hypochlorite 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                  6.4 
                 11.8 
                 31.1 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 * 
                 * 
                 * 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 60.9 
                 61.3 
                 61.9 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 53.6 
                 55.8 
                 56.6 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 35.0 
                 35.6 
                 41.9 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 53.0 
                 55.8 
                 62.4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 * Solution was too cloudy to obtain an accurate reading 
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
               
               
                   
                 1 hr 
                 2 hrs 
                 24 hrs 
               
               
                 1,3-Dichloro-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                  5.8 
                 10.7 
                 39.5 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 33.2 
                 36.4 
                 51.5 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 23.8 
                 29.3 
                 72.5 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 18.7 
                 25.2 
                 40.9 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 16.9 
                 19.7 
                 51.3 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 24.6 
                 29.3 
                 47.0 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
               
               
                   
                 1 hr 
                 2 hrs 
                 24 hrs 
               
               
                 1,3-Dibromo-5,5-Dimethylhydantoin 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Amidosulfonic Acid 
                 88.5 
                 95.0 
                 94.3 
               
               
                 Oxalic Acid 
                 99.9 
                 97.8 
                 91.1 
               
               
                 Bromoacetic Acid 
                 83.0 
                 99.9 
                 99.9 
               
               
                 Chloroacetic Acid 
                 66.8 
                 99.9 
                 99.9 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid 
                 39.1 
                 60.7 
                 89.3 
               
               
                 Citric Acid 
                 71.7 
                 99.9 
                 99.9 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The yield % was calculated according to the stoichiometry of the respective equation in Table 5: 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               Yield 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     ClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     NaClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     The highest performance was seen with the halogenated acids. 
     EXAMPLE 4 
     The protocol consisted of the following: The acid and salt were added to a 500 mL amber bottle containing 450 mL of deionized water at 16° C. 0.45 grams of sodium chlorite (technical grade) was added to the amber bottle (already containing the acid and salt) after 5 minutes. The bottle was securely capped and placed in a room a 16° C. The bottle was agitated gently prior to each concentration and pH measurement at the 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 hours. Sodium hydrogen sulfate and potassium hydrogen sulfate were selected as the acids. They were evaluated with sodium chloride as the salt source. The amount of acid and salt added was added, based on the stoichiometry of the reaction, such that the ratio of sodium chlorite and hydrochloric acid produced was approximately 1:1. Table 11 shows the acids and chemical reactions evaluated. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Acid and Salt/Reaction 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate 
               
               
                   
                 4 NaHSO 4  + 4 NaCl → 4 HCl + 4 Na 2 SO 4   
               
               
                   
                 5 NaClO 2  + 4 HCl → 4 ClO 2  + 5 NaCl + 2 H 2 O 
               
               
                   
                 Potassium Hydrogen Sulfate 
               
               
                   
                 4 KHSO 4  + 4 NaCl → 4 HCl + 2 K 2 SO 4  + 2 Na 2 SO 4   
               
               
                   
                 5 NaClO 2  + 4 HCl → 4 ClO 2  + 5 NaCl + 2 H 2 O 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Tables 12 show the results of the reaction of sodium chlorite with the acid and salt after 1, 2, and 24 hours: 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 
                 Yield - 
                   
               
               
                   
                 1 hr 
                 2 hrs 
                 Yield - 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Acid 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate 
                 1.3 
                 3.1 
                 22.7 
               
               
                 Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate w/NaCl 
                 2.1 
                 5.1 
                 36.6 
               
               
                 Potassium Hydrogen Sulfate 
                 4.4 
                 6.3 
                 23.8 
               
               
                 Potassium Hydrogen Sulfate w/NaCl 
                 7.3 
                 10.5 
                 39.7 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The yield % was calculated according to the stoichiometry of the respective equation in Table 11: 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               Yield 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     ClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     NaClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     The reactants in the first reaction in Table 11 will produce hydrochloric acid (HCl). The production of HCl is relatively fast and it typically takes less than 20 seconds at 20° C. The HCl reacts with the NaClO 2  following the second reaction in Table 11. The addition of sodium chloride showed a conversion increase of approximately 60%. Because this is the typical chlorite/hydrochloric acid system, an excess of HCl, such as 3:1 HCl to NaClO 2 , may be required to achieve high conversion and purity. This will convert NaClO 2  to ClO 2  in a strong HCl medium (acidic disproportionation). 
     EXAMPLE 5 
     The protocol consisted of the following; 0.45 grams of sodium chlorite (technical grade) was added to a 500 mL amber bottle containing 450 mL of deionized water at 16° C. The oxidizer and catalyst, in the form of silver sulfate, were added to the amber bottle (already containing the sodium chlorite) after 5 minutes. The bottle was securely capped and placed in a room a 16° C. The bottle was agitated gently prior to each concentration and pH measurement at the 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 hours. Sodium peroxydisulfate, and potassium peroxydisulfate were selected as the oxidizers. They were evaluated with silver (Ag), in the form of silver sulfate, as the transition-metal catalyst in its ionic form. The amount of oxidizer added corresponded to the stoichiometry of the reaction (2:1 ratio sodium chlorite to oxidizer) and the amount of Ag catalyst was at a 1:1265 molar ratio with respect to sodium chlorite. Table 13 shows the chemical reactions evaluated. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Oxidizer and Catalyst/Reaction 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Sodium Peroxydisulfate (w/Ag as a catalyst in its ionic form) 
               
               
                   
                 2 NaClO 2  + Na 2 S 2 O 8  → 2 ClO 2  + 2 Na 2 SO 4   
               
               
                   
                 Potassium Peroxydisulfate (w/Ag as a catalyst in its ionic form) 
               
               
                   
                 2 NaClO 2  + K 2 S 2 O 8  → 2 ClO 2  + 2 K 2 SO 4   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Table 14 displays the reaction of sodium chlorite with the oxidizer and Ag catalyst after 1, 2, and 24 hours: 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 14 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Yield - 1 hr 
                 Yield - 2 hrs 
                 Yield - 24 hrs 
               
               
                 Oxidizer Type 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Sodium Peroxydisulfate 
                 3.6 
                 6.0 
                 13.8 
               
               
                 Sodium Peroxydisulfate 
                 3.8 
                 6.5 
                 20.9 
               
               
                 Silver Sulfate 
               
               
                 Potassium Peroxydisulfate 
                 2.0 
                 4.8 
                 16.2 
               
               
                 Potassium Peroxydisulfate 
                 2.0 
                 5.1 
                 21.3 
               
               
                 Silver Sulfate 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The yield % was calculated according to the stoichiometry of the respective equation in Table 13: 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               Yield 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     ClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     NaClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     Although positive, the effect of the Ag catalyst was minimal, approximately 6%. The amount of Ag added was limited by its solubility as a chloride compound. The technical grade sodium chlorite contains of 20% sodium chloride. The solubility of silver chloride (AgCl) is approximely 2 mg/L at 15° C. Therefore, when using a catalyst in its ionic form, its solubility as various compounds must be considered. 
     The selection of the catalyst may not only be beneficial to the reaction, but also to the potency of the product. As known, chlorine dioxide is a superior disinfectant. Silver ions in a chlorine dioxide solution may provide good benefit with respect to disinfection. Silver ions bond to various parts of the cell, such as the DNA and RNA, cellular proteins, and respiratory enzymes, causing all life support systems in the cell to be immobilized. As a result, there is no more cellular growth or cell division, causing bacteria to no longer multiply and eventually die out. The ions remain active until a microorganism absorbs them. It was for this reason why silver was selected as the catalyst. It must be noted that the maximum permissible concentration of chlorine dioxide ands silver for disinfection of potable water is 0.8 and 0.1 mg/L. 
     EXAMPLE 6 
     The protocol consisted of the following; 0.45 grams of sodium chlorite (technical grade) was added to a 500 mL amber bottle containing 450 mL of deionized water at 16° C. Citric acid was selected as the acid, sodium dichloroisocyanurate as the oxidizer and chloride ion, in the form of sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride (KCl), as the catalyst. The oxidizer, acid, and catalyst were added to the amber bottle (already containing the sodium chlorite) after 5 minutes. The amount acid and oxidizer added of each bottle was 17.51 grams and 77 milligrams, respectively. A total of three solutions were prepared; one containing 5.34 grams of NaCl, the second with 6.81 grams of KCl, and the last with no addition (used as the reference). The bottle was securely capped and placed in a room a 16° C. The bottle was agitated gently prior to the concentration and pH measurement at 1 hour. Table 15 shows the results of the experiment. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 15 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Acid, Oxidizer, and Catalyst 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Added to Sodium Chlorite 
                 Yield - 1 hr (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Citric Acid 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate 
                 36.8 
               
               
                   
                 Citric Acid 
               
               
                   
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate 
                 92.1 
               
               
                   
                 Sodium Chloride 
               
               
                   
                 Citric Acid 
               
               
                   
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate 
                 90.5 
               
               
                   
                 Potassium Chloride 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The amount of sodium dichloroisocyanurate added was only 35% of the stoichiometric amount in the first equation in Table 5. This reaction has a stoichiometry of 1 to 1 (5 ClO 2   − →5 ClO 2 ), indicating that 100% of the chlorite ions can be converted to ClO 2 . The citric acid reacted with the remaining portion sodium chlorite. The stoichiometry of this equation is 5 to 4 (5 ClO 2   − →4 ClO 2 ), indicating 20% of the chlorite ions do not produce ClO 2 . Therefore, the yield was calculated as follows: 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               Yield 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   [ 
                   
                     ClO 
                     2 
                   
                   ] 
                 
                 
                   
                     ( 
                     
                       4.35 
                       5 
                     
                     ) 
                   
                   ⁡ 
                   
                     [ 
                     
                       NaClO 
                       2 
                     
                     ] 
                   
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     The significant increase in conversion is associated with the catalytic effect of chloride ion on chlorine dioxide generation. 
     EXAMPLE 7 
     In this example, several chlorine dioxide solutions were prepared in 500 mL amber bottles according to the procedure described in the above examples. The quantity of each reactant is listed in Table 16. The bottles were filled to approximately 90% of their volume capacity and stored at ambient temperature (i.e., about 72° F.). The chlorine dioxide concentration in each bottle was monitored spectrophotometrically once a week for 90 days to determine chlorine dioxide stability over time. These results are shown graphically in  FIG. 1 . 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 16 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantity of Reactants in the Making the Chlorine Dioxide Solutions 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 A 
                 B 
                 C 
                 D 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Sodium Chlorite, g 
                 0.453 
                 0.453 
                 0.453 
                 0.453 
               
               
                 Maleic Acid, g 
                 0.454 
                 0.442 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Sodium Bisulfate, g 
                 — 
                 0.229 
                 0.519 
                 — 
               
               
                 Tartaric Acid, g 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 1.991 
               
               
                 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate, g 
                 0.198 
                 0.198 
                 0.220 
                 0.198 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     It has been found, as shown by the data trend in  FIG. 1 , that as time increased the chlorine dioxide stability was fairly constant for all samples throughout the 90-day storage period. 
     In this stability evaluation, tartaric acid was used. Tartaric acids is advantageously “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) acid, in that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allows this acid to be used as a food additive. Other GRAS acids include hydrochloric, phosphoric, malic, citric, succinic, sulfamic, and sulfuric acids. 
     While the invention has been described with reference to exemplary embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope thereof. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.