Abstract:
An electrode material for an electrochemical cell comprising a plurality of stacked vanadium pentoxide ribbons defining a substrate, a plurality of graphene oxide sheets infiltrating the substrate to define an electrode material, and a plurality of water molecules present between adjacent vanadium oxide ribbons. Each respective graphene oxide sheet is positioned between two adjacent vanadium pentoxide ribbons. The electrode material is about 2 weight percent graphene oxide. Water molecules are present in a ratio of at least about 0.3 water molecules per V 2 O 5 .

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
       [0001]    The present novel technology relates generally to electrochemistry and, more particularly, to graphene-vanadium oxide aerogel composites as electrodes for lithium ion batteries. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    Since the introduction of lithium ion batteries twenty-five years ago, the demand for increasingly higher specific capacity and specific energy batteries has steadily increased with the advance of portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and the like. Likewise, the need for alternative fuel sources has grown over the last decades, due to such factors as the rise of oil prices, the increase in global population, and the pollution generated by internal combustion vehicles. As world population continues to grow, so will the number of vehicles and along with that the demand to for more efficient vehicles that require fewer natural resources and generate less pollution. 
         [0003]    Advancement in battery technology has made the dream of replacing internal combustion engines with electric motors a reality, reducing the consumption of liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Implementation of battery powered electric motor vehicles still faces stiff opposition as they carry a higher cost, still have limited range, and suffer weight parity issues when compared to traditional internal combustion vehicles. Further, the batteries of choice, Li-ion batteries, suffer from short cycle lives and exhibit significant degradation over time, making battery powered vehicles less attractive. 
         [0004]    In most lithium ion batteries, the cathodes are typical metal oxides, serving as the intercalation compounds for Li +  ion insertion during the discharge. Many different metal oxides have been explored as the cathode materials. Among those commonly used cathode materials (such as LiCoO 2  (274 mAh/g) and LiFePO 4  (170 mAh/g)), vanadium pentoxide (V 2 O 5 ) has the theoretical capacity of 443 mAh/g (with three lithium ion insertion) and possible specific energy 1218 mWh/g (assuming nominal 2.75 V discharge voltage). In addition to its specific capacity, vanadium has the advantage of being quite abundant in nature, making its availability high and cost low. The combination of high specific capacity/energy and high abundance makes V 2 O 5  a very attractive candidate for LIB applications, and extensive effort has been devoted to develop V 2 O 5  as a high performance cathode material for lithium ion batteries. However, due to its low electrical conduction, slow lithium diffusion and irreversible phase transitions upon deep discharge, poor rate capability and limited long-term cycleability issues presented by V 2 O 5  cathode material, the practical applications of V 2 O 5  as a cathode choice have been limited. 
         [0005]    Electrical reactivity of vanadium oxides varies with synthesis conditions and phases. For crystalline V 2 O 5 , the irreversible phase transformation from γ phase (orthorhombic) to the tetragonal ω phase occurs when more than 2 Li +  were intercalated into V 2 O 5 , limited the specific capacity to 300 mAh/g and results in the poor deep discharge capacity due to the decreased Li +  diffusion coefficient. Thus, there is a need for an electrode material for lithium ion batteries that takes advantage of the benefits of V 2 O 5  without being hampered by its inherent drawbacks. The present novel technology addresses this need. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         [0006]      FIG. 1A  graphically illustrates charge/discharge curves of pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /2% graphene cells at 0.05 C. 
           [0007]      FIG. 1B  graphically illustrates charge/discharge curves of pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /2% graphene cells at 0.05 C and 1.0 C. 
           [0008]      FIG. 2  graphically illustrates rate performance of pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /2% graphene cells based on C-rate. 
           [0009]      FIG. 3  graphically illustrates cycle life of pure V 2 O 5 , V 2 O 5  with 2% and 10% graphene cells at 1 C rate. 
           [0010]      FIG. 4  graphically illustrates specific Capacity of V 2 O 5  with different graphene content loading at 0.01 C rate. 
           [0011]      FIG. 5  graphically illustrates electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /2% graphene cells. 
           [0012]      FIG. 6A-D  graphically illustrate cryo-TEM imaging of the solution of pure decavanadic acid (HVO 3 ) during nucleation (0 min), vanadium oxide ribbons growth (1 h), continuous growth of ribbons (1 h30 min.), and fully growth of the vanadium oxide ribbons (2 weeks). 
           [0013]      FIG. 7A-D  graphically illustrate cryo-TEM imaging of the solution of bare decavanadic acid during nucleation (30 min), vanadium oxide ribbons growth (2 h), continuous growth of V 2 O 5  ribbons (4 h), and fully growth of the vanadium oxide ribbons (3 weeks). 
           [0014]      FIG. 8  graphically illustrates transmission electron microscopy of as-synthesized Graphene/V 2 O 5  after calcination. 
           [0015]      FIG. 9A  is a 2D contour plot of vanadium K-edge XANES of Li/V 2 O 5  pouch cell during the first four discharge/charge process. 
           [0016]      FIG. 9B  graphically illustrates V K-edge XANES as a function of state of discharge for a V 2 O 5 /Graphene nanocomposite lithiated during the first cycle of discharge. 
           [0017]      FIG. 10A  graphically illustrates HRXRD characterization of V 2 O 5 /Graphene a) XRD patterns of the V 2 O 5  xerogel during heat-treatment process between room temperature and 600° C., showing that the bipyramid structure will collapse at around 300° C. 
           [0018]      FIG. 10B  shows XRD patterns of V 2 O 5  with aerogel during heat-treatment process between room temperature and 600° C., showing that the bipyramid structure will persist until 450° C. 
           [0019]      FIG. 11  graphically compares thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) curves between bare V 2 O 5  xerogel and V2O5/graphene composite material. 
           [0020]      FIG. 12  is a perspective view of the interaction of vanadium oxide and graphene oxide sheets. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0021]    For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the claimed technology and presenting its currently understood best mode of operation, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the claimed technology is thereby intended, with such alterations and further modifications in the illustrated device and such further applications of the principles of the claimed technology as illustrated therein being contemplated as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the claimed technology relates. 
         [0022]    Electrical reactivity of vanadium oxides varies with synthesis conditions and phases. For crystalline V 2 O 5 , the irreversible phase transformation from γ phase (orthorhombic) to the tetragonal ω phase occurs when more than 2 Li +  were intercalated into V 2 O 5 , limited the specific capacity to 300 mAh/g and results in the poor deep discharge capacity due to the decreased Li +  diffusion coefficient. However, compared to crystalline (orthorhombic) V 2 O 5 , amorphous V 2 O 5  gels offer considerable advantages by virtue of their morphology. The vanadium oxide gels, V 2 O 5 .nH 2 O gives rise to a ribbon-like structure with high surface area, which can be considered to be a more versatile host for Li +  ions intercalation and exhibit improved capacity of lithium (i.e. moles of Li per mole of V 2 O 5 ) when employed as the cathode materials. The basic units of V 2 O 5  xerogel are the sheets comprised of two vanadium oxide layers. 
         [0023]    When the distance of the adjacent layers of V 2 O 5  increases, the insertion capacity will increase instead. So hydrated vanadium pentoxide gels, V 2 O 5 .nH 2 O (the distance between the adjacent layers is 11.52 Å), possesses the Li interacalation capacity about 1.4 times larger than that of orthorhombic V 2 O 5  (the distance between the adjacent layers is 4.56 Å). However, even for the amorphous V 2 O 5  gels, the same challenges, low electrical conduction (both intraparticle (within a V 2 O 5  particle) and interparticle (between V 2 O 5  particles) conduction), slow lithium diffusion and the structure stability/reversibility, still remain. Effort have been taken to improve the conductivity, coating V 2 O 5  xerogels with conductive materials, using single wall carbon nanotube to form nano-composites, doping metals and organic polymers. However, these measures can only improve the V 2 O 5  xerogels to a certain degree and neither of them could significantly improve the structure stability and reversibility. Hence, a comprehensive approach, which can simultaneously deal with all of three issues, is needed. 
         [0024]    Graphene is a single atomic layer of sp 2 -bonded carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb crystal structure and can be viewed as an individual atomic plane of the graphite structure. In graphene, each carbon atom uses 3 of its 4 valance band (2s, 2p) electrons (which occupy the sp 2  orbits) to form covalent bonds with the neighboring carbon atoms in the same plane. Each carbon atom in the graphene contributes its fourth lone electron (occupying the p z  orbit) to form a delocalized electron system, a long-range π-conjugation system shared by all carbon atoms in the graphene plane. Such a long-range π-conjugation in graphene yields extraordinary electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties. Graphene can be prepared using the chemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO), which is a layered stack of oxidized graphene sheets with different functional groups. Thus GO can be easily dispersed in the form of single sheet in water at low concentrations. 
         [0025]    In one embodiment of the present novel technology, single-atomic-layer-thick graphene oxide sheets are inserted between V 2 O 5  nanoribbions or substrates to construct a V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite, typically via a sol-gel process or the like. The nanocomposite exhibits improved intraparticle electronic conduction because of good conductivity of graphene, and the lithium ion diffusion is improved because of the diffusion length is shortened. Furthermore, the formed smaller V 2 O 5  grain size in the nanocomposite reduces the stress within particles, leading to better structure stability and cycle life. As detailed below, the present novel technology relates a simple and unique method to synthesize V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposites via sol-gel process giving rise to a novel class of V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposites which exhibit excellent electrochemical performance as cathode materials for Li ion batteries. Characterization of such materials as conducted using synchrotron XRD and XANES as well as the cryo-TEM for the materials structure and the formation mechanism. 
         [0026]    The vanadium pentoxide xerogels were prepared by a simple modified ion-exchange method. A 0.1 M solution of sodium metavanadate (NaVO 3 , &gt;99.5%) was eluted through a column loaded with a proton-exchange resin (50-100 mesh). The obtained yellow solution of decavanadic acid (HVO 3 ) was aged in a glass container for two weeks in order to obtain a mature homogeneous vanadium oxide hydrogel. Dried xerogel was obtained by freeze-drying the hydrogel under vacuum. The dried xerogel is then heated to a temperature between about 325 and 375 degrees Celsius, typically about 350 degrees Celsius, and soaked at temperature for between about 30 minutes and about 60 minutes. 
         [0027]    Graphene oxide (GO) was prepared using a modified Hummer&#39;s method. An additional graphite oxidation procedure was carried out first. Two (2) g graphite flakes was mixed with 10 mL of concentrated H 2 SO 4 , 2 g of (NH 4 ) 2 S 2 O 8 , and 2 g of P 2 O 5 . The obtained mixture was heated at 80° C. for 4 h under constant stirring. Then the mixture was filtered and washed thoroughly with DI water. After dried in an oven at 80° C. overnight, this pre-oxidized graphite was then subjected to oxidation using the Hummer&#39;s method. Two (2) g of pre-oxidized graphite, 1 g of sodium nitrate and 46 ml of sulfuric acid were mixed and stirred for 15 min in an iced bath. Then, 6 g of potassium permanganate was slowly added to the obtained suspension solution for another 15 min. After that, 92 ml DI water was slowly added to the suspension, while the temperature kept constant at about 98° C. for 15 min. After the suspension has been diluted by 280 mL DI water, 10 ml of 30% H 2 O 2  was added to reduce the unreacted permanganate. Finally, the resulted suspension was centrifuged several times in order to remove the unreacted acids and salts. The purified GO were dispersed in de-ionized water to form a 0.2 mg·ml −1  solution by sonication for 1 h. Then the GO dispersion was subjected to another centrifugation in order remove the un-exfoliated GO. The resulted GO dilute solution could remain in a very stable suspension without any precipitation for a few months. 
         [0028]    The V 2 O 5 /Graphene nanocomposite was prepared simply by mixing the prepared GO suspension and the yellow solution of decavanadic acid (HVO 3 ) with the desired ratio. The obtained dark yellow solution was aged in a glass container for three weeks in order to obtain a completed cured homogeneous V 2 O 5 /GO hydrogels. Dried V 2 O 5 /GO xerogel was obtained by freeze-drying the V 2 O 5 /GO hydrogel under vacuum. The formed V 2 O 5 /GO xerogels were heated and annealed under N 2 , at a rate of 5° C. min −1  up to 400° C., and kept constant at 400° C. for two hours, during which, the graphene oxide was reduced to graphene. 
         [0029]    The electrodes were prepared by spraying a slurry of 80% V 2 O 5 /Graphene nanocomposites, 10% polyvinylidence difluoride (PVDF) and 10% carbon black onto a 10 μm thick Al foil. For comparison, the pure V 2 O 5 .n H 2 O xerogel was synthesized in the same condition except the addition of the graphene oxide and the corresponding electrodes were prepared using the same procedure. The prepared electrodes were placed in a vacuum oven and allowed to dry at 90° C. for 24 h. The electrolyte consisted of a solution of 1.2 M LiPF 6  in a mixture of solvent from ethylene carbonate (EC) and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) (3:7, by weight). 
         [0030]    The prepared V 2 O 5 /Graphene nanocomposites and pure V 2 O 5  electrodes were assembled into R 2016 coin cells using Li metal anodes and dielectric separators for characterizing their electrochemical performance. These cells were tested with a battery cycler using different C-rates between 1.7 V and 3.6 V. AC impedance of these cells was measured in the frequency range of 0.01 Hz-1 MHz with an amplitude of 5 mV. 
         [0031]    High-resolution TEM characterization was performed at 200 kV. Cryogenic Temperature TEM analysis was carried out for the synthesized V 2 O 5  hydrogel solutions with and without GO aged at different times to elucidate the formation mechanism. The 3.5 μL aliquot of the aged solution samples were placed on a copper grid (400 mesh) coated with a holey carbon film. The excess solution was blotted off with filter paper. The grid was then immediately plunged into liquid ethane cooled by liquid N 2 . After that, the sample grid was loaded into the microscope with a side-entry cryogenic holder. Low-dose images were collected using a cryomicroscope with a filled emission gun operating at 200 or 300 kV, respectively. The thermo-gravimetric analysis was performed for both pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /Graphene nanocomposites using a thermoanalyzer. 
         [0032]    Time-resolved high-energy XRD measurements were performed on the beam line 11-ID-C at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. A monochromator with a Si (113) single crystal was used to provide an x-ray beam with the energy of 115 keV. High-energy x-ray with a beam size of 0.2 mm×0.2 mm and wavelength of 0.108 Å was used to obtain two-dimensional (2D) diffraction patterns in the transmission geometry. X-rays were collected with a large-area detector placed at 1800 mm from the sample. The synthesized pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /Graphene nanocomposites were dried at 80° C. overnight and then pressed into pellets about 1 mm in thickness. The pellet then was placed between an alumina can and a platinum cover with hole (D=1 mm) on the centers of both can and cover. After that, the alumina can was then placed vertically in a programmable furnace with glass windows and Nitrogen was used as the protective gas. The sample was heated up to 600° C. with a heating rate of 2° C. per minute, simultaneously; the diffraction data of the sample was collected every 34 seconds. The obtained 2D diffraction patterns were calibrated using a standard CeO 2  sample and converted to 1D patterns using Fit 2 D software. 
         [0033]    The Li/V 2 O 5  coin cells, with holes (D=2 mm) at the center, were assembled for XANES study. The holes were sealed to allow penetration of X-rays while preventing air entering the cell. XANES was performed at the K-edge of vanadium to monitor the change of the valence state of vanadium in the cathode material. The XANES measurements were carried out in transmission mode at beamline 20-BM of APS using a Si (111) monochromator. Energy calibration was performed by using the first derivative point of the XANES spectrum for V (K-edge=5465 eV). Meantime, the reference spectra were collected for each spectrum, where vanadium metal was used in the reference channel. The coin cells with the exact same electrodes were also used because the better signal/noise ratio. All cells were charged/discharged with a constant current about 0.1 C between 1.7 V and 3.6 V while the XANES spectra data was collected every 15 seconds. 
         [0034]    The introduction of the minute amount of graphene sheets (i.e. 2%) into the V 2 O 5  gels has an extraordinary effect on their electrochemical performance. A specific capacity of 438 mAh/g (corresponding to 1034 Wh/kg and 3118 Wh/L) has been achieved at 0.05 C ( FIG. 1   a ) for the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite with 2% graphene, which is almost the theoretical specific capacity, 98.87% of 443 mAh/g (theoretical value) while the pure V 2 O 5  only delivered 324 mAh/g (corresponding to 777 Wh/kg and 2344 Wh/L). Even at the higher rate, 1 C, such V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite with 2% graphene still delivered 315 mAh/g (corresponding to 768 Wh/kg and 2311 Wh/L) ( FIG. 1B ), which is 2.23X of the pure V 2 O 5 , 137 mAh/g (corresponding to 299 Wh/kg and 901 Wh/L). The pure V 2 O 5  discharge profile shows three distinct voltage stages: 3.3-2.5 V, 2.5-2.0V and 2.0-1.75V, corresponding to 1 st , 2 nd  and 3 rd  Li +  ion intercalation into V 2 O 5  xerogel ( FIG. 1B ). However, no such stages were seen for the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite (2% graphene), which are typical for an amorphous material due to the absence of voltage plateaus associated with crystalline phase transitions, suggesting that the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite (2% graphene) may have different structure from the pure V 2 O 5 . Although the second discharge capacity dropped to 419 mAh/g, such V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite still can be used as high performance cathode materials for primary Li-V 2 O 5  batteries. 
         [0035]    The introduction of graphene also shows significant effect on the rate performance which is the major issue for V 2 O 5 . At the fairly higher current densities, the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite still retains a high lithium ion storage capacity: 419 mAh/g at 0.1 C, 354 mAh/g at 0.5 C, 315 mAh/g at 1 C, 247 mAh/g at 5 C, and 201 mAh/g at 10 C compared with those of pure V 2 O 5 : 250 mAh/g at 0.1 C, 173 mAh/g at 0.5 C, 137 mAh/g at 1 C, 67 mAh/g at 5 C, and 41 mAh/g at 10 C ( FIG. 2 ). This corresponds to 67.6%, 104.6%, 130.0%, 268.7%, and 390.2% specific capacity increase at different rates respectively. Such huge improvement on the rate performance, in particular, at high rate (i.e. 10 C), suggests that the electric conduction of V 2 O 5  xerogel has been tremendously increased, both interparticle and intra particle, just by introducing such tiny amount of graphene (2%). The increase on electric conductivity also indicated by our AC impedance study presented later. 
         [0036]    The synthesized V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite also exhibits improved cycling stability. The V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite (2% graphene) achieved 150 cycles with 80% initial capacity at 1 C rate while the pure V 2 O 5  only achieved 11 cycles ( FIG. 3 ) (The death criteria of a battery for EV and HEV is defined as 80% of its initial capacity, hence, we compare the cycle life at 80% initial capacity). The capacity decay rate is relatively stable for V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite, 0.13%/cycle while the pure V 2 O 5  shows two distinct different decay rates, initially sharply decays at 1.77%/cycle to 80% initial capacity after 11 cycles, after 12 cycles, decays at a much slow rate, 0.13%/cycle, indicating that the pure V 2 O 5  might experience a structure change during the initial cycles, then the structure become stabilized. 
         [0037]    The content of graphene in the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite plays a critical role. It seems that 2% graphene results in the highest specific capacity, 438 mAh/g, ( FIG. 4 ) while 10% graphene leads to a lower specific capacity, 278 mAh/g, but a much improved cycle stability, 497 cycles. It is speculated that the less graphene content may result in a better dispersion of graphene sheets in the hydrogel of V 2 O 5  (remaining as a single sheet) which helps to insert single or double sheets of graphene into the V 2 O 5  nanoribbons while higher graphene content may lead to restacking of the graphene sheets as we observed in our previous work, but the thick stack of graphene (i.e. 3-5 graphene sheets per stack) may hold the V 2 O 5  nanoribbons tighter to maintain the structure integrity, consequently, a much better cycle life. Another possibility is that higher graphene content may lead to a more complete coverage over V 2 O 5  nanoribbons which help to hold the ribbons together from collapsing. 
         [0038]    AC impedance spectra of both pure V 2 O 5  and V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite were measured. The results ( FIG. 5 ) were fitted using the model shown in the  FIG. 5 , where R 0 , is the contact resistance, R e  and C e  refer to the resistance and capacitance of the V 2 O 5  electrode, R et  and C dl  stand for the charge-transfer resistance of redox reaction of vanadium in V 2 O 5  and double-layer capacitance in the electrode, respectively, and the W d  refers to the Warburg diffusion impedance, which could reflect the diffusion of Li ions in the V 2 O 5 . The fitting results are listed in table 1. Clearly, the tiny amount of graphene sheets in V 2 O 5  cause the huge change of the electric conduction, R e , from 309.48Ω of pure V 2 O 5  to 86.55Ω of V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite, an order of magnitude change (both the pure V 2 O 5  and the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite electrodes had the exact the same composition and were made in the same procedure under the same condition, the change of R e  must be due to the conductivity of V 2 O 5  gels). The redox of vanadium in the V 2 O 5  gels also has been significantly increased, R et  changed from 46.88Ω of pure V 2 O 5  to 10.94Ω of V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite, a 4.28X changes, which also explains the increased rate performance. Finally, the L i+  ion diffusion within the V2O5 gels has been improved, the W d  changed from 0.451 to 0.396, corresponding to the L i+  diffusion coefficient in V 2 O 5  gels from 1.21 E-12 to 1.57 E-12 cm 2 /s, 12% increase. Thus, the AC impedance results show that our approach indeed works as we designed. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of AC impedance spectra fitting results 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Cell 
                 Rs 
                 Ce 
                 Re 
                 Cdl 
                 Rct 
                 W 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Pure V 2 O 5   
                 2.008 
                 2.73E−6 
                 309.48 
                 1.33E−6 
                 46.88 
                 0.451 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 3.231 × 10−3S 
               
               
                 V 2 O 5 /2% 
                 1.927 
                 2.96E−6 
                  86.55 
                 1.72E−6 
                 10.94 
                 0.396 
               
               
                 Graphene 
                   
                   
                  1.16 × 10−3S 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0039]    It is clear that the introduction of such tiny amount (i.e. 2%) graphene has the profound effect on the electrochemical performance of V 2 O 5  and such V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite shows the best electrochemical performance of V 2 O 5  xerogels in the coin cell configuration as compared with others&#39; work summarized in table 2. However, all performance changes are rooted in the materials structure. Hence, to understand the structure and the formation mechanism of V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite, the XANES and HES XRD were carried out as well as the cryo-TEM and the results are presented below. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of the best electrochemical performance of V 2 O 5   
               
               
                 composite and other&#39;s work in the coin cell configuration 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 First initial capacity 
                 Cycle performance 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 C-rate or 
                 Voltage 
                   
                 C-rate or 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 mAhg −1   
                 Current density 
                 range, (V) 
                 Cycle number 
                 Current density 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Eu 0.11 V 2 O 5 , 
                 269 
                 15 
                 μAg −1   
                 1.5-4.0 
                 10 
                 15 
                 μAg −1   
               
               
                 xerogels 1   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (2%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
             
          
           
               
                 PPy/V 2 O 5   2   
                 160 
                 C/40 
                 2.0-4.0 
                 30 
                 C/40 
               
               
                 hybrid 
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.4%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Graphene/V 2 O 5   3 , 
                 299 
                 30 
                 mAg −1   
                 1.5-4.0 
                 30 
                 30 
                 mAg −1   
               
               
                 xerogels 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.7%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
             
          
           
               
                 V 2 O5 4   
                 223 
                 C/20 
                 1.5-4.0 
                 10 
                 C/20 
               
               
                 xerogel 
                   
                   
                   
                 (2%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Cu 0.1 V 2 O 5   5 , 
                 136 
                 0.15 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 1.5-4.0 
                 450 
                 0.15 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                 xerogel 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 No capacity loss 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ag 0.1 V 2 O 5   6 , 
                 340 
                 C/20 
                 1.5-4.0 
                 24 
                 C/20(discharge) 
               
               
                 xerogel 
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.4%)capacity 
                 C/40 (charge) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
               
                 Carbon-coated 
                 297 
                 1.0Ag −1   
                 2.0-4.0 
                 50 
                 1.0Ag −1   
               
               
                 V 2 O 5   7   
                   
                   
                   
                 No capacity loss 
               
               
                 nanocrystal 
               
             
          
           
               
                 V 2 O 5   
                 275 
                 0.125 
                 C 
                 2.05-4.0  
                 20 
                 0.2 
                 C 
               
               
                 microspheres 8   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.38%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
               
                 V 2 O 5   
                 275 
                 0.2 
                 C 
                 2.0-4.0 
                 50 
                 0.2 
                 C 
               
               
                 nanoflower 9   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.26%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
               
                 V 2 O 5   
                 275 
                 30 
                 mAg −1   
                 2.0-4.0 
                 50 
                 30 
                 mAg −1   
               
               
                 nanowire 10   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.50%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
               
                 V 2 O 5 /graphene 
                 438 
                 0.05 
                 C 
                 1.5-4.0 
                 137 (to 80% 
                 1 
                 C 
               
               
                 nanocomposite 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 initial capacity) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (0.13%)capacity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 fade per cycle 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0040]    The synthesis process of V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite was studied using cryo-TEM. As described above, NaVO 3  becomes yellow colored HVO 3  after passing through a ion exchange column, then this dilute HVO 3  starts to slowly form V 2 O 5  hydrogel via protonation of HVO 3  (usually within a several minutes) and the solution gradually change color from yellow to dark brown and eventually (usually after 1-2 weeks), dark red, which indicated the completion of the formation of a 3-D network of V 2 O 5  hydrogel. The 3.5 μL aliquot of HVO 3  solution was taken at 0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 360 min, 1, 2 and 3 weeks to monitor the process of initializing, nucleating, ribbon growing for V 2 O 5  gels (the time at 0 min refers to the time when about 5 mL HVO 3  solution came out from the ion exchange column). The advantage of the cryo-TEM is that it can directly observe the microgeometry and the morphology of particles within a liquid without disturbance by fast freezing the liquid sample using liquid nitrogen, which preserves the morphology and microgeometry of the particles in the original liquid as we have successfully used the cryo-TEM in our previous work. 
         [0041]    It can be seen ( FIG. 6A ) that nucleation immediately occurred (0 min) once the decavanadic acid (HVO 3 ) solution is formed (right after NaVO 3  passing through the ion exchange column), then small V 2 O 5  ribbon started to grow into 100 nm long ribbon with diameter in a few nm shown in 60 min image ( FIG. 6B ) and the V 2 O 5  ribbons continuously grow along width direction more than length direction and the length seems not grow too much in 90 min image ( FIG. 6C ) and finally, after 2 weeks, the V 2 O 5  hydrogel network was formed with similar the length but much large with of the V 2 O 5  ribbons. When the graphene oxide was added into the decavanadic acid (HVO 3 ) solution, the V 2 O 5  hydrogel formation took place on the surface of the graphene oxide sheets, nucleating, ribbons forming, ribbons growing and V 2 O 5  hydrogel network forming. Upon adding GO solution into the decavanadic acid solution, the nuclei formed in the beginning will tend to adsorb on the GO sheets due to the Columbic interaction and van der Waals between the nuclei and GO. In contrast to the pure V 2 O 5 , the nucleation of V 2 O 5  hydrogel in the presence of graphene oxide sheets took much longer time, after 30 min, the nucleation starts ( FIG. 7   a ), which probably is due to the repulsive effect from the some regions of the GO surface having negative charges of the different functional groups (i.e. phenol, carbonyl, ketone, etc). After 120 min, very few piece of V 2 O 5  ribbons can be barely seen ( FIG. 7   b ). Even after 4 h, the V 2 O 5  ribbons continuously grew but in much less density than pure V 2 O 5  ( FIG. 7   c ). Finally, it took 3 weeks to form the fully grew V 2 O 5  hydrogel network ( FIG. 7   d ). However, the V 2 O 5  ribbons in the fully grew V 2 O 5  hydrogel on the graphene oxide surface look more uniform with much smaller range of width and much less dense arranged than the pure V 2 O 5  hydrogel (comparing  FIGS. 6   d  and  7   d ). This may be attributed to the existence of graphene oxide sheets which provide the substrate for V 2 O 5  hydrogel formation but in a much slower rate, facilitating the crystal growth rather nucleation due to the negative charge repulsion. Thus, the formed V 2 O 5  ribbons with smaller width and much less dense arranged over the GO surface. This does lead to the smaller grain size of V 2 O 5  ribbons which results in the improved Li +  diffusion as indicated by AC impedance results. The less dense arranged V 2 O 5  ribbons over the GO surface also result in the more gaps between V 2 O 5  ribbons, providing more surface area for Li +  diffusion into ribbons. Likely, the graphene sheets serving as substrate for V 2 O 5  ribbons lead to the tremendous increase on the electric conductivity. On the other hand, the V 2 O 5  formation over GO surface requires that the V 2 O 5  anchoring on GO first, which makes the overall V 2 O 5  ribbon formation take much longer than in liquid. Since the GO is single-layer, the GO sheets will act as spacers to create gaps between the formed V 2 O 5  nanoribbons once the water is removed from the V 2 O 5  hydrogel by heating. In the other words, the V 2 O 5  nanoribbons would be sandwiched between layers of graphene after the annealing. Such V 2 O 5  nanoribbons sandwiched between graphene sheets can be clearly seen in  FIG. 8 , in which the V 2 O 5  nanoribbons, with 5˜10 nm diameter, lay on the plane of graphene sheets (as pointed out by the arrows) (comparing pure V 2 O 5  nanoribbons, 5˜20 nm). Also, some V 2 O 5  nanoribbons were anchored on or sandwiched between the graphene sheets (as pointed out in the yellow dash circle region). The structure of V2O5 and V2O5 graphene, schematic of graphene sandwiched between V2O5 layer. 
         [0042]    A coin cell containing this nanocomposite electrode was cycled during an XANES experiment. The obtained XANES results are shown in  FIG. 9 . The contour plot of 2D vanadium K-edge XANES data during the initial discharge cycles is shown in the  FIG. 9   a . Clearly, the X-ray edge energy continuously shifts to a lower energy with the incremental increase of the lithium content in V 2 O 5  cathode from 0 to 20 h. The negative energy shift of V 2 O 5  is obviously consistent with the reduction of vanadium to lower oxidation state.  FIG. 9   b  shows the several vanadium K-edge XANES spectra, illustrating the insertion of Li +  into V 2 O 5  during the first discharge. 
         [0043]    The synchrotron high energy XRD was measured for both V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite and pure V 2 O 5  (as reference) during heating process (from room temperature to 600° C. at rate of 10° C. per minute). The results for pure V 2 O 5  are shown in  FIG. 10   a . Initially, the sample showed the layered hydrated V 2 O 5  (00l) reflections, typical amorphous structure, and the layer structure was maintained until about 200° C., then, the (00l) reflection shifted slowly to the higher 2-theta angle, and the shift is primarily caused by the loss of crystal water between V 2 O 5  layers, resulting in the shortening of the interlayer spacing (d spacing) between V 2 O 5  layers. The phase transition from amorphous to crystalline phase started around 200° C., as it could be seen in the  FIG. 10   a  (inset): the new emerged peak around 1.42° is attributed to the orthorhombic crystalline V 2 O 5  (JCPDS No, 41-1426). Obviously, the loss of crystal water from V 2 O 5  layers will result in such phase transformation. As the temperature continues to increase, the peak intensity of the orthorhombic crystalline V 2 O 5  rapidly increased at the expense of the relative peak intensity of layer hydrated structure (amorphous). Finally, around 400° C., the amorphous phase almost completely diminished and the phase transformation completed. The V 2 O 5  gel structure collapsed, likely due to the complete removal of crystal water from the V 2 O 5  upon heating to 400° C., then, the V 2 O 5  gel completely transformed into V 2 O 5  nanocrystal which shows three distinct discharge stages in  FIG. 1 . 
         [0044]    It is interesting to note that the graphene has a significant impact on the structure of the V 2 O 5  gel. Initially, the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite showed the layer hydrated structure similar to that of the pure V 2 O 5  gel but with the smaller interlayer spacing (d-spacing). As the temperature increased, the (00l) reflection shifted to the higher 2-theta angle as that of pure V 2 O 5  sample, but in a much slower rate. Unlike the pure V 2 O 5 , which phase transition from amorphous to crystal phase started around 200° C., the phase transition for V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite started around 400° C. as indicated by the emerged peak at 1.42° ( FIG. 10   b ). With the presence of graphene, the amorphous-to-crystalline phase transition was delayed. In analogy to the pure V 2 O 5  xerogel sample, for the composite sample the thermal stability has been greatly enhanced when the V 2 O 5  layer is affixed to the graphene sheets. 
         [0045]    For the electrochemical performance testing, the obtained V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite was annealed at 400° C. under N 2  atmosphere before used as the cathode. Based on the synchrotron HEXRD data in  FIG. 10   b , the calculated V 2 O 5  interlayer spacing, d-spacing, is 10.2 Å, corresponding to 0.3 water per V 2 O 5 , V 2 O 5 .3H 2 O. However, for the pure V 2 O 5 , there is almost no water left even after 300° C. and the structure is completely changed to nanocrystal instead of amorphous V 2 O 5  gel. Crystal water inside V 2 O 5  gels functions as the pillars to keep the interlayer space between two V 2 O 5  sheets. Without water as pillars, the V 2 O 5  network in the amorphous V 2 O 5  gels will likely collapse and become crystal V 2 O 5  during annealing, which has much less electrochemical performance. Hence, a minimum crystal water is needed to keep the amorphous phase. Thus, the graphene sheets inside the V 2 O 5  layers does increase its thermal stability, preserve the amorphous phase even at 400° C., with 0.3 water per V 2 O 5 . 
         [0046]    Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was also carried out for both pure V 2 O 5  xerogel and V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite for studying their structure change during annealing and the results are shown in  FIG. 11 . The pure V 2 O 5  xerogel had a rapid weight loss (0.15%/° C.) until 80° C., followed by a gradual weight loss in a much slow rate (0.018%/° C.) up to 300° C., which is corresponding to the loss of weakly bonded water molecules in V 2 O 5  xerogel. As temperature went to beyond 300° C., the tightly bonded water molecules—crystal water molecules were removed and the phase conversion from amorphous phase to orthorhombic phase started, which is consistent with the HEXRD results. Compared to the pure V 2 O 5  xerogel, the V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite showed a complete different profile; it had a gradual weight loss at the rate of 0.024%/° C. until 250° C., which is characteristic of the loss of weakly bonded water from the V 2 O 5 /graphene gel. Then it followed by another gradual weight loss with a slightly fast slope (0.05%/° C.) until 450° C., before which the bipyramid structure still persist, through orthorhombic vanadium pentoxide start to emerge around 400° C. The TGA results further verified that the thermal stability of the V 2 O 5  has been greatly enhanced with the presence of graphene. 
         [0047]    Historically, graphene has been considered as ideal conducting materials to improve the electric conduction and enhance the structure of V 2 O 5 . However, the graphene was simply added into V 2 O 5  by simply mixing graphene with V 2 O 5 . Such simple physical mixing usually requires a high graphene loadings (e.g. 30% graphene), which led to a significant improvement on the cycle life and rate performance, but with the heavy penalty on the specific capacity. In this work, a method of creating V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite via sol-gel process has been developed and the tiny amount of graphene sheets (e.g. 2%) has a profound effect on the structure, consequently resulting in an extraordinary electrochemical performance without the heavy penalty on specific capacity, rather achieving almost the theoretical specific capacity. The performance of electrode materials is always rooted in the materials structure. We clearly demonstrated through our HEXRD, that the graphene sheets help to preserve the V 2 O 5  xerogel structure and keep the xerogel from collapsing by maintain 0.3 water molecules per V 2 O 5  during annealing process. In addition, the AC impedance proved that the electric conduction, the vanadium redox reaction and Li +  diffusion have been improved due to such tiny amount of graphene. 
         [0048]    Thus, a novel and simple method has been developed to incorporate the graphene sheets into the nanostructure of V 2 O 5  gels via a sol-gel process to form a V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite. The introduction of such tiny amount of graphene into V 2 O 5  gels can effectively alter the structure of the nanocomposite, resulting in the significant improvement on electric conduction, structure stability and ion diffusion, which in turn results in an extraordinary electrochemical performance of V 2 O 5 /graphene nanocomposite: reaching almost the theoretical specific capacity, excellence rate performance and greatly enhanced cycle life. This method provides a new avenue to create nanostructured materials with improved properties for metal oxides as long as they can be synthesized via sol-gel process or reaction in solutions. The sol-gel process along with the solution method makes such method easy for scale-up, which make the wide-spread industrial application of these new materials feasible. 
         [0049]    While the claimed technology has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character. It is understood that the embodiments have been shown and described in the foregoing specification in satisfaction of the best mode and enablement requirements. It is understood that one of ordinary skill in the art could readily make a nigh-infinite number of insubstantial changes and modifications to the above-described embodiments and that it would be impractical to attempt to describe all such embodiment variations in the present specification. Accordingly, it is understood that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the claimed technology are desired to be protected.