Abstract:
Evanescent wave scattering by a scanning probe in a scanning probe microscope is utilized to determine and monitor separation between a scanning probe and a sample. A laser light is totally internally reflected at the interface between a more optically dense (incident) medium and less optically dense (transmitting) medium, exciting a decaying evanescent field in the less optically dense medium. A scanning probe, such as a colloidal probe, is dipped into the evanescent field, which scatters off the scanning probe. The portion of the scattered field propagates back into the incident medium and is then detected by a detector. A dependency between the intensity of the scattered evanescent field and the separation between the probe and the incident medium was measured and used in determining the separation. This dependency of intensity is used to prepare images or maps of interfaces. A particular application of determining the separation between the probe and the sample in an atomic force microscope is disclosed.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0001]     The present invention relates to use of scattered evanescent electromagnetic field for direct distance measurements. More specifically, the present invention relates to using evanescent electromagnetic field generated by total internal reflection for measuring separation between a sample and a probe in a scanning probe microscope.  
         [0002]     One of the first techniques developed to measure surface forces of a sample was the development of the Surface Force Apparatus (SFA) in the 1970s which led to the first accurate measurement of many of such forces An SFA employs an interferometer using Fringes of Equal Chromatic Order (FECO). The distance between the silver-coated back-sides of mica sheets is determined from the wavelength of constructive interference for light in the gap between the silver layers. If one assumes that the thickness and refractive index of the mica sheets is constant throughout the measurement, then the thickness of a film intervening between the mica sheets can be measured using the wavelength at that thickness, and a three-layer optical model. The existence of a convenient wavelength standard (e.g. a mercury lamp) is a critical advantage for an interferometric technique such as FECO. The spectrometer wavelength can be frequently calibrated so that an absolute comparison can be made between wavelength measurement when the two mica sheets are in contact and the wavelength when there is an intervening film. In this sense, the SFA separation axis gives the absolute distance between mica sheets in some reference ‘contact’ position and all subsequent positions. Specifically, even after the adsorption of a thin film to the mica surface, the force can still be measured as a function of the separation between the mica sheets.  
         [0003]     Scanning probe microscopes are the tools often used to profile a surface of a sample at an atomic level by approaching the surface with a probe and measuring tunneling currents or force between the tip of the probe and the surface. The tip of the probe may interact with the surface via a variety of surface effects, such as electron tunneling, interatomic forces, capacitive coupling, friction forces, magnetic forces, van der Waals forces, electrostatic double layer forces and other electrostatic forces, hydration forces, frictional forces, and oscillatory packing forces.  
         [0004]     An Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), which is one of the types of the scanning probe microscopes, emerged in early 1990s as a as a valuable technique for surface force measurements, particularly when employed with a large spherical colloidal particle (r˜3 μm) attached to the force sensor. In an AFM, the probe is attached to a flexible cantilever or a spring, which in turn is attached to the force sensor. The probe can be a sharp tip (with the end radius of about 30 nm) or a spherical colloidal particle (with a radius of about 3 μm) which moves above the surface. If the cantilever control mechanism is constructed so that the force acting on the probe from the interaction with the surface remains constant, the probe will closely follow the profile of the surface. By detecting the motion of the cantilever (for example by detecting the reflection of a laser beam directed at it) it is therefore possible to determine the profile of the surface at the atomic level. These methods are known in the pertinent art and their details are beyond the scope of this invention.  
         [0005]     Compared to the use of a sharp AFM tip, force measurement with a spherical colloidal particle (the colloid probe technique) improves the signal to noise ratio, and the known geometry allows the interpretation of results in terms of the energy per unit area, which is the intensive property used to compare forces in different geometries. The colloidal probe technique has many advantages including the ease of use of the instrument; the availability of AFMs in many research labs and the ability to measure forces on a variety of materials, including large colloidal particles and low probability of encountering contamination, as compared to the SFA technique. This latter advantage arises from the fact that the interacting area is about 10 4  times smaller in a Colloidal Probe measurement than in an SFA measurement.  
         [0006]     It should be noted that there is no explicit measurement of the separation between the probe and the surface in an AFM colloidal probe measurement. The colloidal particle is attached to one end of a spring and the other end of the spring (the fixed end) is driven by a piezoelectric crystal (the piezo-drive) toward an interface while the deflection is monitored. Instead of a piezoelectric crystal, a different type of electromechanical transducer may be used as long as it is capable of transforming an electronic signal into a mechanical displacement. Zero force is established from the deflection of the spring far from contact where there is zero gradient in the curve of deflection versus piezo-drive displacement or distance, as shown by the force profiles in  FIGS. 1A and 1B  discussed below. Hereinafter, the piezo-drive distance means the distance between a probe and a sample inferred from the signal applied to the piezo-drive. Contact with the surface is inferred from the shape of the force curve. The contact between the colloidal probe and the other solid is assumed to occur when the slope of a curve of deflection versus piezo-drive distance is constant (the constant compliance regime). This assumption is based on the idea that surface forces are seldom changed linearly with distance, and that the interacting objects are rigid, so that they do not deform during the interaction. A linear spring is a spring producing a linear force, i.e., the force that is proportional to displacement, the coefficient of proportionality is called the spring constant. When all other components that connect the interacting surfaces are rigid, the load on the probe consists of only the linear AFM spring and the non-linear surface force. If the compound force is linear, either the surface force is zero, meaning that the particle is far away from the surface or the net surface force gradient is large (i.e., much larger than the spring constant of the cantilever), which would occur at contact. When the particle is far from the sample, the region of constant compliance is assumed to be where hard contact occurs between the solids.  
         [0007]     In principle, the contact position in the AFM could be referenced to a standard position of the piezo-drive and a standard deflection of the cantilever. In practice, the contact position is measured on each force-separation curve. This leads to ambiguity when comparing force-separation runs under different conditions of the probe, surface, and the medium between them. The reason for establishing the zero on each force-separation run is that changes in the dimensions of equipment components due to fluctuations in the temperature (thermal drift) make it very inconvenient to produce a standard deflection of the cantilever or a standard position of the fixed end of the cantilever.  
         [0008]     In AFM measurements, the constant compliance regime is also used to calibrate the deflection of the spring. The spring deflection is usually measured using the light-lever technique. A change in the end slope of the spring under an applied force produces a change in the angle of a laser beam reflected from the end of the cantilever. This change in angle causes a large displacement of the reflected beam if the displacement is measured far from the spring. The displacement of the reflected beam is calibrated by placing the colloidal probe in contact with a solid that is much stiffer than the cantilever spring. When the piezo-drive is used to reduce the separation between the fixed end of the spring and the solid sample, the deflection of the free end of the cantilever is equal to the distance moved by the piezo-drive if the solid is infinitely stiff. If the solid is known to be compliant, then the calibration must be performed independently on a stiff sample.  
         [0009]      FIGS. 1A and 1B  show an example of force measurement data obtained in a traditional colloid probe AFM experiment. These particular forces were measured between a borosilicate glass particle and a fused silica surface in an aqueous 0.9 mM (millimolar or millimole per liter) hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTABr) solution.  
         [0010]      FIG. 1A  shows non-calibrated dependence of deflection of a cantilever on distance of the probe from the surface. The deflection was measured using a spring-mounted lever. The deflection in region  1  (far from the surface) is defined to correspond to zero force. Region  2 , where the slope is constant, is defined to be zero separation. This region is also used to calibrate the deflection of the cantilever. Note that in region  3 , the slope is very nearly constant but the separation is not zero.  
         [0011]      FIG. 1B  shows calibrated deflection versus separation data obtained using  FIG. 1A . The force is the deflection times a spring constant. The shape of the force curve in region  3  is obtained from the very small difference between the slopes in regions  2  and  3 .  
         [0012]     In summary, in  FIGS. 1A and 1B  the region of constant compliance is used both to determine the zero of distance and to calibrate the deflection of the cantilever. Problems arise when certain made assumptions are violated, the wrong region is chosen, or when the data collection error in this region is too large. An example of the wrong region is region  3  in  FIGS. 1A and 1B , where the slope is almost constant, but a smaller separation was later achieved. The sudden discontinuities in  FIG. 1A  (at distance of about 60 nm and deflection of about 0) and  FIG. 1B  (at about 3.5 nm) make it clear that the solids are not touching in region  3 . The data presented in  FIGS. 1A and 1B  illustrate that there is no unique method for uniquely identifying contact between the interfaces with a region of constant compliance. This is particularly problematic if the aim of the experiment is to determine the effect of an adsorbate on the surface force.  
         [0013]     The Total Internal Reflection Microscopy (TIRM) technique was developed at about the same time as the colloidal probe technique to measure the relative energy of the particle at various separations. TIRM can be used to obtain the energy-separation profile of a colloidal particle that is unencumbered by a cantilever spring. The particle can rotate and translate, and over time will adopt a distribution of states with a frequency that is determined by the energy through the Boltzmann distribution. Thus, the TIRM technique measures the frequency-separation histogram, which is then used to determine the relative energy of the particle at various separations; there is no explicit measurement of force.  
         [0014]     Total internal reflection is based on the following phenomenon. Electromagnetic radiation or an electromagnetic wave (for example, light) propagating in a medium, such as vacuum, a gas, a liquid, or a solid, may encounter a location where the medium interfaces another medium with different electromagnetic properties. Upon encountering this interface a portion of the incident radiation crosses the interface into the second medium and the remainder of the incident radiation propagates within the first medium in a different direction; this remainder is commonly called reflected radiation or reflected wave. Consider two uniform media separated by a plane with indices of refraction n 1  and n 2 , respectively and imagine a line perpendicular or normal to the plane. When an electromagnetic wave approaches the planar interface from the first media at an angle θ i  to the line normal to the plane (called the angle of incidence), a portion of the wave enters the second media from the first at the angle θ 2  to this normal line (called the angle of refraction). These angles are related by Snell&#39;s law (also called the refraction law): n 1  sin θ i =n 2  sin θ 2 . As may be seen from this equation, when n 1 &gt;n 2 , above a certain angle of incidence θ i  there is no angle of refraction θ 2  that would fit the equation, because the value of sine is less or equal than one for any real angle θ 2 . At the angles above a certain angle of incidence (called critical angle) no portion of electromagnetic wave crosses the interface between the media, but the incident radiation is totally reflected back to the n 1  medium, the phenomenon known as total internal reflection (TIR),  
         [0015]     Direct measurement of a separation between the probe and the surface in a scanning probe microscope, such as an AFM, would have removed existing ambiguities from surface force measurements and would have allowed monitoring the forces at a known constant separation and exercising a much greater control over the position of the probe in the AFM applications.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0016]     The present invention allows obtaining explicit measurements of the particle-solid separation by measuring the intensity of light scattered by the particle in the evanescent field.  
         [0017]     The method allows a user to determine separation between a first medium, which can be a solid sample or an incident medium onto which a sample can be deposited, and a scattering probe. The scattering probe is located in a second medium, which is usually a fluid (gas or liquid). The method comprises generating an evanescent electromagnetic field, which propagates beyond an interface between the first medium and the second medium into the second medium. Then a scattered electromagnetic field is generated by scattering the evanescent electromagnetic field off the scattering probe. Then the intensity and or distribution of scattered electromagnetic radiation is measured. The intensity is used to measure the separation between the first medium and the scattering probe.  
         [0018]     An apparatus utilizing the evanescent wave scattering in determining a particle-solid separation has a first (incident) medium which has a boundary. The boundary lies either between the first medium and a second (transmitting) medium or between the first medium and a sample. The apparatus comprises means for generating an evanescent electromagnetic field propagating beyond the boundary and away from the first medium. Usually the decaying evanescent field is propagating in the second medium toward the particle. Further provided is means for measuring the intensity of a scattered electromagnetic field formed as a result of scattering of the evanescent electromagnetic field by the scanning probe and scattered back into the first medium. A detector coupled to the means for measuring serves to determine an intensity of the scattered electromagnetic field, which can be used in determining the separation.  
         [0019]     In a particular implementation, an atomic force microscope has an evanescent scattering apparatus for measuring and monitoring/controlling the distance between a sample and a probe. In such atomic microscope a cantilever for holding a scanning probe or a sample is coupled to a piezo-drive which can translate the cantilever with the probe closer or further away from the sample, which can be a suitable incident medium. A laser source for generating a laser beam is directed onto the interface between the incident medium and either the second less optically dense medium or a sample for totally internally reflecting the laser beam at the interface and also for generating an evanescent electromagnetic field propagating toward the cantilever. An optical device is provided for capturing a portion of the evanescent electromagnetic field scattered by the scanning probe into the incident medium. The atomic force microscope is connected to the optical device, such as a microscope, in such a manner that the sample or probe of the atomic force microscope can displace translationally relative to the optical axis of the optical microscope. A detector coupled to the optical device detects the intensity of the portion of the evanescent electromagnetic field scattered by the scanning probe into the incident medium. Based on the determined intensity, a separation between the probe and the sample can be calculated.  
         [0020]     The above and other features of the invention including various novel details of construction and combinations of parts, and other advantages, will now be more particularly described with reference to the accompanying drawings and pointed out in the claims. It will be understood that the particular method and device embodying the invention are shown by way of illustration and not as a limitation of the invention. The principles and features of this invention may be employed in various and numerous embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0021]     In the accompanying drawings, reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale; emphasis has instead been placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. Of the drawings:  
         [0022]      FIG. 1A  shows the non-calibrated deflection-separation data.  
         [0023]      FIG. 1B  shows the calibrated deflection separation data.  
         [0024]      FIG. 2  is a schematic illustration of the evanescent wave atomic force setup.  
         [0025]      FIG. 3  is a schematic illustration of the evanescent wave atomic force microscope.  
         [0026]      FIG. 4A  is a graph illustrating raw intensity data as a function of piezo-drive distance.  
         [0027]      FIG. 4B  is a graph illustrating ln(I 0 /I) as a function of piezo-drive distance.  
         [0028]      FIG. 5A  is a graph illustrating separation as a function of piezo-drive calculated from the ln(I 0 /I) data in  FIG. 4B .  
         [0029]      FIG. 5B  is a graph illustrating deflection of a cantilever as a function of separation.  
         [0030]      FIG. 6  is a graph illustrating analysis using the scattering signal from the PMT to calculate the separation and the AFM photodiode to measure the cantilever deflection.  
         [0031]      FIG. 7  is a graph illustrating comparison of different analysis methods used in FIGS.  1 A-B,  5 A-B and  6 . 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0032]     In the present invention an explicit measurement of a separation between the surface of a sample and the tip of the probe of a scanning probe microscope was obtained through measuring the intensity of light scattered by the probe placed in the evanescent field generated at the interface of a reflective element. It is noted that throughout this description the following terms are used interchangeably without limiting the meaning of each of the terms: “surface-boundary-interface”, “prism-sample-reflecting element-solid”, “wave-field-signal”, “probe-particle probe”.  
         [0033]     When an electromagnetic wave is totally internally reflected within one medium on a media boundary or interface, on the other side of the boundary, in the lower refractive index medium, an electromagnetic field is generated. The strength of this field decays exponentially with the distance from the boundary. This field is known as an evanescent field or evanescent wave existing beyond total internal reflection medium (also called a reflection element).  
         [0034]     When an object is placed into an evanescent field, it may alter the shape of this field and create a field propagating in a different direction or directions. This process is scattering which generates the scattered field. Usually the stronger the field is into which a scattering object is placed, the stronger is the scattered field.  
         [0035]     The decay of intensity, L, of the evanescent wave as a function of distance from the interface of total internal reflection, h, is given by:  
                 L   ⁡     (   h   )       =         L   0     ⁢     exp   ⁡     (           -   4     ⁢   π   ⁢           ⁢     n   2       λ     ⁢   β   ⁢           ⁢   h     )           β   =             (       n   1       n   2       )     2     ⁢     sin   2     ⁢     θ   i       -   1             ,           (   1   )             
 
 where L 0  is the intensity of the incident electromagnetic radiation (which is also the intensity of the evanescent field at zero separation), n 1  is the refractive index of the incident medium, n 2  is the refractive index of the medium supporting the evanescent wave (n 1 &gt;n 2 ), λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation in vacuum, and θ i  is the angle of incidence relative to the normal. 
 
         [0036]     If a colloidal particle or another scattering object dips into the zone of the evanescent field, some of the light is scattered (lost from the reflected beam). For the types of systems typically studied with the technique, the intensity of scattering by the particle, I, is proportional to the intensity of the evanescent wave, L, at a separation distance h. Thus the separation between the particle and the interface may be measured providing that that I 0 , n 1 , n 2 , and θ i  are either known or may be measured. θ i , n 1 , and n 2  are often fixed. However, there is no easy way of obtaining I 0 . Therefore, to obtain the distance or separation when the probe and the reflection element are in contact, the particle is brought in to contact with the reflection element by motion of the probe relative to the sample using a piezoelectric or other translation stage.  
         [0037]     Turning now to  FIG. 2 , the principle of operation of the direct measurement evanescent wave device is illustrated there. A colloidal sphere  13  is attached to a cantilever  12 . A first incident laser beam  10  impinges on the cantilever  12  and is reflected from it as a first reflected beam  11  The force acting exerted on the sphere  13  by surface/interface  15  is determined from the change in position of beam  11  as reflected from the cantilever  12 . A second incident beam  17  enters a prism  14  and is then internally reflected as a second reflected beam  18  at an interface  15  between the prism and the medium outside. An evanescent field (not shown in  FIG. 2 ) is excited outside the prism as a result of total internal reflection of second incident beam  17  at interface  15 . When the colloidal sphere  13  is dipped into the evanescent field, some amount of the evanescent field is scattered off sphere  13 . Some of this field is scattered back into the prism  14  and is captured by a microscope objective  16 . The intensity of the captured light is then recorded by a PMT (not shown in  FIG. 2 ). In another manifestation, the second incident beam enters via the microscope objective.  
         [0038]     Turning now to  FIG. 3 , shown there is one of the embodiments of the present invention allowing one to measure evanescent wave scattering in a colloid probe AFM (for example, a PicoSPM Atomic Force Microscope by Molecular Imaging in Phoenix, Ariz., USA). Specifically,  FIG. 3  shows a schematic evanescent wave Atomic Force Microscope (EW-AFM) in which an evanescent wave  25  is generated by total internal reflection of a laser beam  34  on a boundary  210  between a sample  21  and a medium  22 . The EW-AFM microscope in  FIG. 3  was built around an optical microscope  26  (for example, an Axiovert  200  inverted optical microscope by Carl Zeiss, Thornwood, N.Y., USA) and an Atomic Force Microscope,  36 . Optical microscope  26  was used for viewing a probe  23  and detecting a scattered evanescent signal  24 , similar to the function of the microscope objective  16  in  FIG. 2 . Instead of a microscope  26 , another device for detecting scattered electromagnetic waves may be used, for example, a photodetector or a camera. The probe  23  may be, for example, a colloid probe, but this invention remains functional for any other type of probes interacting with the surface of the sample  21 . In  FIG. 3  the probe  23  is a part of an atomic force microscope  36 , but it also can be a part of any other type of a scanning probe microscope. In the particular embodiment shown in  FIG. 3 , a trapezoidal quartz prism (Knight Optical, UK) served as an internal reflection element as well as sample  21 . In other embodiments the sample could be a glass slide or dish and and the internal reflection element could be a lens. The magnitude of translation of the probe  23  normal to the sample  21  (in the Z-direction normal to the surface of boundary  210 ) may be controlled with a piezoelectric translation stage  27 , which was calibrated against a 22.0 nm height standard from Silicon MDT (Moscow, Russia). The deflection of a cantilever  28  coupled to the probe  23  was detected through changes in the slope of the cantilever  28  where probe  23  is attached and where a laser beam  30  from a laser source  29  (for example a 670 nm beam from a diode laser) impinges onto the cantilever. The change in the slope of the cantilever  28  causes a change in the reflection angle of beam  30 . Instead of a laser beam, another source  29  of electromagnetic radiation capable of reflecting off the cantilever  28  may used in other embodiments. The change of the reflection angle of the beam  30  after reflecting off the cantilever  28  is detected by a detection device  31 , such as a photodiode or any other device suitable for detecting electromagnetic radiation. This method of determining the deflection is also known as the light lever method.  
         [0039]     In one embodiment, the AFM  36  is connected to the optical microscope  26  via a custom aluminum plate allowing translation of the AFM  36  relative to the viewing (optical) axis of the optical microscope  26 , and the prism  21  is fixed relative to the AFM  36 , ensuring that the probe  23  may always be seen by the microscope  26 .  
         [0040]     Evanescent wave  25  is generated by totally internally reflecting beam  34  at boundary  210  between the sample prism  21  and medium  22 . In  FIG. 3  beam  34  comes from a separate radiation source  32 , which is practical in the illustrated embodiment, but is not required. One example of a suitable light source  32  is a 1 W argon-ion laser (Innova Enterprise II, model  610 , from Coherent, Santa Clara, Calif., USA) The output of the source  32  may be brought to the prism sample  21  by an optical fiber  33 . Since the output of the source  32  may be dispersed by the prism sample  21 , in the embodiment of  FIG. 3  the 514.5 nm line is used for total internal reflection and generation of the evanescent wave  25 . The electromagnetic radiation is coupled into a single mode optical fiber  33  and focused into a spot (about 100 μm in diameter in the present embodiment) on the boundary  210  of the prism  21  by a focusing means  35 . A typical output power from the optical fiber in this embodiment is 35˜50 mW. The incidence angle of the beam  34  for the shown setup is approximately 78°.  
         [0041]     Because AFM  36  partly obscures the light scattered by the probe upward from the probe into the medium  22 , it is more practical to detect the light that has been scattered back into the reflecting medium, which is sample prism  21 . However, in other embodiments, the light could be detected at different angles. In  FIG. 3  the microscope  26  collects the light scattered from the probe  23  back into the sample  21 . After the scattered back light  24  is captured by the microscope  26 , the intensity of scattered light  24  may be measured and monitored by sending the scattered back light signal to a photomultiplier tube (PMT)  37  (for example, HC120-01 from Hamamatsu with a model E3630).  
         [0042]     A portion of beam  30 , which is used for detection of the deflection of cantilever  28 , impinges on the objective of microscope  26  and is captured by the microscope in addition to the captured scattered back light  24 . For example, beam  30  can be the 670 nm laser, while beam  34  can be the 514 nm laser. Since the intensity of such portion of the 670 nm beam  30  may be greater than the intensity of scattered 514 nm light  24 , a filter (such as Part No. 514DF20 from Omega Optical, Brattleboro, Vt., USA) may be used to eliminate the unwanted portion of beam  30 . The analog voltage output from the PMT  37  may be digitized by the corresponding AFM electronics  38  synchronously with the voltage applied to displace the piezoelectric translation stage  27  and record the information about the deflection of cantilever  28  supplied by the detection device  31 . The use of this invention is not limited to the particular wavelength of radiation mentioned above.  
         [0043]     The data from AFM electronics  38  may be collected into a computer  39 . The light captured by the microscope  26  may be further monitored by a CCD camera  40  coupled to a monitor  41 . The microscope  26  may be mounted on an optical table  42  equipped with vibration isolation means, such as bungee cords.  
         [0044]     In some embodiments the medium  22  into which the generated evanescent field propagates can be a liquid solution disposed between the probe  23  and the sample  21  in a fluid cell. The fluid cell may consist of a Teflon cylinder of about 1.5 cm diameter that is press-fit against the reflection element  21 . The other side is open to the air. Fluids can be exchanged via input ports of the AFM  36 . One example of a suitable liquid solution is a 0.9 mM aqueous solution of hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (C 16 TABr). The CTABr from Aldrich is recrystallized three times from acetone and the water is prepared using a Nanopure water purifier by Barnstead. The data discussed below were obtained by using a borosilicate glass sphere of radius ˜3 μm and a refractive index n p , of 1.46 as the probe  23  (from Polysciences, Warrington, Pa., USA). The probe  23  is attached to the end of an AFM cantilever  28  (spring constant 1.4˜2.1 N/m from Park Scientific, Sunnyvale, Calif., USA) with the Epikote  1004  glue. Probes with a refractive index closer to that of water (such as silica spheres with n p ˜1.37 from Bangs Laboratories, Fishers, Ind., USA) produce less scattering, and probes with a greater refractive index (such as polystyrene) produce greater scattering.  
         [0045]     There was a wide variety of scattering intensities from borosilicate colloidal probes that had similar sized spheres. It is suspect that some of the intensity that is sensed by PMT  37  may originate from light that is transmitted through the probe and is then reflected from the cantilever and or the tip. The scattering signal would then depend on the exact position of the sphere relative to the tip and the cantilever. However, one advantage of the present EW-AFM method is that that we can easily calibrate the scattering for each colloidal probe, so a detailed understanding of the scattering is not required for interpreting the experimental data.  
         [0046]     The measurements performed with the EW-AFM according to the above-described method evidence the exponential decay of the intensity of the evanescent field scatted back by the probe  23 .  FIG. 4A  shows the measured relationship between the intensity of the scattered back evanescent light  24  (expressed as the voltage on the PMT  37  output) and the displacement of piezo-drive  27 . The measurements were obtained by ramping the piezo drive and measuring the intensity of the scattered back light. As  FIG. 4A  illustrates, the intensity of the scattered back light  24  from the colloid probe  23  detected by the PMT  37  varied exponentially with distance h between the probe  23  and the reflection element  21 , similar to the exponential decay of intensity of the evanescent field  25  in medium  22 . In order to use equation (1) for calculating I(h), the background intensity was subtracted first. The background intensity is the amount of light that falls on the PMT  37  when the particle probe  23  is far from the reflection element sample  21 , and which amount of light therefore does not arise from scattering of the evanescent wave  25 . Hereinafter, the symbol I or I(h) is used to represent the intensity after the background has been subtracted. The intensity minus background is also obtained when there is a zero separation between the colloidal probe  23  and the sample  21  (I 0 ). Subtracting the background can also be done by inspecting the curve on  FIG. 4A  and noting when the intensity reaches a plateau. The constant compliance region of the AFM deflection-displacement curve may also be used to find the correct region of the data for I 0 .  
         [0047]     In some embodiments the value of I 0  may be determined once at the beginning of the measurement by bringing the particle probe  23  into contact with the sample  21  in some condition where one expects a steep potential well (e.g. solvent only). Then all subsequent separation data may be referenced to this combination of position and intensity. In other embodiments, a constant value of I 0  may rely on a constant intensity of illumination by the laser beam  34  and a constant background (constant scattering by objects other than the particle probe  23 ). Alternatively, the incident laser intensity could be monitored over time, and used to normalize I 0 .  
         [0048]     The arrow  302  in  FIG. 4A  is in the same position as arrow  1111  in  FIG. 1A , and indicates the yielding of the adsorbed surfactant layer.  
         [0049]     In some embodiments, the separation, h, may be determined by measuring I and another physical property such as the hydrodynamic resistance, or I as a function of wavelength or incident angle, θ, so as to effectively obtain I 0 .  
         [0050]      FIG. 4B  shows ln(I/I 0 ) as a function of a piezo-drive distance. It shows that ln(I 0 /I) is linear with separation between the probe  23  and the sample  21 , in this embodiment, out to about 350 nm separation; and that at larger separations the noise in the scattering is too large to make accurate measurements of the functional form. The measured decay length (from the slope in  FIG. 3B ) is 83±1 nm, while the value calculated from equation (1) for I(h) is about 79 nm. This latter value was calculated using the following parameters: incidence angle, θ=78±0.3°, n 1  (at the 514 nm wavelength)=1.4616 (values supplied by Saint Gobain, France, for SPECTROSIL® grade silica), and n 2  (at the 580 nm wavelength)=1.3328. This discrepancy is reasonable considering the error in calibrating the piezo-drive  27  (˜5%), and the error arising from the uncertainty in estimating the incidence angle of the beam  34  (˜1%). Deviations from a linear form of ln(I 0 /I) may arise from instrumental issues such as a non-linearity of piezo drive  27 , more complex scattering phenomena, or a change in or inhomogeneous refractive indices. In addition, deviations from linearity may occur when the cantilever  28  deflects in response to a surface force acting on the particle probe  23 . In the embodiments where the surface force is known to be very short ranged (e.g., 0.1 M (aq)  NaCl), the ln(I 0 /I) function is approximately linear down to a separation of about 5 nm. Deviations from linearity become significant for distances less than 160 nm, as can be seen in  FIG. 4B , because the cantilever  28  has deflected under an applied surface force. Thus, changes in separation between the probe  23  and the sample  21  are no longer equal to changes in the position of the piezo-drive  27 . This deviation may be used to measure the deflection of the cantilever and the corresponding force, which is shown below in  FIG. 5A . The constant zero value of ln(I/I 0 ) (at distance &lt;˜60 nm) in  FIG. 4A  corresponds to the region  2  in  FIG. 1A .  
         [0051]     The results of the measurements of the force profile are presented in  FIGS. 5A and 5B , showing the deflection of the cantilever determined from the deviation from linearity of the evanescent wave scattering in  FIG. 4B  as a function of the separation measured by evanescent wave scattering. The graph in  FIG. 5A  is obtained by replotting the raw intensity data from  FIG. 4A  with separation calculated from ln(I/I 0 ) from  FIG. 4B . The force was calculated as the deflection times the spring constant. The deflection  41  is determined from the deviation between the separation corresponding to the measured data and expected separation if the linear region were to continue to smaller separations.  
         [0052]      FIG. 5B  shows a graph of the cantilever deflection, calculated from evanescent scattering of the beam  34  as a function of separation, also calculated from the evanescent scattering. Deflection cantilever  28  was determined from the deviation from linearity of the evanescent wave scattering in  FIG. 4B  as a function of the separation measured by evanescent wave scattering. The force was calculated as the deflection times the spring constant. The deflection curve is very similar to that measured using the AFM  36  (if compared to  FIG. 1B  where the spring deflection was determined using the light lever technique), which similarity shows that one may use the evanescent wave data alone to measure a force curve (without the AFM light lever method) while the AFM can simply be used as a flexible support of known stiffness.  
         [0053]     It becomes evident that one of the advantages of using the evanescent scattering technique to the measure the force curve in accordance with the EW-AFM method is the ability to measure forces in an absorbing or opaque liquid. Because the path length of the AFM laser beam  30  is on the order of millimeters, whereas the path length for the evanescent field  25  (shown in  FIG. 3 ) in the fluid is &lt;100 nm, the absorbance will be much less in the evanescent field. Thus the evanescent field scattering technique may be used to measure force curves in fluids with a transmittance that is too low for the traditional colloidal probe technique.  
         [0054]     Another advantage of the described EW-AFM method is that the optical fringes produced by interference between the light reflected from the sample and light reflected from the cantilever may sometimes distort the measured force profile. This problem may be easily circumvented in the new technique by simply turning off the AFM laser beam  30 .  
         [0055]      FIG. 6  shows the measured force (expressed as the cantilever deflection) as a function of the separation when the force has been determined using the light lever method and the separation has been determined from the evanescent scattering. At the vertical portion of the force at about 5 nm, the total scatter in distance is about ±1 nm. The standard deviation for these 25 points is 0.6 nm, and the standard deviation for the first 10 points in contact is 0.37 nm. This resolution is sufficient to perform force measurements. Much of the noise arises from the random fluctuations in the intensity of the incident laser beam  34 , which may be minimized by (a) conditioning the incident laser beam  34  used to produce the evanescent wave prior to reflection, such as with an electro-optic laser stabilization system, and (b) collecting more points and averaging the signal (i.e., if the noise is random, then the fluctuations should average to zero) and (c) by employing a quieter laser, such as a diode pumped laser.  
         [0056]      FIG. 7  compares the measured force-separation curves for three different analysis methods. Data plotted as  61  are the deflections measured by the light lever method versus the separations measured by evanescent scattering (as shown in  FIG. 6 ). Data plotted as  62  are the deflections measured by the light lever method versus the separations measured by a combination of piezo-drive data and the light lever method (as shown in  FIG. 1B ). Data plotted as  63  are the deflections measured by evanescent scattering versus the separations measured by evanescent scattering (as shown in  FIG. 5B ). Note that the piezo-drive was used to calibrate the evanescent scattering and the light lever method. The good agreement between the three sets of data validates the use of the evanescent scattering signal for force measurements.  
         [0057]     The EW-AFM method and its various embodiments have a number of advantages over the traditional colloid probe technique for studying interaction forces. The evanescent wave scattered off the probe provides a way to directly measure the distance separating the probe and the sample. After an initial calibration of the evanescent field decay, one does not need to rely on the linearity of the piezo-drive  27  response or the diode detector  31  of the AFM  36 . It is also not necessary to press the probe  23  against the surface  210  to calibrate the cantilever  28  deflection, which is advantageous for such surfaces  210  that could be soft or fragile. With the addition of a feedback loop, the force measurements can be performed at a constant separation by feeding back on the evanescent signal. Because the evanescent scattering signal is still detectable at distances well beyond the range of many surface forces (250 nm compared to less than 100 nm for most surface forces), it is becomes possible to determine when the probe  23  is approaching the surface  210  while yet still not experiencing a significant force from the surface  210 . This is an advantage for those measurements when the first contact with the surface  210  may be different from subsequent contacts, as could be the case with fragile samples or cavitation-inducing hydrophobic samples.  
         [0058]     The intensity of scattering of the evanescent wave is detected by a photomultiplier tube, photodiode or other light sensitive technique. The signal from the detector is compared to a standard intensity, “the setpoint”, that is set by the user. Because the scattering intensity measures an optical height above the solid sample, the choice of a setpoint represents a choice of the height of the probe above the sample. The comparison is made by an operational amplifier or other electronic circuit: the circuit takes the difference between the setpoint and the actual scattering signal and supplies a signal to move a translation stage so as to change the separation between the probe and the solid. This process produces negative feedback because the separation defines the scattering and the scattering defines the change in separation via the translation stage. The effect of the negative feedback is to produce a constant scattering signal that is set by the user. The constant scattering signal corresponds to a constant height above the sample. In summary, a method has been established for maintaining a constant height above the sample. A map of a physical property of the surface (an image) can be obtained by use of an additional, two dimensional, translation stage to translate the probe parallel to the solid surface. The two dimensional translation stage is used to position the tip, sequentially, at all positions on a grid above the surface, while the feedback loop is activated. The feedback loop maintains a constant height above the surface. During this process, an additional variable is measured. The new variable will be dependent on a property of the probe-solid system. For example, the property could be the conductivity or tunneling current or force between the probe and the solid. A record of this additional property as a function of grid position constitutes a map of the surface. A map can also be made by using the additional property as the input to the feedback loop while keeping a record of the change in scattering to maintain the setpoint.  
         [0059]     A scanning probe microscope uses translation stages to move a probe relative to a solid. To provide a map of the solid, an Atomic Force Microscope keeps an accurate and precise record of the change in positions of the probe relative to the solid. Translation stages are actuated by applying a known voltage or current to the stage, and the translation is then calculated by transforming the voltage or current into a distance. Translation devices can be mechanical, piezoelectric, electrosensitive or others, as called for by a particular application. The functional form of this transformation (the calibration) is obtained by moving the stage a known distance and measuring the voltage or current required to effect the translation of this distance. In other words, calibrations call for a method of obtaining or measuring a known distance. The evanescent scattering signal provides a direct measure of the separation between a probe and a solid, and thus scattering can be used to obtain a known distance and to calibrate a translation stage. Evanescent scattering is particularly useful in such context, because it provides a continuous measurement of distances in the range of 0-300 nm, useful to scanning probe microscopes.  
         [0060]     The scattered evanescent wave signal can also be used for spectroscopy. If a range of frequencies of beam  34  is used, the molecules in the thin film between the probe  23  and sample  21  can be identified. Absorption of light by these molecules is distinct from the absorption of light by the molecules adsorbed to other regions, because the adsorption depends on the separation between the probe  23  and the solid substrate. Alternatively, if the separation distance is obtained from a conventional AFM analysis, the amount of material in the gap may be determined by monitoring either absorption or scattering by fluorescently-labeled material.  
         [0061]     As described above, if the deflection is not measured by the AFM  36 , moderately absorbing or opaque liquids may be used as medium  22 . In addition, the force measurement is not affected by interference from the AFM laser beam  30 .  
         [0062]     Another significant advantage of using the scattered evanescent signal is that it allows measurement of the thickness of a thin film during a force measurement. If a stable reference value of I 0  is obtained, the optical thickness of the thin film is determined by measuring I. For example, in conventional colloidal probe work between two solids, if a force-separation curve is measured in the presence of an adsorbate (thin film), there is no way of uniquely establishing whether the probe is in contact with the solid or if there is an intervening thin film. If a force-separation-evanescent scattering intensity run is performed in the absence of an adsorbate and then again after the adsorbate has been added, then the presence of a thin intervening film may be identified through the diminished evanescent scattered back signal, compared to I 0 , when a large repulsive force is measured. By pushing the probe through the layer, the thickness and spatially-averaged refractive index may be measured by combining the optical distance from the scattered back signal and the displacement of the probe  23  from a conventional colloid probe analysis.  
         [0063]     Other advantages of embodiments of this invention arise from greater control over the displacement of the particle probe  23 . The particle probe  23  is brought into contact with the solid sample  21  at any time in order to check I 0 . This is especially useful if a second, unwanted particle migrates and deposits near the test particle, thereby changing the background signal and hence I 0 . The AFM stage may be used to push and pull the particle probe  23  over the energy barriers near the surface  210 .  
         [0064]     Embodiments of this invention may also be used for energy-separation measurements. For a constant position of the piezo-drive  27 , the separations may be monitored over time by using the evanescent scattering signal. A histogram of separation frequency may then be used to determine the energy as a function of separation using the Boltzmann&#39;s equation. This energy includes the energy of the spring deflection, so the spring constant must first be measured at large separation where there is no surface force. One advantage of adding the potential of the spring is that one may measure more of the energy-separation curve. The attachment of the spring may be used to alter the total potential so that new positions, e.g., the maxima in oscillatory forces or attractive forces, become accessible. If a thermal drift in the dimensions of the connections between the probe  23  and the sample  21  cause changes in the zero of the spring potential, the drift may be monitored by measuring the deflection of the AFM spring or the change in the histogram with time.  
         [0065]     While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.