Abstract:
A method is disclosed for inhibiting nitric oxide formation in a warm blooded mammal afflicted with an acute or chronic inflammatory disease which comprises administering to said mammal an effective nitric oxide inhibitory amount of methyl-, or 1,1-dimethyl-, or amino-substituted guanidines.

Description:
This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health grants DK06181, T32, DK07297, EY006600, HL39934, and DK20579. 
    
    
     CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/328,925, filed on Oct. 25, 1994 now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 08/110,915, filed Aug. 24, 1993, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,358,969 which is in turn, a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 07/843,387, filed Feb. 28, 1992 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,246,971 and application Ser. No. 07/906,632, filed Jun. 30, 1992, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,246,970 each of which are a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 07/807,912, filed Dec. 16, 1991 now abandoned. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to a method of-inhibiting nitric oxide formation in warm blooded mammals and, more particularly, to the administration of methyl-, dimethyl-, or amino-substituted guanidinies as inhibitors of nitric oxide production in a host afflicted with acute or chronic inflammatory disease. 
     Nitric oxide synthase catalyzes the mixed functional oxidation of t-arginine to t-citrulline and nitric oxide (NO. 5 &#39;1)  Stuehr et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88, 7773 (1991)!. NO appears to function as either a signaling or an effector molecule depending on the isoform of the enzyme. The constitutive isoform of nitric oxide synthase produces small amounts of NO. which activate guanylate cyclase resulting in the formation of cGMP which mediates endothelium-dependent relaxation  Moncada et al., Pharmacol. Reviews 43, 109 (1991)! and neural transmission  Garthwaite, Trends Neurol. Sci. 14, 60 (1991)!. NO. is produced in much larger amounts by the cytokine and endotoxin inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase, and in macrophages functions as an effector molecule which appears to mediate the cytotoxic actions of macrophages on target cells  Hibbs et al., Nitric Oxide from L-Arginine: A Bioregulatory System, S. Moncada and E. Higgs, Eds. Elsevier, N.Y., pp. 189-223 (1990)!. Since NO. is a potent vasodilator and increases blood flow, and since vasoactive agents (such as histamine and bradykinin), which stimulate NO. production increase both blood flow and vascular permeability, NO. may be a candidate for mediating increases in blood flow and vascular permeability induced by diabetes and elevated glucose  Pugliese et al., Diabetes/Metabolism Reviews 7, 35 (1991)!. 
     Recently, Interleukin- 1 (IL-1) has been shown to induce the expression of the cytokine inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase in pancreatic islets. The production of NO. has been proposed to be the effector molecule which mediates IL-1&#39;s inhibitory effects on islet function  Southern et al., FEBS. Lett. 276, 42 (1990) and Corbett et al., Biochemical J. 287,229 (1992)!. Generation of an IL-induced EPR detectable iron-nitrosyl complex, which is prevented by N G  monomethyl-t-arginine (NNMA), has been used to confirm the formation of nitric oxide by islets  Corbett et al., J. Biol. Chem. 266, pp. 21351-21354 (1991)!. Also, the protein synthesis inhibitor, cycloheximide has been shown to block IL-1-induced nitrite formation, cGMP accumulation, and EPR detectable iron-nitrosyl complex formation by islets, thus establishing that IL-1 induces the cytokine inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase in pancreatic islets  Corbett et al., Biochemical J. 287, 229 (1992)!. 
     The pathogenesis of diabetic complications has been linked to imbalances in sorbitol, myo-inositol, and 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol metabolism, and to non-enzymatic glycation of cellular and extracellular constituents  Pugliese et al., Diabetes/Metabolism 35 Reviews 7, 37 (1991)!. The glycation link is supported by evidence that aminoguanidinie, a nucleophilic hydrazine compound, interferes with the formation of these glycation products and also attenuates the development of several diabetes-induced vascular  Pugliese et al., Diabetes/Metabolism Reviews 7, 35 (1991); Williamson et al., Diabetes &amp; Metab. 16, 3369 (1990); Soulis-Liparota et al., Diabetes 40, 1328 (1991)!, neural  Kihara et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88, 6107 (1991)! and collagen changes  Brownlee et al., New Encl. J. Med. 318, 1315 (1988) and Brownlee et al., Science 232, 1629 (1986)!. Bucala et al., J. Clin. Invest. 87, 432 (1991) recently, reported that quenching of NO. in vitro by glycated albumin is attenuated by aminoguanidine (present during exposure of albumin to glycating agents) and suggested that glycation products may impair endothelium-dependent relaxation by attenuating NO. activity. 
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with the present invention a novel method of inhibiting nitric oxide formation in warm blooded mammals afflicted with acute or chronic inflammatory diseases is provided. The method comprises administering to warm blooded mammals afflicted with acute or chronic inflammatory diseases a small but nitric oxide inhibitory effective amount of methyl-, dimethyl-, or amino-substituted guanidines. These inhibitory compounds are also chemically named as aminoguanidinie, N, N&#39;-diaminoguanidine, methylguanidine and 1, 1-dimethylguanidine. 
     It will be understood that pharmaceutically acceptable salts of these compounds, e.g., the HCl, HCO 3  and sulfate salts, can also be administered to the host in accordance with the method of the invention. Inflammation can be conveniently divided into acute and chronic conditions. Acute inflammation is generally of relatively short duration and lasts for about a few minutes to about one to two days. Its main characteristics are increased blood flow, exudation of fluid and plasma proteins (edema) and emigration of leukocytes, predominantly neutrophils. Chronic inflammation is of longer duration and is associated histologically with the presence of lymphocytes and macrophages and with proliferation of blood vessels and connective tissue. Inflammation is manifested by heat, redness, swelling, pain and loss of function. See, e.g., Cotran, Kumar and Robbins, Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease, 4th ed., W. B. Saunders Company, pp.40-41(1989); Chandrasoma and Taylor, Concise Pathology, First Edition, pp. 35-44, Appleton &amp; Lange (1991). 
     The causes of inflammation are numerous and include such factors as microbial infections (e.g., bacterial and fungal infections), physical agents such as burns, radiation and trauma, chemical agents such as toxins and caustic substances, necrotic tissue and various types of immunologic reactions. 
     The present invention is directed to the prevention/treatment of a broad spectrum of diseases which may be linked to the production of nitric oxide by leukocytes (neutrophils and macrophages) and other cells of nonhemopoietic origin as distinguished from diseases mediated by immunologic reactions as claimed in copending application Ser. No. 07/906,632. The treatment of acute inflammatory disease is particularly illustrated herein in greater detail against endotoxin-induced acute uveitis and generalized vascular leakage. 
     In these illustrative treatments, a standard state-of-the-art animal model is used, namely tile endotoxin-induced uveitis in the rat such as described by Cousins et al., Exo. Eve Res. 39, 665-676 (1984); Herbort et al., Graefe&#39;s Arch. Clin. Exo. Ophthalmol. 226, 553-558 (1988). However, it will be understood that the method of the invention is not limited to the treatment of uveitis but includes treatment of other acute and chronic inflammatory diseases as mentioned above. These diseases include but are not limited to diseases such as, for example, acute and chronic infections (bacterial and fungal, including diphtheria and pertussis); acute and chronic bronchitis, sinusitis, and upper respiratory infections, including the common cold; acute and chronic gastroenteritis and colitis; acute and chronic cystitis) and urethritis; acute and chronic dermatitis; acute and chronic conjunctivitis; acute and chronic serositis (pericarditis, peritonitis, synovitis, pleuritis and tendinitis); uremic pericarditis; acute and chronic cholecystitis; acute and chronic vaginitis; drug reactions; insect bites; burns (thermal, chemical, and electrical); and sunburn. 
     The present invention is likewise applicable to the treatment of a variety of inflammatory disease states including infectious diseases where active infection exists at any body site, such as in the instance of meningitis. Also included are conditions such as secondary infections that may occur at a site of antigen deposition that is secondary to a primary infection at a distant body site, and exemplary specific conditions in addition to uveitis would include meningitis, encephalitis, arthritis, such as inflammatory bowel/Crohn&#39;s disease, and skin conditions such as psoriasis, whether acute or chronic; eczema; contact dermatitis; poison ivy; poison oak; poison sumac; and like inflammation-mediated conditions. Also included is the inflammation that results from alterations in leukocyte movement during infection such as adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with sepsis. 
     Other inflammatory disease states include those deriving from immune disorders including involvement with T-cell and/or macrophage attachment/recognition, such as acute and delayed hypersensitivity, graft vs. host disease; primary auto-immune conditions such as pernicious anemia, and auto-immune conditions such as Type I diabetes mellitus, and flares during rheumatoid arthritis for diseases that involve leukocyte diapedesis, such as multiple sclerosis; antigen-antibody complex mediated diseases including certain of the secondary infection states listed above; and transplant rejection. Inflammation due to toxic shock or trauma such as adult respiratory distress syndrome and reperfusion injury; is likewise included within the scope hereof. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 is a bar graph which shows the effect of increasing dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; endotoxin purified from Salmonella minnesota) on regional  125  I-albumin permeation (normalized to controls). The fold increase (from 0 to in excess of 4-fold increase) over controls is shown on the y axis for various tissues indicated on the x axis at three levels of LPS, namely 50 μg, 100 μg and 200 μg LPS as a divided dose injected into both hind footpads of Lewis rats. 
     FIG. 2 is a bar graph which shows the effect of 35 endotoxin dose on regional blood flow changes. Blood flow changes in ml/min/g wet weight are shown as a fold increase (from 0 to in excess of 1.5-fold increase) on the y axis for various tissues indicated on the x axis at two levels of LPS, namely 100 μg and 200 μg LPS as a divided dose injected in Lewis rats as in FIG. 1. 
     FIG. 3 in four parts, FIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C and 3D, is a graphical representation which shows aqueous fluid leukocyte cell counts in Lewis rats treated with 100 μg LPS. Cell counts of the aqueous fluid (FIG. 3A) and of three types of infiltrating cells into the aqueous fluid (FIG. 3B, lymphocytes; FIG. 3C, monocytes; and FIG. 3D, PMN) are shown on a logarithmic scale on the y axis for controls (-) and for LPS before (-) and after (+) treatment with 100 mg/Kg aminoguanidine (Ag) on the x axis. Each filled in circle () represents the cell count from an individual rat. 
     FIG. 4 is a graphical representation which shows the effect of aminoguanidine on plasma nitrate/nitrite levels in Lewis rats treated with 100 4g LPS. Plasma nitrate/nitrite levels in μg are shown on the y axis for 20 control (-) and for LPS before (-) and after (+) treatment with 100 mg/Kg aminoguanidine. 
     FIG. 5 is a graph demonstrating that aminoguanidinie attenuates IL-1-induced PGE 2  production by rat islets. 
     FIG. 6 is a graph demonstrating that aminoguanidinie attenuates IL-1-induced PGE 2  production by purified β-cells. 
     FIG. 7 is a graph demonstrating that exogenous nitric oxide stimulates PGE 2  production by rat islets. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     In order to further illustrate the invention, the following detailed Examples were carried out although it should be understood that the invention is not limited to these specific Examples or the details described therein which are for illustrative and not limitative purposes. The results obtained in these Examples are further shown in Tables 1 to 4 hereinbelow and the accompanying FIGS. 1to 4. 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     Endotoxin-induced acute uveitis and generalized vascular leakage: inhibition by aminoguanidine 
     Methods 
     Animals and materials 
     Male Lewis rats (-200 g) were purchased from Harlan Sprague Dawley (Indianapolis, Ind.) and housed and cared for in accordance with the guidelines of the Washington University Committee for the Humane Care of Laboratory Animals and in accordance with NIH guidelines on laboratory animal welfare. 
     Rats were housed individually, fed standard rat chow (Ralston Purina, Richmond, Ind.) and water ad libitum, and were on a 12 hour light/dark cycle. Aminoguanidine (hemisulfate), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS; Salmonella minnesota) were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.).  125  I and  46  Sc microspheres were obtained from NEN Research Products (Boston, Mass.) 1311 was obtained from ICN Biomedicals, Inc. (Costa Mesa, Calif.) 
     Induction of LPS-induced vascular injury 
     LPS was dissolved in sterile pyrogen-free 0.9% saline at concentrations of 1pg/pl, and unless stated otherwise, 50 pl was injected into each hind footpad (100 pg total dose per rat) using metofane anesthesia as described previously by other investigators  Herbort et al., Graefe&#39;s Arch. Clin. Exn. Opththalmol. 226, pp. 553-558 (1988); and Hoekzema et al., Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 33, pp. 532-539 (1992)!. Control rats received an equal volume of 0.9% saline. 100 mg/kg body weight aminoguanidine was injected subcutaneously in 30 LPS-treated and in control rats at 0, 3, 6, 12, 18 and within 60 minutes of the initiation of the test, which corresponds to 20-24 hours after LPS injection. 
     Assessment of vascular function 
     Regional vascular albumin permeation was quantified by use of an isotope dilution technique based on the injection of bovine serum albumin (BSA) labeled with 2 different iodine isotopes,  125  I and  131  I   Pugliese et al., Metabolism 39 pp. 690-697 (1990); Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990); and Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 312-322 (1990)!.  125  I BSA was used to quantify vascular albumin filtration after 10 min. of tracer circulation while  131  1 BSA served as a plasma volume marker for correction of  125  I-BSA tissue activity for tracer contained within vessels. Purified monomer IBSA (1 mg) was iodinated with 1 mCi of  131  1 or  125  I by the iodogen, method as previously described  Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990)!. 
     Rats were anesthetized with Inactin (Byk Gulden, Konstanz, FRG) (-100 mg/kg body weight injected i.p.), and core body temperature maintained at 37°±0.5° C. using heat lamps, a 37° C. surgical tray, and, a rectal temperature probe. The left femoral vein, left iliac artery, and right subclavian artery were cannulated with polyethylene tubing (0.58 mm i.d.) filled with heparinized saline (400 V heparin/ml). The femoral vein cannula was used for tracer injection and the subclavian artery cannula was connected to a pressure transducer for blood pressure monitoring. The left iliac artery was connected to a 1 ml syringe attached to a Harvard Model 940 constant withdrawal pump preset to withdraw at a constant rate of, 0.055 mil/mil. The trachea was intubated and connected to a small rodent respirator for continuous ventilatory support. Microspheres were injected into the left ventricle through a carotid-artery cannula. 
     At time 0,  125  I-albumin was injected and the withdrawal pump was started simultaneously. Eight min. after time 0, 131I-BSA was injected, followed by the microspheres. At the 10 min mark, the heart was excised to stop all blood flow, the withdrawal pump was stopped simultaneously, and various tissues were sampled for gamma spectrometry. 
     The left eye was dissected as previously-described  Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990); and Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 312-322 (1990)! and all tissue samples and arterial plasma samples were weighed, then counted in a gamma spectrometer. A quantitative index of  125  BSA tissue clearance was calculated as previously described in  Pugliese et al., Metabolism 39, pp. 690-697 (1990); Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990); Pugliese et al., and Diabetes 39, pp. 312-322 (1990)! and expressed as μg plasma/g tissue wet weight/min. Briefly,  125  I-BSA tissue activity was corrected for tracer contained within the tissue vasculature by multiplying  125  I-BSA activity in the tissue by the ratio of  125  BSA/131I-BSA activities in tile arterial plasma sample obtained at the end of the test. The vascular-corrected  125  -BSA tissue activity was divided by the time-averaged  125  I-BSA plasma activity (obtained from a well mixed sample of plasma taken from the withdrawal syringe) and by the tracer circulation time (10 min) and then normalized per g tissue wet weight. To calculate blood flow, total activity of  46  Scin each ocular tissue was divided by the activity of  46  Sc in tile reference blood sample obtained from the withdrawal pump syringe, multiplied by the pump withdrawal rate, and expressed as ml/g tissue/min  Pugliese et al. Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990) and Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 312-322 (1990)!. Other non-ocular tissues (aorta, kidney, skin, skeletal muscle, sciatic nerve) also were sampled to assess if LPS induced a generalized vascular dysfunction. 
     Assessment of cells in aqueous humor 
     Aqueous fluid was collected from the left eye only (the right carotid artery was ligated for the blood flow studies and this eye was not used for function studies) using a 100 μg heparinized capillary tube and placed in a microfuge tube. Well mixed aliquots (2 μl ) were spread on a siliconized glass slide, air dried, stained with Wright&#39;s stain, and the total number of cells and a differential cell count were performed using a Leitz orthoplan light microscope. 
     Plasma nitrate/nitrite measurements 
     Anticoagulated (heparin) plasma samples were centrifuged at 7500 rpm for 1 hour at 4° C. using a 10,000 5 molecular weight cut off Centricon filter (Amicon, Beverly, Mass.). Plasma nitrate was enzymatically reduced to nitrite using Aspergillus niger nitrate reductase (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). Briefly, the sample was incubated with 40 μM NADPH and 14 mU of enzyme in a final volume of 50 41 of 20 mM Tris, pH 7.6; the reaction was terminated after 5 minutes at 20° C. by dilution with 50 μl of water followed by addition of 10 μl of freshly prepared DAN reagent (0.05 mg/mil in 0.6 M HCl) for determination of nitrite. The DAN assay is a modification of the conventional method of Damiani and Burini for the fluorometric determination of nitrite  Talanta 33, 649-652 (1986)!. 2,3-Diaminonaphthalene (DAN) is reacted with nitrite under acidic conditions to form 1-(H)-naphthotriazole, a fluorescent product. After a 10 minute incubation at 20° C., the reaction was terminated with 5 μl of 2.8N NaOH, which maximizes the intensity of the fluorescent signal. Formation of the 2,3-diaminonaphthotriazole was measured using a Pandex (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, Me.) fluorescent plate reader with excitation at 365 nm and emission read at 450 nm with a gain setting at 100%. Plasma nitrite levels were calculated by first subtracting the value of the enzyme blank (nitrate reductase plus NADPH) from the experimental reading, then calculating the value using a standard curve for nitrite to which NADPH was added. 
     Statistical analysis 
     All results are expressed as means ± standard deviations. Overall differences among test groups for each parameter were first assessed by the Van der Waerden test, and individual pair-wise group comparisons were evaluated by at least square means analysis only if the Van der Waerden test was significant at p &lt;0.05 for a given parameter. A nonparametric Blom transformation of all data was performed prior to assessment of individual pair-wise group differences. 
     Results 
     Generalized vascular leakage of  125  I-albumin 
     In preliminary tests, 50, 100, and 200 pg LPS were injected either as a single injection into one hind footpad or as a divided dose injected into both hind footpads of Lewis rats. In general, increases in  125  I albumin leakage were greater for the divided dose of LPS versus a single injection. FIG. 1 shows changes in  125  I-albumin leakage expressed as a fold increase over control values for LPS given as a divided dose. Except for sciatic nerve, maximal increases in  125  I-albumin leakage normalized to control values were observed with 100 μg LPS and this dose was selected for subsequent tests. Table 1 shows changes in  125  -albumin permeation resulting from the injection of 100 pg LPS (50 μg/footpad) into footpads of Lewis rats. The Van der Waerden test indicated highly significant group differences for  125  -I-albumin leakage in the retina, anterior uvea, choroid/sclera, and aqueous fluid (p&lt;0.0001), while changes were absent in brain. At the dose and frequency used, aminoguanidine attenuated the  125  LPS-induced  125  I-albumin in leakage by -75% in the retina, sciatic nerve, and aorta, by -50% in the aqueous fluid and anterior uvea, and by -30% in the posterior uvea, without affecting  125  I-albumin leakage in controls. 
     FIG. 2 shows changes in regional blood flows expressed as a fold increase over control values for LPS administered as a divided dose. Regional blood flows increased with increasing dose of LPS in the anterior and posterior uveal vasculatures and in the heart, plateaued in the-retinal and sciatic nerve at 100 pg LPS, and was unaffected by LPS in the kidney when measured 20 hours after LPS injection. The Van der Waerden test indicated significant group differences for blood flow in the anterior uvea and choroid/sclera but not in the retina, sciatic nerve, brain, heart, and kidney (Table 2). LPS increased blood flow ˜40% in the anterior uvea and ˜25% in the choroid-sclera and these increases were prevented by aminoguanidinie. 
     Gravimetric and hemodynamic parameters 
     All gravimetric and hemodynamic parameters, including body weight, mean arterial blood pressure, cardiac output, cardiac index, total peripheral resistance, GFR (normalized either to whole kidney or g kidney wet weight), glomerular filtration fraction, and renal vascular resistance, were unaffected by the injection of 100 μg LPS (Table 3). 
     Aqueous fluid leukocyte cell counts 
     Number of cells in a well mixed 2 μl sample of aqueous fluid from controls was low, ranging from no cells in 6 animals to ˜25 cells in 2 rats (FIG. 3); the median value was ˜5 cells/2 μl fluid and was unaffected by aminoguanidine treatment in controls. As shown in FIG. 3A, 100 μl LPS significantly increased the number of cells in 2 μl of aqueous fluid. FIG. 3 also shows the types of infiltrating cells into the aqueous fluid following LPS injection. Virtually all cells in the aqueous fluid of controls (± aminoguanidinie) were lymphocytes. In aqueous fluid of rats treated with 100 μg LPS, lymphocytes (FIG. 3B), monocytes (FIG. 3C), and PMNs (FIG. 3D) increased significantly with the largest increase observed for PMNs. Aminoguanidine reduced the total number of cells in the aqueous fluid of LPS-treated rats, including ˜90% reduction in the number of PMNs. 
     Plasma nitrate/nitrite measurement 
     Plasma nitrate/nitrite levels were 17.9±8.6 μM for controls and were increased ˜65% in LPS-treated rats (FIG. 4). Aminoguanidinie treatment prevented the LPS-induced increases in plasma nitrate/nitrite levels. 
     It is seen from the above results that aminoguanidine markedly attenuated manifestations of endotoxin-induced acute uveitis (vascular-leakage, increased blood flow, and exudation of leukocytes into the aqueous fluid) as well as elevated plasma nitrate/nitrite levels. Aminoguanidine also significantly attenuated or completely prevented systemic effects of endotoxin on vascular leakage, i.e., edema (an important manifestation/consequence of inflammation) in nerve, aorta, and small intestine. 
     
                       TABLE 1______________________________________Effects of LPS (100 μg) and aminoguanidine (100 mg/kg) on regional.sup.125 I-albumin permeation (μg plasma/min/g wet weight)                       LPS +    control LPS        aminoguanidine______________________________________number of rats      14        19         11eyeaqueous fluid      65 ± 23.sup.a                294 ± 81.sup.b                           204 ± 53.sup.b,fanterior uvea      270 ± 53                611 ± 110.sup.b                           423 ± 67.sup.b,eposterior uvea      258 ± 75                612 ± 110.sup.b                           497 ± 96.sup.b,fretina     66 ± 14                154 ± 32.sup.b                           86 ± 23.sup.esciatic nerve      62 ± 14                167 ± 35.sup.b                           91 ± 20.sup.c,eaorta      75 ± 26                245 ± 64.sup.b                           114 ± 43.sup.d,eskeletal muscle      44 ± 17                62 ± 11 51 ± 10skin       110 ± 27                209 ± 73.sup.b                           186 ± 49.sup.cbrain      23 ± 11                24 ± 11 25 ± 15heart      621 ± 57                585 ± 116                           624 ± 86small intestine      377 ± 112                567 ± 247.sup.d                           375 ± 100.sup.gkidney     612 ± 212                1,173 ± 407.sup.b                           1,578 ± 251.sup.b,f______________________________________ Male Lewis rats were treated with 100 μg LPS (50 pg in each hind footpad) ± 100 mg/kg body weight aminoguanidine hemisulfate (at the time of injection of LPS and 3, 6, 12, 18, and 20-24 hours thereafter). LPS was injected at noon and the animals were sacificed the following morning. .sup.a values are mean ± SD Significantly different from controls by least square means analysis: .sup.b p &lt; 00001; .sup.c p &lt; 0001; .sup.d p &lt; 005 Significantly different from LPStreated rats least square means analysis: .sup.e p &lt; 0.0001; .sup.f p &lt; 0005; .sup.g p &lt; 005 
    
     
                       TABLE 2______________________________________Effect of LPS (100 μg) and aminoguanidine (100 mg/kg) on regionalblood flows (ml/min/g wet weight)                       LPS +   control  LPS        aminoguanidine______________________________________number of rats     11         13         9eyeanterior uvea     1.8 ± 0.4                2.5 ± 0.6.sup.b                           1.9 ± 0.3.sup.dposterior 3.4 ± 0.6                4.3 ± 0.9.sup.c                           3.7 ± 0.4retina    0.42 ± 0.03                0.45 ± 0.07                           0.42 ± 0.04sciatic nerve     0.07 ± 0.01                0.08 ± 0.03                           0.08 ± 0.03brain     0.6 ± 0.1                0.6 ± 0.1                           0.6 ± 0.1heart     4.9 ± 1.4                6.1 ± 1.2                           5.4 ± 1.7kidney    4.8 ± 0.9                4.7 ± 0.6                           4.9 ± 0.6______________________________________ Male Lewis rats were treated with 100 μg LPS (50 μg in each hind footpad) ± 100 mg/kg body weight aminoguanidine hemisulfate (at the time of injection of LPS and 3, 6, 12, 18, and 20-24 hours thereafter). LPS was injected at noon and the animals were sacificed the following morning. .sup.a values are mean ± SD Significantly different from controls by least square means analysis: .sup.b p &lt; 0.0001; .sup.c p &lt; 0.005 Significantly different from LPStreated rats least square means analysis: .sup.d p &lt; 0.005 
    
     
                       TABLE 3______________________________________Effects of LPS (100 μg) and aminoguanidine (100 mg/kg) ongravimetric and hemodynamic parameters                        LPS +                        aminoguanidine______________________________________number of rats        5         6         7body weight (g)        237 ± 15.sup.a                  225 ± 9                            229 ± 12mean arterial        120 ± 9                  121 ± 9                            124 ± 10blood pressure(mm Hg)cardiac output        81 ± 9 75 ± 4 77 ± 3(ml/min)cardiac index        343 ± 19                  334 ± 13                            336 ± 23(ml/min/100 g b.w.)total peripheral        1.42 ± 0.10                  1.55 ± 0.14                            1.54 ± 0.11resistance(mm Hg/ml/min)GFR          0.96 ± 0.07                  0.97 ± 0.06                            0.95 ± 0.14(ml/min/whole kidney)GFR          0.87 ± 0.07                  0.90 ± 0.11                            0.87 ± 0.15(ml/min/g kidney)filtration fraction        0.34 ± 0.08                  0.34 ± 0.05                            0.31 ± 0.06(GFR/renal blood flow)renal vascular resistance        0.97 ± 0.07                  0.97 ± 0.06                            0.95 ± 0.14(mm Hg/ml/min)______________________________________ Male Lewis rats were treated with 100 μg LPS (50 μg in each hind footpad) ± 100 mg/kg body weight aminoguanidine hemisulfate (at the time of injection of LPS and 3, 6, 12, 18, and 20-24 hours thereafter). LPS was injected at noon and the animals were sacificed the following morning. .sup.a values are mean ± SD 
    
     EXAMPLE 2 
     Endotoxin-induced acute uveitis and generalized vascular leakage: inhibition by methylguanidine 
     Methods 
     Animals and Materials 
     Male Lewis rats (˜200 g) were purchased from Harlan Sprague Dawley (Indianapolis, Ind.) and housed and cared for in accordance with the guidelines of the University Committee for the Humane Care of Laboratory Animals in accordance with NIH guidelines on laboratory animal welfare. Rats were housed individually, fed standard rat chow (Ralston Purina, Richmond, Ind.) and water ad libitum, and were on a 12 hour light/dark cycle. Methylguanidine (hydrochloride) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS; Salmonella minnesota) were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.)  125  I was obtained from NEN Research Products (Boston, Mass.)  131  I was obtained from ICN Biomedicals, Inc. (Costa Mesa, Calif.) 
     Induction of LPS-Inducted Vascular Injury 
     LPS was dissolved in sterile pyrogen-free 0.9% saline at concentrations of 1 μg/μ, and 50 μwas injected into each hind footpad (100 μg total dose per rat) using metofane anesthesia as described previously by other investigators  Herbort et al., Graefe&#39;s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol . 226, pp. 553-558 (1988); and Hoekzema et al., Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 33, pp. 532-539 (1992)!. Control rats received an equal volume of 0.9% saline. 50 mg/kg body weight methylguanidine was injected subcutaneously in LPS-treated and in control rats at 0, 3,6,12,18 and 20-24 hours after LPS injection. Animals were killed for the vascular function studies 20 to 24 hours after LPS injection. 
     Assessment of Vascular Function 
     Regional vascular albumin permeation was quantified by use of an isotope dilution technique based on the injection of bovine serum albumin (BSA) labeled with 2 different iodine isotopes,  125  I and  131  I  Pugliese et al., Metabolism 39, pp. 690-697 (1990); Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990); and Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 312-322 (1990)!.  125  I-BSA was used to quantify vascular albumin filtration after 10 minutes of tracer circulation, while  131  I-BSA served as a plasma volume marker for correction of  125  I-BSA tissue activity for tracer contained within vessels. Purified monomer BSA (1 mg) was iodinated with 1 mCi of  131  I or  125  I by the iodogen method as previously described in Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990). 
     Rats were anesthetized with Inactin (Byk Gulden Konstanze, FRG) (˜100 mg/kg body weight injected i.p.), and core body temperature maintained at 37 °--0.5° C using heat lamps, a 37° C surgical tray, and a rectal temperature probe. the left femoral vein, left iliac artery, and right subclavian artery were cannulated with polyethylene tubing (0.58 mm i.d.) filled with heparinized saline (400 U heparin/ml). The femoral vein cannula were used for tracer injection and the subclavian artery cannula was connected to a pressure transducer for blood pressure monitoring. The left iliac artery was connected to a 1 ml syringe attached to a Harvard Model 940 constant withdrawal pump preset to withdraw at a constant rate of 0.055 ml/mil. The trachea was intubated and connected to a small rodent respirator for continuous ventilatory support. 
     At time 0,  125  I-albumin was injected i.v. and the withdrawal pump was started simultaneously. Eight minutes after time 0,  131  I-BSA was injected. At the 10 minute mark, the heart was excised to stop all blood flow, the withdrawal pump was stopped simultaneously, and various tissues were sampled for gamma spectrometry. The left eye was dissected as previously described  Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990) and Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp.312-322 (1990)! and all tissue samples and arterial plasma samples were weighed, then counted in a gamma spectrometer. A quantitative index of  125  I-BSA tissue clearance was calculated as previously described  Pugliese et al., Metabolism 39, pp. 1 690-697 (1990); Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 323-332 (1990); and Pugliese et al., Diabetes 39, pp. 312-322 (1990) ! and expressed as μg plasma/g tissue wet weight/min. Briefly,  125  I-BSA tissue activity was corrected for tracer contained within the tissue vasculature by multiplying  125  I-BSA activity in the tissue by the ratio of  125  I-BSA/13`I-BSA activities in the arterial plasma sample obtained at tile end of the test. The vascular corrected  125  l-BSA tissue activity was divided by the time-averaged  125  l -BSA plasma activity (obtained from a well-mixed sample of plasma taken from the withdrawal syringe) and by tile tracer circulation time (10 minutes) and then normalized per g tissue wet weight. Other non-ocular tissues (aorta, kidney, skin, skeletal muscle, sciatic nerve) also were sampled to assess if LPS induced a generalized vascular dysfunction. 
     Statistical Analysis 
     All results are expressed as means ±standard deviations. Overall differences among test groups for each parameter were assessed by Students&#39;test. 
     Generalized Vascular Leakage of  125  l-Albumin 
     Table 4 shows changes in  125  l-albumin permeation resulting from the injection of 100 μg LPS (50 μg/footpad) into footpads of Lewis rats. Highly significant group differences for  125  l-albumin leakage were evident in the aqueous fluid, anterior uvea, choroid/sclera, retina, sciatic nerve, aorta, and kidney (p&lt;0.0001), while smaller increases were observed in the skin and skeletal muscle. No LPS-induced changes were present in brain, heart, or small intestine. At the dose and frequency used, methylguanidine attenuated the LPS-induced  125  -albumin leakage in aqueous fluid, anterior uvea, and kidney and prevented the LPS-induced increases in albumin leakage in the choroid/sclera, retina, sciatic nerve, aorta, and skin. 
     It is seen from the above results that methylguanidine (at approximately one-half of the dose of aminoguanidinie used in Example 1) was as effective as (or more effective than) aminoguanidine in preventing endotoxin-induced vascular leakage an important manifestation/consequence of inflammation) in uveal tissue as well as in the sciatic nerve, aorta, skeletal muscle, skin, and kidney. Similar results as obtained in Examples 1 and 2 can be obtained by substituting N,N&#39;-diaminoguanidine or I, I-dimethylguanidine for equivalent amounts of aminoguanidine or methylguanidine, respectively, in said Examples. 
     
                       TABLE 4______________________________________Effects of LPS μg) and methylguanidine (mg) on regional.sup.125 I-albumin permeation.sup.a                       LPS +    control LPS        aminoguanidne______________________________________number of rats      5         8          4aqueous    154 ± 100                495 ± 283.sup.a                           335 ± 30.sup.canterior uvea      266 ± 52                618 ± 106.sup.a                           383 ± 32.sup.c,echoroid/sclera      298 ± 67                582 ± 77.sup.a                           357 ± 50.sup.dretina     68 ± 15                168 ± 28.sup.a                           67 ± 7.sup.dsciatic nerve      71 ± 14                187 ± 32.sup.a                           69 ± 3.sup.daorta      75 ± 24                211 ± 43.sup.a                           102 ± 8.sup.askeletal muscle      54 ± 19                103 ± 46.sup.c                           63 ± 11skin       99 ± 29                224 ± 65.sup.b                           106 ± 16.sup.fbrain      20 ± 4 25 ± 6  19 ± 5heart      623 ± 43                699 ± 58                           629 ± 82small intestine      414 ± 40                559 ± 147                           423 ± 188kidney     635 ± 239                1,561 ± 221.sup.a                           1,042 ± 253.sup.c,e______________________________________ .sup.a μg plasma/g wet weight/min; valus are mean ± SD. Male Lewis rats were treated with 100 μg LPS (50 pg in each hind footpad) ± 50 mg/kg body weight methylguanidine hydrochloride (at the time of injection of LPS and 3, 6, 12, 18, and 20-24 hours thereafter). LPS was injected at noon and the animals were sacificed the following morning. Significantly different from untreated controls: .sup.a p &lt; 00001; .sup.b p &lt; 0.005; .sup.c p &lt; 0.05 Significantly different from LPS: .sup.d p &lt; 0.001; .sup.e p &lt; 0.005; .sup.f p &lt; 0.01 
    
     Inflammation conditions are characterized by tile accumulation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages and monocytes at the site of injury. Macrophage and monocytes have been shown to produce high levels of inflammatory mediators at the sites of inflammation. In the carrageenin and carrageenin induced paw oedema models of inflammation the production of nitric oxide has also been demonstrated  Ialenti et al. European J. of Pharacol. 211:177-182 (1991)!. Macrophage are believed to be the cellular source of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the cell type that produces nitric oxide at tile site of inflammation. Macrophage release of cytokines during the inflammatory reaction may also induce the expression of iNOS by other cellular sources. Proinflammatory prostaglandin (PGs) and thromboxane production has also been demonstrated in these animal models of inflammation  Masferrer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:3228-3232 (1994)!. The cellular source being macrophage and monocytes and fibroblasts. Cyclooxygenase (COX) catalyzes the first enzymatic reaction in the production of prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxane. Two isoforms of COX have been demonstrated. Constitutive COX (COX-1) is found in most tissues and is responsible for the physiological production of prostaglandins (Dewitt, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 3:121-124 (1991)!. Prostaglandins, producted by COX-1, play a prominent role in the normal physiological function of the stomach and kidney  Dewitt, supra!. Expression of other isoforms of COX is inducible by cytokines. This isoform, inducible COX (or COX-2) is believed to be responsible for tile production of PGs under conditions of inflammation and injury  Fletcher et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:4338-4344 (1992)!. Recent studies have shown the expression of COX-2 at the level of mRNA, protein, and enzymatic activity in the rat air pouch model of inflammation  Masferrer et al., supra!. During this inflammation the production of PGs appears to be entirely the result of COX-2 activity  Masferrer et al., supra!. Autoimmune diabetes is an inflammatory disease that is characterized by macrophage and lymphocyte invasion of islets, followed by β-cell death  Bach, Endocrine Rev. 15:516-542 (1994)!. Cytokines released during this lymphocytic infiltration have been proposed to participate in β-cell destruction during the development of autoimmune diabetes  Corbett et al., Diabetes 41:897-903 (1992)!. Treatment of rat islets with the cytokine IL-1, induces a potent inhibition of insulin secretion that is followed by β-cell destruction. Nitric oxide appears to mediate the inhibitory and destructive effects of IL-1on islets. Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase (aminoguanidinie and monomethyl-L-arginine) completely prevent IL-1induced inhibition of insulin secretion and islet destruction  Corbett et al., Autoimmunity 15:145-153 (1993); Corbett et al., Diabetes 41:552-556 (1991)!. IL-1also induces the expression of COX-2 and the production of PGE  2  by islets  Corbett et al., Biochemistry 32, 13767-13770 (1993)!. PGE 2  production by islets is attenuated by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitors NMMA, and aminoguanidinie (AG)  Corbett et al., supra!. These findings suggest that cytokines, nitric oxide, and nitric oxide stimulated PGs production play key roles in the development of autoimmune diabetes, in a manner similar to inflammatory conditions where the production of nitric oxide, the release of cytokines, and PGs release have been demonstrated. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     Additional experimental data were developed that relate to the effect of aminoguanidine on prostaglandin production as measured by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity. COX-2 has been identified as a primary producer of prostaglandins during inflammation. 
     The data is set forth in FIGS. 5-7 and is described briefly below. This data demonstrates the interactions of the nitric oxide and prostaglandin pathways. Nitric oxide appears to directly activate the enzymatic activity of COX-2 resulting in the overproduction of PGE 2 . Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase (AG, and NMMA) attenuate nitric oxide stimulated production of PGE 2 . These inhibitors do not have inhibitory effects on the expression of either iNOS or COX-2(9). Exogenous production of nitric oxide (spontaneously released by nitric oxide donor compound, SIN-1) stimulates the production of PGE 2  by islets, further supporting the direct activation of COX by nitric oxide (FIG. 7). These studies support the use of iNOS inhibitors, NMMA and AG for the inhibition of PGs production under inflammatory conditions such as acute and chronic inflammation, arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, injury, etc. The inhibitors function by preventing nitric oxide activation of COX-2. 
     Referring flow to FIG. 5, isolated rat islets were incubated for 24 h with 5 units/ml IL- 1, or 0.5 mM AG as indicated. Tile supernatant was removed and PGE 2  and nitrite formation were determined. Results demonstrate that AG attenuates IL-1-induced PGE 2  and completely prevents IL-I-induced nitrite formation by rat islets. These findings indicate that IL-1-induces COX-2 and iNOS expression and that nitric oxide directly activates COX-2. 
     In a further experiment tile results of which are set forth in FIG. 6, purified β-cells were incubated for 24 h with 5 unites/mi IL-1, 0.5 mM aminoguanidine, or 1μM Actinomycin D as indicated. The supernatant was removed and PGE 2  and nitrite formation were determined. These results further demonstrate that aminoguanidine attenuates IL-1-induced PGE 2  production, and completely prevents IL-1-induced nitrite formation by β-cells. The transcriptional inhibitor actinomycin D completely prevents PGE 2  and nitrite formation by β-cells, indicated the requirement for mRNA transcription. These findings indicate that IL-1-induces COX-2 and iNOS expression and that nitric oxide directly activates COX-2. 
     As further corroboration of the activity and interaction of nitric oxide in COX and PGE 2  production, rat islets were pretreated with 5 units/mil IL-1 or IL-1 and actinomycin D (1 μM) for 18 h. The islets were washed and then cultured for 2 h with 30 μM arachidonic acid (COX substrate) in the presence or absence of SIN-1 (1mM; nitric oxide donor compound) and hemoglobin (Hb; scavenger of nitric oxide) as indicated. The results are presented in FIG. 7 and demonstrate that nitric oxide, released spontaneous by SIN-1, stimulates the activity of both constitutive COX (COX-1; control and IL-1+Act D treatment) and inducible COX (COX-2; IL-1 treated group). Hemoglobin attenuates SIN-1 stimulated PGE 2  formation indicating that the effects of SIN-1 on COX activity is mediated by nitric oxide. 
     The inhibitors of nitric oxide formation described herein can be used for administration to warm blooded mammals by conventional means, preferably in formulations with pharmaceutically acceptable diluents and carriers. The amount of the active inhibitor to be administered must be an effective amount, that is, an amount which is medically beneficial but does not present toxic effects which overweigh the advantages which accompany its use. It would be expected that the adult human daily dosage would normally range upward from about one milligram per kilo of body weight of the drug. Suitable routes of administration include, where appropriate, topical delivery via salves, ointments and solutions; or locally through suppositories, pessaries, and the like; orally in the forms of capsules, tablets, syrups, elixirs and the like; and parenteral administration,e.g. intravenously, intraperitoneally or subcutaneously. Intravenous administration of the drug in aqueous solution such as physiologic saline is illustrative. Appropriate formulations of the drug in pharmaceutically acceptable diluents and carriers in therapeutic dosage form can be prepared by reference to general texts in the field such as, for example, Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ed. Arthur Osol. 16th ed., 1980, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Penn. Various other examples will be apparent to the person skilled in the art after reading the present disclosure without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. It is intended that all such examples be included within the scope of the appended claims.