Abstract:
A radiant energy concentrator of sunlight adapted for use with a photovoltaic cell. The radiant energy concentrator has a hollow first stage formed by two pairs of facing reflective sides curved to different parabolas. The first stage is optically coupled to a solid second stage with two pairs of facing reflective sides curved to different parabolas. The second stage is optically coupled to a solid light diffuser is some embodiments. The solid light diffuser is optically coupled to the photovoltaic cell with a clear encapsulant. The radiant energy concentrator is mounted on a metal substrate for thermal management. The radiant energy concentrator can operate efficiently with only single axis tracking of the Sun in part because the reflective sides form orthogonal acceptance angles corresponding to the annual and daily apparent passage of the Sun on Earth.

Description:
FIELD OF INVENTION  
       [0001]     The present invention relates to concentrating light, more specifically, concentrating light from the Sun onto a photovoltaic surface to convert the concentrated light into electrical energy.  
       BACKGROUND  
       [0002]     The use of concentrated sunlight in solar energy systems is well known. Most often, however, concentrated light is converted to heat for the generation of steam or hot water. Other light concentrators have been developed for photovoltaic systems which convert light directly to electricity, but these have not been particularly commercially successful.  
         [0003]     Light concentrators can be divided into two classes, imaging and non-imaging. An imaging concentrator collects light incident on its front surface, or aperture, and concentrates it at a single focal point. Optical systems that concentrate light in a single dimension, and therefore have a focal line rather than a focal point are also considered imaging. Examples of imaging concentrators are magnifying glasses, parabolic dishes, and Fresnel lenses. Imaging optics require that all collected light be incident close to perpendicular to the aperture of the device. They therefore have the disadvantage of requiring precise alignment, and of not collecting any significant amounts of diffuse light, such as that reflected off clouds, transmitted indirectly through the atmosphere or otherwise diverted from the apparent disk of the Sun. Diffuse sunlight is sunlight arriving indirectly from the Sun.  
         [0004]     Non-imaging optics differ from imaging optics as they have no single focal point, but rather have a focal zone, or target, and an acceptance angle. In an ideal non-imaging concentrator, all light incident on the aperture at or below the acceptance angle is transmitted to the target. The ratio between the area of the aperture and the target is termed the “Concentration Factor.” The term “ideal” in relation to non-imaging concentrators further indicates a specific concentration factor equal to n 2 /sin 2  α, where n is the index of refraction of the material carrying light at the target, and α is the acceptance angle. Like imaging concentrators, non-imaging concentrators may be designed to concentrate primarily along a single dimension. These are known as two dimensional concentrators (because the profile of the concentrator is two dimensional), or parabolic troughs. An ideal two dimensional concentrator has a concentration factor of n/sin α.  
         [0005]     The compound parabolic concentrator described by Roland Winston in 1969, and disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,923,381, is one of the earliest and most successful ideal two dimensional concentrators developed. It is in common use today, and numerous variations to this design are used specifically for heating water and other fluids. However, the parabolic concentrator of Roland Winston and its derivatives are not ideal three-dimensional concentrators. No ideal three-dimensional concentrator has been described to date.  
         [0006]     As stated previously, imaging concentrators have two significant disadvantages, i.e., requiring fairly precise alignment with the Sun and not capturing significant amounts of diffuse light. Both disadvantages derive from the fact that only light rays incident perpendicular to the concentrator are focused on the target. This means that the location of the Sun must be tracked with a high degree of precision in order to achieve adequate sunlight concentration, requiring expensive tracking equipment. The additional cost of tracking equipment to the overall imaging concentrator system tends to push the system to very high concentration factors in order to be economical. Since the disk of the Sun is not truly a point, but rather subtends a half angle of approximately 0.25° in the sky, two-dimensional, trough-type imaging concentrators are limited to concentration factors of about 213. A three-dimensional concentrator could provide a more economical system. However, existing three-dimensional imaging concentrators require two-axis tracking of the Sun, further increasing cost and maintenance requirements. Two-axis tracking also presents a problem for locating a system since the typical pole mounted two-axis tracker can not be placed on a building roof unless special consideration has been taken in designing the building. In developed areas it is desirable to place photovoltaic systems on existing structures, and large empty fields are generally not available. Furthermore, even if cost is ignored, the small acceptance angle of imaging concentrators means that diffuse light will be rejected, and not arrive at the target. This is particularly significant on cloudy days, but even a slight haze can spread the Sun&#39;s image beyond its normal diameter. This effect has been studied by the National Renewable Energy Lab based in Golden, Colo. (NREL), whose results indicate that imaging concentrators accept about 20% less diffuse light annually than collectors with no concentration in locations as dry as Phoenix, Ariz. Wetter climates suffer more significantly from this problem.  
         [0007]     The above two disadvantages have resulted in virtually all imaging solar concentrator systems being large installations (where economies of scale can offset tracking costs) in desert climates.  
         [0008]     By allowing the designer to trade off between acceptance angle and concentration factor, non-imaging concentrators resolve many of the issues of imaging concentrators. Two-dimensional, non-imaging concentrators are still bound by the same physical limits as imaging concentrators to a concentration factor of 213. One goal of non-imaging concentrator design has been to eliminate tracking altogether, or at least reduce the tracking requirement to one axis. The literature, e.g., Ari Rabl,  Comparison of Solar Concentrators , Solar Energy, Vol. 18 pp. 93-111 (1976), shows that if tracking is to be eliminated, the concentration factor is further limited to 3. Since higher concentration factors are desirable, occasional one axis tracking is generally used. Even under this condition, the concentration factor is limited to about 10.  
         [0009]     Despite the disadvantages stated above, light concentrators have been successfully employed in solar thermal applications. At least three concerns exist for the use of concentrators for the generation of electricity using photovoltaic materials.  
         [0010]     First, photovoltaic materials are generally highly purified and engineered semiconductors meaning that these materials are generally more expensive than the absorbers used in thermal systems. Since a higher concentration factor means less material can be used to generate the same amount of electricity, there is a strong commercial motivation to increase concentration within acceptable photovoltaic tolerances.  
         [0011]     Second, the nature of the semiconductor device employed is that it becomes less efficient (generates less electricity) as its temperature increases. This differs dramatically from thermal systems which are often designed to achieve as high a temperature as possible.  
         [0012]     Third, photovoltaic materials perform best under uniform illumination. Non-imaging optics generally produce an undesirable “hot spot” where virtually all light is concentrated on a single point of the target, and the hot spot moves as the angle of the Sun changes.  
       SUMMARY  
       [0013]     Many of the limitations described above are overcome in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Some embodiments of the present invention include a light concentrator having a first reflector that is hollow, a second reflector filled with a clear material, a light diffusing element also filled with said clear material, a clear encapsulant sandwiched between an exit portion of the light concentrator and a photovoltaic cell, and a metal substrate supporting both the light concentrator and photovoltaic cell and serving as a heat sink. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0014]     Other advantages of the invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description and upon reference to the accompanying drawings, in which, like references may indicate similar elements:  
         [0000]     Drawing Figures  
         [0015]      FIG. 1  is a perspective view of the light concentrator;  
         [0016]      FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view of the light concentrator as viewed from the south;  
         [0017]      FIG. 3  is a cross-sectional view of the light concentrator as viewed from the east;  
         [0018]      FIG. 4  is a function side view of the light concentrator with traces of light rays to illustrate operation of the different sections; and  
         [0019]      FIG. 5  is a geometric diagram to illustrate alignment of the light concentrator relative to its location on Earth. 
     
    
     REFERENCE NUMERALS IN DRAWINGS  
       [0000]    
       
         
           
               100  Light concentrator  
               110  Hollow reflector  
               110 N North side of hollow reflector  
               110 S South side of hollow reflector  
               110 W West side of hollow reflector  
               110 E East side of hollow reflector  
               112  Solid reflector  
               114  Light spreader  
               116  Target photovoltaic cell  
               118  Metal substrate  
               120  Clear encapsulant  
               122  Conductive tape negative contact  
               124  Conductive tape positive contact  
               126  Mounting portion of hollow reflector  
               128   a  Flange  
               128   b  Flange  
               130   a  Bolt  
               130   b  Bolt  
               400  A light ray  
               402  A light ray parallel to  300   
               404  Upper surface of solid reflector  112   
               406  Convergent point near entrance of light spreader  
               408  Lower surface of light spreader  114   
               500  Earth  
               502  Earth&#39;s equator  
               504  Earth&#39;s axis of rotation  
               506  Tilt angle of light collector  100  with horizon  
               507  Horizon plane  
               508  Latitude of collector  
               510  Annual range of apparent location of the Sun  
           
         
       
     
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [0050]     The following is a detailed description of example embodiments of the invention depicted in the accompanying drawings. The example embodiments are in such detail as to clearly communicate the invention. However, the amount of detail offered is not intended to limit the anticipated variations of embodiments, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. The written and detailed descriptions herein are designed to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to practice such embodiments.  
         [0051]     A light concentrator is provided having several advantages over the prior art. Embodiments of the present invention provide at least one of the following advantages: light concentration capable of a sufficiently high concentration factor to provide a cost and/or performance advantage over use of unconcentrated light with photovoltaic devices; amenability to tracking of the Sun&#39;s location along only a single axis; capture of a significant portion of diffuse light and uniform illumination at the target photovoltaic surface. Some embodiments of the present invention provide a light concentrating device that can be economically manufactured in small enough units to simplify the cooling of the target photovoltaic cells. Some embodiments of the present invention couple the concentrator to the photovoltaic cell without requiring manufacturing tolerances that would drive up costs.  
         [0052]     Some embodiments of the light concentrator of the present invention are illustrated in  FIG. 1 .  FIG. 1  shows an asymmetric, three-dimensional, non-imaging, compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) for use as a light concentrator  100 . A brief description of the physical relationships between various components of the light concentrator  100  is included here to aid in the understanding of the light concentrator  100  before being described in greater detail. The light concentrator  100  is made up of a hollow reflector  110  drawn as the rectangular-shaped aperture housing of the light concentrator  100 . When used to gather sunlight, the hollow reflector  110  is generally oriented along the North-South, East-West axes on Earth as shown in  FIG. 1 . The hollow reflector  110  has a north side of the hollow reflector  110 N and a south side of the hollow reflector  110 S which face each other and are symmetrical to each other, but are asymmetrical to an east side of the reflector  110 E and a west side of the reflector  110 W. The east side  110 E and west side  110 W pair face each other and are symmetrical to each other. The hollow reflector  110  partially encloses and contains a solid reflector  112  which is positioned lower in the hollow reflector  110  as drawn. Also as drawn, the solid reflector  112  is positioned above a light spreader  114 . The light spreader  114  is positioned above a target photovoltaic cell (PV)  116  for generating electricity from light, typically, sunlight. The PV  116  sits on a heat conductive metal substrate  118 . The light spreader and PV are optically coupled with a clear encapsulant  120 . The PV  116  is electrically coupled to a negative conductive tape  122  and a positive conductive tape  124  to provide electrical power. The hollow reflector has a mounting portion  126  that includes flanges  128   a ,  128   b  forming apertures for bolting the hollow reflector  110  to the metal substrate  118  with bolts  130   a ,  130   b.    
         [0053]     Although the light concentrator is drawn pointing straight up, in the Northern Hemisphere, the light concentrator  100  would be pointed in a more southerly direction depending on the latitude the light concentrator  100  is to be placed at, which corresponds to the apparent location of the passage of the Sun through the sky as the Earth rotates. While in the Southern Hemisphere, the light concentrator  100  would be pointed in a more northerly direction for the same reason. Note that all orientations referred to herein are included for illustration purposes only and are not intended to be limiting.  
         [0054]     Hollow reflector  110  has the form of two intersecting orthogonal compound parabolic concentrator troughs of the general types used separately in the prior art. The compound parabolic concentrator with its axis in the east-west direction is formed by inner sides of the north side  110 N and south side  110 S of hollow reflector  110  with an acceptance half angle of approximately 35°, which can allow for light collection without any tracking for 6 hours/day. The compound parabolic concentrator with its axis in the north-south direction is formed by sides  110 E and  110 W which together form a compound parabolic concentrator with an acceptance half angle of approximately 53°. The walls of the reflector formed by the inner portion of the east side  110 E and the west side  110 W are extended vertically to the same height of the compound parabolic concentrator formed by the north side  110 N and south side  110 S to form an entrance aperture  120  in the hollow concentrator  110 . The entrance aperture  120  has an even edge on all four sides  110 N,  110 S,  110 W,  110 E.  
         [0055]     In some embodiments, the hollow reflector  110  is a molded or vacuum-formed thermosetting plastic with the inside coated with a highly reflective material. In some embodiments, the base plastic material selected for its chemical and thermal stability in the hollow reflector  110  is Lustran® ABS Resin 348 from the Plastics Division of Bayer, Inc., Bayer Group, Leverkusen, Germany. In some embodiments the plastic is coated with aluminum deposited by vacuum metallization to achieve a reflectance on the order of 93%. However, the hollow reflector  110  may be made of any materials that can be formed into this shape and made to be highly reflective, such as metal, glass, other plastics, etc.  
         [0056]     At the lower, narrow end of the hollow reflector  110 , as drawn, is the solid reflector  112 . The shape of the solid reflector  112  is also that of two intersecting CPC troughs. In some embodiments, the outer reflective walls of the solid reflector  112  are formed of the aluminum deposited by vacuum metallization similar to that of the inner portions of the hollow reflector  110 . The solid reflector  112  includes a clear solid having an index of refraction greater than one and in some embodiments, between 1.48 and 1.52. In some embodiments the solid reflector  112  is made of UV-enhanced polymethylmethacrylate Acrylic (PMMA). In some embodiments, the PMMA used in the solid reflector  112  is Atoglas VH Plexiglas produced by Atofina Chemicals, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa. However, in other embodiments the solid reflector  112  can be fabricated from materials such as glass or polycarbonate plastic, which are substituted for PMMA.  
         [0057]     The acceptance half angle of the CPC&#39;s forming the solid reflector  112  is set to arcsin(1/n) where n is the index of refraction of the solid material. This angle is equal to the angle of refraction of a light ray in the solid material cause by a ray incident on the solid surface with an angle of incidence of 90°.  
         [0058]     At the narrow end of the solid reflector  112  is the light spreader  114 . Below the light spreader is the photovoltaic (PV) cell  116  that converts some of the light exiting the light spreader into electricity. The light spreader  114  has square top, base and vertical sides. In some embodiments, the vertical sides of the light spreader  114  are coated with the same reflective material as those of the hollow reflector  110  and solid reflector  112 , e.g., aluminum. Also in some embodiments, the light spreader  114  is fabricated from the same clear material as the solid reflector  112 , e.g., PMMA. An alternative clear material can be used in the light spreader  114 , but in some embodiments an index of refraction associated with the alternative clear material is nearly equal to or greater than that of the solid reflector  112 . In some embodiments, the hollow reflector  110  and outside reflective walls of the solid reflector  112  and light spreader  114  are fabricated as a single piece, while the solid filler material of the solid reflector  112  and light spreader  114  are likewise fabricated as a second single piece, the solid piece fitting snuggly inside the hollow piece. In some alternative embodiments, each section can be fabricated separately or in other combinations and assembled to form the same final structure. In some alternative embodiments, the base side of the solid light spreader  114 , being positioned furthest from the light-receiving aperture of the hollow reflector  110 , is recessed slightly inward to form a cavity for the PV cell  116 . The depth of the cavity in the base side of the solid light spreader  114  is equal to, or slightly greater than the height of the target PV cell  116 . In still further alternative embodiments the light spreader  114  is not used and the PV cell  116  is optically coupled with the clear encapsulant  120  directly to the solid reflector  112 .  
         [0059]     Between the target PV cell  116  and the base of the light spreader  114  is clear encapsulant  120 , which fills the space between the target PV cell  116  and the light spreader  114 . The clear encapsulant  120  has two primary purposes. First, the clear encapsulant  120  optically couples the light spreader  114  to the PV cell  116 . Second, the clear encapsulant  120  encapsulates and protects those portions of the light spreader  114  and PV cell  116  that the clear encapsulant comes in contact with from environmental contaminants. While any number of materials may be used as the encapsulant  120 , it is desirable for the encapsulant  120  to have a high degree of clarity, be capable of being deposited in a thin layer and have a refractive index compatible with the light spreader  114 . In some embodiments the clear encapsulant  120  is Lightspan SL-1246 optical coupling gel (thixotropic) from Lightspan, LLC, 14 Kendrick Road, Unit #2, Wareham, Mass. In other embodiments, Sylgard 184 Silcone rubber from The Dow Chemical Company, 901 Loveridge Road, Pittsburg, Calif. or the Nye Optical OCK451 curable adhesive from Nye Optical Company, 10309 Centinella Drive, La Mesa, Calif., can be used as the encapsulant  120 . In some alternative embodiments, a combination of Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE, also known as TEFLON®) and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) is used, which provides good matching of the index of refraction to PMMA, and resistance to yellowing due to exposure to sunlight, which is a problem for EVA when used alone. For example, the ETFE and EVA can be combined by layering or blending.  
         [0060]     The clear encapsulant  120  is applied in a thin layer to the PV  116  as a gel. The PV  116  is then brought into contact with the light spreader  114  and the clear encapsulant  120  is allowed to harden by exposure to air. In some embodiments the clear encapsulant  120  is cured to a desired hardness. In this way the target PV  116  is optically coupled to the light spreader  114 , otherwise, light could reflect off of an air gap between the light spreader  114  and the cell  116 , decreasing overall efficiency. Once the clear encapsulant  120  has been hardened through exposure to air or curing, the clear encapsulant  120  optically couples and protects the PV  116  and light spreader  114 . The clear encapsulant  120  also seals the bottom of the hollow reflector  110  to the metal substrate  118 .  
         [0061]     Electrical connection is made to the PV cell  116  through conductive tapes, more specifically, negative terminal conductive tape  122  and positive terminal conductive tape  124 . The negative terminal  122  and the positive terminal  124  pass through slots in a mounting portion  126  of the hollow reflector  110 .  
         [0062]     In many embodiments, the mounting portion  126  of the hollow reflector  110  includes flanges  128   a ,  128   b  forming apertures to enable the hollow reflector  110  to be mechanically secured to the metal substrate  118  with bolts  130   a ,  130   b . Alternatively, any form of attachment between the hollow reflector  110  and the metal substrate  118  can be used such as screws, magnets, mating surfaces, adhesives or the like. Because the hollow reflector  110  is mechanically secured to the metal substrate, the PV  116  is correspondingly held in thermal contact with the metal substrate  118 . Having the PV  116  in thermal contact with the metal substrate  118  enables excess heat to be carried away from the PV  116  for effective thermal management. A thin layer of Kapton electrically insulates the back of PV  116  from the metal substrate  118 . In some embodiments the metal substrate is aluminum, but other suitable heat conductive materials that can withstand the environment may also be used. Note that PV  116  is held in contact with the metal substrate  118  through the bolts  130   a ,  130   b  securing the hollow reflector  110  to the metal substrate  118 .  
         [0063]     In some embodiments, the light concentrator  100  is positioned in an array of light concentrators  100  that are covered with Plexiglas® covers to protect the array from environmental contaminants such as rain, snow and debris. In some embodiments, each individual light concentrator is covered with its own Plexiglas® cover.  
         [0064]     Turning now to  FIG. 2  and  FIG. 3 , in  FIG. 2 , there is shown a partial, cross-sectional view of the light concentrator  100  as viewed from the south towards the north, i.e. facing into the south side of the light concentrator  110 S. The south side  110 S is shown in partial cross-section to reveal portions of the west face  110 W and east face  110 E, otherwise shown with dashed lines. The numbered components in  FIG. 1  are also present in both  FIG. 2  and  FIG. 3 , but some have been removed in these figures for clarity purposes.  FIG. 3  shows a full cross-sectional view of the light concentrator  100  as viewed from the east towards the west from the section line in  FIG. 2 , i.e. facing into the east side of the light concentrator  110 E. In  FIG. 2  and  FIG. 3 , one can more easily perceive the four different parabolic curves in the light concentrator  100  that define the inner reflective surfaces of the hollow reflector  110  and the outer reflector surfaces of the solid reflector  112 , respectively. In some embodiments those parabolic curves are specified in the following table where the length dimensions are in centimeters and the angles are in degrees.  
                                                                     Concentrator                       Sides   Hollow or       Forming   Solid           Incl.       Parabola   Reflector   Equation   X Range   Angle                                North-South   Hollow 110   Y = 0.106 X{circumflex over ( )}2   2.457 &lt;   35                   X &lt; 6.742       East-West   Hollow 110   Y = 0.093 X{circumflex over ( )}2   1.805 &lt;   53                   X &lt; 4.066       North-South   Solid 112   Y = 0.150 X{circumflex over ( )}2   1.491 &lt;   41.8                   X &lt; 3.727       East-West   Solid 112   Y = 0.150 X{circumflex over ( )}2   1.491 &lt;   41.8                   X &lt; 3.727                  
 
         [0065]     Turning now to  FIG. 4 , there is shown a functional side view of the light concentrator  100  with two example light rays,  400  and  402 , respectively. In this example the two rays  400 ,  402  are parallel and displaced from one another by a small distance. After traveling from the Sun through space and the Earth&#39;s atmosphere, the light rays  400 ,  402  pass through hollow reflector  110  without contacting the walls  110 N,  110 S,  110 W,  110 E of the hollow reflector  110 . The two rays  400 ,  402  are refracted at an upper surface  404  of the solid reflector  112 , changing their angle as described by Snell&#39;s Law, but continue parallel to each other inside the clear material. Next the rays  400 ,  402  are incident on the outer reflective walls of the solid reflector  112  at different points, and are reflected to converge at point  406  near where they enter light spreader  114 . Since the index of refraction of the solid reflector  112  and the light spreader  114  are essentially the same, the rays  400 ,  402  continue in straight lines into and through the light diffuser  114 , diverge, and exit the light spreader  114  at different locations along a lower surface  408  of the light spreader  114  with different angles. Because the clear encapsulant  120  has an index of refraction similar to that of the said light spreader, little refraction occurs as said light rays pass from surface  408  into the encapsulant  120  and through the encapsulant  120  to the target PV cell  116  to generate electricity. The presence of the clear encapsulant  120  prevents the formation of a significant air gap between the light spreader  114  and the target PV cell  116  which in turn prevents significant light loss that could have occurred due to internal reflection at surface  408 , reducing the performance of the concentrator significantly.  
         [0066]     In the case of parallel light rays incident on the walls  110 N,  110 S,  110 W,  110 E of the hollow reflector  110 , the rays tend to converge at a point on surface  404  of solid reflector  112 , and produce a uniform illumination at the entrance of said light spreader  114 , with many rays being near parallel at this point. Since the rays are neither diverging nor converging the uniformity of the illumination will continue through surface  408 , through the clear encapsulant and onto the surface of the target PV cell  116 .  
         [0067]     In the case of light incident at or near the acceptance angle in both the North-South and East-West directions, if the light is subject to multiple reflections it may be reflected back out the aperture, however, this accounts for a relatively small loss of light.  
         [0068]     Turning now to  FIG. 5 , there is shown a geometric diagram to illustrate alignment of the light concentrator relative to its location on Earth. Alignment of the asymmetric light concentrator  100  for optimal performance using single (east-west) axis tracking throughout the year is shown. The Earth  500  is represented by a circle having an equator  502  and being oriented along a north-south spin axis  504 . The light concentrator  100  is located on the surface of the Earth at a latitude given by angle  508 . The light concentrator  100  has its north side  110 N facing north and its south face  110 S facing south, as indicated by the north-south axis  504 . The light concentrator  100  is shown in  FIG. 5  at local noon time. Note that the drawing is not to scale and the image of the light concentrator  100  is vastly enlarged for clarity purposes. The range of relative motion of the Sun throughout the year is given by angle  510 . The light concentrator  100  is tilted up at angle  506  from the horizon plane  507 , with tilt angle  506  being equal to latitude angle  508 . The resulting configuration results in the North-South axis of the light concentrator  100  being parallel to Earth&#39;s rotational, or polar axis  504 . Because the light concentrator  100  is aligned to the center of the apparent range of the Sun throughout the year at the latitude the light concentrator  100  is placed at, so long as the light concentrator  100  is allowed to rotate around its North-South axis, it will concentrate the available sunlight from the Sun during all daylight hours during every day of the year.  
         [0069]     Thus has been described an asymmetric, three-dimensional, non-imaging, light concentrator. In some embodiments, the asymmetric nature of the hollow reflector  110  enables an advantageous concentration factor to be achieved with only single axis tracking of the Sun without the need for seasonal adjustment as the acceptance angle in the north-south direction is greater than the range of the sun&#39;s azimuth. In some embodiments solid reflector  112  boosts the concentration factor by about 2.25 while using a relatively minimal amount of material. In some embodiments the light spreader produces uniform illumination on the PV cell  116 . In some embodiments the encapsulant  120  interface between the light diffuser  114  and the PV cell  116  allows for less precise manufacturing tolerances without degraded performance. In some embodiments the rectangular aperture of the light concentrator  100  allows for tight packing of multiple concentrators in a module. In some embodiments the simple two piece (hollow and solid reflectors  110 ,  112 ) design of the light concentrator  100  allows for low cost manufacturing of small units. In some embodiments the metal substrate in proximity to the target PV cell  116  allows for effective thermal management.  
         [0070]     Although the description above contains many specificities, these should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention, but as merely providing illustration of the preferred embodiment of this invention. For example, different acceptance angles may be chosen for the hollow reflector. This may be appropriate in locations with a high fraction of diffuse light. The use of glass instead of PMMA for the clear material of the solid reflector  112  and light spreader  114 , while heavy and more expensive, may be advantageous because of its greater thermal stability, and ability to conduct heat away from the target PV  116 . For similar reasons, metals may be used to replace the reflective sides of the light concentrator. The encapsulant  120  filling the space between the light concentrator and the target PV cell may be omitted in cases where fine tolerances allow for the precise abutment of the light concentrator and the target PV cell.  
         [0071]     It is understood that the forms of the invention shown and described in the detailed description and the drawings are to be taken merely as examples. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted broadly to embrace all the variations of the example embodiments disclosed herein. Thus the scope of the invention should be determined by the appended claims and their legal equivalents, rather than by the examples given.