Abstract:
In particular embodiments of the technology, the bulk density of the payload in the bucket of a large electric dragline is measured during the carry phase of dragline operation by scanning the loaded bucket using a boom mounted scanner to provide data relating to the volume of the loaded bucket. Suitable methods can further include calculating the volume enclosed by the surface of the payload and the known base and sides of the bucket to give payload volume, and dividing the payload volume into payload weight data derived from rope length and motor current data to give the payload bulk density. Methods of screening data points originating from surfaces other than the bucket and payload, and methods of dealing with bucket ope and sway are also described and claimed.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/406,956, filed Oct. 26, 2010, and incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This invention relates to the measurement of bulk density of the payload in a dragline bucket and has been devised particularly though not solely for assessing the dig and blast performance of overburden removal in an open-cut mine. 
     Large electric draglines are typically used in open-cut mining to remove overburden after blasting operations and to shape the configuration of the open-cut pit. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The requirement for any dragline is to move the largest amount of material per unit time, typically measured in tonnes per hour. High productivity achieved at the cost of high or undesirable loads on the dragline will generate increased maintenance costs and downtime so it is therefore important not to overload the bucket of a dragline in order to increase productivity. Research has indicated that the bulk density of blasted material in a dragline pit can vary greatly depending on blast performance, particularly in throw blasts. This variation has a significant effect on bucket size required to achieve desired or optimal payload (thus rated suspended load) as well as the digability of the material. 
     It is desirable to provide accurate estimates of the bulk density in order to provide the benefits of reliable assessment of dig and blast performance, improved bucket size selection to achieve consistent suspended load targets, and decreased production costs by reduced dragline damage and improved productivity through reduced probability of bucket overloads. 
     Although work has been done in the past in determining material density in other open pit mining situations such as in excavator buckets or in haul trucks, it is extremely difficult to provide real-time density determination in a dragline bucket due to the difficulty in determining the accurate bucket pose estimation, payload extraction, and filtering. The bucket is attached to free moving ropes and thus the dynamics of the bucket at any point in time are unknown. 
     The bulk density of the payload material in the bucket of a dragline is typically determined by measuring payload weight and dividing that weight by payload volume. Determination of payload weight is reasonably well known and able to be determined from proprietary products which measure rope lengths and motor currents to determine the load on the dragline hoist ropes at any point in time and hence enable calculation of the weight of the payload in the dragline bucket. The main objective of the present invention is to provide a method of accurately determining the volume of the payload in the bucket during the carry phase of the dragline dig and dump cycle in order to allow real-time calculation of the bulk density of the material in the dragline bucket. 
     SUMMARY 
     Accordingly, the present invention provides a method of measuring the bulk density of the payload in a dragline bucket during dragline operation, comprising the steps of scanning a loaded dragline bucket during an operating cycle of the dragline to provide mathematical data relating to the volume of the loaded bucket, calculating the volume enclosed by the surfaces of the payload and the known base and side surfaces of the bucket from the mathematical data to give the payload volume, and dividing the payload volume into the payload weight to give the payload bulk density. 
     In particular embodiments, the process of scanning the loaded bucket during an operating cycle of the dragline occurs during the carry phase of the cycle, between the lifting phase and the dumping phase. 
     In particular embodiments, the process of scanning the loaded bucket is performed by moving the bucket during the carry phase through the beam of a suitable scanner. 
     In particular embodiments, the suitable scanner comprises a laser scanner. 
     In other embodiments, suitable scanner comprises a radar scanner. 
     In particular embodiments, the mathematical data is analysed to screen out data points originating from surfaces other than those of the bucket and the payload. 
     In particular embodiments, the process of calculating the volume enclosed by the surface of the bucket and the known base and side surfaces of the bucket includes analysing the collected data to rebuild the bucket structure by estimating the bucket motion between scans to allow for bucket sway. 
     In particular embodiments, the process of calculating the volume of the loaded bucket includes the steps of collecting hoist and drag rope length data and using that data to determine the bucket displacement between each scan. 
     In other embodiments, the process of determining the volume of the loaded bucket includes measuring the displacement between each scan as a function of bucket velocity as it passes through the scanner beam and using the displacement to rescale bucket points in a direction orthogonal to the scanner beam. 
     In particular embodiments, the processes of calculating the volume enclosed by the surface of the payload and the known base and sides of the bucket include determining the pose of the loaded bucket in order to provide reference surface data and enable known features of the bucket to be deducted from the volume calculation. 
     In particular embodiments, the payload volume is determined using an elevation map representation. 
     Notwithstanding any other forms that may fall within its scope, one preferred embodiment of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings in which 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a laser beam visualisation of the bucket passing through the beam. 
         FIG. 2  is a plot of a scan at the bucket. 
         FIG. 3  is a plot of bucket sway over various scans. 
         FIG. 4  is a plot of the x co-ordinates before and after sway correction. 
         FIG. 5  is a three dimensional plot of ICP model fitted to reconstructed data points. 
         FIG. 6  shows the results of scans taken in dragline bin. 
         FIG. 7  is a perspective view of a dragline in use, showing the location of hardware used in the invention. 
         FIG. 8  is a simulation of the bucket moving through the scan plane. 
         FIG. 9  is an elevation showing the sensors assembled on the Pan Tilt Unit. 
         FIG. 10  is a sensor assembly schematic. 
         FIG. 11  is a control room networking schematic. 
         FIG. 12  shows a screen shot of the bucket visualiser, alongside a video capture of the corresponding bucket. 
         FIG. 13  is an elevation of a dragline showing ground truth static scanning. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     In the preferred form of the invention, a laser scanner  1  ( FIG. 9 ) is mounted at  2  on the boom  3  of a large electric dragline  4  ( FIG. 7 ) in order to scan a loaded dragline bucket  5  as it passes through the beam of the laser scanner during the carry phase in the cycle of dragline operation, between the lifting phase and the dumping phase. 
     Accurate scanning of the loaded bucket poses a number of problems, exacerbated by the fact that the bucket is suspended from the dragline boom by hoist ropes  6  which allow degrees of movement of the loaded bucket during the carry phase, and also because the bucket and the scanner pass over varying terrain  7  during the carry phase as the dragline house rotates about its base. 
     These constraints and problems require a very difficult analysis as is set out and explained in the following section. 
     Bucket Detection 
     The foremost step to measuring the in-bucket payload volume is to firstly scan and identify the bucket. Bucket detection is critical to isolate the relevant data from background noise such as points from the terrain. Each point is assigned to a specific class; terrain, bucket or noise. Since we are only interested in the terrain and the bucket (namely the payload) other items such as hoist and drag ropes are discarded as noise. 
     This can be seen in  FIG. 1  where the beam from the laser at  8  casts a shadow  9  on the ground  10 , revealing the outline of the bucket at  11 . 
     After major clusters are identified, the number of major clusters in each scan is used to determine the presence of the bucket. For example: 
     The invention uses point clustering techniques to identify similar points within the scan to improve the performance of data classification and overcome typical thresholding issues (see  FIG. 2 ). The individual clusters are classified by their overall shape an dimensions as expected for bucket and terrain. 
     Bucket Reconstruction 
     Due to the typical swing motion of the dragline, the bucket can exhibit extensive out-of-plane motion referred to as bucket sway. This kind of motion produces an artefact resembling a wavy shaped bucket that is caused by the lengthy duration (of approximately 2 seconds) for the bucket to pass through the beam. As a consequence the bucket data from each scan line is to some extent shifted with respect to the previous scan line. This step analyses the collected bucket data to rebuild the bucket structure by estimated the bucket motion between scans. 
     Sway Correction 
     The amount of bucket sway was measured by the translation of bucket points between scans. This was critical to determine the required transformation used to recover the actual bucket shape. The bucket points of each scan are translated by their mean x coordinate, which centre points about x=0 as shown in  FIG. 4   
     Irregulatirties in the payload profile can cause significant changes in the mean x coordinate between scans as seen in  FIG. 3  by the outlying points. These outlyers inflict a rapid and incorrect change in the estimated motion of the bucket. The estimated motion of the bucket is smoothed by applying either a polynomial or sine wave fit to the mean x coordinates of each scan. 
     Rescaling 
     The displacement between each scan is a function of the bucket velocity as it passes through the laser beam. This displacement is used to rescale the bucket points in the direction orthogonal to the laser beam. Assuming the bucket passes through the beam at a constant velocity the displacement of the bucket between scans can be deduced as follows: 
     
       
         
           
             
               Δ 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               y 
             
             = 
             
               
                 l 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                     
                 
                 ⁢ 
                 cos 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                     
                 
                 ⁢ 
                 δ 
               
               
                 n 
                 - 
                 1 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     Where/is the known length of the bucket, δ is the carry angle of the bucket (determined by the rigging), and n is the number of scans taken of the bucket. 
     An interface to the hoist and drag rope lengths supplied through the onboard DCS monitor allowed for a more direct approach to evaluating the translation between scans. Between each scan the lengths of the extended hoist and drag ropes is used to estimate the Cartesian position of the bucket relative to the machine. This method is capable of measuring any change in velocity of the bucket during the scanning process. However, up-to-date rope length offsets are required to make this approach feasible. Generally, these, are entered into the dragline monitor software after each rope cropping, however this wasn&#39;t made available on the PLC interface. In practice, the bucket position as measured from the laser was used to estimate the offsets. 
     Pose Estimation 
     The pose of the bucket is required in later steps to filter out known features of the bucket in addition to providing a reference surface to calculate the volume of the payload. Two methods for determining the pose of the bucket have been investigated on the scaled system, with the second trialled on a full scale dragline. 
     The first method involves placing four reflectors at known locations on the bucket which are segmented from rest of the scan based on the intensity of the returns. Laser retro-reflector tape was used as it provides a high intensity reading and allows for intensity based segmentation. Often there are multiple returns per reflector and the localised mean of these returns are used to define the location of these reflectors. These points are matched to the reflector locations in the bucket frame and by using a Levenberg-Marquardt numerical solver, the pose of the bucket is computed. Problems with this method are that some reflectors are often occluded and for the full scale application would not be able to withstand the harsh environment. This option is commercially unfeasible any future dragline buckets with this system installed would need reflectors welded across their arch and rim. In addition to this the small amount of reference points used resulted in a large transformation error that forms a basis for the volume calculation error exceeding 10%. The second method of using ICP was chosen in an attempt to overcome the drawbacks of using reflectors. ICP better fits a model point set to the entire bucket point cloud as shown in  FIG. 5 . 
     Payload Extraction 
     Payload points need to be segmented from other points on the bucket such as the bucket arch, spreader bar and jewellery while taking into account noisy outliers. This process is summarised by firstly removing known features of the bucket such as the arch of the bucket. Next, the algorithm is used to filter out noise and identify clusters representing the payload. Finally points are added to the payload in regions occluded by the sensor to ensure full coverage of the bucket surface. 
     Bucket Feature Filtering 
     Using the bucket pose information, particular features such as the arch and rim of the bucket can be removed as they are not part of the payload. These known features are stored in the form of a cylinder represented by two points (at the centre of each circular face) and a radius. The points are transformed into the sensor frame using the bucket pose and any data point enclosed by a feature cylinder is removed. 
     Cluster Density Segmentation 
     The payload points are characterised by a large regions of high density within the point cloud due to the surface being rather orthogonal to the ray produced by the sensor. The previous step of removing known features such as the arch and rim of the bucket would also reduce the point density in these regions. This leaves the payload points as the largest high density point clusters in the remaining sample set. 
     Addition of Occluded Points 
     Due to the effects of shadowing caused by the arch and spreader bar, the outer boundary of the bucket&#39;s payload is often occluded. This effectively reduces the area covered by the visible payload points and thus reduces the total sensed volume of the points. By using the pose estimation of the bucket we can assume that the payload forms a continuous smooth surface up to the inner edges of the bucket. Points near the transformed bucket teeth are added to the payload. This ensures that the payload volume is continuous from the sensed payload to the teeth after interpolation. Similarly points positioned on the inner rear surface of the bucket are added as this region is often occluded by the spreader bar. 
     Volume Measurement 
     With the payload points subdivided from the bucket, and the bucket&#39;s pose known, the payload volume can be measured. A relatively straightforward method for representing a surface is the height grid (or elevation map) representation. The grid is constructed by dividing up the area (in x, y plane) covered by the point cloud into uniformly sized cells. The height value at each cell is equal to the average z value of all points with x, y values bounded by the cell. 
     Shadows from the arch and spreader bar may cause some cells to contain no points and thus leave the height undefined. To overcome this, an interpolation method is used to fill in the missing data between the known cells, forming a convex shape in the x, y projection of the grid. 
     To calculate the volume of the payload, a reference surface of the inside of an empty bucket is required. This is found by transforming a pre-computed height grid generated from a bucket CAD model by the pose estimated from ICP. This height grid now represents the bottom surface of the payload against the base of the bucket. 
     The volume between the payload height grid and the reference height grid is computed by summing the height differences over the aligned cells multiplied by the cell area. 
     Results of Pilot Studies 
     The simulated payload material has relatively uniform granule size to ensure minimal compaction when transferring from the measuring apparatus to the bucket. The material is measured independently before each scan and after with any discrepancy averaged to ensure an accurate ground truth measurement. 
     The velocity of each run and the material is slightly varied to test the robustness of the algorithms. When the bucket is swaying the variance of the volumes slightly increases as seen in  FIG. 6 , but maintains minimal bias. 
                                                             TABLE 1                   Result summary with error expressed as a percentage of bucket capacity.                Static Runs   Dynamic Runs   All Runs                        RMS Error   4.1%   5.6%   4.9%           Mean Error   0.8%   0.3%   0.5%           Standard   4.1%   5.8%   4.9%           Deviation                    
System Design
 
Overview
 
       FIG. 7  gives a brief overview of the system hardware. The system is comprised of two primary elements, the first being a number of sensors mounted on the boom  3 , and the second being equipment housed in the dragline&#39;s control room. 
     Scanner 
     The primary sensor of the system is the scanner, used to generate a “point cloud” image of the payload in the dragline bucket, as well as the surrounding terrain. Two options considered were a 94 GHZ FMCW radar and the Sick LD-MRS Laser, a commercial off the shelf scanning laser. 
     Table 2 compares key performance criteria of both sensors, including the radar with a proposed upgrade. 
     The LD-MRS Laser scanner was the sensor chosen for this project, as simulations showed it to be able to scan the dragline bucket payload with greater accuracy. A description of both sensors, as well as further details of the criteria applied for selection between them is given below. 
                                                             TABLE 2                   Scanner Performance Comparison                     Upgraded               Radar   Radar   Laser                        Max Range (m)   300   300   200 1              Scanning Frequency (Hz)   4.5   10   12.5            Angular Resolution (deg)   0.81   0.37    0.25           Range Accuracy (m)   0.5   0.5   0.1           Beam Width (deg)   1.49   0.89   0.8/0.08 2                 (Notes:         1 The actual maximum range of the laser is dependent on the reflectivity of the surface being scanned.         2 Vertical/Horizontal beam width).            
Radar
 
     The primary advantage of the 94 GHz frequency modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) radar is its immunity to adverse environmental conditions. As the millimeter wave beam can penetrate dust and water particles, it can produce images even under zero visibility conditions. However, critical weaknesses of the radar are its poor angular resolution, range accuracy, and scan speed. 
     Laser 
     The Sick LD-MRS, formerly a product of IBEO is a scanning laser designed for use in the automotive industry. The laser offers far greater range accuracy and angular resolution than the radar. Additionally the LDMRS is capable of simultaneously producing four scanning planes and recording up to three echoes per transmitted pulse. These features provide some immunity to environmental conditions such as dust and rain, but not to the same degree as the radar. 
     Scanner Selection 
     The main criterion for the selection of a 3D Scanner was the ability to accurately calculate the volume of the dragline bucket payload. To compare the performance of both sensors accordingly, a simulation of the volume calculation was performed. The simulation approximates the expected sampled surface of a typical bucket moving through the scan plane at a rate of 3 m/s (nominal velocity of bucket during swing cycle), using the performance statistics of Table 2. The simulation scenario is illustrated in  FIG. 8 . The results of this simulation are shown in Table 3. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Simulation Results 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Upgraded 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Radar 
                 Radar 
                 LD-MRS* 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 dx (across width) 
                 0.71 
                 0.32 
                 0.22 
                 m 
               
               
                 dy (down length) 
                 0.67 
                 0.30 
                 0.24 
                 m 
               
               
                 Points across width 
                 7 
                 15 
                 21 
                 points/line 
               
               
                 Lines down length 
                 9 
                 21 
                 26 
                 lines 
               
               
                 Total points on bucket 
                 63 
                 315 
                 546 
                 points 
               
               
                 Simulated Volume Error# 
                 10.18 
                 8.84 
                 3.55 
                 % 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The simulation clearly shows the Sick LD-MRS Laser as the only sensor expected to produce a volume accurate to within the acceptable level of 5%. Furthermore, as the upgraded radar did not produce a markedly better results, it can be surmised that the radar&#39;s poor range accuracy was the limiting factor. Some caveats of the simulation that should be noted are:
         The simulator does not include effect of: Shadowing, Bucket Dynamics or segmenting payload from bucket features, and   The dragline bucket payload was approximated by a simple box.
 
Navigation Sensor
       

     The navigation sensor chosen for this project was the Xsens MTi-G. This sensor combines a GPS receiver and Inertial Measurement Unit, allowing it to operate with an intermittent GPS signal. The sensor provides 6 degree-of-freedom position and orientation, with a position accuracy of 2.5 m. While this accuracy does not compare favourably to the real time kinematic (RTK) navigation systems, it was deemed sufficient, as this project&#39;s primary objective of in-bucket volume measurement did not require highly accurate navigation sensing. 
     Sensor Assembly 
     The Sick LD-MRS Laser, along with an off the shelf IP camera  12 , were mounted to a Directed Perception PTU-D100 Pan Tilt Unit (PTU)  13 . Although the scanner was held stationary for the purpose of scanning the dragline bucket, the PTU allowed fine tuning of the scan plane angle on the fly, as well as the scanning of the terrain. In anticipation of possible dust issues, the mounted laser  1  was enclosed in a protective enclosure with a compressed air purge line  14 . The laser  1 , camera  12  and PTU  13  are shown fully assembled in  FIG. 9 , as mounted at  2  on the dragline boom  3  ( FIG. 7 ). 
     The PTU, and all boom mounted sensors were connected to an Ethernet network. As the PTU and Navigation sensor only provided a serial interface, a converter was necessary. This network of sensors was then connected to the previously mentioned fibre link. The serial converter and the network switch were housed in fibre converter were housed in a separate boom mounted enclosure, along with the navigation sensor. A schematic outline of the boom mounted hardware is shown in  FIG. 10 . 
     Supporting Hardware 
     In the dragline control room, a network of supporting devices for purpose of computation, telemetry and interfacing with the dragline PLC were connected to the other end of the fibre link. A schematic overview of this control room network is provided in  FIG. 11 , with further details of the individual devices given in the sections below. 
     PLC Interface 
     The prediction of bucket movement during scanning, as well as the calculation of bulk density, necessitated the collection of data from the dragline&#39;s control system. The required data included rope lengths, rope velocities, and payload weights. For this purpose, Drives and Controls Services (DCS), the maintainer of the control system, installed and configured a Prosoft MVI56-MNETC PLC Module. This module would transmit the required data via the Modbus TCP/IP Protocol. 
     3G Cellular Router 
     To facilitate telemetry, a 3G cellular router was connected to the control room network. This router was connected to a high gain antenna mounted on the roof of the dragline operator&#39;s cab. The 3G router, used in conjunction with a dynamic DNS service would allow connection to the system over the internet. 
     Embedded PC 
     An embedded PC was connected to the control room network. The computer would allow secure remote access and run the project software. 
     System Software 
     The initial software for the scaled pilot trials was implemented in MATLAB for computing volumes from data collected in the 1:20 scaled dragline facility. The algorithms were later ported to C++ in time for the full scale installation to ensure real-time performance. Software drivers for the full scale hardware were extensively bench tested before commissioning. The real-time performance requirement of the software is that the volume computation will be completed before the third party dragline monitor reports the payload weight of the last bucket. 
       FIG. 12  shows an illustration of how the payload mesh looks after segmentation and filtering. The raw 3d point cloud  15  is overlaid to show that the spreader bar  16  is excluded from payload mesh generation. Typically, 800 to 1000 bucket points are collected across the bucket (including rigging) of which generally 600 or more points are used to generate the payload mesh. The visualizer is capable of showing the irregularities of the payload surface with rocks  17  extruding over the top of the payload and occasional gaps  18  in the payload when the material doesn&#39;t always fall to the rear of the bucket. 
     Ground Truth Data Collection Method 
       FIG. 13  illustrates the collection of ground truth data. After the bucket  19  was pulled out of each dig the operator rested the bucket on the pad in a position directly under the laser position  20  on the boom  21 . The laser then takes four high-resolution sweeps of the bucket that produce 6000 to 8000 samples across the bucket surface. This is approximately ten times the number of samples collected dynamically as the bucket moves to the dump zone. 
     Accuracy of Static Bucket Sweep 
     A static sweep of an empty bucket was carried out during the production time as a reference. Each individual sweep on the empty bucket were analysed with a volume of −0.3 cubic meters or 0.56% of the rated bucket capacity. This is considered to be an acceptable measurement error for the measurement of the ground truth data set. 
     Similarly the loaded bucket sweep scans were individually analysed and the median sweep volume is used for each bucket.