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White is an achromatic color , a color without hue . An incoming light to the human eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white . White is one of the most common colors in nature , the color of sunlight , snow , milk , chalk , limestone and other common minerals . In many cultures white represents or signifies purity , innocence , and light , and is the symbolic opposite of black , or darkness . According to surveys in Europe and the United States , white is the color most often associated with perfection , the good , honesty , cleanliness , the beginning , the new , neutrality , and exactitude .
In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome , priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity , and Romans wore a white toga as a symbol of citizenship . In the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity , and a white lamb sacrifice and purity ; the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning . It sometimes symbolizes royalty ; it was the color of the French kings ( black being the color of the queens ) and of the monarchist movement after the French Revolution as well as of the movement called the White Russians ( not to be confounded with Belarus , literally `` White Russia '' ) who fought the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War ( 1917–1922 ) . Greek and Roman temples were faced with white marble , and beginning in the 18th century , with the advent of neoclassical architecture , white became the most common color of new churches , capitols and other government buildings , especially in the United States . It was also widely used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity , simplicity and strength .
White is an important color for almost all world religions . The Pope , the head of the Roman Catholic Church , has worn white since 1566 , as a symbol of purity and sacrifice . In Islam , and in the Shinto religion of Japan , it is worn by pilgrims ; and by the Brahmins in India . In Western cultures and in Japan , white is the most common color for wedding dresses , symbolizing purity and virginity . In many Asian cultures , white is also the color of mourning .
The white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red , green and blue light at equal intensities .
White in nature and culture
File : Alps.jpg|Ice and snow . The Weisshorn ( `` white mountain '' ) , in the high Alps .
File : Milk glass.jpg|A glass of milk
File : Cloud.jpg|Cumulus clouds
File : Taj Mahal ( Edited ) .jpeg|White marble - the Taj Mahal .
File : Ivory cover of the Lorsch Gospels , c. 810 , Carolingian , Victoria and Albert Museum.jpg| Ivory cover of the Lorsch Gospels , circa 810 AD , ( Victoria and Albert Museum , London . )
File : Three Maries.jpg|Alabaster statue of the three Maries , ( circa 1450 ) , Warsaw Museum .
File : Andalusian.jpg|A white Andalusian horse . White is commonly associated with innocence , perfection and purity .
File : Polar bear with young - ANWR.jpg|Polar bear with young , Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , Alaska .
File : Douvres ( 6 ) .JPG|The White Cliffs of Dover are composed of chalk , or calcium carbonate .
In nature , snow and clouds appear white because they are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air ; when white sunlight enters snow , very little of the spectrum is absorbed ; almost all of the light is reflected or scattered by the air and water molecules , so the snow appears to be the color of sunlight , white . Beaches with sand containing high amounts of quartz or eroded limestone also appear white , since quartz and limestone reflect or scatter sunlight , rather than absorbing it . Tropical white sand beaches may also have a high quantity of white calcium carbonate from tiny bits of seashells ground to fine sand by the action of the waves . An individual that has an aversion or hatred for the color white is called a leukophobe .
Etymology
The word white continues Old English ' , ultimately from a Common Germanic ' also reflected in OHG ' , ON ' , Goth . ' . The root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language ' , surviving also in Sanskrit ' `` to be white or bright '' and Slavonic ' `` light '' .
The Icelandic word for white , ' , is directly derived from the Old Norse form of the word ' .
Common Germanic also had the word * blankaz ( `` white , bright , blinding '' ) , borrowed into Late Latin as * blancus , which provided the source for Romance words for `` white '' ( Catalan , Occitan and French blanc , Spanish blanco , Italian bianco , Galician-Portuguese branco , etc . ) . The antonym of white is black .
Some non-European languages have a wide variety of terms for white . The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white . Sanskrit has specific words for bright white , the white of teeth , the white of sandalwood , the white of the autumn moon , the white of silver , the white of cow 's milk , the white of pearls , the white of a ray of sunlight , and the white of stars . Japanese has six different words , depending upon brilliance or dullness , or if the color is inert or dynamic .
White in history and art
The Ancient World
White was one of the first colors used by Paleolithic artists ; they used calcite or chalk , sometimes as a background , sometimes as a highlight , along with charcoal and red and yellow ochre in their vivid cave paintings .
In ancient Egypt , white was connected with the goddess Isis . The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen , and it was used to wrap mummies .
In Greece and other ancient civilizations , white was often associated with mother 's milk . In Greek mythology , the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea . In the Talmud , milk was one of four sacred substances , along with wine , honey , and the rose .
The ancient Greeks saw the world in terms of darkness and light , so white was a fundamental color . According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , Apelles ( 4th century BC ) and the other famous painters of ancient Greece used only four colors in their paintings ; white , red , yellow and black ; For painting , the Greeks used lead white , made by a long and laborious process .
A plain white toga , known as a toga virilis , was worn for ceremonial occasions by all Roman citizens over the age of 14–18 . Magistrates and certain priests wore a toga praetexta , with a broad purple stripe .
In the time of the Emperor Augustus , no Roman man was allowed to appear in the Roman forum without a toga .
The ancient Romans had two words for white ; albus , a plain white , ( the source of the word albino ) ; and candidus , a brighter white . A man who wanted public office in Rome wore a white toga brightened with chalk , called a toga candida , the origin of the word candidate . The Latin word candere meant to shine , to be bright . It was the origin of the words candle and candid .
In ancient Rome , the priestesses of the goddess Vesta dressed in white linen robes , a white palla or shawl , and a white veil . They protected the sacred fire and the penates of Rome . White symbolized their purity , loyalty , and chastity .
File : Paintings from the Chauvet cave ( museum replica ) .jpg|Prehistoric paintings in Chauvet Cave , France ( 30,000 to 32,000 BC )
File : Ägyptischer Maler um 1360 v. Chr . 001.jpg|Painting of the goddess Isis ( 1380–1385 BC ) . The priests of her cult wore white linen .
File : Maler der Grabkammer des Thot 001.jpg|Paintings of women in white from a tomb ( 1448–1422 BC ) .
File : Chief Vestal.jpg|Statue of the chief Vestal Virgin , wearing a white palla and a white veil .
The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
The early Christian church adopted the Roman symbolism of white as the color of purity , sacrifice and virtue . It became the color worn by priests during Mass , the color worn by monks of the Cistercian Order , and , under Pope Pius V , a former monk of the Dominican Order , it became the official color worn by the pope himself . Monks of the Order of Saint Benedict dressed in the white or gray of natural undyed wool , but later changed to black , the color of humility and penitence .
In Medieval art , the white lamb became the symbol of the sacrifice of Christ on behalf of mankind . John the Baptist described Christ as the lamb of God , who took the sins of the world upon himself . The white lamb was the center of one of the most famous paintings of the Medieval period , the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck .
White was also the symbolic color of the transfiguration . The Gospel of Saint Mark describes Jesus ' clothing in this event as `` shining , exceeding white as snow . '' Artists such as Fra Angelico used their greatest skill to capture the whiteness of his garments . In his painting of the transfiguration at the Convent of Saint Mark in Florence , Fra Angelico emphasized the white garment by using a light gold background , placed in an almond-shaped halo .
The white unicorn was a common subject of Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts , paintings and tapestries . It was a symbol of purity , chastity and grace , which could only be captured by a virgin . It was often portrayed in the lap of the Virgin Mary .
During the Middle Ages , painters rarely ever mixed colors ; but in the Renaissance , the influential humanist and scholar Leon Battista Alberti encouraged artists to add white to their colors to make them lighter , brighter , and to add hilaritas , or gaiety . Many painters followed his advice , and the palette of the Renaissance was considerably brighter .
In the Middle Ages and Renaissance , white was commonly worn by widows as a color of mourning . The widows of the kings of France wore white until Anne of Brittany in the 16th century . A white tunic was also worn by many knights , along with a red cloak , which showed the knights were willing to give their blood for the king or Church .
File : Sodoma - Life of St Benedict , Scene 31 - Benedict Feeds the Monk - WGA21581.jpg|The monks of the order of Saint Benedict ( circa 480-542 ) first dressed in undyed white or gray wool robes , here shown in painting by Sodoma on the life of Saint Benedict ( 1504 ) . They later changed to black robes , the color of humility and penitence .
File : Unicorn hunt - British Library Royal 12 F xiii f10v ( detail ) .jpg|The white unicorn frequently appeared in Medieval art , often as a symbol of virginity and purity . This the unicorn hunt from the Rochester Bestiary , from about 1230 , in the British Library .
File : Bartolomeo Passarotti Pope Pius V.jpg|Under Pope Pius V ( 1504–1572 ) , a former monk of the Dominican Order , white became the official color worn by the Pope .
File : Ghent Altarpiece D - Adoration of the Lamb 2.jpg|The white lamb in the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck . ( 1432 )
File : Transfiguration by fra Angelico ( San Marco Cell 6 ) .jpg|The Transfiguration by Fra Angelico ( 1440–1442 )
File : Leonardo da Vinci - Portrait of Cecilia Gallerani ( Lady with an Ermine ) - WGA12698.jpg|Lady with an ermine , by Leonardo da Vinci ( 1490 ) . The ermine symbolized nobility and purity . It was believed that an ermine would rather die than allow its white fur to become dirty .
File : Mary Queen of Scots in mourning.jpg|Mary Stuart wore white in mourning for her husband , King Francis II of France , who died in 1560 .
18th and 19th centuries
White was the dominant color of architectural interiors in the Baroque period and especially the Rococo style that followed it in the 18th century . Church interiors were designed to show the power , glory and wealth of the church . They seemed to be alive , filled with curves , asymmetry , mirrors , gilding , statuary and reliefs , unified by white .
White was also a fashionable color for both men and women in the 18th century . Men in the aristocracy and upper classes wore powdered white wigs and white stockings , and women wore elaborate embroidered white and pastel gowns .
After the French Revolution , a more austere white ( blanc cassé ) became the most fashionable color in women 's costumes which were modeled after the outfits of Ancient Greece and Republican Rome . Because of the rather revealing design of these dresses , the ladies wearing them were called les merveilleuses ( the marvellous ) by French men of that era . The Empire style under Emperor Napoléon I was modeled after the more conservative outfits of Ancient Imperial Rome . The dresses were high in fashion but low in warmth considering the more severe weather conditions of northern France ; in 1814 the former wife of Napoleon , Joséphine de Beauharnais , caught pneumonia and died after taking a walk in the cold night air with Tsar Alexander I of Russia .
White was the universal color of both men and women 's underwear and of sheets in the 18th and 19th centuries . It was unthinkable to have sheets or underwear of any other color . The reason was simple ; the manner of washing linen in boiling water caused colors to fade . When linen was worn out , it was collected and turned into high-quality paper .
The 19th-century American painter James McNeill Whistler ( 1834–1903 ) , working at the same time as the French impressionists , created a series of paintings with musical titles where he used color to create moods , the way composers used music . His painting `` Symphony in White No . 1 - The White Girl '' , which used his mistress Joanna Hiffernan as a model , used delicate colors to portray innocence and fragility , and a moment of uncertainty .
File : BasilikaOttobeurenHauptschiff02.JPG|A highly theatrical white Rococo interior from the 18th century , at the Basilica at Ottobeuren , in Bavaria .
File : Marie-Antoinette par Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - 1783.jpg|White gown of Marie Antoinette , painted by Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun in 1783 .
File : Gilbert Stuart , George Washington ( Lansdowne portrait , 1796 ) .jpg|President George Washington in a white powdered wig . The first five Presidents of the United States wore dark suits with powdered wigs for formal occasions .
File : Emprjose.jpg|Portrait of Joséphine de Beauharnais in a classic Empire gown , modeled after the clothing of ancient Rome . ( 1801 ) , by François Gérard . ( The State Hermitage Museum ) .
File : Whistler James Symphony in White no 1 ( The White Girl ) 1862.jpg|Symphony in White No . 1 - The White Girl , by James McNeill Whistler ( 1862 ) .
20th and 21st centuries
The White movement was the opposition that formed against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War , which followed the Russian Revolution in 1917 . It was finally defeated by the Bolsheviks in 1921-22 , and many of its members emigrated to Europe .
At the end of the 19th century , lead white was still the most popular pigment ; but between 1916 and 1918 , chemical companies in Norway and the United States began to produce titanium white , made from titanium oxide . It had first been identified in the 18th century by the German chemist Martin Klaproth , who also discovered uranium . It had twice the covering power of lead white , and was the brightest white pigment known . By 1945 , 80 percent of the white pigments sold were titanium white .
The absoluteness of white appealed to modernist painters . It was used in its simplest form by the Russian suprematist painter Kazimir Malevich in his 1917 painting 'the white square , ' the companion to his earlier 'black square . ' It was also used by the Dutch modernist painter Piet Mondrian . His most famous paintings consisted of a pure white canvas with grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and rectangles of primary colors .
Black and white also appealed to modernist architects , such as Le Corbusier ( 1887–1965 ) . He said a house was `` a machine for living in '' and called for a `` calm and powerful architecture '' built of reinforced concrete and steel , without any ornament or frills . Almost all the buildings of contemporary architect Richard Meier , such as his museum in Rome to house the ancient Roman Ara Pacis , or Altar of Peace , are stark white , in the tradition of Le Corbusier .
File : За единую Россію.jpg|Poster for the White Army during the Russian Civil War ( 1917–22 ) . The poster says : `` for a United Russia . ''
File : Kazimir_Malevich_-_ % 27Suprematist_Composition-_White_on_White % 27 , _oil_on_canvas , _1918 , _Museum_of_Modern_Art.jpg|White on White ( 1917 ) by Kazimir Malevich , Museum of Modern Art , New York
File : VillaSavoye.jpg|The Villa Savoye ( 1928–31 ) by Le Corbusier . Le Corbusier called for a `` calm and powerful '' architecture built of steel and reinforced concrete .
Science
Optics and white light
White is the color the human visual system senses when the incoming light to the eye stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the eye in nearly equal amounts . Materials that do not emit light themselves appear white if their surfaces reflect back most of the light that strikes them in a diffuse way .
In 1666 , Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light could be broken up into its composite colors by passing it through a prism , then using a second prism to reassemble them . Before Newton , most scientists believed that white was the fundamental color of light .
White light can be generated by the sun , by stars , or by earthbound sources such as fluorescent lamps , white LEDs and incandescent bulbs . On the screen of a color television or computer , white is produced by mixing the primary colors of light : red , green and blue ( RGB ) at full intensity , a process called additive mixing ( see image below ) . White light can be fabricated using light with only two wavelengths , for instance by mixing light from a red and cyan laser or yellow and blue lasers . This light will however have very few practical applications since color rendering of objects will be greatly distorted .
The fact that light sources with vastly different spectral power distributions can result in a similar sensory experience is due to the way the light is processed by the visual system . One color that arise from two different spectral power distributions is called a metamerism .
The International Commission on Illumination defines white ( adapted ) as `` a color stimulus that an observer who is adapted to the viewing environment would judge to be perfectly achromatic and to have a luminance factor of unity . The color stimulus that is considered to be the adapted white may be different at different locations within a scene .
The adaptation mentioned in the CIE definition above is the chromatic adaptation by which the same colored object in a scene experienced under very different illuminations will be perceived as having nearly the same color . The same principle is used in photography and cinematography where the choice of white point determines a transformation of all other color stimuli . Changes in or manipulation of the white point can be used to explain some optical illusions such as The dress .
File : Synthese+.svg|In the RGB color model , used to create colors on TV and computer screens , white is made by mixing red , blue and green light at full intensity .
File : Dispersion prism.jpg|White light refracted in a prism revealing the color components .
Many of the light sources that emit white light emit light at almost all visible wavelengths ( sun light , incandescent lamps of various Color temperatures ) . This has led to the notion that white light can be defined as a mixture of `` all colors '' or `` all visible wavelengths '' . This misconception is widespread and might originally stem from the fact that Newton discovered that sunlight is composed of light with wavelengths across the visible spectrum . Concluding that since `` all colors '' produce white light then white must be made up of `` all colors '' is a common logical error called affirming the consequent , which might be the cause of the misunderstanding .
Why snow , clouds and beaches are white
Snow is a mixture of air and tiny ice crystals . When white sunlight enters snow , very little of the spectrum is absorbed ; almost all of the light is reflected or scattered by the air and water molecules , so the snow appears to be the color of sunlight , white . Sometimes the light bounces around inside the ice crystals before being scattered , making the snow seem to sparkle .
In the case of glaciers , the ice is more tightly pressed together and contains little air . As sunlight enters the ice , more light of the red spectrum is absorbed , so the light scattered will be bluish .
Clouds are white for the same reason as ice . They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air , very little light that strikes them is absorbed , and most of the light is scattered , appearing to the eye as white . Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray , and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud .
Many mountains with winter or year-round snow cover are named accordingly : Mauna Kea means white mountain in Hawaiian , Mont Blanc means white mountain in French . Changbai Mountains literally meaning perpetually white mountains , marks the border between China and Korea .
Beaches with sand containing high amounts of quartz or eroded limestone also appear white , since quartz and limestone reflect or scatter sunlight , rather than absorbing it . Tropical white sand beaches may also have a high quantity of white calcium carbonate from tiny bits of seashells ground to fine sand by the action of the waves .
File : Snow-covered fir trees.jpg|Snow is composed of ice and air ; it scatters or reflects sunlight without absorbing other colors of the spectrum .
File : MontBlanc2c.jpg|Mont Blanc in the Alps . It takes its name from the white snow on its summit .
File : Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg|Cumulus clouds look white because the water droplets reflect and scatter the sunlight without absorbing other colors .
File : Pensacola Beach 1957 White Sand.jpg|Pensacola Beach , Florida . White sand beaches look white because the quartz or eroded limestone in the sand reflects or scatters sunlight without absorbing other colors .
Chemistry- white pigments and dyes
Chalk is a kind of limestone , made of the mineral calcite , or calcium carbonate . It was originally deposited under the sea as the scales or plates of tiny micro-organisms called Coccolithophore . It was the first white pigment used by prehistoric artists in cave paintings . The chalk used on blackboards today is usually made of gypsum or calcium sulphate , a powder pressed into sticks .
Bianco di San Giovanni is a pigment used in the Renaissance , which was described by the painter Cennino Cennini in the 15th century . It is similar to chalk , made of calcium carbonate with calcium hydroxide . It was made of dried lime which was made into a powder , then soaked in water for eight days , with the water changed each day . It was then made into cakes and dried in the sun .
Lead white was being produced during the 4th century BC ; the process is described is Pliny the Elder , Vitruvius and the ancient Greek author Theophrastus . Pieces of lead were put into clay pots which had a separate compartment filled with vinegar . The pots in turn were piled on shelves close to cow dung . The combined fumes of the vinegar and the cow dung caused the lead to corrode into lead carbonate . It was a slow process which could take a month or more . It made an excellent white and was used by artists for centuries , but it was also toxic . It was replaced in the 19th century by zinc white and titanium white .
Titanium white is the most popular white for artists today ; it is the brightest available white pigment , and has twice the coverage of lead white . It first became commercially available in 1921 . It is made out of titanium dioxide , from the minerals brookite , anatase , rutile , or ilmenite , currently the major source . Because of its brilliant whiteness , it is used as a colorant for most toothpaste and sunscreen .
Zinc white is made from zinc oxide . It is similar to but not as opaque as titanium white . It is added to some breakfast cereals , since zinc is an important nutrient .
Some materials can be made to look `` whiter than white '' , this is achieved using optical brightener agents ( OBA ) . These are chemical compounds that absorb light in the ultraviolet and violet region ( usually 340-370 nm ) of the electromagnetic spectrum , and re-emit light in the blue region ( typically 420-470 nm ) . OBAs are often used in paper and clothing to create an impression of very bright white . This is due to the fact that the materials actually send out more visible light than they receive .
Chinese white is a variety of zinc white made for artists .
File : Titanium ( IV ) oxide.jpg|Titanium white , made with titanium dioxide , is the brightest white paint available . It also colors most toothpaste and sunscreen .
File : Zinc oxide.jpg|Zinc white , made from zinc oxide .
Bleach and bleaching
Bleaching is a process for whitening fabrics which has been practiced for thousands of years . Sometimes it was simply a matter of leaving the fabric in the sun , to be faded by the bright light . In the 18th century several scientists developed varieties of chlorine bleach , including sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite ( bleaching powder ) . Bleaching agents that do not contain chlorine most often are based on peroxides , such as hydrogen peroxide , sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate . While most bleaches are oxidizing agents , a fewer number are reducing agents such as sodium dithionite .
Bleaches attack the chromophores , the part of a molecule which absorbs light and causes fabrics to have different colors . An oxidizing bleach works by breaking the chemical bonds that make up the chromophore | qz_76--White.txt | {
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Edward `` Kid '' Ory ( December 25 , 1886 – January 23 , 1973 ) was a jazz trombonist and bandleader . He was born in Woodland Plantation near La Place , Louisiana .
Biography
Ory started playing music with home-made instruments in his childhood , and by his teens was leading a well-regarded band in Southeast Louisiana . He kept La Place , Louisiana , as his base of operations due to family obligations until his twenty-first birthday , when he moved his band to New Orleans , Louisiana . He was one of the most influential trombonists of early jazz .
Ory was a banjo player during his youth and it is said that his ability to play the banjo helped him develop `` tailgate '' , a particular style of playing the trombone . In `` tailgate '' style the trombone plays a rhythmic line underneath the trumpets and cornets .
While Ory was living on Jackson Avenue , he was discovered by Buddy Bolden , playing his first New trombone , instead of the old civil war trombone . But his sister said he was too young to play with Bolden .
Ory had one of the best-known bands in New Orleans in the 1910s , hiring many of the great jazz musicians of the city , including cornetists Joe `` King '' Oliver , Mutt Carey , and Louis Armstrong , who joined the band in 1919 ; and clarinetists Johnny Dodds and Jimmie Noone .
In 1919 he moved to Los Angeles—one of a number of New Orleans musicians to do so near that time—and he recorded there in 1921 with a band that included Mutt Carey , clarinetist and pianist Dink Johnson , and string bassist Ed Garland . Garland and Carey were longtime associates who would still be playing with Ory during his 1940s comeback . While in Los Angeles Ory and his band recorded two instrumentals , `` Ory 's Creole Trombone '' and `` Society Blues '' , as well as a number of songs . They were the first jazz recordings made on the west coast by an African-American jazz band from New Orleans . His band recorded with the recording company Nordskog and Ory paid them for the pressings and then sold them under his own label of `` Kid Ory 's Sunshine Orchestra '' at a store in Los Angeles called Spikes Brothers Music Store . In 1925 , Ory moved to Chicago , where he was very active , working and recording with Louis Armstrong , Jelly Roll Morton , Oliver , Johnny Dodds , Bessie Smith , Ma Rainey , and many others . He mentored Benny Goodman , and later Charles Mingus .
During the Great Depression Ory retired from music and did not play again until 1943 . From 1944 to about 1961 he led one of the top New Orleans style bands of the period . In addition to Mutt Carey and Ed Garland , trumpeters Alvin Alcorn and Teddy Buckner ; clarinetists Darnell Howard , Jimmie Noone , Albert Nicholas , Barney Bigard , and George Probert ; pianists Buster Wilson , Cedric Haywood , and Don Ewell ; and drummer Minor Hall were among his sidemen during this period . All but Probert , Buckner , and Ewell were originally from New Orleans .
The Ory band was an important force in reviving interest in New Orleans jazz , making popular 1940s radio broadcasts—among them a number of slots on The Orson Welles Almanac program ( beginning March 15 , 1944 ) . In 1944–45 the group made a series of recordings on the Crescent Records label , founded by Nesuhi Ertegun for the express purpose of recording Ory 's band .
During the late 1940s and early 1950s , Ory and his group appeared at the Beverly Cavern in Los Angeles .
Ory retired from music in 1966 and spent his last years in Hawaii , with the assistance of Trummy Young . Ory died in Honolulu . He was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City , California .
Discography
With Red Allen
* Red Allen , Kid Ory & Jack Teagarden at Newport ( Verve , 1957 ) | sfq_22693--Kid_Ory.txt | {
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Prospero ( ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of William Shakespeare 's play The Tempest .
The Tempest
Prospero is the rightful Duke of Milan , whose usurping brother , Antonio , had put him ( with his then three-year old daughter , Miranda ) to sea on `` a rotten carcass of a butt [ boat ] '' to die , 12 years before the play begins . Prospero and Miranda survived and found exile on a small island . He has learned sorcery from books , and uses it while on the island to protect Miranda and control the other characters . Before the play has begun , Prospero frees Ariel from entrapment within `` a cloven pine '' , about which Prospero states :
Prospero 's sorcery is sufficiently powerful to control Ariel and other spirits , as well as to alter weather and even raise the dead : `` Graves at my command have waked their sleepers , oped , and let 'em forth , by my so potent Art . `` - Act V , scene 1 .
On the island , Prospero becomes master of the monster Caliban ( the son of Sycorax , a malevolent witch ) and forces Caliban into submission by punishing him with magic if he does not obey . Ariel is beholden to Prospero after he is freed from his imprisonment inside the pine tree .
At the end of the play , Prospero intends to drown his book and renounce magic . In the view of the audience , this may have been required to make the ending unambiguously happy , as magic was associated with diabolical works ; he will drown his books for the same reason that Doctor Faust , in an earlier play by Christopher Marlowe , promised in vain to burn his books .
Prospero 's speech
The final soliloquy and epilogue in The Tempest is considered to be one of the most memorable speeches in Shakespearean literature .
Now my charms are all o'erthrown ,
And what strength I have 's mine own ,
Which is most faint : now , 't is true ,
I must be here confined by you ,
Or sent to Naples . Let me not ,
Since I have my dukedom got
And pardon 'd the deceiver , dwell
In this bare island by your spell ;
But release me from my bands
With the help of your good hands :
Gentle breath of yours my sails
Must fill , or else my project fails ,
Which was to please . Now I want
Spirits to enforce , art to enchant ,
And my ending is despair ,
Unless I be relieved by prayer ,
Which pierces so that it assaults
Mercy itself and frees all faults .
As you from crimes would pardon 'd be ,
Let your indulgence set me free .
In it , Prospero states his loss ( magic ) and his continuing imprisonment if the audience is not pleased . Many feel that since The Tempest was the last play that Shakespeare wrote alone , Prospero 's feelings echo Shakespeare 's own , or perhaps may even have been his `` retirement speech '' .
Portrayal
* Sir Michael Redgrave played Prospero in a BBC Play of the Month production in 1968 .
* Heathcote Williams played Prospero in Derek Jarman 's 1979 film version of The Tempest .
* Sir Michael Hordern played Prospero in a 1980 production for BBC television .
* A Stratford Shakespeare Festival production was videotaped and broadcast on television in 1983 , starring Len Cariou as Prospero .
* Paul Mazursky 's film , Tempest ( 1983 ) , features a Prospero-esque character portrayed by John Cassavetes who is an exile of his own cynical discontent , ego and self-betrayal and who abandons America for a utopian `` kingdom '' on a secluded Greek isle .
* In Peter Greenaway 's film Prospero 's Books ( 1991 ) , Prospero is played by John Gielgud .
* In Julie Taymor 's 2010 film adaptation of the play , Prospero is played by Helen Mirren and is now named Prospera .
* BBC Radio 3 broadcast a production of The Tempest ( 7 October 2001 ) adapted for radio and directed by David Hunter , starring Philip Madoc as Prospero , Nina Wadia as Ariel , Josh Richards as Caliban , Catrin Rhys as Miranda , Andrew Cryer as Ferdinand , Rudolph Walker as Gonzalo , James Laurenson as Alonso , Christian Rodska as Sebastian , and Ioan Meredith as Antonio .
* David Warner played Prospero in the BBC Radio 3 Drama on 3 production of The Tempest , broadcast ( on 6 May 2012 ) as part of the Shakespeare Unlocked series on the BBC . The production included Carl Prekopp as Ariel , Rose Leslie as Miranda , James Garnon as Caliban , James Lailey as Antonio and Peter Hamilton Dyer as Sebastian , and was adapted for radio and directed by Jeremy Mortimer .
* In 2015 , Richard Cox plays a rendition of Prospero for the TNT series The Librarians .
In popular culture
* In the comic book series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen by Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill , Prospero appears as a founding member of the first such grouping in 1610 , alongside his familiars Caliban and Ariel .
* Paul Prospero , the protagonist of The Vanishing of Ethan Carter ( 2014 ) , is named after Prospero .
* In John Bellairs 's novel The Face in the Frost ( 1969 ) , Prospero is one of the protagonists .
* T. S. Eliot 's poem `` The Waste Land '' references Prospero .
* In the The Horus Heresy series , several books take place on a planet called Prospero . The citizens of the planet are versed in sorcery and psychic powers , earning them the suspicion and ire of the rest of the Imperium of Man .
* Melon Cauliflower , by NZ playwright Tom McCrory , is about a man Prospero , in his late sixties , who struggles to come to terms with the death of his wife and has mistreated his daughter Miranda .
* The Masque of the Red Death , by Edgar Allen Poe is set at the manor of a Prince Prospero | qb_7765--Prospero.txt | {
"answer_start": [
156
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"text": [
"milan"
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Count Duckula is a British animated comedy-drama dark fantasy television series created by British studio Cosgrove Hall as a spin-off from Danger Mouse , a series in which the Count Duckula character was a recurring villain . Count Duckula premiered for four series from 6 September 1988 to 16 February 1993 , and was produced by Thames Television . In all , 65 episodes were made , each about 22 minutes long . All have been released on DVD in the U.K. , while only the first series has been released in North America .
This show should not be confused with the short lived 1979 Quackula which was produced by Filmation and appeared as part of their Mighty Mouse and Heckle and Jeckle cartoon hour .
History
Count Duckula was created by British studio Cosgrove Hall as a spin-off from Danger Mouse . In 1984 Nickelodeon acquired the rights to Danger Mouse which became a hit for the channel . After a few years the Nickelodeon management came to Cosgrove Hall wishing to co-produce a new series . After being shown a number of ideas , the then head of Nickelodeon , Jenny Lebron , spotted a picture of Count Duckula in Brian Cosgrove 's office , and said `` that 's the one I want '' . As the series went into production one of the writers suggested he become a vegetarian , which added an even sillier concept to the series .
Spin-offs
In a move mirroring Duckula 's adaptation from Danger Mouse , the characters of Gaston and Pierre were reinvented and given a spinoff series as the now-human Victor and Hugo .
Count Duckula appeared in North American comics under Star Comics ( an imprint of Marvel Comics ) and introduced an additional difference between this incarnation of Duckula which separated him from his predecessors . Due to ketchup being used in the resurrection ceremony , this version of Duckula has ketchup , rather than blood , flowing through his veins . This was discovered when Duckula was given a blood test in order to get a passport into a fictional country which produced a salad which Duckula was obsessed with getting to eat . In the same issue , Duckula , Nanny , and Igor were photographed as a means of formal ID for said country , however due to the classic stereotype of vampires not appearing in film , Duckula did not appear in the photo which was taken . Duckula would also gain a romantic interest in the Star Comics run ; Vanna Von Goosewing , who turned out to be the niece of his long time adversary Dr . Von Goosewing . The attraction was mutual , and the two continued their relationship though the majority of the series after their introduction , though Vanna did n't always appear in every issue of the book .
Plot
Several episodes explore the theme that each resurrection creates a new incarnation with little to no memory of its past life , the immediate past incarnation referred to as the current 's `` father '' . Thus , every incarnation is free to develop its own personality and pursue its own personal interests . The vampire is able to pose as a `` dreadful dynasty , the counts of Duckula '' . The preceding generations included knights , sorcerers , scientists , artists , Egyptologists and even professional gamblers , all of whom are also secretly `` vicious vampire ducks '' .
However , as the title sequence puts it , `` the latest reincarnation did not run according to plan '' . The successful conclusion of the ritual requires blood ( a send-up of the Hammer Dracula films ) , the source of sustenance for any vampire , but Nanny accidentally substitutes tomato ketchup . Consequently , the newest version is not a blood-sucking vampire , but a vegetarian one . He is more interested in juicy carrots than hunting for victims . Igor is appalled . Even worse , his `` new '' master is obsessed with pursuing wealth and fame as an entertainer .
The stories often centre around Duckula 's adventures in search of riches and fame , assisted by the castle 's ability to teleport around the world . Another regularly occurring theme is the repeated attempt by Igor to turn Duckula into a proper vampire . Some episodes feature Duckula 's nemesis Doctor Von Goosewing ( based on Dr. Abraham Van Helsing , the nemesis of Dracula ) , a vampire hunter who blindly refuses to believe the current incarnation of Duckula is harmless . There is also an array of bizarre , often supernatural foes , from zombies to mechanical werewolves . Another feature of the show is a cuckoo clock whose bat-like Russian-accented characters come out and make jokes about the current situation ( or corny jokes in general ) . The clock is also a vital part of the castle 's travelling mechanism , and even has the ability to turn back time .
A series of annuals and monthly comics further detailing the adventures of Count Duckula and associated characters were released throughout the time that the series originally aired and for a short time afterwards .
Voice cast
* Count Duckula : David Jason
* Igor : Jack May
* Nanny/Dimitri : Brian Trueman
* Dr . Von Goosewing/Sviatoslav : Jimmy Hibbert
* Narrator : Barry Clayton
* Various other characters : Barry Clayton , Jimmy Hibbert , David Jason , Jack May , Brian Trueman and Ruby Wax
* Theme song vocalists : Doreen Edwards and Mike Harding
Characters
Count Duckula
Duckula ( full title : Count Duckula the 17th , ) is a short green duck with black parted hair and the traditional vampire evening wear , and speaks with an American accent , despite being voiced by a British actor . He is egotistical and selfish , but Duckula is good natured , often trying to help people . He has no fangs , His favourite food , as a vegetarian , is broccoli sandwiches . He occasionally has been seen wearing pyjamas with a Danger Mouse logo , a reference to the character 's origin . The Duckula family motto is Per ardua ad sanguina , which means `` work hard for blood '' .
He has a very modern outlook , and often despairs over the traditional vampire image he is expected to embody . He hates living in a dark , gloomy castle , and finds the behaviour of his servants to be depressing . Duckula frequently expresses frustration with Igor 's attempts to change him back into a proper vampire and his lecturing Duckula as a disgrace and disappointment to the Duckula lineage . Although he retains some vampiric powers and qualities ( such as teleportation and an image invisible to mirrors ) , he also possesses a lesser power , seen only once , which is the ability to create a lightning flash when angry . He often goes outside in the daytime without suffering any ill effects , but this is likely because of his not being a full `` traditional '' vampire , which do not do so as a result of the 1922 film Nosferatu , which introduced the idea that sunlight destroyed vampires into modern interpretations of vampires and vampirism in general . It may also be a reference to the fact that Dracula , whom the character is based on , was able to move about by daylight in the original novel , though with his powers reduced or rendered nonexistent until the sun set . In the episode `` Doctor Goosewing and Mr . Duck '' , Count Duckula briefly turns into a `` proper '' vampire , desiring blood from the villagers outside the castle , but he turns away from the door when he discovers that the sun is still out .
Although he is often egotistical and selfish , Duckula is good natured , often trying to help people , although he usually succeeds only in making them hate him . He is prone to short-lived obsessions , often forming the plots for episodes , such as attempting to become a blues musician in New Orleans , prospecting for gold , or becoming a cowboy or performer .
The character differs considerably from his predecessor on the Danger Mouse series . In fact , the only similarities , other than the name , is they are both vampire ducks with ambitions in show business with little actual talent . The previous version was an evil villain , willing to blackmail and force his way into stardom ( as opposed to the current Count , who merely tries to get in the legitimate way ) and was fixated on being a TV star , rather than settle for fame in some other branch of entertainment . He has far greater magical powers and makes much more use of them . He has a thick accent consisting of lisping , stuttering and occasional squawks . Most notably , he was not a vegetarian in the Danger Mouse version . In his very first appearance , he threatened to drink Danger Mouse 's blood , only to be chased away by the sun . The Danger Mouse Duckula was destroyed and fell to ashes , resurrected during the 8th astronomical house of Aquarius . During his recent appearance in the 2015 reboot , the new Duckula is a mix of the original and the vegetarian version from his spin-off .
Marvel Comics ( via their Star Comics imprint ) produced a comic series based on Count Duckula , and introduced an additional difference between this incarnation of Duckula which separated him from his predecessors . Due to ketchup being used in the resurrection ceremony , this version of Duckula has ketchup , rather than blood , flowing through his veins . This was discovered when Duckula was given a blood test in order to get a passport into a fictional country which produced a salad which Duckula was obsessed with getting to eat . In the same issue , Duckula , Nanny , and Igor were photographed as a means of formal ID for said country , however due to the classic stereotype of vampires not appearing in film , Duckula did not appear in the photo which was taken . Duckula would also gain a romantic interest in the Star Comics run ; Vanna Von Goosewing , who turned out to be the niece of his long time adversary Dr . Von Goosewing . The attraction was mutual , and the two continued their relationship though the majority of the series after their introduction , though Vanna did n't always appear in every issue of the book .
Igor
Igor , the Count 's butler , is a traditional horror servant based on the stock character Igor , and adds a decidedly dark streak to some of the show 's humour . He greatly dislikes his master 's behaviour , and often encourages him to act in a far more ghastly manner . Although he will generally obey Duckula 's specific orders , he remains convinced that , if he could only talk Duckula into biting , maiming , torturing and otherwise brutalising people , he would return to the `` good old days '' of the previous counts who behaved more like evil vampires . Igor hates words such as `` bless you , '' `` nice , '' `` good , '' and `` lovely '' . Such words make him cringe , since he prefers the darker and more sinister side of life .
He is a hunched , balding vulture with a deep , slow voice . In the episode `` Arctic Circles , '' he states that he has served for `` seven-and-a-half centuries '' . If this is approximate of the 17 incarnations of Duckula , his age is probably 800+ years old , and he may have started his service to the Duckula family around the time of Count Duckula the 1st , or shortly afterwards .
Nanny
Nanny , is Duckula 's nanny , as well as housekeeper . She is an extremely large ( in the episode `` Alps-A-Daisy , '' it 's revealed she 's seven feet tall ) and clumsy hen , possessing incredible strength and inevitably messing up whatever task she is set to do . She has a blind spot regarding doors , and often crashes through a door without opening it first , or ( more commonly ) walks right through the wall , especially a few feet off from the door 's position . Not surprisingly , she is the one who mistakes ketchup for blood in Duckula 's current resurrection . In the episode `` Prime-Time Duck '' her real name is revealed to be `` Amnesia . ''
She is supremely unintelligent , and completely unreliable . She is devoted to her `` Ducky-boos , '' as she calls Duckula , and has a deep maternal affection for him , although her clumsiness often inadvertently causes him harm . A recurring gag is her inability to understand what people around her are talking about . She often mixes up words and takes insult at conversations not directed at her . She is very ditzy and motherly , sometimes hugging Duckula so tightly she nearly suffocates him . In `` Dr Goosewing and Mr Duck '' when she accidentally drinks the carpet stain removal liquid created by Goosewing she becomes extremely intelligent .
Castle Duckula
Count Duckula 's home is an archetypal Transylvanian castle with all the trimmings : dungeon , torture chamber , library of macabre texts , laboratory , and more . The castle is also home to an often referred-to , but never seen , werewolf named Towser , which Duckula does not believe exists ( he often refers to it as `` the werewolf we do n't have '' ) . The castle can teleport to any place on earth ( and beyond ) , but returns automatically at dawn , `` Eastern Transylvanian Standard Time '' . The teleportation is activated when Duckula enters an upright coffin while he states where he wants it to take him ( often , he will have to come up with a rhyme to activate it properly ) . The controls to this device are inside an old-fashioned cuckoo clock that hangs on the wall , who have live two mechanical bats , Dmitri and Sviatoslav .
Dr . Von Goosewing
Dr . Von Goosewing is a mad scientist and vampire hunter , a spoof of Abraham Van Helsing . He is a goose that speaks in a German accent , and wears an outfit not unlike that of Sherlock Holmes . He pursues Count Duckula relentlessly , never able to comprehend that Duckula is actually completely harmless . He is a terrible scientist , often getting maimed by his own crackpot inventions , he is supremely unobservant , and often bumps into Duckula and converses with him for several minutes without realising to whom he is speaking .
Von Goosewing appears to have an assistant named Heinrich ( who never appears on screen ) . Von Goosewing often calls for Heinrich , and often blames his failures on him . In fact , `` Heinrich '' seems to be just a figment of Von Goosewing 's imagination , an imaginary friend .. However , the comic book version of the characters by Marvel reveal that Heinrich is actually his former assistant who is always complaining about his paltry wages ..
The Marvel Comics run also introduced Vanna Von Goosewing , who was stated to be Von Goosewing 's niece . Vanna and Duckula 's reciprocal romance further infuriated Von Goosewing , as he now believed that Vanna was under some form of mental manipulation , assuming it to be the only reason she would have any interest in Duckula . This belief made him all the more intent on destroying Duckula as he now considered his mission to have a personal component to it , believing Duckula to be a threat to Vanna 's safety . In an alternate universe depicted in the final issue of the comic , Von Goosewing , though he does not appear in the issue directly , is stated to have succeeded in destroying the counterpart Duckula of that reality , indicating it to be the reason why the 'regular ' Duckula of the series had no reflection , and leaving Igor and Nanny without anyone to serve until the next time the resurrection ritual could be performed .
The Crow brothers
The Crow brothers are four criminally-inclined crows named Ruffles , Burt , Junior , and the masked brother ( according to a comic in a Count Duckula annual ) . They typically scale the walls of Castle Duckula with the aid of climbing equipment . They are always seen hanging off one another with the use of bungee cords to climb the walls of whatever building they plan to scale . Their goal is to get at the treasure inside the castle , but they 'll rarely make it to the top .
Gaston and Pierre
Gaston and Pierre are a pair of French criminals and occasional villains . Although they are both undeniably incompetent , the arrogant Gaston is ostensibly the `` brains '' of the outfit . Gaston is a tall , thin , black stork , while Pierre is a short , stubby parakeet who sounds similar to Bluebottle from The Goon Show . The characters were adapted into non-bird form for yet another Cosgrove-Hall animated series , Victor and Hugo .
Pirate penguins
A ruthless crew of piratical penguins originally hired by Count Duckula , this crew of seafarers turn on Count Duckula when his antics crash their ship . All of the penguins are typical pirate stereotypes , one of which is known as Mr. Mate and shouts that he will `` bite their legs off ! ''
Narrator
The narrator ( Barry Clayton ) opens and closes every episode . Episodes usually began with him describing Castle Duckula and its gloomy atmosphere , and close with him saying a phrase popularised in the 1950s and 1960s by American TV horror host John Zacherle , `` Goodnight out there ... WHATever you are ! '' Variants of this line are also used to close certain programmes .
Relatives
Duckula has numerous vampiric relatives all over the world , who are more classic vampires than Duckula , possessing fangs , red eyes and evil personalities . Only a small number , such as Don Diego , show any affinity or friendship toward the benign Count Duckula .
They come from many different countries , such as Spain and Scotland , and their costumes represent their native cultures . The relatives include Don Diego , a Spanish vampire duck who makes his fun and games by burning down villages , and Rory McDuckula , a Scottish vampire duck who later makes himself an enemy of Duckula .
The peasants
The town situated below Castle Duckula is home to many peasants who live in constant fear of the count , despite his harmless current incarnation . A recurring joke in the series and associated books is that `` the peasants are revolting '' ( a pun that works because the word `` revolting '' can mean `` rebelling '' or `` foul '' ) . Their local pub is called `` The Teeth and Jugular , '' a reference to vampires ' practice of biting into blood vessels in their victims ' necks . The regulars are often seen singing a variation of the traditional song `` One Man Went to Mow a Meadow ! '' replacing the words `` mow a meadow '' with `` kill a vampire '' .
Episode list
Home media
DVD releases
Despite being mostly available in the U.K. , the Count Duckula disks from Fremantle Media are in Region 0 , PAL format . The first season was released on Region 1 DVD on 4 October 2005 . Seasons 2 , 3 & 4 have , as of 2015 , not been released in North America .
Complete set
Individual series
Individual episodes
VHS releases
During the show 's original run , Count Duckula episodes were released on numerous VHS titles from Thames Video collection , often in a different sequence than that when televised . Amongst the releases were :
* Count Duckula : The Vampire Strikes Back ! ( TV8038 ) – Released : 9 February 1989
Episodes : `` The Vampire Strikes Back ! `` , `` Hardluck Hotel , '' `` Dear Diary ''
* Count Duckula : Special Bumper Edition – Released : 6 December 1989
Consisted of several episodes from Series 2 , but in a different sequence than that when first televised.Episodes contained : `` Ghostly Gold , '' `` Prime-time Duck , '' `` The Incredible Shrinking Duck , '' `` Ducknapped ! `` , `` Bloodsucking Bats of the Lower Amazon ''
* Count Duckula : A Fright at the Opera ( TV8045 ) – Released : 28 February 1990
Episodes contained : `` A Fright at the Opera , '' `` Hunchbudgie of Notre Dame , '' `` Dr. Goosewing and Mr Duck ''
* Count Duckula : The Great Ducktective ( TV8102 ) – Released : 1990
Episodes contained : `` The Great Ducktective , '' `` Private Beak , '' `` Whodunnit ? ''
* Count Duckula : O.O . duck ( TV8105 ) – Released : 19 September 1990
Episodes contained : `` O.O . Duck , '' `` A Mountie Always Gets His Duck ! `` , `` Manhattan Duck ''
* Count Duckula : Astro Duck – Released : 31 December 1990
Episodes contained : `` Astro Duck , '' `` The Rest is History ! `` , `` Around the World in a Total Daze ! `` , `` The Zombie Awakes ! ''
* Count Duckula : Bombay Duck – Released : 31 December 1990 , and 8 February 1991
Episodes contained : `` Bombay Duck , '' `` Mississippi Duck , '' `` Mystery Cruise ''
Interestingly , this VHS title appeared in 1990 but , at the time , the episodes contained were somewhat exclusive to video ( the first was not televised until 1991 , neither was the latter until 1993 ) .
Count Duckula episodes were also released on special VHS compilations with episodes of other series . In 1989 , the episode `` Down under Duckula '' was released on Thames ' VHS title More Children 's Summer Stories , with episodes from Danger Mouse and The Wind in the Willows . In 2001 , in the twilight years of VHS , the episodes `` The Ghost of Castle McDuckula '' and `` Venice a Duck , Not a Duck ! '' were featured on two cult kids ' collection tapes , with episodes of Rainbow , Chorlton & the Wheelies , Button Moon and Jamie & the Magic Torch .
Computer games
Alternative Software released a computer game based on Count Duckula called `` No Sax Please , We 're Egyptian ! `` . In the game , Igor , Nanny and Count Duckula have decided to search the tomb of the great Pharaoh Upanatem ( a pun on `` up and at 'em '' ) to find the mystic saxophone . What they do not know is that they have brought along some unwanted guests in the form of the Crow brothers .
The game was a basic jump and run platform-type game . At the start , the castle was transported to an ancient pyramid . Then , players had a set amount of time to go through the castle , evading the various baddies inside the castle , to retrieve the mystic sax before the Count 's castle automatically returns to Transylvania , leaving the player stranded in Egypt .
The title of the game was a parody on the title of a British comedy play No Sex Please , We 're British ! .
The game was available for various 8-bit computers such as the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 , & Amstrad CPC , and was also released as a `` Kid 's Pack '' with other TV shows that Alternative Software turned into games , including `` Postman Pat , '' `` Sooty and Sweep , '' `` Count Duckula , '' `` Popeye 2 , '' `` The Wombles , '' and `` Superted '' . Alternative Software was one of the few software companies of the 1980s that still survives today as an independent software producer .
There was also a Count Duckula 2 sequel in 1992 . | sfq_24487--Count_Duckula.txt | {
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4974
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"text": [
"david jason"
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} | Who voiced Count Duckula in an animated 1980's and 1990's television series of the same name? |
Coincident full censuses have taken place in the different jurisdictions of the United Kingdom every ten years since 1801 , with the exceptions of 1941 ( during the Second World War ) and both Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State in 1921 . Simultaneous censuses were taken in the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man , with the returns being archived with those of England . In addition to providing detailed information about national demographics , the results of the census play an important part in the calculation of resource allocation to regional and local service providers by the governments of both the UK and the European Union . The most recent UK census took place in 2011 .
History
Tax assessments ( known in the later Empire as the indiction ) were made in Britain in Roman times , but detailed records have not survived . In the 7th century AD , Dál Riata ( parts of what is now Scotland and Northern Ireland ) conducted a census , called the `` Tradition of the Men of Alba '' ( Senchus fer n-Alban ) . England conducted its first formal census when the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086 under William I for tax purposes .
Distinct from earlier , less inclusive censuses ( e.g . for religious purposes ) , national decennial censuses of the general population started in 1801 , championed by the statistician John Rickman . The censuses were initially conducted partly to ascertain the number of men able to fight in the Napoleonic Wars , and partly over population concerns stemming from the 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population by Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus . Rickman 's twelve reasons – set out in 1798 and repeated in Parliamentary debates – for conducting a census of Great Britain included the following justifications :
* `` the intimate knowledge of any country must form the rational basis of legislation and diplomacy ''
* `` an industrious population is the basic power and resource of any nation , and therefore its size needs to be known ''
* `` the number of men who were required for conscription to the militia in different areas should reflect the area 's population ''
* `` there were defence reasons for wanting to know the number of seamen ''
* `` the need to plan the production of corn and thus to know the number of people who had to be fed ''
* `` a census would indicate the Government 's intention to promote the public good '' , and
* `` the life insurance industry would be stimulated by the results '' .
Regular national censuses have taken place nearly every ten years since 1801 , most recently in 2011 ; other partial censuses have been made on some of the intervening fifth anniversaries . The first four censuses ( 1801–1831 ) were mainly statistical : that is , mainly headcounts , with virtually no personal information . A small number of older records exist in local record offices as by-products of the notes made by enumerators in the production of those earlier censuses ; these might list all persons or just the heads of households . The 1841 Census was the first to intentionally record names of all individuals in a household or institution .
The Census Act of 1920 provides the legal framework for conducting all censuses in Great Britain ( Scotland , England , and Wales ) . The primary legislation for Northern Ireland was introduced in 1969 . Before this legislation , it was necessary to have a separate act of parliament for each census . Britain was also responsible for initiating and co-ordinating censuses in many of its overseas colonies .
Because of the disruption caused by the Second World War , there was no census in 1941 . However , following the passage into law on 5 September 1939 of the National Registration Act 1939 , a population count was carried out on 29 September 1939 . The resulting National Register was later used to develop the NHS Central Register . Censuses were taken on 26 April 1931 in Great Britain , but the returns for England and Wales were destroyed in an accidental fire during the Second World War .
On 24 April 1966 , the UK trialled an alternative method of enumeration – long form/short form . Every household was given a short form to complete , while a sample of the population was given a long form to collect more detailed information . The short form was used for the population count and to collect basic information such as usual address , sex , age and relationships to other household members . This was the first and only time that a five-yearly census was carried out in the UK .
Release of information
England and Wales
The British government undertakes the census for policy and planning purposes , and publishes the results in printed reports and on the website of the Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) . A number of datasets are also made available . Public access to individual census returns in England and Wales is normally restricted under the terms of the 100-year rule ( Lord Chancellor 's Instrument no.12 , issued in 1966 under S.5 ( 1 ) of the Public Records Act 1958 ) ; until recently , returns made available to researchers were those of the 1901 Census .
Some argue that ministers and civil servants in England and Wales made no attempts to strictly enforce the 100-year census closure policy until 2005 , five years after the Freedom of Information Act 2000 was passed , which , they argue , effectively abolished the 100-year rule . However , personal information provided in confidence is likely to be exempted if disclosure could result in successful prosecution for breach of confidence . In exceptional circumstances , the Registrar General for England and Wales does release specific information from 70- , 80- , or 90-year-old closed censuses .
Scotland
National censuses in Scotland have been taken on the same dates as those in England and Wales , but with differing legislation , governorship and archiving arrangements . The 2001 census was the first to be taken under full domestic control , while all preceding censuses since 1861 had been under the control of the Registrar General for Scotland . The 19th-century Scottish censuses were all released after 50–80 years of closure , while the 1901 and 1911 censuses was made available to the public after their 100th anniversaries . Unlike the censuses for England and Wales , there was a statutory bar on early release of the 1911 census details .
Ireland and Northern Ireland
Irish censuses from before 1901 have not generally survived to the present day , due to a combination of official incompetence ( the 1881 and 1891 returns were pulped before they could be transcribed into books ) , non-retention ( 1861 and 1871 ) , and a fire during the Irish Civil War in 1922 . The 1901 and 1911 censuses for Ireland ( all of which was then part of the UK ) have been available for inspection since 1960 – they were made available earlier than the other British records , since Irish law is different on this matter . No census was taken in 1921 due to the disruption of the Irish War of Independence . The first census taken in the Irish Free State ( now the Republic of Ireland ) was in April 1926 ; the first Northern Ireland census occurred at the same time . No census took place in Northern Ireland in 1931 .
Coverage
In 2001 , the census form was completed by 94 per cent of the population in England and Wales , with a further 4 per cent identified by the census enumerators , though the results still represented 100 per cent of the population through the use of cross-matching with a follow-up survey . The Census Act 1920 ( as amended ) legislates a fine of up to £1,000 for those who refuse to complete their census forms .
In some censuses , significant numbers of people intentionally did not participate for political reasons . In 1911 , the Women 's Freedom League , a suffragette organisation campaigning for female suffrage in the United Kingdom , organised a boycott of the census . They encouraged women to go to all-night parties or to stay at friends ' houses to avoid the census . In 1991 , many people again avoided the census , which was conducted during the time of the poll tax debate , in case the government used it to enforce the tax . It was estimated that up to one million people were not counted by the 1991 census due to such evasion .
Criminal law
Under section 8 of the Census Act 1920 , whoever refuses or neglects to comply with the census , makes a false declaration , makes , signs , or delivers a false document , or causes the same , or refuses to answer , or gives false answers , shall be liable on summary conviction and face a maximum fine of £1,000 . Exceptions exist for refusing or neglecting to respond to questions about religion , as stipulated by the Census ( Amendment ) Act 2000 .
Data sets
Traditionally , outputs are released in the form of tables of counts at various levels of geography . However , microdata , known Samples of Anonymised Records ( SARs ) are UK data-sets consisting of samples of individual records from national censuses . These very large datasets resemble survey data and are used for a range of applications by social scientists and policymakers .
The first SAR was released in 1991 . In 2001 , the SAR system was extended , and it is anticipated that there will be SAR files from the 2011 census .
2001
The 1851 census included a question about religion on a separate response sheet , whose completion was not compulsory . But the 2001 census was the first in which the government asked about religion on the main census form . New legislation was enacted through the Census ( Amendment ) Act 2000 to allow the question to be asked , and to make its response optional . Perhaps encouraged by a chain letter that started in New Zealand , 390,000 people entered their religion as `` Jedi Knight '' , with some areas registering up to 2.6 % of people as Jedi . Thus , `` Jedi '' was the fourth-largest reported religion in the country . ( See : Jedi census phenomenon ) .
2011
The UK 's most recent national census took place on 27 March 2011 . Several identity and status options were included for the first time in the census , including options relating to civil partnerships . The first set of data to be released from this census ( basic counts of population by age and sex ) was made available in July 2012 , with the remainder of the tables following thereafter .
2021
The next UK census is scheduled to take place in March 2021 . However , on behalf of the Government , the UK Statistics Authority has initiated a research programme , called Beyond 2011 to investigate a range of alternative options to conducting a UK-wide census in 2021 .
List of UK censuses | sfq_4400--Census_in_the_United_Kingdom.txt | {
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The Sixth Doctor is an incarnation of the Doctor , the protagonist of the BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who . He is portrayed by Colin Baker . Although his televisual time on the series was comparatively brief and turbulent , Baker has continued as the Sixth Doctor in Big Finish 's range of original Doctor Who audio adventures . Within the series ' narrative , the Doctor is a centuries-old Time Lord alien from the planet Gallifrey who travels in time and space in his TARDIS , frequently with companions . When the Doctor is critically injured , he can regenerate his body ; in doing so , his physical appearance and personality change . Baker portrays the sixth such incarnation , a flamboyant man in brightly coloured , mismatched clothes whose brash and overbearing personality set him apart from all his previous incarnations .
The Sixth Doctor appeared in three seasons . His appearance in the first of these was at the end of the final episode of The Caves of Androzani which featured the regeneration from the Fifth Doctor and thereafter in the following serial The Twin Dilemma , the end of that season . The Sixth Doctor 's era was marked by the decision of the BBC controller Michael Grade to put the series on an 18-month `` hiatus '' between seasons 22 and 23 , with only one new Doctor Who story , Slipback , made on radio during the hiatus , broadcast as 6 parts ( at 10 minutes each ) on BBC Radio 4 from 25 July to 8 August 1985 , as part of a children 's magazine show called Pirate Radio Four . Colin Baker had been signed up for four years , as the previous actor Peter Davison had left after only three years .
Prior to its postponement , season 23 was well advanced with episodes already drafted and in at least one case distributed to cast and production . Alongside `` The Nightmare Fair '' , The Ultimate Evil '' , `` Mission to Magnus '' , `` Yellow Fever and How to Cure It '' , the remaining stories were still under development in a 25-minute episode format after the season was postponed . These were all dropped with the reconception of the season in mid 1985 in favour of a 14 episode story arc called The Trial of a Time Lord . The Sixth Doctor also appeared in the special Dimensions in Time . There are also novels and audio plays featuring the Sixth Doctor , and the character has been visually referenced several times in the revived 2000s production of the show .
Biography
The sixth Doctor 's regeneration was initially unstable , and he nearly strangled Peri before he came to his senses . Realising what he had nearly done , he initially considered going into a hermitlike existence on the planet Titan 3 , only to be caught up in events on the planet Jocanda , after which he resumed his travels ( The Twin Dilemma ) . He encountered many old foes including the Master , Daleks , Cybermen and Sontarans , and even shared an adventure with his own second incarnation in The Two Doctors . He also faced a renegade female Time Lord scientist , the Rani , who was conducting experiments on humans using the Luddite riots as a cover .
Later , the Doctor and Peri landed on the devastated planet Ravolox , which they discovered was actually Earth , moved across space with devastating consequences . Before they could discover the reason for this disaster , the TARDIS landed on Thoros Beta . What actually happened here is unclear , but initial accounts suggest that Peri was killed after being cruelly used as a test subject in brain transplant experiments and the Doctor was pulled out of time to a Time Lord space station where he was put on trial for the second time by his own race , the Time Lords . In reality the trial was a cover-up organised by the High Council . A race from Andromeda had stolen Time Lord secrets and hidden on Earth , so to protect themselves the Time Lords had moved Earth through space , burning the surface in a massive fireball and leaving it as Ravolox . The prosecutor at that trial , the Valeyard , turned out to be a possible future , an evil incarnation of the Doctor himself who was out to steal his remaining lives . He had also edited the Matrix recordings of the Doctor 's travels ; in reality Peri had survived events on Thoros Beta . The events of the trial tangled the Doctor 's timeline slightly , as he left in the company of Mel , whom he technically had not yet met .
When the TARDIS is attacked by the Rani , the Sixth Doctor was somehow injured and regenerated into the Seventh Doctor ; the exact cause of the regeneration , however , has never been revealed on-screen .
Beyond the trial and before the regeneration in spin-off media
Doctor Who was put on hiatus for 18 months following The Trial of a Time Lord , and Colin Baker was asked to return for a single story which would have led to an event precipitating the Doctor 's regeneration . As he declined to do so , there were limits as to what could be done on screen for the purposes of transitioning to a new Doctor when the series resumed with Time and the Rani and there were other unresolved questions , such as when and how the Doctor and Mel actually met . Attempts have been made by various authors to fill in these narrative gaps .
The Virgin Missing Adventures novel Time of Your Life states that the Doctor went into a self-imposed exile to avoid becoming the Valeyard . He was lured back into travelling by the Time Lords , and recruited Grant Markham as a companion . Although now travelling again , he attempted to avoid meeting Mel and recruited other companions such as history lecturer Evelyn Smythe and `` Edwardian adventuress '' Charley Pollard . He eventually encounters Mel accidentally during the events of the BBC Books novel Business Unusual and accepts his fate once she stows away in the TARDIS .
Pip and Jane Baker 's novelisation of Time and the Rani provides the first relatively brief attempt to explain the Doctor 's regeneration ( specifically , that it was triggered by `` tumultuous buffeting '' as the Rani attacked the TARDIS ) . The Virgin New Adventures series suggests that the Seventh Doctor somehow deliberately killed the Sixth , because he could not become the masterplanner and manipulator that his next incarnation became , due to his fear of becoming the Valeyard . The BBC Books Past Doctor Adventures novel Spiral Scratch proposes that the Sixth Doctor died as a result of his chronal energy being drained in a confrontation with a powerful pan-dimensional entity before being snared by the Rani 's beam . The unofficial , for-charity-published , novel Time 's Champion by Craig Hinton and Chris McKeon consigns the events of Spiral Scratch to an alternate timeline , and makes the Sixth Doctor the eponymous Time 's Champion , to save Mel from the clutches of the Time Lord God , Death . In these events , the Doctor , through the TARDIS ' telepathic circuits , forces his own regeneration and then travels towards Lakertya , setting up the events of Time and the Rani .
In 2015 , Big Finish Productions released The Sixth Doctor : The Last Adventure , an audio drama depicting the events leading up to the Sixth Doctor 's death and regeneration . [ http : //www.bigfinish.com/news/v/coming-in-september-doctor-who -- -the-sixth-doctor-the-last-adventure Doctor Who – The Sixth Doctor : The Last Adventure ] According to this account , an alternative future Sixth Doctor , determined to stop the Valeyard from using parasitic creatures to steal the lives of every Time Lord to ever exist , sent a telepathic message to himself in the past . The message caused the past Sixth Doctor to fly his TARDIS to Lakertya , where he ended up exposed to radiation deadly to Time Lords . His death and subsequent regeneration into the Seventh Doctor killed the parasites , stopping the Valeyard from succeeding with his plan .
Personality
The Sixth Doctor was an unpredictable and somewhat petulant egoist , whose garish , multicoloured attire reflected his volatile personality . He was both portentous and eloquent , even for the Doctor – of whom he saw himself as the finest incarnation yet – and his unpredictability was made even wilder by his mood swings , manic behaviour , bombastic outbursts and glib , unflappable wit . His personality also displayed occasionally fatalistic overtones .
The Sixth Doctor was almost supremely confident in his abilities and did not suffer fools gladly ; he sometimes seemed to endure Peri 's presence far more than he actually appreciated it , and his superiority complex applied to almost everyone he encountered . His intellect could support his ego ; for instance , the Sixth Doctor was the only one who was able to repair and operate the Chameleon Circuit within the TARDIS , allowing it to change shape to suit its surroundings rather than looking constantly like a police box ( although the appropriateness of the TARDIS 's appearance to its environment was more-or-less nil ) in Attack of the Cybermen . However , not only did his melodramatic arrogance and caustic wit eventually subside , it actually hid the fact that this incarnation retained the Doctor 's strong moral sense and empathy , as seen in Revelation of the Daleks , in which he showed great compassion for a dying mutant ; and The Trial of a Time Lord , where he displayed outrage at his own people for their part in a plot and cover-up which resulted in the death of most of the Earth 's population . Underneath his blustering exterior , he was more determined than ever in his universal battles against evil , possessed of a tenacity and a thirst to do what was right that was far more visible than ever before . Despite his often unstable demeanour , he was always ready to act when necessary , and very little – even his companions – could hope to stand in his way .
His condescension towards the universe around him also extended to his companions , especially Peri . While his use of violence against his foes and his abrasive relationship with Peri were both often criticised by fans , the violence was largely in self-defence , and his relationship with Peri had mellowed significantly when the programme returned from hiatus for Season 23 's The Trial of a Time Lord .
The events surrounding the production of Doctor Who in the mid-1980s caused the Sixth Doctor 's tenure to be cut short .
During the Sixth Doctor 's tenure in the Big Finish Productions audio plays , voiced by Baker , he appeared to be a somewhat calmer , wittier and altogether happier character ( attributed in-story to the influence of companion Evelyn Smythe ) . In a 2001 poll in Doctor Who Magazine , Baker was voted the `` greatest Doctor '' of the audio plays . Baker has said that he was not given enough time in the 1980s to 'unpeel the layers ' of his character .
Appearance
Colin Baker wished to dress his Doctor in black , specifically black velvet , to reflect his character 's darker personality . Producer John Nathan-Turner , however , opted for a deliberately `` totally tasteless '' costume with clashing colours , a brief so demanding that designer Pat Godfrey 's made several attempts which were considered too good before Nathan-Turner finally accepted the last one as `` sufficiently garish '' . Colin Baker later described the outfit as `` an explosion in a rainbow factory '' .
The Sixth Doctor wears a red plaid frock coat , with green patchwork , and yellow and pink lapels over a white shirt with red question marks embroidered in the collar ( a feature of the programme since 1980 ) , a waistcoat and large Victorian style necktie , and yellow trousers with black stripes was a pair of green ankle boots with red spats . There were many variants on the waistcoat and tie , the earliest being the knitted brown waistcoat and turquoise polka-dot tie . The waistcoat was later changed to red check , and in the following story a new red polka-dot tie appeared . The `` future '' version of the Sixth Doctor seen in aboard the Hyperion III ( The Trial of a Time Lord ) wore a stripey waistcoat and a yellow tie speckled with black stars . Baker added a cat badge to the ensemble . During Baker 's run in the stage play Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure , the original frock coat was replaced by a similar one with a red , blue and purple colour scheme .
More recently , a blue version of the original costume has appeared on covers of new BBC spin-off materials . First used in the webcast Real Time , due to the limited availability of colours for the purposes in the type of animation used , it has appeared subsequently on covers of audio dramas from Big Finish Productions .
Story style
Season 22 attracted some criticism for its violent content . Coincidentally , torture for entertainment was explored as a theme in the story Vengeance on Varos . After the 18-month hiatus , Season 23 featured a reduction of episodes produced , and the 14-part serial The Trial of a Time Lord was felt by some fans to reflect the fact that the series itself was `` on trial '' all this time .
Other appearances
* The Sixth Doctor 's image appears among other incarnations in the revival series episodes `` The Next Doctor '' and `` The Eleventh Hour '' . He also appears in `` The Day of the Doctor '' using archived footage .
* '' A Fix with Sontarans '' , a segment of the children 's television programme Jim 'll Fix It .
* In Top Gear ( Season 2 , Episode 8 ) , the Sixth Doctor 's TARDIS appears on the test track , distracting a Cyberman trying to set a lap time in a Honda Civic . The Doctor sets a lap time of 1:43 .
Webcasts
* Real Time
Novels
; Target Books Missing Episodes
* The Nightmare Fair by Graham Williams
* The Ultimate Evil by Wally K. Daly
* Mission to Magnus by Philip Martin
; Virgin New Adventures
* Head Games by Steve Lyons ( Manifestation of the Sixth Doctor 's persona attacks the Seventh Doctor )
; Virgin Missing Adventures
* State of Change by Christopher Bulis
* Time of Your Life by Steve Lyons
* Millennial Rites by Craig Hinton
* Killing Ground by Steve Lyons
* Burning Heart by Dave Stone
; Past Doctor Adventures
* Business Unusual by Gary Russell
* Mission : Impractical by David A. McIntee
* Players by Terrance Dicks ( Also features a flashback to the Second Doctor )
* Grave Matter by Justin Richards
* The Quantum Archangel by Craig Hinton ( Also features a brief appearance by an alternate version of the Third Doctor )
* The Shadow in the Glass by Justin Richards and Stephen Cole
* Instruments of Darkness by Gary Russell
* Palace of the Red Sun by Christopher Bulis
* Blue Box by Kate Orman
* Synthespians™ by Craig Hinton
* Spiral Scratch by Gary Russell ( Ends in the Sixth Doctor 's regeneration )
; Eighth Doctor Adventures
* The Eight Doctors by Terrance Dicks
* Seen in the TARDIS mirror in Camera Obscura
; Make Your Own Adventure
* Search for the Doctor by Dave Martin
* Crisis in Space by Michael Holt
; Time 's Champion
In 2008 , an unofficial Doctor Who novel Time 's Champion was published , written by Chris McKeon and the late Craig Hinton . All proceeds went to the British Heart Foundation .
; Telos Doctor Who novellas
* Shell Shock by Simon A Forward
; Short stories
* `` Brief Encounter : A Wee Deoch an .. ? '' by Colin Baker ( Doctor Who Magazine Winter Special 1991 )
Penguin Fiftieth Anniversary eBook novellas
* Something Borrowed by Richelle Mead
Comics
The Sixth Doctor was featured in a number of acclaimed comic strips drawn by John Ridgway . These featured visuals and storylines of a whimsical fantasy nature , similar to Alice in Wonderland . The Sixth Doctor was somewhat calmer and more restrained than on television . All of these comic strips appeared in Doctor Who magazine in the 1980s . Colin Baker himself wrote a comic book special called The Age of Chaos in which the Sixth Doctor and Frobisher visit an older version of Peri .
Doctor Who Magazine
* The Shape-Shifter
* Voyager
* Polly the Glot
* Once upon a Time Lord
* War-Game
* Fun-House
* Kane 's Story / Abel 's Story / Warriors ' Story / Frobisher 's Story
* Exodus / Revelation / Genesis
* Nature of the Beast
* Time Bomb
* Salad Daze
* Changes
* Profit of Doom
* The Gift
* World Shapers
* Emperor of the Daleks
* Up Above the Gods
Classic Comic Special
* The Age of Chaos
IDW Comics
* The Forgotten
* Prisoners of Time
Video games
* Doctor Who and the Mines of Terror
* Destiny of the Doctors
* Lego Dimensions
Audio dramas
* Sixth Doctor audio plays
* Gallifrey : Disassembled ( Alternate Sixth Doctor )
Short Trips audios
* The Wings of a Butterfly
* The Doctor 's Coat
* Seven to One
* Murmurs of Earth
* To Cut a Blade of Grass | sfq_7681--Sixth_Doctor.txt | {
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} | Which actor was the fifth Doctor Who from 1982-1984, and in that role often wore Edwardian cricket costume? |
Shakoor Rana ( April 3 , 1936 – April 9 , 2001 ) was a Pakistani cricketer and umpire
Playing career
Shakoor Rana had an undistinguished playing career . He played in 11 first-class matches between 1957 and 1973 , accumulating 226 runs and 12 wickets . He was overshadowed by his brothers Shafqat Rana and Azmat Rana who both represented Pakistan at Test level .
Umpiring career
Rana made his international debut as an umpire in 1974 at Lahore , the city that had become his hometown . The match was between Pakistan and the West Indies . His career continued until his last match between Pakistan and New Zealand in 1996 , also at Lahore . He stood in 18 test matches and 22 One Day Internationals .
Gatting controversy
In a test match in Faisalabad in 1987 , Rana argued furiously with Mike Gatting . The argument stopped the match , and footage of the English cricket captain and the umpire shouting at each other with fingers waved in the other 's face was widely broadcast .
The incident occurred on the second day of the test after Gatting was considered by Rana to have made an alteration to the fielding positions as Eddie Hemmings ran in to bowl - Rana stopped the game and accused Gatting of cheating . Rana had already upset the English by wearing a Pakistan sweater and placing Mudassar Nazar 's cap on his own head . The game was stopped by the incident and only resumed the following day . Rana and Gatting were both accused of using foul language , much of which was heard by a worldwide TV audience via the stump microphone . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/in_depth/2000/england_on_tour/976662.stm BBC SPORT | ENGLAND ON TOUR | Gatt regrets Rana row ] Shakoor refused to stand again in that Test until he received an unconditional apology from Gatting for the language used in the dispute . Gatting was threatened with being stripped of the England captaincy and was forced into issuing a written apology to Rana . Gatting has since expressed regret at his part in the row .
Coney incident
Gatting was not the only international captain to have had a run-in with Rana . In December 1984 during a Test match in Karachi , New Zealand captain Jeremy Coney threatened to lead his side from the field following a controversial decision of not-out for Pakistan player Javed Miandad .
Legacy
The controversy surrounding Shakoor Rana was a driver in the move towards neutral umpires at Test matches . The home side had previously supplied the umpires but the International Cricket Council have since brought in neutral officials . | qw_9516--Shakoor_Rana.txt | {
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} | Which English cricket captain had a well-publicised row with Pakistani umpire Shakoor Rana in Faisalabad in 1987? |
The Beatles appeared in five motion pictures , most of which were very well received . The exception was the ( mostly unscripted ) television film Magical Mystery Tour which was panned by critics and the public alike . Each of their films had the same name as their associated soundtrack album and a song on that album .
Films starring The Beatles
A Hard Day 's Night
The Beatles had a successful film career , beginning with A Hard Day 's Night ( 1964 ) , a loosely scripted comic farce , sometimes compared to the Marx Brothers in style . A black-and-white film , it focused on Beatlemania and the band 's hectic touring lifestyle and was directed by the up-and-coming Richard Lester , who was known for having directed a television version of the successful BBC radio series The Goon Show as well as the off-beat short film The Running , Jumping and Standing Still Film , with Peter Sellers and Spike Milligan . A Hard Day 's Night is a mockumentary of the four members as they make their way to a London television programme . The film , released at the height of Beatlemania , was well received by critics , and remains one of the most influential jukebox musicals .
Help !
In 1965 came Help ! ; an Eastmancolour extravaganza , which was also directed by Lester . The film was shot in exotic locations ( such as Salisbury Plain , with Stonehenge visible in the background ; the Bahamas ; Salzburg and the Austrian Alps ) in the style of a Mr. Magoo spoof along with even more Marx Brothers-style zaniness : For example , the film is dedicated `` to Elias Howe , who , in 1846 , invented the sewing machine . '' It was the first Beatles film filmed in colour .
Magical Mystery Tour
The Magical Mystery Tour film was essentially McCartney 's idea , which was thought up as he returned from a trip to the U.S. in the late spring of 1967 , and was loosely inspired by press coverage McCartney had read about Ken Kesey 's Merry Pranksters ' LSD-fuelled American bus odyssey . McCartney felt inspired to take this idea and blend it with the peculiarly English working class tradition of charabanc mystery tours , in which children took chaperoned bus rides through the English countryside , destination unknown . The film was critically dismissed when it was aired on the BBC 's premier television network , BBC-1 , on Boxing Day — a day primarily for traditional `` cosy , family entertainment '' . While the film has historical importance as an early advance into the music video age , at the time many viewers found it plotless and confusing . Compounding this culture clash was the fact that the film was made in colour and made use of colour filters for some of the scenes - particularly in a sequence for `` Blue Jay Way '' - but in December 1967 practically no-one in the UK owned a colour receiver , the service only having started a few months earlier .
Yellow Submarine
The animated Yellow Submarine followed in 1968 , but had little direct input from The Beatles , save for a live-action epilogue and the contribution of five new songs ( including `` Only a Northern Song '' , an unreleased track from the Sgt . Pepper sessions ) . It was acclaimed for its boldly innovative graphic style . The Beatles are said to have been pleased with the result and attended its highly publicised London premiere .
Let It Be
Let It Be was an ill-fated documentary of the band that was shot
over a four-week period in January 1969 . The documentary — which was originally intended to be simply a chronicle of the evolution of an album and the band 's possible return to live
performances — captured the prevailing tensions between the band members , and in this respect it unwittingly became a document of the beginning of their break-up .
The band initially rejected both the film and the album , instead recording and issuing the Abbey Road album . But with so much money having been spent on the project , it was decided to finish , and release , the film and album ( the latter with considerable post-production by Phil Spector ) in the spring of 1970 . When the film finally appeared , it was after the break-up had been announced , which gave the film 's depiction of the band 's acrimony and attempts to recapture the group 's spirit a significant poignancy .
Individual projects
In late 1966 , John Lennon took time off to play a supporting character , Gripweed , in a film called How I Won the War , also directed by Lester . It was a satire of World War II films , and its dry , ironic British humour was not well received by American audiences . He would later produce avant-garde films with his second wife Yoko Ono , such as Rape which was produced for the Austrian television network ORF .
In 1969 , Ringo Starr took second billing to Peter Sellers in the satirical comedy The Magic Christian , in a part which had been written especially for him . In 1971 , Starr played the part of Frank Zappa in Zappa 's epic cult film about a rock and roll band touring , entitled 200 Motels . In 1973 , Ringo played the part of Mike in That 'll Be The Day along with David Essex as Jim MacLaine . In 1974 , Ringo starred with musician Harry Nilsson in the film Son of Dracula and in 1981 , starred in the film Caveman with Shelley Long .
Starr later embarked on an irregular career in comedy films through the early 1980s , and his interest in the subject led him to be the most active of the group in the film division of Apple Corps , although it was Harrison who would achieve the most success as a film producer ( The Life of Brian , Mona Lisa , Time Bandits , Shanghai Surprise , Withnail and I ) and even made cameo appearances in some of these as well ( including a reporter in All You Need Is Cash ) .
Paul McCartney appeared in a cameo role in Peter Richardson 's 1987 film Eat the Rich and released his own film Give My Regards to Broad Street in 1984 in which Ringo Starr co-starred .
Unmade films
During the 1960s , there were many ideas pitched for films , but these were either rejected or else never saw the light of day ; such projects included A Talent for Loving , a Western film written by Richard Condon ; Shades of a Personality ; film versions of The Lord of the Rings and The Three Musketeers starring the group ( although Richard Lester , who directed the group 's first two movies , went on to direct his own version of The Three Musketeers in 1973 ) , and a script by playwright Joe Orton called Up Against It .
Documentaries
The Beatles have been the subject of a number of documentary films .
* The Beatles at Shea Stadium
* The Compleat Beatles
* The Beatles : The First U.S. Visit
* The Beatles Anthology
* All Together Now
* Good Ol ' Freda ( December 3 , 2013 ) Documentary about Freda Kelly , secretary of Brian Epstein and The Beatles Fan Club and her life near to the Fab Four for 11 years .
* The Beatles : Eight Days a Week
Promotional films
* `` Rain ''
* `` Paperback Writer ''
* `` Strawberry Fields Forever ''
* `` Penny Lane ''
* `` A Day in the Life ''
* `` Hello , Goodbye ''
* `` Lady Madonna ''
* `` Hey Jude ''
* `` Revolution ''
* `` Something ''
Fictionalised Beatles
* Birth of The Beatles ( 1979 ) , focusing on period from ca . 1957 at art college through Hamburg days to first number one
* Beatlemania ( 1981 ) , a poorly received movie version of the Broadway show of the same name
* The Hours and Times ( 1991 ) , speculation about the weekend Brian Epstein and John Lennon spent together in Barcelona in 1963
* Backbeat ( 1994 ) , the Stuart Sutcliffe story
* The Linda McCartney Story ( 2000 ) , A TV film covering the relationship between Paul McCartney and Linda Eastman .
* Two of Us ( 2000 ) , covering a mid-1970s meeting between Paul McCartney and John Lennon
* In His Life : The John Lennon Story ( 2000 ) , focusing on period from 1957 to 1964 .
* Nowhere Boy ( 2009 ) , a John Lennon biopic , focusing on his teens
* Lennon Naked ( 2010 ) , a TV movie based on the life of Lennon from 1967 to 1971 starring Christopher Eccleston as John Lennon
Inspired by The Beatles
Several fictional films not depicting The Beatles have been entirely based on Beatles themes and songs
* Pinoy Beatles ( 1964 ) , a Tagalog musical made in the Philippines . It was released 3 months after A Hard Day 's Night
* The Girls on the Beach ( 1965 ) , a beach party film in which college coeds mistakenly believe the Beatles are going to perform at their sorority fundraiser
* All This and World War II ( 1976 ) , documentary of World War II using Beatles music
* Sgt . Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1978 ) , a musical based on the Beatles ' album of the same name
* I Wan na Hold Your Hand ( 1978 ) , a coming of age film about Beatlemania
* All You Need Is Cash ( 1978 ) , TV mockumentary featuring The Rutles , a parody of the Beatles
* Secrets ( 1992 ) , a drama about five Australian teenagers who get locked in the basement of a hotel where the Beatles are staying
* I Am Sam ( 2001 ) , a drama about the story of an intellectually disabled father who loves the Beatles and his efforts to retain custody of his daughter
* The Rutles 2 : Ca n't Buy Me Lunch ( 2005 ) , mockumentary featuring The Rutles
* Across the Universe ( 2007 ) , a musical
* Beatles ( 2014 ) Norwegian film based on Beatles ( novel ) written by Lars Saabye Christensen . It 's about five boys in the seventh grade in school , they live on the west side of Oslo , they are all great fans of the band `` The Beatles '' .
Other
* Howard Kaylan 's autobiographical film , My Dinner with Jimi , from 2003 , tells the story of Kaylan and his band The Turtles ' first tour of England , where they met many British rock stars , including The Beatles . John Lennon was portrayed by Brian Groh ; Paul McCartney , by Quinton Flynn ; George Harrison , by Nate Dushku and Ringo Starr , by Ben Bodé .
* In the 2007 mock-biopic film Walk Hard : The Dewey Cox Story , Dewey Cox and his bandmates go to India to pray with the Maharishi . There , they encounter the intentionally miscast Beatles with Paul Rudd , Jack Black , Justin Long and Jason Schwartzman as John , Paul , George and Ringo , respectively .
* The vultures in the 1967 film of The Jungle Book are considered caricatures of the Beatles . The Beatles were originally planned to voice them , but later declined due to scheduling conflicts . | bt_4229--The_Beatles_in_film.txt | {
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} | What was the Beatles first film |
Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century . Dada in Zürich , Switzerland , began in 1916 at Cabaret Voltaire , spreading to Berlin shortly thereafter , but the height of New York Dada was the year before , in 1915 . The term anti-art , a precursor to Dada , was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 when he created his first readymades . Dada , in addition to being anti-war , had political affinities with the radical left and was also anti-bourgeois .
At least two works qualified as pre-Dadaist , a posteriori , had already sensitized the public and artists alike : Ubu Roi ( 1896 ) by Alfred Jarry , and the ballet Parade ( 1916–17 ) by Erik Satie . The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde . Cubism and the development of collage , combined with Wassily Kandinsky 's theoretical writings and abstraction , detached the movement from the constraints of reality and convention . The influence of French poets and the writings of German Expressionists liberated Dada from the tight correlation between words and meaning . Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments . They had seen ( or participated in ) Cubist exhibitions held at Galería Dalmau , Barcelona ( 1912 ) , Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin ( 1912 ) , the Armory show in New York ( 1913 ) , SVU Mánes in Prague ( 1914 ) , several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at De Moderne Kunstkring , Amsterdam ( between 1911 and 1915 ) . Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists . Dada subsequently combined these approaches .
Dada activities included public gatherings , demonstrations , and publication of art/literary journals ; passionate coverage of art , politics , and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media . Key figures in the movement included Hugo Ball , Emmy Hennings , Hans Arp , Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Tristan Tzara , Francis Picabia , Richard Huelsenbeck , George Grosz , John Heartfield , Marcel Duchamp , Beatrice Wood , Kurt Schwitters , Hans Richter , and Max Ernst , among others . The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements , and groups including surrealism , Nouveau Réalisme , pop art and Fluxus .
Overview
Dada was an informal international movement , with participants in Europe and North America . The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I . For many participants , the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests , which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war , and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war .
Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason ' and 'logic ' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war . They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality . For example , George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest `` against this world of mutual destruction . ''
According to Hans Richter Dada was not art : it was `` anti-art . '' Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for . Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics , Dada ignored aesthetics . If art was to appeal to sensibilities , Dada was intended to offend .
As Hugo Ball expressed it , `` For us , art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in . ''
A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that `` Dada philosophy is the sickest , most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man . '' Art historians have described Dada as being , in large part , a `` reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide . ''
Years later , Dada artists described the movement as `` a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis , a savior , a monster , which would lay waste to everything in its path ... [ It was ] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization ... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege . ''
To quote Dona Budd 's The Language of Art Knowledge , Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War . This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich . Dada rejected reason and logic , prizing nonsense , irrationality and intuition . The origin of the name Dada is unclear ; some believe that it is a nonsensical word . Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara 's and Marcel Janco 's frequent use of the words `` da , da , '' meaning `` yes , yes '' in the Romanian language . Another theory says that the name `` Dada '' came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French–German dictionary happened to point to 'dada ' , a French word for 'hobbyhorse ' . The movement primarily involved visual arts , literature , poetry , art manifestos , art theory , theatre , and graphic design , and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works .
History
Zürich
In 1916 , Hugo Ball , Emmy Hennings , Tristan Tzara , Jean Arp , Marcel Janco , Richard Huelsenbeck , Sophie Taeuber , and Hans Richter , along with others , discussed art and put on performances in the Cabaret Voltaire expressing their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it .
Some sources state that Dada coalesced on October 6 at the Cabaret Voltaire . Other sources state that Dada did not originate fully in a Zürich literary salon but grew out of an already vibrant artistic tradition in Eastern Europe , particularly Romania , that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists ( Tzara , Janco , Arthur Segal , and others ) settled in Zürich . In the years prior to the First World War similar art had already risen in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities ; it is likely that Dada 's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco .
Having left Germany and Romania during the Great War , the artists found themselves in Switzerland , a country recognized for its neutrality . Inside this space of political neutrality they decided to use abstraction to fight against the social , political , and cultural ideas of that time . The dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society , a society so apathetic it would rather fight a war against itself than challenge the status quo .
Janco recalled , `` We had lost confidence in our culture . Everything had to be demolished . We would begin again after the tabula rasa . At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense , public opinion , education , institutions , museums , good taste , in short , the whole prevailing order . ''
The Cabaret closed its doors in early July and then at the first public soiree at Waag Hall on July 14 , 1916 , Ball recited the first manifesto . In 1917 , Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto considered one of the most important Dada writings , which was published in 1918 . Other manifestos followed .
A single issue of the magazine Cabaret Voltaire was the first publication to come out of the movement .
After the cabaret closed down , Dada activities moved on to a new gallery , and Hugo Ball left for Bern . Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas . He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters , and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist . The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened , and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf .
Zürich Dada , with Tzara at the helm , published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917 , with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris .
Other artists , such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault , created “ literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada . ”
After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918 , most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries , and some began Dada activities in other cities . Others , such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber , would remain in Zürich into the 1920s .
Berlin
`` Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers , of mounting , thundering hunger , where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust , and men 's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence ... Fear was in everybody 's bones `` - Richard Hülsenbeck
The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups . Their activity and art were more political and social , with corrosive manifestos and propaganda , satire , public demonstrations and overt political activities . The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists . Conversely , New York 's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically-driven , less political nature .
In February 1918 , while the Great War was approaching its climax , Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin , and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year . Following the October Revolution in Russia , by then out of the war , Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies . Grosz , together with John Heartfield , Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period . After the war , the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair , 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists ' , in the summer of 1920 . As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada – Grosz , Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Huelsenbeck and Heartfield – the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix , Francis Picabia , Jean Arp , Max Ernst , Rudolf Schlichter , Johannes Baargeld and others . In all , over 200 works were exhibited , surrounded by incendiary slogans , some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi 's Entartete Kunst exhibition in 1937 . Despite high ticket prices , the exhibition lost money , with only one recorded sale .
The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada , Der Dada , Everyman His Own Football , and Dada Almanach .
Cologne
In Cologne , Ernst , Baargeld , and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments . Cologne 's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub , and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress . The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity , but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped .
New York
Like Zürich , New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War . Soon after arriving from France in 1915 , Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray . By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States . American Beatrice Wood , who had been studying in France , soon joined them , along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven . Arthur Cravan , fleeing conscription in France , was also present for a time . Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz 's gallery , 291 , and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg .
The New Yorkers , though not particularly organized , called their activities Dada , but they did not issue manifestos . They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man , Rongwrong , and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art . New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor . In his book Adventures in the arts : informal chapters on painters , vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on `` The Importance of Being 'Dada ' '' .
During this time Duchamp began exhibiting `` readymades '' ( everyday objects found or purchased and declared art ) such as a bottle rack , and was active in the Society of Independent Artists . In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain , a urinal signed R. Mutt , to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition only to have the piece rejected . First an object of scorn within the arts community , the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture . Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize , Gordon 's gin , voted it `` the most influential work of modern art . '' As recent scholarship documents , the work is likely more collaborative than it has been given credit for in twentieth-century art history . Duchamp indicates in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work . As he writes : `` One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture . '' The piece is more in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp 's friend and neighbour , the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven , than Duchamp 's . In an attempt to `` pay homage to the spirit of Dada '' a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006 ; he also urinated on it in 1993 .
Picabia 's travels tied New York , Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period . For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona , New York City , Zürich , and Paris from 1917 through 1924 .
By 1921 , most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada experienced its last major incarnation .
Paris
The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara ( whose pseudonym means `` sad in country , '' a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania ) , who exchanged letters , poems , and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire , André Breton , Max Jacob , Clément Pansaers , and other French writers , critics and artists .
Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century . One of its practitioners , Erik Satie , collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad , scandalous ballet called Parade . First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917 , it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky 's Le Sacre du Printemps had done almost five years earlier . This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself , something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with .
Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there . Inspired by Tzara , Paris Dada soon issued manifestos , organized demonstrations , staged performances and produced a number of journals ( the final two editions of Dada , Le Cannibale , and Littérature featured Dada in several editions . )
The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921 . Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled , Explicatif bearing the word Tabu . In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience . When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production , the play provoked a theatre riot ( initiated by André Breton ) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism . Tzara 's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his `` ironic tragedy '' Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924 .
Netherlands
In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg , best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name . Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry , and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball , Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters . Van Doesburg and ( a cordwainer in Drachten ) became friends of Schwitters , and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923 , where Van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada ( entitled What is Dada ? ) , Schwitters read his poems , Vilmos Huszàr demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg ( Theo 's wife ) , played avant-garde compositions on piano .
Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl , although under a pseudonym , I.K . Bonset , which was only revealed after his death in 1931 . 'Together ' with I.K . Bonset , he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano ( 1922–3 ) . Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman , who was in touch with Van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine , The Next Call ( 1923–6 ) . Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands . These were Otto van Rees , who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich , and Paul Citroen .
Georgia
Although Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920 , from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves `` 41st Degree '' ( referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi , Georgia and to the temperature of a high fever ) organized along Dadaist lines . The most important figure in this group was Iliazd , whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists . After his flight to Paris in 1921 , he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events .
Yugoslavia
In Yugoslavia there was heavy Dada activity between 1920 and 1922 , run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov , Zenitist 's two brothers Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski . Aleksić used the term `` Yougo-Dada '' and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann , Kurt Schwitters , and Tristan Tzara .
Italy
The Dada movement in Italy , based in Mantua , was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art . It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome , featuring paintings , quotations from Tristan Tzara , and original epigrams such as `` True Dada is against Dada '' . The most notable member of this group was Julius Evola , who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism , as well as a right-wing philosopher and an assistant to Benito Mussolini .
Tokyo
A prominent Dada group in Japan was MAVO ( JA ) , founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama and Masamu Yanase ( DE , JA ) . Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji , Eisuke Yoshiyuki , Shinkichi Takahashi ( JA ) and Katsue Kitasono .
In the Tsuburaya Productions 's Ultra Series , an Ultra Monster named Dada was designed after the Dadaism movement , with said character first appeared in episode 28 the 1966 tokusatsu series , Ultraman made by the show 's monster designer , Toru Narita . In May 19 , 2016 , in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo , the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher .
Russia
The Russian literary group `` Nichevoki '' came close to the Dada ideologies . Members became famous for proposing that Vladimir Mayakovsky should go to the Pushkin monument at Tverskoy Boulevard and clean the shoes of anyone who asked , after he had declared that he would `` clean up Russian poetry '' .
Poetry , music and sound
Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts ; its influence reached into sound and music . Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems , while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920 . Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff , Hans Heusser and Albert Savinio all wrote Dada music , while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings . Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career , although he is primarily associated with musical Impressionism .
In the very first Dada publication , Hugo Ball describes a `` balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs . '' African music and jazz were common at Dada gatherings .
Marc Lowenthal , in I Am a Beautiful Monster : Poetry , Prose , and Provocation , writes :
Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry , a starting point for performance art , a prelude to postmodernism , an influence on pop art , a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism .
Legacy
While broadly based , the movement was unstable . By 1924 in Paris , Dada was melding into surrealism , and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements , including surrealism , social realism and other forms of modernism . Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art .
By the dawn of the Second World War , many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States . Some died in death camps under Adolf Hitler , who actively persecuted the kind of `` degenerate art '' that he considered Dada to represent . The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature .
Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements , including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society . Upon breaking up in July 2012 , famous anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement .
At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire , Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment . Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties ( 1974 ) , which includes Tzara , Lenin , and James Joyce as characters . French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek Lénine Dada ( 1989 ) .
The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002 , by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists , led by Mark Divo . The group included Jan Thieler , Ingo Giezendanner , Aiana Calugar , Lennie Lee , and Dan Jones . After their eviction , the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada . The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum .
Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society . In 1967 , a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris . In 2006 , the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Centre Pompidou in Paris . The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings , including interviews with artists such as Tzara , Picabia , Schwitters , Arp , and Huelsenbeck , and musical repertoire including Satie , Ribemont-Dessaignes , Picabia , and Nelly van Doesburg .
Art techniques developed
Collage
The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items , but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets , maps , plastic wrappers , etc . to portray aspects of life , rather than representing objects viewed as still life .
Cut-up technique
Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves , Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto :
TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM
Take a newspaper .
Take some scissors .
Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem .
Cut out the article .
Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag .
Shake gently .
Next take out each cutting one after the other .
Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag .
The poem will resemble you .
And there you are – an infinitely original author of charming sensibility , even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd .
Photomontage
The Dadaists – the `` monteurs '' ( mechanics ) – used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media . A variation on the collage technique , photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press . In Cologne , Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war .
Assemblage
The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage – the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless ( relative to the war ) pieces of work including war objects and trash . Objects were nailed , screwed or fastened together in different fashions . Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall .
Readymades
Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art , which he called `` readymades '' . He would add signatures and titles to some , converting them into artwork that he called `` readymade aided '' or `` rectified readymades '' . Duchamp wrote : `` One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the 'readymade . ' That sentence , instead of describing the object like a title , was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal . Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations , would be called 'readymade aided . ' '' One such example of Duchamp 's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back , signed `` R. Mutt '' , titled `` Fountain '' , and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year . The piece was not displayed during the show , a fact that unmasked the inherently biased system that was the art establishment , seeing as any artist that paid the entry fee could in theory display their art , but the work of R. Mutt was banished by the judgment of a group of artists .
Artists
* Louis Aragon ( 1897–1982 ) , France
* Jean Arp ( 1886–1966 ) , Germany , France
* Hugo Ball ( 1886–1927 ) , Germany , Switzerland
* André Breton ( 1896–1966 ) , France
* Otto Dix ( 1891–1969 ) , Germany
* Theo van Doesburg | sfq_24591--Dada.txt | {
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} | In 1919, which Dadaist created L.H.O.O.Q., a parody of the Mona Lisa, in which a moustache and goatee beard were added to a reproduction of the painting? |
Ronald Gerald Wayne ( born May 17 , 1934 ) is a retired American electronics industry worker . He co-founded Apple Computer ( now Apple Inc. ) with Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs , providing administrative oversight for the new venture . He soon , however , sold his share of the new company for $ 800 US dollars , and later accepted $ 1,500 to forfeit any claims against Apple ( in total , ) .
Early life
Wayne was born in Cleveland , Ohio , United States on May 17 , 1934 . He trained as a technical draftsman at the School of Industrial Arts in New York . In 1956 he moved to California . Wayne 's first business venture was a company selling slot machines . The company failed , with Wayne reflecting in 2014 that , `` I discovered very quickly that I had no business being in business . I was far better working in engineering . ''
Career
Apple
Wayne worked with Steve Jobs at Atari before he , Jobs , and Wozniak founded Apple Computer on April 1 , 1976 . Serving as the venture 's `` adult supervision '' , Wayne drew the first Apple logo , wrote the three men 's original partnership agreement , and wrote the Apple I manual .
Wayne received a 10 % stake in Apple but relinquished his equity for US $ 800 less than two weeks later , on April 12 , 1976 . Legally , all members of a partnership are personally responsible for any debts incurred by any partner ; unlike Jobs and Wozniak , then 21 and 25 , Wayne had personal assets that potential creditors could seize . The failure of a slot machine company that he had started five years earlier also contributed to his decision to exit the partnership .
Later that year , venture capitalist Arthur Rock and Mike Markkula helped develop a business plan and converted the partnership to a corporation . A year after leaving Apple , Wayne received $ 1,500 for his agreement to forfeit any claims against the new company . In its first year of operations ( 1976 ) , Apple 's sales reached US $ 174,000 . In 1977 sales rose to US $ 2.7 million , in 1978 to US $ 7.8 million , and in 1980 to US $ 117 million . By 1982 Apple had a billion dollars in annual sales . In February 2015 , Apple 's value exceeded $ 700 billion , making it the most valuable U.S. company by far . Had Wayne kept his 10 % stock until then , it would have been worth billions .
Wayne has stated that he does not regret selling his share of the company as he made the `` best decision with the information available to me at the time '' . Wayne also stated that he felt the Apple enterprise `` would be successful , but at the same time there would be significant bumps along the way and I could n't risk it . I had already had a rather unfortunate business experience before . I was getting too old and those two were whirlwinds . It was like having a tiger by the tail and I could n't keep up with these guys . ''
Post-Apple
After leaving Apple , Wayne resisted Jobs ' attempts to get him to return , remaining at Atari until 1978 , when he joined Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and later an electronics company in Salinas , California .
Wayne retired to a Pahrump , Nevada mobile home park selling stamps and rare coins in Pahrump . Wayne never owned an Apple product until 2011 , when he was given an iPad 2 by Aral Balkan at the Update Conference in Brighton , England .
Wayne also ran a stamp shop in Milpitas , California for a short time in the late 1970s , Wayne 's Philatelics . After a number of break-ins , he moved his stamp operations to Nevada . The logo for the business was a wood-cut style design , with a man sitting under an apple tree , with the `` Wayne 's Philatelics '' name written in a flowing ribbon curved around the tree . This was the original logo he designed for Apple Computer .
In the early 1990s Wayne sold the original Apple company agreement , signed in 1976 by Jobs , Wozniak and himself , for $ 500 . In 2011 the contract was sold at auction for $ 1.6 million . Wayne has stated that it is the one thing he regrets about his involvement with Apple .
He holds a dozen patents .
Author
Wayne published a memoir titled , Adventures of an Apple Founder , in July 2011 . Plans for initial exclusivity on the Apple iBookstore did not pan out .
Wayne has also written a socio-economic treatise titled Insolence of Office , released on October 1 , 2011 which he describes as :
Documentaries
Wayne appeared in the documentary Welcome to Macintosh where he describes some of his experiences with Steve Jobs , Steve Wozniak , and Apple Computer .
Personal life
Wayne came out as gay to Jobs shortly after February 1974 , while both men were employees at Atari . Jobs later recalled , `` It was my first encounter with someone who I knew was gay . '' Wayne recalled in 2011 that , `` Nobody at Atari knew , and I could count on my toes and fingers the number of people I told in my whole life . But I guess it just felt right to tell him , that he would understand , and it did n't have any effect on our relationship . '' | qb_8316--Ronald_Wayne.txt | {
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Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches . There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque style , with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century , this later date being the most commonly held . It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style , marked by pointed arches . Examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent , making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture . The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture .
Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions , Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality , thick walls , round arches , sturdy pillars , groin vaults , large towers and decorative arcading . Each building has clearly defined forms , frequently of very regular , symmetrical plan ; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow . The style can be identified right across Europe , despite regional characteristics and different materials .
Many castles were built during this period , but they are greatly outnumbered by churches . The most significant are the great abbey churches , many of which are still standing , more or less complete and frequently in use.Bannister Fletcher , A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method . The enormous quantity of churches built in the Romanesque period was succeeded by the still busier period of Gothic architecture , which partly or entirely rebuilt most Romanesque churches in prosperous areas like England and Portugal . The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods , including parts of southern France , northern Spain and rural Italy . Survivals of unfortified Romanesque secular houses and palaces , and the domestic quarters of monasteries are far rarer , but these used and adapted the features found in church buildings , on a domestic scale .
Definition
According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the word `` Romanesque '' means `` descended from Roman '' and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages ( first cited 1715 ) . The French term `` '' was first used in the architectural sense by archaeologist Charles de Gerville in a letter of 18 December 1818 to Auguste Le Prévost to describe what Gerville sees as a debased Roman architecture . In 1824 Gerville 's friend Arcisse de Caumont adopted the label `` '' to describe the `` degraded '' European architecture from the 5th to the 13th centuries , in his Essai sur l'architecture religieuse du moyen-âge , particulièrement en Normandie , at a time when the actual dates of many of the buildings so described had not been ascertained : Jean Hubert , Romanesque Art .
The first use in a published work is in William Gunn 's An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture ( London 1819 ) . The word was used by Gunn to describe the style that was identifiably Medieval and prefigured the Gothic , yet maintained the rounded Roman arch and thus appeared to be a continuation of the Roman tradition of building .
The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries . The term `` Pre-romanesque '' is sometimes applied to architecture in Germany of the Carolingian and Ottonian periods and Visigothic , Mozarab and Asturian constructions between the 8th and the 10th centuries in the Iberian Peninsula while `` First Romanesque '' is applied to buildings in north of Italy and Spain and parts of France that have Romanesque features but pre-date the influence of the Abbey of Cluny .
File : Viu_de_Llevata , _Alta_Ribagorça._Església_de_Sta._Maria_ ( A-SiT_D9236 ) .jpg| Portal , Church of Santa Maria , Viu de Llevata , Catalonia , Spain
File : Voûte_en_berceau_Conques.JPG|The vault at the Abbey Church of Saint Foy , Conques , France
File : Rooma 2006 047.jpg|Cloister of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano , Rome
File : Ang cath c1.JPG| Bell tower of Angoulême Cathedral , Charente , SW France
Tomè14.JPG| Window and Lombard band of the Rotunda of San Tomè , Almenno San Bartolomeo
Scope
Buildings of every type were constructed in the Romanesque style , with evidence remaining of simple domestic buildings , elegant town houses , grand palaces , commercial premises , civic buildings , castles , city walls , bridges , village churches , abbey churches , abbey complexes and large cathedrals.Rolf Toman , Romanesque : Architecture , Sculpture , Painting Of these types of buildings , domestic and commercial buildings are the most rare , with only a handful of survivors in the United Kingdom , several clusters in France , isolated buildings across Europe and by far the largest number , often unidentified and altered over the centuries , in Italy . Many castles exist , the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period . Most have been substantially altered , and many are in ruins .
By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches . These range from tiny chapels to large cathedrals , and although many have been extended and altered in different styles , a large number remain either substantially intact or sympathetically restored , demonstrating the form , character and decoration of Romanesque church architecture .
File : Cieszyn 9891 crop.JPG | Saint Nicholas Rotunda in Cieszyn , Poland
File : Poreč064.jpg|Romanesque house in Poreč , Croatia |alt=A small three-storey stone house with an exterior stone staircase to the first floor , and a wooden balcony around the upper floor
File : Palazzo Comunale Massa Marittima crop.JPG|The Civic Hall in Massa Marittima , Italy|alt=An imposing four-storey stone building with battlements and rows of paired windows , facing onto a town square .
File : Lebeny-churche1.jpg |Abbey Church of St James , Lebeny , Hungary ( 1208 ) |alt=The facade of a tall grey church with paired towers and a single ornately carved doorway
File : Conisbrough Castle keep - geograph.org.uk - 922015 crop.JPG|The keep of Conisbrough Castle , England.|alt=A circular castle tower with enormous jutting buttresses . There are few windows and entrance is on an upper floor , is reached by a modern staircase .
History
Origins
Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire . With the decline of Rome , Roman building methods survived to an extent in Western Europe , where successive Merovingian , Carolingian and Ottonian architects continued to build large stone buildings such as monastery churches and palaces . In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings , while in Scandinavia they were unknown . Although the round arch continued in use , the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost . There was a loss of stylistic continuity , particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders . In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders . Some traditions of Roman architecture also survived in Byzantine architecture with the 6th-century octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna being the inspiration for the greatest building of the Dark Ages in Europe , the Emperor Charlemagne 's Palatine Chapel , Aachen , Germany , built around the year AD 800.Helen Gardner , Art through the Ages .
Dating shortly after the Palatine Chapel is a remarkable 9th-century Swiss manuscript known as the Plan of Saint Gall and showing a very detailed plan of a monastic complex , with all its various monastic buildings and their functions labelled . The largest building is the church , the plan of which is distinctly Germanic , having an apse at both ends , an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere . Another feature of the church is its regular proportion , the square plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan . These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michael 's Church , Hildesheim , 1001–1030 .
Architecture of a Romanesque style also developed simultaneously in the north of Italy , parts of France and in the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century and prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny . The style , sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque , is characterised by thick walls , lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band .
File : Santa Maria del Naranco 2 crop.JPG |Santa Maria del Naranco , Oviedo , Spain . ( AD 848 ) Built as a palace for Ramiro I of Asturias
File : Santa Maria in Cosmedin-templom belso.jpg|Santa Maria in Cosmedin , Rome ( 8th – early 12th century ) has a basilical plan and reuses ancient Roman columns . |alt=The interior of a narrow and rather dark church that has columns down each side supporting a plain wall with small high windows .
File : Aachener1723aDom.jpg|Charlemagne 's Palatine Chapel , Aachen , 9th century , modelled on the Byzantine church of San Vitale , Ravenna |alt=The interior of a tall octagonal church , rising in three rows of decorated arches . A large candelabra hangs above the central altar .
File : Hildesheim-St Michaels Church.interior.01.JPG |Interior of St. Michael 's , Hildesheim , ( 1001–31 ) with alternating piers and columns and a 13th-century painted wooden ceiling |alt=The interior of another long narrow church with high windows . The arch leading into the chancel at the far end has alternating red and white stones .
File : Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F078941-0014 , Hildesheim , Michaeliskirche.jpg |St . Michael 's Church , Hildesheim has similar characteristics to the church in the Plan of Saint Gall . |alt=The exterior of the same church shows a short square tower with a pointed metal roof over the crossing , and a small round tower at the end of the transept .
Politics
Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope in Old St. Peter 's Basilica on Christmas Day in the year 800 , with an aim to re-establishing the old Roman Empire . Charlemagne 's political successors continued to rule much of Europe , with a gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually to become welded into nations , either by allegiance or defeat , the Kingdom of Germany giving rise to the Holy Roman Empire . The invasion of England by William , Duke of Normandy , in 1066 , saw the building of both castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence . Several significant churches that were built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power , or places of coronation and burial . These include the Abbaye-Saint-Denis , Speyer Cathedral and Westminster Abbey ( where little of the Norman church now remains ) .
At a time when the remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its learning and technology lost , the building of masonry domes and the carving of decorative architectural details continued unabated , though greatly evolved in style since the fall of Rome , in the enduring Byzantine Empire . The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe were to greatly affect the architecture of certain towns , particularly through trade and through the Crusades . The most notable single building that demonstrates this is St Mark 's Basilica , Venice , but there are many lesser-known examples , particularly in France , such as the church of Saint-Front , Périgueux and Angoulême Cathedral.George Holmes , ed . The Oxford History of Medieval Europe .
Much of Europe was affected by feudalism in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over the land that they farmed in exchange for military service . The result of this was that they could be called upon , not only for local and regional spats , but to follow their lord to travel across Europe to the Crusades , if they were required to do so . The Crusades , 1095–1270 , brought about a very large movement of people and , with them , ideas and trade skills , particularly those involved in the building of fortifications and the metal working needed for the provision of arms , which was also applied to the fitting and decoration of buildings . The continual movement of people , rulers , nobles , bishops , abbots , craftsmen and peasants , was an important factor in creating a homogeneity in building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style , despite regional differences .
Life became generally less secure after the Carolingian period . This resulted in the building of castles at strategic points , many of them being constructed as strongholds of the Normans , descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France under Rollo in 911 . Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of many towns , or the rebuilding and strengthening of walls that remained from the Roman period . One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne . The enclosure of towns brought about a lack of living space within the walls , and resulted in a style of town house that was tall and narrow , often surrounding communal courtyards , as at San Gimignano in Tuscany.Rolf Toman , pp . 114-117
In Germany , the Holy Roman Emperors built a number of residences , fortified , but essentially palaces rather than castles , at strategic points and on trade routes . The Imperial Palace of Goslar ( heavily restored in the 19th century ) was built in the early 11th century by Otto III and Henry III , while the ruined Palace at Gelnhausen was received by Frederick Barbarossa prior to 1170.Rolf Toman , pp . 70-73 The movement of people and armies also brought about the building of bridges , some of which have survived , including the 12th-century bridge at Besalú , Catalonia , the 11th-century Puente de la Reina , Navarre and the Pont-Saint-Bénézet , Avignon .
File : London Tower ( 1 ) .JPG|alt=A huge square tower of grey stone is seen beyond fortifications on the edge of a river.|The Tower of London ( 1078 ) . William the Conqueror built the central White Tower as his stronghold and residence .
File : Speyer -- -Cathedral -- -South-View -- - ( Gentry ) .jpg|alt=An enormous cathedral , of red stone with green copper roofs , has a two tall towers framing an octagonal dome at each end of the building.|Speyer Cathedral , begun by Conrad II , Holy Roman Emperor in 1030 , as an expression of imperial power and architectural innovation
File : Erice castle.jpg|alt=A castle with a tall narrow tower and walls topped by battlements stretches along the edge of a cliff covered in trees and palm trees.| , Erice ( 12th-13th century ) , is one of many built by the Normans in Sicily , Italy .
File : San Gimignano.JPG|alt=View of a small town on a hilltop surrounded by trees and vineyards . There are eight tall square towers rising from among the densely packed houses.|Many towns , such as San Gimignano , were enclosed with walls , causing crowding and the building of tower houses .
Religion
Across Europe , the late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches . A great number of these buildings , both large and small , remain , some almost intact and in others altered almost beyond recognition in later centuries . They include many very well known churches such as Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome , the Baptistery in Florence and San Zeno Maggiore in Verona . In France , the famous abbeys of Aux Dames and Les Hommes at Caen and Mont Saint-Michel date from this period , as well as the abbeys of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela . Many cathedrals owe their foundation to this date , with others beginning as abbey churches , and later becoming cathedrals . In England , of the cathedrals of ancient foundation , all were begun in this period with the exception of Salisbury , where the monks relocated from the Norman church at Old Sarum , and several , such as Canterbury , which were rebuilt on the site of Saxon churches.John Harvey , English CathedralsAlec Clifton-Taylor , The Cathedrals of England In Spain , the most famous church of the period is Santiago de Compostela . In Germany , the Rhine and its tributaries were the location of many Romanesque abbeys , notably Mainz , Worms , Speyer and Bamberg . In Cologne , then the largest city north of the Alps , a very important group of large city churches survives largely intact . As monasticism spread across Europe , Romanesque churches sprang up in Scotland , Scandinavia , Poland , Hungary , Sicily , Serbia and Tunisia . Several important Romanesque churches were built in the Crusader kingdoms.Rolf Toman , Romanesque .
Monasticism
The system of monasticism in which the religious become members of an order , with common ties and a common rule , living in a mutually dependent community , rather than as a group of hermits living in proximity but essentially separate , was established by the monk Benedict in the 6th century . The Benedictine monasteries spread from Italy throughout Europe , being always by far the most numerous in England . They were followed by the Cluniac order , the Cistercians , Carthusians and Augustinian Canons . During the Crusades , the military orders of the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar were founded .
The monasteries , which sometimes also functioned as cathedrals , and the cathedrals that had bodies of secular clergy often living in community , were a major source of power in Europe . Bishops and the abbots of important monasteries lived and functioned like princes . The monasteries were the major seats of learning of all sorts . Benedict had ordered that all the arts were to be taught and practiced in the monasteries . Within the monasteries books were transcribed by hand , and few people outside the monasteries could read or write .
In France , Burgundy was the centre of monasticism . The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and the design of their churches . Unfortunately , very little of the abbey church at Cluny remains ; the `` Cluny II '' rebuilding of 963 onwards has completely vanished , but we have a good idea of the design of `` Cluny III '' from 1088 to 1130 , which until the Renaissance remained the largest building in Europe . However , the church of St. Sernin at Toulouse , 1080–1120 , has remained intact and demonstrates the regularity of Romanesque design with its modular form , its massive appearance and the repetition of the simple arched window motif .
File : Slidredomen , Vestre Slidre.JPG|alt=A little stone church with a little steeple on a wooden belfry sits in a green graveyard overlooking a lake and mountains.|Many parish churches across Europe , such as this in Vestre Slidre , Norway , are of Romanesque foundation
File : Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|alt=In a wooded valley is a large church with small windows and a square stone belfry . It is surrounded by ancient buildings arranged around courtyards , and a lavender garden.|The Romanesque Sénanque Abbey church and surrounding monastic buildings , Gordes , Provence , France
File : Celles JPG00.jpg|alt=The houses of a small town , surrounded by green hillsides , are dominated by a huge church with a large square tower and a spire like a witch 's hat.|Collegiate churches such as that of Saint Hadelin , Celles , Belgium , were administered by lay canons .
File : Trier Dom BW 24.JPG|alt=A huge cathedral with numerous towers , both square and round , rises above a town square where people are sitting in the shade of clipped trees.|Many cathedrals such as Trier Cathedral , Germany , date from this period , with many later additions .
Pilgrimage and Crusade
One of the effects of the Crusades , which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of Palestine from Islamic control , was to excite a great deal of religious fervour , which in turn inspired great building programs . The Nobility of Europe , upon safe return , thanked God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one . Likewise , those who did not return from the Crusades could be suitably commemorated by their family in a work of stone and mortar .
The Crusades resulted in the transfer of , among other things , a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles . Many churches , like Saint-Front , Périgueux , had their own home grown saint while others , most notably Santiago de Compostela , claimed the remains and the patronage of a powerful saint , in this case one of the Twelve Apostles . Santiago de Compostela , located near Galicia ( present day Spain ) became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe . Most of the pilgrims travelled the Way of St. James on foot , many of them barefooted as a sign of penance . They moved along one of the four main routes that passed through France , congregating for the journey at Jumièges , Paris , Vézelay , Cluny , Arles and St. Gall in Switzerland . They crossed two passes in the Pyrenees and converged into a single stream to traverse north-western Spain . Along the route they were urged on by those pilgrims returning from the journey . On each of the routes abbeys such as those at Moissac , Toulouse , Roncesvalles , Conques , Limoges and Burgos catered for the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade . Saint-Benoît-du-Sault , in the Berry province , is typical of the churches that were founded on the pilgrim route .
File : Jerusalem Holy Sepulchre BW 23.JPG|The Church of the Holy Sepulchre , Jerusalem , a major pilgrimage site from the 4th century onwards , its rotunda inspired the construction of many Romanesque circular churches .
File : Krak des chevaliers15 ( js ) .jpg|Like many castles built by crusader knights , the inner fortress of Krak des Chevaliers , Syria , was mainly constructed in this period , with the outer walls being later .
File : Abbatiale de Conques.jpg|The Abbey of Saint Foy , Conques , France , was one of many such abbeys to be built along the pilgrimage Way of St James that led to Santiago de Compostela .
File : Périgueux 3.JPG|The plan of the Church of Saint Front , Périgueux , France , was influenced by Byzantine architecture seen by the Crusaders . The present appearance is largely due to restorer Paul Abadie , mid-19th Century
Characteristics
The general impression given by Romanesque architecture , in both ecclesiastical and secular buildings , is one of massive solidity and strength . In contrast with both the preceding Roman and later Gothic architecture , in which the load-bearing structural members are , or appear to be , columns , pilasters and arches , Romanesque architecture , in common with Byzantine architecture , relies upon its walls , or sections of walls called piers .
Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods known as the `` First Romanesque '' style and the `` Romanesque '' style . The difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed . The First Romanesque employed rubble walls , smaller windows and unvaulted roofs . A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque , along with increased use of the vault and dressed stone .
Walls
The walls of Romanesque buildings are often of massive thickness with few and comparatively small openings . They are often double shells , filled with rubble .
The building material differs greatly across Europe , depending upon the local stone and building traditions . In Italy , Poland , much of Germany and parts of the Netherlands , brick is generally used . Other areas saw extensive use of limestone , granite and flint . The building stone was often used in comparatively small and irregular pieces , bedded in thick mortar . Smooth ashlar masonry was not a distinguishing feature of the style , particularly in the earlier part of the period , but occurred chiefly where easily worked limestone was available.Rene Hyughe , Larousse Encyclopedia of Byzantine and Medieval Art
Buttresses
Because of the massive nature of Romanesque walls , buttresses are not a highly significant feature , as they are in Gothic architecture . Romanesque buttresses are generally of flat square profile and do not project a great deal beyond the wall . In the case of aisled churches , barrel vaults , or half-barrel vaults over the aisles helped to buttress the nave , if it was vaulted .
In the cases where half-barrel vaults were used , they effectively became like flying buttresses . Often aisles extended through two storeys , rather than the one usual in Gothic architecture , so as to better support the weight of a vaulted nave . In the case of Durham Cathedral , flying buttresses have been employed , but are hidden inside the triforium gallery .
File : Abaziasanvittorefrasassi.jpg|alt=A small church sits on a steep rise , surrounded by craggy mountains . It is basically square with three bulging projections and a castle-like tower.|The monastery of San Vittore alle Chiuse , Genga , Italy , of undressed stone , has a typically fortress-like appearance with small windows of early Romanesque .
File : Castle-rising-castle.JPG|alt=A large square castle keep of pinkish-grey stone , with a projecting entrance tower , has architectural details to its windows , mouldings and stonework.|Castle Rising , England , shows flat buttresses and reinforcing at the corners of the building typical in both castles and churches .
File : FranceNormandieCerisyLaForetAbbaye.jpg|alt= A tall church of grey stone with fine details and a crossing tower topped with a slate-covered spire rises out of rural countryside , where two mares are grazing.|Abbaye Cerisy le Foret , Normandy , France , has a compact appearance with aisles rising through two storeys buttressing the vault .
File : StAlbansCathedral-PS01.JPG|alt=A long , low cathedral has a fine Norman brick crossing-tower rising in three stages of round-topped paired windows . The rest of the building is a conglomeration of styles in ancient brick , modern brick , ashlar and flint.|St Albans Cathedral England , demonstrates the typical alterations made to the fabric of many Romanesque buildings in different styles and materials
Arches and openings
The arches used in Romanesque architecture are nearly always semicircular , for openings such as doors and windows , for vaults and for arcades . Wide doorways are usually surmounted by a semi-circular arch , except where a door with a lintel is set into a large arched recess and surmounted by a semi-circular `` lunette '' with decorative carving . These doors sometimes have a carved central jamb .
Narrow doors and small windows might be surmounted by a solid stone lintel . Larger openings are nearly always arched . A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture , both ecclesiastic and domestic , is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings , separated by a pillar or colonette and often set within a larger arch . Ocular windows are common in Italy , particularly in the facade gable and are also seen in Germany . Later Romanesque churches may have wheel windows or rose windows with plate tracery .
There are a very small number of buildings in the Romanesque style , such as Autun Cathedral in France and Monreale Cathedral in Sicily in which pointed arches have been used extensively , apparently for stylistic reasons . It is believed that in these cases there is a direct imitation of Islamic architecture . At other late Romanesque churches such as Durham Cathedral , and Cefalù Cathedral , the pointed arch was introduced as a structural device in ribbed vaulting . Its increasing application was fundamental to the development of Gothic architecture .
Arcades
An arcade is a row of arches , supported on piers or columns . They occur in the interior of large churches , separating the nave from the aisles , and in large secular interiors spaces , such as the great hall of a castle , supporting the timbers of a roof or upper floor . Arcades also occur in cloisters and atriums , enclosing an open space .
Arcades | qw_2048--Romanesque_architecture.txt | {
"answer_start": [
27570
],
"text": [
"rose window"
]
} | What is the name for a large circular stained glass window found in Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals that is divided by elaborate tracery into a central compartment with others radiating from it? |
Harold Edward Holt , ( ; 5 August 1908 - 17 December 1967 ) , was an Australian politician and the 17th Prime Minister of Australia . He was born in Stanmore , New South Wales and won a scholarship to study law at the University of Melbourne . Holt went into business as a solicitor , during which time he joined the United Australia Party ( UAP ) . In 1935 , aged just 27 , he was elected for Fawkner . Holt spent 32 years in Parliament , including many years as a senior Cabinet Minister , but was Prime Minister for only 22 months before he disappeared in December 1967 while swimming at Cheviot Beach near Portsea , Victoria , and was presumed drowned .
As Minister for Immigration ( 1949–1956 ) , Holt was responsible for the relaxation of the White Australia policy and as Treasurer under Menzies , he initiated major fiscal reforms including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia , and launched and guided the process to convert Australia to decimal currency . As Prime Minister , he oversaw landmark changes including the decision not to devalue the Australian dollar in line with the British pound , and the 1967 constitutional referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians . He controversially expanded Australia 's involvement in the Vietnam War , with the slogan `` All the way with LBJ '' .
Early life
Born in Stanmore , New South Wales on 5 August 1908 , Holt was the elder son of Thomas and Olive ( née Williams ) . He and his brother Cliff ( Clifford Thomas Holt , born 1910 ) , spent their early life in Sydney , attending three different schools . In 1918 , Thomas Holt divorced Olive and went to work with the Hugh D. McIntosh , manager of the Tivoli theatre circuit . He later became the Tivoli-J C Williamson representative in London and New York . Meanwhile , he enrolled his sons as boarders at Wesley College in Melbourne .
In 1924 , when Holt was sixteen , his mother died and he did not attend her funeral . A formative event was his singing performance at his school 's annual Speech Night in December 1926 . None of his family were present , and he never forgot the loneliness he felt that night .
Holt won a scholarship to Queen 's College at the University of Melbourne and began his law degree in 1927 . He excelled in many areas of university life – he won College 'Blues ' for cricket and Australian rules football , as well as the College Oratory and Essay Prize . A member of the Melbourne Inter-University Debating team and the United Australia Organization ' A ' Grade debating team , he was president of both the Sports and Social Club and the Law Students ' Society .
Holt graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1930 . He was admitted to the Victorian Bar in November 1932 and served his articles with the Melbourne firm of Fink , Best & Miller , but the Great Depression meant that he was unable to find work as a barrister . His father , based in London at the time , wanted him to further his studies in England , but the worsening economy also made this impossible . Instead , in 1933 , Holt went into sole practice as a solicitor . He later entered into a partnership , which became the firm of Holt , Graham & Newman , which Holt remained with until 1963 .
While at university , Holt had met Zara Kate Dickins . In 1934 they were contemplating marriage , but , after a quarrel , they split up . Zara travelled overseas , meeting Captain James Fell , a British Army officer stationed in India , whom she married in March 1935 . Her first son Nicholas was born in 1937 , followed by twin boys Sam and Andrew , born in 1939 . Author Tom Frame has suggested that Holt was the father of the twins . Zara and Fell subsequently divorced , and she married Holt in 1946 . Although they remained married until Holt 's death in 1967 , Zara later commented that Holt had had a number of extramarital affairs .
Meanwhile , Thomas Holt married Lola Thring , the daughter of his business partner F. W. Thring , in 1936 . He died in 1945 .
Early political career
While developing his legal practice , Holt was drawn to politics and joined the Prahran branch of the United Australia Party ( UAP ) in 1933 . At the 1934 federal election , Holt unsuccessfully contested the safe Labor seat of Yarra for the UAP , running against former Prime Minister James Scullin . In March 1935 , he unsuccessfully contested the safe Victorian state Labor seat of Clifton Hill . Holt stood again for the federal House of Representatives on 17 August 1935 , at a by-election for the marginally conservative seat of Fawkner , this time successfully . At age 27 , he was one of Australia 's youngest-ever MPs .
Holt opposed socialism , but favoured a more equitable distribution of resources . From his maiden speech onwards , he emphasised the importance of physical fitness .
In 1939 , Holt 's mentor Robert Menzies became Prime Minister after the sudden death of the incumbent Joseph Lyons and the short-term caretaker ministry of Sir Earle Page . Holt 's energy , dedication and ability earned him rapid promotion and in April 1939 , he was appointed Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Supply and Development . In October 1939 , he became Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research , and during November–December 1939 , he was Acting Minister for Air and Civil Aviation .
In May 1940 , without resigning his seat , Holt joined the Second Australian Imperial Force as a gunner , but a few months later three Cabinet ministers and several of Australia 's top military staff were killed in an air crash in Canberra . Menzies recalled Holt from the army , appointing him Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Trade and Customs , and his recall earned him the ironic nickname `` Gunner Holt . ''
In October 1940 , Holt was elevated to Cabinet , becoming Minister for Labour and National Service , and one of his most significant achievements in this portfolio was the introduction of child endowment in 1941 .
In August 1941 , a front-bench revolt forced Menzies to resign as Prime Minister . He was replaced by the Country Party leader Arthur Fadden . Holt was among those who withdrew their support , although he never revealed his reasons for doing so . In October 1941 , the UAP was ousted by a no-confidence vote ; the ALP leader John Curtin was invited to form a new government . By 1944 , the UAP had effectively disintegrated and in 1945 , Menzies formally established a new political party , the Liberal Party of Australia , and forged an enduring coalition with the Country Party . Holt was one of the first members to join the Liberal Party 's Prahran branch .
Postwar ministerial career
After eight years in opposition , the Coalition won the federal election of December 1949 and Menzies began his record-setting second term as Prime Minister . At this election , Holt saw his majority in Fawkner nearly disappear in the redistribution . He transferred to Higgins , one of several new seats created in the 1949 redistribution . The seat was created as a safe Liberal seat ; it had been carved out of the wealthier portions of Fawkner . Holt won it easily . He was appointed to the prestigious portfolios of Minister for Labour and National Service ( 1949–1958 ; he had previously served in this portfolio 1940–41 ) and Minister for Immigration ( 1949–1956 ) , by which time he was being touted in the press as a `` certain successor to Menzies and a potential Prime Minister '' . In Immigration , Holt continued and expanded the massive immigration program initiated by his ALP predecessor , Arthur Calwell . However , he displayed a more flexible and caring attitude than Calwell , who was a strong advocate of the White Australia policy . He also had ministerial responsibility for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956 .
Holt excelled in the Labour portfolio and has been described as one of the best Labour ministers since Federation . Although the conditions were ripe for industrial unrest—Communist influence in the union movement was then at its peak , and the right-wing faction in Cabinet was openly agitating for a showdown with the unions—the combination of strong economic growth and Holt 's enlightened approach to industrial relations saw the number of working hours lost to strikes fall dramatically , from over two million in 1949 to just 439,000 in 1958 .
Holt fostered greater collaboration between the government , the courts , employers and trade unions . He enjoyed good relationships with union leaders like Albert Monk , President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions ; and Jim Healy , leader of the radical Waterside Workers Federation ; and he gained a reputation for tolerance , restraint and a willingness to compromise , although his controversial decision to use troops to take control of cargo facilities during a waterside dispute in Bowen , Queensland in September 1953 provoked bitter criticism .
Holt 's personal profile and political standing grew throughout the 1950s . He served on numerous committees and overseas delegations , he was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1953 , and in 1954 he was named one of Australia 's six best-dressed men . In 1956 , he was elected Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and became Leader of the House , and from this point on , he was generally acknowledged as Menzies ' heir apparent .
In December 1958 , following the retirement of Arthur Fadden , Holt succeeded him as Treasurer . Holt had little knowledge or interest in economics , but the job cemented his position as Menzies ' likely successor . As Treasurer , Holt relied strongly on the advice of Treasury secretary Roland Wilson . His achievements included major reforms to the banking system ( originated by Fadden ) - including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia - and the planning and preparation for the introduction of decimal currency . It was Holt who convinced Cabinet to call the new currency the `` dollar '' rather than the `` royal '' .
The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly , aided by the opening of new iron ore mines . However , in 1959 , inflation was running at 4.5 % and Treasury was alarmed . Holt was reluctant to act , but in November 1960 introduced a deflationary package of tax changes . He also reluctantly agreed to an interest rate rise by the Reserve Bank . These measures became known as the `` credit squeeze '' or the `` Holt jolt '' . The economy went into recession , but unemployment was still relatively low .
The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the 1961 election , with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority . There were calls for Holt to be sacked , but he retained Menzies ' support . He later described 1960–61 as `` my most difficult year in public life '' . Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962 .
In later budgets , Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared . After presenting the budget , he took an overseas trip . In contrast to his colleagues , he travelled widely in South-East Asia , which he believed was key to Australia 's future prosperity .
Holt continued as federal Treasurer until January 1966 , when Menzies finally retired . With Menzies ' support , Holt was elected leader of the Liberal Party , thus becoming Prime Minister after having been an MP for almost 31 years .
Holt as Prime Minister
Holt was sworn in as Prime Minister on Australia Day , 26 January 1966 . His original Cabinet included :
* John McEwen ( CP ) Deputy Prime Minister , leader of the Country Party , Minister for Trade and Industry ;
* William McMahon ( LP ) , Treasurer ;
* Paul Hasluck ( LP ) , Minister for External Affairs ;
* Allen Fairhall ( LP ) , Minister for Defence ;
* Charles Adermann ( CP ) Minister for Primary Industry ;
* Charles Barnes ( CP ) , Minister for Territories ;
* David Fairbairn ( LP ) , Minister for National Development ;
* Senator John Gorton ( LP ) , Minister for Works and Minister in Charge of Commonwealth Activities in Education and Research ;
* Senator Denham Henty ( LP ) , Minister for Supply ;
* Alan Hulme ( LP ) , Postmaster-General ;
* Les Bury ( LP ) , Minister for Labour ;
* Malcolm Fraser ( LP ) , Minister for the Army .
Holt 's term in office covered almost exactly the tumultuous calendar years of 1966–67 . His short tenure meant that he had limited personal and political impact as Prime Minister , and he is remembered mainly for the dramatic circumstances of his disappearance and presumed death . His untoward demise has tended to obscure the major events and political trends of his term in office , especially his role in maintaining and expanding Australia 's military commitment to the Vietnam War .
The transfer of power from Menzies was smooth and unproblematic , and at the federal election later that year , the electorate overwhelmingly endorsed Holt , giving the Holt-McEwen Coalition government a 41-seat majority , the largest in Australian history up to that time . They also won 57 % of the two-party preferred vote , which is still the greatest winning margin at a federal election in Australian political history .
Stylistically , Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies , and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight .
Political historian James Jupp says that , in domestic policy , Holt identified with the reformist wing of Victorian Liberalism . One of his most notable achievements was to initiate the process of breaking down the preferential White Australia policy by ending the distinction between Asian and European migrants and by permitting skilled Asians to settle with their families . He also established the Australian Council for the Arts ( later the Australia Council ) , which began the tradition of federal government support for Australian arts and artists , an initiative that was considerably expanded by Holt 's successor John Gorton .
In the area of constitutional reform , undoubtedly the most significant event of Holt 's time as Prime Minister was the 1967 referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians and to include them in the Commonwealth census .
In 1967 the Holt government made the historic decision not to depreciate the Australian dollar in line with Britain 's depreciation of the pound sterling , a break with previous policy , which was strongly opposed by Country Party leader John McEwen .
Holt and Vietnam
During Holt 's term in office , the Vietnam War was the dominant foreign policy issue . The Holt government significantly increased Australia 's military involvement in the war and Holt vehemently defended U.S. policy in the region . He also forged a close relationship with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson , whom he had first met in Melbourne in 1942 .
Whilst Holt stated that his friendship with Johnson was reflected in the strong relationship between Australia and the US , former Australian diplomat and foreign-affairs expert Alan Renouf was more cynical in his assessment of the situation . In the chapter on Vietnam in The Frightened Country , his 1979 book on Australian foreign policy , Renouf bluntly suggested that Holt was in effect `` seduced '' by Johnson , and notes that the Johnson administration criticized the Holt government for not doing enough and repeatedly pressured Australia to increase its troop commitment in Vietnam .
On taking office , Holt declared that Australia had no intention of increasing its commitment to the war , but just one month later , in December 1966 , he announced that Australia would treble its troop commitment to 4,500 , including 1,500 National Service conscripts , creating a single independent Australian task force based at Nui Dat .
Five months later , in May , Holt was obliged to announce the death of the first National Service conscript in Vietnam , Private Errol Wayne Noack , aged 21 . Just before his disappearance , Holt approved a further increase in troop numbers , committing a third battalion to the war—a decision that was subsequently revoked by his successor , John Gorton .
Holt visited the US in late June 1966 , where he gave a speech in Washington in the presence of President Johnson . Reported in The Australian on 1 July 1966 , Holt 's speech concluded with a remark which has come to be seen as encapsulating his unquestioning support for Johnson , for America 's Vietnam policy and for continued Australian military involvement in the Vietnam War :
`` You have in us not merely an understanding friend but one staunch in the belief of the need for our presence in Vietnam .
`` We are not there because of our friendship , we are there because , like you , we believe it is right to be there and , like you , we shall stay there as long as it seems necessary to achieve the purposes of the South Vietnamese Government and the purposes that we join in formulating and progressing together .
`` And so , sir , in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader , I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend , a staunch friend that will be all the way with LBJ . ''
Following his Washington visit Holt went on to London and in a speech there given on 7 July he was sharply critical of the UK , France and other U.S. allies that had refused to commit troops to the Vietnam War .
On 20 October 1966 , President Johnson arrived in Australia at Holt 's invitation for a three-day state visit , the first to Australia by a serving U.S. President . The tour marked the first major anti-war demonstrations staged in Australia . In Sydney , protesters lay down in front of the car carrying Johnson and the Premier of New South Wales , Robert Askin ( prompting Askin 's notorious order to `` Run over the bastards '' ) . In Melbourne , a crowd estimated at 750,000 turned out to welcome Johnson , although a vocal anti-war contingent demonstrated against the visit by throwing paint bombs at Johnson 's car and chanting `` LBJ , LBJ , how many kids did you kill today ? `` .
In December , Australia signed a controversial agreement with the United States that would allow the U.S. to establish a secret strategic communications facility at Pine Gap in the Northern Territory . On 20 December 1966 , Holt announced that Australia 's military force in Vietnam was to be increased again to 6,300 troops plus an additional twelve tanks , two minesweepers and eight bombers .
1966 general election
Holt fought his first and only general election as Prime Minister on 26 November 1966 , focusing his campaign on the issue of Vietnam and the supposed Communist threat in Asia . Labor leader Arthur Calwell bitterly opposed Australia 's part in the war and promised that Australian troops would be brought home if Labor won office , and opposition to overseas service by Australian conscripts had long been part of ALP policy .
Australia 's involvement in Vietnam still enjoyed majority popular support and Calwell 's anti-war campaign did not garner much positive reaction from voters . The Coalition scored a stunning victory over the ALP , winning many former ALP seats and sweeping back into power with the largest parliamentary majority since Federation . The Liberal Party increased its numbers from 52 to 61 , and the Country Party from 20 to 21 , with Labor dropping from 51 to 41 seats , and one Independent . Among the new members elected was future federal Treasurer Phillip Lynch .
1967
In early 1967 , Arthur Calwell retired as ALP leader and Gough Whitlam succeeded him . Whitlam proved a far more effective opponent , both in the media and in parliament , and Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground , with Whitlam repeatedly besting Holt in Parliament . By this time , the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge . Throughout his reign as Liberal leader , Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but , once he was gone , dissension began to surface . Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt 's weak leadership . Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death , that he was perceived as being `` vague , imprecise and evasive '' and `` nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness '' .
Holt 's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967 . In April , the ABC 's new nightly current affairs program This Day Tonight ran a story which criticised the government 's decision not to reappoint the Chair of the ABC Board , Sir James Darling . Holt responded rashly , questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalist Mike Willesee ( whose father Don Willesee was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister ) , and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and the Australian Journalists ' Association .
In May , increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a second inquiry into the 1964 sinking of HMAS Voyager to be held on 16 May . The debate included the maiden speech by newly elected NSW Liberal MP Edward St John QC , who used the opportunity to criticize the government 's attitude to new evidence about the disaster . An enraged Holt interrupted St John 's speech , in defiance of the parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence ; his blunder embarrassed the government and further undermined Holt 's support in the Liberal Party . A few days later , Holt announced a new Royal Commission into the disaster .
In June , Holt travelled to London via Canada , where on 6 June he opened the Australian Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal ; on the return journey , the Holts stayed with the Johnsons at the presidential summer resort , Camp David , in Maryland .
In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over the alleged misuse of VIP aircraft , which came to a head when John Gorton ( Government Leader in the Senate ) tabled documents that showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter . Support for his leadership was eroded even further by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air , Peter Howson , in order to defuse the scandal , fuelling criticism from within the party that Holt was `` weak '' and lacked Menzies ' ruthlessness . Much of the blame for the episode within the Public Service was visited upon Sir John Bunting , Secretary of the Prime Minister 's Department , although other figures such as the Deputy Secretary Peter Lawler were able to protect themselves . One of John Gorton 's first acts upon becoming Prime Minister in January 1968 was to sideline Bunting by creating a separate Department of the Cabinet Office with Bunting as its head , and replaced him with Lenox Hewitt .
In November 1967 , the government suffered a serious setback in the Senate election , winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor 's 45 per cent . The coalition also lost the seats of Corio and Dawson to Labor in by-elections . Alan Reid says that , within the party , the reversal was blamed on Holt 's mishandling of the VIP planes scandal . Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems .
Disappearance
On the morning of Sunday 17 December 1967 , Holt , his neighbour and rumoured lover , Marjorie Gillespie , her daughter , Vyner , Vyner 's boyfriend , Martin Simpson , and a Gillespie family friend , Alan Stewart , drove down from Melbourne to see the lone British yachtsman Alec Rose sail through Port Phillip Heads . Around noon , the party drove to one of Holt 's favourite swimming and snorkelling spots , Cheviot Beach on Point Nepean near Portsea , on the eastern arm of Port Phillip Bay . Holt decided to go swimming , although the surf was high and fierce .
Holt began swimming , but he soon disappeared from view . Fearing the worst , the others raised the alert . A large contingent of police , Royal Australian Navy divers , Royal Australian Air Force helicopters , Army personnel from nearby Point Nepean and local volunteers converged on the beach . This quickly escalated into one of the largest search operations in Australian history , but no trace of Holt could be found .
Two days later , on 19 December 1967 , the government made an official announcement that Holt was thought to be dead . The Governor-General Lord Casey sent for the Country Party leader and Coalition Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen , and he was sworn in as caretaker Prime Minister until such time as the Liberals elected a new leader .
Holt was a strong swimmer and an experienced skindiver , with what his biographer Tom Frame describes as `` incredible powers of endurance underwater '' . However , his health was far from perfect at the time of his death—he had collapsed in Parliament earlier in the year , apparently suffering from a vitamin deficiency , and this had raised fears among some senior Liberals that he might have a heart condition .
In September 1967 , Holt had suffered a recurrence of an old shoulder injury , which reportedly caused him agonising pain , and for this he was prescribed strong painkillers . He ignored recent advice from his doctor Marcus de Laune Faunce not to play tennis or swim until the shoulder healed and reportedly obtained a prescription for morphine from another doctor . Tom Frame also records that Holt had already got into trouble twice while skindiving earlier in 1967—on the first occasion , while snorkelling at Portsea in May , he got into severe difficulties because of a leaking snorkel and had to be pulled from the water by friends , gasping for breath , blue in the face , and vomiting seawater .
Memorial service
A memorial service held at St Paul 's Anglican Cathedral in Melbourne on 22 December was attended by a number of international dignitaries including President Johnson , Charles , Prince of Wales , and British Prime Minister Harold Wilson . Among the many Asian leaders were Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , President of South Vietnam and Park Chung-hee , President of South Korea . It was also one of the first events to be transmitted from Australia to other countries via satellite .
Speculation
Media speculation focused on the possibility that Holt took his own life . Journalist Ray Martin made a documentary , Who Killed Harold Holt ? , screened in November 2007 , which suggested that Holt might have committed suicide . The Bulletin magazine featured a story supporting the suicide theory . In support of the view , The Bulletin quoted fellow cabinet minister Doug Anthony who spoke about Holt 's depression shortly before his death . The suggestion of | qb_9081--Harold_Holt.txt | {
"answer_start": [
69
],
"text": [
"australia"
]
} | Harold Holt became Prime Minister of which country in January 1966? |
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