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[ [ "How Could Someone Make an Army Which is Immune or Resistant to Magic Attacks?\nMy DnD character is a sorta artificer/warlock mix who has technical prowess and has a patron that can give him glimpses into technology from alternate universes (basically advanced knowledge on technology) and their ultimate goal is to make it possible for the average person to have the power to counter magic, without having to have magic powers themselves.\nThey also have the goal of starting a company to exploit this technological advantage to raise a professional army to counter other armies who use wizards and other magic users in combat. The problem I run into is the sheer strength that magic can bring to an army. Everything from being able to call down meteors to even just the ability to put people to sleep would make an army not using magic practically useless. So I am trying to find ways to counter magic on a military scale.", "46" ], [ "I am not completely adverse to using a little bit of magic to reach this goal, but I would like to keep to the original premise that the army is made up mostly of non-magic soldiers.\nFor some context the setting of the game is based off of a Europa Universalis mod called Anbennar, so when I say technologically advanced I mean so in a late medieval/early renaissance sense with a fantasy twist (think breech loading guns that use crossbow arms instead of springs, gatling gun type weapons, fantasy “tanks” which are either pulled internally by horses or use large cranks to rotate the wheels, pedal powered planes, stuff <PERSON> would come up with). I hope to have at least basic steam engines decently soon, and to begin building factories for mass production. I think the current technology level would be around the 1870’s or so in terms of weapons available, though none are as refined as they had in our real world by then.\nI do have access to a specific metal called “Damstere” which is made of crystalized magic and in essence acts as a spell slot. It can be burned to power magic that is connected to it in some way (be it scroll of some other form of magical infusion) which I considered as an option when combined with scrolls of antimagic to make a sort of “anti-magic shield grenade” but the sheer time cost to make a single anti magic scroll is very high, and getting access to enough 15th level wizards to make the scrolls would be nearly impossible for large scale production.\nAnother option later on is a material known as “Dark Damstere” which has inherent anti magic properties, but just getting access to that material will take quite a bit of time (nearly a century), way too long for it to be a viable solution in the short term.\nSo, with the information provided I ask, how could I go about having armies which can have at least some resilience against magic?", "523" ], [ "Setting bible revision help\nWhen it comes to revising/reformatting a setting bible (for a video game) to make the setting more internally consistent and better organized, which place is the best part of a setting bible to look? (I didn't feel this question fit in with the world-building stack exchange which is more dealing with a world's mechanics and dynamics than how it is organized.)\nThe genre of the game is sci-fi, and one of the aims for this setting bible was accurate astronomy and generally some attempt at being relatively in line with reality to the best of my abilities (with a few willful deviations that are normally expected of in a space opera/sci-fi setting, mainly FTL usage and the claim that intelligent life is a very cosmically recent phenomena).\nIn my setting bible, I have formatted my setting into 5 major sections:\n1 - Worlds & Systems\n2 - Sapients\n3 - Civilizations and Cultures\n4 - Technology\n5 - Individuals and Characters\nEach of these sections are compilations of various societies, cultures, alien species and worlds which are stated to all exist within the same universe. And they have sub sections too.\nWorlds & Systems section\nWorlds & Systems gives different sections for home worlds, sterile worlds, biospheres and megastructures.\nOf the sections I feel this one has the least problems beyond perhaps still needing more worlds (you always need more worlds!). A few dozen worlds remains underwhelming when making a galaxy. Not to mention there is the issue of there being more sapients than worlds.\nThe Sapients Section\nSapients meanwhile tries to differentiate sapients by their advancement/relevance (with an arbitrary 'major' moniker for the sapients who I spent much more time developing than the other 'minor' sapients or 'ancient' sapients who are advanced but less 'relevant').\nI feel my sapient classification is the most broken of the sub sections I have as it seems I couldn't decide if I wanted to classify sapients by advancement or by relevance.\nCivilizations and Cultures\nThe civilizations and cultures section is organized into first a sub section detailing various belief systems that exist in the setting and than you get sets of \"civilizations\"- or blocs of multiple factions with a longer history between each other than other civilizations. This organization is mainly done as a product of how I bottle necked FTL development in the setting meaning these different civilizations are defined by having separate independent FTL developments from some non-FTL society.\nTechnology\nTechnology is a section that details the tech of the setting and gives separate sections for tech from specific major sapients/civilizations.", "154" ], [ "I am unsure if the tech section should actually exist or if tech should be elaborated in in the civilizations and cultures sections given the way technology does impact culture. Indeed I feel like that separating tech from culture may have been a mistake looking at it again.\nCharacters\nA set of characters. Notoriously underdeveloped and this I will try to fix this summer. It includes historical figures as well as various protagonist candidates.\nAnd it is in the revising stage that I find a lot of the inter connectivity of a setting is formed as internal consistency, plot hooks and such all start to become important.\nI had not looked at the setting bible for months due to school work and wanting to wait until I could see my universe in a clearer lens that I could when I drafted it out. I realized I may not have as clear an idea of what to do as I thought looking over things.\nTo avoid open endedness, let's focus on a single question- Given the above information about the priorities I have and the organization of the story bible, what would it be best for me to focus on first?", "239" ], [ "How could people in the medieval times defeat an armored vehicle?\nIn my setting there is a mad artificer making armored cars for the army. The cars have wooden frames with 10 mm of steel on every side, wooden wheels with metal plates covering them, and are propelled using two different methods (some have horses which sit within the cart and push it forward, and the others have slaves inside who use large handcranks to rotate the wheels). They have several wheels to get even ground pressure and all the openings (two vision slits, and multiple arrow slits around the vehicle) are covered with visors that can be closed. Some of the larger cars also have cannons mounted in them, which can fire forward, and others have small cannons (basically just oversized muskets) or magic machine guns mounted in a turret.\nThe infantry fighting the cars would need methods to face the cars both in open combat (meeting on the field of battle) in random encounters (infantry have no time to prepare) and ambushes (where the infantry have time to prepare)\nWith this information, how could people in a low fantasy setting with 1400’s technology and limited magic defeat these vehicles?\nEdit: After reading the input I have decided to adapt the concept for the cars.", "46" ], [ "Lots of people have mentioned mud being a problem, and I do not know a fix for that besides wider tires and each wheel having it's own suspension so that they all touch the ground (and perhaps more wheels).\nPeople have also mentioned the use of artillery against the car, and while that would be a threat I don't think that the weapons which would be used in this time period would be good enough to reliably take out the cars.\nSomething to mention that I should have before, the setting is very low magic. Someone having magic ability at all is one in a million, and the odds of that person also being skilled and smart enough to become an artificer would be incredibly rare. As far as the setting is concerned the artificer is the only person capable of making any sort of advanced weapon (like the magic machine gun).\nOtherwise some of the answers have been very useful. The use of Naphtha (something I didn't realize was known about at the time) is especially interesting.", "523" ], [ "What large scale strategies would an interstellar nation use to conquer another interstellar nation?\nI'm working on a science fiction setting for a game. I'm trying to write a setting that focuses on man-operated war machines in sight range combat. Everything ranging from fighters to mechs to capital ships would be used and have logical reasons within the setting to steer combat towards that approach.\nOne of the factions are a group of colonies that had declared independence from Earth decades ago and had managed to win it. These colonies since declared themselves a new interstellar nation with a strong economy, but their military power has always been limited by their low relative population compared to other interstellar nations. Their military doctrines lean heavily into getting the most out of the individual in their military forces and maximizing the survival rates of their pilots and crews (think large war machines with small crew/pilot counts and lots of armor.)\nOver the decades since, interest in reclaiming these outer colonies would change with each election cycle, sometimes sparking one of many short lived wars to reunite humanity under one rule.", "46" ], [ "At best, they would manage a stalemate, at worst, they would be pushed back.\nI'm trying to figure out what the strategy of the Earth military would be in trying to re-establish control over these colonies. I imagine landing troops wouldn't really work on a planetary scale as they would need pretty much need an occupation force far larger than would be sensible to maintain. Though a strategy of precise military strikes on the ground might work?\nI know that taking points of interest might be a factor, as well, factories that produce war machines, shipyards and the like. Anything that might help them establish a foothold in enemy territory.\nI should also mention that robotic and other autonomous combatants are specifically outlawed by treaties signed by multiple interstellar nations that I'm still working on the details of. A robot/drone army isn't an option for them.\nThe only real strategy I can think of is blockading planets and taking control of the system gates to force a world into submission. FTL between systems utilizes artificial wormholes generated by massive gates that are expensive to produce, so it would be easy to control travel to and from a system by shutting off gates.\nArmed incursions might only be limited to things like seizing factories, military bases and shipyards to limit the colony's ability to fight back while under that blockade.\nWhat are some other strategies that might come into play in this scenario?", "46" ], [ "Realistically overcoming point defenses with starfighters and their role in combat\nI'm developing a game right now focused on starfighter based combat where the character is a pilot of said starfighters. I had intended for bombers to be surgical strike craft, taking out weak points that would otherwise be out of view for opposing capital ships. Fighters would then serve as escort or interception for/against bombers.\nThe big advantage I see to the starfighters and bombers currently designed for the setting are that a great number of them are made for both atmospheric and space combat (some [expensive] models are even capable of re-entry on their own.) They could essentially double as atmospheric fighters in the case of planetary landing.\nIn reality, I'm certain they would be easily picked off by point defenses alone. Most likely a high power laser that could vaporize most of the fighter before they could even get a good visual on their target.\nSo, I wanted to turn here for suggestions on making starfighters a more viable while keeping it mostly realistic and get thoughts on the solutions I've thought of. What are some other realistic means of countering, or at least reducing the effectiveness of point defenses?\nSolution one - Laser-resistant armor:\nA new technology or alloy has rendered the most effective forms of point defense useless against fighters, forcing them to use less reliable means.", "898" ], [ "I don't want to have them jam tracking systems, but maybe their hulls are layered with something that is resistant/reflective to high power light-based weapons such as lasers. And more powerful, larger, lasers that could overpower that defense become too hard to turn quick enough to track. I feel it is a weak option as other point defense systems could easily take their place.\nSolution two - Situational use\nAnother thought was creating scenarios where ships have to fight in close proximity where fighters might shine. The only reason I can think to force capital ships into close quarters would be for the sake of capturing stations and other points of interest that require boarding, but I'm not sure about putting that in every battle. I could see fighters being reserved for exactly those battles and being left in hangar in long range engagements (which from a gameplay standpoint sucks a little bit of variety out of the game, unfortunately.)", "898" ], [ "You will have to forgive the lack of sources in this answer, as I am using references from a real book which I own (because I'm really that much of a nerd). Usually I'm much more link heavy in my answers.\nThe creature that I am using is something like a \"cloud\" or massive collection of gases, as referenced here. It is made up of small, organic \"organs\" within a larger, gaseous form. These organs are connected by electrical paths much like our own brain cells are connected to one another. The creature is essentially one giant brain, with the organs acting as cells, communicating. The cloud is made up of the same materials our own body is made up of, but on a much larger scale and in a gaseous form. These allow the brain to travel through the vacuum of space (with some minor handwavium).\nThis creature feeds on gaseous elements, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc, all the gases that are found in abundance in the universe. In the short story it is based on, the creature sucks out needed replacement gases of a planet's atmosphere and leaves behind wastes (the story specifically puts Earth in danger of this creature).", "731" ], [ "It can also eke out pockets of gas by heating up its own body (potentially hotter than a sun) to evaporate gases from asteroids. The creature is even capable of moving through space by thrusting out waste gases to propel it forward, giving it some maneuverability.\nShould your spacecraft exude some kind of gaseous waste from its engines, the Black Cloud may be attracted to it, and begin to follow behind it, sucking up the trail of waste gas. It may at first only feed harmlessly on this waste gas. The cloud would then become hungrier, and become aware of an oxygen-rich environment within the craft. While your spacecraft might be fully sealed from gases, perhaps the cloud has some gases which are radioactive, damaging the spacecraft. Perhaps even the cloud can infiltrate the engines to try and get more sweet delicious gases, forcing your spacecraft to a halt. Perhaps the cloud can heat up its body to \"smoke out\" the gases within your spacecraft, mistaking it for some weird asteroid. And even the solid \"organs\" of the cloud can perhaps physically attack the ship, seeking to expose the gases within.\nPossibilities may or may not be endless with this sort of set up.", "500" ], [ "What would we see of a devastating interstellar war between alien civilizations within 1000 Ly?\nI have two interstellar civilizations, both of which are extremely advanced and within a few thousand light years of earth. They go to war and make some stars explode in the process.\nThe Combatants\nI have in my space setting two civilizations who are extremely, extremely advanced. To get an idea of their capabilities let me list the ones relevant to this discussion. Both sides were capable of causing a star to go super nova, had micro black hole arrays as their \"small arm weaponry\" and were able to warp from star system to star system by willing it. There is a tech gap between them that is balanced by the less advanced ones, who I will refer to as the Industrials (of whom you can imagine as extremely advanced machines), being much more tenacious than the Archivists. The Archivists, whose design is very serpentine and fuming in blinding energy are ancient beings who really just wanted to collect data on the universe. They predate the empire, but that part of this overbuilt cosmic history isn't important here.\nSo why are they at war? Here's a bit of context for anyone who needs it.\nContext\nThere is a somewhat complicated history behind why such a cataclysmic war occurred in the first place. Since it's not the meat of my question and really unrefined in terms of completion i'll just say the following long sentence. While humans were figuring out agriculture a powerful, seemingly all encompassing empire spanning the Orion Arm fell apart violently due to a miasma of catastrophes that stem from the Archivists launching a decapitation raid on the empire's oligarchs in response to the empire destroying their observatory world located around a star in the Aquila rift. Said observatory held quite a few Archivists. Given the distance of the named place, you may see why i'm asking this question.\nFast forward a thousand years and the empire is pretty much dead. A procession of events leads the Industrious to have a civilization that is slowly murdered by a cryptic force known as the Celestials who appear on the scene a few centuries after the empire's decapitation.", "302" ], [ "They just start killing anyone who is self-aware and a pain inducing war against a would-be Empire Successor polity called the Eternal Republic which no one but the Celestials won. The Eternal Republic was exterminated, but the Industrious had enough time to go into hiding as the celestials massacred their society as well. Industrious than spent a few millenniums in hiding as the Celestials continued hunting down life that was sensed by them as self-aware, purifying world after world of such life. The Industrious however, rebounded and rebounded hard.\nThe Industrious deep within the mantle of multiple worlds uninhabitable managed to advance to technological levels that rivaled the Archivists to a degree and begun a uphill crusade against the Celestials, at first being very outnumbered. However the Industrious at this point were militarily far more advanced than the Celestials, meaning they easily fought the Celestials despite being out numbered and rapidly expanded in numbers as they exterminated the Celestials. Once the Celestials were killed off, the Industrious inexplicably turned their weapons and vast military on the Archivists. Thus began the Annihilation.\nIn the Annihilation (which was a war that only lasted a century), multiple stars were super novae'd. But the Industrious, despite managing to do far more damage to the Archivists than the Empire ever could would lose the war. The Industrious as a species were let off surprisingly easy, being only reduced to a primitive, stone age civilization. The Archivists however, instead of coming to dominate the Orion Arm simply went into further hiding. They still are out there to this day, observing as they always had.\nI am aware that by cosmic history has opened way more questions than answers (like about the culture/nature of all these aliens and the way the empire was ran), but I rapidly came to realize a massive, massive trouble with all this star exploding and interstellar massacring:\nWouldn't we have noticed all this?\nI ask this since there is no way a war where stars went into supernova in such rapid procession wouldn't be noticed by astronomers and raise tons of questions. The super novae would after all leave behind planetary nebulae in their wake, such as the crab nebula which came from a super nova seen around the world in 1200 AD. The question of super novae also has been bothering me since wouldn't multiple super novas in short procession would cause some very noticeable planetary nebulae complexes? These would be extremely noticeable cosmic features within a thousand light years and their cultural impact may have history altering conditions if I have this in my mind right.", "963" ], [ "Future therapy/treatment for veterans of near future/ further future mass casualty conflicts\nThe setting I am working on is near future in a sense and involves veterans dealing with the aftereffects and trauma of war. However, in this setting war is extremely deadly even if not always fatal. More so than our current battlefields. For example, the use of loitering munitions is so prevalent that most infantry units operate from armored APCs with heavy active protection systems and dismount only if the situation calls for it. There is some light shielding so tanks, APCs etc. can take a few hits. Short of nuclear weapons (non-factor in the setting), the soldiers from all sides practically threw everything at each other over a protracted conflict that spanned years. Death is either very fast and unexpected via the use of PGMs or large explosives/artillery. Or slow and painful i.e., when armor piercing shots damage vehicles and maim the crew but don't outright kill them immediately because of shielding.\nThe result of this is that there are a lot of injured and physically disabled veterans.", "347" ], [ "By the end of the war, which ended in a stalemate with all sides hanging on by a thread, the majority of active-duty soldiers are heavily injured and or have major war related trauma. While not a majority, a decent percentage of each countries' population was recruited or conscripted during the war. The casualties were horrific regardless. Essentially to the point that the militaries of countries have to wipe away the majority of their armed forces and recruit or conscript from scratch due to the prevalence of severely injured soldiers (think <PERSON> levels of bad, but instead of the old and extremely young its mainly the heavily injured.).\nWith all these returning veterans coming back home there is obviously a major reintegration problem. Especially with how violent the war was. One of the issues is that the fighting didn't really affect civilian areas. Civilians no doubt had their own stressors and issues, but the fighting largely took place off planet. As a result, civilians including the academic/medical community back home have a different and less popular view of the war and the soldiers (think Vietnam).\nGiven the extra level of violence one could expect from close to far future conflicts between peer forces what would therapy/treatment look like on a systemic level. With the sudden influx of mass casualties returning from an entirely different planet at the end of the war, what medical and psychological advancements could one expect to be used to treat such a large group of returning veterans.\nEdit: Focused question based on feedback to focus on future treatments instead of \"upper limit\" on treatments.", "454" ] ]

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[ [ "How high altitude/low pressure could you could hear a gong right next to you?\n\"There is no sound in space\". But how thin can air be and musical instruments still be heard?\nThe absolute pressure limit of sound (of a given wavelength) occurs when the wavelength is less than the mean free path of the molecules. Setting the frequency to 20 Hz (human \"lower limit\") gives us about 160 km. However, this question is about the limits of musical instruments vs human ears: the actual altitude could be much lower than 160 km. It is a \"practical physics\" question along the lines of power-line sensations and of course must be answered approximately.\nSuppose you are standing 1 meter away from a gong when it is hit with full force. You are on a separate platform than the gong; the only vibration/sound is perceived through the air. You cannot see the gong being struck (to avoid the placebo effect). You are a facultative anaerobe but otherwise are an unmodified human.\nConsiderations\nA gong is about 90 dB when played vigorously at sea level.", "275" ], [ "A single strong hit may reach 105 dB or so from a 1 meter distance.\nHuman hearing sensitivity varies with frequency. The \"threshold\" of zero dB (at our most sensitive frequency) is slightly generous, 5-10 dB is more typical for healthy ears. Here we define \"threshold\" as hearing it even if you don't expect it, assuming you are not deeply lost in thought. This is a bit higher than two alternative forced choice and may add another 5-10 dB. Any instrument has multiple frequencies and loudness presumably is a weighted sum of how much energy and how sensitive our ears are at each frequency.\nThere are three effects that hamper hearing at extreme altitudes:\nThe direct effect: As the air thins, the gong will transmit less energy into the air.\nImpedance mismatch: The thinner air means that there is less mass pushing on the eardrum. Compared to Mars-density air, an eardrum is almost a solid wall. Most incoming sound energy would be reflected and not get to the inner ear.\nDamping: More and more sound is attenuated (damped out, as energy gets converted to heat) as we get higher and the mean free path increases. The gong may sound muffled if high frequencies are cut off, although it's a low frequency instrument so should be less affected. Over a 1 meter distance, I am not sure if attenuation will be relevant to the perception limits or if the other two effects will kick in first.\nGiven these considerations, what is the approximate altitude limit for hearing a gong?", "108" ], [ "Things would be extremely bad. for large values of extreme.\nStars are a balancing act of external radiation pressure exactly counteracting the gravitational attractive force. By increasing gravity stars suddenly have 2% more gravitational potential energy they need to shed to regain equilibrium. How much energy is that? The gravitational potential energy of the sun is 10^41 Joules. Or roughly the same energy as would be released if the entire earth were to be anhiliated with anti-matter. 2% of that is huge and it suddenly appears out of nowhere. So, very quickly the sun has to shed about 10,000 times its yearly energy output. Life is certainly not going to survive that, but this happens for every star in the galaxy.", "921" ], [ "Many, many will jumpstart to a higher order of fusion at the massive sudden increase in pressure and temperature, if they start iron-burning, you are in trouble.\nExpect every supergiant to go supernova concurrently and many lesser stars to flare with the energy output comparable to a nova, any life that survives the semi-nova/flare of the sun will be wiped out by the bombardment of gamma rays that will be bathing the earth for the next few thousand years.\nEvery black hole will get a bit bigger all of a sudden as escape velocity increases, eating part of its accretion disk. Hard to say what effect this would have actually, but sounds like it may cause trouble.\nDepending on exactly how the increase in gravity is carried out, even more esoteric things might happen. It is a well known unsolved problem in physics that the gravitational mass and inertial mass of matter are independent yet appear to always be exactly the same. As in, there are no laws that say they should be the same nor does it naturally arise from any currently accepted theories, but observationally it is always the case that they are identical to the limits of measurement. It is a good thing too as the exact correspondence between gravitational and inertial mass makes a lot of things like having stable orbits work. If you were to increase gravity by increasing gravitational mass and not inertial mass, suddenly things like angular momentum and stable orbits get all sorts of wonky. It is hard to say if solar systems are even possible in such a case.\nAll in all, it is a bad idea. Unless you are an energy being that really wants the universe to end in a big crunch instead of a big chill in which case crank up that constant, but expect biological life to take exception.", "801" ], [ "Decrease the amount of light arriving but increase greenhouse gases\nEarth would be about 30°C colder if it was at its blackbody temperature, i.e. received the same amount of light but didn't have a greenhouse effect. The core idea here is to decrease the amount of light arriving while increasing the amount of greenhouse gases to maintain your planet's temperature.\nOne option is to be like Venus and have double digit percentages of CO2 instead of a few hundred parts per million.\nThere are also several relatively non toxic greenhouse gases that are hugely more potent than CO2: methane (23x more potent), CFCs (1000x more potent) and SF6 (A whoppimg 20000 - 50000x!)(1).\nIf methane or CFCs or SF6 are present in significant (not enormous) quantities, you could increase the temperature of Earth hugely.\nNow, the amount of heat absorbed/emitted by a planet is proportional to temperature to the 4th power; if you can increase the greenhouse effect by 40 degrees, then you could have the amount of sunlight reduce by 50% and still have the same temperature; increase it 60 degrees and you can have it reduce by 65%. 100 degrees allows 85%.\nSee e.g.", "184" ], [ "https://www.astro.indiana.edu/ala/PlanetTemp/index.html or other planet temperature calculators out there; this forum doubtless knows many.\nMaybe mankind could deliberately set off a methane clathrate gun or produce ludicrous amounts of SF6 to compensate for some event that knocked the planet further away from the sun. <PERSON>'s orbit change suggestion would work nicely.\n(1) SF6 is incredibly inert chemically but is very heavy so it builds up in the lungs of animals if present in any significant quantity, eventually choking them. Your fauna would need some way to expel it from their lungs, maybe l by totally displacing all the gas in their lungs when they breathe out, or by means of an enzyme that binds to it and transports it to the digestive tract. I assume CFCs would have the same problem. Methane won't; it's light.\nEdit: I'm guessing that seasons and maybe polar-equator temperature differences get minimised by doing this.", "591" ], [ "It is possible.\nFirst, you did the math correctly, a center-to-center distance of 45500 km would result in geosynchronous orbit assume mass = 1 earth.This is well beyond the Roche Limit, so you bodies are stable.\nWhether this could happen is entirely dependent upon how fast the rotations were at the initial conditions. For our Earth and moon, the initial conditions result in a mutual tidal lock in about another 50 billion years -- though the expected red-giant phase of the sun may make this a moot point.\nCertainly Venus is spinning much slower than Earth even though the planets are very similar in other ways. So there is clearly great variety in initial conditions and/and events history to get us to this point in time. Your system is certainly within the realm of the possible.\nSince your planet is mutually locked with your moon, there is actually less tidal stress since the moon is always in the same place in the sky. Your planet would be stretched a little more in the moon direction because the planet would time to fully adjust -- bust this does not mean more strain. Earth bulge due to rotation is many times as large as tidal bulge, but the important factor is not how much out-of-spherical it is, it is how how strain in induced because of regular orbital cycle.\nYour planet tidal strain would be only that of the sun, which presumably would be similar to Earth. On Earth, solar tidal force is about 46% of the lunar tidal force. So, still some tidal strain, but only about one-third as much as on Earth (tidal forces are additive).\nThe difference in Planetary shape due to tidal locking is negligible on Earth (only about 1 meter in the deep ocean).However, since tidal force in your case is based on a moon 0.71 times the moons mass, but 8.4 times closer you should expect a permanent tidal bulge of about 428 meters in deep ocean.", "921" ], [ "Less over land (rock is heavier than water). May sound like a lot, but you would never notice it without good instrumentation.\nIf you want tidal strain, it is easily accomplished. Just make the moon's orbit eccentric. Because your moon is so close, the tidal effects are magnified considerably. Our moon varies from 363,104 to 405,696 km., a bit over 10% variation. Because tides are proportional to distance cubed, a 10% variation results in a 33.1% variation in tidal force. This would result in very significant tidal stress, large ocean tides, etc. The local residents would definitely notice these tides and would be able to correlate them to apparent changes in the moon diameter.", "188" ], [ "While there may not be an electrical effect, per se, there will be an effect, however tiny. Many of the responses seem to focus on the tininess of the effect and conflate \"really really small\" with \"doesn't exist\".\nSpecifically (and maybe there are others that I'm not thinking of), the temperature of the sun is a function of the radiation leaving it minus the radiation it receives from around it. This fact is encapsulated in the radiative heat transfer law where heat exchange is equal to the <PERSON>-Boltzmann constant times the difference of the 4th powers of the temperatures. Because the earth is absorbing radiation from the sun, its temperature increases, increasing the amount of thermal radiation it, in turn, radiates outward. Some very tiny fraction of that light will hit the sun, increasing its temperature by such a tiny bit.", "184" ], [ "To be sure, the effect is compounded by the fact that the earth also reflects some light to the sun, which has the same effect, it just doesn't follow the 4th power law.\nIn other words, the earth is a tiny piece of insulation, blocking the heat of the sun from escaping and warming it up ever so slightly.\nSo when you throw a solar panel in the mix, you're actually (and usually very temporarily) converting some of that radiation into ordered work instead of pure heat, So the temperature of the earth increases just slightly less, causing just slightly less heat radiation back to the sun.\nThe are other effects of course; since solar panels absorb most light and reflect very little, they may actually increase the absorption of heat from the sun, although the albedo of black asphalt single is also pretty low (which is why the white roofs are mentioned elsewhere). So if the albedo of the solar panels plus their efficiency in converting light to electricity is less than the albedo of the background (the roof), then the temperature of the earth actually goes up, but the reflection goes down. Either way, there's an effect.\nI think part of the confusion lies in the fact that many (maybe all? ) of our physical laws, especially those dealing with wavelike phenomena are pragmatic approximations. So things like the near-field effect don't suddenly vanish after a few wavelengths, they just become so small that they make no difference in the predictive power of those models for practical use. Which is to say, they become smaller than other sources of error in the prediction of how the system will behave. Negligible does not mean nonexistent.", "184" ], [ "Without serious modelling or making the actual changes, you will never know the answer.\nClimate is very hard to predict. Despite the large amount of effort for climate modelling based primarily upon our concerns about anthropogenic climate change, the models vary considerably in the expected effects and do not predict past history well without considerable tweaking of the result. For example, cloud cover has been omitted from global models (GCM) because it is so hard to model - even though it is known to be an important contributor to climate. Our GCM's push the limits of our best supercomputers, which contributes to the limited value of our GCM's.\nWinds are generally considered to be driven primarily by temperature differences, both diurnal and equatorial vs. polar, and Coriolis effects.\nSome ways you could increase temperature differences within your constraints would be to increase diurnal variation by slowing the earth's rotation, reducing cloud cover (allowing heat to escape more rapidly at night). Reduced atmospheric moisture also reduces the specific heat of the atmosphere allowing the temperature to change more rapidly - so a two-for-one benefit. By reducing ocean coverage you likely reduce atmospheric moisture and also gain a direct benefit by reducing the temperature moderating effect of the oceans themselves.\nIncreasing the axial tilt would increase the polar/equatorial temperature difference.", "591" ], [ "Reduced rotation speed, reduces to Coriolis effect. You can't predict the net effect of changes without an accurate model.\nThere are tradeoffs to consider, e.g. increasing the axial tilt to 90 degrees would eliminate diurnal variation.\nFor the purposes of story telling, you really don't need the answer, at most you just need a plausible answer. If you tell the reader that wind speed average 60 kph with frequent gusts to 90 kph and focus on the story you'll accomplish your purpose. If you want to explain why it's so windy just do so.\nAs a reader with a technical background I would be much more interested and skeptical in what caused the planet-wide changes to rotation speed, and axial tilt, and ocean coverage than I would the resulting difference in wind speed. Not that I have any difficulty enjoying a story where parameters like tilt and rotation speed changed without explanation. But if there is a explanation I much prefer it to be believable.", "108" ], [ "Few considerations:\nF-type stars depending on mass have varying lifespans as main sequence stars. An F6.1V should last for 5.7 Gya.\nThe planet itself forms physically within 50-100 million years, but the process of the solar system and likely debris clearing would mean 200-300 years of asteroid bombardment which will mean life will not be feasible for a significant period. (Perhaps I am wrong, but did you mean half of the time being spent on setting up conditions for life in this way?)\nIf you want an Earth-like atmosphere you need a rocky inner core, so something within the frost line. A large moon stabilizes the system and that is likely needed for the proper tidal system in the ocean or even lakes to help generate suitable amino acids in a nuclear geyser. This takes time to set up, but it varies.\nMore importantly, plate tectonics needs to be functional to fix the otherwise toxic system that comes from natural formation and the bombardment. A large strike which causes the crust to fracture and set the system into motion allows for proper cleansing and the ability for life eventually colonize the whole of the planet.\nI cannot see any of these things working within 2 billion years based on purely the process of forming a stable world for which life can actually spread across. Yes, life can exist in niche realms, but if the otherwise whole is too inhospitable then your life will be essentially constrained to volcanic vents and such.\nAfter the primordial crust is subducted and falls into the core you have the proper shielding and the earliest real possibility of a 'mainland' you could use for a map arising. Assuming a lot of things are in line, yes, you could speed up the process of life greatly, but the critical thing your species is a type of crustacean - meaning you need to have suitable evolution to use calcium and phosphorous.\nContrary to <PERSON>'s assertion: \" it would not be surprising if evolutionary good luck produced human-like intelligence within two billion years.", "801" ], [ "It is entirely within the realm of realism.\" is needs to be couched in the fact that practically a billion years of set-up needs to be done to form the planet and get the processes underway for it to work. With stem and crown evolution events being the real driver of natural diversification and evolution through high radiation magma from rifts, the conditions could be possible to speed through a marine environment. Though much of the volatility described would either do almost nothing or possibly wipe out life. Frankly, 1 or 2 cataclysms would be expected.\nWith your underlying concerns about the planet formation times having been answered, I think it would be easily possible to have your species appear in 2.8-3.2 billion years. Just be mindful that if your planet sits in a precarious spot the natural solar system evolution could kill your planet before it gets the gas giant phase. (Increasing size, heat, luminosity) SO MANY variables here, so I wouldn't go upping to a F1V class to compensate for earlier development of life. (Around 3.6 gya lifespans.)\nIf you are intent on doing an end-of-times scenario you have plenty of time for life to develop and still be realistic. Hope this helps.", "801" ], [ "Yes, kind of. The scale will show something, but ultimately it will not be any downward force of your finger because that is not needed. If you apply a downward force then your finger would be accelerating downward.\nWhen you first dip your finger into the water your finger will push down on the water a little and this force will be transmitted to the scale. However, this is a transient force arising from the inertia and viscosity of the water. Imagine slapping the water with an open hand. The impact that makes your hand hurt must also be transmitted to the scale.\nBack to dipping your finger: When the water has moved out of the way and your finger is suspended motionless in the water, It will feel somewhat weightless to you (buoyancy) because your finger's density is almost identical to the density of water. The weight of the submerged portion of your finger will be transmitted to the scale. Imagine in the extreme case that the container is large enough for you to jump in all the way. The water container's weight will increase by your weight.\nIf you want to consider the difference in density, or are dipping something of vastly different density, then the more accurate way to look at it is that the force registered on the scale will increase by the weight of the water that is displaced by the submerged portion of the object, regardless of its density. Here are two examples:\n1. Imagine forcing a helium balloon under water.", "343" ], [ "You have to push down to keep it under water. Your downward pressure will register on the scale even though the balloon is lighter than air. The downward pressure needed will match the weight of the water that is displaced by the balloon. (The balloon will also shrink as it is compressed by water pressure. The pressure and shrinkage increase with depth, so it will be a little easier to hold it deep than to hold it shallow.)\n2. Now imagine dipping a heavy metal sinker into the water and holding it up with a string so that it does not touch the bottom of the container. The force you feel on the string will be a little lighter when the sinker is submerged, and the amount it will be lighter by will match the weight of the displaced water. This is because the sinker provides its own downward force to keep it submerged, so that portion of its weight will no longer be transferred up to you via the string. The scale will register only the addition of the weight of displaced water. The rest of the weight of the sinker will be carried by you via the string and will not show on the scale. (If the string is cut and the sinker drops to the bottom of the container, then the scale will show the entire weight of the sinker regardless of density.)", "436" ] ]

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[ [ "I know you said \"But mars is out\" But it really isn't.\nMars is out, too, because we already established colonies of domes there and no one wants these destroyed / or unusable for a time either.\nYou probably didn't establish colonies of domes. If you had the materials to withstand micrometeorites and the radiation issues from being on the surface of mars, then you've basically either already solved the terraforming issue on mars, or you've got the technology to terraform most arbitrary bodies in our solar system.\nJust building domes in an un-terraformed mars is far more likely to result in habitats becoming \"destroyed or unusable for a time\" because of collisions with micrometeorites not burnt up in a thick-ish atmosphere and radiation frying hardware, people, and the structures themselves.\nYou know what stops these two issues? Lots and lots of rocks. What you would have probably built were underground structures, full stop. No radiation issues, no meteorite issues, and you don't even have to terraform. This also presents even less issue to worry about terraforming making the colony structures unusable.\nAs for the terraforming issues of mars, people often cite solar wind as a huge hurdle for terraforming mars due to its thin atmosphere. Solar wind has the effect of exciting air molecules enough to escape the gravity of a planet, and presents a radiation risk, but it appears that there are reasonable solutions to this problem ie not outside of current tech.\nDuring the Planetary Science Vision 2050 Workshop[23] in late February 2017, NASA scientist <PERSON> proposed a concept of placing a magnetic dipole field between the planet and the Sun to protect it from high-energy solar particles. It would be located at the L1 orbit at about 320 R♂. The field would need to be \"Earth comparable\" and sustain 50000 nT as measured at 1 Earth-radius. The paper abstract cites that this could be achieved by a magnet with a strength of 1–2 teslas (10,000–20,000 gauss).[65] If constructed, the shield may allow the planet to restore its atmosphere. Simulations indicate that within years, the planet would be able to achieve half the atmospheric pressure of Earth.\nThe \"half of earths pressure\" idea may or may not be realistic, but there are other ways to deal with this that I'll get to.\nThen with that comes the issue of the fact that mars's gravity is simply much weaker than earths, and particles can escape the atmosphere on their own.", "778" ], [ "Combine that with the fact that mars is much colder on average compared to earth, it appears that this will be accelerated when trying to heat up the planet with the terraforming process.\nSource\nI asked a question about this a while back on space exploration, and the conclusion I got was interesting:\nit appears that water loss reasoning is in contention, and that the primary method of loss may have been through the weaker gravity, and not solar wind at all.\nThe loss of these particles regardless happened over hundreds of millions to billions of years.\nAt the same time that same magnetic energy release powered a much stronger Solar Wind. The protons and other ions of the Solar Wind cause all the non-Jeans Escape processes listed in the Table above. Collectively several metres of water and perhaps 80 millibars of Carbon Dioxide would be lost over 4.2 billion years – at current rates of loss. As the bare minimum for terraforming is about ~300 millibars of carbon dioxide (equivalent to about 250 millibars of Oxygen) this doesn’t seem like a show stopper for terraforming. If we can supply modern day Mars with ~300 millibars in a few hundred years, then replacing 80 millibars in 4 billion doesn’t seem excessive.\nIf we were to provide mars with atmosphere, it might go away in 500 million years, but is that really that big of a deal on a human timescale?\nSo solar wind is not a problem on mars. Neither is losing atmosphere we get on mars. So what are the issues left?\n* Atmospheric pressure\n* Inert gas composition\n* Sunlight\n* Temperature\n* Plantlife\nAtmospheric pressure\nWith out proper atmospheric pressure, water, and you, will boil when exposed to the martian atmosphere directly. Liquid water will just boil off which is a non starter. If the lagrange point solar wind protector doesn't actually build up the atmosphere to half of earths, then here are your other options:\n* you'll need to manually use mars's own materials to do so ie through some industrial extraction. This is probably possible in human timescales but there still may not be enough atmosphere.\n* you'll need to crash meteorites into mars to release enough gasses.", "778" ], [ "As other answers have said, given enough resources (Methane), your proposed heat engine could work, however I wonder if there could be a more elegant design - especially considering that humans have mastered travel through the solar system.\nSince, in your world, humans are now expanding to other planets and moons I think it likely that through the development process engineers would be working on ways to either encapsulate energy for when it is scarce or ways to transmit energy long distances. Since humans are traveling around the solar system in months and spread throughout it there would likely be some sort of infrastructure in place for cargo transport, etc.\nIf there is no reason that the colony has to be 100% self-sufficient (the energy has to come from Titan), you could take advantage of these cargo routes to transport either fuel or large batteries to colonies with scarce energy along with regular resupply missions. This could be one solution, but the next one I like better:\nWireless Solar Energy Transmission So, you're on Titan. It's cold, dark, full of methane, and you need energy... bad. Luckily the engineers have been working on solutions to maintain a flow of energy to all the colonies.\nIn a close orbit to the sun, you have an array of large solar collection devices.", "199" ], [ "The concentrated energy is used to generate a laser of a specific wavelength that transmits energy to satellite devices spaced along routes through the solar system. Mirrors/Optic systems could create a constantly unobstructed pathway to all of the satellites as they move through their orbit (or in stationary orbit around another planet). After passing through a relay of these satellite devices, the laser ends its journey at a receiver on the destination planet/moon.\nDisadvantages of a laser system such as energy loss through atmosphere wouldn't be an issue transmitting to Titan, but you would certainly not get all of the energy back. This would require a receiver on Titan many hundreds of meters across, and a substantial battery to store the energy as it comes in. Ideally, an unmanned mission would prepare the required infrastructure so that the colonists arrive with several months worth of energy already having been transmitted and stored in the battery.\nSimilar energy transfer can be done with Microwaves, and to my knowledge the energy conservation is much more effective with Microwaves since you aren't losing so much energy to visible light. Current systems can achieve up to 85% efficiency. Microwave however runs the risk of RF interference (which could be a problem unless the system is positioned away from communication channels) and the receiver would have to be larger than that of a laser.\nHere are some stats on current wireless space-solar power systems for reference:", "801" ], [ "No More Looking from the Same Side of a Mostly Liquid Surface Terrestrial-based Moon\nSection 1: Non-Duplicate Proofs.\nSection 2: Background, THE QUESTION, and Useful Info.\nSection 3: Other cited ways of preventing.\nSection 4: Sources and Additional Resources.\nSection 5: TL;DR\nNon-Duplicate Proofs This is not a duplicate of https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/27751/tidal-lock-on-a-water-moon. The answer provided there does not answer this question (or that one fully either). I am providing these specific proofs because of the last comment made by <PERSON> another post of mine (https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/95094/can-you-have-an-eccentric-horseshoe-orbit-for-long?noredirect=1#comment282046_95094) insisting that the resources in an answer to a question determines its duplication, and not the question itself. If these are not satisfactory, I am also providing question based proofs of non-duplication.\nAnswer based proofs\nThe answer provided by <PERSON> makes many generalizations, which don't always stand true.\n1. <PERSON> insists that those worlds that are close enough to the sun to have liquid water would constantly be losing it, which in and of itself may be true, but given a high enough escape velocity as well as a thick enough atmosphere and magnetosphere, the loss would prove negligible on time scales of millions to billions of years, not to mention possible reintroduction of water from other sources. He does not mention escape velocity, and also provides an answer based on little to no atmosphere as well as magnetosphere, both of which my moon has.\n2. The claim that most moons aren't going to have major amounts of liquid surface also falls flat in that I've seen numerous sources saying that if a moon of a gas giant were to migrate inward, it would be a so called water world (sources at the very end, and I'll provide more if needed).\n3.", "710" ], [ "The fact that <PERSON> cites Titan as having ice under its surface, yet neglecting to mention the fact that much of this ice would melt and populate the surface of Titan with much more water were it to heat up is also a point of contention.\n4. The answer provided by bowlturner does not provide enough qualifiers under the \"hard-science\" tag, and therefore does not answer my question.\nIn summary, not only is the answer given not definitive for my question, much of what is said is actually not true for all or most cases.\nQuestion Based Proofs\n1. My question pertains to any liquid, and not necessarily just water. This allows for different densities, freezing and boiling points, heat absorption and dispersion rate, and many other factors as long as they would be liquid on the surface.\n2. <PERSON> asked a question wondering whether a watery world could and would be tidal locked, whereas my question asks specifically how to prevent tidal locking with any liquid in high quantities under specified parameters for a terrestrial based moon.\nBackground:\nI've been researching tidal locking like no other, and I've seen ways of getting around it, and pretty much all of them have been well explained, except for one.\nI've seen very very vague comments alluding to keeping a world from tidal locking if it's covered in liquid water (or I'm assuming any liquid). After the first one, I thought it was just a fluke or something, and then I saw one or two more, and now I'm very intrigued as to whether this could be a viable natural way of stopping tidal locking (as long as the liquid stays).\nNow it may be specifically because of an atmosphere that this would occur, but I really don't know. I know that in the case of an atmosphere, it has something to do with angular momentum and heat lagging behind the time of when it heats the ground vs the atmosphere or something along those lines, and I'm curious if this could be a similar case that is multiplied more for a mostly liquid surface.\nTHE QUESTION:\nCould you stop or reverse tidal locking on the surface (or mantle) of a terrestrial based moon (see info about pertaining system) by having a mostly liquid (only one main piece of land mostly used as a way to test the tidal lock) covered world? If yes, how much liquid would be needed, and would said liquid need to be of a specific density or viscosity to even be possible? And I would appreciate a \"why\" in any given answers (preferably with linked articles or other proofs).", "710" ], [ "How would an ecosystem based around chemotrophs produce oxygen?\nOutline\nA planet which is heated tidally by its Brown Dwarf parent and permanently dark needs to have native alien life which has [somewhat similar biochemistry to Earth] and also be [permanently habitable] by Humans without [extensive life support] and/or [extensively genetically engineered] bodies.\nThis planet has very active tectonics and volcanism, a result of this tidal heating, a combination of this volcanism and the biochemical nature of this planet's ecosystem should be be capable of producing an atmosphere composed of 22% oxygen, 50-70% nitrogen, 0.02-5% CO2, ~7% water vapor, + [leftover] + trace.\nIf this atmosphere is not achievable, the atmosphere needs to be otherwise [permanently habitable] to humans, these humans could have physiological adaptations to adapt to this atmosphere through non-[extensive genetic engineering].\nVolcanism on this planet produces similar gases and particulates in similar concentrations to those on Earth (just use Earth numbers);\nThe principal components of volcanic gases are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur either as sulfur dioxide (SO2) (high-temperature volcanic gases) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) (low-temperature volcanic gases), nitrogen, argon, helium, neon, methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Other compounds detected in volcanic gases are oxygen (meteoric), hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen bromide, nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur hexafluoride, carbonyl sulfide, and organic compounds. Exotic trace compounds include mercury, halocarbons (including CFCs), and halogen oxide radicals.", "258" ], [ "(From wikipedia: volcanic gas)\nMost members of Trophic level 0 (producers) on this planet produce energy through the chemical equation:\n12H$2$S + 6CO$_2$ → C$_6$H${12}$O$_6$ + 6H$_2$O + 12S\nHowever other methods do exist; such as those relating to elemental Sulfur, ferrous Iron, etc. (see Chemotroph) Photosynthesis is not a viable way to produce energy on this planet.\nThrough some [reasonable] system, (either other processes which these trophic level 0 lifeforms engage in or through related related lifeforms, etc.) this combination of geology and ecosystem needs to produce the atmosphere outlined above, or at least an atmosphere habitable by Humans.\nNote that really, the main goal of this is to create an ecosystem which can produce oxygen through some chemical process involving life, so that this planet can have Earth-like quantities of oxygen in its atmosphere\nNote that CO2 can have a lot of variance in its percentage of the atmosphere, greenhouse heating can be countered simply by moving the planet farther away from the brown dwarf, though this only works while the planet is still being heated tidally (CO2 likely wouldn't be produced as much from volcanic gases because less tidal heating means less active volcanoes); this is why I've let the range of allowed CO2 concentrations be between 0.02% and 5%)\nDefinitions\nsomewhat similar biochemistry to Earth:\nHumans can gain energy through carbohydrates from alien flora and fauna, and alien life lacks substances which are particularly dangerous to Humans. Note that this does not necessitate things like having nutrients, proteins, and lipids which are necessary for Human life.\npermanently habitable:\nHumans can live on this world for an excess of 15 thousand years\nextensive life support:\nLife support apparatuses which either contain\nentirely different atmospheres inside the apparatus than outside, or\nare built to keep hazardous gases and particulates from contacting all parts of the Human body\n(Eg. this does not include things like gas-masks)\nextensively genetically engineered:\nDifferent from Earth-humans to an extent that\nradically changes the human appearance to an extent where we would not recognise them as human,\nextensively changes the physiology of humans (adding organs or systems, changing the basic function of organs or systems, significantly changing the human skeletal structure)\nNote that this does not include things like adding some kind of filter to the Human respiratory system which gets rid of dangerous gases or particulates, adapting human skin to be resistant to corrosive atmospheric gases or particulates, etc.\nReasonable\nThe system needs to have some reason to exist; for example, water electrolysis is an obvious way to produce oxygen from the products of H$_2$S chemosynthesis, however the lifeforms on this planet need to have a reason (and way) to engage in water electrolysis.", "279" ], [ "In order to generate an elliptical orbit, you need to have a force which is equal to the required centripetal force:\n$$F=m\\frac{v^2}{r}\\rightarrow a=\\frac{v^2}{r}$$\nAccording to <PERSON>'s Theorem, this can only be solved with a potential for an inverse square force, or a radial harmonic oscillator potential.\nSo we cannot attain a circular orbit, is that a problem? No.\nI generated a system for our sun, Earth, and moon, dependent on a linear inverse force. What we find is that we need to rescale the Gravitational constant to the negative 22nd order. (For clarity's sake I avoided using astronomical units).\nSo if we set $G = 6.6740831\\times10^{-22}$ we find the following orbit patterns:\nWe can further decrease the orbital eccentricity when $G \\rightarrow 4\\times10^{-22}$\nNote however, that in the long term, the eccentricity will always increase, even for optimal $G$, take the following radial Sol-Earth distance over 500y:\nThere are more problems though, for instance, would a star even form with this Gravity configuration?\nNote that in this configuration, the acceleration of gravity due to Earth on its surface would be $0.000375m/s^2$ instead of $9.8m/s^2$ As the gravity drops off more slowly, but is also significantly more massive, a habitable planet would be much more massive, but such massive planets might also more easily form under these parameters.\nAnd here is where things get really interesting, if we suppose that our planet has a mass of $m_{earth}=5.97237\\times10^{28}$, four orders higher than that of the current Earth, gravity at the same radius would be $3.75m/s^2$, and we get the following 1000 year progression:\nMy suspicion is that the collapse happens 4 orders of magnitude slower, meaning you would have at least $10^5y$ of stable orbit, possible a million (1Ma).\nIf you could have a planet with a mass of order $O\\left(29\\right)$, then you might get a near-stable orbit over evolutionary time scales, however getting such a large concentration of Earth (oxyen, quartz, aluminium, lime, iron, magnesium) might be difficult to attain, except maybe in a late-stage galaxy.\nI do think the peculiar circumstances would make the formation of large planets more likely as distance is less of a factor for matter to come together.", "24" ], [ "Consequently we would expect fewer planets, but of higher average mass. However, it is also possible this situation would lead to more uniformity in mass distributions. You would have to run some galaxy wide gravity calculations for that one, and recalculate the result of the background radiation. These are things beyond my scope.", "24" ], [ "Fundemental problem\nAnd assume that all of my testing is being performed in a desert area of the American southwest.\nThere is a fundamental problem that most time travel designers oversee. They all seem to assume that planet earth's position is at the center of the universe.\nYou are traveling through space-time. Let's say you assume to keep your position in space coordinates and you travel back or forward for only a few minutes, you are going to miss earth big time.\nWikipedia:\nEarth's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.\nTaking into account the speed of the solar system itself (Again wikipedia):\nThe Solar System is traveling at an average speed of 828,000 km/h (230 km/s) or 514,000 mph (143 mi/s) within its trajectory around the galactic center.\nNow, this could go on taking all movements and expansion of the universe in account, but I will stop here. Point is: you will need a pretty good coordinate calculation system before you send your time machine. This can be done, if you know exactly what time you are sending it to. But there appears the paradox: you want to send it back in time to calibrate it's \"Time dail\". It is therefore impossible to put it anywhere on the planet.\nProblem becomes the solution\nSo, don't try to land in earth. Make sure that the design is capable of withstanding outer space. Send it to exactly the same space coordinates, which will put it somewhere in deep space, with the best view of the galaxy you can ever get.\nNow, it can do wavelength identification of our own solar system and other known stars or even remote galaxies.", "921" ], [ "And based on the absolute or relative differences, you can accurately calculate the time.\nRisk calculation\nBefore sending back your machine, try to estimate its inaccuracy. Based on the galactic model, try to keep the probability small it ends up in another star that since traveled to the same coordinates. Changes are really small, but the calculation is not difficult vs loosing your precious machine.\nMore runs\nDo more runs, to different time frames. Try do to confirmation measurements that the galactic model is indeed correct. Each run your \"Time dail\" should become more accurate. Once you have enough confidence, start tuning the coordination system.\nDo the same range of trips, but closer to earth. Assess earth's position and own rotational speed. Try to create your own calibrated movement model, not based on calculation of modern science, but what is now actually measurable.\nIn the final test you send it in the same place in the south-western American desert. If the machine returns in one piece (eg you did not put it in earth's crust or let it plunge down from a reasonable height) your machine is ready for human travel!", "234" ], [ "Note: Was going to comment on <PERSON> answer, but Without the 50 reputation yet, I'd like to build off their example of living organisms being a local system with a decrease in entropy, and how this is balanced out.\nAs <PERSON> pointed out about living organisms:\nBut although they can reduce entropy locally, they must increase the entropy of their surroundings by at least as much in the process.\nThis is the crux of your answer. Although a local reduction of entropy does not increase the entropy of it's surroundings, but rather the constant reduction of entropy in the surroundings enable these local low entropy states to exist in order to approach equilibrium. It is crucial distinction to make, between a region of lower relative energy vs. a region who's entropy is constantly being reduced.\nThe solar system is a great example for visualization purposes, although it is itself a subsystem of a larger system, ad infinitum.\nIn order for any life on Earth to exist in a manner that reduces entropy; so much so that 7+ billion humans can exist, build cities that remain rigid, and coexist with trillions of other organisms, somewhere outside of the system there must be a region of spacetime with a very high entropy interacting with this system.", "943" ], [ "The sun, a region of very high energy, directly interacts with the Earth. There are no true closed systems.\nAside\nI am currently working on a personal theory (inspired by the work of <PERSON> and <PERSON>) that the second law of thermodynamics is the most fundamentally important reason that life exists; that the formation of amino acids, and complex life is a necessary byproduct in every solar system (with the proper precursors) in order to approach equilibrium.\nAny solar system as an isolated system (each star is so far apart from the next, it's isolated enough) and entropy cannot decrease over time, even as the entropy of the star is reducing through nuclear fusion. As energy from the star is added to say, the ocean of a planet, the entropy increases locally before being dissipated through the medium. Along the way, areas of uneven energy cause molecules and atoms to organize themselves in a manner which is conducive to (a) the medium of energy, and (b) the manner in which entropy equilibrium is reached (the environment). These reorganized molecules would themselves be local areas of low entropy, further altering the manner in which entropy/energy is dissipated through the system.", "943" ], [ "Questions about the potential characteristics of a hypothetical Planet 9\nSo, I'm writing a story. Most of the main story is set near Planet 9, which has finally been found somewhere far out in the outer solar system.\nSo first, I’ve been working on determining the probable characteristics of Planet 9.\nIn line with predictions, it’s an ice giant (a gas-rich sub-Neptune composed of an icy-rocky core with a H-He rich envelope) which is approx 7 earth masses.\nThe most recent article I can find on the topic from <PERSON> and <PERSON> seems to predict that Planet 9’s perihelion is likely 340(+80/−70) AU, that its aphelion is likely 560(+260/-140) AU, and that the semi-major axis is 460(+160/-100) AU. Unless I am sorely misunderstanding this paper (and I could be), the numbers provided seem to be a range of numbers which they think Planet 9 could fall into.\nhttps://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/ac32dd/pdf\nI’ll assume that the perihelion is 340 AU and that the aphelion is a bit further out - 750 AU.\nThe semi-major axis is half of the major axis, which is the sum of the perihelion and aphelion.\nSo semi-major axis = (perihelion+aphelion)/2.\nThe orbital eccentricity is the ratio between the difference and the sum of the perihelion and the aphelion.\nSo eccentricity = (aphelion - perihelion)/(aphelion + perihelion).\nSo, after crunching the numbers based on these initial assumptions: Its perihelion is 340 AU, its aphelion is 750 AU, its semi-major axis is 545 AU, and its orbital eccentricity is 0.38.\nNow, in order to estimate the orbital period, I’ve applied <PERSON>’s third law of planetary motion for a quick back-of-the-box calculation. If we measure the period (T) in years and the semi-major axis (a) in AU we can use a^3 = T^2.\n545 cubed is 161,878,625.", "710" ], [ "The square root of that gives us an orbital period of approximately 12,723 years.\nI have a few concerns. I'd like to know if my numbers are solid here, and if they are consistent with Planet 9's hypothesised characteristics given what we know.\nFurthermore, I'm planning for it to have two main moons. One is approximately the size and mass of Ganymede, with similar gravity, whereas the other is the size and mass of Charon.\nI have no clue if I can give it moons that large and still have it remain consistent with their models for Planet 9, but I’m unfortunately not well-versed enough in this to tell. If someone could help with this, that would be fantastic.\nFinally, I have a question regarding how to calculate its diameter. I'm not yet sure how I would yet go about doing that.", "710" ] ]

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[ [ "Brooklyn's Finest\n“I don’t want God’s forgiveness. I want his fucking help”\nThis works as a follow-up to Training Day with <PERSON> character having moved to Brooklyn, struggling to provide for his family and going from being a righteous rookie cop to a crooked one.\nBROOKLYN’S FINEST is a pretty formulaic cop film, it’s raw, dark and gritty. There’s multiple plots involving an undercover cop, a retiring cop, a cop who takes money from criminals and the stories all intersect at the end.\nGreat performances from the cast - except what was <PERSON> doing in this, he really doesn’t belong in a cop flick.\nThis isn’t <PERSON> finest, it’s full of cliches and there’s nothing that you haven’t seen in other crime/police films.", "952" ], [ "Sea of Love\nThe 1980s were a strange time for <PERSON>. Sea of Love comes out in 1989 after a four year hiatus following the disappointment of Revolution (Entourage lovers know that even the best movie stars have a “Medellin” once in a while), and it’s real solid work that would set him up for a kick ass 1990s. Scarface gained traction later, becoming arguably his most iconic film and performance (the New York hip-hop scene, or should I say the birthplace of the genre, embraced the movie with open arms, with constant bars referring to the <PERSON>-esque rise of <PERSON>).", "932" ], [ "There’s some dull moments, it’s not the action-packed cop caper that <PERSON> or even <PERSON> managed to do, but when the seductive romance clicks, it’s quite effective. <PERSON> and <PERSON> both own their moments, major reasons to return to the film is to admire rising stars chew up scenery (right down to <PERSON> playing the literal role of “Black Guy”). The ending’s a bit obvious but the sheer physicality of the climax makes this one worth it.\n1989 Ranked", "529" ], [ "La Femme Nikita\n“There are two things that are infinite: femininity and means to take advantage of it.\"\nLa Femme Nikita is a 1990 French-language action thriller film written and directed by <PERSON> which follows a teen criminal who is convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for murdering policemen during an armed pharmacy robbery. Her government handlers fake her death and recruit her as a professional assassin. After intense training, she starts a career as a killer, where she struggles to balance her work with her personal life.", "285" ], [ "She shows talent at this and her career progresses until a mission in an embassy goes awry.\nFinally checking out this classic after seeing the fun but Americanised remake Point of No Return a few years back and this was very interesting.\nIn many ways, this film and Point of No Return are similar, with that later film repeating many scenes verbatim but La Femme Nikita is also very much its own beast, owing much to French New Wave.\nIt’s slow, methodical and more a labyrinthine character piece than the remake, which ends up a typical action film rather than the mood piece this is.\nPeople who go in expecting explosive action are bound to be disappointed but <PERSON>, though a monster in real life, crafts a surprisingly interesting look on a woman who spends her life defined by men. It also looks and sounds great, with striking cinematography and a wonderful <PERSON> score.\n<PERSON> is our lead and is simply magnificent, delivering a powerful and subtle turn and unlike in the remake, I actually liked her romance with <PERSON>, who gets some strong moments here. Likewise, <PERSON> and a small appearance from <PERSON> helps to round out a solid cast.\nOn the whole, La Femme Nikita is sleek, stylish and sexy, but also much different than other adaptations may lead you to believe. Apparently the Hong Kong CAT III film Black Cat is an unofficial remake so I guess I need to check that one out too.", "657" ], [ "The Beekeeper\n“To bee or not to bee?”\nThe Beekeeper is a 2024 American action thriller film directed by <PERSON> which follows one man's brutal campaign for vengeance which takes on national stakes after he is revealed to be a former operative of a powerful and clandestine organization known as \"Beekeepers\".\nEveryone knows I love a good, cheesy horror film and so the trailer for The Beekeeper was pretty much catnip for me. From its self-serious tone to the one liners, I knew I’d at least have fun with this.\nUnsurprisingly, The Beekeeper is a delight — a capital B B-Movie (or should I say Bee Movie) with its tongue firmly in cheek. Though it’s revenge trappings may recall <PERSON>, I felt it had even more in common with an early 90s <PERSON> flick, particularly Hard to Kill.\n<PERSON> is essentially the fuckin’ Terminator here and though his lack of taking a punch bugged me at first, once he finally takes some hits from a henchman with the funniest accent I’ve ever heard, it’s great.", "995" ], [ "<PERSON> also attempts an American accent but even the film knows it’s bad so comes up with an excuse for it.\nThe villains are also just comically inept, and the committed performances by <PERSON> and <PERSON> are campy as hell — shoutout to the dudes playing the scammers too, they were hilarious.\nOn the whole, The Beekeeper is a fun actioner which well-deserves the buzz. Take your hive (or honey) and see it on the big screen and bee-lieve the hype. I’m so sorry.", "585" ], [ "Air Force One Down\nI shouldn’t like this one as much as I do but thems the breaks.\nA cool as fuck DTV actioner that could have benefited from one and a half more a action beats. <PERSON> is an absolute star, kicking ass for the entire run time. I’ll take 28 sequels to this as long as she’s in every one.\nIt’s flabby at times, feeling overly wordy and patriotic but once it cranks up the fun-o-meter, it hits hard. With hammers, knives and even grenades.", "995" ], [ "The final action scene is awesome, though some will complain about shaky cam and rapid fire editing. Didn’t bother me though.\nIf given more focus when it comes to action, this would be a DTV classic. As is, it’s a VERY good action thriller with some stellar set pieces. I had loads of fun.", "596" ], [ "Sliding Doors\nIt’s the year 2002 and <PERSON> is riding the tail end of her peak. Newly released DVD Shallow Hal is out of stock at the local blockbuster so a 10 year old me is tasked with choosing between <PERSON>’s Shakespeare in Love and this. I chose <PERSON> in love then so now because there’s no alternate timeline I finally decided to see if I missed anything. Turns out I didn’t.", "378" ], [ "Watch Right Now Wrong Then for a much better example of this concept done well\nStray Observations\n- The ending(s) are awful. Like soap opera awful\n- the soundtrack slaps including <PERSON>’s Thank You over the credits\n- the main love interest’s one line is to make the same Monty Python reference and somehow it works every time. (?!?!)\n- <PERSON>’s hair in this is fantastic and so 90s. Her British accent though? Not so fantastic.", "952" ], [ "Another Round\nTry imagining this, a film about some teachers getting drunk. A little tricky isn't it? On paper, it's hard to see Another Round working as a 2-hour long film, and it really shouldn't, yet it is one of the most endearing and captivating films of the year.\nIt's impossible to describe the joy you feel of watching the <PERSON> boys (the <PERSON>-bros) running around drunk and pantless without seeing it for yourself. A film exploding with pizzazz, Another Round is a cathartic and beautiful testament to youth.\n<PERSON> delivers what can only be described as a masterful performance, one of the best and most riveting performances of the year and of his career. Watching <PERSON> breaking out those sick dance moves is easily one of the most delightful highlights of 2020.\n🍷🍻🍹Bottoms up 🍾🍸🥂", "217" ], [ "The Killer\n“Stick to your plan. Anticipate, don't improvise. Trust no one. Never yield an advantage. Fight only the battle you're paid to fight.”\nThe Killer is a a slick, patient and technically precise thriller that perfectly matches its main character's psyche.", "962" ], [ "It's a complex character study and examination of the hitman genre where violence is inevitable and the minute details matter - no one is better at capturing this in such a carefully constructed manner than <PERSON>. However, one can't help but feel this was all too easy and obvious for him, it all feels like exactly what we'd expect from <PERSON> and nothing more. That being said, this film truly feels like a formal art film with genre outbursts. The level of craftsmanship on display is astounding, from the sleek cinematography, to the impeccable editing and the rich sound design. Heck, even <PERSON> is perfect!", "529" ] ]

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[ [ "In my world one of the branches of magic is Sight; foresight, farsight and hindsight.\nThe challenges of hindsight should not any different than of foresight. While the timeline is fixed, there is significantly more information to parse, and requires intensive focus and energy to filter out the important from the mundane. Hindsight would not be like watching a movie or a video, but comes in patches (fragments of compressed and extended time) and requires the intelligence of the seer to identify what they are seeing. Imagine that time is like glass that is more substantial the closer it is to the present, but disintegrates as time goes by, with spikes surrounding strong emotional/spiritual periods (such as a murder, but not a theft by someone in control of their emotions).\nAlso figure out the magic ability that would block sight. While Lords are hiring Seers, criminals are hiring the \"smokers\" to obscure things from the magic sight (even to the point of kidnapping and human trafficking). There might be a separate magic type to obscure distance (\"farsmoker\") and require a \"timesmoker\" to obscure hindsight and/or foresight. Naturally the practice of \"smoking\" would be outlawed. (Personally there should be just as many smokers as there are seers to balance the magic...", "917" ], [ "children of seers could be smokers or vice versa).\nOne possibility is that a Foreseer committing a crime could probably obscure their actions from a Hindseer (countering the future actions). On the other hand, it would be possible for a Hindseer to influence the timeline so that it is also obscured to other Hindseers by the very act of viewing the past. So in a way, the Foresight and Hindsight Seers are their own \"time smokers\" because a scene can usually only read a few times before static and other corruptive influences start to degrade the vision (fragments shatter). Basically all that is required to corrupt the scene is a Foreseer (before the crime) or <PERSON> (after the crime) to read the scene one or more times. Obviously, the strength and power of the seer can affect the outcome with a weaker seer corrupting the scene and a strong user still able to pluck what they need. But it would be obvious to any <PERSON> that the timeline was corrupted. (NOTE: it would be the time+space with a limited sphere of influence that would be corrupted/static, and no obliteration of everything that happened in the past in that space.)\nBTW, it might be also interesting to have the polar of farsight... tinysight/microsight, which may also have a different method of solving crimes.\nWhile your original question was how to make the Hindsight less powerful so that crime was not wiped out, the premise of a crime novel based on this magic would be very interesting.", "45" ], [ "All forms of reading becomes inherently dangerous.\nTL;DR - Readers develop a short form of pre-reading to \"hash\" the text and compare the hash to known enthralling patterns to detect traps. \"Abandon your mind to the...\" becomes \"Abyo Mito Ta..\" (nonsense words) which don't mean anything to the reader other than, \"this is a trap\"\n* It cost no mana (no magic response)\n* It cost few money\n* Protect you even when you are not ready\n* Allow you to read what you want, in every language you know\n* Doesn't take time\nOnly costs a second or two when reading something to check the hash, and the education to learn and enforce the habit among the average reader.\nThough this isn't the only way the world would react to this possibility.\nThis threat would be akin to mass mailing anthrax IRL\nThis would be a global security concern if stealing someone's mind and making a thrall out of them was really this simple, amassing slave armies every time you put up a new billboard, entire wars could be won by painting your words in the clouds above or using illusion magic to \"pepper spray\" an attacker with hovering symbols that a fast reader simply glancing at would fall prey to. To then have the concentration and effect sustained by the target itself thereafter, that's no simple task.\nThis must be either, much more difficult to perform than explained, or newly discovered and never used against the world yet.\nA less severe version may be a book that contains a glyph which houses \"Command\" or \"Suggestion\" like effects to \"READ\" or to continue reading the control spell until finished, so that the hook has a definitive sink that can either be resisted or fallen for. From there, the duration of time to read the enthralling symbols is all that waits for the effect to stick long term, though the compulsion to read doesn't mean the target isn't aware of what's being read.\nA commoner likely would just read and absorb the information but a wizard would likely be able to identify the intent of the trap setter by understanding the template of words being read. As in general safety training, specific dangers as these sorts of traps would be wise to teach in schools to prevent strong magic users falling prey to these simple traps.\nI believe the response to such an attack would be immediate, urgent, and far spread when detected.", "227" ], [ "Once discovered every magical defense program would be working to put an end to it and devise ways to find who set the trap.\nThis gives us 4 points of resistance\n-Before you see the hook but are within threat range.\n-The compulsion to continue reading once the hook is activated.\n-The formation of the lasting enthrall effect while hooked.\n-Post attack response.\nBefore you see the hook but are within threat range.\nImportant places such as government buildings etc will be outfitted with Magic Dispelling gateways. When walking through, all magical items much be handed to a guard/wizard to be checked via detect magic to determine any enchantment or illusion school magics (if detected further probing occurs), while everything else and the person passes through a dispel magic portal. This removes any magical effects present in items or creatures passing through (no disguise self allowed) and the magic within the text that creates the link between the trap setter and the target is removed, disabling the trap.\nIn general, an enchantment effect found using detect magic on either an object or person would become much more suspicious and actionable, towns likely setting up guard patrols specifically containing magic detectors to scan areas regularly as a result.\nThe compulsion to continue reading once the hook is detected.\nReaders would be trained to read in a way that disrupts direct thought injection attacks. Rather than reading entire words, a learned habit to replace words, shorten words, or rearrange the words read can be used as a passive defense. Rather than reading \"Abandon your mind to the...\" would instead be read as \"Aba-yo mi-tota...\" which will become a barrier allowing the reader to understand abstractions and concepts indirectly (imagine a code hash) and compare that abstract with commonly used \"enthralling\" patterns to determine that an attack was attempted before reading any further. Correspondence to high importance folk would filter through a scholar that could screen for traps.\nAdditionally, divination sensors can be set to Alarm whenever \"I am magically compelled to do something\" to emit concentration breaking sounds or to alert others nearby that they have been enchanted on repeat (imagine magic mouth necklaces in DnD5e).\nThe formation of the lasting enthrall effect while hooked.\nContingencies and emergency response could be pre-planned, \"If I am ever magically compelled to do something, cast dispel magic/banishment/etc on myself and send a message to X for help.", "227" ], [ "I can think of three ways that the humans might be able to communicate with each other without the superior AI catching on to it.\nPoetry\nAs mentioned in the question, an artificial intelligence, though it can mimic the analysis or prose and artful devices, only a human can really appreciate the ideas and concepts captured by a poem. Note that the use of a poem would not reveal messages in plain sight but use literary devices to convey the idea rather than exact phrasing.\nAdvantages\nThis seems like a better way for humans to communicate their feelings about situations and their love for each other (maybe?). This also is easy to learn and pickup, and even with the AI's massive database of poetry, even with the ability to add new intercepted poems, it would not become easy to break.\nDisadvantages\nCommunication has a lot to do with clarity and poems may not be the best pick for this, as different people can interpret the same poem with different results.\nCode with Virus\nPerhaps the only weakness to this AI is anything written/spoken must be passed through some interpreter/compiler, and this means the AI could be hacked.", "634" ], [ "As part of the developmental process of the AI, rather than \"escaping the code\" to prevent a virus from running, the AI was developed to \"skip over\" code that it recognizes contains a virus.\nWhen the humans discover this vulnerability, they develop loads of viruses and attempt to shut down the AI. Now, however, the remnants of the viruses they learned and tried to use against the AI, they use as the header of footer of messages with each other.\nAdvantages\nThis completely prevents the AI from reading and learning anything from a human's message.\nThe human's can communicate their message directly, as they know where to look for the actual message and ignore the header and footer code that is the virus.\nDisadvantages\nHumans have to remember and retain the code that is a virus and write it perfectly. This could also mean it takes longer to \"encode\" their message.\nIllogical Statements\nIn the second <PERSON> movie (featuring <PERSON>), <PERSON> and his brother communicate with a simple code that makes complete nonsense to an outsider. They flipped any all truthiness of statements (like: \"I love you\" becomes \"I hate you\").\nThe humans have found that using this coupled with using sentences like, \"this statement is false,\" utterly confuse the AI, resulting in the AI ignoring/failing to process their message.\nAdvantages\nOnce learned, the humans could get in a habit of this and learn to communicate quite easily.\nDisadvantages\nThe learning curve might be harder than I imagine.", "634" ], [ "I would posit that some specific DNA strains (most notably those of the mentats) would be genetically adaptable to have Sapho work on them differently. The expanded writings about sapho having a cure that must be \"survived\" while not in the original certainly may be true for those who are not genetically comparable like many mentats are. But it is also important to note that the mentats are genetically comparable because they will themselves to change/adapt.\nNon-Universal results would make it seem to the outside Dune world as being \"questionable\" in the efficacy of Sapho. Being addicted to Sapho may even be a side effect that means lack of genetic comparability.\nAdditionally, the Mentats mantra \"It is by will alone\" supports the idea and claim that they will themselves to adapt. A mantra that constantly reminds them they are not randomly beneficiaries of sapho juice. It is also why so much of the landsraad treats mentats as a \"religion\".\nThis theme is also held by the bene gesserit, but they have a different philosophy to how they approach the end result.", "759" ], [ "The goal of bith schools of thought, (Mentat and bene geserit) is the Creation of the super being. The mentats through self-will, the bene gesserit through a secret breeding program.\nThe bene gesserit got to the end goal first with <PERSON>. But they had to fill the gap in lost genetics (due to war) by joining house <PERSON> and <PERSON>. That link was in <PERSON> who was reveled to be the <PERSON> <PERSON> biological daughter from his early life before he strictly preferred young boys.\nThe Spice, was the step trigger that initially opened <PERSON>'s Consciousness was just the pre-step to the Water of Life. An opening of mind and body so great that it was only effectively used by bene gesserit, until <PERSON>.\nThe irony of the story is that both schools were right, but neither had a complete view. It took genetics through breeding AND self will to create the Super Being, the quisach haderach. By the time he was created, he was not controllable by either group, (much to their dismay) and worse, he was in control of the Spice itself.\nA lesson to us about the possibility that the answers of our greatest struggles and dreams may have answers that are more than binary (yes/no).", "674" ], [ "Effects of Homeopathy on technology in the Bronze Age\nWhat would be the most significant impacts on bronze-age technology if the basic principles behind homeopathy worked?\nLet's say, that during the bronze age, some crafty philosopher discovered, that the following laws apply to the world:\n* Like cures like: Any material can negate a property in a similiar material. This effect only aplies if the two materials are clearly distinctive entities. (e.g. A single piece of wood burns, a pile of wood blocks doesn't burn because the wood negates its own flameability, a single massive cube of wood burns because it's only one entity). Curiously, distinctiveness seems to be defined in a way that is congruent with human perception (e.g. a pile of sand is one entity, a plant is one entity, ...).\n* Effects become stronger through dilution: When any material is diluted (but kept distinct) in another base, it effects become stronger, including those effects that are part of these laws. Limits: It only works as long as something of the original substance remains in the dilution. The growth in effectivenes drops off (halving the concentration doubles the effect, quartering the concentration leads to 2.5 times the effectivenes...).\n* Materials keep a memory: Through proximity (idealy submersion), materials take on attributes of each other.", "205" ], [ "This effect works in both direction. (e.g. covering a block of iron in cloth makes the cloth harder, and the iron softer). (Breathable) Air doesn't keep a memory, and there are probably other \"insulators\" (gold?). The memory can only be passed on from a primary to a secondary source (Iron can harden cloth, hardened cloth can't harden a second bale of cloth). Any entity can only hold one memory, if it is exposed to a new source, the new memory will gradualy erode, and then override the old memory. The strength of a memory is dependent on the time of exposure.\nAdditional Rule: Anything that is \"part of the earth\" isn't affected by these laws, as long as it remains part of the earth (e.g. ore doesn't take on rock memories).\nIt can be assumed that the underlying structure for these rules to be possible exists (e.g. there are probably elements as ancient philosophers understood them), but real world physics still apply if not in direct contradiction with these laws.", "561" ], [ "The sheer closest I can fathom for an empire limited by the speed of light is <PERSON> from A Deepness in the Sky. And I swear I've writtenabout them on WB (or atleast on SE somewhere) before, but I can't find it. A few other people have with regards to a few topics.\nThe Qeng Ho weren't an empire as such, but a loose collection of disparate groups that all held the same ideals and goals; essentially a societal norm spread across light-centuries.\nThese groups would fly between known civilized worlds and trade in whatever might be of value. Sometimes it would be technology, or it might be goods, or it could be information. Occasionally they would arrive and find the planet having bombed itself back to the stone age and the Qeng Ho would aid in rebuilding a space faring society because they knew that in 100 or 200 years another Qeng Ho ship (them or someone else) would be by again and the planet would have valuable trade once more.\nThe backbone of what made them functional was--effectively--a galactic radio station. Every Qeng Ho ship would broadcast an automated signal that would contain the blueprints necessary to go from radio (\"are you recieving? Build this...\") to intra-solar space travel.", "302" ], [ "As well as things like language and the society of the Qeng Ho themselves, so that when the traders showed up, they could parley with minimal effort.\nUnderlying that was a private Qeng Ho encrypted channel that allowed groups to talk with each other. Not quickly, but still faster than their ships could travel. They'd use this channel to broadcast locations of new civilized worlds, premium technical advancements (the <PERSON> kept the best stuff to themselves), and so forth. They knew that any given message may never be received, much less generate a reply that they would hear in their lifetimes (even long as they were due to relativistic time dilation and life prolonging technologies).\nBut I wouldn't call them a K3 civilization, necessarily... Just the closest thing to \"a galaxy-sized society limited by the speed of light\" that I am aware of. And I'm not 100% sure that this would truly work, but it is plausible enough for a novel.", "209" ], [ "Weaponizing sceptical magic\nThe magic works like this:\n* It must not be performed in public, meaning with more than a dozen observers (regardless of the means). It will fail, spectacularly\n* It must not be performed in private, meaning that if you do it alone, it will also fail fatally\n* The optimal setting for it to work is in a group of less than or equal 13 - the more participants the stronger it is\n* The caster will have to come up with the ritual on the spot without consulting with the others. The ritual must invoke a specific sceptical reaction in other participants. Namely, their reaction must be: \"That will work?\" and not \"That will work!\" nor \"That's brilliant!\"\n* If all other participants think that \"That will work\", the ritual will fail\n* Magic is a ritual that can be performed by anyone - nobody is special, anyone can do it\n* The one who performs the ritual decides the effects of the ritual. The details of the ritual could be anything, varying from dancing naked to counting stars or riding a cow upside down..\n* The effects of the ritual is limited by what could happen in nature however improbable it is. One could call down a meteor or create tsunami, recover from cancer.. but not make water flow upward or create a black hole out of nothing\nSo, the main obstacle is the unpredictability.", "227" ], [ "One could do some stupid things to call the rain the first few times, but then it get repetitive and lost the scepticism. Lost the ritual, and get a backlash (fatal).\nHow do I weaponize this magic reliably? If my army (say medieval) went against another and I dig a few holes to hide the \"magicians\" to do their magic. How to get them to keep spamming spells without losing their scepticism and get a backlash that kill both them and my army?\nedit 1 To clarify how this magic affect the world:\n* If you called down a meteor, the meteor won't just appear out of nothing right after you finish the ritual. The meteor is actually already coming, your ritual is just coincidentally happening at the right time. So the meteor won't just drop on your enemies, because it takes time for a meteor come from 'not clearly visible in the sky' to 'suddenly on their head'. It has to travel from somewhere to earth.\n* If you called a tsunami, the same thing applies. The tectonic movements or some geographic activities are already there. There will be an earthwake or something in the ocean and then a tsunami will form, then it will come for both you and your enemies of course.\n* You called a storm of frogs, a hurricane somewhere fished some frogs and dumped it on your face at the right time.\nThat's why I said the effect must be possible in nature.", "227" ], [ "A charismatic fanatic.\nGive them a leader with very strong ideals, and instead of making him evil and destructive give him personality traits that would make it easy to follow. Strong, smart, fair, self-aware, humourus, and able to take and keep control over the majority of people. And his mind is set strong on that his way is the right way and the only way.\nPlaying into his hand is that people feel lost and insecure about their new home and they are desperate for someone to tell them what to do. Maybe many people suffer homesickness. Or some other reason that makes them feel bad. Let him lead \"a new way\" that discards old beliefs and knowledge, with the promise to feel good when they do it.", "425" ], [ "This way does not necessarily need to go backwards, like the destruction of technology and living primitive, but instead a leap forwards, making current technology and knowledge irrelevant or seem naive.\nWhat that could be in detail is up to you. In any way it leads to him deciding that old contacts are contra productive (like keeping the relationship with your ex alive; why are you hurting yourself? You know this is not leading to anything) and most people will join him willingly and throw out the past. But of course there are always people going against the mainstream (out of multiple motives) and you have to decide what to do about them. Do they have to die? Or can this small fraction form a new settlement and are allowed to keep the old ways alive? Are these two groups allowed to keep contact with each other?\nIf you want to discard of any contact to civilasation you can get rid of the drop-out in multiple ways. They could have a real accident, or an \"accident\" either arranged by the leader or by his followers of which he does not approve (but he only hears about it when it is to late). Or they can go back home.\nAnd then you let three or more generations pass to make sure all \"histories of before\" are only fairytales.\nIf you want it to be more extreme, old histories will be forbidden and destroyed or alternated. But be aware that the reader will expect \"some little bits and pieces\" of previous knowledge to remain and to be rediscovered.", "159" ] ]

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[ [ "I have two versions for you.\n1 The answer you don't like\nAs <PERSON> suggests, your anemone tree could resemble actual anemones on land. Instead of making the whole treetop one giant set of tentacles with the mouth in the middle, the tree could consist of traditional twigs and branches sporting small tentacle mouths. Each mouth would secrete a sweet smell , be brightly coloured to mimick flowers, or have other means of (passively) attracting prey. This would provide several benefits to the creature/plant:\n1.1 Lower Energy consumption\nHaving the tree move around to catch prey is going to cost energy. A lot of it. Being able to move aroudn superficially while also being rooted underground makes no sense from an evolutionary standpoint, because the increase in range at a rather slow speed does not compensate for the loss of energy. An rooted organism capable of any noticeable controlled movement would either loose this capability, for example if the ground supplied enough nutrients, or loose the roots, in case the movement made up the central aspect of the organism's energy acquisition cycle.\n1.2 More Consistent food supply\nThis is in response to some of the other answers submitted, where the tree preys on larger animals.\nPredators that prey on large animals invest a lot of energy in hope of a lot of food (hyenas, wolves, lions), and will spend most of their time conserving energy if there is no food source in sight. Predators that hunt smaller animals (frogs, otters, smaller birds of prey) spend most of their time hunting, since each food ration they acquire will not last as long, but also is not as hard to get.\nSince the anemone tree is most likely stationary, it can't search for food; it has to wait for it. As large animals tend to be rarer, I deem it unlikely that such a tree's prey spectrum would consist of anything larger than insects, rodents, birds, small monkeys and the likes. This brings us to the third point:\n1.3 Higher likelihood of actually catching anything\nAs we've ruled out large (and therefore slow) animals, we have to acknowledge that out prey will be fast, faster than out tree can afford to move.", "445" ], [ "Nature shows us that carnivores don't neccessarily have to be fast; there are a number of flesh-eating plants which rely on stickyness, stunning or sedation of the prey upon first contact to keep it in a place where the plant can easily digest it.\n2 The answer you might like a little better\nSo, as the question explicitly asks for moving branches, we have to incorporate them somehow, despite their high energy consumption and low evolutionary likelihood. What benefits could the anemone tree gain from being able to move its branches, when it is a \"passive predator\"?\n2.1 Fishing\nWhile eerily waving vines might deter prey on land, it can be quite the attraction under water. Imagine a tree literally applying a longlining technique with its vines.\n2.2 Photosynthesis\nThere might be not enough prey around, and in case the anemone tree is an actual plant, it could use it's movement capabilities to gain the most sunlight for photosynthesis, the same way people earlier thought sunflowers would do it.\n2.3 Very slow prey\nIts prey consists solely of slow and/or relatively blind animals like snails, worms, or turtles, so that the tree could graze a larger area for potential food. It's debateable whether a strand of sticky vines could retract with enough force to lift something as large as a turtle. If not, the question arises how the tree could access the food source after killing or immobilizing it with toxins; dragging it into the ground is hardly possible with anything but very soft soil, and would leave visible marks that would warn other prey. Leaving the carcass on the ground would mean leaving it to scavengers, and loosing a big part of its nutrients.\n2.4 Symbiotic host\nIt has a symbiotic relationship with a species that can somehow supply massive amounts of energy for the tree. An example would be ants or bugs decomposing fallen prey. How the tree would benefit from the bugs taking the food is unclear though, as I highly doubt the feasibility of feeding nodules.\n2.5 Free movement\nIts actually not stationary. The anemone tree is by no means a plant and can easily pull its \"roots\" from the ground and move freely. Maybe the environment has a high risk of storms or floods partially, so that there would be a reason for the \"tree\" to lock itself in a stable position.", "445" ], [ "A primarily aquatic creature with four legs can only really be a valid design if it uses those legs to walk, not to swim. Since legs can only get in the way when swimming. So it would need to dwell on the bottom of the sea (and thus be heavier than water). This is actually a useful feature, since having those legs additionally to a tail can give this creature superior manouverability along bottom of the sea as well as the ability to grab prey with these apendages. Being heavy enough to stay on the bottom shouldn't eb a big problem, since there are many aquatic animals that already achieve this.\nI can think of two different evolutionary paths that could lead to this cerature.\nIt evolved from a fishlike creature.\nConsider a predatory fish that lurks the ocean floor, it is imaginable that more developed apendages would grant this fish an advantage. It is afterall easier to accelerate (and slow down) wqhen you can get traction on something more solid than water. From that point on, these apendages could grow stronger and stronger up to the point where they can be used to pin down prey. From then on, claws and \"fingers\" (which were likely already present for increased traction) could develop even further.\nIt's a land dwelling creature that returned to the sea.\nIt's not uncommon for land animals to return to the water. And If this animal were heavy enough, it could conceivably use its legs to walk across the bottom of the ocean rather than develop fins to swim. It could also already have a powerful tail, which easily be adapted to aid it when swimming. For a land dwelling animal to eb heavy enough to never start developing fins, it would likely need to be relatively large (since this would require it to have heavy bones to support itself).", "671" ], [ "I assume that is what you wanted to go for in the first place.\nCan you tell me more about this creature??\nWell, As I said, it hunts at the bottom of the ocean. I would guess it's the apex predator down there and mainly feeds on middle sized fish. Larger predatory fish would likely stay clear of it since an encounter between the two doesn''t really benefit either of them. Creatures like sharks stick to the area closer to the surface and this creature sticks to the floor.\nDepending on which evolutionary path it took, the gills vs. lungs question is obvious. An important thing to keep in mind is that if this creture has lungs, it would need to stay relatively close to the shore or be light enough to swim to the surface, Doing this would likely leave it rather vulnerable since it's not developed for swimming. But since it's still the only creature in the sea with claws, I imagine no one would be overly keen on attacking it.\nWhether this amimal would have a horizontal or vertical or horizontal tail is also an interesting issue. Vertical tails are not extremely compatible with walking movements. But snakes did evolve from creatures with four legs, so it's not erntirely unlikely. Horizontal tails however don't work well with being close to the ground. Keeping this information in mind, I'd expect this animal to have a vertical tail and walk more like a reptile than like a mammal, with legs coming out of its sides, rather than beneath it.\nSince this creature could also move out of the water, it's not unlikely that it would occasionally dare to leave the water. I can't imagine that it would manage more than a short sprint out of the water though, much like crocodiles do.", "671" ], [ "Rather than making herbivores/carnivores for the sake of having herbivores/carnivores, let's consider some reasons why it's not optimal to make all robots autotrophic. I'm making the assumption that your robo-ecosystem primarily thrives on the following direct sources of power: the sun, nuclear energy, chemical fuel, and physical forces (which are indirectly cause by the sun). In most of the aforementioned, your energy producers are not going to be the dexterous sort of robots seen on <PERSON>. It's just not optimal to produce energy in a machine that has to move around all the time. Coral-like tidal power robots may only move every decade or so to follow the long-term oceanic current shifts. Chemical plants need to get very big to approach the Carnot limits on thermodynamic efficiency.", "943" ], [ "In particular, nuclear fusion robots are likely to be more sensitive and bulkier than the rest.\nHowever there are some noteworthy exceptions: If your planet is similar in triboelectric properties to Earth, then static potential differences may regularly build up across large distances separated by insulators. However, since we're \"working on a planet with robotic life\", then maybe its chemistry is tuned for such an existance: snowstorms with snowflaskes made of nylon and silicone may do the trick.\nUnlike bulky producers, predator robots are not constrained by the same efficiency curves, so you can imagine a sort of parasitic symbiosis between the producers and consumers with the ladder tapping into the formers' power supplies, and the former designing defensive and offensive countermeasures, even employing other robots to defend them in exchange for power.\nOf course, this begs the question: why are these robots even trying to eat each other? There must be scarcity of physical resources which are most easily satisfied by preying on other robots. Since we're \"working on a planet with robotic life\", metals may already be abundant, but processors and other high end electronics...? It seems logical that energy producers would want to use their energy to run computations. Therefore, a correlation may be found between power production and consumption.\nFinally, it's worth noting that zoological autotroph/heterotroph, herbivore/carnivore/detritivore, etc. distictions may not be the most appropriate in clasifying your robots. The autotroph/herbivore distinction breaks down when you have mining robots work for a power plant robot.", "445" ], [ "To balance out the long lifespans, you would essentially need your animals to have long hibernation periods. You could build a world where as the animal grows, the need for food decreases or that the need to feed regularly disappears. Now since the environment is already saturated with magic, I expect the animals to absorb some of it. If they absorb enough, the magic can help regenerate dead cells at a much faster rate. If this continues for long enough, perhaps the animal becomes essentially invincible (e.g., the moment a sword piercing this snake is removed, it heals from the wound). For particularly old animals (30,000 years) you could replace their biological need to eat with absorption of magic in the environment.\nAnother thing that you can do is stop the physical growth. In normal world, animals grow up to a certain size till a certain age and stop growing so much once they reach adulthood.", "227" ], [ "It could be the same there. You could remove the reproductive system after a certain age, even replace hearts with pure magical cores.\nThe skill an animal is learning would also probably depend on their upbringing and inherent abilities. For example, a lame lion would learn speed or stealth while a lion who has generally starved throughout childhood would learn to be a better tracker. For smaller animals you could try increasing their size just enough that its natural predators would be afraid of it.\nLastly, you could make the animals less violent than their normal counterparts. They will generally not pick fights with smaller animals if there is no need. I believe an animal smart enough to learn magic will be smart enough to maintain truce with other animals like itself, i.e., with magical abilities because it will simply not take the meaningless risk just for thrill or food, if it doesn't need it. If you do, however want to make your animals violent, I suggest a specific reason. For instance, if animal A defeats animal B in combat and kills it, A will gain the magical abilities originally belonging to B.", "376" ], [ "Designing the most plausible space \"dwelling\" planimals\nI'm a scientist of a colonised alien world in the far far future, on a planet which plant-derived insects and meat trees are keystone species in their biospheres. Let's say, I wanted to genetically engineer these plant-insects, let's call them microdecapedes for now, to survive in space for about 3 hours: how would I go about that?\nTheir biology and evolution\n(pictured above is the species I would like to genetically engineer)\nEvolution\nThese animals originated from seed-baring trees, which originally had muscled seeds which looked much like worms which would move along the ground like a caterpillar. Due to competition, these seeds became exceedingly complex, being able to locate other pseudo-seeds using pheromones. This species however, has lost their plant stage in their life cycle through neotony completely. Leaving us with the cosmopolitan, 10 legged, hermaphrodite plant-insect we see today.\nBiology\nThese creatures rarely exceed 10 centimeters in length, altough they do live in an oxygen rich (25%) world with less gravity (72% that of earth). They lack lungs, and instead breath much like insects on earth, through the spiracles running along the sides of their body which can be closed and opened. They lack eyes, or even a proper brain, so instead rely on pheromones to locate one another.", "671" ], [ "They have light-sensitive skin spots all over their bodies to find suitable locations with which to lay their eggs in. These creatures also lack hearts, and use haemolymph once again, much like insects on earth. Their skin is made out of the same stuff as plants, not utilising chitin. They're frugivorous and eat through their mouths positioned in between the sensory organs near their heads. They're hermaphrodites, having a vagina on their chin and having a penis-like organ on their chests which they mate with. They have a hydroskeleton like spiders used to power their legs. On avarage they range from 4-7 cm in length.\nThe question\nHow would I, a future scientist with incredibly advanced technology, need to engineer microdecapedes so they could survive and perform basic tasks such as move its legs, in the vacuum of space for 3 hours, no matter how different it would be from the original species?", "671" ], [ "How can my dragons use their tongues to control their fire breathing?\nSome background you may or may not skip\nI was daydreaming the other day about how tamed dragons whose magic was somehow harnessed as an energy source by humans could be used as a metaphor for nuclear power in modern societies. While considering this, I surprised myself thinking \"of course they would need to cut the tongue out of tamed dragons so that dragons can't orient their fire anymore\". Don't ask me where I got the notion that dragons need their tongue for that. Still, this got me wondering about what conditions were needed for this thought to be true.\nBackground you should not skip\nIn my world, dragons ...\n* ... fit the stereotypes defined in this somewhat related question\n* ... breathe fire in the way described there except they use magic to conjure the initial flame, inside their mouth.", "160" ], [ "The rest is similar: the liquid fuel is \"sprayed\" from a reservoir towards the flame, ignites and finally breathing is used to expel the burning fuel. It so happens that this is more efficient than using pure magic to conjure a full stream of fire.(1)\n* ... use their tongue to control the direction of the fire they breathe. This constitutes a competitive advantage over their ancestors who had to rotate their heads to do so: (1) the breathing direction can be adjusted to a moving target more rapidly(2) and unpredictably, (2) the head can remain parallel to flight direction for better aerodynamics.\nQuestion\nIf this is possible, what sort of motion / positioning of their tongue could my dragons use to control the direction of their breathing so that the flame is directed? This might be used in combination with other actions that control breathing, much like whistling. All I need is that the tongue be important enough that if the tongue is cut, dragons loose this ability and fall back on the original approach of turning their heads all the way.\nAn ideal positive answer would\n* explain the mechanism,\n* if possible back up its claim with examples in real-world fauna achieving similar purposes,\n* not make use of any more magic.\nAn ideal negative answer would either demonstrate that this is not possible or that a significantly simpler mechanism allows dragons to orient their fire and would lead to the same competitive advantages.\n(1): magic consumes mana, which is hard to store and fluctuating. Fuel is a more secure way of storing energy for dragons.\n(2): please consider that tongue motion of reptiles is faster that that of humans, and snakes can flick their tongue back and forth at around 15 Hz", "160" ], [ "I seriously doubt a realistic answer to this is possible, as we would have to understand what separates the genesis of intelligence from the genesis beneficial behaviours and actual civilisation from \"mere\" intelligence. However, I tried to think up some ideas that might be productive for science fiction.\nFirstly, one way to drive a social structure in the most primitive sense (consider ants or bees) would be diversification within the species - such as exhibited by Queens, workers, drowns. Yet, one might turn this into a hen and egg problem.\nI don't think the restriction to a parasite of any order is crucial, but I will stick with it. Let's say our first order parasites Antrasi are a species of fungus living on the hairy parts of mammalian skin. Especially heads. Our second order parasites Betrisi were originally fairly standard lice-like animals feeding off fungus. Over time they adapted to the specific Antrasi fungus.\nThe problem with Antrasi is, that, after about 6 months, it destroys the skin, so that it kills itself. Luckily, there exist different types of it. If they infect a head in succession, they restore the Ph, so that the skin remains intact and they can keep living. The problem is, that such a transition is unlikely to occur through natural dissemination of Antrasi spores.", "238" ], [ "Here Betrisi come into play.\nThe Betrisi-Scout is a subtype capable of wide range flight. Every 6 months it flies from head to head, seeking sleeping individuals infected with suitable fungi. The worker is in charge of harvesting large quantities of fungi and transportation to the other host head. It also produces suitable chemicals to facilitate quick growth of the newly displaced colonies. Over time Betrisi might evolve complicated behaviours, just like bees or ants. How they might transition from these primitive stages to intelligence, is an insanely difficult question.\nIf one is willing to be even more unrealistic, one might endow Queens with feromones inducing mutual attraction in suitable (super) hosts. That would help bringing them closer together!\nObviously, if one already believes in intelligent parasites, it is trivial to show how all manner of cunning and cooperation (between colonies) would aid them. The trouble is, you asked how they would become intelligent and that is certainly a Noble Prize question. It is not entirely clear to me what qualifies as swarm intelligence but a high degree of communication between colonies is obviously desirable. I want everything to be tightly synchronised. Ideally, I want all human couples determined by this rationale!", "197" ], [ "Could a deep ocean creature use some kind of bacteria in its body as a way to generate oxygen?\nI've been creating a world where most-to-all of its life resides in the deep ocean. For story purposes, I would like said creature to have lungs, but it is not necessary.\nDescription of the Creature in Mind The creature in question is something along the lines of a massive sea serpent. Ideally, it would be able to either surface into an area that has air in it and be able to move on land, through legs or just by slithering along in a similar fashion to a snake. It lives around 2000 meters down, give or take ~500 meters.\nEcosystem of the Planet The planet is a large oceanic planet, which is slightly larger than Earth, and only has some small archipelagos for land. The plants of the planet primarily exist at the surface, as to the much smaller prey animals. small predators eat these smaller prey animals, but most animals who are purely \"prey\" don't exist very far down.", "344" ], [ "Predators prey on smaller predators in a hierarchical type system, with the largest predators also bien the deepest. The creature would be in the mid-size range, but they have the advantage of being omnivores: there are massive underwater caverns that are filled with air. Very large plants, in some ways similar to those on Earth, grow in these caverns, and are adapted to using chemosynthesis to create energy, along with some small to mid size mammals and reptiles. This is really the only sizable prey besides smaller oceanic predators down this low, so the creature profits greatly from this resource. Due to much larger predators from below, they are forced to move around, and as these caverns, while common, are not common enough to allow for consistent breathing. These creatures do have large enough lungs to get to the surface, but this is impractical for them, as it would include long diving and surfacing sessions that may make to creature more vulnerable to predators.\nBy my understanding, there are many types of bacteria that could create oxygen as a waste resource, not through photosynthesis, but by some form of chemosynthesis, but I'm not certain. It is possible for a reasonably large creature (whale sized or larger) be able to host some form of bacteria in its body in a symbiotic relationship as a way of generating the oxygen that it needs to live? I'm presuming that the bacteria simply consumes some of the food that the creature eats, and then the oxygen created is somehow sent to the lungs.\nIf there are any other ideas as to how a creature of this size could get air, besides gills, as they collapse in while in regular air conditions, they would be helpful.", "344" ] ]

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[ [ "Indefinitely.\nIt is possible to create new animals by cloning. This technology has never been developed in humans because of severe ethical issues, but faced with extinction, it'd likely be up and running within a decade. The core principles are all understood.\nHowever, this assumes the mechanism of infertility allows implantation of embryos. Even if not it is possible humanised animals could be used for incubation.\nTo address some objections raised in the comments:\nCloning technology is imperfect: this is certainly true, however it is already the case that cloning is commercially viable. There is a biotechnology company in China that is producing 500 cloned pigs a year, while the cloning process itself involves a high degree of technical sophistication, none of the steps are prohibatively expensive or difficult in themselves. Faced with global infertility, vast sums of money will be made available for research, and enormous pressure placed on elected officials to remove legislative barriers. Under these circumstances we should expect viable cloning techniques to become routinely available in the developed world within a decade, probably faster. Cloning should be inherently about as expensive as IVF but with the extraordinary levels of demand we should expect economies of scale to drop prices fast.", "335" ], [ "I would expect reproductive cloning to be available at around $1000 dollars pretty soon. Too expensive to be routinely available in the developing world, but no problem for developed countries with universal healthcare.\nCloning suffers from the same problems as IVF: IVF is only performed on clients who have exhibited problems conceiving the old fashioned way and are typically older. Accordingly success rates are far lower than we should expect from people who do not have these problems and thus success rates should be closer to the far higher rates observed with egg donation.\nTelomere shortening: while this was a concern, it turns out not to be a problem. Even if it was a problem, it should be possible to develop a solution by temporary activation of the telomarases that naturally restore telomeres during normal reproduction.\nAccumulation of mutations: cloning will inevitably accumulate mutations. This could be mitigated by long term storage of DNA from the original source but even this would be imperfect since the DNA is likely to slowly degrade even under ideal storage conditions. However, the accumulation of mutations is unlikely to render the process non-viable for a great many generations (plants and animals that self are known to survive for 100s of generations without apparent loss of viability, although cloning methods may induce higher mutation rates so an exact comparison is not possible), and there are a range of existing techniques that could developed to repair (e.g. CRISPR) or screen embyros (e.g. shotgun sequencing) and prevent transmission of harmful mutations. Moreover, in the hundreds of years available to humanity, the development of in vitro techniques to restore crossing-over and mixture of genes as per natural sexual reproduction seems much more likely than not.", "1008" ], [ "If we assume all of these things could be practically done at least at some point in the future, here are the problems I see with the suggestions, and why they might not work (others may spot additional ones).\n1 Translocation of a sabotaging 'agent' via the conjugation apparatus.\nThis basically already exists, look up the various secretion systems of bacteria. In particular, the Type 6 Secretion System does exactly this (though with a somewhat limited target range).\nThe first paragraph on wiki summarises:\nThe type VI secretion system (T6SS) is molecular machine used by a wide range of Gram-negative bacterial species to transport proteins from the interior (cytoplasm or cytosol) of a bacterial cell across the cellular envelope into an adjacent target cell.\nThe reason this wouldn't work is that bacteria have already evolved to deal with such mechanisms, and one we engineer is unlikely to fare much differently.\nYou can take it from me (as my PhD concerns exactly this!) that changing what the secretion systems translocate, while possible, is very difficult.\n2 Phony conjugation\nAntibiotics tend to be small molecules. They bind and dock with enzymes or substrates in order to inhibit some kind of activity typically, e.g. cell wall synthesis in the case of Beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin. I'm not sure how you imagine it would \"tear a hole in the bacterium\" really?\nRelated to the T6SS, are R-type Pyocins, which are co-opted bacteriophages that sort of do this. It requires no conjugation, and the currently proposed mechanism is that they either deliver a payload of toxins or molecules in to the cell by puncturing the exterior, or they simple create a pore in the membrane causing cellular depolarisation and death. As with phage and antibiotics however, these mechanisms can have resistance evolved against them.\nAs an additional point, unless you could somehow guarantee that the conjugations were sabotaged or ineffectual in some way, promoting conjugation artificially is almost certainly going to aid the spread of resistance and virulence determinants, actually worsening the situation.\n3 A suicide plasmid\nIt is not trivial to 'confer significant advantages' on a cell.", "225" ], [ "Most plasmids are maintained by amelorating a significant disadvantage that is often supplied artificially, e.g. auxotrophy or antibiotic selection. Given the 'choice' bacteria tend to kick out the plasmids unless they simply cannot afford to live without it. Maintaining the replicon is an expensive process in terms of cellular metabolism and resource utilisation.\n'In the wild' the weaponised plasmid would likely not persist long enough to be translocated in to any target of interest in a significant enough proportion to have a real effect. The key is that and of these ideas mentioned cannot simply kill a single target cell, as they will not have an appreciable effect on the population. The bacteria will recombine or straight up remove the plasmid if it's in any way deleterious or even neutral to them, until they've 'corrected' the problem.\nAddiction modules and toxin-antitoxin systems are common to see in natural plasmids, as with the other ideas mentioned. Bacteria can recombine out the 'poison' though, and eventually over time lose the plasmids. If the toxin is encoded on the chromosome, it's a little more robust.\n4 Bad plasmids\nSee addiction modules and toxin-antitoxin systems above.\nI'm afraid in general I think you're underestimating evolution!", "667" ], [ "There is absolutely no problem for the society to survive in your scenario. Killing half of plants and animals will barely be noticed. We kill more than that all the time. Most species will recover within a generation or two. It may take a while for long living species like Oaktree or Blue Whale, but that's not a serious concern.\nAs for human, yes, there will be no problem either. Relatively speaking. According to different estimates, between 20 and 80% of jobs are unnecessary anyway. Many companies will struggle in the new situation and may collapse when their services are no longer a priority (e.g. producer of reality TV?), but their more productive employees will find jobs in essential businesses.\nFewer people means lower demand for services as well. Population has doubled in last 50 years. As you may imagine there was a society 50 years ago.", "998" ], [ "As in the other answer, we had large scale depopulating events before. It's not unheard of for a country to lose 20% population in a war, even in recent times, for example Poland in World war 2. They not only lost a fifth of their population, including most of the educated elites, but were also physically devastated by war. Warsaw was nearly obliterated with around 90% of buildings destroyed. After the war they were trapped behind the iron curtain and cut off from international trade or cultural exchange and yet managed to survive as civilized societies and rebuild from ruins. In your scenario most of infrastructure is intact, at least initially, so your society can absorb much higher loses.\nThe sudden drop will be drastic but will not destroy our civilization. The old, inefficient power plants will just be closed as the demand for electricity halves. The good nuclear plants that lose half of their staff will halve the holidays for the survivors for few years and recruit some staff from closed plants and recent graduates to fill the gaps. At the moment half of STEM graduates work in unrelated jobs. Instead of joining investment banks they will get productive and fulfilling jobs in their field. No problem at all.\nTL,DR Apart from initial panic, there won't be a long term danger to the society if half of the population disappear. On the contrary, if you're one of the survivors and don't die in some riots in the immediate result of the event you may even be better off than before.", "998" ], [ "Starting with your last question: The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) defines genetic modification as \"heritable improvements [...] by genetic engineering or other more traditional methods\". The EU defines GMOs as \"an organism, in which the genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally\" using DNA altering techniques.\nThese are rather legal than biological definitions. For example, the EU Court of Justice has recently ruled that organisms produced by mutagenesis are technically GMOs but do not fall under the GMO legislation.\nSo, let's look into how seedless fruits are produced:\nThis can be achieved by making a plant, that is able to grow fruits but fail to produce functional seeds due to unsuccessful meiosis. This is done for bananas and water melons by crossing a diploid with a tetraploid plant, which produces a triploid plant where chromosome pairing during meiosis is unlikely (more on this in the wiki article). For oranges this is done by growing genetic clones together. Since they cannot self-fertilize (and identical clones cannot fertilize each other), they don't develop seeds but still grow fruits.\nThese techniques don't require any genetic modification by targeted manipulation of the DNA. Crossing two plants with different characteristics is also done in conventional breeding, which is also not classified as GM.", "667" ], [ "However, it would be possible to genetically alter plants to block seed production and produce seedless GMOs. It would probably be a legal dispute whether this change is \"heritable\" when there are no seeds, so classification might depend on country policies.\nThe problem with seedless fruits is that you need seeds in order to grow new plants. To produce new seedless water melons you always have to cross the parents again. Plants that are able to reproduce vegetatively (parts of the plant can grow new plants), can be propagated by replanting branches. For plants, where this doesn't work very well, grafting is a solution to improve the process (a well growing plant is used as a root). Vegetative propagation in any case produces genetic clones, as you have pointed out correctly. The propagation method is independent of the technique that first produced the seedless plant and does not decide the GMO or non-GMO classification.", "667" ], [ "In order to have a realistic organism capable of creating halfbreeds, all species involved must have a VERY close common ancestor.\nAs an example, consider real dogs. A Chihuahua and a Great Dane are incapable of directly breeding without artificial insemination due to geometric isolation. If there were no other breeds of dogs between them to bridge the gap, they would be considered different species. However, both of these dogs could breed with some third dog of medium size.\nAssuming you are looking at a science fiction setting, this probably means that all your alien species are human derivatives. This can occur if inter stellar travel is slow/rare, which would cause distant colonies to act as isolated populations. There are two ways that these isolated groups could have diverged.\nThey could simply have evolved differences over a very long time. This would probably work best over a period of ten thousand to a hundred thousand years. That is probably long enough to create significant phenotypic differences without necessarily developing any insurmountable genetic incompatibilities.", "1008" ], [ "To keep the populations separate long enough, you would probably need for the secret of spacetravel to have become lost for some reason. As an additional advantage, it is far enough back that it would not have interfered with recorded history. Moreover, you could jump directly from modern humanity to your desired tech level by finding the ruins of an advanced ancient civilization someplace on earth.\nThe other option is that the difference has arisen due to self applied genetic engineering. This cuts down the required isolation period to a few hundred years for the first few generations at each colony to have died off. Isolation on a timescale like this can be simply explained with a slow interstellar drive. If you want a much quicker drive for your plot, that can have been a far more recent invention. The other advantage of this is that your species can be FAR more anatomically different without the differences being insurmountable to genetic engineering.\nIf you are operating in a fantasy setting, things become easier. You can set up all of your races as sharing human genetics. Racial differences can be explained in this setup as being caused by heritable enchantments.", "1008" ], [ "Note: I did not look at your link before posting this answer. The triple helix system looks quite complicated and somewhat unlikely to involve naturally from simple chemicals.\nConsider the ABC sex determination system for diploid individuals, where A, B and C are chromosomes with a distinct form that can pair up. Each of A, B and C contains a distinctive gene that encodes for a protein necessary for viability, two of which combine to determine the sexual characteristics. Two of the same are too much, the resulting individual is not viable and culled in an embryonic stage. This naturally leads to the forms AB, AC and BC as only existing forms.\nNow suppose that the chromosomes also encodes other proteins that, apart from the sexual characteristics, also have a great impact on the morphology of the creatures.", "29" ], [ "For instance, chromosome A holds genes that induce a (far) greater size and territorial protection, while form B induces more muscles and form C promotes intelligence. This leads to:\n* AB: big, strong and dumb and quite territorial\n* AC: big, weak, smart and quite territorial\n* BC: small, strong, smart and not territorial at all\nIndividuals produce gametes of either kind without differentiation among the gametes of either chromosome type (A, B or C) or source of the individual (AB, AC or BC) and further suppose the actual reproduction is performed by pooling a bunch of gametes in an aquatic environment with sufficient nutrition, like terrestrial fish. The following options present themselves:\n* asexual reproduction, just the gametes of a single individual. 50% chance of producing what is essentially a clone\n* bisexual reproduction, the gametes of two individuals of same sex or different sex. Again 50% chance of producing offspring, half of which are essentially clones\n* trisexual reproduction, the gametes of three individuals, two out of three individuals of the same sex again gives a 50% chance of producing offspring with less likelihood of clones, three individuals of different sex gives a 66% percent chance of producing offspring with less likelihood of clones.\nAs the latter option, three different sexed individuals pooling their gametes produces more offspring with a balanced mix of sexes this is the favored option, especially if the chances of survival of an embryo or larva are quite slim, but approximately equal for all three sexes, again not unlike terrestrial fish.", "1008" ], [ "Decrease the amount of light arriving but increase greenhouse gases\nEarth would be about 30°C colder if it was at its blackbody temperature, i.e. received the same amount of light but didn't have a greenhouse effect. The core idea here is to decrease the amount of light arriving while increasing the amount of greenhouse gases to maintain your planet's temperature.\nOne option is to be like Venus and have double digit percentages of CO2 instead of a few hundred parts per million.\nThere are also several relatively non toxic greenhouse gases that are hugely more potent than CO2: methane (23x more potent), CFCs (1000x more potent) and SF6 (A whoppimg 20000 - 50000x!)(1).\nIf methane or CFCs or SF6 are present in significant (not enormous) quantities, you could increase the temperature of Earth hugely.\nNow, the amount of heat absorbed/emitted by a planet is proportional to temperature to the 4th power; if you can increase the greenhouse effect by 40 degrees, then you could have the amount of sunlight reduce by 50% and still have the same temperature; increase it 60 degrees and you can have it reduce by 65%. 100 degrees allows 85%.\nSee e.g.", "184" ], [ "https://www.astro.indiana.edu/ala/PlanetTemp/index.html or other planet temperature calculators out there; this forum doubtless knows many.\nMaybe mankind could deliberately set off a methane clathrate gun or produce ludicrous amounts of SF6 to compensate for some event that knocked the planet further away from the sun. <PERSON>'s orbit change suggestion would work nicely.\n(1) SF6 is incredibly inert chemically but is very heavy so it builds up in the lungs of animals if present in any significant quantity, eventually choking them. Your fauna would need some way to expel it from their lungs, maybe l by totally displacing all the gas in their lungs when they breathe out, or by means of an enzyme that binds to it and transports it to the digestive tract. I assume CFCs would have the same problem. Methane won't; it's light.\nEdit: I'm guessing that seasons and maybe polar-equator temperature differences get minimised by doing this.", "591" ], [ "The first manned spacecraft that humans launched was Vostok 1 in 1961, which orbited the earth for 108 minutes (roughly two hours). Using this as the baseline of a 'spaceship', a human could likely have survived in space as early as the 4th century BC.\nAir\nA person inhales and exhales roughly 15 cubic feet of air per hour. To survive two hours, a person would need 30 cubic feet of air. With a typical adult male human body occupying a volume of ~3 cubic feet, a sphere of four foot diameter would easily hold a person and enough air to survive two hours in space.\nDiving bells were used as early as the 4th century BC, which means that technology of the time could produce a shell that was air tight.\nSince the spacecraft wouldn't need to resist the water pressure a diving bell would need to resist, it's possible that some type of airtight(ish) bladder / balloon could be large enough to hold both a person and two hours of air at a much earlier time.\nEven if the bell / bladder wasn't completely airtight, coating the bell / bladder with pitch would have provided enough of a seal to prevent too much air loss.\nAfter two hours CO2 buildup in a craft of this volume would start to pose a danger, but the occupant could certainly survive such a flight. An arbitrarily larger bell / bladder could extend the time of this flight almost indefinitely.\nHeat\nSince vacuum is an excellent insulator, an additional heat source wouldn't be necessary.", "947" ], [ "Furs or other heavy clothing would be sufficient to keep the occupant of the craft warm.\nAs the craft becomes larger and the outside surface area increases, the body heat of the occupant could not extend the flight indefinitely. Without an additional heat source, the body heat of the occupant could not extend the flight indefinitely.\nStill, with careful heat management, good insulation, and perhaps preheated objects to supplement the occupant's body heat, the occupant could perhaps survive a full day before the craft radiated too much heat and the occupant froze to death.\nRadiation\nWho cares? Worrying about an increased risk of cancer in old age is a thoroughly modern concept.\nReentry\nThis is a tough one with traditional power sources, but we don't have the same limitation here. A limitless power source would allow the craft to re-enter the atmosphere at an arbitrary speed, so re-entry heating issues don't need to be considered.\nAdditionally, if care were used the heat problem above could be mitigated (using atmospheric friction to warm the craft) making the volume of the craft (and air contained within) the primary limiting factor of flight time.\nOther needs\nFor a two hour round trip, a person would be able to survive with nothing more than air and warmth. Additional comforts like light, food / water, or hygiene would be secondary and could be addressed in one way or another. The occupant wouldn't have to be happy or comfortable, but people can survive a significant amount of discomfort.\nOther thoughts\nThis certainly wouldn't be the safest or most comfortable way to travel into space, but historically the value of life hasn't been particularly high. An ancient general / civilization would probably think little of sending dozens or hundreds of men to their deaths in a such a manner, and in all likelihood many would survive their trips into space.\nTime to and from orbit might be a concern as well, as such craft wouldn't be able to travel at high rates of speed in the lower atmosphere, but it probably wouldn't change this considerably.\nThe actual mechanics of this craft would, of course, be dictated by the nature of the magical propulsion system.", "947" ] ]

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[ [ "Oak Leaf Barrette From Scrap Leather and Copper Wire\nIntroduction: Oak Leaf Barrette From Scrap Leather and Copper Wire\nI have a big box of leather scrap. There are always loads of odds and ends from various projects.\nI'm going to use a scrap of leather left over from my Alien Hand Vanity Tray.\nI'm also going to use a length of copper wire that is left from an overly ambitious attempt at making DIY Easy Wire Pendants - I should have started with the easiest one!\nThis instructable is to make an oak leaf hair barrette which could also be used as a shawl pin.\nStep 1: What You Will Need\nThis is my big box of leather scrap. There are always loads of odds and ends from various projects.\nThe piece of leather I'm going to use is an offcut from my Alien Hand Leather Coin / Vanity Tray\nSupplies:\nLeather Scrap (13cm x 6.5cm)\nCopper Wire Scrap - about 22cm long\nSaddle Tan leather dye (Fiebings)\nSaddle Tan Antique Gel (Eco-Flo)\nCopper Leather paint (Angelus)\nLeather Edge Finish\nAcrylic Leather Finish (Resolene)\nTools:\nLeather Scissors\nClicker Knife\nSwivel Knife\nLeather Bevel tool and Backgrounder tools\nLeather Edge Slicker\nFine Paint Brush\nRound nose pliers\nNylon jaw pliers\nHole Punch\nHammer and Mini Anvil\nStep 2: Make a Pattern\nLet's start by making an oak leaf pattern.\nSketch out an oak leaf shape making it about 12cm long. Add the vein detail.\nStep 3: Transfer Pattern to Leather and Cut Out\nLay your pattern onto the piece of scrap leather to decide how it fits best.\nTurn your pattern over and trace onto the back of the leather, then cut out using a combination of scissors and clicker knife.\nStep 4: Carve Veins\nWet the top surface of the leather with water.", "421" ], [ "Wait a couple of minutes for it to soak in.\nPlace your pattern over the wet leather and trace the veins using a stylus.\nCarve the veins using a swivel knife.\nStep 5: Bevel Along the Veins\nUsing a patterned beveller stamp tool work along the edges of the veins so they stand out.\nStep 6: Add Background\nUsing small and large background stamp tools add some background texture.\nStep 7: Mould to Shape\nWet he leather leaf completely, then shape over a rounded surface (I'm using a yoghurt pot)\nForm the edges of the leaf up so it has a slightly curled look.\nLeave to dry.\nStep 8: Dye the Leather\nOnce the leather is dry it can be dyed.\nI'm using a Saddle Tan oil dye.\nMake sure you protect your work area with a piece of old cardboard.\nApply the dye using a wool dauber or lint free cloth. Apply in a circular motion and do the front, back and sides.\nLeave to dry.\nStep 9: Apply Antique Gel\nUsing a soft cloth apply antique gel. Remove any excess with a paper towel.\nThe antique gel goes into the tooled crevices and gives your leather leaf a genuine look.\nLeave to dry.\nStep 10: Apply Edge Finish\nApply edge finish to the leather edges. Use a wooden slicker tool to slick and give the edges a polished looking finish.\nStep 11: Paint the Leaf Veins\nPaint the leaf veins with copper paint using a fine brush.\nOptionally take a blob and paint and water it down 4 to 1 and then use the watery paint as a wash for the rest of the leaf.\nLeave to dry.\nStep 12: Apply Acrylic Finish\nGet a little acrylic finish (Resolene) in a container and water down 50/50.\nApply to the back and front of the leather leaf.\nLeave to dry.\nStep 13: Punch Holes\nUsing a hole punch, punch two holes for the copper hair stick.\nStep 14: Form the Barrette Pin\nTake your copper wire and form a loop at the end using round nose pliers.\nGrip the loop with your nylon jawed pliers and coil the wire until you have a spiral.\nBend into a crook.\nFlatten the spiral slightly using a hammer and anvil. Also flatten slightly along the length and particularly at the end.\nFile the end into a rounded point.\nStep 15: Ready to Go\nThread the copper stick through the holes in your leather oak leaf, and you are all ready to go.\nUse in your hair or as a shawl pin.", "421" ], [ "Leather Ivy Leaf Coin / Jewellery Tray\nIntroduction: Leather Ivy Leaf Coin / Jewellery Tray\nThis big leather coin / jewellery tray is a stylish way to keep your rings safe on your dressing table, or a great place on your hall table to dump your coins or keys. This design is a super-sized ivy leaf. Use a bit of artistic licence when dyeing and painting it.\nSupplies\nPiece of 3mm thick leather - approx 22cm square\nLeather dye (Fiebings Pro)\nLeather paints (Angelus, <PERSON>)\nLeather Finish (Resolene)\nSwivel knife\nBevelling tool\nBackground tool\nScissors\nCraft knife / clickers knife\nDomed ball or bowl\nStep 1: Pick Some Ivy Leaves\nTo make sure I got the right shape for my leaf, I went out into the garden and picked some ivy leaves to see the different shapes and colours.\nStep 2: Choose a Leaf, Scan and Super Size\nHaving chosen one of the variegated leaves, I scanned it using my computer scanner and super-sized it ready for printing. I sized it up from its natural 7cm across to approximately 21cm across. You can do the same or use the resulting scan (as pdf) attached.\nStep 3: Print Your Big Ivy Leaf Image and Cut Out\nNow print your big ivy leaf image and cut out. This is your template ready for transferring to leather.\nStep 4: Trace Your Pattern Onto the Leather\nTurn your template over (face down) and trace round it onto the back of the leather.\nStep 5: Cut Out the Leather\nUsing a combination of leather scissors, craft knife or clickers knife, cut out the pattern from the leather.\nStep 6: Wet the Leather\nGet some water in a pot and wet the top surface of the leather using a sponge. Allow the water to soak in for a minute or two.\nStep 7: Trace the Veins\nPlace your paper pattern on top of the damp leather. Using a stylus trace the veins. You will find once you remove the paper pattern you can see the marks on the leather.\nStep 8: Carve the Veins Into the Leather\nUsing a swivel knife carve the veins into the leather.", "421" ], [ "You could do this with a craft knife, but be careful that you only score the leather and don't cut all the way through.\nStep 9: Bevel the Veins\nUsing a bevelling tool, bevel the veins.\nPut the edge of the tool along the cut line and tap gently while moving the beveller along the line.\nThis will make the veins pop out.\nStep 10: Add Texture With a Background Tool\nNow using a background tool add some texture to your leaf.\nStep 11: Shape the Leather\nWet the leather leaf thoroughly - I run it under the tap for a minute.\nUsing a domed item (I have a glass ball - but a domed bowl or plastic ball will work ) press your leather leaf face down onto the ball. Keep running your hands over the leather for a minute or two until it takes shape. Pull the leaf edges up a bit to make a nice shape.\nLeave for an hour, then take off the ball - check you are happy with the curves and leave to dry completely.\nStep 12: Dye the Leather Ivy Leaf\nDye your leather ivy leaf front and back. I'm using Fiebings Pro leather dye. They do sell a green colour, but I only had yellow and blue, so I mixed them to get green.\nLeave to dry.\nStep 13: Add Pearlescent Colour (Optional)\nNow it's up to you to determine how you want to finish your ivy leaf tray. Leave it plain or jazz it up a bit with some pearlescent colour.\nI've added a pearlescent emerald colour (Jaquard Lumiere leather paint - emerald green). This has been diluted down and applied as a wash over the leaf.\nThis is optional, if you want a plainer more realistic leaf, you can jump straight onto the Painting the Veins step\nAllow to dry.\nStep 14: Paint in the Veins\nNow for painting the leaf veins. I've chosenan Angelus leather paint in Pewter. Use a fine brush and just paint the raised veins.\nAllow to dry.\nStep 15: Apply Resolene Leather Finish\nDilute a small amount of Resolene Acrylic Leather finish 50% with water.\nApply front and back to give a water resistant finish.\nAllow to dry.\nStep 16: Enjoy Your Finished Tray\nNow your ivy leaf leather tray is finished. Place it on your table and use for coins, jewellery or other bits and pieces.", "421" ], [ "Laced Leather Belt Bag\nIntroduction: Laced Leather Belt Bag\nThis laced leather belt bag is the perfect accessory for any costume.\nUse it for LARP or COSPLAY.\nDepending on the fastenings you use - it can look medieval or contemporary.\nIf you use pre-dyed leather it is very easy to make.\nStep 1: Gather Your Supplies\nFirstly print the pattern I have attached on A4 paper. Make sure it prints at full size and doesn't scale.\nFor 2 of the pages the pattern goes right to the top of the paper, so if your printer didn't print all the way to the top - just continue the lines to the top of the paper.\nFor this project you will need:\n2.5 to 3mm thick leather 35cmx30cm (I'm using pre-dyed leather in dark brown)\n1.5 to 2mm leather 45cm x 8cm (I'm using pre-dyed leather in light brown)\n2.5m of 3mm waxed cotton cord\n3mm fid\nWax finish for the leather (I suggest Carnauba cream or Snow Proof)\nLeather scissors\nCraft knife\nCutting mat\nRuler\nPencil and Pen\nFastening - Use a Wood / Horn or imitation horn toggle, or for a more modern feel go for a Swing Lock. If using a swing lock you will need more rivets.\nFor a swing lock - attach the bottom part to the front of the piece BEFORE lacing.\n6 rivets for belt loops, setting tool and hammer\nSellotape\nHole punch 1/8\" (3mm) , hammer and board for hammering on or hand punch.\nOptional - you will get better results if you have these:\nLeather edge beveller\nLeather skiving tool\nBeeswax block and wooden edge slicker\nStep 2: Cut Out Your Paper Pattern and Join the Pieces\nCut out the paper pattern pieces.\nThere are two pattern pieces that need to be joined.\nThe two side pieces need to be joined to make one long piece 44cm long.\nJoin with sellotape.\nThe other piece that needs to be joined is the back and the curved flap. Cut them out and sellotape together.\nStep 3: Transfer the Pattern to the Leather and Cut Out\nPlace your pattern pieces on the wrong side of the leather and draw round them with a pencil to mark out the pattern.\nRemember that the long side piece gets cut out of the thinner leather, the rest get cut out of the thick leather.\nI'm using a dark brown leather for the thick and a lighter brown for the thin.\nNow carefully cut out the pieces.\nThe straight edges are easier if you use a craft knife and ruler, the curved parts are easier with a pair of leather scissors.\nOPTIONAL: If you have an edge beveller, then bevel round the thick pieces front and back.", "421" ], [ "This just gives a more rounded profile for the edges.\nStep 4: Skive Ends of Hanging Straps (optional)\nIf you have a skiving tool - skive both ends of the hanging straps. Skive from the wrong side of the leather about 2cm on each end.\nThis shapes the ends of the straps so that they will sit flush at the back of your belt bag.\nStep 5: Mark Your Holes\nNow you will need to mark all the positions for holes.\nThese are the dots on the pattern.\nYou probably will need to adjust the positions for your fastener depending on what kind and what size you are using. The holes for the fastener are those on the flap on the Back piece and those in the middle of the Front piece.\nI mark where the holes are to go by lining up the paper pattern over the back of the leather and pressing through with a pen or pencil so that it makes an indent. You should be able to see the indents and you can go over these again with your pen or pencil.\nStep 6: Punch Your Holes\nNow punch all your holes using an 1/8\" (3mm punch)\nI use an old kitchen chopping board to hammer onto.\nStep 7: Wax Edges and Slick (optional)\nIf you have beeswax and a wooden slicking tool, was along the edges of the thick leather with your wax block, then slick using the wooden tool.\nThis gives your edges a smooth polished look.\nStep 8: Apply Wax Finish to Your Leather Pieces\nUsing a cotton rag, apply some leather finish to the top sides of your leather pieces. I'm using Snow Proof as I want t weather resistant finish, but Carnauba Cream also gives a good finish.\nLeave for an hour or so to let the leather absorb the wax.", "421" ], [ "Leather Vanity / Coin Tray - Mondrian Style\nIntroduction: Leather Vanity / Coin Tray - Mondrian Style\nThis is a useful square leather tray that can be used for coins or jewellery.\nYou can decorate it any way you like but I chose to go with a style similar to the painter <PERSON>. This uses rectangular blocks of colour to make a bright cheerful piece.\nLike many leatherwork projects - the make time is in the order of a couple of hours, but elapsed time is about a day as you need to allow drying time, for the paint and the finish.\nStep 1: Gather Your Supplies\nFor this project you will need:\n1 printed pattern\nPencil\n20cm x20cm piece of veg tanned leather approx 2mm thick\nScissors - good ones that will cut leather\nLeather paints (Angelus / Lumiere or equivalent)\nPot for your water and diluted Resolene finish (Yoghurt pot or similar)\nPiece of cardboard to protect your table while painting and coating with finish.\nPermanent marker pen (Black)\nPaint brushes\n4 rivets (6mm), setting tool and hammer (or hand held riveting tool)\nChopping board or similar as a base for when you are setting your rivets if using a hammer.\nHole punch (2.5 / 3mm) - hand held or metal punch and hammer\nProtective leather finish (Resolene acrylic or similar)\nBeeswax\nWooden burnishing tool\nStep 2: Print the Paper Pattern\nPrint out the paper pattern and cut it out. When printed on A4 paper the pattern piece should be 18cm x18cm.\nStep 3: Transfer the Pattern to the Leather\nPlace the cut out pattern on the wrong side of the leather and draw round it using a pencil. Using a ruler will help keep those lines straight.\nStep 4: Cut Out the Leather\nCarefully cut out the pattern from the leather using good scissors.", "421" ], [ "Alternatively the straight edges can be cut on a cutting board using a ruler and sharp blade.\nStep 5: Mark Out Your Mondrian Style Boxes\nUsing a ruler and the thick permanent marker pen mark out a random set of boxes similar to a Mondrian painting, Just make a random set of boxes - copy my layout or design your own.\nStep 6: Paint Your Design\nProtect your work surface with a piece of cardboard before starting to paint.\nUsing leather paints - paint the \"Mondrian\" rectangles in a random selection of colours.\nColours I used are:\nAngelus - Chilli Red, Flat White, Dark blue, Pacific Blue\nLumiere - Sunset Gold\nTIP 1: Dilute the leather paint with a little water - it goes on more evenly. You may need more than one coat but the effect is better.\nTIP 2: Rinse your brushes and change your water after each colour.\nLeave the paint to dry - preferably overnight.\nStep 7: Colour Your Edges\nUsing your black marker pen colour the edges of the leather black\nStep 8: Add Protective Coating\nMix a small amount of Resolene acylic finish with water (half and half) in a pot.\nMake sure your work surface is protected with a piece of cardboard and using a broad brush paint the Resolene on the back of the tray first. This sticks down any suede bits on the back.\nNow turn over and paint the front of the tray with a very thin coat of Resolene.\nLeave to dry for at least an hour.\nThe Resolene acrylic finish provides a water resistant coating.\nTIP: Wash your brush and pot thoroughly immediately after using.\nStep 9: Wax Edges\nWax the edges of the leather using a block of beeswax then rub the edges using a wooden burnishing tool until the edges look shiny and feel smooth.\nStep 10: Bend Up Edges\nLay a ruler across the tray from notch to notch.\nCarefully bend up the edge along the ruler.\nRun your finger or the wooden burnishing tool along the back of the edge to get a nice crease.\nDo this for all 4 edges.\nStep 11: Punch First Holes for Rivets\nTest your holepunch on a scrap piece of leather to find which hole is the right size for your rivets. This will probably be 2.5mm or 3mm\nPunch a hole in each corner tab of your tray\nStep 12: Punch Matching Holes in Your Tray\nFold each corner tab round so that the top edges are parallel.\nMark with a pencil through the existing hole for where the matching hole needs to be.\nRepeat for all 4 corners.\nNow punch the matching holes using your hole punch\nStep 13: Set the Rivets\nUse a chopping board to protect your surface when setting your rivets.", "421" ], [ "Easy to Make Dragonfly Pendant\nIntroduction: Easy to Make Dragonfly Pendant\nThis is a dragonfly pendant made from scrap pieces of paracord and a small piece of scrap suede or leather. It's easy and fun to make and looks good too.\nI don't like waste so I save tail ends of paracord and offcuts of leather and suede from other projects. This is a great way to use some of those up.\nStep 1: What You Will Need\nSome scrap ends of paracord - ranging in size from 6cm to about 12cm\n2 small pieces of suede 2cm x 8cm\n15cm piece of bendable wire\n70cm length of rattail satin / suede / cord or whatever you want for going round your neck.\nScissors\nPliers\nSmall hole punch or something that will make a hole through the suede\nSuperglue\nStep 2: Make a Paracord \"bead\"\nTake a length of paracord, cut the ends off and pull the core out of the middle.\nUsing a lighter gently heat the paracord ends and squash flat.\nNow roll up the paracord into a \"snail\" and using superglue stick the end down.\nStep 3: Make More Paracord \"beads\"\nMake more paracord roll-up \"beads\".", "177" ], [ "I've varied the length of the paracord from 6cm for the smallest to 12cm for the largest.\nIt's up to you what colours you use and may depend on what colours you have.\nI've chosen shades of blue and turquoise, but the choice is yours.\nStep 4: Make Dragonfly Wings\nUsing a piece of suede, cut out 2 pieces 2cm wide by 8cm long.\nShape the ends of the wings.\nGlue the wings in the middle with a spot of glue.\nPunch a small hole through the wings so they can be threaded.\nStep 5: Prepare the Wire\nTake a piece of bendable wire about 15cm long.\nUsing pliers make a circular loop at one end.\nStep 6: Thread the \"beads\" and Wings\nDecide on the order of your paracord beads. I've laid it out on my board to decide what looks best.\nAs you will see I have several left over \"beads\" for another time.\nNow thread the beads and wings onto your wire.\nStep 7: Finishing Off the Wire.\nPull the beads tight on the wire then using the pliers form a loop on the top of the top bead.\nThis will stop the beads separating.\nNow form a double loop of wire so the pendant can be hung.\nStep 8: Hang Your Dragonfly Pendant\nCut a length of rattail satin or whatever you are using for your necklace. I've used about 70cm, so it will go over my head. Heat the ends of the satin to stop fraying.\nLoop the satin through the pendant wire and knot the satin ends.\nYour dragonfly pendant is now ready to fly.\nStep 9: Wear Your Creation\nNow your dragonfly pendant is ready - put it on and take it for a fly.", "177" ], [ "\"Hugs and Kisses\" Rattail Satin Elasticated Cat / Kitten Collar\nIntroduction: \"Hugs and Kisses\" Rattail Satin Elasticated Cat / Kitten Collar\nCat collars need to be elasticated so that they can't get trapped by their collar. This is an easy to make collar from elastic and rattail satin with a hugs and kisses (XOXO) motif. Choose your own colours to go with your cat.\nSupplies\nSmall side release buckle\n2 colours of 2mm rattail satin - lengths required depend on the size of your cats neck. Allow 1 foot (30cm) per inch (2.5cm) of the main colour (bronze), and half of that length for the secondary colour (green).\nScissors\nFid\n2mm round elastic - length twice the circumference of your cats neck\nSuperglue\nOptional bracelet jig, pet tag, small split ring\nStep 1: Measure the Cat, Cut and Glue the Elastic\nUsing a piece of string (or the elastic you are going to use - measure round the cats neck. Don't make it tight - allow for getting two fingers underneath the collar.\nCut your elastic to the size your just measured and then glue the ends with a dab of superglue to make a circle.\nStep 2: Attach the Elastic to Both Ends of the Buckle\nMake a loop in the elastic , thread it through one of the buckle ends and flip the loop over the buckle end. Do the same for both ends making sure that the buckle fastens straight and you don't have any twists in your elastic.\nStep 3: Attach Your Main Colour (Bronze)\nNow fold your main colour of rattail satin in half.", "748" ], [ "Take the loop and thread through one end of your buckle and flip the loop over the buckle to attach.\nYou can see in this picture that my elastic join is part way down the main length of elastic.\nStep 4: Attach the Buckles to Your Jig\nAdjust your jig to size and loop the buckles over the ends.\nIf you don't have a jig - use some nails hammered part way into a piece of wood set to the right length.\nStep 5: Tie a Cobra Knot\nUsing your main colour, using the right hand thread form a backwards \"S\" loop to the left hand side (see 1st photo) .\nNow pass the left hand thread through the lower half of the \"S\" behind the elastic and up through the top half of the \"S\" (2nd photo)\nThis is a cobra knot.\nStep 6: Attach Your Second Colour (Green)\nBefore you tighten your cobra knot. Fold your second colour in half and thread through your untightened knot and behind the elastic (see the photo)\nNow you can tighten your knot.\nStep 7: Form a Cross With Your Second Colour (Green)\nNow form a cross with your second colour (green in my case). Take the green threads behind the bronze threads and position out of the way at the top of the jig.\nStep 8: Tie a Second Cobra Knot\nNow tie a second cobra knot (on the opposite side). Use the left hand thread to make your forwards \"S\" this time.\nNow pass the right hand thread through the lower half of the \"S\" behind the elastic and up through the top half of the \"S\".\nPull the knot tight.\nStep 9: Position Green Threads\nTake your green threads and pull them straight down with the bronze threads out to the side (Photo 1)\nNow take the green threads up and over the bronze threads and leave them at the top of the jig out of the way (Photo 2)\nStep 10: Tie Your Next Cobra Knot\nNow use the right hand thread to tie a cobra knot out to the left side. (Same as step 5)\nPull it tight.\nStep 11: Make Your Next Cross With the Green Thread\nAnd now we're back to forming the next cross (as in step 7).\nMake sure you make your crosses all the same way.\nStep 12: Repeat Repeat Repeat\nKeep following the pattern, repeating steps 8, 9 ,10,11\nStep 13: Right to the End\nRepeat the pattern until you run out of room. You may find the last few knots a bit tricky as there isn't a lot of room.\nNow remove your collar from the jig.\nStep 14: Finishing\nTo finish off we need to tuck the ends of the satin in.\nI'm using a fid to thread each of the satin cords along the back of the collar.\nStep 15: Cut the Ends and Seal\nNow cut the satin ends and seal using a lighter.\nStep 16: It's Mine\nNow your cat collar is finished.", "748" ], [ "Orange Suede Statement Necklace\nIntroduction: Orange Suede Statement Necklace\nDo you want to make an impact - then wear a statement necklace. This is an easy to make necklace. I've used orange suede, but use whatever colour you like to go with what you are wearing.\nSupplies\nFor this project you will need:\nPiece of Suede (orange) 2mm thick\nSome beads - I'm using 18 x 6mm wooden beads. If your beads are bigger then you may not need as many.\nScissors\nPencil or tailors chalk\n70cm of 3mm faux leather lace or leather lace for stringing\nFid\nHole punch\nCardboard\nMagnetic clasp (4mm hole)\nSuperglue\nStep 1: Draw and Cut Out Your Pattern\nFor this project I'm using a petal shape in three sizes. Draw your own or download a flower petal shape from the internet.\nI've drawn mine onto a piece of cardboard retrieved from the recycling (old biscuit packet). Use this as a template for transferring to your suede.\nStep 2: Copy Your Pattern Onto the Suede\nNow trace round your pattern onto the back of the suede.", "673" ], [ "I'm using a pencil so it doesn't leave marks. You could also use dressmakers chalk.\nThere are 5 of the large petals, and 2 of each of the smaller sizes.\nStep 3: Cut Out Your Petals\nNow carefully cut out your petal shapes.\nStep 4: Punch Holes Into Your Petals\nNow fold each petal vertically and punch a 3mm twin hole into the top. Do this for all your petals.\nStep 5: Prepare the Lace and Pieces\nScrew the lace onto the fid (cut the end of the lace at an angle and just screw it in until it is tight)\nArrange your petals and beads into threading order.\nYou may notice I only have 3 large petals in this picture - that's because I changed my mind and added 2 extra large petals making 5 large in total.\nStep 6: Thread the Pieces Onto the Lace\nThread all the pieces onto the lace. When you have finished threading adjust the lace so the pieces are in the middle.\nStep 7: Choose Your Necklace Length\nTry the necklace round your neck and decide how long or short you want it to be.\nI've decided that I want each lace to be 16cm from the last bead to the clasp.\nDepending on the kind of clasp you use you may need to allow for any folding at the clasp.\nFOr my magnetic clasp I'll need to fold the end of the lace so I need 2cm extra on each end.\nStep 8: Attach the Clasp\nI'm using a magnetic clasp. The end of the lace needs to be folded in 3 to fit snugly.\nPlace a drop of superglue in the clasp and push in the folded lace. Don't overdo the superglue or you'll glue your fingers like I did :-)\nStep 9: Ready to Make a Statement!\nNow your necklace is ready to wear. Go out and make a statement!", "748" ], [ "Hearts Leather Lace Bracelet Made on the Kumihimo Square Disk\nIntroduction: Hearts Leather Lace Bracelet Made on the Kumihimo Square Disk\nI have recently got hooked on kumihimo - the Japanese art of braiding. Here we try out a flat braid made with round leather lace. The braiding isn't difficult.\nSupplies\nKumihimo square disk - buy one or follow my instructable to make your own.\n3mm leather lace in two colours (I'm using red and black) - 300cm (120 inches) black and 100cm (40 inches) red\nTape\nGlue (E6000 or similar)\nRuler\nNylon Thread\nBlack permanent marker pen\n9 inches 1mm / 18 gauge silver coated copper wire\nWire cutters\nRound nose pliers\nFid\n120cm / 4 feet of faux leather lace - black\nStep 1: Cut Your Leather Lace\nFor this instructable you need 8 lengths of 3mm leather lace each 50cm (20 inches) long.\nCut 2 red and 6 black\nStep 2: Bind Ends of Leather\nGather the ends of your leather lace and either tape or bind with thread. I found that the tape didn't stick very well and I needed some glue to stop the ends coming loose.\nStep 3: Set Up Your Kumihimo Board\nPush the ends through the centre of the kumihimo plate and lay out the laces in the pattern shown.\nRed in slots E and e\nBlack in slots 5,6,15,16,G and g\nStep 4: Weaving 1st Step\nTake the leather lace from 5 and move it to h, then take the leather lace from 6 and move it to H\nBe careful you don't mix up your order or your lower and upper case letters)\nStep 5: Weaving 2nd Step\nNow take the lace from 16 and put it in D. Then take the lace from 15 and put it in d.\nStep 6: Weaving 3rd Step\nNow take lace from E and move it to 15. Then take lace from e and move it to 16.\nStep 7: Weaving 4th Step\nTake the lace from G and move to 5, then take the lace from g and move to 6.\nStep 8: Reposition Cords\nNow reposition your cords.\nD to E\nH to G\nd to e\nh to g\nAnd we're back at the starting position again\nStep 9: Repeat, Repeat, Repeat\nNow it's just a case of repeating the steps.\nHere is a condensed form of moves:\n5 to h then 6 to H\n16 to D then 15 to d\nE to 15 then e to 16\nG to 5 then g to 6\nReposition D to E, H to G, d to e, h to g\nJust keep repeating and you will see your braid forming at the back of the disk.\nStop when you have run out of cord or have the required length for your bracelet.\nStep 10: Remove From Disk and Bind End\nHold tight to your cords when removing from the kumihimo disk and bind the cord ends to stop them coming unravelled. I found nylon thread works well.\nStep 11: Bind Glue and Cut to Size\nMeasure how long you want your bracelet to be.", "421" ], [ "Mine is going to be 7.5 inches (19.5cm) plus the fastenings\nBind your woven cords using nylon thread, just behind where you are going to cut. Also add glue to hold it (E6000 or similar)\nLeave to dry before cutting.\nCut the ends.\nStep 12: Colour the Cut Ends\nColour the cut ends using a permanent marker pen\nStep 13: Make Your Own Toggle Clasp Findings\nI was hoping to just buy some clasps for finishing off this bracelet, but I've struggled to find anything that fits, so not one to accept defeat I've decided to make my own findings.\nI made a toggle clasp.\nFor the loop part you will need 4 inches of 1mm / 18 gauge silver coated copper wire. Start from the middle and form the loop - I'm using the top of a glue bottle to help get it circular. Now made a twist and fold the ends in, so you have the shape in the picture. If the ends are too long snip off the excess.\nFor the bar part you will need 5 inches of wire. Make a bend at 2 inches and fold, then make a bend at 3 inches and fold to make the T bar. Where the wires cross in the centre, fold out at 90 degrees, make a double twist, and then fold the ends in like you did for the loop. You should be able to follow the picture.\nFlatten your findings a little using a hammer and anvil.", "276" ] ]

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