Add ONU PDFs

corpora/corpora.py

@@ -1,9 +1,20 @@
 from .sourcer import search_web
 import pandas as pd
 import os
+import glob
 
 root_dir = 'data/datasets'
+
 pira_df = pd.read_csv(os.path.join(root_dir, 'pira_simplified.csv'))
+pira_corpus = pira_df.text.to_list()
+
+txt_path = os.path.join(root_dir, 'onu')
+filenames = glob.glob(txt_path + '/*.txt')
+
+onu_corpus = []
+for filename in filenames:
+    with open(filename, 'r') as f:
+        onu_corpus.append(f.read())
 
 def gen_corpus(query: str, pira: bool=True, ONU: bool=True, web: bool=True)->list:
     corpus = []
@@ -11,10 +22,9 @@ def gen_corpus(query: str, pira: bool=True, ONU: bool=True, web: bool=True)->lis
         # TODO: raise error
         pass
     if pira:
-        corpus += pira_df.text.to_list()
+        corpus += pira_corpus
     if ONU:
-        # TODO: implement PDFs
-        pass
+        corpus += onu_corpus
     if web:
         corpus += search_web(query)
 

corpora/pira.py

@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-import pandas as pd
-import os
-
-# Open dataset
-root_dir = 'data/datasets'
-pira_df = pd.read_csv(os.path.join(root_dir, 'pira_simplified.csv'))
-pira = pira_df.text.to_list()

data/datasets/onu/Chapter_01.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+Part Il
+The Context of the Assessment
+Chapter 1. Introduction — Planet, Oceans and Life
+Contributors: Peter Harris (Lead member and Convenor), Joshua Tuhumwire (Co Lead member)
+1. Why the ocean matters
+Consider how dependent upon the ocean we are. The ocean is vast — it cover seven-tenths of the planet. On average, it is about 4,000 metres deep. It contain 1.3 billion cubic kilometres of water (97 per cent of all water on Earth). But there ar now about seven billion people on Earth. So we each have just one-fifth of a cubi kilometre of ocean to provide us with all the services that we get from the ocean That small, one-fifth of a cubic kilometre share produces half of the oxygen each o us breathes, all of the sea fish and other seafood that each of us eats. It is th ultimate source of all the freshwater that each of us will drink in our lifetimes. Th ocean is a highway for ships that carry across the globe the exports and imports tha we produce and consume. It contains the oil and gas deposits and minerals on an beneath the seafloor that we increasingly need to use. The submarine cables acros the ocean floor carry 90 per cent of the electronic traffic on which ou communications rely. Our energy supply will increasingly rely on wind, wave and tid power from the ocean. Large numbers of us take our holidays by the sea. That one fifth of a cubic kilometre will also suffer from the share of the sewage, garbage spilled oil and industrial waste which we produce and which is put into the ocea every day. Demands on the ocean continue to rise: by the year 2050 it is estimate that there will be 10 billion people on Earth. So our share (or our children’s share) o the ocean will have shrunk to one-eighth of a cubic kilometre. That reduced shar will still have to provide each of us with sufficient amounts of oxygen, food an water, while still receiving the pollution and waste for which we are all responsible.
+The ocean is also home to a rich diversity of plants and animals of all sizes — from th largest animals on the planet (the blue whales) to plankton that can only be see with powerful microscopes. We use some of these directly, and many mor contribute indirectly to our benefits from the ocean. Even those which have n connection whatever with us humans are part of the biodiversity whose value w have belatedly recognized. However, the relationships are reciprocal. W intentionally exploit many components of this biodiverse richness. Carelessly (fo example, through inputs of waste) or unknowingly (for example, through ocea acidification from increased emissions of carbon dioxide), we are altering th circumstances in which these plants and animals live. All this is affecting their abilit to thrive and, sometimes, even to survive. These impacts of humanity on the oceans
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+are part of our legacy and our future. They will shape the future of the ocean and it biodiversity as an integral physical-biological system, and the ability of the ocean t provide the services which we use now and will increasingly need to use in th future. The ocean is vital to each of us and to human well-being overall.
+Looking in more detail at the services that the ocean provides, we can break the down into three main categories. First, there are the economic activities in providin goods and services which are often marketed (fisheries, shipping, communications tourism and recreation, and so on). Secondly, there are the other tangibl ecosystem services which are not part of a market, but which are vital to human life For example, marine plants (mainly tiny floating diatoms) produce about 50 per cen of atmospheric oxygen. Mangroves, salt marshes and sea grasses are also natura carbon sinks. Coastal habitats, including coral reefs, protect homes, communitie and businesses from storm surges and wave attack. Thirdly, there are the intangibl ecosystem services. We know that the ocean means far more to us than just merel the functional or practical services that it provides. Humans value the ocean in man other ways: for aesthetic, cultural or religious reasons, and for just being there in al its diversity — giving us a “sense of place” (Halpern et al., 2012). Not surprisingly given the resources that the ocean provides, human settlements have grown up ver much near the shore: 38 per cent of the world’s population live within 100 km of th shore, 44 per cent within 150 km, 50 per cent within 200 km, and 67 per cent withi 400 km (Small et al 2004).
+All these marine ecosystem services have substantial economic value. While there i much debate about valuation methods (and whether some ecosystem services ca be valued) and about exact figures, attempts to estimate the value of marin ecosystem services have found such values to be on the order of trillions of U dollars annually (Costanza, et al., 1997). Nearly three-quarters of this value resides i coastal zones (Martinez, et al., 2007). The point is not so much the monetary figur that can be estimated for non-marketed ecosystem services, but rather the fact tha people do not need to pay anything for them — these services are nature’s gift t humanity. But we take these services for granted at our peril, because the cost o replacing them, if it were possible to do so, would be immense and in many cases incalculable.
+There are therefore very many good reasons why we each need to take very goo care of our-fifth of a cubic kilometre share of the ocean!
+2. Structure of this Assessment
+It is this significance of the ocean as a whole, and the relatively fragmented way i which it is studied and in which human activities impacting upon it are managed that led in 2002 the World Summit on Sustainable Development to recommen (WSSD 2002), and the United Nations General Assembly to agree (UNGA 2002), tha there should be a regular process for the global reporting and assessment of th marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects. Under the arrangements
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+developed for this purpose, this Assessment is the first global integrated assessmen of the marine environment (see further in Chapter 2).
+Three possible focuses exist for structuring this Assessment: the ecosystem service (market and non-marketed, tangible and intangible) that the marine environmen provides; the habitats that exist within the marine environment, and the pressure that human activities exert on the marine environment. All three have advantage and disadvantages.
+Using ecosystem services as the basis for structuring the Assessment would follo the approach of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). This has th advantage of broad acceptance in environmental reporting. It would cove provisioning services (food, construction materials, renewable energy, coasta protection), while highlighting regulating services and quality-of-life services that ar not captured using a pressures or habitats approach to structuring the Assessment It would have the disadvantage that some important human activities using th ocean (for example, shipping, ports and minerals extraction) would be covered onl incidentally.
+Using marine habitats as the basis for structuring the Assessment would have th advantage that habitats are the property that inherently integrates many ecosyste features, including species at higher and lower trophic levels, water quality oceanographic conditions and many types of anthropogenic pressures (AoA, 2009) The cumulative aspect of multiple pressures affecting the same habitat, that is ofte lost in sector-based environmental reporting (Halpern et al., 2008), is captured b using habitats as reporting units. It would have the disadvantage that consideratio of human activities would be fragmented between the many different types o habitats.
+Using pressures as the basis for structuring the Assessment would have th advantage that the associated human activities are commonly linked with dat collection and reporting structures for regulatory compliance purposes. Fo instance, permits that are issued for offshore oil and gas development requir specific monitoring and reporting obligations to be met by operators. It would hav the disadvantage that many important ecosystem services would only be covered i relation to the impacts of the human activities.
+Given that all three approaches have their own particular advantages an disadvantages, the United Nations General Assembly endorsed a structure for thi Assessment that combined all three approaches, thereby structuring the Worl Ocean Assessment into seven main Parts, as follows.
+Part I. Summary
+The Summary is intended to bring out the way in which the assessment has bee carried out, the overall assessment of the scale of human impact on the oceans an the overall value of the oceans to humans, and the main threats to the marin environment and human economic and social well-being. As guides for future actio it also describes the gaps in capacity-building and in knowledge.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Part Il. The context of the Assessment
+This chapter is intended as a broad, introductory survey of the role played by th ocean in the life of the planet, the way in which they function, and humans relationships to them. Chapter 2 explains in more detail the rationale for th Assessment and how it has been produced.
+Part Ill. Assessment of major ecosystem services from the marine environmen (other than provisioning services)
+Part III looks at the non-marketed ecosystem services provided to the planet by th ocean. It considers, first, the scientific understanding of such ecosystem service and then looks at the earth’s hydrological cycle, air/sea interactions, primar production and ocean-based carbonate production. Finally it looks at aesthetic cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services (including some cultural object which are traded). Where relevant, it draws heavily on the work o Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — the aim is to use the work o the IPCC, not to duplicate or challenge it.
+Part IV. Assessment of the cross-cutting issues: food security and food safety
+The aim of Part IV is to look at all aspects of the vital function of the ocean i providing food for humans. It draws substantially on information collected by th Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The economi significance of employment in fisheries and aquaculture and the relationship thes industries have with coastal communities are addressed, including gaps in capacity building for developing countries.
+Part V. Assessment of other human activities and the marine environment
+All human activities that can impact on the oceans (other than those relating t food) are covered in Part V of the assessment. Each chapter describes the locatio and scale of activity, the economic benefits, employment and social role environmental consequences, links to other activities and capacity-building gaps.
+Part VI. Assessment of marine biological diversity and habitats
+The aim of Part VI is: (a) to give an overview of marine biological diversity and wha is known about it; (b) to review the status and trends of, and threats to, marin ecosystems, species and habitats that have been scientifically identified a threatened, declining or otherwise in need of special attention or protection; (c) t review the significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t the conservation of marine species and habitats; and (d) to find gaps in capacity t identify marine species and habitats that are viewed as threatened, declining o otherwise in need of special attention or protection and to assess the
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+environmental, social and economic aspects of the conservation of marine specie and habitats.
+Part VII. Overall assessment
+Part VII finally looks at the overall impact of humans on the ocean, and the overal benefit of the ocean for humans.
+3. The physical structure of the ocean
+Looking at a globe of the earth one thing that can be easily seen is that, althoug different names appear in different places for different ocean areas, these areas ar all linked together: there is really only one world ocean. The seafloor beneath th ocean has long remained a mystery, but in recent decades our understanding of th ocean floor has improved. The publication of the first comprehensive, global map o seafloor physiography by Bruce Heezen and Marie Tharp in 1977 provided a pseudo three-dimensional image of the ocean that has influenced a long line of scholars That image has been refined in recent years by new bathymetric maps (Smith an Sandwell, 1997) which are used to illustrate globes, web sites and the maps on man in-flight TV screens when flying over the ocean.
+A new digital, global seafloor geomorphic features map has been built (especially t assist the World Ocean Assessment) using a combination of manual and ArcGI methods based on the analysis and interpretation of the latest global bathymetr grid (Harris et al., 2014; Figure 1). The new map includes global spatial data layer for 29 categories of geomorphic features, defined by the International Hydrographi Organization and other authoritative sources.
+The new map shows the way in which the ocean consists of four main basins (th Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean) betwee the tectonic plates that form the continents. The tectonic plates have differin forms at their edges, giving broad or narrow continental shelves and varying profile of the continental rises and continental slopes leading from the abyssal plain to th continental shelf. Geomorphic activity in the abyssal plains between the continent gives rise to abyssal ridges, volcanic islands, seamounts, guyots (plateau-lik seamounts), rift valley segments and trenches. Erosion and sedimentation (eithe submarine or riverine when the sea level was lower during the ice ages) has create submarine canyons, glacial troughs, sills, fans and escarpments. Around the ocea basins there are marginal seas, partially separated by islands, archipelagos o peninsulas, or bounded by submarine ridges. These marginal seas have sometime been formed in many ways: for example, some result from the interaction betwee tectonic plates (for example the Mediterranean), others from the sinking of forme dry land as a result of isostatic changes from the removal of the weight of the ic cover in the ice ages (for example, the North Sea).
+The water of the ocean circulates within these geological structures. This water i not uniform: there are very important physical and chemical variations within the
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+sea water. Salinity varies according to the relativity between inputs of freshwate and evaporation. Sea areas such as the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, with larg amounts of freshwater coming from rivers and relatively low evaporation have lo salinity — 8 parts per thousand and 16 parts per thousand, respectively, as compare with the global average of 35 parts per thousand (HELCOM 2010, Black Se Commission 2008). The Red Sea, in contrast, with low riverine input and hig insolation, and therefore high evaporation, has a mean surface salinity as high a 42.5 parts per thousand (Heilman et al 2009). Seawater can also be stratified int separate layers, with different salinities and different temperatures. Suc stratification can lead to variations in both the oxygen content and nutrient content with critical consequences in both cases for the biota dependent on them. A furthe variation is in the penetration of light. Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis o inorganic carbon (mainly CO2) into the organic carbon of plants and mixotrophi species’. Even clear water reduces the level of light that can penetrate by about 9 per cent for every 75 metres of depth. Below 200 metres depth, there is not enoug light for photosynthesis (Widder 2014). The upper 200 metres of the ocean ar therefore where most photosynthesis takes place (the euphotic zone). Variations i light level in the water column and on the sea bed are caused by seasonal fluctuatio in sunlight, cloud cover, tidal variations in water depth and (most significantly, wher it occurs) turbidity in the water, caused, for example, by resuspension of sedimen by tides or storms or by coastal erosion. Where turbidity occurs, it can reduce th penetration of light by up to 95 per cent, and thus reduce the level of photosynthesi which can take place (Anthony 2004).
+@® Shelf - high profile @®  Hadal shelf valley ©) tis @ Shelf - medium profile @® canyon @® iift valley terrac Shelf - low profile @®  guyot @® glacial trough @® trenc Slope @ seamount @® trough @ platea @® Abyss - mountains ™) bridge @® ridge “- @cean boundarie @® Abyss - hills @ sil @ spreading ridge ques Kilometer Abyss - plains @® escarpment @®) fan/apron 0 2,000 4,000 6,000
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+* That is, plankton species that both photosynthesize and consume other biota.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Figure 1. Geomorphic features map of the world’s oceans (after Harris et al., 2014). Dotted blac lines mark boundaries between major ocean regions. Basins are not shown.
+The new map provides the basis for global estimates of physiographic statistic (area, number, mean size, etc.): for example, it can be estimated that the globa ocean covers 362 million square kilometres and the ocean floor contains: 9,95 seamounts covering 8.1 million square kilometres; 9,477 submarine canyon covering 4.4 million square kilometres; and the mid-ocean spreading ridges cover 6. million square kilometres with an additional 710,000 square kilometres of rift valley where hydrothermal vent communities occur (Harris et al., 2014).
+There is an important distinction to be made between the terminology used i scientific description of the ocean and the legal terminology used to describe States rights and obligations in the ocean. Some important terms that will be use throughout this Assessment include the “continental shelf”, “open ocean” and “deep
+”
+sea.
+Unless stated otherwise, “continental shelf” in this Assessment refers to th geomorphic continental shelf (as shown in Figure 1) and not to the continental shel as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The geomorphi continental shelf is usually defined in terms of the submarine extension of  continent or island as far as the point where there is a marked discontinuity in th slope and the continental slope begins its fall down to the continental rise or th abyssal plain (Hobbs 2003). In total, continental shelves cover an area of 32 millio square kilometres (out of a total ocean area of 362 million square kilometres).
+The term “open ocean” in this Assessment refers to the water column of deep-wate areas that are beyond (that is, seawards of) the geomorphic continental shelf. It i the pelagic zone that lies in deep water (generally >200 m water depth).
+The term “deep sea” in this Assessment refers to the sea floor of deep-water area that are beyond (that is, seawards of) the geomorphic continental shelf. It is th benthic zone that lies in deep water (generally >200 m water depth).
+4. Seawater and the ocean/climate interaction
+The Earth’s ocean and atmosphere are parts of a single, interactive system tha controls the global climate. The ocean plays a major role in this control, particularl in the dispersal of heat from the equator towards the poles through ocean currents The heat transfer through the ocean is possible because of the larger heat-capacit of water compared with that of air: there is more heat stored in the upper 3 metre of the global ocean than in the entire atmosphere of the Earth. Put another way, th oceans hold more than 1,000 times more heat than the atmosphere. Hea transported by the major ocean currents dramatically affects regional climate: fo example, Europe would be much colder than it is without the warmth brought by th Gulf Stream current. The great ocean boundary currents transport heat from th equator to the polar seas (and cold from the polar seas towards the equator), along
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+the margins of the continents. Examples include: the Kuroshio Current in th northwest Pacific, the Humboldt (Peru) Current in the southeast Pacific, th Benguela Current in the southeast Atlantic and the Agulhas Current in the wester Indian Ocean. The mightiest ocean current of all is the Circumpolar Current whic flows from west to east encircling the continent of Antarctica and transporting mor than 100 Sverdrups (100 million cubic meters per second) of ocean water (Rintou and Sokolov, 2001). As well as the boundary currents, there are five major gyres o rotating currents: two in the Atlantic and two in the Pacific (in each case one nort and one south of the equator) and one in the Indian Ocean.
+The winds in the atmosphere are the main drivers of these ocean surface currents The interface between the ocean and the atmosphere and the effect of the wind also allows for the ocean to absorb oxygen and, more importantly, carbon dioxid from the air. Annually, the ocean absorbs 2,300 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (IPCC 2005; see Chapter 5).
+In addition to this vast surface ocean current system, there is the ocea thermohaline circulation (ocean conveyor) system (Figure 3). Instead of being drive by winds and the temperature difference between the equator and the poles (as ar the surface ocean currents), this current system is driven by differences in wate density. The most dense ocean water is cold and salty which sinks beneath war and fresh seawater that stays near the surface. Cold-salty water is produced in se ice “factories” of the polar seas: when seawater freezes, the salt is rejected (the ic is mostly fresh water), which makes the remaining liquid seawater saltier. This col saltier water sinks into the deepest ocean basins, bringing oxygen into the dee ocean and thus enabling aerobic life to exist.
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Figure 2. The global ocean “conveyor” thermohaline circulation (Broecker, 1991). Bottom water i formed in the polar seas via sea-ice formation in winter, which rejects cold, salty (dense) water. Thi sinks to the ocean floor and flows into the Indian and North Pacific Oceans before returning t complete the loop in the North Atlantic. Numbers indicate estimated volumes of bottom wate production in “Sverdrups” (1 Sverdrup = 1 million m?/s), which may be reduced by global warmin because less sea ice will be formed during winter. Blue indicates cold currents and red indicates war currents. The black question marks indicate sites long the Antarctic margin where bottom water ma be formed but of unknown volumes. The question mark after the “S” indicates that this value i certain.
+Wind-driven mixing affects only the surface of the ocean, mainly the upper 20 metres or so, and rarely deeper than about 1,000 metres. Without the ocean’ thermohaline circulation system, the bottom waters of the ocean would soon b depleted of oxygen, and aerobic life there would cease to exist.
+Superimposed on all these processes, there is the twice-daily ebb and flow of th tide. This is, of course, most significant in coastal seas. The tidal range varie according to local geography: the largest mean tidal ranges (around 11.7 metres) ar found in the Bay of Fundy, on the Atlantic coast of Canada, but ranges only slightl less are also found in the Bristol Channel in the United Kingdom, on the norther coast of France, and on the coasts of Alaska, Argentina and Chile (NOAA 2014).
+Global warming is likely to affect many aspects of ocean processes. Changes in sea surface temperature, sea level and other primary impacts will lead, among othe things, to increases in the frequency of major tropical storms (cyclones, hurricane and typhoons) bigger ocean swell waves and reduced polar ice formation. Each o these consequences has its own consequences, and so on (Harley et al., 2006 Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007). For example, reduced sea ice production in the pola seas will mean less bottom water is produced (Broecker, 1997) and hence les oxygen delivered to the deep ocean (Shaffer et al., 2009).
+5. The ocean and life
+The complex system of the atmosphere and ocean currents is also crucial to th distribution of life in the ocean, since it regulates, among other factors, (as sai above) temperature, salinity, oxygen content, absorption of carbon dioxide and th penetration of light and (in addition to these) the distribution of nutrients.
+The distribution of nutrients throughout the ocean is the result of the interaction o a number of different processes. Nutrients are introduced to the ocean from th land through riverine discharges, through inputs direct from pipelines and throug airborne inputs (see Chapter 20). Within the ocean, these external inputs o nutrients suffer various fates and are cycled. Nutrients that are adsorbed onto th surface of particles are likely to fall into sediments, from where they may either b remobilised by water movement or settle permanently. Nutrients that are taken u by plants and mixotrophic biota for photosynthesis will also eventually sink toward the seabed as the plants or biota die; en route or when they reach the seabed, they
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+will be broken up by bacteria and the nutrients released. As a result of thes processes, the water in lower levels of the ocean is richer in nutrients.
+Upwelling of these nutrient-rich waters is caused by the interaction of currents an wind stress. In simple terms, along coasts (especially west-facing coasts with narro continental shelves), coastal, longshore wind stress results in rapid upwelling further out to sea, wind-stress produces a slower, but still significant, upwellin (Rykaczewski et al., 2008). Upwelled, nutrient-rich water is brought up to th euphotic zone (see previous section), where most photosynthesis takes place (se Chapter 6). The reality is far more complex, and upwelling is influenced by numerou other factors such as stratification of the water column and the influence of coasta and seafloor geomorphology, such as shelf-incising submarine canyons (Sobarzo e al., 2001). Other important factors are river plumes and whether the upwellin delivers the nutrient that is the local limiting factor for primary productivity (fo example, nitrogen or iron; Kudela et al., 2008). Ocean upwelling zones commonl control primary productivity hotspots and their associated, highly productiv fisheries, such as the anchoveta fishery off the coast of Peru. The Peruvian upwellin varies from year to year, resulting in significant fluctuations in productivity an fisheries yields. The major factor producing these variations is the El Nifio Souther Oscillation, which is the best studied of the recurring variations in large-scal circulation, and its disruptive effects on coastal weather and fisheries are well known (Barber and Chavez, 1983).
+The major ocean currents connect geographic regions and also exert control o ocean life in other ways. Currents form natural boundaries that help define distinc habitats. Such boundaries may isolate different genetic strains of the same specie as well as different species. Many marine animals (for example, salmon and squid have migration patterns that rely upon transport in major ocean current systems and other species rely on currents to distribute their larvae to new habitats Populations of ocean species naturally fluctuate from year to year, and ocea currents often play a significant role. The survival of plankton, for example, i affected by where the currents carry them. Food supply varies as changin circulation and upwelling patterns lead to higher or lower nutrient concentrations.
+The heterogeneity of the oceans, its water masses, currents, ecological processes geological history and seafloor morphology, have resulted in great variations in th spatial distribution of life. In short, biodiversity is not uniformly distributed acros the oceans: there are local and regional biodiversity “hotspots” (see Chapters 33 an 35). Figure 3 shows a way in which the diversity of species is consequentl distributed around the world. Various classification systems have been devised t systematize this variety, including the European Nature Information System (EUNIS (Davies and Moss, 1999; Connor et al., 2004) and the Global Open Ocean and Dee Sea-habitats (GOODS) classification and its refinements (Agnostini 2008; Rice et a 2011)).
+Part VI (Assessment of marine biodiversity and habitats) describes in more detail th diversity that is found across the ocean, and the way in which it is being affected b human activities.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+BIODIVERSIT +—More diverse Less diverse —
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 3. Distribution of biodiversity in the oceans. Biodiversity data: Tittensor et al., 2010. Huma impact data: Halpern et al., 2008, Map: Census of Marine Life, 2010; Ausubel et al., 2010; Nationa Geographic Society, 2010).
+6. Human uses of the ocean
+Humans depend upon the ocean in many ways and our ocean-based industries hav had impacts on ocean ecosystems from local to global spatial scales. In the larg majority of ocean ecosystems, humans play a major role in determining crucia features of the way in which the ecosystems are developing.
+The impacts of climate change and acidification are pervasive through most ocea ecosystems. These, and related impacts, are discussed in Part Ill (Assessment o major ecosystem services from the marine environment (other than provisionin services)), together with the non-marketed ecosystem services that we enjoy fro the ocean and the ways in which these may be affected by the pervasive impacts o human activities.
+For wide swathes of the Earth’s population, fish and other sea-derived food is  provisioning ecosystem of the highest importance. Part IV (Assessment of the cross cutting issues: food security and food safety) examines the extent to which human rely on the ocean for their food, the ways in which capturing, growing and marketin that food is impacting on ecosystems and the social and economic position of thos engaged in these activities and the health risks to everyone who enjoys this food.
+The wide range of other human activities is examined in Part V (Assessment o human activities and the marine environment): these activities include the growin importance of worldwide transport in the world economy; the major role of the
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
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+seabed in providing oil and gas and other minerals; the non-consumptive uses of th ocean to provide renewable energy; the potential for non-consumptive use o marine genetic resources; the uses of seawater to supplement freshwater resources and the vital role of the ocean in tourism and recreation. In addition, it is necessar to consider the way in which human activities that produce waste can affect th marine environment as the wastes are discharged, emitted or dumped into th marine environment, and the effects of reclaiming land from the sea and seeking t change the natural processes of erosion and sedimentation. Finally, we need t consider the marine scientific research that is the foundation of all our attempts t understand the ocean and to manage the human activities that affect it.
+7. Conclusion
+Our planet is seven-tenths ocean. From space, the blue of the ocean is th predominant colour. This Assessment is an attempt to produce a 3602 review o where the ocean stands, what the range of natural variability underlies its futur development and what are the pressures (and their drivers) that are likely t influence that development. As the description of the task set out in Chapter  (Mandate, information sources and method of work) shows, the Assessment doe not attempt to make recommendations or analyse the success (or otherwise) o current policies. Its task is to provide a factual basis for the relevant authorities i reaching their decisions. The aim is that a comprehensive, consistent Assessmen will provide a better basis for those decisions.
+References
+Agnostini, V., Escobar-Briones, E., Cresswell, I., Gjerde, K., Niewijk, D.J.A. Polacheck, A., Raymond, B., Rice, J., Roff, J.C., Scanlon, K.M., Spalding, M. Vierros, M., Watling, L. (2008). Global Open Oceans and Deep Sea-habitat (GOODS) bioregional classification, in: Vierros, M., Cresswell, |. Escobar-Briones, E., Rice, J., Ardron, J. (Eds.). United Nations Conference o the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), p. 94.
+Anthony, K.R.N., Ridd, P.V., Orpin, A.R., Larcombe, P. and Lough, J. (2004). Tempora Variation of Light Availability in Coastal Benthic Habitats: Effects of Clouds Turbidity, and Tides. Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 49, No. 6.
+Ausubel, J.H., Crist, D.T., Waggoner, P.E. (Eds.) (2010). First census of marine lif 2010: highlights of a decade of discovery. Census of Marine Life, Washingto DC.
+Barber, R.T., Chavez, F.P. (1983). Biological Consequences of El Nifio. Science 222 1203-1210.
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+
+Black Sea Commission (2008). Commission on the Protection of the Black Se Against Pollution, State of Environment Report 2001 - 2006/7, Istanbul. (ISB 978-9944-245-33-3).
+Broecker, W.S. (1991). The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography 4, 79-89.
+Broecker, W.S. (1997). Thermohaline circulation, the Achilles Heel of our climat system: will man-made CO2 upset the current balance? Science 278, 1582 1588.
+Census of Marine Life (2010). Ocean Life: Past, Present, and Futur http://comlmaps.org/oceanlifemap/past-present-future.
+Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N., Howell, K.L., Lieberknecht, L.M., Northen, K.O. Reker, J.B. (2004). Marine habitat classification for Britain and Ireland Versio 04.05. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough UK.
+Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K. Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital Nature 387, 253-260.
+Davies, C.E., Moss, D. (1999). The EUNIS classification. European Environmen Agency, 124 pp.
+Halpern, B.S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K.A., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., D'Agrosa, C. Bruno, J.F., Casey, K.S., Ebert, C., Fox, H.E., Fujita, R., Heinemann, D. Lenihan, H.S., Madin, E. M.P., Perry, M.T., Selig, E.R., Spalding, M., Steneck, R and Watson, R. (2008). A Global Map of Human Impact on Marin Ecosystems. Science. 319, 948-952.
+Halpern, B.S., Longo, C., Hardy, D., McLeod, K.L., Samhouri, J.F., Katona, S.K. Kleisner, K., Lester, S.E., O'Leary, J., Ranelletti, M., Rosenberg, A.A. Scarborough, C., Selig, E.R., Best, B.D., Brumbaugh, D.R., Chapin, F.S. Crowder, L.B., Daly, K.L., Doney, S.C., Elfes, C., Fogarty, M.J., Gaines, S.D. Jacobsen, K.I., Karrer, L.B., Leslie, H.M., Neeley, E., Pauly, D., Polasky, S., Ris B., St Martin, K., Stone, G.S., Sumaila, U.R., Zeller, D. (2012). An index t assess the health and benefits of the global ocean. Nature 488, 615-620.
+Harley, C.D.G., Hughes, A.R., Hultgren, K.M., Miner, B.G., Sorte, C.J.B., Thornber, C.S. Rodriguez, L.F., Tomanek, L., Williams, S.L. (2006). The impacts of climat change in coastal marine systems. Ecology Letters 9, 228-241.
+Harris, P.T., MacMillan-Lawler, M., Rupp, J., Baker, E.K. (2014). Geomorphology o the oceans. Marine Geology 352, 4-24.
+Heezen, B.C., Tharp, M. (1977). World Ocean Floor Panorama, New York, In ful color, painted by H. Berann, Mercator Projection, scale 1:23,230,300, 1168  1930 mm.
+Heilman et al (2009). S Heilman and N Mistafa, Red Sea, in United Nation Environment Programme, UNEP Large Marine Ecosystems Report, Nairob 2009 (ISBN 978-92080702773-9).
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+HELCOM (2010). Helsinki Commission, Ecosystem Health of the Baltic Sea 2003 2007: HELCOM Initial Holistic Assessment, Helsinki (ISSN 0357 — 2994).
+Hobbs, Carl Ill (2003). Article “Continental Shelf” in Encyclopedia of Geomorphology ed Andrew Goudie, Routledge, London and New York.
+IPCC (2005) Caldeira, K., Akai, M., Ocean Storage in IPCC Special Report on Carbo dioxide Capture and Storage, pp 277-318. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special reports/srccs/SRCCS_Chapter6.pdf
+Kudela, R.M., Banas, N.S., Barth, J.A., Frame, E.R., Jay, D.A., Largier, J.L., Lessard, E.J. Peterson, T.D., Vander Woude, A.J. (2008). New Insights into the control and mechanisms of plankton productivity in coastal upwelling waters of th northern California current system. Oceanography 21, 46-59.
+Martinez, M.L., Intralawan, A., Vazquez, G., Pérez-Maqueo, O., Sutton, P., Landgrave R. (2007). The coasts of our world: Ecological, economic and socia importance. Ecological Economics 63, 254-272.
+Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC., 155 p.
+National Geographic Society (2010). Ocean Life (poster). National Geographi Society, Washington, D.C.
+NOAA (2014). USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Tid Predictions and Data (http://www.co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/faq2.html#2 accessed 15 Oc tober 2014).
+Occhipinti-Ambrogi, A. (2007). Global change and marine communities: Alie species and climate change. Marine Pollution Bulletin 55, 342-352.
+Rice, J., Gjerde, K.M., Ardron, J., Arico, S., Cresswell, |., Escobar, E., Grant, S. Vierros, M. (2011). Policy relevance of biogeographic classification fo conservation and management of marine biodiversity beyond nationa jurisdiction, and the GOODS biogeographic classification. Ocean & Coasta Management 54, 110-122.
+Rintoul, S.R., and Sokolov, S. (2001). Baroclinic transport variability of the Antarcti Circumpolar Current south of Australia (WOCE repeat section SR3). Journal o Geophysical Research: Oceans 106, 2815-2832.
+Rykaczewski, Ryan R., and Checkley Jr., D.M. (2008). Influence of Ocean Winds o the Pelagic Ecosystem in Upwelling Regions, Proceedings of the Nationa Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 105, No. 6.
+Shaffer, G., Olsen, S.M., Pedersen, J.O.P. (2009). Long-term ocean oxygen depletio in response to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels. Nature Geoscience 2, 105-109.
+Small, Christopher and Cohen, J.E. (2004). Continental Physiography, Climate, an the Global Distribution of Human Population, Current Anthropology Vol. 45 No. 2.
+Smith, W.H., Sandwell, D.T. (1997). Global Sea Floor Topography from Satellite
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+Altimetry and Ship Depth Soundings. Science Magazine 277, 1956-1962.
+Sobarzo, M., Figueroa, M., Djurfeldt, L. (2001). Upwelling of subsurface water int the rim of the Biobio submarine canyon as a response to surface winds Continental Shelf Research 21, 279-299.
+Tittensor, D.P., Mora, C., Jetz, W., et al. (2010). Global patterns and predictors o marine biodiversity across taxa. Nature 466:1098-1101. doi 10.1038/nature09329.
+UNEP, IOC-UNESCO (2009). An Assessment of Assessments, findings of the Group o Experts. Start-up phase of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment including Socio-economi aspects. UNEP and IOC/UNESCO, Malta.
+UNGA (2002). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 57/141 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea), paragraph 45.
+Widder (2014). Edith Widder, Deep Light in US National Oceanic and Atmospheri Administration, Ocean Explore (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/O4deepscope/background/de plight/deeplight.htm accessed 15 October 2014).
+WSSD (2002). Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002 (United Nations
+publication, Sales No. E.03.1I.A.1 and corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2 annex, para. 36 (b).
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+Chapter 2. Mandate, Information Sources and Method of Work
+Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member and Convenor), Amanuel Ajawin Beatrice Ferreira, Sean Green, Peter Harris, Jake Rice, Andy Rosenberg, an Juying Wang (Co-lead members).
+The World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002, recommended that there should be established a Regular Process for th Global Reporting and Assessment of the Marine Environment, includin Socioeconomic Aspects (WSSD, 2002). This recommendation was endorsed by th United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2002 (UNGA, 2002).
+After considerable preparatory work, including as a first phase the production of th assessment of assessments (AoA, 2009), the United Nations General Assembl approved in 2009 the framework for the Regular Process developed by its Ad Ho Working Group of the Whole. This framework for the Regular Process consisted of (a) the overall objective for the Regular Process, (b) a description of the scope of th Regular Process, (c) a set of principles to guide its establishment and operation an (d) the best practices on key design features for the Regular Process as identified b the group of experts established for the assessment of assessments (see below) The framework further provided that capacity-building, sharing of data, informatio and transfer of technology would be crucial elements of the framework. Th following paragraphs set out these elements in the terms approved by the Genera Assembly (AHWGW, 2009; UNGA, 2009).
+1. Overall objective
+The Regular Process, under the United Nations, would be recognized as the globa mechanism for reviewing the state of the marine environment, includin socioeconomic aspects, on a continual and systematic basis by providing regula assessments at the global and supraregional levels and an integrated view o environmental, economic and social aspects. Such assessments would suppor informed decision-making and thus contribute to managing in a sustainable manne human activities that affect the oceans and seas, in accordance with internationa law, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’ and othe applicable international instruments and initiatives.
+The Regular Process would facilitate the identification of trends and enabl appropriate responses by States and competent regional and_ internationa organizations.
+The Regular Process would promote and facilitate the full participation of developin countries in all of its activities.
+* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363.
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+Ecosystem approaches would be recognized as a useful framework for conductin fully integrated assessments.
+2. Capacity-building and technology transfer
+The Regular Process would promote, facilitate and ensure capacity-building an transfer of technology, including marine technology, in accordance wit international law, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Se and other applicable international instruments and initiatives, for developing an other States, taking into account the criteria and guidelines on the transfer of marin technology of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission.
+The Regular Process would promote technical cooperation, including South-Sout cooperation.
+States and global and regional organizations would be invited to cooperate with eac other to identify gaps and shared priorities as a basis for developing a coheren programme to support capacity-building in marine monitoring and assessment.
+The value of large-scale and comprehensive assessments, notably in the Globa Environment Facility’s international waters large-marine ecosystems initiatives, i identifying and concentrating on capacity-building priorities would be recognized.
+Opportunities for capacity-building would be identified, in particular on the basis o existing capacity-building arrangements and the identified capacity-buildin priorities, needs and requests of developing countries.
+States and relevant international organizations, bodies and institutions would b invited to cooperate in building the capacity of developing countries in marin science, monitoring and assessment, including through workshops, trainin programmes and materials and fellowships.
+Quality assurance procedures and guidance would be developed to assis Governments and international organizations to improve the quality an comparability of data.
+3. Scope
+The scope of the Regular Process is global and supraregional, encompassing the stat of the marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects, both current an foreseeable.
+In the first cycle, the scope of the Regular Process would focus on establishing  baseline. In subsequent cycles, the scope of the Regular Process would extend t evaluating trends.
+The scope of individual assessments under the Regular Process would be identifie by Member States in terms of, inter alia, geographic coverage, an appropriat analytical framework, considerations of sustainability, issues of vulnerability and
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+future scenarios that may have implications for policymakers.
+4. Principles
+The Regular Process would be guided by international law, including the Unite Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and other applicable internationa instruments and initiatives, and would include reference to the following principles:
+(a) Viewing the oceans as part of the whole Earth system;
+(b) Regular evaluation by Member States of assessment products and th regular process itself to support adaptive management;
+(c) Use of sound science and the promotion of scientific excellence;
+(d) Regular analysis to ensure that emerging issues, significant changes an gaps in knowledge are detected at an early stage;
+(e) Continual improvement in scientific and assessment capacity, includin the promotion and development of capacity-building activities an transfer of technology;
+(f) Effective links with policymakers and other users;
+(g) Inclusiveness with respect to communication and engagement with al stakeholders through appropriate means for their participation, includin appropriate representation and regional balance at all levels;
+(h) Recognition and utilization of traditional and indigenous knowledge an principles;
+(i) | Transparency and accountability for the regular process and its products (j) | Exchange of information at all levels;
+(k) Effective links with, and building on, existing assessment processes, i particular at the regional and national levels;
+(I) | Adherence to equitable geographical representation in all activities o the regular process.
+5. Reasons for these decisions
+This framework largely reflected the recommendations of a group of experts established by the General Assembly in 2005 (UNGA, 2005) and in place by the en of 2006, to carry out (under the guidance of an ad hoc steering group and with th assistance of the lead agencies, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission/United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (IOC-UNESCO)) an “assessment of assessments” reviewing the way in which past assessments, particularly of the marin environment at global and regional levels, had been carried out, in order to establish
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+the approaches which could ensure that assessments under the Regular Proces would be relevant, legitimate and credible — the three necessary conditions for a influential assessment.
+The report of the assessment of assessments (AoA, 2009) summarised th justification for the Regular Process as follows:
+“5.1 Marine ecosystems provide essential support to human well-being. However they are undergoing unprecedented environmental changes, driven by huma activities, and becoming depleted and disrupted... Keeping the world’s oceans an seas under continuing review will help to improve the responses from nationa governments and the international community to the challenges posed by thes changes. Reviews based on sound science can help the world as a whole understan better what is happening, what is causing it, [and] what the impacts are.”
+The report saw an urgent need for a more integrated approach, at the global level a well as at the regional and sub-regional levels. It indicated that such an integrate approach was feasible, and would help to develop a more coherent overview of th state of the global marine environment and its interactions with the world econom and human society. A better understanding is needed of how human activitie themselves interact and cumulatively affect different parts of marine ecosystems Baselines, reference points and reference values would also be needed as a basis fo evaluating status and trends over time. More consistent information, both i coverage and quality, and integrated analyses would improve understanding of th rapid changes that are occurring in the oceans and their possible causes. Th resulting knowledge would facilitate decisions to manage in a sustainable manne human activities affecting the oceans. Assessment is a necessary, integral part o the cycle of adaptive management of human activities that affect the oceans.
+The report went on to explain the benefits from a Regular Process that could be  means for integrating existing information from different disciplines to show ne and emerging patterns and to stimulate further development of the informatio base.
+The elements relevant to the framework established by the General Assembl include actions to:
+(a) Demonstrate the importance of oceans to human life and as  component of the planet;
+(b) Integrate, analyze and assess environmental, social and economi aspects of all oceans components and interactions among all sectors o human activity affecting them; it could thus support sustainable ecosystem-based management throughout the oceans;
+(c) Promote well-designed assessment processes, conducted to the highes standards and fully documented by those responsible for them;
+(d) Promote international collaboration to build capacity;
+(e) Improve the quality, availability, accessibility, interoperability an usefulness of information for ocean assessment; it would also increas consistency in the selection and use of indicators, reference points an reference values;
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+(f) Support better policy and management at the appropriate scale b providing sound and integrated scientific analyses for decision-making b the relevant authorities;
+(g) Build on existing assessment frameworks, processes and institutions an thus provide a base for cooperation among governments and at the leve of international institutions.
+The essential features which differentiate this assessment from earlier assessment are that it is global in scope, that it is to integrate the different sectors that ar involved with the ocean and that it is to integrate environmental, social an economic aspects of the ocean. This is an ambitious project, and it has been clea from the outset that the first assessment of this kind would be breaking new ground and that there would therefore be scope for improvement in future cycles of th Regular Process.
+6. Timing
+In 2009, the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole recommended that the Regula Process should involve a series of cycles and that the first cycle of the Regula Process should cover the five years from 2010 to 2014. This was endorsed by th General Assembly in 2009, on the basis that there would be two phases of the firs cycle, the first phase up to the end of 2012 to agree the issues to be covered and th second phase from 2013 to 2014 to produce the first assessment (AHWGW, 2009 UNGA, 2009).
+7. Modalities
+In 2010, the General Assembly endorsed a series of recommendations from the A Hoc Working Group of the Whole on the modalities for the way in which the work o the Regular Process should be organized and implemented (AHWGW, 2009 AHWGW, 2010; UNGA, 2010). The modalities, consisting of key features, capacity building and institutional arrangements, were developed further in a series o decisions of the General Assembly, on the basis of recommendation of the Ad Ho Working Group of the Whole of the General Assembly (AHWGW, 2011a; UNGA 2011a; AHWGW, 2011b; UNGA, 2011b; AHWGW, 2012; UNGA, 2012; AHWGW 2013; UNGA, 2013; AHWGW, 2014; UNGA, 2014), informed, among other things, b material prepared by the initial group of experts appointed in 2009. Th arrangements for the Group of Experts of the Regular Process were set out in th Terms of Reference and Working Methods (AHWGW, 2012; UNGA, 2012), an various paragraphs of the relevant General Assembly resolutions.
+The main institutional arrangements thus established are as follows:
+(a) The Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole on the Regular Process fo Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marin Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects:
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+The Regular Process is to be overseen and guided by an Ad Hoc Workin Group of the Whole of the General Assembly comprised o representatives of Member States. Relevant intergovernmental and non governmental organizations with consultative status recognized by th Economic and Social Council are to be invited to participate in th meetings of the Ad Hoc Working Group. Relevant scientific institution and major groups identified in Agenda 21 may request an invitation t participate in the meetings of the Ad Hoc Working Group. In 2011, th Ad Hoc Working Group agreed on the establishment of a Bureau to put i practice its decisions and guidance during the intersessional perio (AHWGW, 2011b; UNGA, 2011b).
+(b) The Group of Experts of the Regular Process: The general task of th Group of Experts, as set out in the Terms of Reference and Workin Methods approved by the General Assembly, is “to carry out an assessments within the framework of the Regular Process at the reques of the General Assembly under the supervision of the Ad Hoc Workin Group of the Whole”. It was noted that an assessment would only b carried out at the request of the General Assembly. Within this genera task, the Group of Experts were to draw up a draft implementation pla and timetable, a draft outline of the assessment, proposals for writin teams for each chapter and proposals for independent peer review. Lea Members for each chapter, drawn from the Group of Experts, are to hav a general task of managing each chapter, and a convenor of the writin team from the chapter (who might also be the Lead Member) is to b responsible for ensuring the proper development of the chapter. Th Terms of Reference and Working Methods make clear that the Group o Experts is collectively responsible for the Assessment, and was to agre on a final text of any assessment for submission through the Bureau t the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, and to present that text to th Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole.
+The Group of Experts, originally appointed in 2009 to develop thinking o the “basic building blocks” identified by the Assessment of Assessments were invited to continue for the first cycle of the Regular Proces pursuant to a series of decisions of the General Assembly.
+The Group could be constituted of a maximum of 25 members, fiv appointed by each regional group within the General Assembly. On regional group only made two appointments, and therefore the ful membership of the Group has been 22. In accordance with the Terms o Reference and Working Methods, the Group appointed two coordinator from within its membership, one from a developed country and one fro a developing country. The members of the Group of Experts ar volunteers or are supported by their parent institutions.
+(c) The Pool of Experts: The General Assembly approved criteria for th appointment of experts to a Pool of Experts to assist in the preparatio of the first assessment and to cover the wide range of issues that a assessment of the ocean integrated across sectors and across
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+environmental, social and economic aspects would have to address. Thi assistance would include several distinct potential roles: convenors an members of the writing teams, commentators to enable expertise abou parts of the world not covered by the writing teams to be brought in t the Assessment without making writing teams unmanageably large, an peer reviewers to review the complete draft of the Assessment. Thes experts have been nominated by States through the chairs of th regional groups of the United Nations. In addition, members of th Group of Experts and writing teams could consult widely with relevan experts.
+(d) Secretariat: On the recommendation of the Ad Hoc Working Group o the Whole, the General Assembly requested the Secretary-General t designate the Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea as th secretariat of the Regular Process. Since no additional staff was allocate specifically for this work, the secretariat function has been provided b the existing staff.
+(e) Technical and Scientific Support: Technical and scientific support for th Regular Process has been available from the IOC-UNESCO, UNEP, th International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the Food and Agricultur Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the International Atomi Energy Agency (IAEA). These agencies were invited by the Genera Assembly, together with other competent United Nations specialize agencies, to provide such support as appropriate. A dedicated web-base platform was set up to make information about this Assessment availabl and to provide a means of communication between members of th Group of Experts and the members of the Pool of Experts. Agreemen was reached between Australia, Norway and the United Nation Environment Programme to host such a website at GRID/Arendal i Norway.
+(e) Workshops: In addition to the Pool of Experts, steps were taken t convene workshops as forums where experts (including governmen officials) could make an input to the planning and development of th Assessment. The General Assembly approved guidelines for thes workshops, which were held in Santiago in September 2011 (at th invitation of the Government of Chile), in Sanya in February 2012 (at th invitation of the Government of China), in Brussels in June 2012 (at th invitation of the Government of Belgium, supported by the Europea Union), in Miami in November 2012 (at the invitation of the Governmen of the United States of America), in Maputo in December 2012 (at th invitation of the Government of Mozambique), in Brisbane in Februar 2013 (at the invitation of the Government of Australia), in Grand Bassa in October 2013 (at the invitation of the Government of Céte d'Ivoire and in Chennai in January 2014 (at the invitation of the Government o India). The workshops were open to representatives of all States although participation was mainly from experts in the respective regions Each workshop aimed to consider the scope and methods of this
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+Assessment, the information available in the region where it was held and capacity-building needs in that region. Reports of each worksho were made available on the website of the Division of Ocean Affairs an Law of the Sea and on the website of the first Assessment.
+8. Finance
+The General Assembly decided that the costs of the first cycle of the Regular Proces should be financed from a voluntary trust fund, and invited the Secretary-General t establish such a fund for the purpose of supporting the operations of the first five year cycle of the Regular Process, including for the provision of assistance t members of the Group of Experts from developing countries. The Trust Fund i managed and administered by the Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea Contributions to this fund have been made by Belgium, China, Céte d’Ivoire, Iceland Ireland, Jamaica, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal and the Republic of Korea. I addition, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Céte d’Ilvoire, India, Mozambique the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland an the United States of America have supported workshops in the region and/or th travel and accommodation costs of members of the Group of Experts from thei countries. Generous support to the Regular Process has also been provided financially and technically, by the European Union, IOC-UNESCO and UNEP.
+9. Guidance
+On the advice of the Group of Experts, the Ad Hoc Working Group decided that ther should be comprehensive guidance for the Regular Process. Accordingly it prepare such guidance, covering the responsibilities of the Group of Experts, the members o the Pool of Experts, the writing teams and their convenors, the commentators an the peer reviewers, the approaches to achieve integration and to deal wit uncertainty, risk, ethical questions and style. This was approved by the Genera Assembly (UNGA, 2012), and can be found in AHWGW, 2012.
+10. Collection of information
+When the methods of work were being developed, it was thought that there woul be time for a number of working papers to bring together detailed information an thus to serve as the basis for the preparation of this Assessment. In practice, th time available has not proved sufficient to adopt this approach generally. In som cases, detailed background information has been included in appendices to th relevant chapter.
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+11. Development of the first World Ocean Assessment
+The starting point for each substantive chapter has been the outline developed b the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, on the basis of proposals from the Grou of Experts, approved by the General Assembly (AHWGW, 2012; UNGA, 2012) an slightly amended by the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole in 2014 (AHWGW 2014). The writing teams, constituted as described above, elaborated this outlin and, in some cases, assigned drafting duties within the Group. A draft chapter wa prepared, reviewed by the Lead Member (where not part of the writing team), b other members of the Group of Experts to ensure consistency among chapters, an (in some cases) by a panel of commentators chosen from the Pool of Experts, but no otherwise part of the writing team. The writing teams responded as necessary t comments from these reviews and prepared a consensus draft chapter. Th consensus draft was submitted to the Group of Experts and secretariat. The Grou of Experts collectively reviewed all these consensus draft chapters, in order t ensure consistency and to prepare the synthesis chapters for each Part of thi Assessment and Part | (the summary). An editor overseen by the secretaria reviewed each chapter for format and consistency, raising questions for clarificatio with the writing team where necessary. After any concerns raised by the copy edito had been addressed, the secretariat circulated the entire draft of the firs Assessment for review by States, by a team of peer reviewers assigned by th Bureau of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, on a proposal from the Group o Experts and by intergovernmental organizations. In March 2015, close to 500 comments were received. The Group of Experts and the writing teams the proceeded to respond to the comments and revise the draft chapters accordingly. A the end of April 2015, the Group of Experts met again in New York to discuss th finalization of the responses and the revision of the chapters. Following a review b the secretariat of the responses and revisions, all chapters of the Assessment wer ready for submission to the Bureau by mid-July. The Assessment, including it summary” is to be considered by the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole i September 2015.
+References
+AHWGW (2009). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole t recommend a course of action to the General Assembly on the regular proces for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment including socio-economic aspects, United Nations General Assembl document A/64/347.
+* See A/70/112.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+AHWGW (2010). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/65/358.
+AHWGW (2011a). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/65/759.
+AHWGW (2011b). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/66/189.
+AHWGW (2012). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/67/87.
+AHWGW 2013). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/68/82.
+AHWGW (2014). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/69/77.
+AoA (2009). UNEP and IOC-UNESCO, An Assessment of Assessments, Findings of th Group of Experts. Start-up Phase of a Regular Process for Global Reportin and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment including Socio economic Aspects. (ISBN 978-92-807-2976-4).
+UNGA (2002). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 57/141 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea), paragraph 45.
+UNGA (2005). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 60/30 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea), paragraph 91.
+UNGA (2009). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 64/71 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea).
+UNGA (2010). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 65/37 A (Oceans and th Law of the Sea).
+UNGA (2011a). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 65/37 B (Oceans an the Law of the Sea).
+UNGA (2011b). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 66/231 (Oceans an the Law of the Sea).
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+UNGA (2012). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 67/78 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea).
+UNGA (2013). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 68/70 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea).
+UNGA (2014). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 69/245 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea).
+WSSD (2002). Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002 (United Nation publication, Sales No. E.03.1I.A.1 and corrigendum), chap. |, resolution 2 annex, para. 36 (b).
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+Chapter 4. The Ocean’s Role in the Hydrological Cycle
+Contributors: Deirdre Byrne and Carlos Garcia-Soto (Convenors), Gordon Hamilton Eric Leuliette, LisanYu, Edmo Campos, Paul J. Durack, Giuseppe M.R. Manzella Kazuaki Tadokoro, Raymond W. Schmitt, Phillip Arkin, Harry Bryden, Leonard Nurse John Milliman, Lorna Inniss (Lead Member), Patricio Bernal (Co-Lead Member)
+1. The interactions between the seawater and freshwater segments of th hydrological cycle
+The global ocean covers 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface, and contains 97 per cent o all the surface water on Earth (Costello et al., 2010). Freshwater fluxes into the ocea include: direct runoff from continental rivers and lakes; seepage from groundwater runoff, submarine melting and iceberg calving from the polar ice sheets; melting of se ice; and direct precipitation that is mostly rainfall but also includes snowfall Evaporation removes freshwater from the ocean. Of these processes, evaporation precipitation and runoff are the most significant at the present time.
+Using current best estimates, 85 per cent of surface evaporation and 77 per cent o surface rainfall occur over the oceans (Trenberth et al., 2007; Schanze et al., 2010) Consequently, the ocean dominates the global hydrological cycle. Water leaving th ocean by evaporation condenses in the atmosphere and falls as precipitation completing the cycle. Hydrological processes can also vary in time, and these tempora variations can manifest themselves as changes in global sea level if the net freshwate content of the ocean is altered.
+Precipitation results from the condensation of atmospheric water vapour, and is th single largest source of freshwater entering the ocean (~530,000 km?/yr). The source o water vapour is surface evaporation, which has a maximum over the subtropical ocean in the trade wind regions (Yu, 2007). The equatorward trade winds carry the wate vapour evaporated in the subtropics to the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) nea the equator, where the intense surface heating by the sun causes the warm moist air t rise, producing frequent convective thunderstorms and copious rain (Xie and Arkin 1997). The high rainfall and the high temperature support and affect life in the tropica rainforest (Malhi and Wright, 2011).
+Evaporation is enhanced as global mean temperature rises (Yu, 2007). The water holding capacity of the atmosphere increases by 7 per cent for every degree Celsius o warming, as per the Clausius-Clapeyron relationship. The increased atmospheri moisture content causes precipitation events to change in intensity, frequency, an duration (Trenberth, 1999) and causes the global precipitation to increase by 2-3 pe cent for every degree Celsius of warming (Held and Soden, 2006).
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+Direct runoff from the continents supplies about 40,000 km?/yr of freshwater to th ocean. Runoff is the sum of all upstream sources of water, including continenta precipitation, fluxes from lakes and aquifers, seasonal snow melt, and melting o mountain glaciers and ice caps. River discharge also carries a tremendous amount o solid sediments and dissolved nutrients to the continental shelves.
+The polar ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are the largest reservoirs of freshwate on the planet, holding 7 m and 58 m of the sea-level equivalent, respectively (Vaugha et al., 2013). The net growth or shrinkage of such an ice sheet is a balance between th net accumulation of snow at the surface, the loss from meltwater runoff, and th calving of icebergs and submarine melting at tidewater margins, collectively known a marine ice loss. There is some debate about the relative importance of these in the cas of Greenland. Van den Broeke et al. (2009), show the volume transport to the ocean i almost evenly split between runoff of surface meltwater and marine ice loss. In a mor recent work, Box and Colgan (2013) estimate marine ice loss at about twice the volum of meltwater (see Figure 5 in that article), with both marine ice loss and particularl runoff increasing rapidly since the late 1990s. According to the Arctic Monitoring an Assessment Programme (AMAP, 2011), the annual mass of freshwater being added a the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet (the surface mass balance) has decreased sinc 1990. Model reconstructions suggest a 40% decrease from 350 Gt/y (1970 - 2000) t 200 Gt/y in 2007. Accelerating ice discharge from outlet glaciers since 1995 - 2002 i widespread and has gradually moved further northward along the west coast o Greenland with global warming. According to AMAP (2011), the ice discharge ha increased from the pre-1990 value of 300 Gt/y to 400 Gt/y in 2005.
+Antarctica’s climate is much colder, hence surface meltwater contributions ar negligible and mass loss is dominated by submarine melting and ice flow across th grounding line where this ice meets the ocean floor (Rignot and Thomas, 2002) Freshwater fluxes from ice sheets differ from continental river runoff in two importan respects. First, large fractions of both Antarctic ice sheets are grounded well below se level in deep fjords or continental shelf embayments; therefore freshwater is injecte not at the surface of the ocean but at several hundred meters water depth. This dee injection of freshwater enhances ocean stratification which, in turn, plays a role i ecosystem structure. Second, unlike rivers, which act as a point source for freshwate entering the ocean, icebergs calved at the grounding line constitute a distributed sourc of freshwater as they drift and melt in adjacent ocean basins (Bigg et al., 1997; Enderli and Hamilton, 2014).
+Sea ice is one of the smallest reservoirs of freshwater by volume, but it exhibit enormous seasonal variability in spatial extent as it waxes and wanes over the pola oceans. By acting as a rigid cap, sea ice modulates the fluxes of heat, moisture an momentum between the atmosphere and the ocean. Summertime melting of Arctic se ice is an important source of freshwater flux into the North Atlantic, and episodes o enhanced sea ice export to warmer latitudes farther south give rise to rapid freshenin episodes, such as the Great Salinity Anomaly of the late 1960s (Gelderloos et al., 2012).
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+The spatial distributions of these freshwater fluxes drive important patterns in regiona and global ocean circulation, which are discussed in Chapter 5.
+The Southern Ocean (defined as all ocean area south of 60°S) deserves special mentio due to its role in the storage of heat (and carbon) for the entire planet. The Antarcti Circumpolar Current (ACC) connects the three major southern ocean basins (Sout Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian) and is the largest current by volume in the world. Th ACC flows eastward, circling the globe in a clockwise direction as viewed from the Sout Pole. In addition to providing a lateral connection between the major ocean basin (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific), the Southern Ocean also connects the shallow and deep part of the ocean through a mechanism known as the meridional overturning circulatio (MOC) (Gordon, 1986; Schmitz, 1996, see Figures I-90 and I-91). Because of its capacit to bring deep water closer to the surface, and surface water to depths, the Souther Ocean forms an important pathway in the global transport of heat. Although there is n observational evidence at present, (WG II AR5, 30.3.1, Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014) mode studies indicate with a high degree of confidence that the Southern Ocean will becom more stratified, weakening the surface-to-bottom connection that is the hallmark o present-day Southern Ocean circulation (WG | ARS 12.7.4.3, Collins et al., 2013).  similar change is anticipated in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas (WG | AR5 12.7.4.3 Collins et al., 2013), another region with this type of vertical connection between ocea levels (Wust, 1928). These changes will result in fresher, warmer surface ocean water in the polar and subpolar regions (WGII ARS 30.3.1, Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014; WG | AR 12.7.4.3, Collins et al., 2013), significantly altering their chemistry and ecosystems.
+Imbalances in the freshwater cycle manifest themselves as changes in global sea level Changes in global mean sea level are largely caused by a combination of changes i ocean heat content and exchanges of freshwater between the ocean and continents When water is added to the ocean, global sea level adjusts, rapidly resulting in  relatively uniform spatial pattern for the seasonal ocean mass balance, as compared t the seasonal steric signal, which has very large regional amplitudes (Chambers, 2006) ‘Steric’ refers to density changes in seawater due to changes in heat content an salinity. On annual scales, the maximum exchange of freshwater from land to ocea occurs in the late Northern Hemisphere summer, and therefore the seasonal ocea mass signal is in phase with total sea level with an amplitude of about 7 mm (Chamber et al., 2004). Because most of the ocean is in the Southern Hemisphere, the seasona maximum in the steric component occurs in the late Southern Hemisphere summer when heat storage in the majority of the ocean peaks (Leuliette and Willis, 2011) Because globally averaged sea level variations due to heat content changes largel cancel out between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the size of the steri signal, globally averaged, is only 4mm.
+Globally averaged sea level has risen at 3.2 mm/yr for the past two decades (Church e al., 2011), of which about a third comes from thermal expansion. The remainder is du to fluxes of freshwater from the continents, which have increased as the melting o continental glaciers and ice sheets responds to higher temperatures. Multi-decada fluctuations in equatorial and mid-latitude winds (Merrifield et al., 2012; Moon et al.,
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+2013) cause regional patterns in sea-level trends which are reflected in the E Nifio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) indices in th Pacific (Merrifield et al., 2012; Zhang and Church, 2012) and northern Australia (Whit et al., 2014). Interannual changes in global mean sea level relative to the observed tren are largely linked to exchanges of water with the continents due to changes i precipitation patterns associated largely with the ENSO; this includes a drop of 5 m during 2010-11 and rapid rebound in 2012-13 (Boening et al., 2012; Fasullo et al., 2013).
+Some key alterations are anticipated in the hydrological cycle due to global warming an climate change. Changes that have been identified include shifts in the seasona distribution and amount of precipitation, an increase in extreme precipitation events changes in the balance between snow and rain, accelerated melting of glacial ice, and o course sea-level rise. Although a global phenomenon, it is the impact of sea-level ris along the world’s coastlines that has major societal implications. The impacts of thes changes are discussed in the next Section.
+Changes in the rates of freshwater exchange between the ocean, atmosphere an continents have additional significant impacts. For example, spatial variations in th distribution of evaporation and precipitation create gradients in salinity and heat that i turn drive ocean circulation; ocean freshening also affects ecosystem structure. Thes aspects and their impacts are discussed in Sections 3 and 4.
+Another factor potentially contributing to regional changes in the hydrological cycle ar changes in ocean surface currents. For example, the warm surface temperatures of th large surface currents flowing at the western boundaries of the ocean basins (th Agulhas, Brazil, East Australian, Gulf Stream, and Kuroshio Currents) provide significan amounts of heat and moisture to the atmosphere, with a profound impact on th regional hydrological cycle (e.g., Rouault et al., 2002). Ocean surface currents like thes are forced by atmospheric winds and sensitive to changes in them - stronger winds ca mean stronger currents and an intensification of their effects (WGII AR5 30.3.1, Hoegh Guldberg, 2014), as well as faster evaporation rates. Shifts in the location of winds ca also alter these currents, for example causing the transport of anomalously war waters (e.g., Rouault, 2009). However, despite a well-documented increase in globa wind speeds in the 1990s (Yu, 2007), the overall effect of climate change on winds i complex, and difficult to differentiate observationally from decadal-scale variability, an thus the ultimate effects of these currents on the hydrological cycle are difficult t predict with any high degree of confidence (WGIl ARS 30.3.1, Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014).
+2. Environmental, economic and social implications of ocean warming
+As a consequence of changes in the hydrological cycle, increases in runoff, flooding, an sea-level rise are expected, and their potential impacts on society and natura environment are among the most serious issues confronting humankind, according t the Fifth Assessment Report (ARS) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on
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+Climate Change (IPCC). This report indicates that it is very likely that extreme sea level have increased globally since the 1970s, mainly as a result of global mean sea-level ris due in part to anthropogenic warming causing ocean thermal expansion and glacie melting (WGI ARS 3.7.5, 3.7.6; WGI ARS 10.4.3). In addition, local sea-level changes ar also influenced by several natural factors, such as regional variability in oceanic an atmospheric circulation, subsidence, isostatic adjustment, and coastal erosion, amon others; combined with human perturbations by land-use change and coasta development (WGI AR5 5.3.2). A 4°C warming by 2100 (Betts et al., 2011; predicted b the high-end emissions scenario RPC8.5 in WGI AR5 FAQ12.1) leads to a median sea level rise of nearly 1 m above 1980-1999 levels (Schaeffer et al., 2012).
+The vulnerability of human systems to sea-level rise is strongly influenced by economic social, political, environmental, institutional and cultural factors; such factors in turn wil vary significantly in each specific region of the world, making quantification  challenging task (Nicholls et al., 2007; 2009; Mimura, 2013). Three classes o vulnerability are identified: (i) early impacts (low-lying island states, e.g., Kiribati Maldives, Tuvalu, etc.); (ii) physically and economically vulnerable coastal communitie (e.g., Bangladesh); and (iii) physically vulnerable but economically "rich" coasta communities (e.g., Sydney, New York). Table 1 outlines the main effects of relative sea level rise on the natural system and provides examples of socio-economic syste adaptations.
+It is widely accepted that relative trends in sea-level rise pose a significant threat t coastal systems and low-lying areas around the world, due to inundation and erosion o coastlines and contamination of freshwater reserves and food crops (Nicholls, 2010); i is also likely that sea-level effects will be most pronounced during extreme episodes such as coastal flooding arising from severe storm-induced surges, wave overtoppin and rainfall runoff, and increases in sea level during ENSO events. An increase in globa temperature of 4°C is anticipated to have significant socio-economic effects as sea-leve rise, in combination with increasingly frequent severe storms, will displace population (Field et al., 2012). These processes will also place pressure on existing freshwate resources through saltwater contamination (Nicholls and Cazenave, 2010). Figure  outlines in more detail the effects of sea-level rise on water resources of low-lyin coastal areas.
+Small island countries, such as Kiribati, Maldives and Tuvalu, are particularly vulnerable Beyond this, entire identifiable coherent communities also face risk (e.g., Torres Strai Islanders; Green, 2006). These populations have nowhere to retreat to within thei country and thus have no alternative other than to abandon their country entirely. Th low level of economic activity also makes it difficult for these communities to bear th costs of adaptation. A shortage of data and local expertise required to assess risk related to sea-level rise further complicate their situation. Indeed the response of th island structure to sea-level rise is likely to be complex (Webb and Kench, 2010) Traditional customs are likely to be at risk and poorly understood by outside agencies Yet traditional knowledge is an additional resource that may aid adaptation in suc settings and should be carefully evaluated within adaptation planning. A significant part
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+of the economy of many island nations is based on tourism; this too will be affected b sea-level rise through its direct effects on infrastructure and possibly also indirectly b the reduced availability of financial resources in the market (Scott et al., 2012).
+Coastal regions, particularly some low-lying river deltas, have very high populatio densities. It is estimated that over 150 million people live within 1 metre of the high-tid level, and 250 million within 5 metres of high tide. Because of these high populatio densities (often combined with a lack of long-range urban planning), coastal cities i developing regions are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise in concert with othe effects of climate change (World Bank, 2012).
+Table 1. The main effects of relative sea-level rise on the natural system, interacting factors, and example of socio-economic system adaptations. Some interacting factors (for example, sediment supply) appea twice as they can be influenced both by climate and non-climate factors. Adaptation strategies: P  Protection; A = Accommodation; R = Retreat. Source: based on Nicholls and Tol, 2006.
+Natural System Effects Interacting Factors Socio-economic System Adaptations  Climate Noe-climat 1. Inundation, a. Surge (sea) —wave/stormclimate | — sediment supply — dykes /surge barriers [P flood and storm — erosion —ficodmanagement | — building codes/floodwise buildings [A damage — sediment supply — erosion — land use planning/hazard delineation [A/R — land us b. Backwater effect runoff catchmen (rwer) man land us 2. Wetland loss (and change) CO, fertilization sediment supply land-use planning [A/R — sediment supply — migration space —Mmarniaged realignnent/forbid hard defence direct destruction nourishment/sediment managemen 3. Erosion (direct and indirect sediment supply sediment supply coast defences [P morphological change) —wave/stormclimate — nourishmen — building setbacks [R 4. Saltwater a. Surface Waters runoff catchment Saltwater intrusion barrier Intrusion management — change water abstraction [A/ land us b. Ground-water — rainfall — land use — freshwater injection [P — aquifer use — change water abstraction [A/R 5. Rising water tables/ impeded draii — rainfall — land use -u le drai system " wee — nun-off — aquifer use ~ pole ( mee  — catchment — change land use [A management — land use planning/hazard delineation WR )
+Effects of sea-level rise are projected to be asymmetrical even within regions an countries. Nicholls and Tol (2006), extending the global vulnerability analysis o Hoozemans et al. (1993) on the impacts of and responses to sea-level rise with stor surges over the 21% century, show East Africa (including small island States an countries with extensive coastal deltas) as one of the problematic regions that coul experience major land loss. Dasgupta et al. (2009) undertook a comparative study o the impacts of sea-level rise with intensified storm surges on developing countrie globally in terms of its impacts on land area, population, agriculture, urban extent,
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+major cities, wetlands, and local economies. They based their work on a 10 per cen future intensification of storm surges with respect to current 1-in-100-year storm-surg predictions. They found that Sub-Saharan African countries will suffer considerably fro the impacts. The study estimated that Mozambique, along with Madagascar, Mauritani and Nigeria account for more than half (9,600 km’) of the total increase in the region’ storm-surge zones.
+Of the impacts projected for 31 developing countries, just ten cities account for two thirds of the total exposure to extreme floods. Highly vulnerable cities are found i Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Mozambique, the Philippines Venezuela and Viet Nam (Brecht et al., 2012). Because of the small population of smal islands and potential problems with implementing adaptations, Nicholls et al. (2011 conclude that forced abandonment of these islands seems to be a possible outcom even for small changes in sea level. Similarly, Barnett and Adger (2003) point out tha physical impact might breach a threshold that pushes social systems into complet abandonment, as institutions that could facilitate adaptation collapse.
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+Figure 1. Effects of sea-level rise on water resources of small islands and low-lying coastal areas. Source Based on Oude Essink et al. (1993); Hay and Mimura (2006).
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+Impacts of climate change on the hydrological cycle, and notably on the availability o freshwater resources, have been observed on all continents and many islands. Glacier continue to shrink worldwide, affecting runoff and water resources downstream. Figur 2 shows the changes anticipated by the late 21st century in water runoff into rivers an streams. Climate change is the main driver of permafrost warming and thawing in bot high-latitude and high-elevation mountain regions (IPCC WGIIl AR518.3.1, 18.5). Thi thawing has negative implications for the stability of infrastructure in areas now covere with permafrost.
+Projected heat extremes and changes in the hydrological cycle will in turn affec ecosystems and agriculture (World Bank, 2012). Tropical and subtropical ecoregions i Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to ecosystem damage (Beaumont et al. 2011). For example, with global warming of 4°C (predicted by the high-end emission scenario RPC8.5 in WGI ARS FAQ 12.1), between 25 per cent and 42 per cent of 5,19 African plant species studied are projected to lose all their suitable range by 208 (Midgley and Thuiller, 2011). Ecosystem damage would have the follow-on effect o reducing the ecosystem services available to human populations.
+The Mediterranean basin is another area that has received a lot of attention in regard t the potential impacts of climate change on it. Several modelling groups are taking par in the MedCORDEX (www.medcordex.eu) international effort, in order to bette simulate the Mediterranean hydrological cycle, to improve the modelling tools available and to produce new climate impact scenarios. Hydrological model schemes must b improved to meet the specific requirements of semi-arid climates, accounting i particular for the related seasonal soil water dynamics and the complex surface subsurface interactions in such regions (European Climate Research Alliance, 2011).
+Even the most economically resilient of States will be affected by sea-level rise, a adaptation measures will need to keep pace with ongoing sea-level rise (Kates et al. 2012). As a consequence, the impacts of sea-level rise will also be redistributed throug the global economic markets as insurance rates increase or become unviable and thes costs are passed on to other sectors of the economy (Abel et al., 2011).
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+Change in Runoff (percent)
+-40 -20 0 20 40
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 2. Changes in water runoff into rivers and streams are another anticipated consequence of climat change by the late 21st Century. This map shows predicted increases in runoff in blue, and decreases i brown and red. (Map by Robert Simmon, using data from Milly et al., 2005; Graham et al., 2010; NAS Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.)
+3. Chemical composition of seawater
+3.1 Salinity
+Surface salinity integrates the signals of freshwater sources and sinks for the ocean, an if long-term (decadal to centennial) changes in salinity are considered, this provides  way to investigate associated changes in the hydrological cycle. Many studies hav assessed changes to ocean salinity over the long term; of these, four have considere changes on a global scale from the near-surface to the sub-surface ocean (Boyer et al. 2005; Hosoda et al., 2009; Durack and Wijffels, 2010; Good et al., 2013). These studie independently concluded that alongside broad-scale ocean warming associated wit climate change, shifts in ocean salinities have also occurred. These shifts, which ar calculated using methods such as objective analysis from the sparse historical observin system, suggest that at the surface, high-salinity subtropical ocean regions and th entire Atlantic basin have become more saline, and low-salinity regions, such as th western Pacific Warm Pool, and high-latitude regions have become even fresher ove the period of analysis (Figure 3). Significant regional-scale differences may be ascribe to the paucity of observational data, particularly in the pre-Argo era, the difference i temporal period over which each analysis was conducted, and differences i methodology and data selection criteria.
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+Despite regional differences, the broad-scale patterns of change suggest that long-term coherent changes in salinity have occurred over the observed record, and thi conclusion is also supported by shifts in salinity apparent in the subsurface ocea (Figure 4). These subsurface changes also show that spatial gradients of salinity withi the ocean interior have intensified, and that at depth, salinity-minimum (intermediate waters have become fresher, and salinity-maximum waters have become saltier (Durac and Wijffels, 2010; Helm et al., 2010; Skliris et al., 2014). Taken together, this evidenc suggests intensification of the global hydrological cycle; this is consistent with what i expected from global warming (see Section 1). Actual changes in the hydrological cycl may be even more intense than indicated by patterns of surface salinity anomalies, a these may be spread out and reduced in intensity by being transported (advected) b ocean currents. For example, the work of Hosoda et al. (2009) and Nagano et al. (2014 indicates that large (ENSO-scale) salinity anomalies are rapidly transported from th central Pacific to the northwestern North Pacific (the Kuroshio Extension region).
+Latitude
+Latitude
+0 60E 120E 180 120W 60w 00 60E 120E 180 120W 6ow  Longitude Longitude
+-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 3. Four long-term estimates of global sea-surface salinity (SSS) change according to (A) Durac and Wijffels (2010; OAmerican Meteorological Society. Used with permission.), analysis period 1950 2008; (B) Boyer et al. (2005), analysis period 1955-1998; (C) Hosoda et al. (2009), analysis perio 1975-2005; and (D) Good et al. (2013), analysis period 1950-2012; all are scaled to represen equivalent magnitude changes over a 50-year period (PSS-78 50-year"). Black contours show th associated climatological mean SSS for the analysis period. Broad-scale similarities exist betwee each independent analysis of long-term change, and suggest an increase in spatial gradients o salinity has occurred over the period of analysis. However, regional-scale differences are due t differences in data sources, temporal periods of analysis, and analytical methodologies.
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+Q 1500  rer |A Dwi0 B Bo 70S 50S 30S 10S 10N 30N 50N 70N 70S 50S 30S 10S 10N 30N 50N 70N 70S 50S 30S 10S 10N 30N 50N 70 Latitude Latitude Latitud -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 4. Three long-term estimates of global zonal mean subsurface salinity changes according to (A Durack and Wijffels (2010; OAmerican Meteorological Society. Used with permission.), analysi period 1950-2008; (B) Boyer et al. (2005), analysis period 1955-1998; and (C) Good et al (2013),analysis period 1950-2012; all scaled to represent equivalent magnitude changes over a 50 year period (PSS-78 50-year"). Black contours show the associated climatological mean subsurfac salinity for the analysis period. Broad-scale similarities also exist in the subsurface salinity changes which suggest a decreasing salinity in ocean waters fresher than the global average, and an increasin salinity in waters saltier than the global average. However, regional differences, particularly in th high-latitude regions, are due to limited data sources, different temporal periods of analysis an different analytical methodologies.
+3.2 Nutrients
+Many different nutrients are required as essential chemical elements that organism need to survive and reproduce in the ocean. Macronutrients, needed in large quantities include calcium, carbon, nitrogen, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, silicon an sulphur; micronutrients like iron, copper and zinc are needed in lesser quantities (Smit and Smith, 1998). Macronutrients provide the bulk energy for an organism's metaboli system to function, and micronutrients provide the necessary co-factors for metabolis to be carried out. In aquatic systems, nitrogen and phosphorus are the two nutrient that most commonly limit the maximum biomass, or growth, of algae and aquatic plant (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Environment Monitorin System (GEMS) Water Programme, 2008). Nitrate is the most common form of nitroge and phosphate is the most common form of phosphorus found in natural waters. On th other hand, one of arguably the most important groups of marine phytoplankton is th diatom. Recent studies, for example, Brzezinski et al., (2011), show that marine diatom are significantly limited by iron and silicic acid.
+About 40 per cent of the world’s population lives within a narrow fringe of coastal lan (about 7.6 per cent of the Earth’s total land area; United Nations Environmen Programme, 2006). Land-based activities are the dominant source of marine nutrients,
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+especially for fixed nitrogen, and include: agricultural runoff (fertilizer), atmospheri releases from fossil-fuel combustion, and, to a lesser extent, from agricultural fertilizers manure, sewage and industrial discharges (Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects o Marine Environmental Protection, 2001; Figure 5).
+An imbalance in the nutrient input and uptake of an aquatic ecosystem changes it structure and functions (e.g., Arrigo, 2005). Excessive nutrient input can seriousl impact the productivity and biodiversity of a marine area (e.g., Tilman et al., 2001) conversely, a large reduction in natural inputs of nutrients (caused by, e.g., dammin rivers) can also adversely affect the productivity of coastal waters. Nutrient enrichmen between 1960-1980 in the developed regions of Europe, North America, Asia an Oceania has resulted in major changes in adjacent coastal ecosystems.
+Nitrogen flow into the ocean is a good illustration of the magnitude of changes i anthropogenic nutrient inputs since the industrial revolution. These flows hav increased 15-fold in North Sea watersheds, 11-fold in the North Eastern USA, 10-fold i the Yellow River basin, 5.7-fold in the Mississippi River basin, 5-fold in the Baltic Se watersheds, 4.1-fold in the Great Lakes/St Lawrence River basin, and 3.7-fold in South Western Europe (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). It is expected that globa nitrogen exports by rivers to the oceans will continue to rise. Projections for 2030 sho an increase of 14 per cent compared to 1995. By 2030, global nitrogen exports by river are projected to be 49.7 Tg/yr; natural sources will contribute 57 per cent of the total agriculture 34 per cent, and sewage 9 per cent (Bouwman et al., 2005). An example o this is discussed in Box 1.
+Box 1: Example — Nutrients in the Pacific region
+The Pacific Ocean basins form the largest of the mid-latitude oceans. In addition, th subarctic North Pacific Ocean is one of the most nutrient-rich areas of the worl ocean; in 2013, the most recent year for which statistics have been compiled, th North Pacific (north of 40° N) provided 30% of the world's capture, by weight, o ocean fish (FAO, 2015). Many oceanographic experiments have been carried ou over the last half century in the North Pacific Ocean; studies based on these dataset reveal the decadal-scale variation of nutrient concentrations in the surface an subsurface (intermediate) layers, as seen in Figure 6.
+A linearly increasing trend of nutrient concentrations (nitrate and phosphate) ha been observed in the intermediate waters in a broad area of the North Pacifi (Figure 6b); Ono et al., 2001; Watanabe et al., 2003; 2008; Tadokoro et al., 2009 Guo et al., 2012; Whitney et al., 2013). Conversely, the concentration of nutrients i the surface layer has decreased (Figure 6a; Freeland, 1997; Ono et al., 2002; 2008 Watanabe et al., 2005; 2008; Aoyama et al., 2008, Tadokoro et al., 2009; Whitney,
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+2011). Surface nutrients are primarily supplied by the subsurface ocean through  process known as "vertical mixing", an exchange between surface and subsurfac waters. Vertical mixing is partly dependent on the differences in density betwee adjacent ocean layers: layers closer to one another in density mix more easily.
+A significant increase in temperature and a corresponding decrease in salinity (se above) have been observed during the last half-century in the upper layer of th North Pacific (IPCC, 2013, WG1 ARS). These changes are in the direction o increased stratification in the upper ocean and thus it is possible that this increase stratification has caused a corresponding decrease in the vertical mixing rate.
+Superimposed on the linear trends, nutrient concentrations in the ocean have als exhibited decadal-scale variability, which is evident in both surface and subsurfac waters (Figure 6c). Unlike the linear trends, the decadal-scale variability appeare synchronized between the surface and subsurface layers in the western Nort Pacific (Tadokoro et al., 2009). These relationships suggest that the mechanism producing the trends and more cyclical variability are different.
+4. Environmental, economic and social implications of changes in salinity an nutrient content
+4.1 Salinity
+Although changes to ocean salinity do not directly affect humanity, changes in th hydrological cycle that are recorded in the changing patterns of ocean salinity certainl do. Due to the scarcity of hydrological cycle observations over the ocean, and th uncertainties associated with these measurements, numerous studies have linke salinity changes to the global hydrological cycle by using climate models (Durack et al. 2012; 2013; Terray et al., 2012) or reanalysis products (Skliris et al., 2014). However these studies only considered long-term salinity changes, and not changes that occur o interannual to decadal time-scales. These latter scales are strongly affected by climati variability (Yu, 2011; Vinogradova and Ponte, 2013). As mentioned in Section 3, thes studies collectively conclude that changes to the patterns of ocean salinity are likely du to the intensification of the hydrological cycle, in particular patterns of evaporation an rainfall at the ocean surface. This result concurs well with the “rich-get-richer mechanism proposed in earlier studies, suggesting that terrestrial “dry” zones wil become dryer and terrestrial “wet” zones will become wetter due to ongoing climat change (Chou and Neelin, 2004; Held and Soden, 2006).
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+
+4.2 Nutrients
+Marine environments are unsteady systems, whose response to climate-induced o anthropogenic changes is difficult to predict. As a result, no published studies quantif long-term trends in ocean nutrient concentrations. However, it is well understood tha imbalances in nutrient concentration cause widespread changes in the structure an functioning of ecosystems, which, in turn, have generally negative impacts on habitats food webs and species diversity, including economically important ones; such advers effects include: general degradation of habitats, destruction of coral reefs and sea-gras beds; alteration of marine food-webs, including damage to larval or other life stages mass mortality of wild and/or farmed fish and shellfish, and of mammals, seabirds an other organisms.
+Among the effects of nutrient inputs into the marine environment it is important t mention the link with marine pH. The production of excess algae from increase nutrients has the effect, inter alia, to release CO2 from decaying organic matter derivin from eutrophication (Hutchins et al., 2009; Sunda and Cai, 2012). The effects of thes acidification processes, combined with those deriving from increasing atmospheric CO2 can reduce the time available to coastal managers to adopt approaches to avoid o minimize harmful effects on critical ecosystem services, such as fisheries and tourism Globally, the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers has continued to increase (Galloway e al., 2008) accompanied by increasing eutrophication of coastal waters and degradatio of coastal ecosystems (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Seitzinger et al., 2010; Kim et al. 2011), and amplification of CO2 drawdown (Borges and Gypens, 2010; Provoost et al. 2010). In addition, atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic fixed nitrogen may no account for up to about 3 per cent of oceanic new production, and this nutrient sourc is projected to increase (Duce et al., 2008).
+Figure 5 (a 80 0.3 70 0.2 60 0.2 50 0.2 40 0.2 30 0.1 20 0.1 10 0.1 0 0.12
+1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
+Figure 5 (b)
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+250 2020
+1989-199 200 1959-1960
+ oO = 15 g  ®  2 10  S =
+50
+World Sub-Saharan Latin West Asia South East Developing Develope total Africa America North Africa Asia Asia countries countries
+Figure 5 (a) Trends in annual rates of application of nitrogenous fertilizer (N) expressed as mass of N and of phosphate fertilizer (P) expressed as mass of P2Os, for all States of the world except for man of the countries belonging to the United Nations regional group of Eastern European States and th former USSR (scale on the left in 10° metric tons), and trends in global total area of irrigated crop lan (H20) (scale on the right in 109 hectares ). Source: Tilman et al., 2001. Figure 5 (b) Estimated growt in fertilizer use, 1960-2020. From GESAMP (2001). Source: Bumb and Baanante, 1996.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+a
+/
+L f Geanteeennon tects 2 ayes 43
+!"East China Sea 7, e kutoshio-Oyashio Central North Pacific 2.3 ~ ~Kuroshio-Oyashio Transitio transition water 5 OF pr a-~ 6 os cy
+@ sxv0pca waters
+@rvcpica water
+Gulf of Alaska 8
+este Noah Pace  @oyastios, 8 10 _— Year(+1900 © (cerccti.0yea— Cenal Noth Paci 8 _— :  \ transition water 5 — — —
+. _
+\ _
+sa of Japan 10,
+60_78~ 80 90 100 “110 60 7080 90 100 110
+7
+East China Sea 1)
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 6. Synthesis of the decadal-scale change in nutrient concentrations in the North Pacific Ocea in the last fifty years. (a) The blue area shows the waters for which a decreasing trend in nutrien concentrations was reported in the surface layer. (b) The pink area shows the waters for which a increasing trend in nutrient concentrations was reported in the subsurface. (c) Example of th nutrient change in the North Pacific Ocean. Five-year running mean of the annual mea concentration (mmol m?) of Phosphate concentration in the surface and North Pacific Intermediat Water (NPIW) of the Oyashio and Kuroshio-Oyashio transition waters from the mid-1950s to earl 2010. (Time series from Tadokoro et al., 2009). Blue broken lines indicate statistically significan trends of PO,. Thin green broken lines represent the index of diurnal tidal strength represented b the sine curve of the 18.6-yr cycle.’ The numbers following each area name indicate the reference literature: (1) Freeland et al., (1997); (2) Ono et al., (2008); (3) Whitney (2011); (4) Ono et al., (2002) (5) Tadokoro et al., (2009); (6) Watanabe et al., (2005); (7) Aoyama et al., (2008); (8) Watanabe et al. (2008); (9) Ono et al., (2001); (10) Watanabe et al., (2003); (11) Guo et al., (2012).
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
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+Scott, D., Simpson, M.C., and Sim, R. (2012). The vulnerability of Caribbean coasta tourism to scenarios of climate change related sea level rise, Journal o Sustainable Tourism, 20:883-898. Doi: 10.1080/09669582.2012.699063.
+Seitzinger, S. P., et al. (2010). Global river nutrient export: A scenario analysis of pas and future trends. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 24, DOI 10.1029/2009GB003587.
+Skliris, N., Marsh, R., Josey, S.A., Good, S.A., Liu, C., and Allan, R.P. (2014). Salinit changes in the World Ocean since 1950 in relation to changing surfac freshwater fluxes. Climate Dynamics,43:709-736. doi: 10.1007/s00382-014-2131 7.
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+
+Smith R.L., and Smith, T.M., (1998). Elements of Ecology, Pearson, Benjamin Cummings San Francisco, USA.
+Sunda, W.G. and Cai, W.-J. (2012). Eutrophication Induced CO2 Acidification o Subsurface Coastal Waters: Interactive Effects of Temperature, Salinity, an Atmospheric PCO2, Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, October.
+Tadokoro, K., Ono, T., Yasuda, |., Osafune, S., Shiomoto, A., and Sugisaki, H. (2009 Possible mechanisms of decadal-scale variation in PO4 concentration in th western North Pacific, Geophysical Research Letters, 36, LO8606 doi:10.1029/2009GL037327.
+Tilman, D., Fargione, Wolff, B., D'Antonio, C., Dobson, A., Howarth, R., Schindler, D. Schlesinger, W.H., Simberloff, D., and Swackhamer, D. (2001) Forecastin Agriculturally Driven Global Environmental Change, Science, 292, 13 April 2001.
+Terray, L., Corre, L., Cravatte, S., Delcroix, T., Reverdin, G., and Ribes, A. (2012) Near Surface Salinity as Nature’s Rain Gauge to Detect Human Influence on th Tropical Water Cycle. Journal of Climate, 25 (3), pp 958-977. doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D 10-05025.1
+Trenberth, K.E., (1999). Conceptual framework for changes of extremes of th hydrological cycle with climate change. Climatic Change, 42, 327-339.
+Trenberth, K.E., Smith, L., Qian, T., Dai, A., and Fasullo, J. (2007). Estimates of the Globa Water Budget and Its Annual Cycle Using Observational and Model Data. Journa of Hydrometeorology, 8, 758-769. doi: 10.1175/JHM600.1.
+United Nations Environment Programme (2006). The State of the Marine Environment:  regional assessment. Global Programme of Action for the Protection of th Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, United Nations Environmen Programme, The Hague.
+UNEP Global Environment Monitoring System Water Programme (2008). Water Qualit for Ecosystem and Human Health, 120 pp., Ontario, Canada.
+Van den Broeke, M.R., Bamber, J.L., Ettema, J., Rignot, E. Schrama, E., van de Berg, W.J. Velicogna, |., and Wouters, B. (2009). Partitioning recent Greenland mass loss Science, 326(5955), 984-986.
+Vaughan, D.G., Comiso, J.C., Allison, |., Carrasco, J., Kaser, G., Kwok, R., Mote, P. Murray, T., Paul, F., Ren, J., Rignot, E., Solomina, O., Steffen, K., and Zhang, T (2013). Observations: Cryosphere. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Scienc Basis. Contribution of Working Group | to the Fifth Assessment Report of th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Stocker, T.F., Qin, D.,
+Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V. and Midgley, P.M. (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1535 pp.
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+
+Vinogradova, N.T. and Ponte, R.M. (2013). Clarifying the link between surface salinit and freshwater fluxes on monthly to inter-annual timescales. Journal o Geophysical Research, 108 (6), pp 3190-3201, doi: 10.1002/jgrc.20200.
+Watanabe, Y.W., Wakita, M., Maeda, N., Ono, T., and Gamo, T. (2003). Synchronou bidecadal periodic changes of oxygen, phosphate and temperature between th Japan Sea deep water and the North Pacific intermediate water, Geophysica Research Letters, 30(24), 2273, doi:10.1029/2003GL018338.
+Watanabe, Y.W., Ishida, H., Nakano, T., and Nagai, N. (2005) Spatiotemporal Decrease of Nutrients and Chlorophyll-a in the Surface Mixed Layer of the Western Nort Pacific from 1971 to 2000. Journal of Oceanography, 61, 1011-16.
+Watanabe, Y.W., Shigemitsu, M., and Tadokoro, K. (2008). Evidence of a change i oceanic fixed nitrogen with decadal climate change in the North Pacific subpola region, Geophysical Research Letters, 35(1), L01602, doi:10.1029/2007GL032188.
+Webb, A.P. and Kench, P.S. (2010). The dynamic response of reef islands to sea-leve rise: Evidence from multi-decadal analysis of island change in the Central Pacific Global and Planetary Change, 72: 234-246 dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.05.003.
+White, N.J., Haigh, 1.D., Church, J.A., Koen, T., Watson, C.S., Pritchard, T.R., Watson, P.J. Burgette, R.J., McInnes, K.L., You, Z.-J., Zhang, X., Tregoning, P. (2014). Australia sea levels—Trends, regional variability and influencing factors. Earth-Scienc Reviews, 136, 155-74, doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.011.
+Whitney, F.A. (2011) Nutrient variability in the mixed layer of the subarctic Pacifi Ocean, 1987-2010, Journal of Oceanography., 67, 481-92, doi:10.1007/s10872 011-0051-2.
+Whitney, F.A., Bograd, S.J., and Ono, T. (2013) Nutrient enrichment of the subarcti Pacific Ocean pycnocline, Geophysical Research Letters, 40, 2200-2205 doi:10.1002/grl.50439.
+World Bank. (2012). Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4 °C Warmer World must be Avoide (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics) http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Full_Report_V |_2_Turn_Down_The_Heat_%20Climate_Extremes_Regional_Impacts_Case_for Resilience_Print%20version_FINAL.pdf, last accessed on 2014-07-18.
+Wist, G. (1928). Der Ursprung der Atlantischen Tiefenwassar. Jubilaums’ Sonderband Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.
+Xie, P., and Arkin, P.A. (1997). Global precipitation: A 17-year monthly analysis based o gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs. Bulletin o the American Meteorological Society, 78(11), 2539-2558.
+Yu, L., (2007). Global variations in oceanic evaporation (1958-2005): The role of th changing wind speed. Journal of Climate, 20(21), 5376-90.
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+
+Yu, L. (2011). A global relationship between the ocean water cycle and near-surfac salinity. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116 (C10), C10025. doi 10.1029/2010JC006937
+Zhang, X., and J.A. Church, (2012). Sea level trends, interannual and decadal variability i the Pacific Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(21), L21701 doi:10.1029/2012GL053240.
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+Chapter 5. Sea-Air Interactions
+Contributors: Jeremy T. Mathis (Convenor), Jose Santos, Renzo Mosetti Alberto Mavume, Craig Stevens, Regina Rodrigues, Alberto Piola, Chris Reason Patricio A. Bernal (Co-Lead member), Lorna Inniss (Co-Lead member)
+1. Introduction
+From the physical point of view, the interaction between these two turbulent fluids, th ocean and the atmosphere, is a complex, highly nonlinear process, fundamental to th motions of both. The winds blowing over the surface of the ocean transfer momentu and mechanical energy to the water, generating waves and currents. The ocean in tur gives off energy as heat, by the emission of electromagnetic radiation, by conduction and, in latent form, by evaporation.
+The heat flux from the ocean provides one of the main energy sources for atmospheri motions. This source of energy for the atmosphere is affected by the turbulence at th air/sea interface, and by the spatial distribution of the centres of high and low energ transfer affected by the ocean currents. This coupling takes place through processe that fundamentally occur at small scales. The strength of this coupling depends on air sea differences in several factors and therefore has geographic and temporal scales ove a broad range. At these small scales on the sea-surface interface itself, waves, winds water temperature and salinity, bubbles, spray and variations in the amount of sola radiation that reaches the ocean surface, and other factors, affect the transfer o properties and energy.
+In the long term, the convergence and divergence of oceanic heat transport provid sources and sinks of heat for the atmosphere and partly shape the mean climate of th earth. Analyzing whether these processes are changing due to anthropogenic influence and the potential impact of these changes is the subject of this chapter. Followin guidance from the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, much of the informatio presented here is based on or derives from the very thorough analysis conducted by th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for its recent Fifth Assessmen Report (ARS).
+The atmosphere and the ocean form a coupled system, exchanging at the air-se interface gases, water (and water vapour), particles, momentum and energy. Thes exchanges affect the biology, the chemistry and the physics of the ocean and influenc its biogeochemical processes, weather and climate (exchanges affecting the water cycl are addressed in Chapter 4).
+From a biogeochemical point of view, gas and chemical exchanges between the ocean and the atmosphere are important to life processes. Half of the Global Net Primar Production of the world is by phytoplankton and other marine plants, uptaking CO2 an releasing oxygen (Field et al., 1998; Falkowski and Raven, 1997). Phytoplankton is
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+therefore also responsible for half of the annual production of oxygen by plants and through the generation of organic matter, is at the basis of most marine food webs i the ocean. Oxygen production by plants is a critical ecosystem service that keep atmospheric oxygen from otherwise declining. However, in many regions of the ocean phytoplankton growth is limited by a deficit of iron in seawater. Most of the iro alleviating this limitation reaches the ocean through wind-borne dust from the desert of the world.
+Gas and chemical exchanges between the atmosphere and ocean are also important t climate change processes. For example, marine phytoplankton produces dimethy sulphide (DMS), the most abundant biological sulphur compound emitted to th atmosphere (Kiene et al., 1996). DMS is oxidized in the marine atmosphere to for various sulphur-containing compounds, including sulphuric acid, which influence th formation of clouds. Through this interaction with cloud formation, the massiv production of atmospheric DMS over the ocean may have an impact on the earth' climate. The absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere at the sea surface is responsibl for the fundamental role of the ocean as a carbon sink (see section 3 below).
+2. Heat flux and temperature
+2.1 Sea-Surface Temperature
+Sea-surface temperature (SST) has been measured in surface waters by a variety o methods that have changed significantly over time. Furthermore the spatial patterns o SST change are difficult to interpret. Nevertheless a robust trend emerges from thes historical series after careful inspection and analysis of the datasets. Figure 1 shows th historical SST trend instrumentally observed using the best datasets of spatiall interpolated products, contrasted against the 1961 — 1990 climatology. Changes in SS are reported in this section and in Chapter 2 of the IPCC (Hartmann et al., 2013).
+The IPCC in ARS concluded that ‘recent’ warming (since the 1950s) is strongly evident i SST at all latitudes of each ocean. Prominent spatio-temporal structures, including the E Nifio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), decadal variability patterns in the Pacific Ocean, and  hemispheric asymmetry in the Atlantic Ocean, were highlighted as contributors to th regional differences in surface warming rates, which in turn affect atmospheri circulation (Hartmann et al., 2013).
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+—— COBE ——ERSST HadISS —-—HadSST3 ve HadNMAT2
+Temperature anomaly (°C)
+1850 1900 1950 2000
+Figure 1. Global annual average sea surface temperature (SST) and Night Marine Air Temperature (NMAT relative to a 1961-1990 climatology from state of the art data sets. Spatially interpolated products ar shown by solid lines; non-interpolated products by dashed lines. From Hartmann et al. 2013, Fig. 2.18.
+“It is certain that global average sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have increased sinc the beginning of the 20th century. (...) Intercomparisons of new SST data record obtained by different measurement methods, including satellite data, have resulted i better understanding of uncertainties and biases in the records. Although thes innovations have helped highlight and quantify uncertainties and affect ou understanding of the character of changes since the mid-20" century, they do not alte the conclusion that global SSTs have increased both since the 1950s and since the lat 19" century.” (Hartmann et al., 2013).
+2.2 Changes in sea-surface temperature (SST) as inferred from subsurfac measurements.
+Upper ocean temperature (hence heat content) varies over multiple time scales including seasonal, interannual (e.g., associated with El Nifio), decadal and centennia (Rhein et al., 2013). Depth-averaged (0 to 700 m) ocean-temperature trends from 197 to 2010 are positive over most of the globe. The warming is more prominent in th Northern Hemisphere, especially in the North Atlantic. This result holds true in differen analyses, using different time periods, bias corrections and data sources (e.g., with o without XBT or MBT data’) (Rhein et al. 2013). Zonally averaged upper-ocea temperature trends show warming at nearly all latitudes and depths (Figure 2a) However, the greater volume of the Southern Hemisphere ocean increases th contribution of its warming to the global heat content (Rhein et al., 2013). Stronges warming is found closest to the sea surface, and the near-surface trends are consistent
+* XBT are expendable bathythermographs, probes that using electronic solid-state transducers registe temperature and pressure while they free fall through the water column. MBT are their mechanica predecessors, that lowered on a wire suspended from a ship, used a metallic thermocouple as transducer © 2016 United Nations  
+
+with independently measured SST (Hartmann et al., 2013). The global average warmin over this period is 0.11 [0.09 to 0.13] °C per decade in the upper 75 m, decreasing t 0.015°C per decade by 700 m (Figure 2c) (Rhein et al 2013).
+The globally averaged temperature difference between the ocean surface and 200  increased by about 0.25°C from 1971 to 2010. This change, which corresponds to a 4 pe cent increase in density stratification, is widespread in all the oceans north of abou 40°S. Increased stratification will potentially diminish the exchanges between th interior and the surface layers of the ocean; this will limit, for example, the input o nutrients from below into the illuminated surface layer and of oxygen from above int the deeper layers. These changes might in turn result in reduced productivity an increased anoxic waters in many regions of the world ocean (Capotondi et al., 2012).
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+70 80°S 60°S 40°S 20°S 0°S 20° (c) Latitude
+1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
+(a,b) Temp. trend (°C per decade (c) Temp. anom. (°C o
+= 0.1 6.7 -0. -0.25
+6.3 -0.3
+d  g 6.  3d 61
+Year
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 2. (a) Depth-averaged (0 to 700) m ocean-temperature trend for 1971-2010 (longitude vs. latitude colours and grey contours in degrees Celsius per decade); (b) Zonally averaged temperature trend (latitude vs. depth, colours and grey contours in degree Celsius per decade) for 1971-2010 with zonall averaged mean temperature over-plotted (black contours in degrees Celsius). Both North (25-652N) an South (south of 30°S), the zonally averaged warming signals extend to 700 m and are consistent wit poleward displacement of the mean temperature field. Zonally averaged upper-ocean temperature trend show warming at nearly all latitudes and depths (Figure 2 (b). A relative maximum in warming appear south of 30°S. (c) Globally averaged temperature anomaly (time vs. depth, colours and grey contours i degrees Celsius) relative to the 1971-2010 mean; (d) Globally averaged temperature difference betwee the ocean surface and 200 m depth (black: annual values, red: 5-year running mean). All panels ar constructed from an update of the annual analysis of Levitus et al. (2009). From Rhein et al. (2013) Fig 3.1.
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+2.3 Upper Ocean Heat Content (UOHC)
+The ocean’s large mass and high heat capacity allow it to store huge amounts of energy more than 1000 times that found in the atmosphere for an equivalent increase i temperature. The earth is absorbing more heat than it is emitting back into space, an nearly all this excess heat is entering the ocean and being stored there.
+The upper ocean (0 to 700 m) heat content increased during the 40-year period fro 1971 to 2010. Published rates range from 74 TW to 137 TW (1 TW = 10” watts), whil an estimate of global upper (0 to 700 m depth) ocean heat content change, using ocea statistics to extrapolate to sparsely sampled regions and estimate uncertaintie (Domingues et al., 2008), gives a rate of increase of global upper ocean heat content o 137 TW (Rhein, et al. 2013). Warming of the ocean accounts for about 93 per cent of th increase in the Earth’s energy inventory between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence) Melting ice (including Arctic sea ice, ice sheets and glaciers) and warming of th continents and atmosphere account for the remainder of the change in energy (Rhein e al. 2013). Global integrals of 0 to 700 m upper ocean heat content (UOHC) (Figure 3. estimated from ocean temperature measurements all show a gain from 1971 to 201 (Rhein et al. 2013).
+(a)
+  o
+0-700 m OHC (ZJ °
+155 Levitu 5 Ishii  8 Domingue 9 Palme = Smith
+ 6
+-100 T T 7 7  1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
+Year
+Figure 3. Observation-based estimates of annual global mean upper (0 to 700 m) ocean heat content in Z (1Z= 107 Joules) updated from (see legend): Levitus et al. (2012), Ishii and Kimoto (2009), Domingues e al. (2008), Palmer et al. (2009; O©American Meteorological Society. Used with permission.) and Smith an Murphy (2007). Uncertainties are shaded and plotted as published (at the one standard error level, othe than one standard deviation for Levitus, with no uncertainties provided for Smith). Estimates are shifte to align for 2006-2010, 5 years that are well measured by the ARGO Program of autonomous profilin floats, and then plotted relative to the resulting mean of all curves for 1971, the starting year for tren calculations.
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+2.4 The ocean’s role in heat transport
+Solar energy is unevenly distributed over the earth’s surface, leading to excess hea reaching the tropics and a heat deficit in latitudes poleward of about 40° in eac hemisphere. The heat balance, and therefore a relatively stable climate, is maintaine through the meridional redistribution, or flux, of heat by the atmosphere and the ocean Quantification and understanding of this heat content and its redistribution have bee achieved through diverse methods, including international programmes maintainin instrumented moorings, transoceanic lines of XBTs, satellite observations, numerica modelling and, more recently, the ARGO Program of autonomous profiling instrument (Abraham et al., 2013; von Schuckmann and Le Traon, 2011).
+In the latitude band between 25°N and 25°S, the atmospheric and oceanic contribution to the meridional heat fluxes are similar, and the atmosphere dominates at highe latitudes. In the ocean, the heat flux is accomplished by contributions from the wind driven circulation in the upper ocean, by turbulent eddies, and by the Meridiona Overturning Circulation (MOC). The MOC is a component of ocean circulation that i driven by density contrasts, rather than by winds or tides, and one which exhibits  pronounced vertical component, with dense water sinking at high latitudes, offset b broadly distributed upwelling at lower ones. As distinct circulation patterns characteriz each of the ocean basins, their individual contributions to the meridional heat flux diffe significantly. Estimates indicate that, on a yearly average, the global oceans carry 1- PW (1PW=10"°W) of heat from the tropics to higher latitudes, with somewhat highe transports to the northern hemisphere (Fasullo and Trenberth, 2008).
+Most of the heat excess due to increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases goes into th ocean (IPCC, 2013). Although all ocean basins have warmed during the last decades, th increase in heat content is not uniform; the increase in heat content in the Atlanti during the last four decades exceeds that of the Pacific and Indian Oceans combine (Levitus et al., 2009; Palmer and Haines, 2009). Enhanced northward heat flux in th subtropical South Atlantic, which includes heat driven from the subtropical Indian Ocea through the Agulhas Retroflection, may have contributed to the larger increase in hea content in the Atlantic Ocean compared with other basins (Abraham et al., 2013; Lee e al., 2011).
+Numerical simulations also indicate that changes in ocean heat fluxes are the mai mechanism responsible for the observed temperature fluctuations in the subtropica and subpolar North Atlantic (Grist et al., 2010).
+Meridional heat flux estimates inferred from the residual of heat content variation suggest that the heat transferred northward throughout the Atlantic is transferred t the atmosphere in the subtropical North Atlantic (Kelly et al., 2014). Observations fro the Rapid/Mocha instrument array at 26°N in the North Atlantic indicate that the mea Atlantic meridional heat flux at this latitude is 1.33 PW, with substantial variability du to changes in the strength of the MOC (Cunningham et al., 2007; Kanzow et al., 2007 Johns et al., 2011; McCarthy et al., 2012). Moreover, recent studies show tha interannual changes in the MOC (and the associated heat flux measured at 26°N) lead t temperature anomalies in the subtropical North Atlantic which, in turn, can have a
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+strong impact on the northern hemisphere climate (Cunningham et al., 2013; Buchan e al., 2014).
+2.5. Air-sea Heat fluxes
+Heat uptake by the ocean can be substantially altered by natural oscillations in th earth’s ocean and atmosphere. The effects of these large-scale climate oscillations ar often felt around the world, leading to the rearrangement of wind and precipitatio patterns, which in turn substantially affect regional weather, sometimes wit devastating consequences.
+The ENSO is the most prominent of these oscillations and is characterized by a anomalous warming and cooling of the central-eastern equatorial Pacific. The war phase is called El Nifio and the cold, La Nifia. During El Nifio events, a weakening of th Pacific trade winds decreases the upwelling of cold waters in the eastern equatoria Pacific and allows warm surface water that generally accumulates in the western Pacifi to flow east.
+As a consequence, El Nifios release heat into the atmosphere, causing an increase i globally averaged air temperature. However, the “recharge oscillator theory” (Ren an Jin, 2013) indicates that a buildup of upper-ocean heat content is a necessar precondition for the development of El Nifio events. La Nifias are associated with  strengthening of the trade winds, which leads to a strong upwelling of cold subsurfac water in the eastern Pacific. In this case, the ocean uptake of heat from the atmospher is enhanced, causing the global average surface temperature to decrease (Roemmic and Gilson, 2011).
+The cycling of ENSO between El Nifio and La Nifia is irregular. In some decades El Nifi has dominated and in other decades La Nifia has been more frequent, also seen i phase shifts of the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (Meehl et al., 2013), which is relate to build up and release of heat. A strengthening of the Pacific trade winds in the pas two decades has led to a more frequent occurrence of La Nifias (England et al., 2014) Consequently, the heat uptake by the subsurface ocean was enhanced, leading to  slowdown of the surface warming (Kosaka and Xie, 2013). This is one of the factor affecting the global mean temperature, expected to increase by 0.21°C per decade fro 1998 to 2012, but which instead warmed by just 0.04°C (the so-called recent warmin hiatus, IPCC, 2013). Although there are several hypotheses on the cause of the globa warming hiatus, the role of ocean circulation in this negative feedback is certain Drijfhout et al. (2014) have shown that the North Atlantic, Southern Ocean and Tropica Pacific all play significant roles in the ocean heat uptake associated with the warmin hiatus.
+Chen and Tung (2014) analyzed the historical and recent record of sea surfac temperature and Ocean Heat Content (OHC), and found distinct patterns at the surfac and in deeper layers. On the surface, the patterns conform to the El Nifio/La Nifi patterns, with the Pacific Ocean playing a dominant role by releasing heat during an E Nifio (or capturing heat during La Nifia). At depth, the dominant pattern shows heating
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+taking place in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Circumpolar Current region. Coinciding i time, changes in OHC could help to explain the observed slowdown in global warming. I is anticipated that the mechanisms involved may at some point reverse, releasing larg amounts of heat to the atmosphere and accelerating global warming (e.g., Levermann et al., 2012).
+Many other naturally occurring ocean-atmosphere oscillations in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans have also been recognized and named. The ENSO as a globa phenomenon, has an expression in the Atlantic basin called the Atlantic Nifio. In the las six decades, this mode has weakened, leading to a warming of the equatorial easter Atlantic of up to 1.5°C (Tokinaga and Xie, 2011). Although the role of the Atlantic Nifi on the global heat budget is not significant, this Atlantic warming trend has led to a increase in precipitation over the equatorial Amazon, Northeast South America Equatorial West Africa and the Guinea coast, and a decrease in rainfall over the Sahe (Gianinni et al., 2003; Tokinaga and Xie, 2011; Marengo et al., 2011; Rodrigues et al. 2011). Moreover, recent studies have shown that the Atlantic Nifio can have an effec on ENSO (Rodriguez-Fonseca et al., 2009; Keenlyside et al., 2013).
+In the Indian Ocean, the dominant basin-wide oscillation is the Indian Dipole Mode (Saj et al., 1999). A positive phase is characterized by cool surface-temperature anomalies i the eastern Indian Ocean, warm-temperature anomalies in the western Indian Ocean and easterly wind-stress anomalies along the equator. Similarly to ENSO, meridiona heat transport and the associated buildup of upper-ocean heat content are a possibl precondition for the development of the Indian Ocean Dipole event (McPhaden an Nagura, 2014). The warm surface temperatures in the western Indian Ocean ar associated with an increase in subsurface heat content and vice-versa for the east (Fen et al. 2001; Rao et al., 2002). This zonal contrast of ocean heat content is induced b anomalies of zonal wind along the equator and the resulting variability in zonal mas and heat transport (Nagura and McPhaden 2010). The warm surface temperatures i the western Indian Ocean are associated with an increase in subsurface heat conten and vice-versa for the east; the positive dipole causes above-average rainfall in easter Africa and droughts in Indonesia and Australia (Behera et al., 2005; Yamagata et al. 2004; Ummenhofer et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2011; Section 5 below). Although th phenomena discussed here are global, many of the most significant impacts are on th coastal environment (see following Section).
+2.6 Environmental, economic and social impacts of changes in ocean temperatur and of major ocean temperature events
+Coastal waters are valuable both ecologically and economically because they support  high level of biodiversity. They act as nursery areas for many commercially importan fish species, and are the marine areas most accessible to the public. Because inshor habitats are shallow, water temperatures in coastal areas are closely linked to th regional climate and its seasonal and long-term fluctuations. Coastal waters also hos some of the most vulnerable marine habitats, because they are intensively exploited b (including, but not limited to) the fishing industry and recreational craft, and because of
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+their proximity to outlets of pollution, such as rivers and sewage outfalls. Coasta development and the threat of rising sea level may also impinge upon these valuabl habitats (Halpern et al., 2008). Ecological degradation can lower the socio-economi value of coastal regions, with negative impacts on commercial fisheries, aquacultur facilities, damage to coastal infrastructure, problems with power-station cooling, an exert a dampening effect on coastal tourism from degraded ecological services.
+It has been recently shown that when compared with estimates for the global ocean decadal rates of SST change are higher at the coast. During the last three decades approximately 70 per cent of the world’s coastline has experienced significant increase in SST (Lima and Wethey, 2012). This has been accompanied by an increase in th number of yearly extremely hot days along 38 per cent of the world’s coastline, an warming has been occurring significantly earlier in the year along approximately 36 pe cent of the world’s temperate coastal areas (defined as those between latitudes 30° an 60° in both hemispheres) at an average rate of 6.1 + 3.2 days per decade (Lima an Wethey, 2012).
+The warming of coastal waters can have many serious consequences for the ecologica system (Harley et al., 2006). This can include changes in the distribution of importan commercial fish and shellfish species, particularly the movement of species to highe latitudes due to thermal stress (Perry et al., 2005). Warming of coastal waters also ca lead to more favourable conditions for many organisms, among them marine invasiv species that can devastate commercial fisheries and destroy marine ecosyste dynamics (Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007). Water quality might also be impacted by highe temperatures that can increase the severity of local outbreaks by pathogenic bacteria o the occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). These in turn would cause harm t seafood, consumers and marine organisms (Bresnan et al., 2013). Increased coral ree bleaching and mortality from warming seas (combined with ocean acidification, see nex sections) will lead to the loss of important marine habitats and associated biodiversity.
+Changes in ocean temperatures have global impacts. As ocean temperatures warm species that prefer specific temperature ranges may relocate — as has been observed for instance, in copepod assemblages in the North Atlantic (Hays et al., 2005). Som organisms, like corals, are sedentary and cannot relocate with changing temperatures. I the water becomes too warm, they may experience a bleaching event. Higher sea leve and warmer ocean temperatures can alter ocean circulation and current flow an increase the frequency and intensity of storms, leading to changes in the habitat o many species worldwide.
+Changes in ocean temperatures affect not only marine ecosystems, but also the climat over land, with devastating economic and social implications. Many natural oceani oscillations are known to have an impact on (terrestrial) climate, but these oscillation and the response of the climate to them are also changing during recent decades. Fo instance, an El Nifio phase of ENSO (see previous Section for more details on ENSO displaces great amounts of warm water from the western to the eastern Pacific, leadin to more evaporation over the latter. As a consequence, western and southern Sout America and parts of North America experience wetter conditions. At the same time Australia, Brazil, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, parts of Africa and the United State © 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+of America suffer droughts. La Nifia events usually cause the opposite patterns However, in the last several decades, ENSO events have changed their spatial an temporal characteristics (Yeh et al., 2009; McPhaden, 2012).
+During recent decades, the warm waters of El Nifio events have been displaced to th central Pacific instead of to the eastern Pacific. It is not clear yet whether these change are linked to anthropogenic climate change or natural variability (Yeh et al., 2011). I any case, the effects on climate of an ENSO event centred in the central Pacific (a centra Pacific ENSO) are in sharp contrast to that associated with one centred in the easter Pacific.
+For instance, northeastern and southeastern Australia experience a reduction in rainfal during the eastern Pacific El Nifios and there is a decrease in rainfall over northwester and northern Australia during central Pacific events (Taschetto and England, 2009 Taschetto et al., 2009). The Indian monsoon fails during eastern Pacific El Nifios, but i enhanced during central Pacific El Nifios (Kumar et al., 2006). Over the semi-arid regio of northeast Brazil, eastern Pacific El Niftios/La Nifias cause dry/wet conditions; centra Pacific El Nifios have the opposite effect, with the worst drought in the last 50 year associated with the strong 2011/12 La Nifia and not with El Nifios as in the pas (Rodrigues et al., 2011; Rodrigues and McPhaden, 2014). This drought caused th displacement of 10 million people and economic losses on the order of 3 billion Unite States dollars in relation to agriculture and cattle raising alone. In contrast to drought i Brazil, the 2011/12 La Nifia caused floods across southeastern Australia.
+In other ocean basins, changes in oceanic oscillations and temperatures have also ha an impact on climate. For instance, in the Indian Ocean, a positive phase of the India Dipole Mode (warm/cold temperatures in the western/eastern equatorial Indian Ocean leads to flooding in east Africa and droughts in Indonesia, Australia, and India (Saji et al. 1999; Ashok et al., 2001; Gadgil et al., 2004; Yamagata et al., 2004; Behera et al., 2005 Ummenhofer et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2011). The counterpart of ENSO in the Atlanti (Atlantic Nifio) has weakened during the last six decades, leading to an increase in SST i the eastern equatorial Atlantic. As a consequence, rainfall has been enhanced over th equatorial Amazon and West Africa (Tokinaga and Xie, 2011). On the other hand, a unusual warming of the tropical North Atlantic in 2005 was responsible for one of th worst droughts in the Amazon River basin and a record Atlantic hurricane season Hurricanes Rita and Katrina caused the loss of almost 2000 lives and an estimate economic toll of 150 billion —135 billion US dollars from Katrina and 15 billion U dollars from Rita. (http://www.datacenterresearch.org/data-resources/katrina/facts for-impact/). Anomalous warm conditions also occurred in the tropical North Atlantic i 2010 leading to two once-in-a-century droughts in less than five years in the Amazo River basin (Marengo et al., 2011).
+Ocean warming will stress species both through thermic changes in their environmenta envelope and through increased interspecies competition. These shifts become all th more important in shelf seas once they reach terrestrial boundaries, i.e., the shiftin species runs out of shelf. For example, changes in the coastal currents in south-easter Australia cause changes to primary production through to fisheries productivity. Thi then feeds through to local and regional socio-economic impacts (Suthers et al., 2011).
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+The IPCC ARS concluded that “it is unlikely that annual numbers of tropical storms hurricanes and major hurricanes counts have increased over the past 100 years in th North Atlantic basin. Evidence, however, is for a virtually certain increase in th frequency and intensity of the strongest tropical cyclones since the 1970s in that region (Hartmann et al. 2013, Section 2.6.3). Moreover, the IPCC ARS states that “it is difficul to draw firm conclusions with respect to the confidence levels associated with observe trends prior to the satellite era and in ocean basins outside of the North Atlantic (Hartmann et al. 2013, Section 2.6.3). Although a strong scientific consensus on th matter does not exist, there is some evidence supporting the hypothesis that globa warming might lead to fewer but more intense tropical cyclones globally (Knutson et al. 2010). Evidence exists that the observed expansion of the tropics since approximatel 1979 is accompanied by a pronounced poleward migration of the latitude at which th maximum intensities of storms occur at a rate of 1° of latitude per decade (Kossin et al. 2014; Hartmann et al., 2013; Seidel et al., 2008). If this trend is confirmed, it woul increase the frequency of events in coastal areas that are not exposed regularly to th dangers caused by cyclones. Hurricane Sandy in 2012 may be an example of thi (Woodruff et al., 2013).
+3. Water flux and salinity
+3.1 Regional patterns of salinity, and changes in salinity” and freshwater content
+The ocean plays a pivotal role in the global water cycle: about 85 per cent of th evaporation and 77 per cent of the precipitation occur over the ocean (Schmitt, 2008) The horizontal salinity distribution of the upper ocean largely reflects this exchange o freshwater: high surface salinity is generally found in regions where evaporatio exceeds precipitation, and low salinity is found in regions of excess precipitation an runoff. Ocean circulation also affects the regional distribution of surface salinity.
+The Earth’s water cycle involves evaporation and precipitation of moisture at the Earth’ surface. Changes in the atmosphere’s water vapour content provide strong evidenc that the water cycle is already responding to a warming climate. Further evidenc comes from changes in the distribution of ocean salinity (Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2) Diagnosis and understanding of ocean salinity trends are also important, becaus salinity changes, like temperature changes, affect circulation and stratification, an therefore the ocean’s capacity to store heat and carbon as well as to change biologica productivity.
+Seawater contains both salt and fresh water, and its salinity is a function of the weigh of dissolved salts it contains. Because the total amount of salt does not change over
+2 ‘Salinity’ refers to the weight of dissolved salts in a kilogram of seawater. Because the total amount o salt in the ocean does not change, the salinity of seawater can be changed only by addition or removal o fresh water.
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+human time scales, seawater’s salinity can only be altered—over days or centuries—b the addition or removal of fresh water.
+The water cycle is expected to intensify in a warmer climate. Observations since th 1970s show increases in surface and lower atmospheric water vapour (Figure 4a), at  rate consistent with observed warming. Moreover, evaporation and precipitation ar projected to intensify in a warmer climate. Recorded changes in ocean salinity in th last 50 years support that projection (Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2).
+The atmosphere connects the ocean’s regions of net fresh water loss to those of fres water gain by moving evaporated water vapour from one place to another. Th distribution of salinity at the ocean surface largely reflects the spatial pattern o evaporation minus precipitation (Figure 4b), runoff from land, and sea ice processes There is some shifting of the patterns relative to each other, because of the ocean’ currents. Ocean salinity acts as a sensitive and effective rain gauge over the ocean. I naturally reflects and smoothes out the difference between water gained by the ocea from precipitation, and water lost by the ocean through evaporation, both of which ar very patchy and episodic (Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). Data from the past 50 years sho widespread salinity changes in the upper ocean, which are indicative of systemati changes in precipitation and runoff minus evaporation.
+(Figure 4b). Subtropical waters are highly saline, because evaporation exceeds rainfall whereas seawater at high latitudes and in the tropics—where more rain falls tha evaporates—is less so. The Atlantic, the saltiest ocean basin, loses more freshwate through evaporation than it gains from precipitation, while the Pacific is nearly neutral i.e., precipitation gain nearly balances evaporation loss, and the Southern Ocean i dominated by precipitation. (Figure 4b; Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). Changes in surfac salinity and in the upper ocean have reinforced the mean salinity pattern (4c). Th evaporation-dominated subtropical regions have become saltier, while th precipitation-dominated subpolar and tropical regions have become fresher. Whe changes over the top 500 m are considered, the evaporation-dominated Atlantic ha become saltier, while the nearly neutral Pacific and precipitation-dominated Souther Ocean have become fresher (Figure 4d; Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2).
+Observed surface salinity changes also suggest a change in the global water cycle ha occurred (Chapter 4). The long-term trends show a strong positive correlation betwee the mean climate of the surface salinity and the temporal changes in surface salinit from 1950 to 2000. This correlation shows an enhancement of the climatological salinit pattern: fresh areas have become fresher and salty areas saltier.
+Ocean salinity is also affected by water runoff from the continents, and by the meltin and freezing of sea ice or floating glacial ice. Fresh water added by melting ice on lan will change global-averaged salinity, but changes to date are too small to observe (Rhei et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2).
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++6 (a) Trend i og (Otal precipitabl water vapou °° (4988-2010 -0. -1. (kg m* per decade)
+too () Mea evaporatio o minu precipitatio -100
+(cm yr’)
+E Se 0.8 (c) Trend i 04 surface salinit 0.0 (1950-2000 -0.4
+-08
+(PSS78 per decade)
+a7 (d) Mea a surface salinity
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 4. Changes in sea surface salinity are related to the atmospheric patterns of evaporation minu precipitation (E — P) and trends in total precipitable water: (a) Linear trend (1988-2010) in tota precipitable water (water vapour integrated from the Earth’s surface up through the entire atmosphere (kg m-2 per decade) from satellite observations (Special Sensor Microwave Imager) (after Wentz et al. 2007) (blues: wetter; yellows: drier). (b) The 1979-2005 climatological mean net E —P (cm yr—1) fro meteorological reanalysis (National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center fo Atmospheric Research; Kalnay et al., 1996) (reds: net evaporation; blues: net precipitation). (c) Tren (1950-2000) in surface salinity (PSS78 per 50 years) (after Durack and Wiljffels, 2010) (blues freshening yellows-reds saltier). (d) The climatological-mean surface salinity (PSS78) (blues: <35; yellows—reds: >35) From Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2. Fig 1.
+In conclusion, according to the last IPCC ARS, “It is very likely that regional trends hav enhanced the mean geographical contrasts in sea surface salinity since the 1950s: saline
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+surface waters in the evaporation-dominated mid-latitudes have become more saline while relatively fresh surface waters in rainfall-dominated tropical and polar region have become fresher” (Stocker et al., 2013). “The mean contrast between high- an low-salinity regions increased by 0.13 [0.08 to 0.17] from 1950 to 2008. It is very likel that the inter-basin contrast in freshwater content has increased: the Atlantic ha become saltier and the Pacific and Southern Oceans have freshened. Although simila conclusions were reached in AR4, recent studies based on expanded data sets and ne analysis approaches provide high confidence in this assessment” (Stocker et al., 2013) “The spatial patterns of the salinity trends, mean salinity and the mean distribution o evaporation minus precipitation are all similar. These similarities provide indirec evidence that the pattern of evaporation minus precipitation over the oceans has bee enhanced since the 1950s (medium confidence)” Stocker et al., (2013). “Uncertainties i currently available surface fluxes prevent the flux products from being reliably used t identify trends in the regional or global distribution of evaporation or precipitation ove the oceans on the time scale of the observed salinity changes since the 1950s” (Stocke et al., 2013).
+4. Carbon dioxide flux and ocean acidification
+4.1 Carbon dioxide emissions from anthropogenic activities
+Since the start of Industrial Revolution, human activities have been releasing larg amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. As a result, atmospheric CO. ha increased from a glacial to interglacial cycle of 180-280 ppm to about 395 ppm in 201 (Dlugokencky and Tans, 2014). Until around 1920, the primary source of carbon dioxid to the atmosphere was from deforestation and other land-use change activities (Ciais e al., 2013). Since the end of World War II, anthropogenic emissions of CO2 have bee increasing steadily. Data from 2004 to 2013 show that human activities (fossil fue combustion and cement production) are now responsible for about 91 per cent of th total CO2 emissions (Le Quéré et al. 2014).
+CO, emissions from fossil fuel consumption can be estimated from the energy data tha are available from the United Nations Statistics Division and the BP Annual Energ Review. Data in 2013 suggests that about 43 per cent of the anthropogenic CO emissions were produced from coal, 33 per cent from oil and 18 per cent from gas, an 6 per cent from cement production (Figure 5).
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+Growth rates
+Data: CDIAC/GCP 2012-201 16- Coal 3.0   8 12- Oil 1.4  © to  8  a 6 Gas 1.4   oO 2- Cement 4.7%
+1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
+Figure 5. CO emissions from different sources from 1958 to 2013 (Le Quéré et al. 2014).
+Coal is an important and, recently, growing proportion of CO2 emissions from fossil fue combustion. From 2012 to 2013, CO, emissions from coal increased 3.0 per cent compared to the increase rate of 1.4 per cent for oil and gas (Le Quéré et al. 2014). Coa accounted for about 60 per cent of the CO2 emission growth in the same period. This i largely because many large economies of the world have recently resorted to using coa as an energy source for a wide variety of industrial processes, instead of oil, gas an other energy sources.
+4.2 The ocean as a sink for atmospheric CO2
+The global oceans serve as a major sink of atmospheric CO2. The oceans take up carbo dioxide through mainly two processes: physical air-sea flux of atmospheric CO. at th ocean surface, the so called “solubility pump” and through the active biological uptak of CO, into the biomass and skeletons of plankters the so-called “biological pump” Colder water can take up CO2 more than warm water, and if this cold, denser wate sinks to form intermediate, deep, or bottom water, there is transport of carbon awa from the surface ocean and thus from the atmosphere into the ocean interior. Thi "solubility pump" helps to keep the surface waters of the ocean on average lower in C than the deep water, a condition that promotes the flux of the gas from the atmospher into the ocean.
+Phytoplankton take up CO2 from the water in the process of photosynthesis, some o which sinks to the bottom in the form of particles or is mixed into the deeper waters a dissolved organic or inorganic carbon. Part of this carbon is permanently buried in th sediments and other part enters into the slower circulation of the deep ocean. Thi "biological pump" serves to maintain the gradient in CO, concentration between th surface and deep waters.
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+Depth
+B 6 5 500 5 4 ) 4 £1000 3 & 3 2 1500 2 1 2000 S 1 c   a Anthropogeni CO S 1000  & 1000 (umo! kg" a
+2 Latitude
+0
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 6. Anthropogenic CO, distributions along representative meridional sections in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans for the mid-1990s (Sabine et al. 2004).
+Because the ocean mixes slowly, about half of the anthropogenic CO} (Cant) stored in th ocean is found in the upper 10 per cent of the ocean (Figure 6.). On average, th penetration depth is about 1000 meters and about 50 per cent of the anthropogeni CO, in the ocean is shallower than 400 meters.
+Globally, the ocean shows large spatial variations in terms of its role as a sink o atmospheric CO, (Takahashi et al. 2009). Over the past 200 years the oceans hav absorbed 525 billion tons of CO2 from the atmosphere, or nearly half of the fossil fue emissions over the period (Feely et al. 2009). The oceanic sink of atmospheric CO, ha increased from 4.0 + 1.8 GtCO, (1 GtCO, = 10° tons of carbon dioxide) per year in th 1960s to 9.5 + 1.8 GtCO2 per year during 2004-2013. During the same period, th estimated annual atmospheric CO, captured by the ocean was 2.6 +0.5 Gt of CO compared with around 1.9 Gt of CO, during the sixties (Le Queré et al., 2014). However due to the decreased buffering capacity, caused by this CO2 uptake, the proportion o anthropogenic carbon dioxide that goes into the ocean has been decreasing.
+Estimates of the global inventory of anthropogenic carbon, Cant (including marginal seas have a mean value of 118 PgC and a range of 93 to 137 PgC in 1994 and a mean of 16 PgC and range of 134 to 186 PgC in 2010 (Rhein et al 2013). When combined with mode results Khatiwala et al. (2013) arrive at a “best” estimate of the global ocean inventor (including marginal seas) of anthropogenic carbon from 1750 to 2010 of 155 PgC with a uncertainty of +20 per cent (Rhein et al 2013).
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+The storage rate of anthropogenic CO, is assessed by calculating the change in Can concentrations between two time periods. Regional observations of the storage rate ar in general agreement with that expected from the increase in atmospheric CO concentrations and with the tracer-based estimates. However, there are significan spatial and temporal variations in the degree to which the inventory of Cant track changes in the atmosphere (Figure 7, Rhein et al 2013).
+Indian Ocean
+Atlantic Ocean (mol m? y" 24
+Pacific Ocean (mol m? y* - 0.8
+(mol m? y* 0.9
+WS oth 25°W 92 25 ois %e
+Le gsGw 7557.2 POS OR ye
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 7. Maps of storage rate distribution of C,,¢ in (mol m? yr?) averaged over 1980-2005 for the thre ocean basins (left to right: Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean). From Khatiwala et al 2009, a slightl different colour scale is used for each basin.
+Comprehensive evaluation of available data shows that in the context of the globa carbon cycle, it is only the ocean that has acted as a net sink of carbon from th atmosphere. The land was a source early in the industrial age, and since about 1950 ha trended toward a sink, but it is not yet clearly a net sink. (Ciais et al. 2013 and Khatiwal et al. 2009, Khatiwala et al. 2013). Latest data from 2004 to 2013 show that the globa oceans take up about one-fourth (26 per cent, Le Quéré, 2014) of the total annua anthropogenic emissions of CO2. This is a very important physical and ecological servic that the ocean has performed in the past and performs today, that underpins al strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of global warming.
+4.3 Ocean acidification
+As already seen in the previous section, the global oceans serve as an important sink o atmospheric CO, effectively slowing down global climate change. However, this benefi comes with a steep bio-ecological cost. When CO) reacts with water, it forms carboni acid, which then dissociates and produces hydrogen ions. The extra hydrogen ion consume carbonate ions (CO;”) to form bicarbonate (HCO3). In this process, the pH an concentrations of carbonate ions (CO3”) are decreasing. As a result, the carbonat mineral saturation states are also decreasing. Due to the increasing acidity, this proces is commonly referred to as “ocean acidification (OA)”. According to the IPCC AR 4 and 5 “Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in pH of the ocean over an extended period typically decades or longer, caused primarily by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO) fro the atmosphere.” (...)” Anthropogenic ocean acidification refers to the component of p reduction that is caused by human activity” (Rhein et al. 2013).
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+Although the average oceanic pH can vary on interglacial time scales, the changes ar usually on the order of “0.002 units per 100 years; however, the current observed rat of change is “0.1 units per 100 years, or roughly 50 times faster. Regional factors, suc as coastal upwelling, changes in riverine and glacial discharge rates, and sea-ice los have created “OA hotspots” where changes are occurring at even faster rates. Althoug OA is a global phenomenon that will likely have far-reaching implications for man marine organisms, some areas will be affected sooner and to a greater degree.
+Recent observations show that one such area in particular is the cold, highly productiv region of the sub-arctic Pacific and western Arctic Ocean, where unique biogeochemica processes create an environment that is both sensitive and particularly susceptible t accelerated reductions in pH and carbonate mineral concentrations. The O phenomenon can cause waters to become undersaturated in carbonate minerals an thereby affect extensive and diverse populations of marine calcifiers.
+4.4 The CO2 problem
+Based on the most recent data of 2004 to 2013, 35.7 GtCO, (1 GtCO, = 10° tons o carbon dioxide) of anthropogenic CO2 are released into the atmosphere every year (L Quéré et al. 2014). Of this, approximately 32.4 GtCO2 come directly from the burning o fossil fuels and other industrial processes that emit CO. The remaining 3.3 GtCO, ar due to changes in land-use practices, such as deforestation and urbanization. Of thi 35.7 GtCO, of anthropogenically produced CO, emitted annually, approximately 10. GtCO, (or 29 per cent) are incorporated into terrestrial plant matter. Another 15. GtCO, (or 46 per cent) are retained in the atmosphere, which has led to some planetar warming. The remaining 9.5 GtCO> (or 26 per cent) are absorbed by the world’s ocean (Le Quéré et al. 2014).
+As the hydrogen ions produced by the increased CO? dissolution take carbonate ions ou of seawater, the rate of calcification of shell-building organisms is affected; they ar confronted with additional physiological challenges to maintain their shells. Althoug alteration of the carbonate equilibrium system in the ocean reducing carbonate io concentration, and saturation states of calcium carbonate minerals will play a rol imposing an additional energy cost to calcifier organisms, such as corals an shellbearing plankton, this is by no means the sole impact of OA.
+4.5 What are the impacts of a more acidic ocean?
+Throughout the last 25 million years, the average pH of the ocean has remained fairl constant between 8.0 and 8.2. However, in the last three decades, a fast drop ha begun to occur, and if CO emissions are left unchecked, the average pH could fall belo 7.8 by the end of this century (Rhein, et al. 2013).
+This is well outside the range of pH change of any other time in recent geologica history. Calcifying organisms in particular, such as corals, crabs, clams, oysters and th tiny free-swimming pteropods that form calcium carbonate shells, could be particularl vulnerable, especially during the larval stage. Many of the processes that cause OA hav © 2016 United Nations 1 
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+long been recognized, but the ecological implications of the associated chemica changes have only recently been investigated. OA may have important ecological an socioeconomic consequences by impacting directly the physiology of all organisms i the ocean.
+The altered environment is imposing an extra energy cost for the acid-base regulation o their internal body milieu. Through biological and evolutionary adaptation this proces might have a huge variation of expression among different types of organisms, a subjec that only recently has become the focus of intense scientific research.
+Calcification is an internal process that in its vast majority does not depends directly o seawater carbonate content, since most organism use bicarbonate, that is increasin under acidification scenarios, or CO2 originating in their internal metabolism. It has bee demonstrated in the laboratory and in the field that some calcifiers can compensate an thrive in acidification conditions.
+OA is not a simple phenomenon nor will it have a simple unidirectional effect o organisms. The abundance and composition of species may be changed, due to OA wit the potential to affect ecosystem function at all trophic levels, and consequentia changes in ocean chemistry could occur as well. Some species may also be better abl than others to adapt to changing pH levels due to their exposure to environment where pH naturally varies over a wide range. However, at this point, it is still ver uncertain what the ecological and societal consequences will be from any potentia losses of keystone species.
+4.6 Socioeconomic impacts of ocean acidification
+Some examples of economic disruptions due to OA have been reported. The mos visible case is the harvest failure in the oyster hatcheries along the Pacific Northwes coast of the USA. Hatcheries that supply the majority of the oyster spat to farms nearl went out of business as they unknowingly pumped low pH water, apparently corrosiv to oyster larvae, into their operation. Although intense upwelling that could hav brought low oxygen water to hatcheries might also be a factor in these massiv mortalities, low pH, “corrosive water” tends to recur seasonally in this region Innovations and interactions with scientists allowed these hatcheries to monitor th presence of corrosive incoming waters and adopt preventive measures.
+Economic studies have shown that potential losses at local and regional scales may hav negative impacts for communities and national economies that depend on fisheries. Fo example, Cooley and Doney (2009) using data from 2007, found that of the 4 billio dollars in annual domestic sales, Alaska and the New England states likely to be affecte by hotspots of OA, contributed the most at 1.5 billion dollars and 750 million dollars respectively. These numbers clearly show that any disruption in the commercia fisheries in these regions due to OA could have a cascading effect on the local as well a on the national economy.
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_07.txt

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+Chapter 7. Calcium Carbonate Production and Contribution to Coastal Sediments
+Contributors: Colin D. Woodroffe, Frank R. Hall, John W. Farrell an Peter T. Harris (Lead member)
+1. Calcium carbonate production in coastal environments
+Biological production of calcium carbonate in the oceans is an important process Although carbonate is produced in the open ocean (pelagic, see Chapter 5), thi chapter concentrates on production in coastal waters (neritic) because thi contributes sediment to the coast through skeletal breakdown producing sand an gravel deposits on beaches, across continental shelves, and within reefs. Marin organisms with hard body parts precipitate calcium carbonate as the minerals calcit or aragonite. Corals, molluscs, foraminifera, bryozoans, red algae (for example th algal rims that characterize reef crests on Indo-Pacific reefs) are particularl productive, as well as some species of green algae (especially Halimeda). Upo death, these calcareous organisms break down by physical, chemical, and biologica erosion processes through a series of discrete sediment sizes (Perry et al., 2011) Neritic carbonate production has been estimated to be approximately 2.5 Gt year (Milliman and Droxler, 1995; Heap et al., 2009). The greatest contributors are cora reefs that form complex structures covering a total area of more than 250,000 km (Spalding and Grenfell, 1997; Vecsei, 2004), but other organisms, such as oysters may also form smaller reef structures.
+Global climate change will affect carbonate production and breakdown in the ocean which will have implications for coastal sediment budgets. Rising sea level wil displace many beaches landwards (Nicholls et al., 2007). Low-lying reef islands calle sand cays, formed over the past few millennia on the rim of atolls, are particularl vulnerable, together with the communities that live on them. Rising sea level ca also result in further reef growth and sediment production where there are health coral reefs (Buddemeier and Hopley, 1988). In areas where corals have already bee killed or damaged by human activities, however, reefs may not be able to keep pac with the rising sea level in which case wave energy will be able to propagate mor freely across the reef crest thereby exposing shorelines to higher levels of wav energy (Storlazzi et al., 2011; see also Chapter 43).
+Reefs have experienced episodes of coral bleaching and mortality in recent year caused by unusually warm waters. Increased carbon dioxide concentrations are als causing ocean waters to become more acidic, which may affect the biologica production and supply of carbonate sand. Bleaching and acidification can reduc coral growth and limit the ability of reef-building corals and other organisms t produce calcium carbonate (Kroeker et al., 2010). In some cases, ocean acidificatio may lead to a reduced supply of carbonate sand to beaches, increasing the potentia for erosion (Hamylton, 2014).
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+1.1 Global distribution of carbonate beaches
+Beaches are accumulations of sediment on the shoreline. Carbonate organisms particularly shells that lived in the sand, together with dead shells reworked fro shallow marine or adjacent rocky shores, can contribute to beach sediments Dissolution and re-precipitation of carbonate can cement sediments formin beachrock, or shelly deposits called coquina. On many arid coasts and islands lackin river input of sediment to the coast, biological production of carbonate is th dominant source of sand and gravel. Over geological time (thousands of years) thi biological source of carbonate sediment may have formed beaches that ar composed entirely, or nearly entirely, of calcium carbonate. Where large river discharge sediment to the coast, or along coasts covered in deposits of glacial til deposited during the last ice age, beaches are dominated by sediment derived fro terrigenous (derived from continental rocks) sources. Carbonate sediment comprise a smaller proportion of these beach sediments (Pilkey et al., 2011).
+Sand blown inland from carbonate beaches forms dunes and these may be extensiv and can become lithified into substantial deposits of carbonate eolianite (wind blown) deposits. Significant deposits of eolianite are found in the Mediterranean Africa, Australia, and some parts of the Caribbean (for example most of the islands o the Bahamas). The occurrence of carbonate eolianites is therefore a useful proxy fo mapping the occurrence of carbonate beaches (Brooke, 2001).
+Carbonate beaches may be composed of shells produced by tropical to sub-pola species, so their occurrence is not limited by latitude, although carbonate productio on polar shelves has received little attention (Frank et al., 2014). For example Ritchie and Mather (1984) reported that over 50 beaches in Scotland are compose almost entirely of shelly carbonate sand. There is an increase in carbonate conten towards the south along the east coast of Florida (Houston and Dean, 2014) Carbonate beaches, comprising 60-80 per cent carbonate on average, extend fo over 6000 km along the temperate southern coast of Australia, derived fro organisms that lived in adjacent shallow-marine environments (James et al., 1999 Short, 2006). Calcareous biota have also contributed along much of the wester coast of Australia; carbonate contents average 50-70 per cent, backed by substantia eolianite cliffs composed of similar sediments along this arid coast (Short, 2010) Similar non-tropical carbonate production occurs off the northern coast of Ne Zealand (Nelson, 1988) and eastern Brazil (Carannante et al., 1988), as well a around the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of California, North-West Europe, Canada, Japa and around the northern South China Sea (James and Bone, 2011).
+On large carbonate banks, biogenic carbonate is supplemented by precipitation o inorganic carbonate, including pellets and grapestone deposits (Scoffin, 1987). Bal (1967) identified marine sand belts, tidal bars, eolian ridges, and platform interio sand blankets comprising carbonate sand bodies present in Florida and the Bahamas This is also one of the locations where ooids (oolites) form through the concentri precipitation of carbonate on spherical grains. Inorganic precipitation in the Persia Gulf, including the shallow waters of the Trucial Coast, reflects higher wate temperature and salinity (Purser, 1973; Brewer and Dyrssen, 1985).
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+1.2 Global distribution of atolls
+The most significant social and economic impact of a possible reduction in carbonat sand production is the potential decrease in supply of sand to currently inhabited low-lying sand islands on remote reefs, particularly atolls. Atolls occur in the war waters of the tropics and subtropics. These low-lying and vulnerable landforms ow their origin to reef-building corals (see Chapter 43 which discusses warm-wate corals in contrast to cold-water corals dealt with in Chapter 42). The origin of atoll was explained by Charles Darwin as the result of subsidence (sinking) of a volcani island. Following an initial eruptive phase, volcanic islands are eroded by waves an by slumping, and gradually subside, as the underlying lithosphere cools an contracts. In tropical waters, fringing coral reefs grow around the volcanic peak. A the volcano subsides the reef grows vertically upwards until eventually the summi of the volcano becomes submerged and only the ring of coral reef (i.e., an atoll) i left behind. The gradual subsidence can be understood in the context of plat tectonics and mantle “hot spots”. Many oceanic volcanoes occur in linear chain (such as the Hawaiian Islands and Society Islands) with successive islands being olde along the chain and moving into deeper water as the plate cools and contract (Ramalho et al., 2013).
+Most atolls are in the Pacific Ocean (in archipelagoes in the Tuamotu Islands Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, and the island groups of Kiribati, Tuvalu an Tokelau) and Indian Ocean (the Maldives, the Laccadive Islands, the Chago Archipelago and the Outer Islands of the Seychelles). The Atlantic Ocean has fewe atolls than either the Pacific or Indian Oceans, with several in the Caribbean (Vecsei 2003; 2004). The northernmost atoll in the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24' N, alon with other atolls of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands in the North Pacific Ocean The southernmost are the atoll-like Elizabeth (29°58' S) and Middleton (29°29' S Reefs in the Tasman Sea, South Pacific Ocean (Woodroffe et al., 2004). Th occurrence of seamounts (submarine volcanoes) is two times higher in the Pacifi than in the Atlantic or Indian Oceans, explaining the greater frequency of atolls.
+Corals, which produce aragonite, are the principal reef-builders that shape an vertically raise the reef deposit, and there are secondary contributions from othe aragonitic organisms, particularly molluscs, as well as coralline algae, bryozoans an foraminifera which are predominantly made of calcite. Carbonate sand and gravel i derived from the breakdown of the reef. Bioerosion is an important process in reefs with bioeroders, such as algae, sponges, polychaete worms, crustaceans, se urchins, and boring molluscs (e.g., Lithophaga) reducing the strength of th framework and producing sediment that infiltrates and accumulates in the porou reef limestone (Perry et al., 2012). Erosion rates by sea urchins have been reporte to exceed 20 kg CaCO; m™” year™ in some reefs, and parrotfish may produce 9 k CaCO; m” year (Glynn, 1996). Over time, cementation lithifies the reef. Wherea the reef itself is the main feature produced by these calcifying reef organisms, loos carbonate sediment is also transported from its site of production. Transporte sediment can be deposited, building sand cays. Broken coral or larger boulder eroded from the reef by storms form coarser islands (termed motu in the Pacific) Sand and gravel can be carried across the reef and deposited together with fine mud filling in the lagoon (Purdy and Gischler, 2005).
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+Carbonate production on reefs has been measured by at least three differen approaches; hydrochemical analysis of changes in alkalinity of water moving across  section of reef, radiometric dating of accretion rates in reef cores, and census-base approaches that quantify relative contributions made by different biota (includin destruction by bioeroders). These approaches indicate relatively consistent rates o ~10 kg CaCO; m” year™ on flourishing reef fronts, ~4 kg CaCO3 m” year“ on ree crests, and <1 kg CaCO3 m” year” in lagoonal areas (Hopley et al., 2007; Montaggion and Braithwaite, 2009; Perry et al., 2012; Leon and Woodroffe, 2013). These rate have been described in greater detail in specific studies (Harney and Fletcher, 2003 Hart and Kench, 2007), and have been used to produce regional extrapolations o net production (Vecsei, 2001, 2004).
+2. Changes known and foreseen —sea-level rise and ocean acidification.
+Several climate change and oceanographic drivers threaten the integrity of fragil carbonate coastal ecosystems. Anticipated sea-level rise will have an impact on th majority of coasts around the world. In addition, carbonate production is likely to b affected by changes in other climate drivers, including warming and acidification Tropical and subtropical reefs would appear to be some of the worst affecte systems. However, it is also apparent that already many degraded systems can b attributed to impacts from social and economic drivers of change; pollution overfishing and coastal development have deteriorated reef systems and man severely eroded beaches can be attributed to poor coastal management practices.
+2.1 Potential impacts of sea-level rise on beaches
+Sea-level rise poses threats to many coasts. Between 1950 and 2010, global sea leve has risen at an average rate of 1.8 + 0.3 mm year’; approximately 10 cm o anthropogenic global sea-level rise is therefore inferred since 1950. Over the nex century, the mean projected sea-level rise for 2081-2100 is in the range 0.26-0.54  relative to 1986-2005, for the low-emission scenario (RCP 2.6). The rate of rise i anticipated to increase from ~3.1 mm year™ indicated by satellite altimetry to 7-1 mm year by the end of the century (Church et al., 2013). The rate experienced o any particular coast is likely to differ from the global mean trend as a result of loca and regional factors, such as rates of vertical land movement or subsidence. Beac systems can be expected to respond to this gradual change in sea level, and the low lying reef islands on atolls appear to be some of the most vulnerable coastal system (Nicholls et al., 2007).
+Based on predictions from the Bruun Rule, a simple heuristic that uses slope of th foreshore and conservation of mass, sea-level rise will cause erosion and ne recession landwards for many beaches (Bruun, 1962). Although this approach ha been widely applied, it has been criticized as unrealistic for many reasons, includin that it does not adequately incorporate consideration of site-specific sediment
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+budgets (Cooper and Pilkey, 2004). Few analyses consider the contribution o biogenic carbonate and none foreshadow the consequences of any reduction i supply of carbonate sand. This is partly because of time lags between production o carbonate and its incorporation into beach deposits, which is poorly constrained i process studies and which is subject to great variability between different coasta settings, ranging from years to centuries (Anderson et al., 2015). In view o uncertainties in rates of sediment supply and transport, probabilistic modeling o shoreline behavior may be a more effective way of simulating possible responses including potential accretion where sediment supply is sufficient (Cowell et al. 2006).
+2.2 Potential impacts of sea-level rise on reef islands
+Small reef islands on the rim of atolls appear to be some of the most vulnerable o coastal environments; they are threatened by exacerbated coastal erosion inundation of low-lying island interiors, and saline intrusion into freshwater lense upon which production of crops, such as taro, depends (Mimura, 1999). Sand cays on atolls as well as on other reefs, have accumulated incrementally over recen millennia because reefs attenuate wave energy sufficiently to create physicall favourable conditions for deposition of sand islands (Woodroffe et al., 2007), as wel as enabling growth of sediment-stabilizing seagrasses and mangrove ecosystem (Birkeland, 1996). Sand cays are particularly low-lying, rarely rising more than a fe metres above sea level; for example, <8 per cent of the land area of Tuvalu an Kiribati is above 3 m above mean sea level, and in the Maldives only around 1 pe cent, reaches this elevation (Woodroffe, 2008). This has led to dramatic warnings i popular media and inferences in the scientific literature that anthropogenic climat change may lead to reef islands on atolls submerging beneath the rising ocean, wit catastrophic social and economic implications for populations of these atoll nation (Barnett and Adger, 2003; Farbotko and Lazrus, 2012).
+However, reef islands may be more resilient than implied in these dire warning (Webb and Kench, 2010). Unlike the majority of temperate beaches that have a finit volume of sediment available, biogenic production of carbonate sediments mean that there may be an ongoing supply of sediment to these islands. Although coral is  major contributor, it is not necessarily the principal constituent of beaches; larg benthic foraminifera (particularly Calcarina, Amphistegina and Baculogypsina contribute more than 50 per cent of sediment volume on many islands on Pacifi atolls (Woodroffe and Morrison, 2001; Fujita et al., 2009). One survey of Pacific cora islands (Webb and Kench, 2010) reported that 86 per cent of islands had remaine stable or increased in area over recent decades, and only 14 per cent of island exhibited a net reduction in area; however, the greatest increases in area resulte from artificial reclamation (Biribo and Woodroffe, 2013). Further studies of shorelin changes on atoll reef islands using multi-temporal aerial photography and satellit imagery indicate accretion on some shorelines and erosion on others, but with th most pronounced changes associated with human occupation and impacts (Rankey 2011; Ford, 2012; Ford 2013; Hamylton and East, 2012; Yates et al., 2013).
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+The impacts of future sea-level rise on individual atolls remain unclear (Donner 2012). Healthy reef systems may be capable of keeping pace with rates of sea-leve rise. There is evidence that reefs have coped with much more rapid rates of ris during postglacial melt of major ice sheets than are occurring now or anticipated i this century. Reefs have responded by keeping up, catching up, or in cases of ver rapid rise giving up, often to backstep and occupy more landward location (Neumann and Macintyre, 1985; Woodroffe and Webster, 2014). Geologica evidence suggests that healthy coral reefs have exhibited accretion rates in th Holocene of 3 to 9 mm year” (e.g., Perry and Smithers, 2011), comparable t projected rates of sea-level rise for the 21* century. However, reef growth is likely t lag behind sea-level rise in many cases resulting in larger waves occurring over th reef flat and affecting the shoreline (Storlazzi et al., 2011; Grady et al., 2013). It i unclear whether these larger waves, and the increased wave run-up that is likely, wil erode reef-island beaches, overtopping some and inundating island interiors, o whether they will more effectively move sediments shoreward and build ridge crest higher (Gourlay and Hacker, 1991; Smithers et al., 2007). Dickinson (2009) inferre that reef islands on atolls will ultimately be unable to survive because once sea leve rises above their solid reef-limestone foundations, which formed during the mid Holocene sea-level highstand 4,000 to 2,000 years ago, formerly stable reef island will be subject to erosion by waves.
+2.3 Impact of climate change and ocean acidification on production
+The impact of climate change on the rate of biogenic production of carbonat sediment is also little understood, but it seems likely to have negative consequences Although increased temperatures may lead to greater productivity in some cases, fo example by extending the latitudinal limit to coral-reef formation, ocean warmin has already been recognised to have caused widespread bleaching and death o corals (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg, 2004; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007) Ocean acidification will have further impacts, and may inhibit some organisms fro secreting carbonate shells; for example reduction in production of the Pacific oyste has been linked to acidification (Barton et al., 2012). Decreased seawater p increases the sensitivity of reef calcifiers to thermal stress and bleaching (Anthony e al., 2008). Based on the density of coral skeleton in >300 long-lived Porites coral from across the Great Barrier Reef, De’ath et al. (2009) inferred that a decline i calcification of ~14 per cent had occurred since 1990 manifested as a reduction i the extension rate at which coral grows, which they attributed to temperature stres and declining saturation state of seawater aragonite (which is related to a decreas in pH). However, this extent of the apparent decline has been questioned because o inclusion of many young corals (Ridd et al., 2013); it is not observed in coral collected more recently from inshore (D’Olivo et al., 2013).
+There has been some debate about the role of carbonate sediments acting as  chemical buffer against ocean acidification; in this scenario, dissolution o metastable carbonate mineral phases produces sufficient alkalinity to buffer pH an carbonate saturation state of shallow-water environments. However, it is apparen that dissolution rates are slow compared with shelf water-mass mixing processes such that carbonate dissolution has no discernable impact on pH in shallow waters
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+that are connected to deep-water, oceanic environments (Andersson and Mckenzie 2012). The seawater chemistry within a reef system can be significantly differen from that in the open ocean, perhaps partially offsetting the more extreme effect (Andersson et al., 2013; Andersson and Gledhill, 2013). Corals have the ability t modulate pH at the site of calcification (Trotter et al. 2011; Venn et al. 2011; Falte et al., 2013). Internal pH in both tropical and temperate coral is generally 0.4 to 1. units higher than in the ambient seawater, whereas foraminifera exhibit no elevatio in internal pH (McCulloch et al., 2012).
+Changes in the severity of storms will affect coral reefs; storms erode some islan shorelines, but also provide inputs of broken coral to extend other islands (Marago et al., 1973; Woodroffe, 2008). Alterations in ultra-violet radiation may also have a impact, as UV has been linked to coral bleaching. Furthermore, if reefs are not in  healthy condition due to thermal stress (bleaching) coupled with acidification an other anthropogenic stresses (pollution, overfishing, etc.), then reef growth an carbonate production may not keep pace with sea-level rise. This could, in the long term, reduce carbonate sand supply to reef islands causing further erosion, althoug ongoing erosion of cemented reef substrate is also a source of sediment on reefs indicating that supply of carbonate sand to beaches is dependent upon severa interrelated environmental processes. Disruption of any one (or combination) of th controlling processes (carbonate production, reef growth, biological stabilization bioerosion, physical erosion and transport) may result in reduction of carbonat sand supply to beaches.
+3. Economic and social implications of carbonate sand production.
+More than 90 per cent of the population of atolls in the Maldives, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu, as well many in the Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos (which all hav populations of less than 100,000), live at an elevation <10 m above sea level an appear vulnerable to rising sea level, coastal erosion and inundation (McGranahan e al., 2007). The social disruption caused by relocating displaced people to differen islands or even to other countries is a problem of major concern to many countrie (Farbotko and Lazrus, 2012, see also Chapter 26). Beach aggregate mining is a small scale industry on many Pacific and Caribbean islands employing local people (McKenzie et al., 2006), but mining causes environmental damage when practised o an industrial scale (Charlier, 2002; Pilkey et al., 2011, see also Chapter 23). In th Caribbean, illegal beach mining is widespread but there is little information on wha proportion is carbonate (Cambers, 2009). Beach erosion reduces the potentia opportunities associated with tourism (see Chapter 27), and decreases habitat fo shorebirds and turtles (Fish et al., 2005; Mazaris et al., 2009).
+Without coral reefs producing sand and gravel for beach nourishment and protectin the shoreline from currents, waves, and storms, erosion and loss of land are mor likely (see also Chapter 39). In Indonesia, Cesar (1996) estimated that the loss due t decreased coastal protection was between 820 United States dollars (for remot areas) and 1,000,000 dollars per kilometre of coastline (in areas of major touris infrastructure) as a consequence of coral destruction (based on lateral erosion rates
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+of 0.2 m year™, and a 10 per cent discount rate [similar to an interest rate] over  25-year period). In the Maldives, mining of coral for construction has had sever impacts (Brown and Dunne, 1988), resulting in the need for an artificial substitut breakwater around Malé at a construction cost of around 12,000,000 dollar (Moberg and Folke, 1999).
+4. Conclusions, Synthesis and Knowledge Gaps
+There has been relatively little study of rates of carbonate production, and furthe research is needed on the supply of biogenic sand and gravel to coastal ecosystems Most beaches have some calcareous biogenic material within them; carbonate is a important component of the shoreline behind coral-reef systems, with reef island on atolls entirely composed of skeletal carbonate.
+The sediment budgets of these systems need to be better understood; direc observations and monitoring of key variables, such as rates of calcification, would b very useful. Not only is little known about the variability in carbonate production i shallow-marine systems, but their response to changing climate and oceanographi drivers is also poorly understood. In the case of reef systems, bleaching as a result o elevated sea temperatures and reduced calcification as a consequence of ocea acidification seem likely to reduce coral cover and production of skeletal material Longer-term implications for the sustainability of reefs and supply of sediment t reef islands would appear to decrease resilience of these shorelines, althoug alternative interpretations suggest an increased supply of sediment, either becaus reef flats that are currently exposed at low tide and therefore devoid of coral, ma be re-colonized by coral under higher sea level, or because the disintegration of dea stands of coral may augment the supply of sediment.
+Determining the trend in shoreline change, on beaches in temperate settings and o reef islands on atolls or other reef systems, requires monitoring of beach volumes a representative sites. This has rarely been undertaken over long enough time periods or with sufficient attention to other relevant environmental factors, to discern  pattern or assign causes to inferred trends. Although climate and oceanographi drivers threaten such systems, the most drastic erosion appears to be the result o more direct anthropogenic stressors, such as beach mining, or the construction o infrastructure or coastal protection works that interrupt sediment pathways an disrupt natural patterns of erosion and deposition.
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_08.txt

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+Chapter 8. Aesthetic, Cultural, Religious and Spiritual Ecosystem Services Derive from the Marine Environment
+Contributor: Alan Simcock (Lead Member)
+1. Introduction
+At least since the ancestors of the Australian aboriginal people crossed what are no the Timor and Arafura Seas to reach Australia about 40,000 years ago (Lourandos 1997), the ocean has been part of the development of human society. It is no surprising that human interaction with the ocean over this long period profoundl influenced the development of culture. Within “culture” it is convenient to includ the other elements — aesthetic, religious and spiritual — that are regarded as aspect of the non-physical ecosystem services that humans derive from the environmen around them. This is not to decry the difference between all these aspects, bu rather to define a convenient umbrella term to encompass them all. On this basis this chapter looks at the present-day implications of the interactions betwee human culture and the ocean under the headings of cultural products, cultura practices and cultural influences.
+2. Cultural products
+No clear-cut distinction exists between objects which have a utilitarian valu (because they are put to a use) and objects which have a cultural value (becaus they are seen as beautiful or sacred or prized for some other non-utilitarian reason) The two categories can easily overlap. Furthermore, the value assigned to an objec may change: something produced primarily for the use to which it can be put ma become prized, either by the society that produces it or by some other society, fo other reasons (Hawkes, 1955). In looking at products from the ocean as cultura ecosystem services, the focus is upon objects valued for non-utilitarian reasons. Th value assigned to them will be affected by many factors: primarily their aesthetic o religious significance, their rarity and the difficulty of obtaining them from the ocean The example of large numbers of beads made from marine shells found in the buria mounds dating from the first half of the first millennium CE of the Mound People i lowa, United States of America, 1,650 kilometres from the sea, shows how exoti marine products can be given a cultural value (Alex, 2010).
+Another good — albeit now purely historical — example is the purple dye derived fro marine shellfish of the family Muricidae, often known as Tyrian purple. In th Mediterranean area, this purple dye was very highly valued, and from an early dat (around 1800-1500 BCE) it was produced in semi-industrial fashion in Crete and late elsewhere. Its cost was high because large numbers of shellfish were required t produce small amounts of the dye. Because of this, its use became restricted to th elite. Under the Roman republic, the togas of members of the Senate were
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+distinguished by a border of this colour, and under the Roman empire it became th mark of the emperors (Stieglitz, 1994). This usage has produced a whole cultura structure revolving around the colour purple and spreading out into a range o metaphors and ideas: for example, the concept of the “purple patch,” an elaborat passage in writing, first used by the Roman poet Horace (Horatius).
+Goods derived from marine ecosystems that are given a cultural value because o their appearance and/or rarity include pearls, mother-of-pearl, coral an tortoiseshell. In the case of coral, as well as its long-standing uses as a semi-preciou item of jewellery and inlay on other items, a more recent use in aquariums ha developed.
+2.1 Pearls and mother-of-pearl
+Pearls and mother-of-pearl are a primary example of a marine product used fo cultural purposes. Many species of molluscs line their shells with nacre — a lustrou material consisting of platelets of aragonite (a form of calcium carbonate (se Chapter 7)) in a matrix of various organic substances (Nudelman et al., 2006). Th shells with this lining give mother-of-pearl. Pearls themselves are formed of layer of nacre secreted by various species of oyster and mussel around some foreign bod which has worked its way into the shell (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2007).
+Archaeological evidence shows that pearls were already being used as jewellery i the 6" millennium BCE (Charpentier et al., 2012). By the time of the Romans, the could be described as “holding the first place among things of value” (Pliny). For th ancient world, the main source was the shellfish beds along the southern coast o the Persian Gulf, with Bahrain as the main centre. The pearl fishery in the Persia Gulf maintained itself as the major source of pearls throughout most of the first tw millennia CE, and by the 18" century was sufficiently profitable to support th founding of many of the present Gulf States. It developed further in the 19 century, and by the start of the 20" century the Persian Gulf pearl trade reached  short-lived peak in value at about 160 million United States dollars a year, and wa the mainstay of the economies of the Gulf States (Carter, 2005).
+During the 20" century, however, the Persian Gulf pearl trade declined steadily, du substantially to competition from the Japanese cultured pearl industry and genera economic conditions. With the emergence of the Gulf States as important oi producers, the economic significance of the pearl trade for the area declined. Th Kuwait pearl market closed in 2000, and with its closure the Persian Gulf pear fishery ceased to be of economic importance (Al-Shamlan, 2000). However, som pearling still continues as a tourist attraction and, with Japanese support, an attemp has been made to establish a cultivated pearl farm in Ras Al Kaimah (OBG, 2013) Other traditional areas for the harvesting of natural pearls include the Gulf of Cutc and the Gulf of Mannar in India, Halong Bay in Viet Nam and the Islas de las Perlas i Panama (CMFRI, 1991; Southgate, 2007).
+The great transformation of the pearl industry came with the success of Japanes firms in applying the technique developed in Australia by an Englishman, Willia Saville-Kent. The technique required the insertion of a nucleus into the pearl oyster
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+in order to provoke the formation of a pearl. Using the oyster species from th Persian Gulf, this meant that, instead of the three or four pearls that could be foun in a thousand wild oysters, a high percentage of the farmed oysters would delive pearls. The Japanese industry started in about 1916. By 1938, there were about 36 pearl farms in Japanese waters, producing more than 10 million pearls a year (1 tons). Production continued to increase after World War II and reached a peak o 230 tons in 1966, from 4,700 farms. Pollution and disease in the oyster, however rapidly caused the industry to contract. By 1977, only about 1,000 farms remained producing about 35 tons of pearls. Competition from Chinese cultured freshwate pearls and an oyster epidemic in 1996 reduced the Japanese industry to th production of less than 25 tons a year. Nevertheless, this industry was still wort about 130 million dollars a year. From the 1970s, other Indian Ocean and Pacifi Ocean areas were developing cultured pearl industries based on the traditional pear oyster species: in India and in Viet Nam in the traditional pearling regions, and i Australia, China, the Republic of Korea and Venezuela. Apart from China, wher production had reached 9-10 tons a year, these are relatively small; the largest i apparently in Viet Nam, which produces about 1 ton a year (Southgate, 2007).
+At the same time, new forms of the industry developed, based on other oyste species. The two main branches are the “white South Sea” and “black South Sea pearl industries, based on Pinctada maxima and Pinctada margaritefera respectively. “Black” pearls are a range of colours from pale purple to true black Australia (from 1950) and Indonesia (from the 1970s) developed substantia industries for “white South Sea” pearls, earning around 100 million dollars a yea each. Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines have smalle industries. The black “South Sea” pearl industry is centred in French Polynesia particularly in the Gambier and Tuamotu archipelagos. The industry in Frenc Polynesia was worth 173 million dollars in 2007 (SPC, 2011). The Cook Islands building on a long-standing mother-of-pearl industry, started a cultured-pear industry in 1972, which grew to a value of 9 million dollars by 2000. However, i that year poor farm hygiene and consequent mass mortality of the oysters led to  collapse to less than a quarter of that value by 2005. The trade has recovere somewhat since then, largely due to increased sales to tourists in the islands. Smal “black South Sea” pearl industries also exist in the Federated States of Micronesia Fiji, the Marshall Islands and Tonga. Small pearl industries based on the oyste species Pterea penguin and Pterea sterna exist in Australia, China, Japan, Mexico an Thailand (SPC, 2011; Southgate, 2007).
+Reliable information on the cultured pearl industries is not easy to obtain: fo example, significant divergences exist between the statistics for the Pintad margaritifera industry in the FAO Fisheries Global Information System database an those reported by the South Pacific Secretariat in their newsletters (SPC, 2011). Th FAO itself noted the lack of global statistics on pearls (FAO, 2012). However, al sources suggest that the various industries suffered severe set-backs in 2009-201 from a combination of the global economic crisis and overproduction. It is also clea that, apart from local sales to tourists, the bulk of all production passes throug auctions in Hong Kong, China, and Japan.
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+Mother-of-pearl is produced mainly from the shells of pearl oysters, but othe molluscs, such as abalone, may also be used. In the 19" century it was much used a a material for buttons and for decorating small metal objects and furniture. In man of these uses it has been superseded by plastics. It developed as an importan industry in the islands around the Sulu Sea and the Celebes Sea, but substantia industries also existed in western Australia (now overtaken by the cultured-pear industry), the Cook Islands and elsewhere (Southgate 2007). It remains important i the Philippines, which still produces several thousand tons a year (FAO, 2012).
+2.2 Tortoiseshell
+For several centuries, material from the shells of sea turtles was used both as  decorative inlay on high-quality wooden furniture and for the manufacture of smal items such as combs, spectacle frames and so on. The lavish use of tortoiseshell wa a particular feature of the work of André Charles Boulle, cabinetmaker to successiv 18" century French kings. This established a pattern which was widely imitate (Penderel-Brodhurst, 1910). The shells of hawksbills turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in particular, were used for this purpose. The demand for the shells of hawksbil turtles produced an enormous and enduring effect on hawksbill populations aroun the world. Within the last 100 years, millions of hawksbills were killed for th tortoiseshell markets of Asia, Europe and the United States (NMFS, 2013). Th species has been included in the most threatened category of the IUCN’s Red Lis since the creation of the list in 1968, and since 1977 in the listing of all hawksbil populations on Appendix | of the Convention on International Trade in Endangere Species of Wild Fauna and Flora’ (CITES) (trade prohibited unless not detrimental t the survival of the species). Some production of objects with tortoiseshell continue (particularly in Japan), but on a very much reduced scale.
+2.3 Coral (and reef fish)
+The Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum), was used from a very early date fo decoration and as a protective charm. In the 1* century, Pliny the Elder records bot its use a charm to protect children and its scarcity as a result of its export to Indi (Pliny). As late as the second half of the 19" century, teething-rings were still bein made with coral (Denhams, 2014). It is now principally used for jewellery. Th Mediterranean red coral is still harvested. Similar genera/species from the wester Pacific near Japan, Hawaii, and some Pacific seamounts are also harvested. Th global harvest reached a short-lived peak at about 450 tons a year in 1986, as  result of the exploitation of some recently discovered beds on the Empero Seamounts in the Pacific. It has fallen back to around 50 tons a year, primarily fro the Mediterranean and adjoining parts of the Atlantic (CITES, 2010). This trade in th hard coral stone is estimated to be worth around 200 million dollars a year (FT 2012), although another estimate places it at nearer 300 million dollars) (Tsounis 2010). Despite proposals in 2007 and 2010, these corals are not listed under th CITES.
+* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol.. 993, No. 14537.
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+Other corals of cultural interest, on the other hand, have been listed under CITES The cultural use made of these genera and species is very different. The main use i inclusion in aquariums. Some experimental evidence exists that the ability to watc fish in aquariums has a soothing effect on humans (especially when suffering fro dementia) (for example, Edwards et al., 2002). For similar reasons, many homes offices, surgeries and hospitals have installed such aquariums. Suitable pieces o coral, either alive or dead, are seen as attractive parts of such aquarium scenes. Th demand for coral for this purpose is substantial. International trade in cora skeletons for decorative purposes began in the 1950s. Until 1977 the source wa largely the Philippines. In that year a national ban on export was introduced, and b 1993 the ban was fully effective. The main source then became Indonesia. Until th 1990s, the trade was mainly in dead corals for curios and aquarium decoration Developments in the technology of handling live coral led to a big increase in th trade in live coral. CITES lists 60 genera of hard corals in Appendix II; hence thei export is permitted only if the specimens have been legally acquired and export wil not be detrimental to the survival of the species or its role in the ecosystem. Fo coral rock, the trade averaged about 2,000 tons a year in the decade 2000-2010 although declining slightly towards the end of the decade. Fiji (with 60 per cent) an Indonesia (with 11 per cent) were the major suppliers over this decade. Othe countries supplying coral rock included Haiti, the Marshall Islands, Mozambique Tonga, Vanuatu and Viet Nam, although the last five introduced bans towards th end of this period. The major importers were the United States (78 per cent) an the European Union (12 per cent). For live coral, the picture was slightly different over the same decade, the number of pieces of live coral traded rose from som 700,000 to some 1,200,000. Of these, Indonesia supplied an average of about 70 pe cent, with other important suppliers including Fiji (10 per cent), Tonga (5 per cent) Australia (5 per cent) and the Solomon Islands (4 per cent). The United State accounted for an average of 61 per cent of the imports, and the European Unio took 31 per cent. For some species of coral, mariculture is possible, and by 201 pieces produced by mariculture accounted for 20 per cent of the trade (Wood et al. 2012).
+An aquarium would not be complete without fish, and this need has produce another major global trade: in reef fish. Because few marine ornamental fish specie have been listed under CITES, a dearth of accurate information on the precise detail of the trade exists. The FAO noted the lack of global statistics on the catches of, an trade in, ornamental fish in its 2012 Report on the State of the World’s Fisheries an Aquaculture (FAO, 2012). The late Director of the trade association Ornamental Fis International, Dr. Ploeg, likewise lamented the lack of data (Ploeg, 2004). On estimate puts the scale of the trade in ornamental fish (freshwater and marine) at 1 billion dollars. In 2000 to 2004 an attempt was made to set up in UNEP/WCMC  Global Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD), drawing not only on official trad records, but also on information supplied by trade associations. This provides som interesting, albeit now dated, information, but it has not been kept up-to-dat because of lack of funding. One of the most notable features was that the numbe of fish reported as imported was some 22 per cent more than the number reporte as exported (Wabnitz et al., 2003). The need for better information is a matter of
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+on-going debate; the European Union has conducted a consultation exercise in 2008 2010 (EC, 2008).
+The GMAD data suggested that some 3.5-4.3 million fish a year, from nearly 1,50 different species, were being traded worldwide. The main sources of fish (in order o size of exports) were the Philippines, Indonesia, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka Australia, Fiji, the Maldives and Palau. These countries accounted for 98 per cent o the recorded trade, with the Philippines and Indonesia together accounting fo nearly 70 per cent. The main destinations of the fish were the United States, th United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France and Germany, which accounted for 99 pe cent of the recorded trade; the United States accounted for nearly 70 per cent These figures probably do not include re-exports to other countries. It was estimate that the value of the trade in 2003 was 1 million to 300 million dollars (Wabnitz e al., 2003).
+From the social perspective, the number of people depending on the trade i relatively small. A workshop organized by the Secretariat of the Pacific Communit in 2008 showed that some 1,472 people in 12 Pacific island countries and territorie depended on the trade in ornamental fish for their livelihoods (Kinch et al., 2010) GMAD reported an estimate of 7,000 collectors providing marine ornamental fish i the Philippines (Wabnitz et al., 2003). It also reported a much higher estimate o some 50,000 people in Sri Lanka being involved with the export of marin ornamentals, but this probably reflects the large, long-standing trade based on th aquaculture of ornamental freshwater fish.
+2.4 Culinary and medicinal cultural products
+Items of food, and specific ways of preparing dishes from them, can be ver distinctive features of cultures. Products derived from marine ecosystems often pla a significant role. One almost universal feature is salt. For millennia, salt was vital i much of the world for the preservation of meat and fish through the winter months Although nowadays salt is mainly obtained from rock-salt and brine deposits in th ground, salt is still widely prepared by the evaporation of seawater, especially i those coastal areas where the heat of the sun can be used to drive the evaporation Although statistics for the production of salt often do not differentiate between th sources for salt production, countries such as Brazil, India and Spain are recorded a producing many millions of tons of salt from the sea (BGS, 2014).
+A further common preparation used in many forms of cooking is a sauce derive from fermenting or otherwise processing small fish and shellfish. Such sauces ar recorded as garum and liquamen among the Romans from as long ago as the 1 century (Pliny). They are also crucial ingredients in the cuisines of many east Asia countries — China, Republic of Korea, Thailand, Viet Nam — and other fish-base sauces are found in many western cuisines, for example, colatura de alici (anchov sauce) and Worcestershire sauce.
+Cultural pressures can interact with the sustainable use of products derived fro marine ecosystem services. Just as the demand for tortoiseshell inlay and object was driven by desire to emulate the élite in both Asia and Europe, and affected the
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+hawksbill turtle, other species of marine turtle were also affected by the status o turtle soup as a prestige dish. In Europe, soup made from green turtles (Cheloni mydas) became a prestige dish when the turtles were brought back by Europea trading ships passing through the tropics. It was served lavishly at formal dinners  in the mid-19" century, a report of a routine large dinner refers to “four hundre tureens of turtle, each containing five pints” — that is, 1,136 litres in total (Thackeray 1869). Large amounts were also commercialized in tins. In spite of growin conservation concerns, it was still seen as appropriate for inclusion in the dinner t welcome the victorious General Eisenhower back to the United States in 1945 (WAA 1945). The dish has disappeared from menus since the green turtle was listed unde Appendix | to CITES in 1981, except in areas where turtles are farmed or wher freshwater species are used.
+Another group of species where cultural forces create pressures for excessiv harvesting is the sharks (see also chapter 40). Shark’s fin soup is a prestige dish i much of eastern Asia, especially among Chinese-speaking communities. Prices fo shark’s fins are very high (hundreds of dollars per kilogramme). As shown in Figur 1, the trade in shark fins peaked in 2003-2004 and has subsequently levelled out a quantities 17-18 per cent lower (2008-2011). The statistics are subject to man qualifications, but trade in shark fins through Hong Kong, China (generally regarde as the largest trade centre in the world) rose by 10 per cent in 2011, but fell by 2 per cent in 2012. The FAO report from which the figure is drawn suggests that  number of factors, including new regulations by China on government officials expenditures, consumer backlash against artificial shark fin products, increase regulation of finning (the practice of cutting fins of shark carcasses and discardin the rest), other trade bans and curbs, and a growing conservation awareness, ma have contributed to the downturn. At the same time, new figures suggest the shar fin markets in Japan, Malaysia and Thailand, though focused on small, low-value fins may be among the world’s largest (FAO, 2014a).
+World trade in shark fins, 1976 to 2011
+Thousands of tonne USD million
+Figure 1. Source: FAO, 2014a.
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+Similar cultural pressures exist in relation to other aspects of marine ecosystems Traditional medicine in eastern Asia, for example, uses dried seahorses for a range o illnesses. Most dried seahorses (caught when they are about 12-16 cm in size) ar exported to China. The value in 2008 was 100-300 dollars per kilogramme depending on the size and species; the larger animals are the most valuable Production is said to be more than 20 million sea horses (70 tons) a year. Viet Na and China are the major producers; Viet Nam has developed its seahors aquaculture since 2006. This trade is seen as a significant pressure on th conservation status of several species of seahorse (FAO, 2014b).
+Not all consequences of the cultural uses of the ocean’s ecosystem services i relation to food are necessarily negative. The Mediterranean diet, with it substantial component of fish and shellfish, was inscribed in 2013 on the UNESC Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (UNESCO, 2014).
+3. Cultural practices
+3.1 Cultural practices that enable use of the sea
+Humans interact with the ocean in a large number of ways, and many of these lea to cultural practices which enrich human life in aesthetic, religious or spiritual ways as well as in purely practical matters. Such practices are beginning to be inscribed i the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity Those listed so far include a practice in Belgium of fishing for shrimp on horse-back twice a week, except in winter months, riders on strong Brabant horses walk breast deep in the surf, parallel to the coastline, pulling funnel-shaped nets held open b two wooden boards. A chain dragged over the sand creates vibrations, causing th shrimp to jump into the net. Shrimpers place the catch (which is later cooked an eaten) in baskets hanging at the horses’ sides. In approving the inscription, th Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultura Heritage (ICSICH) noted that it would promote awareness of the importance of small very local traditions, underline the close relations between humans, animals an nature, and promote respect for sustainable development and human creativit (UNESCO, 2014).c
+Similarly, the Chinese tradition of building junks with separate water-tight bulkhead has been recognized as a cultural heritage that urgently needs protection. Th ICSICH noted that, despite the historical importance of this shipbuilding technology its continuity and viability are today at great risk because wooden ships are replace by steel-hulled vessels, and the timber for their construction is in increasingly shor supply; apprentices are reluctant to devote the time necessary to master the trad and craftspeople have not managed to find supplementary uses for their carpentr skills. Furthermore, the ICSICH noted that safeguarding measures designed t sustain the shipbuilding tradition are underway, including State financial assistanc to master builders, educational programmes to make it possible for them to transmi their traditional knowledge to young people, and the reconstruction of historical
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+junks as a means to stimulate public awareness and provide employment (UNESCO 2014).
+Another cultural tradition linked to the sea is that of the lenj boats in the Islami Republic of Iran. Lenj vessels are traditionally hand-built and are used by inhabitant of the northern coast of the Persian Gulf for sea journeys, trading, fishing and pear diving. The traditional knowledge surrounding lenjes includes oral literature performing arts and festivals, in addition to the sailing and navigation techniques terminology and weather forecasting that are closely associated with sailing, and th skills of wooden boat-building itself. This tradition is also under threat, and th Islamic Republic of Iran has proposed a wide range of measures to safeguard i (UNESCO, 2014).
+Along the north-east Pacific coast, sea-going canoes were one of the three majo forms of monumental art among the Canadian First Nations and United States Nativ Americans, along with plank houses and totem poles. These canoes came t represent whole clans and communities and were a valuable trade item in the past especially for the Haida, Tlingit and Nuu-Chah-Nulth. Recently, there has been  revival in the craft of making and sailing them, and they are capable of bringin prestige to communities (SFU, 2015).
+Similar important navigational traditions survive in Melanesia, Micronesia an Polynesia. Using a combination of observations of stars, the shape of the waves, th interference patterns of sea swells, phosphorescence and wildlife, the Pacifi Islanders have been able to cross vast distances at sea and make landfall on smal islands. Although now largely being replaced by modern navigational aids, th Pacific navigational tradition shows how many aspects of the marine ecosystems ca be welded together to provide results that at first sight seem impossible. Since th 1970s the tradition has been undergoing a renaissance (Lewis, 1994).
+Apart from the practical cultural practices linked to the sea that support navigation cultural practices in many parts of the world reflect the dangers of the ocean and th hope of seafarers to gain whatever supernatural help might be available. The fishin fleet is blessed throughout the Roman Catholic world, usually on 15 August, th Feast of the Assumption. This dates back to at least the 17" century in Liguria i Italy (Acta Sanctae Sedis, 1891). It spread generally around the Mediterranean, an was then taken by Italian, Portuguese and Spanish fishermen when they emigrated and has been adopted in many countries, even those without a Roman Catholi tradition.
+In many places in China and in the cultural zone influenced by China, a comparabl festival is held on the festival of Mazu, also known (especially in Hong Kong, China as Tian Hou (Queen of Heaven). According to legend, she was a fisherman’ daughter from Fujian who intervened miraculously to save her father and/or he brothers and consequently became revered by fishermen, and was promoted by th Chinese Empire as part of their policy of unifying devotions. The main festival take place on the 23” day of the 3 lunar month (late April/early May). A tradition o visiting a local shrine before a fishing voyage also continues in some places (Liu 2003).
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+Miura, on the approaches to Tokyo Bay in Japan, developed as a military port and  harbour providing shelter to passing ships. Drawing on dances from other citie demonstrated to them by visiting sailors, the people of Miura began the tradition o Chakkirako to celebrate the New Year and bring fortune and a bountiful catch of fis in the months to come. By the mid-eighteenth century, the ceremony had taken it current form as a showcase for the talent of local girls. The dancers perform face-to face in two lines or in a circle, holding fans before their faces in some pieces an clapping thin bamboo sticks together in others, whose sound gives its name to th ceremony. Now included in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangibl Cultural Heritage of Humanity, the ceremony is intended to demonstrate cultura continuity (UNESCO, 2014).
+A specific cultural practice that acknowledges the importance of sea trade is th “Marriage of the Sea” (Sposalizio del Mare) in Venice, Italy. This takes the form of  boat procession from the centre of city to the open water, where the civic hea (originally the Doge, now the Sindaco) throws a wedding ring into the sea. In 1177 Venice had successfully established its independence from the Emperor an Patriarch in Constantinople (Istanbul), from the Pope in Rome and from the Hol Roman Emperor, by using its leverage to reconcile the two latter powers, and ha become the great entrepdt between the eastern and western Mediterranean. Pop Alexander II acknowledged this by giving the Doge a ring. Henceforth, annually o Ascension Day, the Doge would “wed” the sea to demonstrate Venice’s control o the Adriatic (Myers et al., 1971). Abolished when Napoleon dissolved the Venetia Republic, the ritual has been revived since 1965 as a tourist attraction (Veneziaunica 2015).
+3.2 Cultural practices that react to the sea
+A verse in the Hebrew psalms speaks of the people “that go down to the sea in ship and...see...the wonders of the deep” (Psalm 107(106)/23, 24). A similar sense o awe at the sea appears in the Quran (Sura 2:164). This sense of awe at the ocean i widespread throughout the world. In many places it leads to a special sense of plac with religious or spiritual connotations, which lead to special ways of behaving: i other words, to religious or spiritual ecosystem services from the ocean.  reductionist approach can see no more in such ways of behaviour than bases fo prudential conduct: for example, fishing may be halted in some area at a specifi time of year, which coincides with the spawning of a particular fish population, thu promoting the fish stock recruitment. But such a reductionist approach is no necessary, and can undermine a genuine sense of religious or spiritual reaction t the sea.
+The risk exists that such reductionist approaches will be seen as the natura interpretation of ritual or religious practices. In a survey of the environmenta history of the Pacific Islands, McNeill writes that “Lagoons and reefs probably felt th human touch even less [than the islands], although they made a large contributio to island sustenance...human cultural constraints often operated to preserve them Pacific islanders moderated their impact on many ecosystems through restraints an restrictions on resource use. In many societies taboos or other prohibitions limited
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+the exploitation of reefs, lagoons, and the sea. These taboos often had social o political purposes, but among their effects was a reduction in pressures on loca ecosystems. Decisions about when and where harvesting might take place wer made by men who had encyclopaedic knowledge of the local marine biota” (McNeill 1994).
+This clearly sets out the external (“etic”) view of the system of taboos and beliefs i.e., the view that can be taken by an outside, dispassionate observer. It does no allow for the internal (“emic”) view as seen by someone who is born, brought up an educated within that system. It is important to understand this distinction and allo for the way in which the insider will have a different frame of reference from th outsider.
+Good examples of the way in which such an insider’s religious or spiritual reaction can underpin a whole system of community feeling can be found among the Firs Nations of the Pacific seaboard of Canada. A member of the Huu-ay-aht First Nation a tribe within the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Group in this area, describes their traditiona approach to whaling as follows:
+“Whaling within Nuu chah nulth society was the foundation of our economi structure. It provided valuable products to sell, trade and barter. In essence i was our national bank... Whaling [however, also] strengthened, maintaine and preserved our cultural practices, unwritten tribal laws, ceremonies principles and teachings. All of these elements were practiced throughout th preparations, the hunt and the following celebrations. Whaling strengthene and preserved our spirituality and is clearly illustrated through the disciplin that the Nuu chah nulth hereditary whaling chiefs exemplified in their month of bathing, praying and fasting in preparation for the hunt. The whal strengthened our relationships with other nations and communities. Peopl came from great distances and often resulted in intertribal alliances relationships and marriages. The whale strengthened the relationship between families because everyone was involved in the processing of th whale, the celebrations, the feasting, and the carving of the artefacts that ca still be seen today in many museums around the world. The whal strengthened the relationships between family members since everyon shared in the bounty of the whale. And the whale strengthened our peopl spiritually, psychologically and physically” (Happynook, 2001).
+Because of the restrictions imposed to respond to the crises in the whale populatio caused by commercial whaling, the Nuu-chah-nulth are not permitted to undertak whaling, and the related peoples further south in Washington State, United States need to obtain special authorization (a request for which has been unde consideration since 2005), and feel that part of their cultural heritage has been take away from them. As the draft evaluation of the Makah request to resume whale hunting puts it, with no authorization this element of their culture would remain  connection to the past without any present reinforcement. In effect, a cultura ecosystem service would be lost (NOAA, 2015).
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+3.3 Cultural practices tied to a specific sea area
+Not all interactions between communities with traditions based on their long standing uses of the ocean result in such clashes between opposing points of view In Brazil, for example, the concept has been introduced of the Marine Extractiv Reserve (Reserva Extrativista Marinha). These are defined areas of coast and coasta sea which aim to allow the long-standing inhabitants to continue to benefit from th resources of the reserve, applying their traditional knowledge and practices, whil protecting the area against non-traditional, new exploitation, and protecting th environment (Chamy, 2002). Six such reserves have been created, and a further 1 are in the process of designation and organization (IBAMA, 2014).
+In Australia, before colonization, the coastal clans of indigenous peoples regarde their territories as including both land and sea. The ocean, or “saltwater country” was not additional to a clan estate on land: it was inseparable from it. As on land saltwater country contained evidence of the Dreamtime events by which al geographic features, animals, plants and people were created. It contained sacre sites, often related to these creation events, and it contained tracks, or Songlines along which mythological beings travelled during the Dreamtime. Mountains, rivers waterholes, animal and plant species, and other cultural resources came into bein as a result of events which took place during these Dreamtime journeys. The sea, lik the land, was integral to the identity of each clan, and clan members had a ki relationship to the important marine animals, plants, tides and currents. Many o these land features and heritage sites of cultural significance found withi landscapes today have associations marked by physical, historical, ceremonial religious and ritual manifestations located within the indigenous people’s cultura beliefs and customary law. The Commonwealth and State Governments in Australi are now developing ways in which the groups of indigenous people can take a ful part in managing the large marine reserves which have been, or are being, created in line with their traditional culture. The techniques being used must vary, becaus they must take account of other vested rights and Australia’s obligations unde international law (AIATSIS, 2006).
+Madagascar provides an interesting example of the way in which traditional belief can influence decisions on sea use. On the west coast of the northern tip of th island, a well-established shrimp-fishing industry is largely, but not entirely undertaken by a local tribal group, the Antankarana. This group has a traditional se of beliefs, including in the existence of a set of spirits — the antandrano — wh represent ancestors drowned in the sea centuries ago in an attempt to escape a loca opposing tribal group, the Merina. These spirits are honoured by an annua ceremony focused on a particular rock in the sea in the shrimp fishery area.  proposal was made to create a shrimp aquaculture farm, which would have severel reduced the scope of the shrimp fishery. The Antankarana leader successfull invoked against this proposal reports from local mediums participating in the annua ceremony that the antandrano spirits would oppose the aquaculture proposa (which might well have been under Merina control). Thus a religious ecosyste service from the sea was deployed to defend a provisioning ecosystem servic (Gezon, 1999).
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+At a global level, specific marine sites were inscribed by UNESCO in the Worl Heritage List, and thus brought under certain commitments and controls t safeguard them. So far 42 marine or coastal sites have been designated on the basi of their natural interest:
+(a) 22 “contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptiona natural beauty and aesthetic importance”;
+(b) 12 are “outstanding examples representing major stages of earth' history, including the record of life, significant ongoing geologica processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic o physiographic features”;
+(c) 14 are “outstanding examples representing significant ongoing ecologica and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plant and animals”; and
+(d) 29 “contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-sit conservation of biological diversity, including those containin threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of vie of science or conservation”.
+(Sites can qualify under more than one criterion.)
+Fifteen are islands. Three have been declared to be in danger: the Belize barrier ree (the largest in the northern hemisphere), which is threatened by mangrove cuttin and excessive development (2009); the Florida Everglades in the United States which have suffered a 60 per cent reduction in water flow and are threatened b eutrophication (2010); and East Rennell in the Solomon Islands, which is threatene by logging (2013). In addition, four marine or coastal sites have been inscribed in th World Heritage List because of their mixed cultural and natural interest — the islan of St Kilda in the United Kingdom (for centuries a very remote inhabited settlement featuring some of the highest cliffs in Europe); the island of Ibiza in Spain ( combination of prehistoric archaeological sites, fortifications influential in fortres design and the interaction of marine and coastal ecosystems); the Rock Island Southern Lagoon (Ngerukewid Islands National Wildlife Preserve) in Palau ( combination of neolithic villages and the largest group of saltwater lakes in th world); and Papahanaumokuakea (a chain of low-lying islands and atolls with dee cosmological and traditional significance for living native Hawaiian culture, as a ancestral environment, as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinshi between people and the natural world, and as the place where it is believed that lif originates and where the spirits return after death) (UNESCO, 2014).
+Other marine sites of cultural interest are those which offer the possibility o learning more about their past through underwater archaeology. Underwate archaeology draws on submerged sites, artefacts, human remains and landscapes t explain the origin and development of civilizations, and to help understand culture history and climate change. Three million shipwrecks and sunken ruins and cities like the remains of the Pharos of Alexandria, Egypt — one of the Seven Wonders o the Ancient World - and thousands of submerged prehistoric sites, including ports
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+and methods of marine exploitation, such as fish traps, are estimated to exis worldwide. Material here is often better preserved than on land because of th different environmental conditions. In addition, shipwrecks can throw importan light on ancient trade patterns; for example, the Uluburun shipwreck off th southern coast of Turkey, which illuminated the whole pattern of trade in the Middl East in the Bronze Age in the second millennium BCE (Aruz et al., 2008). Shipwreck can also yield valuable information about the sociocultural, historical, economic, an political contexts at various scales of reference (local, regional, global) between th date of the vessel's construction (e.g. hull design, rig, materials used, its purpose etc.) and its eventual demise in the sea (e.g. due to warfare, piracy/privateering intentional abandonment, natural weather events, etc.) (Gould, 1983). Man national administrations pursue policies to ensure that underwater archaeologica sites within their jurisdictions are properly treated. At the global level, the UNESC Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)* entere into force in 2009, and provides a framework for cooperation in this field and  widely recognized set of practical rules for the treatment and research o underwater cultural heritage. Where such approaches are not applied, there ar risks that irreplaceable sources of knowledge about the past will be destroyed Bottom-trawling is a specific threat to underwater archaeological sites, wit implications for the coordination of fisheries and marine archaeological sit management. Questions also arise over archaeological sites outside nationa jurisdictions (mainly those of shipwrecks).
+Cultural practices related to the sea, coastal sites of cultural interest (such as th UNESCO World Heritage Sites) and underwater archaeological sites form importan elements for ocean-related tourism, which is discussed in Chapter 27 (Tourism an recreation). In particular, shipwrecks provide attractions for divers.
+Special problems arise over recent shipwrecks where close relatives of people wh died in the shipwreck are still living, particularly where the wreck occurred i wartime. Where the wrecks are in waters within national jurisdiction, many State have declared such sites to be protected, and (where appropriate) as war graves. A underwater exploration techniques improve, the possibility of exploring such wreck in water beyond national jurisdiction increases, and this gives rise to shar controversies.
+Even without special remains or outstanding features, the ocean can provide a ecosystem service by giving onlookers a sense of place. The sense of openness an exposure to the elements that is given by the ocean can be very important to thos who live by the sea, or visit it as tourists (see also Chapter 27). Even where th landward view has been spoiled by development, the seaward view may still b important. This is well demonstrated by a recent legal case in England, seeking t quash an approval for an offshore wind-farm at Redcar. Redcar is a seaside tow with a large steel plant and much industrialization visible in its immediate hinterland The beach and its view to the south-east are, however, described as spectacular The court had to decide whether construction of the wind-farm about 1.5 kilometre offshore would introduce such a major new industrial element into the
+* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2562. No. 45694.
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+seascape/landscape as to undermine efforts to regenerate the seaside part of th town. The court decided that the ministry was justified in its approval, but the cas underlines the importance of the aesthetic ecosystem service that the sea ca provide (Redcar, 2008).
+As described in Chapter 27 (Tourism and recreation), over the past 200 years ther has been a growing cultural practice worldwide of taking recreation in coastal area and at sea. Some evidence is emerging of positive links between human health an the enjoyment of the coastal and marine environment (Depledge et al., 2009; Wyle et al., 2014; Sandifer et al., 2015).
+4. Cultural influences
+Art reflects the society in which it is produced, and is influenced by that society’ interests. The relationship between a society and the ocean is therefore likely to b reflected in its art. Much visual art therefore reflects the sense of place that i predominant in the society that generates it. The sense of place in societies that ar much concerned with the sea reflects the aesthetic ecosystem services provided b the sea, hence the visual arts are also likely to reflect the same service. Examples o the way in which this occurs are not difficult to find. The Dutch painting school o the 17" century developed the seascape — ships battling the elements at sea — just a the period when the Dutch merchant ships and Dutch naval vessels were th dominant forces on the local ocean. The French impressionists of the second half o the 19" century took to painting coastal and beach scenes in Normandy just at th period when the railways had enabled the Parisian élite — their most likely patrons  to escape to the newly developed seaside resorts on the coast of the Englis Channel. Similarly, Hokusai’s The Great Wave at Kanagawa is focused on a distan view of Mount Fuji rather than on the ocean — not surprising given that it wa painted at a time when shipping in Japan was predominantly coastal. Today, th advances in cameras capable of operating under water, and the availability of easil managed breathing gear and protective clothing, result in the most stunning picture of submarine life.
+This reflection of the aspects of the aesthetic ecosystem services from the ocea that preoccupy the society contemporaneously with the work of the artist can als be found in literature and music. CamGes’s great epic The Lusiads appears just at th time when Portugal was leading the world in navigation and exploration. In the sam period, Chinese literature saw the emergence of both fictional and non-fictiona works based on the seven voyages of Admiral Zheng He in the south-east Asian sea and the Indian Ocean. It is with the emergence in the 19" century of widesprea trading voyages by American and British ships that authors like Conrad, Kipling an Melville bring nautical novels into favour. Likewise, the impressionist seascapes i visual art are paralleled by impressionist music such as Debussy’s La mer.
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+5. The ultimate ecosystem service for humans
+Burial at sea has long been practiced as a matter of necessity during long voyages. I was specifically provided for in 1662 in the English Book of Common Prayer (BCP 1662). Both the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution b Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 and its Protocol’ (see chapter 24) which regulate the dumping of waste and other matter at sea, are careful to leav open the possibility of the burial of human remains at sea. Western European State regularly authorize a small number of such disposals every year (LC-LP, 2014). Th United States authorities have issued a general permit for burial at sea of huma remains, including cremated and non-cremated remains, under certain condition (USA-ECFR, 2015). In Japan, increasing prices for burial plots and concerns about th expanding use of land for cemeteries have led to a growing pattern of crematio followed by the scattering of the cremated remains, often at sea. The practic started in 1991, when the law on the disposal of corpses was relaxed, and ha become more popular following such funeral arrangements for a number o prominent people (Kawano, 2004).
+6. Conclusions and identification of knowledge and capacity-building gaps
+This chapter set out to review the ways in which ecosystem services from the se interrelate with human aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual desires and needs Five main conclusions emerge:
+(a) Several goods produced by the ocean have been taken up as élite goods that is, goods that can be used for conspicuous consumption or t demonstrate status in some other way. When that happens, a high ris exists that the pressures generated to acquire such élite goods, whethe for display or consumption, will disrupt marine ecosystems, especiall when the demand comes from relatively well-off consumers and th supply is provided by relatively poor producers. The development of th market in shark’s fin is a good example of this (although signs exist tha that particular situation has stopped getting worse).
+(b) Some producers could be helped by a better understanding of th techniques and precautions needed to avoid ruining the production. A well as better knowledge, they may also need improved skills, equipmen and/or machinery to implement that better understanding. Th production of cultured pearls in the Cook Islands is a good example.
+(c) Some élite goods pass through a number of hands between the origina producer and the ultimate consumer. There appears to be a gap i capacity-building to safeguard producers and ensure more equitable
+3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1046, No. 15749.
+* 36 International Legal Materials 1 (1997).
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+profit-sharing in the supply chain. The case of small producers o cultured pearls is an example.
+(d) Very different perceptions of marine ecosystem services and ho humans relate to them can exist between different groups in society even when such groups are co-located. Understanding on all sides of th reasons for those differences is a prerequisite for effective managemen of the ecosystem services.
+(e) Aspects of the marine environment that are valued as cultural assets o humanity need constant consideration; they cannot just be left to fen for themselves. Where technology or social change has overtake human skills that are still seen as valuable to preserve, conditions nee to be created in which people want to learn those skills and are able t deploy them. Where an area of coast or sea is seen as a cultural asset o humanity, the knowledge is needed of how it can be maintained in th condition which gives it that value.
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+AIATSIS (2006). Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islanders Studies Sea Countries of the South: Indigenous Interests and Connections within th South-west Marine Region of Australia http://www.environment.gov.au/indigenous/publications/pubs/sea-country report.pdf (accessed 3 June 2014).
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+Bondad-Reantaso, M.G., McGladdery, S.E., and Berthe, F.C.J. (2007). Pearl Oyste Health Management - A Manual. Food and Agriculture Organization of th United Nations, Fisheries Technical Paper No. 503, Rome.
+Carter, R. (2005). The History and Prehistory of Pearling in the Persian Gulf. Journa of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 48, No. 2.
+Chamy, P. (2002). Reservas Extrativistas Marinhas: Um Estudo sobre Poss Tradicional e Sustentabilidade. First National Meeting of the Associac¢a Nacional de Pés-Graduacao e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade http://www.anppas.org.br/encontro_anual/encontro1/gt/conhecimento_lo al/Paula%20Chamy.pdf (accessed 23 May 2014).
+Charpentier, V., Phillips, C.S., and Méry, S. (2012). Pearl fishing in the ancient world 7500 BP. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 23: 1-6.
+CITES - Conference of the Parties of the Convention on the International Trade i Endangered Species (2010). 15" Meeting, Proposition 21 (Inclusion of al species in the family in Appendix Il) CITES Document AC27 Inf. 14 www.traffic.org/cites-cop-papers/CoP15_Prop21_Rec.pdf (accessed 15 Jun 2015).
+CMFRI - Indian Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (1991). Training Manua on Pearl Oyster Farming and Pear! Culture in India. Tuticorin.
+Denhams Auction Catalogue (2014). Lot 960 (embossed silver gilt rattle with cora teething bar and 5 bells, London 1857) http://www.denhams.com/search.php?searchtext=rattle (accesse 12 August 2014).
+Depledge, M.H., Bird, W.J., (2009). The Blue Gym: Health and wellbeing from ou coasts. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58, 947-948.
+EC - European Commission (2008). Monitoring of International Trade in Ornamenta Fish. Consultation Paper prepared by the United Nations Environmen Programme — World Conservation Monitoring Centre. http://old.unep wcmc.org/medialibrary/2011/11/02/5fbf9a43/Monitoring%200f%20internat onal%20trade%20in%20ornamental%20fish%20 %20Consultation%20Paper.pdf (accessed 15 June 2015).
+Edwards N.E, and Beck, A.M. (2002). Animal-assisted therapy and nutrition i Alzheimer’s disease. Western Journal of Nursing Research, Vol. 24.
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+FAO (2014b). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Aquacultur Fact Sheet: Seahorses.
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+Chapter 9. Conclusions on Major Ecosystem Services
+Other than Provisioning Services
+Contributor: Patricio A. Bernal (Lead Member)
+1. Introduction
+The ecosystem services assessed in Part Ill are large-scale; some of them ar planetary in nature and provide human benefits through the normal functioning o the natural systems in the ocean, without human intervention. This makes the intrinsically difficult to value. However, some of these same ecosystem services i turn sustain provisioning services that generate human benefits through the activ intervention of humans. This is the case, for example, for the global ecosyste service provided by primary production by marine plants, which by synthesizin organic matter from CO and water, provide the base of nearly all food chains in th ocean (except the chemosynthetic ones), and provide the food for animal consumer that in turn sustain important provisioning ecosystem services from which human benefit, such as fisheries.
+The services in Part Ill are not the only ones provided by the ocean. Many othe ecosystem services are directly or indirectly referred to in Parts IV to VI of thi Assessment. The provisioning ecosystem services related to food security ar addressed in Part IV, Assessment of Cross-Cutting Issues: Food Security And Foo Safety (Chapters 10 through 16); those related to coastal protection are referred t in Part VI, Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats, in Warm Wate Corals (Chapter 43), Mangroves (Chapter 48), and in Aquaculture (Chapter 12) Estuaries and Deltas (Chapter 44), Kelp Forests and Seagrass Meadows (Chapter 47 and Salt Marshes (Chapter 49); the maintenance of special habitats are addressed i Chapters on Open Ocean Deep-sea Biomass (Chapter 36F); Cold Water Coral (Chapter 42) and Warm Water Corals (Chapter 43), Hydrothermal Vents and Col Seeps (Chapter 45), High-Latitude Ice (46) and Seamounts and Other Submarin Geological Features Potentially Threatened by Disturbance (Chapter 51); th sequestration of carbon in coastal sediments, the so-called blue carbon, is addresse in Chapters on Mangroves (Chapter 48), Estuaries and Deltas (Chapter 44) and Sal Marshes (Chapter 49); the cycling of nutrients is covered in Estuaries and Delta (Chapter 44) and Salt Marshes (Chapter 49, but also Chapter 6).
+Because of the very large scale of the services analysed in Part III, although they ar influenced by human activities, they cannot be easily managed, and in certain case they cannot be managed at all. The uptake of atmospheric CO2 (Chapter 5) and th role of the ocean in the hydrological cycle (Chapter 4) are two examples o regulatory ecosystem services that cannot be managed or valued easily.
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+2. Accounting for the human benefits obtained from nature
+Ecosystems can exist without humans in them, but humans cannot survive withou ecosystems. Throughout history, humanity has made use of nature for food, shelter protection and engaging in cultural activities. The intensity of humanity’s use o nature has changed with the evolution of society and reached high levels with th introduction of modern technologies and industrial systems. Today, at a planetar scale, including the deepest ocean, no natural or pristine systems are found withou people or unaffected by the impact of human activities; nor do social systems exis that can thrive without the support of nature. Social and ecological systems are trul interdependent and constantly co-evolving.
+This fundamental connection between humans and nature has received differen levels of recognition with regard to how we deal with the benefits humans extrac from nature in economic terms. Extractive activities, e.g., of minerals, or of livin natural resources, such as fibre, timber and fish, raise the issues of irreplaceabilit and sustainability. The use of nature is multifaceted and, as a norm, a give ecosystem can provide many goods and several services at the same time. Fo example, a mangrove ecosystem provides wood fibre, fuel, and nursery habitat fo numerous species (provisioning services); it detoxifies and sequesters pollutant coming from upstream sources, stores carbon, traps sediment, and thus protect downstream coral reefs, and buffers shores from tsunamis and storms (regulatin services); it provides beautiful places to fish or snorkel (cultural services); and i recycles nutrients and fixes carbon (supporting services; Lubchenco and Petes 2010). When humans convert a natural ecosystem to another use, some ecosyste services may be lost and others services gained. Such a process gives rise to trade offs between natural services and between these and services not derived fro natural capital. For example, when mangroves are converted to shrimp ponds airports, shopping malls, agricultural lands, or residential areas, new services ar obtained: food production, space for commerce, transportation, and housing, bu the original natural services are lost (Lubchenco and Petes, 2010).
+Therefore, human benefits can be derived from a series of different activities tha simultaneously affect the same ecosystem, but that are not necessarily connecte with their harvesting or production processes. Sustainability requires that users tak only a fraction of the resources, preserving in this way the natural capability of th ecosystem to regenerate the same resources, making them available for use b future generations. The appropriate spatial scale and the time sufficient to recove are part of the sustainability requirement. To extract anchovies (Engraulis spp.) o sardines (Sardinops spp.) that can regenerate their populations in three to eigh years has different implications than to extract orange roughy (Hoplostethu atlanticus) from the top of seamounts that needs 100 to 150 years or more t recover.
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+3. The evolution of management tools
+The increase in “the magnitude of human pressures on the natural system ha caused a transition from single-species or single-sector management to multi-sector ecosystem-based management across multiple geographic and temporal dimensions (...) Intensification of use of ecosystems increases interactions between sectors an production systems that in turn increase the number of mutual negative impacts (i.e. externalities)” (Chapter 3).
+Because all these processes take place in an integrated socio-ecological system, w have seen an expansion of scope in the decision-making process, incorporating th simultaneous consideration of several uses or industries at the same time and th livelihoods and other social aspects connected with this ensemble of activities. Thes approaches enable the consideration of tradeoffs among different uses an beneficiaries, enlarging the range of policy options. Only recently have regulator instruments for better accounting for the indirect and cumulative impacts on natura systems of these multiple uses been incorporated into the management an regulation of human activities. Mobilized by a series of high-level World Conference addressing these issues, in Stockholm 1972, Rio de Janeiro 1992, Johannesburg 2002 and Rio de Janeiro 2012, the international community has acted to advance an implement this enlarged scope of decision-making across all societies.
+Assigning value to the human benefits obtained from nature is more easily don when the goods and services obtained are traded, thereby becoming part o commerce. Prices in different markets are readily available and comparisons ar possible. It is not that simple, however, for certain types of benefits, for example when subsistence livelihoods that do not enter into trade are concerned, or othe intangible cultural, recreational, religious or spiritual benefits are involved.
+However, the extraction of natural products and other human benefits from wil ecosystems can affect other processes inside the ecosystems that provide valuabl permanent services to humanity that are not part of commerce. Examples includ the production of organic matter and oxygen through primary production in th ocean, the protection of the coast by mangrove forests, the re-mineralization o decaying organic matter at the coastal fringes, and the absorption of heat and CO by the ocean that has delayed the impacts of global warming. Furthermore fluctuations in the provision of these natural services can have significant impacts o those natural products that are in commerce.
+Climate patterns drive the magnitude and variability of the circulation and hea storage capacity of the surface layers of the ocean, as described in Chapters 4 and 5 The displacement of warm and cold water pools on the surface of the ocean feed into the dynamics of the atmosphere, generating enormous transient fluctuations i weather patterns, such as the El Nifio and La Nifia cycles, that cascade dow affecting the production of a series of goods and services, not only in the ocean, bu most notably also on land. For example, El Nifio adversely affects the availability an price of fishmeal and fish oil, also key components of the diet of carnivorous specie in aquaculture (see Chapter 12).
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+4. Scientific understanding of ecosystem services
+The fundamental connection between humans and nature has received uneve levels of recognition in how we deal in economic terms with the benefits human extract from nature.
+Humans derive many benefits from all aspects of the natural world. Some of thes benefits are provided by nature without human intervention and some requir human inputs, often with substantial labour and economic investment. The feature and functions of nature which provide these services can be regarded as “natura capital”, and the way in which this natural capital is organized and how it functions i delivering benefits to humans, has led to these types of benefits being described a “ecosystem services”. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment characterize ecosystem services as: provisioning services (e.g., food, pharmaceutical compounds building material); regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, moderation o extreme events, waste treatment, erosion protection, maintaining populations o species); supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling, primary production); and cultura services (e.g., spiritual experience, recreation, information for cognitiv development, aesthetics).
+The rent for land or the royalties on mineral extraction are examples of long established approaches adopted to account for uses of nature. They are based on  one-to-one relationship between one activity or industry and one natural source o the goods or services. The effect of other industries on the same ecosystem is no considered; neither are the impacts on other members of the social system affecte by these industries.
+To comprehensively account for human benefits and costs, “natural capital” needs t be considered alongside the assets that humans have themselves developed whether in the form of individual skills (“human capital”), the social structures the have created (“social capital”) or the physical assets that they have developed (“buil capital”). Managing the scale of the human efforts in using natural capital is crucial The ecosystem-services approach allows decision-making to be integrated acros land, sea and the atmosphere and enables an understanding of the potential an nature of trade-offs among services given different management actions.
+The increasing magnitude of human pressures on the natural system has caused  transition from an emphasis on single-species or single-sector management to multi sector, ecosystem-based management and hence to the explicit incorporation o human actions in socio-ecological systems management.
+A number of variants of the ecosystem-services approach exist. Some emphasize th functional aspects of ecosystems from which people derive benefits. Others pu more emphasis on their utilitarian aspects and seek to apply mainstream economi accounting methods, assigning them monetary values obtained in the market o using non-market methodologies. Yet others emphasize human well-being an ethical values. Looking at ecosystem services requires consideration of a wide rang of scales, from the completely global (for example, the role of the oceans i distributing heat around the world; Chapter 5) to the very local (for example, the
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+protection offered by coral reefs to low-lying islands; Chapter 42).
+Most studies conducted on marine and coastal ecosystem services have bee focused locally and, in general, have not taken into account benefits generate further afield. An ecosystem-services approach can help with decision-making unde conditions of uncertainty, and can bring to light important synergies and trade-off between different uses of the ocean. However, attempting to assess the relationshi between the operation of ecosystem services and the interests of humans requires  much broader management approach and an understanding that many aspects o the ocean have non-linear behaviour and responses. One difficulty is that to date n generally agreed classification of goods and services derived from natural capita exists that could facilitate the task. Another obstacle is that the range of factor involved at all levels might require the consideration of their interaction at th relevant scale, making their treatment very complex.
+Some ecosystem services are more visible and easily understood than others. Ther is a risk that the less visible an ecosystem service is, the less it will be taken int account in decision-making. There is also a risk that ecosystem services that can b valued in monetary terms will be understood more easily than others, thus distortin decisions. Likewise, the time scales over which some ecosystem services will b affected by decisions will be much longer than others, which an approach wit traditionally used discount rates would completely dismiss.
+4.1 Information gaps
+Describing and mapping the full range of ecosystem services at different scale requires much data on the underlying functions and structure of the way in whic ecosystems operate. Although much work has been done, mostly on terrestria ecosystems, this assessment draws attention in its various chapters to the gaps i the information needed to understand the way in which individual ecosyste services operate in the ocean and along the coasts. In addition to these specific gaps a more general, overarching gap exists in understanding how all the individua ecosystem services fit together.
+4.2 Capacity-building gaps
+Many skills have yet to be developed that should integrate an understanding of th operation of ecosystems: knowledge is currently too fragmented between differen specialisms.
+Even in cases where the appropriate skills exist, some parts of the world lac institutions with the status, resources and commitment to make the necessar inputs into decision-making that will affect a range of ecosystem services from th oceans.
+The many institutions that already exist to study the ocean also require new o enhanced abilities and connections, but can be expected to work together. Som international networks already exist to facilitate this. More are needed.
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+5. The ocean’s role in the hydrological cycle
+Water is essential for life and the existence of water in a liquid state on the surfac of the earth is probably a critical reason why life is found on this planet and not o others. The presence of water on the surface of the earth is the combined result o the cosmic and geological history of the planet during its 4.5 billion years o existence. These processes, at human time-scales of thousands of years, can b considered as quasi-stable.
+The ocean dominates the hydrological cycle. The great majority of the water on th surface of the planet, 97 per cent, is stored in the ocean. Only 2.5 per cent of th global balance of water is fresh water, of which approximately 69 per cent i permanent ice or snow and 30 per cent is ground water. The remainder 1 per cent i available in soil, lakes, rivers, swamps, etc. (Trenberth et al., 2007).
+Water evaporates from the planet’s surface, is transported through the atmospher and falls as rain or snow. Rain is the largest source of fresh water entering the ocea (~530,000 km? yr“). At the ocean-atmosphere interface, 85 per cent of surfac evaporation and 77 per cent of surface rainfall occur (Trenberth et al., 2007; Schanz et al., 2010). The residence time of all water in the atmosphere is only seven days. I is fair to say that “all atmospheric water is on a short-term loan from the ocean”.
+However, as with many other cycles, the water cycle is a dynamic system in a quas steady-state condition. This steady-state condition can be altered if the factor controlling the cycle change. The great glaciations, or ice ages, are processes i which, due to interplanetary and planetary changes, huge amounts of water pas from the liquid to the solid state, altering the availability of liquid water on th surface of the earth and dramatically changing the sea level. As a consequence of th change in sea level, the shape of world coastlines and the amount of emerged (o submerged) land is drastically changed.
+Changes are occurring today at an unprecedentedly fast but still uncertain rate.  warmer ocean expands and, being contained by rigid basins, the only surface tha can move is the free surface in contact with the atmosphere, raising sea level.
+In addition, the melting of ice due to a warmer atmosphere and a warmer ocean i increasing the volume of the ocean and in the long run will dominate the amount o total change in sea level.
+As the ocean warms, evaporation will increase, and global precipitation patterns wil change. The IPCC assess (AR 3, 2001; AR 4, 2007; and AR 5, 2013 and 2014) that th dynamic system of water on earth, driven by global warming, is changing sea level a a mean rate of 1.7 [1.5 to 1.9] mm yr“ between 1901 and 2010, increased to 3. [2.8 to 3.6] mm yr“ between 1993 and 2010 and, due to the changes in climate, wil also change the patterns of rain on land.
+Warming affects the polar ice caps, and changes in their melting affect the salinity o the ocean. This in turn can affect the ocean circulation, especially the thermohalin vertical circulation, also known as the “conveyor belt” (Chapter 5) and the operatio of associated ecosystem services.
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+Due to the concentration of human population and built infrastructure in the coasta zone, sea level rise will seriously affect the way in which humans operate. The effect of sea-level rise will vary widely between regions and areas, with some of the region most affected least able to manage a response.
+Changes in water run-off will affect both land and sea. Salinity in the different part of the ocean has changed over time, but is now changing more rapidly. Gradients i salinity are becoming more marked. Because the distribution of marine biota i affected by the salinity of the water that they inhabit, changes in the distribution o salinity are likely to result in changes in distribution of the biota.
+Changes in run-off from land are affecting the input of nutrients to the ocean. Thes changes will also affect marine ecosystems, due to increases in the acidity of th ocean.
+The warming of the ocean is not uniform. It is modulated by oscillations such as E Nifio. These oscillations cause significant transient changes to the climate an ecosystems, both on land and at sea, and have serious economic effects. Th variations in ocean warming will affect the interaction with the atmosphere an affect the intensity and distribution of tropical storms.
+5.1 Information gaps
+The sheer scale of the changes that are happening to the ocean makes presen knowledge inadequate to understand all the implications. There are gaps i understanding sea-level rise, and interior temperature, salinity, nutrient and carbo distributions. Many of these gaps are being addressed as part of the world climat change agenda, but more detail about ocean conditions is needed for regional an local management decisions. The information gaps are particularly serious in som of the areas most seriously affected (e.g., the inter-tropical band).
+5.2 Capacity-building gaps
+Parts of the water cycle are still subject to uncertainties due to insufficient in sit measurements and observations. This is particularly true for surface water fluxes a the regional meso-scale. Because changes in the ocean's role on the hydrologica cycle will be pervasive, all parts of the world need to have access to, and the abilit to interpret, these changes. People and institutions with the necessary skills exist i many countries, but in many others they lack the status and resources to make th necessary input to decision-making.
+6. Sea-Air Interaction
+Most of the heat excess due to increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases i absorbed by the ocean. All ocean basins have warmed during recent decades, bu the increase in heat content is not uniform; the increase in heat content in the
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+Atlantic during the last four decades exceeds that of the Pacific and Indian Ocean combined.
+‘Recent’ warming (since the 1950s) is strongly evident in sea surface temperatures a all latitudes in all part of the ocean. Prominent structures that change over time an space, including the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), decadal variability pattern in the Pacific Ocean, and a hemispheric asymmetry in the Atlantic Ocean, have bee highlighted as contributors to the regional differences in surface warming rates which in turn affect atmospheric circulation.
+The effects of these large-scale climate oscillations are often felt around the world leading to the rearrangement of wind and precipitation patterns, which in tur substantially affect regional weather, sometimes with devastating consequences.
+Compared with estimates for the global ocean, coastal waters are warming faster during the last three decades, approximately 70 per cent of the world’s coastline ha experienced significant increases in sea surface temperature. Such coastal warmin can have many serious consequences for the ecological system, including specie relocation.
+These changes are also affecting the salinity of the ocean: saline surface waters i the evaporation-dominated mid-latitudes have become more saline, while relativel fresh surface waters in rainfall-dominated tropical and polar regions have becom fresher.
+Approximately 83 per cent of global CO, increase is currently generated from th burning of fossil fuels and industrial activity. Forests and grasslands that usuall absorb CO, from the atmosphere are being removed, causing even more CO) to b absorbed by the ocean. The ocean thus serves as an important sink of atmospheri CO2, effectively slowing down global climate change. However, this benefit come with a steep bio-ecological cost. When CO reacts with water, it forms carbonic acid leading to the ocean becoming more acid — referred to as “ocean acidification” Through various routes, this imposes an additional energy cost to calcifier organisms such as corals and shell-bearing plankton, although this is by no means the sol impact of ocean acidification (OA).
+OA is not a simple phenomenon nor will it have a simple unidirectional effect o organisms. Calcification is an internal process that in the vast majority of cases doe not depend directly on seawater carbonate content, since most organism us bicarbonate, which is increasing under acidification scenarios, or CO2 originating i their internal metabolism. It has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in th field that some calcifiers can compensate and thrive in acidification conditions.
+Without significant intervention to reduce CO2 emissions, by the end of this century average surface ocean pH is expected to be below 7.8, an unprecedented level i recent geological history. These changes will be recorded first at the ocean’s surface where the highest biodiversity and productivity occur.
+The abundance and composition of species may be changed, due to OA, with th potential to affect ecosystem function at all trophic levels. Consequential changes i ocean chemistry could occur as well. Economic studies have shown that potentia losses at local and regional scales may be catastrophic for communities and national
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+economies that depend on fisheries.
+6.1 Information Gaps
+Regular monitoring of relevant fluxes across the ocean-atmosphere interface need to be maintained, including the regular assessment of the accumulation of heat an CO> (changes in alkalinity) in the surface layers of the ocean. The state of knowledg regarding OA is only currently moving beyond the nascent stage. Therefore severa major information gaps are yet to be filled. Neither all areas of the globe nor al potentially affected animal and plant groups have yet been covered in terms o research. The full range of response and adaptation of organisms, although an activ field of research, is very seldom known.
+Additional information is required around the effects of mean changes in OA versu changes in variability and extremes; as well as multi-generational effects an adaptive potential of different organisms (Riebesell and Gattuso, 2015; Sunday et al. 2014). The tolerance level by individual organisms to changes in pH must b understood in situ rather than exclusively in laboratory conditions, along with th possible consequential changes in competition by organisms for resources. Th effects of potential loss of keystone species within ecosystems are not yet clear neither are the chemical changes due to pH.
+The future agenda of research in OA should include integrating knowledge o multiple stressors, competitive and trophic interactions, and adaptation throug evolution and moving from single-species to community assessments (Sunday et al. 2014). Future economic impacts of OA are being studied but much more needs to b done. Monitoring and management strategies for maintaining the marine econom will also be needed. In this regard, it has been suggested that future OA researc could focus on species related to ecosystem services in anticipation that these cas studies might be most useful for modellers and managers (Sunday et al. 2014).
+6.2 Capacity-Building Gaps
+OA was put in evidence only through long-term observational programme coordinated by the international research community. To monitor OA on a regula basis, these international efforts need to be continued and _ institutionall consolidated. OA adaptation is a demanding field of research that require significant infrastructure (i.e. mesocosm experimental facilities) and highly qualifie human resources. These are not readily available in all regions of the world. Furthe understanding of the scope of adaptation capabilities to OA by plants and animals the application of mitigation strategies, or the successful management of productiv systems cultivating organisms with calcareous exo-skeletons that are regularl exposed to corrosive waters sources, require the existence of these capabilities i place.
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+7. Primary Production, Cycling of Nutrients, Surface Layer and Plankton
+“Marine primary production” is the photosynthesis of plant life in the ocean t produce organic matter, using the energy from sunlight, and carbon dioxide an nutrients dissolved in seawater. Carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater is drawn fro the atmosphere. Oxygen is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis both on lan and in the ocean. Of the total annual oxygen production from photosynthesis o land and ocean, approximately half originates in marine plants. The plants involve in this process range from the microscopic phytoplankton to giant seaweeds. O land, the other 50 per cent of the world’s oxygen originates in the photosynthesi from all plants and forests. Present-day animals and bacteria rely on present-da oxygen production by plants on land and in the ocean as a critical ecosystem servic that keeps atmospheric oxygen from otherwise declining.
+Marine primary production, as the primary source of organic matter in the ocean, i the basis of nearly all life in the oceans, playing an important role in the globa cycling of carbon. Phytoplankton absorbs about 50 billion tons of carbon a year, an large seaweeds and other marine plants (macrophytes) about 3 billion tons. At  planetary level, this ecological function plays an important role in removing CO,  one of the significant greenhouse gases — from the atmosphere. Total annua anthropogenic emissions of CO are estimated at 49.5 billion tons, one-third of whic is taken up by the ocean. This ecological service provided by the ocean has so fa prevented warming of the planet above 2° C.
+Marine primary production also plays a major role in the cycling of nitrogen aroun the world. A moderate level of uncertainty exists about the extent to which th ocean is currently a net absorber or releaser of nitrogen.
+Anthropogenic nutrient loading in coastal waters, ocean warming, ocea acidification, and sea-level rise are driving changes in the phenology (see below) an spatial pattern of phytoplankton and in net primary production as well as in nutrien cycles. These changes are threatening the provision of several ecosystem services a different scales (local, regional).
+Changes in macrophyte net primary production and their impacts (losses of habita and of carbon sinks) are also well documented.
+Changes in net primary production by phytoplankton or in the nutrient cycles in th upper levels of the world ocean have been the subject of recent debate. Som analyses suggested a diminishing trend in world primary production (Boyce et al. 2010). However, this result was challenged by Rykaczewski and Dunne (2011) an finally reviewed by the original authors (Boyce, et al., 2014). After recalibration o the datasets, despite an overall decline of chlorophyll concentration over 62 per cen of the global ocean with sufficient observations, they describe a more balance picture between regional increases and decreases of primary production, without a overall globally pervasive negative trend. The wider consequences of this long-ter trend are presently unresolved.
+The efficient use of primary production to support animals at higher levels in th food web depends on a good relationship between the timing of bursts of primary
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+production and breeding periods of zooplankton and planktivorous fish. Th phenology of species, i.e., the timing of events in the life cycle of species, plays  significant role here. Changes in the phenology of plankton species an planktivorous fish due to ocean warming is starting to produce significan mismatches and could produce many more, affecting the local level of production i the ocean.
+Warming of the upper ocean and associated increases in vertical stratification ma lead to a major decrease in the proportion of primary production going t zooplankton and planktivorous fish, and an increase in the proportion o phytoplankton being broken down by microbes without first entering the highe levels of the food web. Such a trend would reduce the carrying capacity of th oceans for fisheries and the capacity of the oceans to mitigate the impacts o anthropogenic climate change.
+Coastal eutrophication (see Chapter 20) is likely to lead to an increase in th numbers and area of dead zones and toxic phytoplankton blooms. Both can hav serious effects on the supply to humans of food from the sea.
+Nanoparticles (microscopic fragments of plastic and other anthropogeni substances) pose a potential serious threat to plankton and the vast numbers o marine biota which depend on them.
+Increases in nitrogen inputs to the ocean and in sea temperatures may have seriou impacts on the type (species, size) and amount of marine primary production although much debate still occurs about the scale of this phenomenon. Differen responses are likely to be found in different regions. This may be particularl significant in the Southern Ocean, where a major drop in primary production ha been forecast.
+7.1 Information gaps
+Completing a worldwide observing system for the biology and water quality of th ocean that could provide cost-effectively improved information to futur assessments under the Regular Process is seen as an important gap. Routine an sustained measurements across all parts of the ocean are needed on planktoni species diversity, chlorophyll a, dissolved nitrogen and dissolved biologically activ phosphorus. Due to their ability to enter into marine food chains, with a potentia impact on both marine organism and human health, plastic microparticles need t be systematically monitored.
+Without this additional information, it will not be possible to understand or predic the changes that will occur due to the accumulated and combined effect of severa drivers. Some information can be derived from satellite remote sensing, but in sit observations at the surface and especially at sub-surface levels are irreplaceable given the fact that the ocean is essentially opaque to electromagnetic radiation, th medium par excellence of remote sensing.
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+7.2 Capacity-building gaps
+The gathering of such information requires a worldwide network for data collection Both a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and a Global Biodiversity Observatio Network (GEO BON) are currently being developed to collect biological an ecologically relevant information that, if completed, would fill in some of th information gaps described above. The capacities to participate in these system need to be extended worldwide. It is also important to develop the skills to explai to decision-makers and the general public the importance of plankton and it significance for the ecosystem services provided by the ocean.
+8. Ocean-sourced carbonate production
+Many marine organisms secrete calcium carbonate to produce a hard skeleton These vary in size from the microscopic plankton, through corals, to large mollus shells. Carbonate production by corals is particularly important, because the reef that they form are fundamental to the existence of many islands and some entir States.
+Sand beaches are also often formed by the fragmented shells of marine biota Beaches are dynamic structures, under constant change from the effects of th oceans; hence a constant supply of new sand of this kind is needed to sustain them.
+Sea-level rise will particularly affect beaches, causing them to move inland. In th case of small islands, this may diminish the already limited inhabitable area. Suc changes may also be affected by the availability of new supplies of sand. Suc changes could be very serious for States or parts of States comprised of atolls.
+The impact of climate change on the rate of biogenic production of carbonat sediment is also little understood, but it seems likely to have negative consequences Ocean warming has already led to the death (bleaching) of some coral reefs or part of them.
+The acidification of the ocean may lead to significant changes in the biogeni production of calcium carbonate, with implications for the future of coral reefs an shell beaches.
+8.1 Knowledge gaps
+Long-term data are lacking on the formation and fate of reef islands and shel beaches. Information is particularly lacking on the links between the physica structures and the environmental circumstances that may affect changes in thes structures.
+8.2 Capacity-building gaps
+A gap often exists in the capacities of people living on atolls and in countrie depending heavily on tourism from shell beaches to understand the drivers that
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+shape the development of these structures. Without such capacities it is impossibl to bring the factors affecting the future of these structures into the making o decisions which can fundamentally affect them.
+9. Aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services derived fro the marine environment
+The development of human culture over the centuries has been influenced by th ocean, through transport of cultural aspects across the seas, the acquisition o cultural objects from the sea, the development of culture to manage huma activities at sea, and the interaction of cultural activities with the sea.
+The ocean has been and continues to be the source of prized materials for cultura use, for example: pearls, mother-of-pearl, coral, and tortoise-shell. Some marin foodstuffs are also ingredients in culturally significant dishes. The high value given t many of these culturally significant objects can lead to their over-exploitation an the long-term damage of the ecosystems that supply them. The sea is an importan element in many sites of cultural significance. Forty-six marine and coastal sites ar included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
+Even where sites do not reach this high threshold of cultural significance, grea aesthetic and economic importance may be attached to preserving the seascape an coastal views. This concern should also be extended to the tangible cultural heritag of past human interaction with the sea and of past human activities in periods of lo sea levels. This can be particularly significant in making decisions about the locatio of new offshore installations.
+The intangible cultural heritage of human interaction with the sea is also important Ten per cent of the items on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Nee of Urgent Safeguarding involve the ocean. Important cultural areas are derived fro the need of humans to operate on the ocean, leading to skills such as navigation hydrography, naval architecture, chronometry and many other techniques.
+The need is increasingly being recognised to understand the knowledge system developed by many indigenous peoples to understand and manage their interaction with the marine environment.
+9.1 Knowledge gaps
+In the current fast-changing world, it is important to record much traditiona knowledge before it is lost.
+9.2 Capacity-building gaps
+For cultural goods derived from the sea, a gap exists in many parts of the world fo the skills needed to identify and implement potential opportunities to turn loca marine objects to good account. Means to support traditional cultural practices so
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+that they endure for future generations need to be provided, and anthropologica skills to record and interpret them are also important.
+10. The ecosystem services concept and the United Nations and other system of environmental-economic accounting
+As can be seen from the foregoing, there is a general need to bring togethe information about ecosystem services, in a way which allows judgments to be mad about trade-offs. In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment an Development (UNCED) called for the implementation of integrated environmental economic accounting in countries, to complement national accounts by accountin for environmental losses and gains. As a consequence, the United Nations Statistic Division (in charge of maintaining the framework as well as the world standards fo the System of National Accounts) led the development of the System o Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) under the auspices of the Unite Nations Committee of Experts on Environmental-Economic Accounting (UNCEEA) The SEEA Central Framework was adopted as an international standard by th United Nations Statistical Commission at its 43rd Session in 2012 and the SEE Experimental Ecosystem Accounting was endorsed by the same commission at it 44th session in 2013 (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seea.asp). Both th SEEA Central Framework and SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting use th accounting concepts, structures and principles of the System of National Account (SNA).
+The SSEA provides a way of organizing information in both “physical terms” an “monetary terms” using consistent definitions, concepts and classifications. Physica measures and valuation of ecosystem services and ecosystem assets are discussed i the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting. Those ecosystem services an ecosystem assets are not typically traded on markets, as explained in Chapter 3, an are difficult to measure because observed prices cannot be used to measure thes assets and services as in standard economic accounting (Statistics Division of th United Nations, 2012). Although concepts and methods are still experimental, man United Nations Member States have engaged in ambitious programmes to appl these new concepts (Figure 1).
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+COUNTRIES IMPLEMENTING SEEA
+Hi Existing programmes on SEEA — Coastline
+|| Countries planning to start a programme on SEEA — International Boundary
+| | NoprogrammesonSEEA 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 === Other Line of Separatio (no Tesponse
+and the des at or.
+Figure 1. Countries of the world implementing natural capital accounting programmes. The map i provided by the United Nations Statistics Division.
+Simplified ecosystem capital accounts are currently being implemented in Europe b the European Environment Agency, in cooperation with Eurostat, as one of th responses to recurrent policy demands in Europe for accounting for ecosystems an biodiversity (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:TEEB). The Europea Union has developed the MAES programme, for Mapping and Assessment o Ecological Services in the 27 countries of the European Unio (http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/an-experimental-framework-for ecosystem).
+The United Kingdom Government has recently completed a national ecosyste assessment (UK National Ecosystem Assessment, 2011) and, building on this report has made a commitment to include the value of natural capital and ecosystems full into the United Kingdom environmental accounts by 2020.
+11. Conclusions
+Long-established approaches adopted to account for uses of nature, like rent o royalties, are based on a one-to-one relationship between one activity or industr and one natural source of the goods or services. The effect of other industries on the
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+same natural source is not considered; neither are the impacts on other members o the social system affected by these industries.
+Traditionally these invisible benefits and costs are mostly hidden in the “natura system”, and usually are not accounted for at all in economic terms. The emergenc and evolution of the concept of ecosystem services is an explicit attempt to bette capture and reflect these hidden or unaccounted benefits and costs, expanding th scope of policy options already available in integrated management approache through the consideration of the trade-offs among different uses and beneficiaries.
+The ecosystem services approach has proven to be very useful in the management o multi-sector processes and is informing today many management and regulator processes around the world, especially on land. However, the methodologies an different approaches to assess and measure ecosystem services, or to assign the value, as presented in Chapter 3, are far from benefiting from a common set o standards and a consensual framework for their application. Furthermore, as state in Chapter 3, “On land, negative impacts can be partially managed or contained i space. However, in the ocean, due to its fluid nature, impacts may broadcast far fro their site of origin and are more difficult to contain and manage. For example, ther is only one Ocean when considering its role in climate change through the ecosyste service of “gas regulation”.
+In Chapters 4 to 8, the ecosystems services analyzed are provided on different spatia and temporal scales. Most of those ecosystems are described only on large to ver large scales, many of them, indeed, at the planetary scale. In contrast, much of th work on valuing ecosystem services in the ocean has focused on smaller systems, fo example, on assessing and valuing the services provided by marine parks, marin reserves and marine protected areas, in order to enable local judgments (includin such elements as making local planning decisions or establishing fees to charge t visitors). Despite a significant amount of work on ecosystem-services valuation fo the ocean and coasts, as reported in Chapter 3, evidence of its broader application i decision-making at the larger scales is still very limited.
+References
+Boyce, D.G., Lewis, M. R. and Worm, B., (2010). Global phytoplankton decline ove the past century. Nature, 466: 591-596.
+Boyce D.G., Dowd M, Lewis MR, Worm, B., (2014). Estimating global chlorophyl changes over the past century. Progress in Oceanography 122:163-173
+Lubchenco, J., Petes, L.E., (2010). The interconnected biosphere: science at th ocean's tipping points. Oceanography 23 (2), 115-129.
+Riebesell, U. and Gattuso J.-P., (2015). Lessons learned from ocean acidificatio research. Nature Climate Change 5:12-14.
+2016 United Nations
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+
+Rykaczewski, R.R. and Dunne, J.P. (2011). A measured look at ocean chlorophyl trends. Nature 472, E5-6.
+Schanze, J. J., Schmitt, R. W. and Yu, L.L. (2010). The global oceanic freshwater cycle:
+A state-of-the-art quantification. Journal of Marine Research 68, 569-595.
+Sunday, J.M., P. Calosi, T. Reusch, S. Dupont, P. Munday, J. Stillman, (2014) Evolution in an acidifying ocean. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 29(2): 117 125.
+Trenberth, K.E., Smith, L., Qian, T., Dai, A., and Fasullo, J. (2007). Estimates of th Global Water Budget and Its Annual Cycle Using Observational and Mode Data. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 8: 758 — 769.
+United Nations Statistics Division (2012). The System of Environmental-Economi Accounting (SEEA) Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/eea_white_cover.pdf).
+United Kingdom National Ecosystem Assessment (2011). The UK National Ecosyste Assessment: Synthesis of the Key Findings. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_10.txt

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+Part I Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats
+One of the main services provided by the oceans is food for human consumption resulting in benefits for human health and nutrition, economic returns, an employment. These benefits can be enjoyed sustainably, but only if the intensity an nature of harvesting and culture are appropriately planned and managed, and access t the potential benefits is made available.
+Part IV of the WOA reviews these issues under the headings of the Ocean as a source o food (Chapter 10), Capture fisheries (Chapter 11), Aquaculture (12), Fish stoc propagation (13), Specialized marine food sources (14), and Social and economic aspect of fisheries (15). Chapter 10 summarizes the contributions of seafood’ to huma nutrition and alleviation of hunger, discussing both patterns at regional and sub-regiona scales and their trends over time. Chapter 11 looks in more detail at capture fisheries presenting trends over time both globally and regionally in overall harvest levels an fishing gear used. It also looks at major species harvested at these scales, and th sustainability of use of the harvested species. It also looks at the ecosystem effects o fishing, considering the nature, levels, and, where information is available, trends, i effects on bycatch species, marine food webs, and habitats. Chapter 12 reviews th same types of information for aquaculture, considering overall production an production of key species at global and regional scales, and, with regard to ecosyste effects, considers issues such as introduction of alien species, local degradation an conversion of habitats, use of antibodies, genetic manipulations, and other simila factors in this form of production. Chapters 13 and 14 address focused issues o artificial propagation of fish and use of marine plants and species other than fish an invertebrates as food. Chapter 15 then assesses the magnitude of economic and socia benefits from fisheries and aquaculture. The assessment again looks at trends bot globally and regionally, and in addition at differences in the nature, scales, an distribution of social and economic benefits of large-scale and small-scale fisheries. Th role of trade, hunger, poverty, worker safety and related issues are all addressed, wit particular attention to the interactions of trade, hunger, and poverty alleviation in ho benefits may be taken and distributed.
+The synthesis in Chapter 16 brings these aspects of the ocean as a source of foo together. It integrates the perspectives of the sustainability of harvested and culture stocks and the impacts on marine ecosystems from fishing and aquaculture, with th perspectives of economic benefits and social / livelihoods benefits.
+* Both the terms “seafood” and “fish” are used to include a variety of marine sources of food, dependin on the source being consulted. In Part IV both terms are used generically to refer to all types of fis (including both bony and cartilaginous species) and invertebrates consumed as food. When information i presented on a subset of these taxa, the text is explicit about the intended group of species.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+Chapter 10. The Oceans as a Source of Food
+Contributors: Beatrice Ferreira (Co-Lead member), Jake Rice (Lead member) Andy Rosenberg (Co-Lead member)
+1. Introduction
+One of the main services provided by the oceans to human societies is the provisionin service of food from capture fisheries and culturing operations. This includes fish invertebrates, plants, and for some cultures, marine mammals and seabirds for direc consumption or as feed for aquaculture or agriculture. These ocean-based sources o food have large-scale benefits for human health and nutrition, economic returns, an employment.
+A major challenge around the globe is to obtain these benefits without compromisin the ability of the ocean to continue to provide such benefits for future generations, tha is, to manage human use of the ocean for sustainability. In effect, this means tha capture fisheries and aquaculture facilities must ensure that the supporting stocks ar not overharvested and the ecosystem impacts of the harvesting or aquaculture facilitie do not undermine the capacity of a given ocean area to continue to provide food an other benefits to society (see Chapter 3). Further, the social and economic goals of th fisheries and aquaculture should fully consider sustainable use in order to safeguar future benefits.
+2. Dimensionality of the oceans as a source of food
+Capture fisheries and aquaculture operate at many geographical scales, and vary in ho they use marine resources for food production. Here, “small-scale” refers to operation that are generally low capital investment but high labour activities, relatively lo production, and often family or community-based with a part of the catch bein consumed by the producers (Béné et al., 2007; Garcia et al., 2008). Large-scal operations require significantly more capital equipment and expenditure, are mor highly mechanized and their businesses are more vertically integrated, with generall global market access rather than focused on local consumption. These descriptions ar at the ends of a spectrum continuum of scales with enormous variation in between.
+The geography of harvesting and food production from the sea is also important Williams (1996) documents that until the mid-1980s, developed countries dominate both harvesting and aquaculture, but thereafter developing countries became
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+dominant, first in capture fisheries and later in mariculture. A general division of large scale fisheries and mariculture in the developed world and small-scale operations in th developing world was never absolute. Small-scale operations were present in all areas but highly mobile large-scale fisheries are increasingly operating around the glob (Beddington et al., 2007; World Bank/FAO, 2012), and large aquaculture facilities fo export products are increasing in the developing world (Beveridge et al., 2010; Hall e al., 2011).
+3. Trends in capture fisheries and aquaculture
+According to FAO statistics reported by member States, production of fish from captur fisheries and aquaculture for human consumption and industrial purposes has grown a an annual rate of 3.4 per cent for the past half century from about 20 to above 162 mm by 2013 (FAO, 2014a; FAO, 2015). Over the last two decades though, almost all of thi growth has come from increases in aquaculture production. Chapters 11 and 12 of thi Assessment describe the time course of capture fisheries and aquaculture developmen over the last several decades.
+Globally aquaculture production has increased at approximately 8.6 per cent per yea since 1980, to reach an estimated 67 mmt in 2012, although the rate of growth ha slowed slightly in recent years. Of that total, however, more than 60 per cent is fro freshwater aquaculture. In addition nearly 24 million tons of aquatic plants (mostl seaweeds) were cultured on 2012. Total marine aquaculture production is growin slightly faster than freshwater aquaculture in all regions, but, like freshwate aquaculture, over 80 per cent of production is concentrated in a few countries particularly China, as well as some other east and south Asian countries (FAO, 2014a).
+Some of the fish taken in capture fisheries are used as feed in aquaculture, fishmeal, fis oil and other non-human consumption uses. Thus the total harvest from captur fisheries and production from mariculture is not all available for human consumption This use of fish is debated with regard to the best use of production from captur fisheries (Naylor et al., 2009; Pikitch et al., 2012). The total amount of fish used fo purposes other than direct consumption has been declining slowly since the early 2000 from about 30 per cent to just over 20 per cent of total capture fishery harvest in 201 (FAO 2014a). Consequently, fish for human consumption has been increasing slightl faster than the human population, increasing the importance of fish in meeting foo security needs (HLPE, 2014).
+Finally, fishing is also undertaken for recreational, cultural and spiritual reasons. Eve though fish taken for these purposes may be consumed, they are addressed in chapter 8 and 27, and will not be considered further here.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+4. Value of marine fisheries and mariculture
+Fish harvested or cultured from the sea provide three classes of benefits to humanity food and nutrition, commerce and trade, and employment and livelihoods (see Chapte 15 for additional detail). All three classes of benefits are significant for the world.
+4.1 Food and nutrition
+According to FAO (2014a) estimates, fish and marine invertebrates provide 17 per cen of animal protein to the world population, and provide more than 20 per cent of th animal protein to over 3 million people, predominantly in parts of the world wher hunger is most widespread. Asia accounts for 2/3 of the total consumption of fish However, when population is taken into account, Oceania has the highest per capit consumption (approximately 25 kg per year), with North America, Europe, Sout America and Asia all consuming over 20 kg per capita, and Africa, Latin America and th Caribbean are around 10 kg per capita. Per capita consumption does not capture th full importance of the marine food sources to food security, however. Many of the 2 countries where these sources constitute more than a third of animal protein consume are in Africa and Asia. Of these, the United Nations has identified 18 as low-income food deficient economies (Karawazuka Béné, 2011, FAO, 2014b). Thus fish an invertebrates, usually from the ocean, are most important where food is needed most.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+Table 1. Total and per capita food fish supply by continent and economic grouping in 2011*
+Total food supply Per capita food suppl (million tonnes live weight
+equivalent) (kg/year World 132.2 18. World (excluding China) 86.3 15. Africa 11.0 10. North America 7.6 21. Latin America and the Caribbean 5.9 9. Asia 90.3 21. Europe 16.4 22. Oceania 0.9 25. Industrialized countries 26.4 27. Other developed countries 5.6 13. Least-developed countries 10.3 12. Other developing countries 89.9 18. LIFDCs* 21.2 8.6
+* Preliminary dat * Low-income food-deficit countries.
+Source: FAO Information and Statistics Branch, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2015.
+Not only are marine food sources important for overall food security, fish are rich i essential micronutrients, particularly when compared to micronutrients available whe meeting human protein needs from consumption of grains (WHO 1985). Compared t protein from livestock and poultry, fish protein is much richer in poly-unsaturated fatt acids and several vitamins and minerals (Roos et al., 2007, Bonhan et al., 2007) Correspondingly, direct health benefits relative to reducing risk of obesity, hear disease, and high blood pressure have been linked to diets rich in fish (Allison et al. 2013).
+It should be noted, however, that there are also potential health risks from consumptio of seafood, particularly as fish at higher trophic levels may concentrate environmenta contaminants, and there are occasional outbreaks of toxins in shellfish. Substantia effort is invested in monitoring for these risks, and avoiding the conditions wher probability of toxin outbreaks may increase. More broadly, food safety is a ke worldwide challenge facing all food production and delivery sectors including all parts o the seafood industry from capture or culture to retail marketing. This challenge of
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+course faces subsistence fisheries as well. In the food chain for fishery products, risk o problems needs to be assessed, managed and communicated to ensure problems ca be addressed. The goal of most food safety systems is to avoid risk and preven problems at the source. The risks come from contamination from toxins or pathogen and the severity of the risk also depends on individual health, consumption levels an susceptibility. There are international guidelines to address these risks but substantia resources are required in order to continue to build the capacity to implement an monitor safety protocols from the water to the consumer.
+Because of the several limiting factors affecting wild fish catch today (see Chapter 11), i is forecasted that aquaculture production will supply all of the increase in fis consumption in the immediate future. Production is projected to rise to 100 million ton by 2030 (Hall et al., 2011) and to 140 million tons by 2050, if growth continues at th same rate.
+Estimates by the World Resources Institute (Waite et al., 2014), assuming (a) the sam mix of fish species, (b) that all aquaculture will go to human consumption and (c) tha there will be a 10 per cent decrease in wild fish capture for food, indicate that th growth in aquaculture production cited above would boost fish protein supply to 20. million tons, or 8.7 million tons above 2006 levels. This increase would meet 17 per cen of the increase in global animal protein consumption required by 9.6 billion people fo 2050 (Waite et al. 2014).
+4.2 Commerce and trade
+The total value of world fish production from capture fisheries and marine an freshwater aquaculture was estimated to be 252 billion USD in 2012, with the “first sale” value of fish from capture fisheries at approximately 45 per cent of that value (FA 2014a). Consistent accounting for “value” has been elusive, providing alternative valu estimates that are as much as 15-20 per cent greater (e.g., Dyck and Sumalia, 2010) The different possible accounting schemes make it correspondingly difficult to estimat the growth rate of economic value of fisheries, but all approaches project the value t have increased consistently for decades and likely to continue to increase. This increas in economic value is attributable to several factors, including increased productio (primarily from aquaculture), an increasing proportion of catches directed to huma consumption, improvements in processing and transportation technologies that add t the product’s value, and changing consumer demand (Delgado et al 2003). Severa factors contribute to increasing consumer demand. The factors include increasin awareness of health benefits of eating fish, increasing economic consumer power i developed and developing economies, and market measures such a certification o sustainably harvested fish and aquaculture products (FAO 2014a).
+Just as total per capita consumption of fish underestimates the importance of fish t food security in many food-deficit countries, the total economic value of fish sale underrepresents the value of fish sales to low-income parts of the world. There is a
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+“cash crop” value to fish catches of even small-scale subsistence fishers. Most of thi “value” is not captured in the formal economic statistics of countries, and probabl varies locally and seasonally (Dey et al., 2005). However studies have shown that th selling or trading of even a portion of their catch represents as much as a third of th total income of subsistence fishers in some low income countries (Béné et al., 2009).
+4.3 Employment and livelihoods
+These differences between large-scale and small scale fishers are particularly importan in considering employment benefits from food from the ocean. Estimates of full-time o part-time jobs derived from fishing, vary widely, with numbers ranging from 58 millio to over 120 million jobs being available (BNP 2009, FAO 2014a). All sources agree tha over 90 per cent are employed in small-scale fisheries. This includes jobs in th processing and trading sectors, where opportunities for employment of women ar particularly important (BNP 2009). The value-chain jobs are considered to nearly tripl the employment benefits from fishing and mariculture, compared to direct employmen from harvesting (World Bank 2012). All sources report that more than 85 per cent o the employment opportunities are in Asia and a further 8 per cent in Africa, largely i income-deficit countries or areas. It is even harder to track direct and value-chai employment from small-scale aquaculture production and break out the portion that i derived from marine aquaculture (Beveridge et al., 2010), but recent estimates fo employment from aquaculture exceed 38 million persons (Phillips et al., 2013).
+Of the 58.3 million people estimated to be employed in fisheries and aquaculture (4. per cent of total estimated economically active people), 84 per cent were in Asia and 1 per cent in Africa. Women are estimated to account for more than 15 per cent of peopl employed in the fisheries sector (FAO, 2014).
+When full- or part-time participants in the full value-chain and support industries (boat building, gear construction, etc.) of fisheries and aquaculture and their dependents ar included, FAO estimated that between 660 and 820 million persons derive som economic and/or livelihood benefits (FAO 2012, Allison 2013). Direct employment i fishing is also growing over 2 per cent per year, generally faster than human populatio growth (Allison, 2013). However, there has been a shift from 87 per cent in captur fisheries and the rest in aquaculture (primarily freshwater) in 1990, to approximately  70:30 division in 2010, with slightly faster growth in employment in mariculture than i freshwater aquaculture (FAO, 2012).
+Trade in fishery products further complicates efforts to evaluate trends in th contribution of the oceans to human well-being. Fish is one of the most heavily trade food commodities on the planet, with an estimated 38 per cent of fishery production b 2010, up from 25 per cent in 1976 (FAO, 2012). This represents about 10 per cent o international agricultural exports. The direct value of international exports was ove 136 billion USD in 2012, up 102 per cent in just 10 years (FAO, 2014a http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4136e.pdf); European Union (EU) countries alone imported
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+more than 514 billion in fish products in 2013, although slightly over half of that wa from trade among EU Member States (http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4136e.pdf). Fish trad is truly global, with FAO recording fish and fishery products exported by 197 countries led by China, which contributes 14 per cent of the total exports.
+Developing countries contribute over 60 per cent by volume and over 50 per cent b value of exports of fish and fish products. Although this trade generates significan revenues for developing countries, through sales, taxation, license fees, and paymen for access to fish by distant water fleets, there is a growing debate about the tru benefits to the inhabitants of these countries from these revenue sources (Bostock e al., 2004; World Bank 2012). The debate centres on whether poor fishers would benefi more from personal or community consumption of the fish than from sales of the fish t obtain cash or credit. The issue is complicated by the leasing of access rights for foreig vessels which may compete for resources with coastal small scale fishers. With small scale and large-scale fisheries each harvesting about half of the world’s fish, resolvin the relative importance of large-scale and small-scale fisheries to food security, in a increasingly globalized economy, is complex. Reviews found the issue to be polarized i the early 2000s (FAO 2003; Kurien, 2004), and there has been little convergence o views over the ensuing decade (HLPE, 2014).
+5. Impacts of fisheries and mariculture, on marine ecosystems
+Harvesting or culturing marine fish, invertebrates or plants necessarily has at least direc and immediate, and often indirect and longer-term impacts on marine ecosystems. Fo over a century fisheries experts have sought ways to evaluate the short-term and long term sustainability of varying levels of fish harvests (Smith 1994), and to manag fisheries to keep these harvests within sustainable bounds (Garcia et al., 2014) Assessing and managing the wider ecosystem impacts of fisheries and aquaculture i even more challenging (Garcia et al., 2014). These impacts may range from loss o habitat due to destructive fishing practices to impacts on the structure of marine foo webs by selectively harvesting some species that play a key role in the integrity of  given ecosystem. The fact that these effects may be difficult to quantify in no wa diminishes their importance in sustaining the capacity of the oceans to provide food an other benefits to human society. Moreover, the scope of assessments of impact continues to expand, as life cycle analyses are introduced into fisheries (Avadi an Fréon, 2013). Results indicate that, for example, the carbon footprint of a kg of fish a market depends greatly on modes of capture and transport. However, the carbo footprint is often substantially lower than the footprint of a kg of poultry or livestoc (Mogensen et al., 2012). Other chapters in this Assessment, primarily in Part VI, conside a broad range of impacts on the ocean of human activities. Since food production fro the ocean is such an important benefit, particular care must be taken to ensure tha sustained capacity to produce food from fisheries and aquaculture is not diminished.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+6. Conclusions
+This chapter sets the stage for assessing the role of the oceans as a source of food. Th chapters to follow will assess in depth the ways that food is taken from the sea. Eac chapter will consider the trends in yields, resources, economic benefits, employment and livelihoods, the interactions among the trends, and their main drivers, on global an regional scales as appropriate. They will also look at the main impacts of the variou food-related uses of the ocean on biodiversity — both species and habitats. Some o these interactions will also be considered, from the perspective of the affecte components of biodiversity, in Part VI of the World Ocean Assessment. Each chapte will also consider the main factors that affect the trends in benefits, resources used an impacts. Together a picture will emerge of the importance of the ocean as a source o food, and of fisheries and mariculture as sources of commerce, wealth, and livelihood for humankind, with a particular focus on the world’s coastal peoples.
+References
+Allison, E.H., Delaporte, A., and Hellebrandt de Silva, D. (2013). Integrating fisherie management and aquaculture development with food security and livelihoods fo the poor. Report submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation, School o International Development, University of East Anglia Norwich, 124 p.
+Avadi, A., and Fréon, P. (2013) Life cycle assessment of fisheries: A review for fisherie scientists and managers. Fisheries Research 143: 21-38.
+Beddington, J.R., Agnew, D.J., and Clark, C.W. (2007). Current problems in th management of marine fisheries. Science 316(5832): 1713-1716.
+Béné, C., Macfadyen, G., and Allison, E. (2007). Increasing the contribution of small-scal fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security. FAO Fisheries Technical Pape No. 481. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 125 p.
+Béné, C., Belal, E., Baba, M.O., Ovie, S., Raji, A., Malasha, I., Njaya, F., Na Andi, M. Russell, A., and Neiland, A. (2009). Power Struggle, Dispute and Alliance ove Local Resources: Analyzing ‘Democratic’ Decentralization of Natural Resource through the Lenses of Africa Inland Fisheries. World Development 37: 1935 1950.
+Beveridge M., Phillips, M., Dugan, P., and Brummett, R. (2010). Barriers to Aquacultur Development as a Pathway to Poverty Alleviation and Food Security: Policy
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+Coherence and the Roles and Responsibilities of Development Agencies. OEC Workshop, Paris, France, 12-16 April 2010.
+BNP (2009). Big Number Program. Intermediate report. Rome: Food and Agricultur Organization and WorldFish Center.
+Bonham, M.P., Duffy, E.M., Robson, P.J., Wallace, J.M., Myers, G.J., Davidson, P.W. Clarkson, T.W., Shamlaye, C.F., Strain, J., and Livingstone, M.B.E. (2009) Contribution of fish to intakes of micronutrients important for foeta development: a dietary survey of pregnant women in the Republic of Seychelles Public Health Nutrition 12(9):1312-1320.
+Bostock, T., Greenhalgh, P., and Kleih, U. (2004). Policy Research: Implications o Liberalization of Fish Trade for Developing Countries. Synthesis report. Natura Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham, UK, 68 p.
+Delgado, C., Wada, N., Rosegrant, M.W., Meijer, S., and Ahmed, M. (2003). Fish to 2020 Supply and Demand in Changing Global Markets. International Food Polic Research Institute. Washington, DC and WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia.
+Dey, M.M., Mohammed, R.A., Paraguas, F.J., Somying, P., Bhatta, R., Ferdous, M.A., an Ahmed, M. (2005). Fish consumption and food security: a disaggregated analysi by types of fish and classes of consumers in selected Asian countries Aquaculture Economics and Management 9: 89-111.
+Dyck, A.J., and Sumaila, U.R. (2010). Economic impact of ocean fish populations in th global fishery. Journal of Bioeconomics 12: 227-243.
+FAO (2003). Report of the expert consultation on international fish trade and foo security. FAO Fisheries Report. No.708. Rome.
+FAO (2012). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Rome. 209 pp FAO (2014a). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Rome. 239 pp.
+FAO (2014b). Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDC) — List for 2014 http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/lifdc/en/.
+Garcia S., Allison, E.H, Andrew, N., Béné, C., Bianchi, G., de Graaf, G., Kalikoski, D. Mahon, R., and Orensanz, L.. (2008). Towards integrated assessment and advic in small-scale fisheries: Principles and Processes. FAO Fisheries and Aquacultur Technical Paper No.515. Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unite Nations, Rome, 84 p.
+Garcia, S.M., Rice, J., and Charles, A.T. (eds). (2014). Governance of Marine Fisheries an Biodiversity Conservation: Interaction and Co-evolution. Wiley Interscience London. 486 pp.
+Hall, S.J., Delaporte A., Phillips M.J., Beveridge M., O’Keefe M. (2011). Blue Frontiers Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquaculture. The WorldFish Center Penang, Malaysia.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+HLPE, (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition.  report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of th Committee on World Food Security, Rome.
+Kawarazuka, N., and Béné, C. (2011). The potential role of small fish species in improvin micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries: building evidence. Publi Health Nutrition 14: 1927-1938.
+Kawarazuka, N., and Béné C. (2010). Linking small-scale fisheries and aquaculture t household nutritional security: a review of the literature. Food Security 2: 343 357.
+Kurien, J. (2004). Fish trade for the people: Toward Understanding the Relationshi between International Fish Trade and Food Security. Report of the Study on th impact of international trade in fishery products on food security, Food an Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the Royal Norwegian Ministr of Foreign Affairs.
+Mogensen,L., Hermansen, J.E., Halberg, N., Dalgaard, R., Vis, R.C., and Smith, B.G (2012). Life Cycle Assessment Across the Food Supply Chain. In: Baldwin, C. editor. Sustainability in the Food Industry. Wiley, London. pp. 115-144.
+Naylor, R.L., Hardy, R.W., Bureau, D.P., Chiu, A., Elliott, M., Farrell, A.P., Forster, I. Gatlin, D.M., Goldburg, R.J., Hua, K., and Nichols, P.D. (2009). Feedin aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proceedings of the National Academy o Sciences of the United States of America 106: 18040.
+Phillips, M., Van, N.T., and Subasinghe, R. (2013). Aquaculture Big Numbers. Workin Paper. 12 June 2012. WorldFish and FAO.
+Pikitch, E., Boersma, P.D., Boyd, |.L., Conover, D.O., Cury, P., Essington, T., Heppell, S.S. Houde, E.D., Mangel, M., Pauly, D., Plaganyi, E., Sainsbury, K., and Steneck, R.S (2012). Little Fish, Big Impact: Managing a Crucial Link in Ocean Food Webs. p 108. Lenfest Ocean Program. Washington, DC.
+Roos, N., Wahab, M.A., Chamnan, C, and Thilsted, S.H. (2007). The role of fish in food based strategies to combat Vitamin A and mineral deficiencies in developin countries. Journal of Nutrition 137: 1106-1109.
+Smith, T.D. (1994). Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishin 1855-1955. Cambridge Studies in Applied Ecology and Resource Management Cambridge, 384 pp.
+WHO (1985). Energy and protein requirements. World Health Organization, Geneva.
+Williams, M.J. (1996). The transition in the contribution of living aquatic resources t food security. International Food Policy Research Institute: Food Agriculture an the Environment Discussion Paper No. 13: 41pp.
+Waite, R. et al. 2014. Improving Productivity and Environmental Performance o Aquaculture.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+Working Paper, Installment 5 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future. Washington, DC World Resources Institute. Accessible at http://www.worldresourcesreport.org.
+World Bank/FAO/WorldFish (2012). Hidden Harvest: The Global Contribution of Captur Fisheries. World Bank, Report No. 66469-GLB, Washington, DC. 69 pp.
+© 2016 United Nations
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_11.txt

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+Chapter 11. Capture Fisheries
+Writing team: Fabio Hazin, Enrique Marschoff (Co-Lead member) Beatrice Padovani Ferreira (Co-Lead member), Jake Rice (Co-Lead member) Andrew Rosenberg (Co-Lead member)
+1. Present status and trends of commercially exploited fish and shellfish stocks
+Production of fish from capture fisheries (Figure 1) and aquaculture for huma consumption and industrial purposes has grown at the rate of 3.2 per cent for the pas half century from about 20 to nearly 160 million mt by 2012 (FAO 2014).
+MARINE WATERS
+Million tonnes
+Figure 1. Evolution of world’s capture of marine species. From SOFIA (FAO 2014).
+Globally, marine capture fisheries produced 82.6 million mt in 2011 and 79.7 million m in 2012. The relatively small year-to-year variations largely reflect changes in the catc of Peruvian anchoveta, which can vary from about 4 to 8 million tons per annum.
+In 2011 and 2012, 18 countries accounted for more than 76 per cent of global marin harvests in marine capture fisheries (Table 1). Eleven of these countries are in Asia.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Table 1. Marine capture fisheries production per country. From SOFIA (FAO, 2014).
+Marine capture fisheries: major producer countries
+rit rad perrT tad peg rat) ral raid Piet ee or ai) eoeaed Lceracrerhiier fa 1 China Asia 12 212 188 13 536 409 13 869 604 13.6 2 2 Indonesia Asia 4275115 5 332 862 5 420 247 27.0 1 3 United States Americas 4912 627 5 131 087 5 107 559 40 0. of Americ 4 Peru Americas 6053 120 8211716 4807 923 -20.6 41 5 Russian Asial 3 090 798 4005 737 4068 850 31.6 1. Federation Europ 6 Japan Asia 4626 904 3741222 3611 384 -21.9 3. 7 India Asia 2954 796 3 250099 3 402 405 15.1 4 8 Chile Americas 3612 048 3 063 467 2572 881 28.8 -16. 9 Viet Nam Asia 1647 133 2 308 200 2.418 700 468 4 10 Myanmar Asia 1053 720 2 169820 2 332 790 121.4 7 11 Norway Europe 2 548 353 2 281 856 2 149 802 -15.6 5 12 Philippines Asia 2 033 325 2171327 2 127 046 46 2. 13 Republic Asia 1.649 061 1737 870 1660 165 07 4 of Kore 14 Thailand Asia 2651 223 1610418 1612073 39.2 0. 15 Malaysia Asia 1283 256 1373 105 1472 239 147 7. 16 Mexico Americas 1257 699 1452970 1 467 790 16.7 1. 17 Iceland Europe 1 986 314 1138274 1 449 452 -27.0 27. 18 Morocco Africa 916 988 949 881 1158 474 26.3 22. Total 18 major countries 58764668 63466320 60709384 3.3 4 World total 79674875 82609926 79705910 0.0 3. Share 18 major countries (percentage) 738 76.8 76.2
+In 2011-2012, the top ten species (by tonnage) in marine global landings were Peruvia anchoveta, Alaska pollock, skipjack tuna, various sardine species, Atlantic herring, chu mackerel, scads, yellowfin tuna, Japanese anchovy and largehead hairtail. In 2012, 2 species had landings over a half a million tons and this represented 38 per cent of th total global marine capture production. Many of these top species are small pelagi fishes (e.g. sardines, chub mackerels) and shellfish (squids and shrimp) whos abundance is highly sensitive to changing climatic conditions, resulting in significan interannual variability in production.
+Tuna harvests in 2012 were a record high, exceeding more than seven million tons Sharks, rays and chimaera catches have been stable during the last decade at abou 760,000 tons annually. Shrimp production from marine capture fisheries reached  record high in 2012 at 3.4 million tons; much of this catch was from the Northwest an Western Central Pacific, although catches also increased in the Indian Ocean and th Western Atlantic. Cephalopod catches exceeded 4 million tons in 2012.
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+1.1 Regional Status
+Significant growth in marine capture fisheries has occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean the eastern central Atlantic and the northwest, western central and eastern centra Pacific over the last decade, but landings in many other regions have declined. Thus even though overall landings have been quite stable, the global pattern is continuing t adjust to changing conditions and regional development of fishing capacity (Table 2).
+Table 2. Fishing areas and captures (from SOFIA, FAO, 2014 Marine capture: major fishing areas
+STE li i tals lala beabeahiaeiied Fra Fea ar Fo e oe) SE
+21 Atlantic, Northwest 2293 460 2.002 323 1977710 =-13.8 -1 27 Atlantic, Northeast 10 271 103 8 048 436 8 103 189 21.1 0 31 Atlantic, Western Central 1770746 1472538 1 463 347 174 0. 34 Atlantic, Eastern Central 3549945 4303 664 4056 529 14.3 5 37 Mediterranean and Black Sea 1478694 1 436 743 1282090 -13.3 -10. 41 Atlantic, Southwest 1987 296 1763 319 1878 166 5.5 6 47 Atlantic, Southeast 1736 867 1263 140 1562 943 -10.0 23. 51 Indian Ocean, Western 4433 699 4206 888 4518 075 19 7 5s7 Indian Ocean, Eastern 5 333 553 7 128 047 7 395 588 387 3 61 Pacific, Northwest 19875552 21429083 21461956 8.0 0 67 Pacific, Northeast 2915275 2950 858 2915594 0.0 1. 71 Pacific, Western Central 10831454 11614143 12 078 487 115 4 7 Pacific, Eastern Central 1769 177 1923 433 1940 202 97 0 81 Pacific, Southwest 731027 581760 601 393 17.7 3 87 Pacific, Southeast 10554479 12287713 8291 844 21.4 325
+18, 48, Arctic and Antarctic areas 142 548 197 838 178 797 25.4 9.6
+58, 88
+World total 79674875 82609926 79705910
+An estimated 3.7 million fishing vessels operate in marine waters globally; 68 per cent o these operate from Asia and 16 per cent from Africa. Seventy per cent are motorized but in Africa only 36 per cent are motorized. Of the 58.3 million people estimated to b employed in fisheries and aquaculture (4.4 per cent of total estimated economicall active people), 84 per cent are in Asia and 10 per cent in Africa. Women are estimate to account for more than 15 per cent of people employed in the fisheries sector (FA 2014).
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+2. Present status of small-scale artisanal or subsistence fishing
+The FAO defines small-scale, artisanal fisheries as those that are household based, us relatively small amounts of capital and remain close to shore. Their catch is primarily fo local consumption. Around the world there is substantial variation as to which fisherie are considered small-scale and artisanal. The United Nations Conference on Sustainabl Development (Rio+20) emphasized the role of small-scale fisheries in poverty alleviatio and sustainable development. In some developing countries, including small islan States, small-scale fisheries provide more than 60 per cent of protein intake. Its additio to the diets of low-income populations (including pregnant and breastfeeding mother and young children) offers an important means for improving food security an nutrition. Small-scale fisheries make significant contributions to food security by makin fish available to poor populations, and are critical to maintain the livelihoods o vulnerable populations in developing countries. Their role in production and _ it contribution to food security and nutrition is often underestimated or ignored subsistence fishing is rarely included in national catch statistics (HLPE, 2014). Anyhow the key issues in artisanal fisheries are their access both to stocks and to markets (HLPE 2014).
+Significant numbers of women work in small-scale fisheries and many indigenou peoples and their communities rely on these fisheries. The “Voluntary Guidelines on th Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context o National Food Security” (FAO 2012) are important in consideration of access issues FAO also notes the linkage to international human rights law, including the right to food Most of the people involved in small-scale fisheries live in developing countries, ear low incomes, depend on informal work, are exposed to the absence of work regulation and lack access to social protection schemes. Although the International Labou Organization adopted the Work in Fishing Convention, 2007 (No.188), progress toward ratification of the Convention has been slow.
+FAO continues to encourage the establishment of fishers’ organizations an cooperatives as a means of empowerment for small-scale fishers in the managemen process to establish responsible fisheries policy. They have also highlighted the need t reduce post-harvest losses in small-scale fisheries as a means of improving production Two special sections discuss these issues in SOFIA. Besides the “Voluntary Guidelines o the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context o National Food Security’, FAO also adopted the “Voluntary Guidelines for Securin Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Povert Eradication” in June 2014.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+3. Impacts of capture fisheries on marine ecosystems
+The effects of exploitation of marine wildlife were first perceived as a direct impac primarily on the exploited populations themselves. These concerns were recognized i the 19°" and early 20" centuries (e.g., Michelet, 1875; Garstang, 1900; Charcot, 1911 and began to receive policy attention in the Stockholm Fisheries Conference of 189 (Rozwadowski, 2002). In 1925, an attempt to globally manage “marine industries” an their impact on the ecosystems was presented before the League of Nations (Suarez 1927), but little action was taken. Only following WWII, with rapid increases in fishin technology, was substantial overfishing in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Gullan and Carroz, 1968) acknowledged. Establishment in 1946 of FAO, with a section fo fisheries, provided an initial forum for global discussions of the need for regulation o fisheries.
+Capture fisheries affect marine ecosystems through a number of different mechanisms These have been summarized many times, for example by Jennings and Kaiser (1998 who categorized effects as:
+(i) The effects of fishing on predator-prey relationships, which can lead to shift in community structure that do not revert to the original condition upon the cessatio of fishing pressure (known as alternative stable states);
+(ii) Fishing can alter the population size and body-size composition of species leading to fauna composed of primarily small individual organisms (this can include th whole spectrum of organisms, from worms to whales);
+(iii) Fishing can lead to genetic selection for different body and reproductiv traits and can extirpate distinct local stocks;
+(iv) Fishing can affect populations of non-target species (e.g., cetaceans, birds reptiles and elasmobranch fishes) as a result of by-catches or ghost fishing;
+(v) Fishing can reduce habitat complexity and perturb seabed (benthic communities.
+Here these impacts are discussed first for the species and food webs being exploite directly, and then for the other ecosystem effects on by-catches and habitats of fishing Part VI of this Assessment provides additional detail regarding impacts on biodiversit and habitats.
+3.1 Target species and communities
+The removal of a substantial number of individuals of the target species affects th population structure of the target species, other species taken by the gear, and the foo web. The magnitude of these effects is highly variable and depends on the specie considered and the type and intensity of fishing. In general, policies and managemen measures were instituted first to manage the impact of fisheries on the target species,
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+with ecosystem considerations being added to target species management primarily i the past two to three decades.
+If the exploited fish stock can compensate through increased productivity because th remaining individuals grow faster and produce more larvae, with the increase i productivity extracted by the fishery, then fishing can be sustained. However, if the rat of exploitation is faster than the stock can compensate for by increasing growth an reproduction, then the removals will not be sustained and the stock will decline. At th level of the target species, sustainable exploitation rates will result in the tota population biomass being reduced roughly by half, compared to unexploited conditions.
+The ability of a given population of fish to compensate for increased mortality due t fishing depends in large part on the biological characteristics of the population such a growth and maturation rates, natural mortality rates and lifespan, spawning pattern and reproduction dynamics. In general, slow growing long-lived species ca compensate for and therefore sustain lower exploitation rates (the proportion of th stock removed by fishing each year) than fast growing shorter lived species (Jennings e al. 1998). In addition, increased exploitation rates inherently truncate the ag composition of the population unless only certain ages are targeted. This truncatio results in both greater variability in population abundance through time (Hsieh et al 2006) and greater vulnerability to changing environmental conditions, including climat impacts. Very long-lived species with low rates of reproduction may not be able to trul compensate for increased mortality, and therefore any significant fishing pressure ma not be sustainable on such species. Of course there are many complicating factors, bu this general pattern is important for understanding sustainable exploitation of marin species.
+The concept of “maximum sustainable yield” (MSY), adopted as the goal of man national and international regulatory bodies, is based on this inherent trade-of between increasing harvests and the decreasing ability of a population to compensat for removals. Using stock size and exploitation rates that would produce MSY, or othe management reference points, FAO has concluded that around 29 per cent of assesse stocks are presently overfished (biomass below the level that can produce MSY on  continuing basis; Figure 2 below). That percentage may be declining in the more recen years, but has shown little overall trend since the early 1990s. FAO estimates that i overfished stocks were rebuilt, they would yield an additional 16.5 million mt of fis worth 32 billion United States dollars in the long term (Ye et al., 2013). However significant social and economic costs may be incurred during the transition, as man fisheries would need to reduce exploitation in the short term to allow this rebuilding.
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+Global trends in the state of world marine fish stocks, 1974-2011
+Percentage of stocks assesse 10 9 8 70
+Overfished
+6 50 Fully fishe 4 3 20
+Underfished
+1  74 78 82 86 90 94 98 02 06 11
+ME At biologically unsustainable levels HE: «(Within biologically sustainable levels
+Figure 2. State of world marine fish stocks (from SOFIA, FAO 2014)
+Anyhow, for many ecological reasons, the MSY is an over-simplified reference point fo fisheries (Larkin, 1997; Pauly, 1994). For example, declines in productivity can result a fewer fish live to grow to a large size, because larger, older fish produc disproportionately more eggs of higher quality than younger, smaller individuals (Hixo et al. 2013). Long-term overfishing may even change the genetic pool of the specie concerned, because the larger and faster-growing specimens have a greater probabilit of being removed, thereby reducing overall productivity (Hard et al., 2008; Ricker 1981). Interactions between species may also mean that all stocks cannot be maintaine at or above the biomass that will produce MSY. Strategies for taking these interaction into account have been developed (Polovina 1984, Townsend et al. 2008, Fulton et al 2011; Farcas and Rossberg 2014, http://arxiv.org/abs/1412.0199), but are not yet i routine practice.
+3.2 Ecosystem effects of fishing
+The FAO Ecosystem approach to Fisheries (FAO 2003) has detailed guidelines describin an ecosystem approach to fisheries. The goal of such an approach is to conserve th structure, diversity and functioning of ecosystems while satisfying societal and huma needs for food and the social and economic benefits of fishing (FAO 2003). There ar ongoing efforts around the world to implement an ecosystem approach to fisheries tha encompasses the aspects considered below, among others.
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+3.3 Ecosystem effects of fishing — food webs
+Marine food webs are complex and exploiting commercially important species can hav a wide range of effects that propagate through the food web. These include a cascadin effect along trophic levels, affecting the whole food web (Casini et al., 2008; Sieben e al., 2011). The removal of top predators may result in changes in the abundance an composition of lower trophic levels. These changes might even reach other an apparently unrelated fisheries, as has been documented, for example, for sharks an scallops (Myers et al., 2007) and sea otters, kelp, and sea urchins (Szpak et al., 2013) Because of these complexities in both population and community responses t exploitation, it is now widely argued that target harvesting rates should be less tha MSY. No consensus exists on how much less, but as information about harvest amount and stock biology is more uncertain, it is agreed that exploitation should be reduce correspondingly (FAO, 1995).
+The controversial concept of “balanced harvesting” refers to a strategy that consider the sustainability of the harvest at the level of the entire food web (see, for example Bundy, A., et al. 2005; Garcia et al., 2011; FAO 2014). Rather than harvesting a relativel small number of species at their single-species MSYs, balanced harvesting suggest there are benefits to be gained by exploiting all parts of the marine ecosystem in direc proportion to their respective productivities. It is argued that balanced harvesting give the highest possible yield for any level of perturbation of the food web, On the othe hand, the economics of the fishery may be adversely affected by requiring the harves of larger amounts of low-value but highly productive stocks.
+3.4 Other ecosystem effects of fishing by-catches
+Fisheries do not catch the target species alone. All species caught or damaged that ar not the target are known as by-catch; these include, inter alia, marine mammals seabirds, fish, kelp, sharks, mollusks, etc. Part of the by-catch might be used, consume or processed (incidental catch) but a significant amount is simply discarded (discards) a sea. Global discard levels are estimated to have declined since the early 1990s, but a 7.3 million tons are still high (Kelleher, 2005).
+Fisheries differ greatly in their discard rates, with shrimp trawls producing by far th greatest discard ratios relative to landed catches of target species (Table 3).
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Table 3. Discards of fish in major fisheries by gear type. From Kelleher, 2005.
+Weighted
+2 Range of
+Fishery Landings Discards'  *Verage discard discard rates
+(%) (% Shrimp trawl 1 126 267 1 865 064 62.3 0-9 Demersal finfish trawl 16 050 978 1704 107 9.6 0.5-8 Tuna and HMS longline 1 403 591 560 481 28.5 0-4 Midwater (pelagic) trawl 4 133 203 147 126 3.4 0-5 Tuna purse seine 2 673 378 144 152 5.1 0.4-1 Multigear and multispecies 6 023 146 85 436 1.4 na Mobile trap/pot 240 551 72 472 23.2 0-6 Dredge 165 660 65 373 28.3 9-6 Small pelagics purse seine 3 882 885 48 852 1.2 0-2 Demersal longline 581 560 47 257 7.5 0.5-5 Gillnet (surface/bottom/trammel)? 3 350 299 29 004 0.5 0-6 Handline 155211 3149 2.0 0- Tuna pole and line 818 505 3121 0.4 0- Hand collection 1 134 432 1671 0.1 0- Squid jig 960 432 1601 0.1 0-1
+‘The sum of the discards presented in this table is less than the global estimate, as a number of discard databas records could not be assigned to particular fisheries.
+Very few time series have been found that document trends in by-catch levels fo marine fisheries in general, or even for particular fisheries or species groups over longe periods. Although both Alverson et al. (1994) and Kelleher (2005) provide globa estimates of discards in fisheries that differ by a factor of three, the latter source (wit the lower estimate) stresses that the methodological differences between the tw estimates were so large that two estimates should not be compared (a warnin confirmed in the Kelleher report by the authors of the earlier report).
+When even rough trend information is available, it is for particular species of concern i particular fisheries, and is usually intended to document the effectiveness of mitigatio measures that have been implemented already. As an illustration, in the supplementa information to Anderson et al. (2011), which reports a global examination of longlin fisheries, of the 67 fisheries for which data could be found, two estimates of seabird by catches were available for only 17 of them. Of those, the more recent seabird by-catc estimates were at least 50 per cent lower than the earlier estimates in 15 of th fisheries, and reduced to 5 per cent or less of the earlier estimates in 10 of the fisheries Several reasons were given, depending on the fishery; they included reduction in effor and the use of a variety of technical and occasionally temporal and/or spatial mitigatio measures. These can be taken as illustrative of the potential effectiveness of mitigatio efforts, but should not be extrapolated to other longline fisheries.
+The more typical case is reflected in FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (2009 and the report of a FAO Expert Consultation (FAO, 2010), which call for efforts t monitor by-catches and discards more consistently, in order to provide the data neede to document trends. Even the large initiative by the United States to document by catches in fisheries (National Marine Fisheries Service, 2011) considers the reporte estimates to be a starting point for gaining insight into trends in by-catch and discards.
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+
+It documents the very great differences among fisheries within and among the Unite States fisheries management regions, but has neither tables nor figures depicting trend for any fishery.
+By-catch rates may result in overfishing of species with less ability to cope with fishin pressures. The biological impact of by-catches varies greatly with the species bein taken, and depends on the same life-history characteristics that were presented abov for the target species of fisheries. By-catch mortality is a particular concern for smal cetaceans, sea turtles and some species of seabirds and sharks and rays. These issue are discussed in the corresponding chapters in Part VI on marine mammals (Chapter 37) seabirds (38), marine reptiles (39) and elasmobranchs (40). In general, long-lived an slow-growing species are the most affected (Hall et al., 2000). Thus, the benchmarks se for a given fishery also consider by-catch species.
+The geographic distribution of discard rates is shown in Figure 3 (from Kelleher, 2005).
+The numbers in bold are the FAO Statistical Areas and the tonnages are of by-catch. By catches are clearly a global issue, and can be addressed from local to global scales. Th review by Kelleher (2005) reports a very large number of cases where measures hav been implemented by States, by international organizations, or proactively by th fishing industry (especially when the industry is seeking independent certification fo sustainability), and by-catch and discard rates have decreased and in a few cases bee even eliminated.
+A recent global review of practices by regional fisheries management organizations an arrangements (RFMO/As) for deep sea fisheries found that all RFMO/As have adopte some policies and measures to address by-catch issues in fisheries in their regulator areas. However, almost nowhere was full monitoring in place to documen effectiveness of these policies (UNEP/CBD/FAO, 2011). Nevertheless, extensiv evidence exists that by-catches can be mitigated by changes in fishing gear, times, an places, and the incremental cost is often, but not always, small.
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+
+Discard Rate over 35%
+15% - 20 10% - 13%
+8% -9.5 5% -7.8% p : . as or
+18 00 tonnes 0
+Scale at the Equator
+o 2500 k —— 80"
+a0" Ey a" 100" 120" Tao" Teo" 180 W160" 40" Ta Too" 0" or a a Wo E20 a0
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 3. Distribution of discards by FAO statistical areas (numbers in bold are FAO statistical areas catches in tons). * Note: the high discard rate in FAO Area 81 is a data artefact. Source: Kelleher, 2005.
+At the global level, calls for action on by-catch and discards have been raised at th United Nations General Assembly, including in UNGA resolutions on sustainabl fisheries and at the Committee on Fisheries. In response, FAO developed Internationa Guidelines on Bycatch Management and Reduction of Discards; these were accepted i 2011 (FAO, 2011).
+3.5 Ecosystem effects of fishing — benthic and demersal habitats
+Fishing gear impacts on the seafloor and other habitats depend on the gear design an use, as well as on the particular environmental features. For example, in benthi habitats, substrate type and the natural disturbance regime are particularly importan (Collie et al., 2000). Mobile bottom-contacting gear (including bottom trawls) also ca resuspend sediments, mobilizing contaminants and particles with unknown ecologica effects on both benthic and demersal habitats (Kaiser et al., 2001).
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+
+A very large literature exists on habitat impacts of fishing gear; experts disagree on bot the magnitude of the issue and the effectiveness of management measures and policie to address the impacts. In the late 2000s, several expert reviews were conducted b FAO and the Convention on Biological Diversity in cooperation with UNEP. Thes reports (FAO, 2007; 2009) provide a recent summary of the types of impacts tha various types of fishing gear can have on the seafloor. Most conclusions ar straightforward:
+e All types of gear that contact the bottom may alter habitat features, with impact larger as the gear becomes heavier.
+e Mobile bottom-contacting gear generally has a larger area of impact on the seabe than static gear, and consequently the impacts may be correspondingly larger.
+e The nature of the impact depends on the features of the habitat. Structurall complex and fragile habitats are most vulnerable to impacts, with biogenic features such as corals and glass sponges, easily damaged and sometimes requiring centurie to recover. On the other hand, impacts of trawls on soft substrates, like mud an sand, may not be detectable after even a few days.
+e The nature of the impacts also depends on the natural disturbance regime, wit high-energy (strong current and/or wave action) habitats often showing littl incremental impacts of fishing gear, whereas areas of very low natural disturbanc may be more severely affected by fishing gears.
+e Impacts of fishing gears can occur at all scales of fishery operations; some of th most destructive practices, such as drive netting, dynamite and poisons, althoug uncommon, are used only in very small-scale fisheries (Kaiser 2001).
+All gear might be lost or discarded at sea, in particular pieces of netting. These give ris to what is known as “ghost fishing”, that is fishing gear continuing to capture and Kil marine animals even after it is lost by fishermen. Assessment of their impacts at either  global or local level is difficult, but the limited number of studies available on it incidence and prevalence indicate that ghost fishing can be a significant problem (Lais et al., 1999, Bilkovic et al. 2012).
+Quantitative trend information on habitat impacts is generally not available. Man reports provide maps of how the geographical extent and intensity of bottom contacting fishing gear have changed over time (e.g. Figure 4 from Gilkinson et al., 2006 Greenstreet et al., 2006). These maps show large changes in the patterns of th pressure, and accompanying graphs show the percentage of area fished over a series o years. However, these are individual studies, and broad-scale monitoring of benthi communities is not available. Insights from individual studies need to be considere along with information on the substrate types in the areas being fished to know ho increases in effort may be increasing benthic impacts. Furthermore, the recover potential of the benthic biota has been studied in some specific geographies an circumstances but broadly applicable patterns are not yet clear (e.g., Steele et al. 2002 Claudet et al. 2008).
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+Area Scoure (%)
+Ho 0 07 76t 141 52to 1 9 to 2.
+2810 3 3.04 to
+3.8 t 49410 6 645to 8.7 .73.10 11.7 7710 16.3 33 to 25.06
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 4. Distribution of trawling effort in Atlantic Canadian waters in 1987 and 2000, based on data o bottom-trawl activity adjusted to total effort for <150 t. From Gilkinson et al., 2006.
+Even without quantitative data on trends in benthic communities, however, marin areas closed to fishing have increased. Views differ on what level of protection i actually given to areas that are labelled as closed to fishing, but the trend in increasin area protection is not challenged (c.f. CBD, 2012; Spalding et al., 2013). Moreover, th size of the areas being closed to fishing that are not already affected by historical fishin is unknown, as is the recovery rate for such areas, and high-seas fisheries continue t expand into new areas, although probably at a slower rate as RFMO/As increase thei actions to implement United Nations General Assembly Resolution 61/105 (FAO, 2014) Hence the pressure on seafloor habitats and benthic communities from bottom contacting fishing gear may be decreasing slightly, but has been very high for decade on all continental shelves and in many offshore areas at depths of less than severa hundred meters (FAO, 2007).
+4. Effects of pollution on seafood safety
+Fish and particularly predatory fish are prone to be contaminated with toxic chemicals i the marine environment (e.g., organochlorines, mercury, cadmium, lead); these ar found mostly in their liver and lipids. Because many sources of marine contaminatio are land-based (Chapter 20), freshwater fish may contain higher concentrations o contaminants than marine species (Yamada et al., 2014). Furthermore, contamination o the organisms found there is highly variable at the regional and local levels.
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+
+Processing methods might significantly reduce the lead and cadmium contents of fis (Ganjavi et al., 2010) and presumably those of other contaminants, whos concentrations generally increase with size (age) of fish (Storelli et al., 2010).
+Some species of fish might be toxic (venomous) on their own, such as species of th genus Siganus and Plotosus in Singapore, which are being culled to reduce thei presence on beaches (Kwik, 2012) and Takifugu rubripes (fugu), whose properties ar relatively well known, such that it is processed accordingly (Yongxiang et al., 2011) However, in extreme situations, human consumption of the remains of fugu processin resulted in severe episodes (Saiful Islam et al., 2011).
+Fish, mussels, shrimp and other invertebrates might become toxic through thei consumption of harmful algae, whose blooms increased due to climate change pollution, the spreading of dead (hypoxic/anoxic) zones, and other causes.
+Harmful algal blooms are often colloquially known as red tides. These blooms are mos common in coastal marine ecosystems but also the open ocean might be affected an are caused by blooms of microscopic algae (including cyanobacteria). Toxins produce by these organisms are accumulated by filtrators that become toxic for species at highe trophic levels, including man. Climate change and eutrophication are considered as par of a complex of environmental stressors resulting in harmful blooms (Anderson et al. 2012). The problem has prompted research to develop models to predict the behaviou of these blooms (Zhao and Ghedira, 2014). Since the 1970s, the phenomenon ha spread from the northern hemisphere temperate waters to the southern hemispher and has now been well documented at least in Argentina, Australia, Brunei Darussalam China, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Republic of Korea and Sout Africa, but the expansion might also be due to increased awareness of the phenomeno (Anderson et al., 2012) The impact of toxic algal blooms is mostly economic, bu episodes of severe illness, even with high mortality rates, might occur, which promp regulations closing the affected fisheries.
+One of the best-known risks in this category is ciguatera, a well-known toxin ingested b human consumption of predatory fish in some regions of the world. The toxin come from a dinoflagellate and is passed along and concentrated up the food chain (Hamilto et al., 2010). Processed foods are usually safer from the standpoint of contamination Thus, processing results in added value to the raw food (Satyanarayana et al., 2012) However, inadequate harvest and postharvest handling and processing of the catche might result in contamination with pathogenic organisms (Boziaris et al., 2013).
+The general trend expected is an increase in the frequency of harmful algal blooms, i the bioaccumulation of chemical contaminants and in the prevalence of common food borne pathogenic microorganisms (Marques et al., 2014), although the occurrence o catastrophic events seems to be diminishing.
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+
+5. Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing
+The FAO International Plan of Action for IUU fishing (FAO 2001) defines IUU fishing as:
+- Illegal fishing refers to activities conducted by national or foreign vessels in water under the jurisdiction of a State, without the permission of that State, or i contravention of its laws and regulations; conducted by vessels flying the flag of State that are parties to a relevant regional fisheries management organization but operate i contravention of the conservation and management measures adopted by tha organization and by which the States are bound, or relevant provisions of the applicabl international law; or in violation of national laws or international obligations, includin those undertaken by cooperating States to a relevant regional fisheries managemen organization;
+- Unreported fishing refers to fishing activities which have not been reported, or hav been misreported, to the relevant national authority, in contravention of national law and regulations; or undertaken in the area of competence of a relevant regiona fisheries management organization which have not been reported or have bee misreported, in contravention of the reporting procedures of that organization;
+- Unregulated fishing refers to fishing activities in the area of application of a relevan regional fisheries management organization that are conducted by vessels withou nationality, or by those flying the flag of a State not party to that organization, or by  fishing entity, in a manner that is not consistent with or contravenes the conservatio and management measures of that organization; or in areas or for fish stocks in relatio to which there are no applicable conservation or management measures and wher such fishing activities are conducted in a manner inconsistent with State responsibilitie for the conservation of living marine resources under international law.
+Notwithstanding the definitions above, certain forms of unregulated fishing may no always be in violation of applicable international law, and may not require th application of measures envisaged under the International Plan of Action (IPOA). FA considers IUU fishing to be a major global threat to sustainable management of fisherie and to stable socio-economic conditions for many small-scale fishing communities. Thi illegal fishing not only undermines responsible fisheries management, but also typicall raises concerns about working conditions and safety. Illegal fishing also raises concern about connections to other criminal actions, such as drugs and human trafficking. IU fishing activity has escalated over the last two decades and is estimated to take 11-2 million mt of fish per annum with a value of 10-23 billion United States dollars. In othe words, IUU fishing is responsible for about the same amount of global harvest as woul be gained by ending overfishing and rebuilding fish stocks. It is an issue of equa concern on a global scale.
+International efforts by RFMO/As, States and the European Union are aimed a eliminating IUU fishing. FAO notes that progress has been slow and suggested (FA 2014) that better information-sharing regarding fishing vessels engaged in illegal
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+activities, traceability of vessels and fishery products, and other additional measure might improve the situation.
+6. Significant economic and/or social aspects of capture fisheries
+Capture fisheries are a key source of nutrition and employment for millions of peopl around the world. FAO (2014) estimates that 800 million people are still malnourishe and small-scale fisheries in particular are an important component of efforts to alleviat both hunger and poverty.
+Growth in production of fish for food (3.2 per cent per annum) has exceeded huma population growth (1.6 per annum) over the last half century. Recently the growth o aquaculture, which is among the fastest-growing food-producing sectors globally, ha formed a major part of meeting rising demand and now accounts for half of the fis produced for human consumption. By 2030 this figure will rise to two-thirds of fis production.
+Per capita consumption of fish has risen from 9.9 kg per annum to 19.2 kg in 2012. I developing countries this rise is from 5.2 kg to 17.8 kg. In 2010, fish accounted for 16. per cent of the global population’s consumption of animal protein and 4.3 billion peopl obtained 15 per cent of their animal protein from fishery products.
+Employment in the fisheries sector has also grown faster than the world population an faster than in agriculture. However, of the 58.3 million people employed in the fisher sector, 83 per cent were employed in capture fisheries in 1990. But employment i capture fisheries has decreased to 68 per cent of total fishery sector employment i 2012 according to FAO (2014) statistics.
+7. The future status of fish and shellfish stocks over the next decade
+World population growth, together with urbanization, increasing development, incom and living standards, all point to an increasing demand for seafood. Capture fisherie provide high-quality food that is high in protein, essential amino acids, and long-chai poly-unsaturated fatty acids, with many benefits for human health. The rate of increas in demand for fish was more than 2.5 per cent since 1950 and is likely to continu (HPLE, 2014).
+Climate change is expected to have substantial and unexpected effects on the marin environment as detailed throughout this Assessment. Some of these impacts may no negatively impact fisheries and indeed may result in increased availability for captur fisheries in some areas. Nevertheless, there will certainly be an increase in uncertaint with regard to effects on stock productivities and distributions, habitat stability ecosystem interactions, and the configuration of ecosystems around the globe. Whether
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+these effects on the resources will be “mild” or “severe” will require prudent fisherie management that is precautionary enough to be prepared to assist fishers, thei communities and, in general, stakeholders in adapting to the social and economi consequences of climate change (Grafton, 2009).
+Small-scale, artisanal fisheries are likely to be more vulnerable to the impacts of climat change and increasing uncertainty than large-scale fisheries (Roessig et al. 2004). Whil small-scale fisheries may be able to economically harvest a changing mix of species varying distribution patterns and productivity of stocks may have severe consequence for subsistence fishing. Further, the value of small-scale fisheries as providers not onl of food, but also of livelihoods and for poverty alleviation will be compromised by direc competition with large-scale operations with access to global markets (Alder an Sumaila, 2004).
+The data clearly indicate that the amount of fish that can be extracted from historicall exploited wild stocks is unlikely to increase substantially. Some increase is possibl through the rebuilding of depleted stocks, a central goal of fisheries management Current trends diverge between well-assessed regions showing stabilization of fis biomass and other regions continuing to decline (Worm and Branch, 2012).
+In Europe, North America and Oceania, major commercially exploited fish stocks ar currently stable, with the prospect that reduced exploitation rates should achiev rebuilding of the biomass in the long term. In the rest of the world, fish biomass is, o average, declining due to lower management capacity. Many fisheries may still b productive, but prospects are poor (Worm et al., 2009).
+The growing demand for fish products cannot be met from sustainable capture fisherie in the next decade. On the other hand, the potential for sustainable exploitation of non traditional stocks is not well known. Particularly in light of the growth of th aquaculture sector with a need for fishmeal for feed, the pressure to exploit non traditional resources will increase even if the impacts on marine ecosystems are not wel understood.
+8. Identify gaps in capacity to engage in capture fisheries and to assess th environmental, social and economic aspects of capture fisheries and the statu and trends of living marine resources
+Rebuilding overfished stocks is a major challenge for capture fisheries management Another key challenge is making better, more sustainable use of existing marin resources while conserving the ecosystem upon which they depend. From a globa perspective this will require filling a number of gaps, both scientific and in managemen capacity (Worm et al., 2009):
+- The transfer of fishing effort from developed to developing countries is a process tha has been accelerating since the 1960s. Almost all of the fish caught by foreign fleets is
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+consumed in industrialized countries and will have important implications for foo security (Alder and Sumaila, 2004) and biodiversity in the developing world. In man regions there is insufficient capacity to assess and manage marine resources in th context of this pressure;
+- The increase in IUU fishing operations is a major challenge for management that wil require increased management capacity if it is to be controlled;
+- Recovery of depleted stocks is still a poorly understood process, particularly fo demersal species. It is potentially constrained by the magnitude of the previous decline the loss of biodiversity, species’ life histories, species interactions, and other factors. I other words, the basic principle for recovery is straightforward — fishing pressure need to be reduced. But the specific application of plans to promote recovery of the stoc once fishing pressure is reduced requires significant scientific and managemen capacity;
+- Addressing the challenges of spatial management of the ocean for fisheries conservation and many other purposes, and the overall competition for ocean space will depend upon greater scientific and management capacity in most regions.
+The average performance of stock-assessed fisheries indicates that most are slowl approaching the fully fished status (sensu FAO). On the other hand, recent analyses o unassessed fish stocks indicate that they are mostly in poorer condition (Costello et al. 2012). The problem is severe because most of these stocks sustain small-scale fisherie critical for the food security in developing countries. Better information and th capacity to manage many of these stocks will be needed to improve the situation.
+Debates among fisheries specialists have been more concerned about biologica sustainability and economic efficiencies than about reducing hunger and malnutritio and supporting livelihoods (HLPE, 2014). It is necessary to develop the tools fo managing small-scale fisheries efficiently, particularly in view of the competing long distance fleets. The fishing agreements allowing long-distance fleets to operate i developing countries had not yielded the expected results in terms of building th capacity to administer or sustainably fish their resources. IUU fishing becoming mor prominent has exacerbated the situation (Gagern and van den Bergh, 2013). It i necessary for developing countries to build the capacity to develop sustainabl industrial fisheries and to develop stock assessment capabilities for small-scale fisherie balancing food security and conservation objectives (Allison and Horemans, 2006).
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+References
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+(2008). Evolutionary consequences of fishing and their implications for salmon Evolutionary Applications, vol. 1, no. 2: 388-408.
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_12.txt

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+Chapter 12. Aquaculture
+Writing team: Patricio Bernal (Group of Experts), Doris Oliva
+1. Scale and distribution of aquaculture
+Aquaculture is providing an increasing contribution to world food security. At a average annual growth rate of 6.2 per cent between 2000 and 2012 (9.5 per cen between 1990 and 2000), aquaculture is the world’s fastest growing animal foo producing sector (FAO, 2012; FAO 2014). In 2012, farmed food fish contributed  record 66.6 million tons, equivalent to 42.2 per cent of the total 158 million tons o fish produced by capture fisheries and aquaculture combined (including non-foo uses, see Figure 1). Just 13.4 per cent of fish production came from aquaculture i 1990 and 25.7 per cent in 2000 (FAO, 2014).
+In Asia, since 2008 farmed fish production has exceeded wild catch (freshwater an marine), reaching 54 per cent of total fish production in 2012; in Europe aquacultur production is 18 per cent of the total and in other continents is less than 15 per cent Nearly half (49 per cent) of all fish consumed globally by people in 2012 came fro aquaculture (FAO, 2014).
+Production
+7.9 Discard* (Marine capture)
+1.9 Aquaculture, inland
+24.7 Aquaculture, marine
+80 NSS. SSS. 11.6 Capture, inland
+Million tonne  co
+79.7 Capture, marine
+ 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2012
+Figure 1. World capture fisheries and aquaculture production between 1950 and 2012 (HLPE, 2014).
+In 2012, world aquaculture production, for all cultivated species combined, was 90. million tons (live weight equivalent and 144.4 billion dollars in value). This include 44.2 million tons of finfish (87.5 billion dollars), 21.6 million tons of shellfis (crustacea and molluscs with 46.7 billion dollars in value) and 23.8 million tons o aquatic algae (mostly seaweeds, 6.4 billion dollars in value). Seaweeds and othe algae are harvested for use as food, in cosmetics and fertilizers, and are processed t extract thickening agents used as additives in the food and animal feed industries Finally 22,400 tons of non-food products are also farmed (with a value of 222. million dollars), such as pearls and seashells for ornamental and decorative use (FAO, 2014).
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+According to the latest (but incomplete) information for 2013, FAO estimates tha world food fish aquaculture production rose by 5.8 per cent to 70.5 million tons with production of farmed aquatic plants (including mostly seaweeds) bein estimated at 26.1 million tons.
+2. Composition of world aquaculture production: inland aquaculture an mariculture
+Although this Chapter is part of an assessment of food security and food safety fro the ocean, to understand the trends in the development of world aquaculture an its impact on food security it is relevant to compare inland aquaculture, conducted i freshwater and saline estuarine waters in inland areas, versus true mariculture conducted in the coastal areas of the world ocean.
+Of the 66.6 million tons of farmed food fish’ produced in 2012, two-thirds (44. million tons) were finfish species: 38.6 million tons grown from inland aquacultur and 5.6 million tons from mariculture. Inland aquaculture of finfish now accounts fo 57.9 percent of all farmed food fish production globally.
+Although finfish species grown from mariculture represent only 12.6 percent of th total farmed finfish production by volume, their value (23.5 billion United State dollars) represents 26.9 percent of the total value of all farmed finfish species. This i because mariculture includes a large proportion of carnivorous species, such a salmon, trouts and groupers, “cash-crops” higher in unit value and destined to mor affluent markets.
+FAO (2014) concludes that freshwater fish farming makes the greatest direc contribution to food security, providing affordable protein food, particularly for poo people in developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Inland aquacultur also provides an important new source of livelihoods in less developed regions an can be an important contributor to poverty alleviation.
+3. Main producers of aquaculture products
+In 2013, China produced 43.5 million tons of food fish and 13.5 million tons o aquatic algae (FAO, 2014, p 18), making it by far the largest producer of aquacultur products in the world. Aquaculture production is still concentrated in few countrie of the world. Considering national total production, the top five countries (all in Asia China, India, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Bangladesh) account for 79.8 per cent of worl production while the top five countries in finfish mariculture (Norway, China, Chile Indonesia, and Philippines) account for 72.9 per cent of world production (Table 1 Figure 2).
+"The generic term “farmed food fish” used here and by FAO, includes finfishes, crustaceans, molluscs amphibians, freshwater turtles and other aquatic animals (such as sea cucumbers, sea urchins, se squirts and edible jellyfish) produced for intended use as food for human consumption.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+4. Species cultivated
+It is estimated that more than 600 aquatic species are cultured worldwide’ in  variety of farming systems and facilities of varying technological sophistication, usin freshwater, brackish water and marine water (FAO, 2014). In 2006, the top 2 species being farmed accounted for over 90 percent of world production (FAO 2006a). Of the more than 200 species of fish and crustaceans currently estimated t be cultivated and fed on externally supplied feeds, just 9 species account for 62. percent of total global-fed species production, including grass car (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Nile tilapi (Oreochromis niloticus), catla (Catla catla), whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) crucian carp (Carassius carassius), Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar), pangasiid catfishe (striped/tra catfish [Pangasianodon hypophthalmus] and basa catfish [Pangasiu bocourti]), and rohu (Labeo rohita; Tacon et al., 2011). The farming of freshwate tilapias, including Nile tilapia and some other cichlid species, is the most widesprea type of aquaculture in the world. FAO has recorded farmed tilapia productio statistics for 135 countries and territories on all continents (FAO, 2014). In thi respect, aquaculture is no different from animal husbandry, in that global livestoc production is concentrated in a few species (Tacon et al. 2011).2 Among mollusc only 6 species account for the 64.5per cent of the aquaculture production (15. million tons in 2013) and all of them are bivalves: the cupped oyster (Crassostre spp), Japanese carpet shell (Ruditapes philippinarum), constricted Tagelu (Sinnovacula constricta), blood cocked Anadara granosa, Chilean mussel (Mytilu chilensis) and Pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas).
+2 Up to 2012, the number of species registered in FAO statistics was 567, including finfishes (35 species, with 5 hybrids), molluscs (102), crustaceans (59), amphibians and reptiles (6), aquati invertebrates (9), and marine and freshwater algae (37).
+3 on land, the top eight livestock species are pig, chicken, cattle, sheep, turkey, goat, duck and buffal (Tacon et al. 2011)
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+Table 1. Farmed food fish production by 15 top producers and main groups of farmed species in 201 (FAO, 2014).
+Finfish Crustaceans Molluscs Other Daa teTar 1 Pre ma Producer oa Ce ee Pyrat Beas) Deletes |]
+[ecte China 23341134 1028399 3592588 12343169 803016 41 108 306 61. India 3812420 84164 299926 12.905 wa. 4209.415 6 Viet Nam 2091200 51000 513100 400000 30200 3085500 4 Indonesia 2097407 582077 387698 ae 477-3067 660 4 Bangladesh 1525672 63220 137174 oe 1726 066 2 Norway 85 1319033 7 2001 ve 1321119 2. Thailand 380986 19994 623660 205192 4045 «1233877 1 Chile 59527 758 587 we 253 307 w.-1077 421 1. Egypt 1016 629 oe 1109 oe w.-1017 738 1 Myanmar 822589 1868 58981 a. «1731 885 169 1 Philippines 310042 361722. —- 72822 46 308 7 790 894 1 Brazil 611343 TA ANS 20699 1005 707 461  Japan 33957 250 472 1596 3459141108 633 047 1. Republic of 14099 76 307 2838 373488 17672 484.404 0. United States 185598 21169 44.928 168 329 ce 420 024 0.6
+Top 15 subtotal 36302688 4618012 5810835 14171312 859254 61762101 92.7
+Rest of world 2296562 933893 635 983 999 426 5 288 4871 152 7. World 38599250 5551905 6446818 15170738 864542 66633253 100
+Note: The symbol “..." means the production data are not available or the production volume is regarded a negligibly low.
+5. Aquaculture systems development
+The cultivation of farmed food fish is the aquatic version of animal husbandry, wher full control of the life cycle enables the domestication of wild species, their growth i large-scale farming systems and the application of well-known and well-establishe techniques of animal artificial selection of desirable traits, such as resistance t diseases, fast growth and size.
+For most farmed aquatic species, hatchery and nursery technologies have bee developed and well established, enabling the artificial control of the life cycle of th species. However wild seed is still used in many farming operations. For a fe species, such as eels (Anguilla spp.), farming still relies entirely on wild seed (FAO 2014).
+Aquaculture can be based on traditional, low technology farming systems or o highly industrialized, capital-intensive processes. In between there is a whole rang of aquaculture systems with different efficiencies that can be adapted to loca socioeconomic contexts.
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+Physically, inland aquaculture and coastal shrimp mariculture uses fixed ponds an raceways on land that put a premium on the use of land. Finfish mariculture an some farming of molluscs such as oysters and mussels tend to use floating net pens cages and other suspended systems in the water column of shallow coastal waters enabling these systems to be fixed by being anchored to the bottom.
+Direct land use needs for fish and shrimp ponds can be substantial. Curren aquaculture production occupies a significant quantity of land, both in inland an coastal areas. Aquaculture land use efficiency, however, differs widely by productio system. While fish ponds use relatively high amounts of land (Costa-Pierce et al. 2012, cited in WRI, 2014), flow-through systems (raceways) use less land, whil cages and pens suspended in water bodies use very little (if any) land (WRI, 2014).
+The handling of monocultures with high densities of individuals in confinemen replicates the risks typical to monocultures in land-based animal husbandry, such a the spread and proliferation of parasites, and the contagion of bacterial and vira infections producing mass mortalities, and the accumulation of waste products. If o land these risks can be partially contained, in mariculture, the use of semi-enclose systems open to the natural flow of seawater and sedimentation to the bottom propagate these risks to the surrounding environment affecting the health of th ecosystems in which aquaculture operations are implanted.
+The introduction of these risks to the coastal zones puts a premium in th application of good management practices and effective regulations for zoning, sit selection and maximum loads per area.
+In 1999 during the early development of shrimp culture, a White Spot Syndrom Virus (WSSV) epizootic quickly spread through nine Pacific coast countries in Lati America, costing billions of dollars (McClennen, 2004). Disease outbreaks in recen years have affected Chile’s Atlantic salmon production with losses of almost 5 percent to the virus of “infectious salmon anaemia” (ISA). Oyster cultures in Europ were attacked by herpes virus Os HV-1 or OsHV-1 wvar, and marine shrimp farmin in several countries in Asia, South America and Africa have experienced bacterial an viral infections, resulting in partial or sometimes total loss of production. In 2010 aquaculture in China suffered production losses of 1.7 million tons caused by natura disasters, diseases and pollution. Disease outbreaks virtually wiped out marin shrimp farming production in Mozambique in 2011 (FAO, 2010, 2012).
+New diseases also appear. The early mortality syndrome (EMS) is an emergin disease of cultured shrimp caused by a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a marin micro-organism native in estuarine waters worldwide. Three species of culture shrimp are affected (Penaeus monodon, P. vannamei and P. chinensis). In Viet Nam about 39 000 hectares were affected in 2011. Malaysia estimated production losse of 0.1 billion dollars (2011). In Thailand, reports indicated annual output declines o 30-70 percent. The disease has been reported in China, Malaysia, Mexico, Thailan and Viet Nam (FAO, 2014).
+It is apparent that intensive aquaculture systems are likely to create conditions tha expose them to disease outbreaks. When semi-enclosed systems are used, as i mariculture, pathogens in their resting or reproductive stages propagate directly to
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+the environment, where they can persist for long periods of time as a potentia source of recurring outbreaks.
+Optimization of industrial systems selects for few or a single preferred species. Thi is the case in the oyster culture with the widespread culture of Crassostrea gigas an in the shrimp industry by the dominance of Penaeus vanamei, the white shrimp a the preferred species. This can be also an additional source of risk, if evolvin pathogens develop resistance to antibiotics or other treatments used to control well known diseases.
+6. Fed and non-fed aquaculture
+Animal aquaculture production can be divided among those species that feed fro natural sources in the environment in which they are grown, and species that ar artificially fed. The output of naturally-fed aquaculture represents a net increase o world animal protein stock, while the contribution of fed aquaculture, consumin plant or animal protein and fat, depends on conversion rates controlled by th physiology of the species and the effectiveness of the farming system.
+In 2012, global production of non-fed species from aquaculture was 20.5 millio tons, including 7.1 million tons of filter-feeding carps and 13.4 million tons o bivalves and other species. Accordingly, 46.09 million tons or 69.2 per cent of tota farmed food fish (FAO, 2014) was dependent upon the supply of external nutrien inputs provided in the form of (i) fresh feed items, (ii) farm-made feeds or (iii commercially manufactured feeds (Tacon et al., 2011).
+The share of non-fed species in total farmed food fish production continued t decrease to 30.8 percent in 2012 compared with about 50 percent in 1982, reflectin stronger growth in the farming of fed species, especially of high value carnivore (FAO, 2014).
+Million tonne 3 ——— Non-fed: silver & bighead car 30 Non-fed: bivalves  ----- Fed: freshwater finfish ueer seers Fed: diadromous & marine finfish wer 25 Fed: crustaceans _oeo — Fed: molluscs ueor 20 < 15 —= a 10 =  5 as a  00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 1 Figure 2. World aquaculture production, fed and non-fed between years 2000 and 2012 (FAO, 2014)
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+In Europe, after much publicly and privately sponsored research, the technology t farm cod was fully developed and supported by large amounts of venture capital and industrial production of cod started. In the early 2000s this industria development suffered from the financial crisis of 2008, and further growth an development almost stopped. Although the participation of risk capital in th development of aquaculture might be an option in particular places an circumstances, it is far from being the preferred option. Development of aquacultur systems, supplying domestic and international markets, has a better chance t succeed if supported by a mix of long-term public support systems (credit, technica assistance) for small and rural producers coupled with entrepreneurial initiative well implanted in the markets.
+Marine finfish aquaculture is rapidly growing in the Asia-Pacific region, where high value carnivorous fish species (e.g. groupers, barramundi, snappers and pompano are typically raised in small cages in inshore environments. In China thi development has led to experiments in offshore mariculture using larger an stronger cages. (FAO, 2014).
+These examples show that at least to the present, decision-making for th development of mariculture, particularly finfish mariculture, tends to be dominate by economic growth and not by food security considerations. To balance this trend the intergovernmental High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security has recentl advocated the need to define specific policies to support current targets on foo security in view of the projected growth of human population (HLPE, 2014).
+The potential for non-fed mariculture development is far from being fully explore particularly that of marine bivalves in Africa and in Latin America and in th Caribbean. Limited capacity in mollusc seed production is regarded as a constraint i some countries (FAO, 2014).
+7. Aquafeed production
+Total industrial compound aquafeed production increased, from 7.6 million tons i 1995 to 29.2 million tons in 2008 (last estimate available, Tacon et al., 2011). Thes are estimates because there is no comprehensive information on the globa production of farm-made aquafeeds (estimated by FAO at between 18.7 and 30. million tons in 2006) and/or on the use of low-value fish/trash fish as fresh feed.
+Fishmeal is used as high-protein feed and fish oil as a feed additive in aquacultur (FAO, 2014). Fishmeal and fish oil are produced mainly from harvesting stocks o small, fastreproducing fish (e.g., anchovies, small sardines and menhaden) and fo which there is some, but limited, demand for human consumption. This use promoted in the 1950s by FAO as a means to add value to the massive harvesting o small pelagic fish, raises the question of the alternative use of this significant fis biomass for direct human consumption (HLPE 2014).
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+In 2012 about 35 per cent of world fishmeal production was obtained from fisherie by-products (frames, off-cuts and offal) from the industrial processing of both wil caught and farmed fish. Commercial operations harvesting myctophids’ for fishmea and oil are being piloted in some regions, though the ecological consequences o exploiting these previously untapped resources have not been evaluated. In 200 the largest producer of fishmeal was Peru (1.4 million tons) followed by China (1. million tons) and Chile (0.7 million tons). Other important producers were Thailand the United States of America, Japan, Denmark, Norway and Iceland (Tacon et al. 2011).
+Estimates of total usage of terrestrial animal by-product meals and oils in compoun aquafeeds ranges between 0.15 and 0.30 million tons, or less than 1 percent of tota global production.
+Patterns in the use of fishmeal and fish oil have changed in time due to the growt and evolution of the world aquaculture industry. On a global basis, in 2008 (the mos recent published estimate), the aquaculture sector consumed 60.8 percent of globa fishmeal production (3.72 million tons) and 73.8 percent of global fish oil productio (0.78 million ons, Tacon et al., 2011). In contrast, the poultry and pork industrie each used nearly 26 per cent and 22 per cent respectively of the available fishmeal i 2002 while aquaculture consumed only 46 percent of the global fishmeal supply an 81 percent of the global fish oil supply (Pike, 2005; Tacon et al., 2006)
+Fish oil has become also a product for direct human consumption for health reasons Long-chain Omega-3 fatty acids, specifically EPA and DHA, have been shown to pla a critical role in human health: EPA in the health of the cardiovascular system an DHA in the proper functioning of the nervous system, most notably brain function. I 2010 fish oil for direct human consumption was estimated at 24 per cent of the tota world production, compared with 5 per cent in 1990. (Shepherd and Jackson, 2012).
+The total use of fishmeal by the aquaculture sector is expected to decrease in th long term in favour of plant-based materials (Figure 3). It has gone down from 4.2 million tons in 2005 to 3.72 million tons in 2008 (or 12.8 percent of total aquafeed by weight), and is expected to decrease to 3.49 million tons by 2020 (at an estimate 4.9 per cent of total aquafeeds by weight) (Tacon et al., 2011).
+These trends reflect that fishmeal is being used by industry as a strategic ingredien fed in stages of the growth cycle where its unique nutritional properties can give th best results or in places where price is less critical (Jackson, 2012). The mos commonly used alternative to fishmeal is that of soymeal. Time series of the price o both products show that use of fishmeal is being reduced in less critical areas such a grower feeds, but remains in the more critical and less price-sensitive areas o hatchery and brood-stock feeds. (Jackson and Shepherd, 2012)
+4 Myctophids are small-size mesopelagic fish inhabiting between 200 and 1000 metres tha vertically migrate on a daily basis. Biomass of myctophids is estimated to be considerabl worldwide.
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+2010 Total Production
+(Million tons = Salmon 2 = Shrimp 4 * Catfish 3. "Tilapia 3 ™Carps (fed) 17.6
+1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 202 Note: Fishmeal use varies within and between countries; the figures presented are global means. Data represent observations between 1995-2008, and projections fo 2009-2020.
+Source: Tacon and Metian (2008), Tacon et al. (2011).
+Figure 3. The aquaculture industry has reduced the share of fishmeal in farmed fish diets (percent (FAO, 2014).
+The use of fish oil by the aquaculture sector will probably increase in the long ru albeit slowly. It is estimated that total usage will increase by more than 16 percent from 782,000 tons (2.7 percent of total feeds by weight) in 2008 to the estimate 908.000 tons (1.3 percent of total feeds for that year) by 2020. It is forecast tha increased usage will shift from salmonids, to marine finfishes and crustacean because of the current absence of cost-effective alternative lipid sources that ar rich in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. (Tacon et al., 2011)
+8. Economic and social significance
+At the global level, the number of people engaged in fish farming has, since 1990 increased at higher annual rates than that of those engaged in capture fisheries. Th most recent estimates (FAO 2014, Table 2) indicate that about 18.9 million peopl were engaged in fish farming, 96 per cent concentrated primarily in Asia, followed b Africa (1.57 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (1.42 percent), Europe (0.5 per cent), North America (0.04 per cent) and Oceania (0.03 per cent). The 18,17 million fish farmers in 2012 represented 1.45 per cent percent of the 1.3 billio people economically active in the broad agriculture sector worldwide. (FAO, 2014).
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+Table 2. FAO (2014) estimates that the total number of fish farmers in the world has grown from  million in 1995 to close to 19 million today, representing an increasing source of livelihoods. Not al these jobs are permanent and year-around, since many are seasonal.
+Bh) eielss) ede PLT) 2011 Pia e (eae en
+Of which, fish farmer Africa 65 91 140 231 257 29 Asia 7 762 12211 14630 17915 18 373 1817 Europe 56 103 91 102 103 10 Latin America and the 155 214 239 248 265 26 Caribbea North America 6 6 10 9 9  Oceania 4 5 5 5 6 6
+World 8049 12 632 15115 18 512 19015 18 861
+Out of the 18.8 million of fish farmers in the world (Table 2), China alone employ 5.2 million, representing 27.6 per cent of the total, while Indonesia employs 3. million farmers, representing 17.7 per cent of the total. Employment at farm leve includes full-time, part-time and occasional jobs in hatcheries, nurseries, grow-ou production facilities, and labourers. Employment at other stages along aquacultur value-chains includes jobs in input supply, middle trade and domestic fis distribution, processing, exporting and vending (HLPE, 2014). More than 80 percen of global aquaculture production may be contributed by small- to medium-scale fis farmers, nearly 90 per cent of whom live in Asia (HLPE, 2014). Farmed fish ar expected to contribute to improved nutritional status of households directly throug self-consumption, and indirectly by selling farmed fish for cash to enhanc household purchasing power (HLPE, 2014)
+The regional distribution of jobs in the aquaculture sector reflects widely disparat levels of productivity strongly linked to the degree of industrialization of th dominant culture systems in each region. In Asia, low technology is used in non-fe and inland-fed aquaculture, using extensive ponds, which is labour intensiv compared with mariculture in floating systems. In 2011, the annual averag production of fish farmers in Norway was 195 tons per person, compared with 5 tons in Chile, 25 tons in Turkey, 10 tons in Malaysia, about 7 tons in China, about  tons in Thailand, and only about 1 ton in India and Indonesia (FAO, 2014).
+Extrapolating from a ten-country case study representing just under 20 percent o the global aquaculture production, Phillips and Subasinghe (2014, persona communication, cited in HLPE, 2014) estimated that “total employment in globa aquaculture value chains could be close to 38 million full-time people.”
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+Table 3. Per capita average outputs per fish farmer by region (in FAO, 2014).
+Ledeere [Flas tolpke aloe telat
+ied 2010 Pith hy
+ere ato)
+Aquaculture
+Africa 44 4.6 5.6 5.4 5. Asia 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.0 3. Europe 19.8 23.5 24.9 26.0 27. Latin America and the Caribbean 3.9 6.3 78 9.0 9. North America 91.5 68.2 70.0 59.5 59. Oceania 23.1 29.5 33.8 30.4 32. World 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.5
+' Production excludes aquatic plants.
+Fish is among the most traded food commodities worldwide. Fish can be produced i one country, processed in a second and consumed in a third. There were 129 billio dollars of exports of fish and fishery products in 2012 (FAO, 2014)
+In the last two decades, in line with the impressive growth in aquacultur production, there has been a substantial increase in trade of many aquacultur products based on both low- and high-value species, with new markets opening u in developed and developing countries as well as economies in transition.
+Aquaculture is contributing to a growing share of international trade in fisher commodities, with high-value species such as salmon, seabass, seabream, shrim and prawns, bivalves and other molluscs, but also relatively low-value species suc as tilapia, catfish (including Pangasius) and carps (FAO 2014). Pangasius is  freshwater fish native to the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam, new to international trade However, with production of about 1.3 million tons, mainly in Viet Nam and all goin to international markets, this species is an important source of low-priced trade fish. The European Union and the United States of America are the main importer of Pangasius. (FAO, 2014)
+9. Environmental impacts of aquaculture
+Environmental effects from aquaculture include land use and special natural habitat destruction, pollution of water and sediments from wastes, the introduction of non native, competitive species to the natural environment through escapes from farms genetic effects on wild populations (of fish and shellfish) from escapes of farme animals or their gametes, and concerns about the use of wild forage fish fo aquaculture feeds.
+9.1 Land use
+WRI (2014) estimate that inland aquaculture ponds occupied between 12.7 millio ha and 14.0 million ha of land in 2010, and that brackish water or coastal ponds
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+occupied approximately 4.4 million ha—for a combined area of roughly 18 millio hectares, overwhelmingly in Asia. Many of these ponds were converted from ric paddies and other existing cropland rather than newly converted natural lands—bu even so, aquaculture adds to world land use demands.
+In 2008, global land use efficiencies of inland and brackish water ponds averaged 2. tons of fish per hectare per year (t/ha/yr). Expanding aquaculture to 140 million ton by 2050 without increases in that average efficiency would imply an additional are of roughly 24 million ha directly for ponds—about the size of the United Kingdom (WRI, 2014)
+9.2 Interaction with mangroves
+Land conversion for aquaculture can lead to severe ecosystem degradation, as in th case of the proliferation of extensive low-yield shrimp farms that destroyed larg extensions of mangrove forests in Asia and Latin America (Lewis et al., 2002, cited i WRI, 2014). Since the 1990s, non-governmental organizations and policy-maker have focused on curbing the expansion of extensive, shrimp farms into mangrov forests in Asia and Latin America (FAO et al., 2006b) As a result, mangrove clearanc for shrimp farms has greatly decreased, thanks to mangrove protection policies i affected countries and the siting of new, more high-yield shrimp farms away fro mangrove areas. (Lewis et al., 2002).
+9.3 Pollution of water and sediments
+Wastes from mariculture generally include dissolved (inorganic) nutrients particulate (organic) wastes (feces, uneaten food and animal carcasses), an chemicals for maintaining infrastructure (anti-biofouling agents) and animal healt products (antiparasitics, disinfectants and antibiotics). These wastes impose a additional oxygen demand on the environment, usually creating anoxic condition under pens and cages.
+Research in Norway has shown that benthic effects decline rapidly with increasin depth of water under salmon nets, but situating farms as close to shore as possibl may be a prerequisite for economic viability of the industry. Fallowing periods o several years have been found necessary in Norway to allow benthic recovery Research elsewhere indicates that benthic recovery may be quicker under som conditions (WHOI, 2007)
+9.4 Impact of escapes
+With the use of floating semi-enclosed systems, escapes are inevitable in maricultur and inland aquaculture. Catastrophic events (e.g., hurricanes or other storms) human error, seal and sea lion predation and vandalism will remain potential path for farmed fish to escape into the wild. Advancements in technology are likely t continue to reduce the frequency and severity of escape events but it is unlikely tha this ecological and economic threat will ever disappear entirely. There i considerable evidence of damage to the genetic integrity of wild fish population when escaped farmed fish can interbreed with local stocks. Furthermore, in semi enclosed systems, cultured organisms release viable gametes into the water.
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+Mariculture industry has undertaken a significant effort to produce and use variant of cultivated species that are infertile, diminishing the risk of gene-flow fro cultivated/domesticated species to their wild counterparts when escapes occur.
+9.5 Non-native species.
+Aquaculture has been a significant source of intentional and unintentiona introductions of non-native species into local ecosystems worldwide. The har caused by invasive species is well documented.
+Intensive fish culture, particularly of non-native species, can be and has bee involved in the introduction and/or amplification of pathogens and disease in wil populations (Blazer and LaPatra, 2002, cited in WHOI, 2007).
+Non-native oysters have been introduced in many regions to improve failing harvest of native varieties due to diseases or overexploitation. The eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica, was introduced to the West Coast of the United States in 1875 The Pacific or Japanese oyster Crassostrea gigas, native to the Pacific coast of Asia has been introduced in North and South America, Africa, Australia, Europe, and Ne Zealand and has also spread through accidental introductions either through larva in ballast water or on the hulls of ships (Helm, 2006).
+9.6 Genetically modified organisms
+Although the use of transgenic, or genetically modified organisms (GMOs), is no common practice in aquaculture (WHOI, 2007), nevertheless the potential use o GMOs would pose severe risks. The production and commercialization of aquati GMOs should be analyzed considering economic issues, environmental protection food safety and social and health well-being (Muir, et al., 1999; Le Curieux-Belfon et al., 2009).
+9.7 Use of chemicals as pesticides and for antifouling
+A wide variety of chemicals are currently used in aquaculture production. As th industry expands, it requires the use of more drugs, disinfectants and antifoulin compounds (biocides)° to eliminate the microorganisms in the aquaculture facilities Among the most common disinfectants are hydrogen peroxide and malachite green Pyrethroid insecticides and avermectins are used as anthelmintic agents (Romero e al., 2012). Organic booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to th organotin compounds found in antifouling products after restrictions were impose on the use of tributyltin (TBT). The replacement products are generally based o copper metal oxides and organic biocides. The biocides that are most commonl used in antifouling paints include chlorothalonil, dichlofluanid, DCOIT (4,5-dichloro 2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one, Sea-nine 211°), Diuron, Irgarol 1051, TCMS pyridine
+ Biocides are chemical substances that can deter or kill the microorganisms responsible for biofouling.
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+(2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl pyridine), zinc pyrithione and Zineb. (Guardiol et al., 2012). The use of biocides is not as well-regulated as drug use in aquacultur because the information available on their effects on ecosystems is still limited.
+9.8 Use of antibiotics
+Antibiotic drugs used in aquaculture may have substantial environmental effects The use of antibiotics in aquaculture can be categorized as therapeutic, prophylacti or metaphylactic. Therapeutic use is the treatment of established infections Metaphylaxis are group-medication procedures, aimed at treating sick animals whil also medicating others in the group to prevent disease. Prophylaxis means th precautionary use of antimicrobials in either individuals or groups to prevent th development of infections (Romero et al., 2012).
+In aquaculture, antibiotics at therapeutic levels are frequently administered for shor periods of time via the oral route to groups of fish that share tanks or cages. Fish d not effectively metabolize antibiotics and will pass them largely unused back into th environment in feces. 70 to 80 per cent of the antibiotics administered to fish a medicated pelleted feed are released into the aquatic environment via urinary an fecal excretion and/or as unused medicated food (Romero et al., 2012). For thi among other reasons, antibiotic use in net, pen or cage mariculture is a concer because it can contribute to the development of resistant strains of bacteria in th wild. The spread of antimicrobial resistance due to exposure to antimicrobial agent is well documented in both human and veterinary medicine. It is also wel documented that fish pathogens and other aquatic bacteria can develop resistanc as a result of antimicrobial exposure. Examples include Aeromonas salmonicida Aeromonas hydrophila, Edwardsiella tarda, Yersinia ruckeri, Photobacteriu damselae and Vibrio anguillarum. Research has shown that antibiotics excreted ten to degrade faster in sea-water, while they persist more in sediments. (Romero et al. 2012)
+The public health hazards related to antimicrobial use in aquaculture are twofold the development and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and resistance gene and the presence of antimicrobial residues in aquaculture products and th environment (Romero et al., 2012). The high proportions of antibiotic-resistan bacteria that persist in sediments and farm environments may provide a threat t fish farms because they can act as sources of antibiotic-resistance genes for fis pathogens in the vicinity of the farms. Because resistant bacteria may transfer thei resistance elements to bacterial pathogens, the implementation of efficien strategies to contain and manage resistance-gene emergence and spread is critica for the development of sustainable aquaculture practices.
+Industry faced with uncertainties created by the limited knowledge of infectiou diseases and their prevalence in a particular environment tends to abuse the use o antibiotics. Defoirdt et al. (2011, cited by Romero et al., 2012) estimated tha approximately 500-600 metric tons of antibiotics were used in shrimp far production in Thailand in 1994; he also emphasized the large variation betwee different countries, with antibiotic use ranging from 1 g per metric ton of productio in Norway to 700 g per metric ton in Viet Nam. In the aftermath of the ISA infectio in the salmon culture in Chile, SERNAPESCA, the Chilean National Fisheries and
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+Aquaculture Service, recently released data reporting unprecedentedly hig amounts of antibiotics used by the salmon industry.° Inefficiencies in the antibioti treatment of fish illnesses now may lead to significant economic losses in the futur (Romero et al., 2012).
+Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in aquaculture also present a risk to public health The appearance of acquired resistance in fish pathogens and other aquatic bacteri means that such resistant bacteria can act as a reservoir of resistance genes fro which genes can be further disseminated and may ultimately end up in huma pathogens. Plasmid-borne resistance genes have been transferred by conjugatio from the fish pathogen A. salmonicida to Escherichia coli, a bacterium of huma origin, some strains of which are pathogenic for humans (Romero et al., 2012).
+9.9 Diseases and parasites
+Farming marine organisms in dense populations results in outbreaks of viral bacterial, fungi and parasite diseases. Diseases and parasites constitute a stron constraint on the culture of aquatic species and disease and parasite translocatio by host movements in different spatial scales is common. In molluscs the mai parasites are protozoans of the genus Bonamia, Perkinsus and Marteilia. Th pathogens Haplosporidium, bacteria (rickettsial and vibriosis) and herpes-type viru have a great impact on the rates of mortality. In shrimps the most relevant disease are viral (white spot disease, WPS, yellow head disease, YHD, taura syndrom disease, TSD) (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005).
+The “Sea lice (Copepoda, Caligidae) have been the most widespread pathogeni marine parasite” in Salmon farming, affecting also other cultured fishes and wil species (Ernst et al., 2001; Costello, 2006). The global economic cost of sea lic control was estimated at over 480 million dollars in 2006 (Costello, 2009); however there are other impacts such as the decrease in conversion efficiency (Sinnott, 1998 and the depression of immune systems, which allow the outbreak of bacteria (vibriosis and furuncolosis) and viral diseases (infectious salmon anaemia virus, ISA infectious pancreatic necrosis, IPN and pancreas disease, PD) (Robertson, 2011).
+References
+Blazer, V.S., and LaPatra, S.E. (2002). Pathogens of cultured fishes: potential risks t wild fish populations. pp. 197-224. In Aquaculture and the Environment in th United States, Tomasso, J., ed. U.S. Aquaculture Society, A Chapter of th World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA.
+6 According to SERNAPESCA, the industry used an estimated 450,700 kilos of antibiotics in 2013.
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+Bondad-Reantaso, M.G., Subasinghe, R. P., Arthur, J. R., Ogawa, K., Chinabut, S. Adlard, R., Tan, Z and Shariff, M., (2005). Disease and health management i Asian aquaculture. Veterinary Parasitology vol 132, pp. 249-272.
+Costa-Pierce, B.A., Bartley, D.M., Hasan, M., Yusoff, F., Kaushik,S.J., Rana, K. Lemos, D., Bueno, P. and Yakupitiyage, A. (2012). Responsible use o resources for sustainable aquaculture, In Global Conference on Aquacultur 2010, Subasinghe, R., ed. Sept. 22-25, 2010, Phuket, Thailand. Rome: FAO Available from http://ecologicalaquaculture.org/Costa-PierceFAO(2011).pdf.
+Costello, M.J. (2006). Ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish. Trends i Parasitology vol 22, No 10, pp 475-483
+Costello, M.J. (2009). The global economic cost of sea lice to the salmonid farmin industry. Journal of Fish Diseases, vol 32. pp 115-118.
+Defoirdt, T., Sorgeloos, P., Bossier, P. (2011). Alternatives to antibiotics for th control of bacterial disease in aquaculture. Current opinion in microbiology vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 251-58.
+Ernst, W., Jackman, P., Doe, K., Page, F., Julien, G., Mackay, K., Sutherland, T. (2001) Dispersion and toxicity to non-target aquatic organisms of pesticides used t treat sea lice on salmon in net pen enclosures. Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol 42, No. 6, pp. 433-44.
+FAO (2006a). State of world aquaculture 2006. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No 500. Rome: FAO. 134 pp.
+FAO, NACA, UNEP, WB, WWF (2006b). International Principles for Responsibl Shrimp Framing. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) Bangkok, Thailand. 20 pp. Available fro http://www.enaca.org/uploads/international-shrimp-principles-06.pdf.
+FAO (2010). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. Rome: FAO. 197 pp FAO (2012). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. Rome: FAO. 209 pp FAO (2014). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2014. Rome: FAO. 223 pp.
+Guardiola, F.A., Cuesta, A., Meseguer, J. and Esteban, M.A. (2012). Risks of Usin Antifouling Biocides in Aquaculture. /nternational Journal of Molecula Sciences 13(2): 1541-1560.
+Helm, M.M. (2006). Crassostrea gigas. Cultured Aquatic Species Informatio Programme, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Rome: FAO Available fro http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Crassostrea_gigas/en.
+HLPE (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition The High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of th Committee on World Food Security. Rome: FAO.
+Jackson, A.J., and Shepherd, J. (2012). The future of fish meal and oil. In Secon International Conference on Seafood Technology on Sustainable, Innovativ and Healthy Seafood. Ryder, R., Ababouch, L., and Balaban, M. (eds).
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+
+FAO/The University of Alaska, 10-13 May 2010, Anchorage, the United State of America. pp. 189-208. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings, No. 22 Rome: FAO. 238 pp. Available from
+www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2534e/i2534e. pdf.
+Jackson, A.J. (2012). Fishmeal and Fish Oil and its role in Sustainable Aquaculture International Aquafeed, September/October, pp.18 — 21.
+Le Curieux-Belfond, O., Vandelac, L., Caron, J., Séralini, G.-E., (2009). Factors t consider before production and commercialization of aquatic geneticall modified organisms: the case of transgenic organisms: the case of transgeni salmon. Environmental Science & Policy, 12: 170-189.
+Lewis, R. R., Phillips, M. J., Clough, B., Macintosh, D.J. (2002). Thematic Review o Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture. Washington, DC: Worl Bank, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, World Wildlife Fund and FAO.
+McClennen, C. (2004). The Economic, Environmental and Technical Implications o the Development of Latin American Shrimp Farming. Master of Arts in La and Diplomacy Thesis, The Fletcher School. Available fro http://dl.tufts.edu/bookreader/tufts:UA015.012.D0.00040#page/1/mode/2 p.
+Muir, W.M., and Howard, R.D. (1999). Possible ecological risks of transgeni organism release when transgenes affect mating success: Sexual selectio and the Trojan gene hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy o Sciences, USA, vol. 96, No. 24, pp. 13853-56.
+Pike, I.H. (2005). Eco-efficiency in aquaculture: global catch of wild fish used i aquaculture. International Aquafeed, 8 (1): 38-40.
+Robertson, B. (2011). Can we get the upper hand on viral diseases in aquaculture o Atlantic salmon? Aquaculture Research 2011, vol. 42, pp 125-131.
+Romero, J., Feijoo, C.F., Navarrete, P. (2012). Antibiotics in Aquaculture — Use, Abus and Alternatives. In Health and Environment in Aquaculture, Carvalho, E.D. David, G.S., Silva, R.J., (eds.) InTech. Available fro http://www.intechopen.com/books/health-and-environment-in aquaculture/antibiotics-in-aquaculture-use-abuse-and-alternatives.
+Shepherd, C.J., and Jackson, A.J. (2012). Global fishmeal and fish oil supply - inputs outputs, and markets. International Fishmeal & Fish Oil Organisation, Worl Fisheries Congress, Edimburgh. Available fro http://www.seafish.org/media/594329/wfc_shepherd_fishmealtrends.pdf.
+Sinnot, R. (1998). Sea lice — watch out for the hidden costs. Fish Farmer, vol 21 No 3 pp 45-46.
+Tacon, A.G.J.; Hasan, M.R.; Subasinghe, R.P. (2006). Use of fishery resources as fee inputs for aquaculture development: trends and policy implications. FA Fisheries Circular. No.1018. Rome, FAO. 99p.
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+Tacon, A. G. J., Hasan, M. R., Metian, M. (2011). Demand and supply of fee ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans -Trends and prospects. FA Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 564. Rome, FAO.
+WHOI (2007). Sustainable Marine Aquaculture: Fulfilling the Promise; Managing th Risks. Marine Aquaculture Task Force, Marine Finfish Aquaculture Standard Project, 128 pp.
+WRI (2014). Creating a SuStainable Food Future: A menu of solutions to sustainabl feed more than 9 billion people by 2050. World Resources Report 2013-14 Interim Findings. World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., USA, 144 pp.
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+Chapter 13. Fish Stock Propagation
+Contributors: Kai Lorenzen, Stephen Smith, Michael Banks, Chang Ik Zhang Zacharie Sohou, V. N. Sanjeevan, Andrew Rosenberg (Lead Member)
+1. Definition
+Fish stock propagation, more commonly known as fisheries enhancement, is a set o management approaches involving the use of aquaculture technologies to enhance o restore fisheries in natural ecosystems (Lorenzen, 2008). “Aquaculture technologies include culture under controlled conditions and subsequent release of aquati organisms, provision of artificial habitat, feeding, fertilization, and predator control ”Fisheries” refers to the harvesting of aquatic organisms as a common pool resource and "natural ecosystems” are ecosystems not primarily controlled by humans, whethe truly natural or modified by human activity. This places enhancements in a intermediate position between capture fisheries and aquaculture in terms of technica and management control (Anderson, 2002).
+The present chapter focuses primarily on enhancements involving releases of culture organisms, the most common form of enhancements often described by terms such a ‘propagation’, ‘stock enhancement’, ‘sea ranching’ or  ‘aquaculture-base enhancement’.
+2. Enhancements in marine resource management
+Enhancements are developed when fisheries management stakeholders or agencie take a proactive, interventionist approach towards achieving management objectives b employing aquaculture technologies instead of relying solely on the protection o natural resources and processes. Enhancement approaches may be used effectively o ineffectively in resource management. To understand how enhancement initiatives ca give rise to such different outcomes, it is important to consider not only the technica intervention but the management context in which the initiative has arisen, includin ecological and socioeconomic factors as well as the governance arrangement (Lorenzen, 2008).
+2.1 Effective enhancements
+Enhancement approaches may be employed towards different ends commonly referre to as sea ranching, stock enhancement and restocking (Bell et al. 2008). Sea ranchin entails releasing cultured organisms to maintain stocks that do not recruit naturally in
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+the focal ecosystem. This may involve stocks that once recruited naturally but no longe do so due to loss of critical habitat, or it may involve creation of fisheries for desire “new” species for which the focal system provides a habitat suitable for adult stages bu not for spawning or for juveniles. Stock enhancement is the practice of releasin cultured organisms into natural stocks of the same species on a regular basis, with th aim of increasing abundance or harvest beyond the level supported by natura recruitment. Restocking entails temporary releases of cultured organisms into wil stocks that have been depleted by overfishing or extreme environmental events, wit the aim of accelerating recovery or enabling recovery of stocks “trapped” in a deplete or declining state. The use of enhancement approaches represents a spectrum fro strongly production/catch-oriented applications to strongly conservation/restoration oriented ones, and entails quite different management practices (Section 13.5; Table 2).
+The technical intervention of enhancements interacts synergistically with governanc arrangements. Stakeholders or management agencies invest in enhancements whe they have incentives to do so, either because they stand to gain material benefits (e.g increase in harvests) or because engaging in enhancement activities increases th perceived legitimacy of management arrangements or agencies (for example stakeholders may be more supportive of a management agency that engages in fisherie enhancement activities than of one that only regulates fishing). Enhancements require  reasonable level of governance control to emerge at all (they are unlikely to emerg under unregulated open access), and they tend to further strengthen governanc control when implemented (Anderson, 2002; Drummond, 2004; Lorenzen, 2008). B helping to strengthen and transform governance arrangements, enhancement initiative can sometimes generate fisheries management benefits beyond those directl attributable to the technical intervention.
+Economic and social benefits of enhancements may arise from biological outcomes suc as increased catches or maintenance of fisheries and other ecosystem services in highl modified environments. Successful enhancements often have further, more derive benefits. Pinkerton (1994), for example, describes economic benefits of Alaska salmo enhancements that result from greater consistency and quality of harvests, as well a greater volume. Enhancements can make economic and social benefits fro aquaculture technologies available to stakeholders, such as traditional fishers who ma lack the assets, skills or interest to engage in conventional aquaculture.
+In addition to direct management benefits, enhancements provide opportunities fo advancing basic knowledge of ecology, evolution and exploitation dynamics of marin resources (Lorenzen 2014).
+2.2 Ineffective enhancements
+Often, enhancements are initiated under conditions that are fundamentally unsuitabl for their effective use, or designed inappropriately. Such ineffective enhancements ca nonetheless persist for a considerable time and sometimes do considerable ecological
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+and economic damage. Incentives for stakeholders or management agencies to engag in enhancement activities can exist even in the absence of evidence of their technica effectiveness, and once investments have been made and stakeholders have becom vested, it becomes increasingly difficult to discontinue such initiatives. These issue point to the need for constructive science and management engagement with th development of new, and the reform of existing, enhancements (Section 13.4).
+2.3 Examples of enhancement efforts
+The following examples illustrate the potential for well-managed enhancements t contribute to fisheries management goals and the interactions between the technica and governance dimensions of such initiatives.
+Very large-scale enhancement efforts are undertaken in the Pacific Northwest of th United States of America (Naish et al., 2007). These efforts include enhancements t support commercial and recreational fisheries (Knapp et al., 2007), enhancement an restocking initiatives to meet tribal treaty obligations (Smith, 2014), and restoratio efforts for endangered populations (Kline and Flagg, 2014). Pacific Northwester habitats once hosted a tremendous biomass of salmon that comprised a significan component of food and nutrient webs linking ocean and freshwater biomes. Fo example, it is estimated that the Columbia River once hosted returns of 10-16 millio wild salmon (Johnson et al., 1997). Historical overharvest, irrigation withdrawals hydropower dams and other factors have reduced returns. Of the current returns o around 1 million, hatchery fish make up around 80 per cent (95 per cent of the coho 70 to 80 per cent of the spring and summer chinook, 50 per cent of the fall chinook, an 70 per cent of the steelhead) (NMFS, 2000)). In Oregon, Nicholas and Hankin (1989 estimated that 21 of 36 coastal stocks of spring and fall chinook salmon were almos entirely comprised of wild fish. In the remaining stocks, the percentage of hatchery fis in the runs ranged from 10 to 75 per cent. Oregon’s hatchery programme annuall releases 74 million salmonids: 60.4 million salmon, 6.4 million steelhead and 7.6 millio trout (ODFW, 1998). Such hatchery programmes can maintain fisheries when essentia habitats are degraded or inaccessible and help conserve or restore endangere populations, but they also pose ecological and genetic risks to wild populations. A majo scientific review of Columbia River hatchery programmes successfully used populatio modelling to identify hatchery operation and harvest policies that simultaneousl improve the conservation status of wild populations and provide moderate increases i harvest (Paquet et al., 2011). In Alaska, large-scale salmon enhancements are run b community-based Aquaculture Associations. Since the mid-1970s, Aquacultur Associations produce and release juvenile salmon and, in return, gain exclusive rights t a share of the harvest in the form of “cost-recovery fish”. The associations have sinc become engaged in many aspects of salmon fisheries management, effectively creatin a co-management system with the State of Alaska.
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+The world’s largest marine invertebrate fisheries enhancement is the scallo enhancement operation run by fishing cooperatives in Hokkaido, Japan (Uki, 2006) Development of an effective spat collecting, on-growing and releasing technology in th mid-1960s created the opportunity to seed scallop grounds with high densities o juveniles. Fishing cooperatives adopted rotational seeding and harvesting of fishin grounds, combined with predator control, and increased regional production from a average of 40,000 tons to around 300,000 tons per year. The success of thi enhancement has been attributed to a combination of factors including suitable habitat the species’ biology (young optimal harvest age, low post-release dispersal), integratio of spat releasing with predator control and rotational harvesting, and devolution o management to a fishing cooperative with exclusive rights over the resource (Uki, 2006).
+In New Zealand, the Japanese scallop enhancement technology was adapted to reviv the Southern Scallop Fishery in what became a restocking initiative combined with far reaching changes in governance. Adoption of aquaculture technology allowed th fishery to opt out of the fisheries management framework of the time and transition t an individual quota-based regime and rotational seeding and harvesting. Culture juveniles contributed strongly to initial recovery but natural recruitment becam dominant as the fishery was rebuilt (Drummond, 2004). More recently, low spa survival has led to a sharp reduction in catches and to the closure of some of the mai grounds (Williams et al. 2014). This decline in survival may be related due to changes i productivity due to increasing sedimentation in the area.
+In the Republic of Korea, the National Fisheries Research and Development Institut (NFRDI) developed seed production technology to release healthy juveniles of rockfis and sea bream. Since 1998, seed production and fish release have successfully enhance fishery resources and increased the income of fishermen. In the early stages of see production, national facilities took the lead to develop techniques, but currently privat companies produce the seed. Between 1986 and 2012, 46 marine species includin abalone, various flatfish, sea bream and sea slugs were targets for production and 1,41 million juveniles of fish and shellfish species were stocked in the sea in the Republic o Korea. In the Republic of Korea, habitat restoration tools are also widely applie together with fish release in situations where habitat has been identified as the primar factor limiting production. These tools refer to the increase in available habitat and/o access to key habitat for at least some stages of the life history of a target species Although artificial habitats are currently popular in some areas and widely used scientific evaluation of the effectiveness of habitat restoration is incomplete. In th Republic of Korea, construction of artificial reefs is aimed at improving productivity o devastated fishing grounds by providing fish resources with habitats, and spawning an nursery grounds. Since 1971, about 3,000 fishing grounds have been augmented, wit artificial reefs covering a total area of 216 kha as of 2012. Fifty-five per cent of the are with artificial reefs is utilized as fishing grounds and the other 45 per cent is preserve as spawning and nursery grounds of fish resources. Enhanced fisheries are manage cooperatively with fishing communities and marine enhancement in the Republic of
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+Korea is becoming integrated into a comprehensive ecosystem-based fisherie management approach (Zhang et al., 2009).
+In India, efforts with regard to stock enhancement of Penaeid prawns along the Keral coast have not met with the desired success. This probably reflects heavy mortality o hatchery grown post larvae on their release to the sea, as they are neither acclimatize to the stress conditions of the sea nor have they acquired adequate predator avoidanc skills. An additional effort in India is intended to revive depleted marine snail specie along the coast of Tamil Nadu; Xancus pyrum (sacred chank), Babylonia spirata (whelk) Hemifusus pugilinus (spindle shells), Chicoreus ramosus (murex) and C. virgineus. Wil stocks of all of these species are heavily exploited for their meat (India exports 700 t 900 tons of frozen whelk meat every year), shells (used as a trumpet in temples and fo the manufacture of ornaments) and opercula (which have medicinal value and ar exported to Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan). About 10,000 juveniles and 0. million larvae of the above species were sea-ranched in the Gulf of Mannar in Octobe 2010. It is premature to comment on the success of this experiment, but regular survey of the-grow out site show only a few dead organisms.
+2.4 Global extent of enhancements
+Marine fisheries enhancement is a widespread activity. Between 1984 and 1997, 6 countries reported stocking over 30 billion individuals of over 180 species in marin environments (Born et al., 2004). The global contribution of enhancements to marin fish production is difficult to quantify exactly, but is unlikely to exceed one to tw million tons per year (around 1-2 per cent of global marine fisheries and aquacultur production) (Lorenzen 2014). This modest contribution to global production should no distract from the fact that considerable efforts and monetary investments are expende on enhancement initiatives, and that enhancements contribute substantially to severa high-value fisheries as well as to restoration efforts for various species of conservatio concern.
+2.5 Developing or reforming enhancements
+According to the reviewed assessments, enhancements are often initiated or promote by fisheries stakeholders, but require scientific and management engagement in orde to assess the potential of such initiatives, to develop effective enhancement system where the potential exists, and to discontinue initiatives that are likely to be ineffectiv or harmful. Constructive science and management engagement with enhancement may be guided by the widely used and recently updated “responsible approach (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Lorenzen et al., 2010). The updated responsible approac consists of 15 recommended actions, divided into three stages of development o reform (Table 1). A staged approach ensures that the basic potential of enhancements i assessed (Stage I) prior to investment in technology development and pilot studie (Stage II), which in turn precede operational-scale implementation(Stage III). Qualitative
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+and quantitative modelling are crucial in Stage |, and experimental (adaptive management is central to assessing enhancement capacity and ecological impacts i later stages. This requires monitoring of temporal and spatial controls where fisherie are not enhanced and possibly not exploited (Caddy and Defeo 2003; Leleu et al., 2012 Costello, 2014). The most systematic and rigorous application of many idea summarized in the responsible approach can be found in the Hatchery Reform proces being applied to Pacific salmon hatchery programmes (Mobrand et al., 2005; Paquet e al., 2011).
+3. Management considerations
+3.1 The fisheries system and management context
+Enhancements enter into existing fisheries systems and it is crucial to gain a broad based understanding of the system prior to defining management objectives an assessing possible courses of action. At a minimum the following should be considered the biology and status of the target fish stock (biological resource), the supportin habitat and ecosystem, the aquaculture operation, stakeholder characteristics (o fishers, aquaculture producers and resource managers), markets for inputs and outputs governance arrangements, and the linkages between these components. A framewor for enhancement-fisheries system analysis is outlined in Lorenzen (2008).
+3.2 Stakeholder involvement
+Stakeholder involvement is central to effective scientific and management engagemen with enhancement initiatives because stakeholders tend to have a large influence on th initiation and development of such _ initiatives. Only when stakeholders ar constructively involved in the assessment and decision-making process is th enhancement initiative likely to develop towards a beneficial conclusion (which may b an effective enhancement or the discontinuation of an ineffective or damagin initiative). Stakeholder involvement also makes the often considerable knowledge an experience of stakeholders accessible to the scientific and management process.
+3.3 Identifying appropriate biological and technical system designs
+Different enhancement strategies, such as sea ranching, stock enhancement an restocking, involve quite different management approaches and considerations (Utte and Epifanio, 2002; Naish et al., 2007 and Lorenzen et al., 2010; Lorenzen et al., 2012) Table (2) outlines the different practices involved with regards to aquaculture, stock an genetic management (based on Lorenzen et al., 2012).
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+3.4 Stock dynamics and management
+Quantitative assessment of stock dynamics and the potential of enhancement as well a alternative management options, such as harvest restrictions to contribute to stoc management objectives, is important at all stages of enhancement initiatives (Cadd and Defeo, 2003; Walters and Martell, 2004; Lorenzen, 2005). Different consideration apply to ranching, stock enhancement and restocking systems (Table 2). In ranchin systems where maintaining natural recruitment is not a management goal, stoc structure could be manipulated to maximize biomass production in food fisheries or t maximize abundance of ‘catchable’ size fish in put-and-take recreational fisheries. I stock enhancements where cultured fish are released into wild populations, it would b desirable to manage stocking and harvesting activities so as to limit negative impacts o naturally recruiting stock components which may arise from compensatory ecologica responses to stocking or from overfishing of the natural spawning stock (Hilborn an Eggers 2000; Lorenzen, 2005). Such effects may reduce or eliminate net benefits fro enhancement and pose conservation threats to wild stocks. Impacts of enhancement on wild stocks could be reduced by separating the cultured and wild populatio components as far as technically possible at the point of stocking, and throug differential harvesting and possibly induced sterility of cultured fish (Lorenzen, 2005 Naish et al., 2007; Mobrand et al., 2005). According to these authors, restocking is likel to be advantageous over natural recovery only for populations that have been deplete to a very low fraction of their carrying capacity and requires concomitant reductions i fishing effort (Lorenzen 2005). Fisheries models and assessment tools are now availabl to conduct such quantitative assessment at all stages in the development or reform o enhancements (Lorenzen, 2005; Michael et al. 2009).
+3.5 Aquaculture production for enhancements
+Rearing of marine organisms in culture facilities subjects them to domesticatio processes that have strong and almost always negative impacts on their capacity t survive, grow, and reproduce in the wild (Le Vay et al., 2007; Lorenzen et al., 2012).  variety of measures, such as rearing in near-natural environments, environmenta enrichment, life-skills training and soft release strategies, can counteract suc domestication effects, but none are likely to be wholly effective (Olla et al., 1998; Brow and Day, 2002). Aquaculture production for release into natural ecosystems may benefi from culture practices that differ from those normally employed in facilities producin organisms for on-growing in aquaculture facilities and may also require different geneti management.
+3.6 Genetic management
+Genetic management is important for maximizing post-release fitness and enhancemen effectiveness, and for minimizing risks to the genetic integrity of wild stocks. Three mai sets of issues need to be considered: (1) potential disruption of neutral and adaptive
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+spatial population structure due to translocation; (2) impacts of hatchery spawning an rearing on the genetic diversity of stocked fish and the enhanced, mixed stock; (3 impacts of hatchery rearing on the fitness of released fish and their naturally recruitin offspring; and (4) hybridization between stocked and wild species (Utter and Epifanio 2002; Tringali et al., 2007; Araki et al., 2008). Appropriate sourcing and management o brood stock, possibly combined with rearing practices that minimize domesticatio selection are key genetic management actions and it may also be necessary to limit th contribution of cultured fish to the naturally spawning population (Miller an Kapuscinski, 2003; Tringali et al., 2007; Baskett and Waples, 2013). Different geneti management approaches may apply in sea ranching systems or “separated” stoc enhancement programmes where direct genetic interactions between stocked and wil fish are absent and where, for example, selective breeding may be used to improve th post-release performance of hatchery fish (Table 2; Jonasson et al., 1997).
+3.7 Pathogen interactions
+Impacts on wild stocks from pathogen and parasite interactions that may cause diseas may occur via three mechanisms: (1) introduction of alien pathogens, (2) transfer o pathogens that have evolved increased virulence in culture, (3) changes in hos population density, age/size structure, or immune status that affect the dynamics o established pathogens. It is therefore important to implement an epidemiological, risk based approach to managing disease interactions that accounts for ecological an evolutionary dynamics of transmission and host population impacts (Bartley et al. 2006).
+3.8 Governance
+Enhancements require governance systems that are effective at restricting exploitatio and ensuring that those who invest in the resource through stocking can reap at least  sufficient share of the benefits. Depending on the wider governance framework, suc arrangements can be based on individual or communal use rights (e.g., individual quota or territorial use rights) or on government regulation (and taxation to recoup costs).  second important requirement of governance systems for enhanced fisheries i coordination of the fisheries and aquaculture components in terms of stock, genetic an health management.
+3.9 Impacts on marine ecosystems
+Potential impacts of enhancements on marine ecosystems differ between types o enhancement system. Impacts on non-target species are of the most concern i ranching systems where organisms that do not recruit naturally in the receivin ecosystem may be released in high numbers and harvested intensively. Specie introduced outside their native range pose particular risks (many have minimal impacts,
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+but a small proportion become invasive and inflict massive ecological and economi damage). In stock enhancement systems, ecological and genetic impacts on the wil stock component tend to be of the most concern. Restocking initiatives will hav broadly positive impacts on marine ecosystems as long as good stock and geneti management approaches are in place. Although potential impacts of marin enhancement activities are well understood, empirical evidence for such impacts i limited except for the large-scale salmon enhancements in the Pacific Northwest an the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America (Naish et al., 2007; Crawford, 2001). Thi paucity of information likely reflects the limited scale of marine enhancements to date.
+3.10 Interactions with other sectors
+Aquaculture technologies enable enhancements in the first place and availability o cultured organisms from the commercial aquaculture sector can greatly reduce th barriers for fisheries stakeholders to engage in enhancements. Interactions wit fisheries may occur in terms of access conflicts or impacts on wild target or non-targe species and such interactions may increase as marine enhancements become mor common. Market interactions between products from enhancements and fro aquaculture and capture fisheries can be significant where enhancements account fo substantial market share as in the case of salmon (Knapp et al., 2007). However, th market share of enhancements is small for most species and products, so tha enhancements are more often impacted through the market by developments in th aquaculture and capture fisheries sectors than vice versa.
+3.11. Technical and economic performance
+As discussed previously, the technical and economic performance of marin enhancements is highly variable. Reviews by Hilborn (1998) and Arnason (2001 concluded that only a small proportion of documented enhancements are demonstrabl economically successful, but for many information is insufficient to assess economi viability, and some are demonstrably unsuccessful. Further assessments an comparative analyses are urgently required.
+4. International agreements and guidelines
+There are currently no international agreements pertaining directly to fisherie enhancements. Some FAO instruments, including the FAO Technical Guidelines fo Responsible Fisheries, deal with issues associated with fisheries enhancements (e.g. FAO, 2008). In addition, eco-labelling of products from enhanced fisheries has bee considered at the Expert Consultation on the Development of Guidelines for th Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Inland Capture Fisheries held in 201 (FAO, 2010). The FAO Committee on Fisheries adopted these Guidelines in 2011 (FAO,
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+2011). The ICES Code of Practice on the Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organism (ICES, 2005) is widely accepted and applies to introductions carried out for the purpos of fisheries enhancements.
+5. Future trends
+Enhancements are likely to become more widespread as burgeoning demand fo seafood and increasingly severe human impacts on the coastal oceans create greate demand for proactive management, aquaculture technologies become available for a ever-increasing number of marine species, and governance arrangements for man fisheries move towards rights-based systems that provide strong incentives fo investment in resources (Lorenzen et al., 2013). Greater scientific and managemen attention to enhancements is required to aid the development of potentially effectiv initiatives and to avoid widespread investment in ineffective or damagin enhancements (Lorenzen, 2014).
+6. State of scientific knowledge, application and recommendations
+Rapid progress has been made in the scientific understanding of marine enhancement over the past 20 years (Leber, 2013). Unfortunately, the scientific knowledge and tool now available to aid the development or reform of enhancements are not widel applied (Lorenzen 2014). Reasons may include that mainstream fisheries an aquaculture scientists are often unaware of developments in this interdisciplinary are or not adequately trained to conduct the necessary assessments. Research provider and management agencies need to build capacity for engaging with enhancemen initiatives using current science. Improved reporting on enhancement initiatives an outcomes at national and international level is also important. Currently, harvests fro enhanced fisheries tend to be lumped into either capture fisheries or aquacultur production figures in national and international statistics (Born et al., 2004; Klinger e al., 2012).
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+Table 1. Elements of the updated “responsible approach” to fisheries enhancement (Lorenzen et al. 2010).
+Stage I: Initial appraisal and goal settin (1) Understand the role of enhancement within the fishery system
+(2) Engage stakeholders and develop a rigorous and accountable decision-makin process
+(3) Quantitatively assess contributions of enhancement to fisheries management goal (4) Prioritize and select target species and stocks for enhancement
+(5) Assess economic and social benefits and costs of enhancement
+Stage Il: Research and technology development including pilot studies
+(6) Define enhancement system designs suitable for the fishery and managemen objectives
+(7) Design appropriate aquaculture systems
+(8) Use genetic resource management to avoid deleterious genetic effect (9) Use disease and health management
+(10) Ensure that released hatchery fish can be identified
+(11) Use an empirical process for defining optimal release strategies
+Stage Ill: Operational implementation and adaptive managemen (12) Devise effective governance arrangements
+(13) Define a stock management plan with clear goals, measures of success and decisio rules
+(14) Assess and manage ecological impacts
+(15) Use adaptive management
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+Table 2. Design criteria for biological-technical components of marine enhancement fisheries system serving different objectives (adapted from Lorenzen et al., 2012).
+Sea ranching
+Stock enhancement
+Re-stocking
+Aim o enhancement
+Wil populatio status
+Aquacultur management
+Geneti management
+Populatio management
+Increase fisherie catch
+Absent o insignificant
+Production oriented
+Partia domestication
+Conditioning fo release
+Possibly induce sterility
+Maintain geneti diversity
+Selection for hig return
+Stocking an harvesting t create desire populatio structure
+© 2016 United Nations
+Increase fisheries catc while conserving o increasing naturall recruiting stock
+Numerically large
+Possibly depleted relativ to carrying capacity
+Integrated programmes as for re-stockin Separated programmes:
+as for sea ranching
+Integrated programmes as for re-stockin Separated programmes as for sea ranching;
+also selection to promot separation
+Integrated programmes:
+restricted stocking an harvesting to increas catch while conservin naturally recruiting stock
+Separated programmes as for sea ranching;
+also measures to promot separation
+Rebuild depleted wil stock to highe abundance
+Numerically large o small
+Depleted relative t carrying capacit Conservation-oriented
+Minimize domestication
+Conditioning for release
+Preserve all wil population geneti characteristics
+High stocking densit over short period temporarily restricte harvesting o moratorium
+1 
+
+References
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+Arnason, R. (2001). The economics of ocean ranching: experiences, outlook and theory FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 413. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization o the United Nations.
+Araki, H., Berejikian, B.A., Ford, M.J., and Blouin, M.S. (2008). Fitness of hatchery-reare salmonids in the wild. Evolutionary Applications 1: 342-355.
+Bartley, D.M., Bondad-Reantaso, M.G., and Subasinghe, R.P. (2006). A risk analysi framework for aquatic animal health management in marine stock enhancemen programmes. Fisheries Research 80: 28-36.
+Baskett, M.L., and Waples, R.S. (2013). Evaluating alternative strategies for minimizin unintended fitness consequences of cultured individuals on wild populations Conservation Biology 27: 83-94.
+Bell, J.D., Leber, K.M., Blankenship, H.L., Loneragan, N.R., and Masuda, R. (2008). A ne era for restocking, stock enhancement and sea ranching of coastal fisherie resources. Reviews in Fisheries Science 16: 1-9.
+Blankenship, H.L. and Leber, K.M. (1995). A responsible approach to marine stoc enhancement. American Fisheries Society Symposium 15: 67-175.
+Born, A.F., Immink, A.J., and Bartley, D.M. (2004). Marine and coastal stocking: globa status and information needs. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 429. Rome: Foo and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 1-18.
+Brown, C., and Day, R.L. (2002). The future of enhancements: lessons for hatcher practice from conservation biology. Fish & Fisheries 3: 79-94.
+Caddy, J.F., and Defeo, O. (2003). Enhancing or restoring the productivity of natura populations of shellfish and other marine invertebrate resources. FAO Fisherie Technical Paper 448. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unite Nations. pp. 159.
+Costello, M.J. (2014). Long live Marine Reserves: A review of experiences and benefits Biological Conservation,176: 289-296.
+Crawford, S.S. (2001). Salmonine introductions to the Laurentain Great Lakes: a historical review and evaluation of ecological effects. Canadian Specia Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 132: 205 pp.
+Drummond, K. (2004). The role of stock enhancement in the management framewor for New Zealand’s southern scallop fishery. In: Leber, K.M, Kitada, S. Blankenship H.L., and Svasand, T., editors. Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching:
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
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+Developments, Pitfalls and Opportunities. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 397 411.
+FAO (1995). Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome: FAO. 41 p.
+FAO (2008). Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, No. 6, Inland fisheries, Suppl 1 (Rehabilitation of inland waters for fisheries). Rome: FAO.
+FAO (2010). Report of the Expert Consultation on the Development of Guidelines for th Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Inland Capture Fisheries. Rome 25-27 May 2010. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No. 943. Rome, FAO 37p.
+FAO (2011). Guidelines for the Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Inlan Capture Fisheries. Rome: FAO.
+Hilborn, R. (1998). The economic performance of marine stock enhancement projects Bulletin of Marine Science 62: 661-674.
+Hilborn, R., and Eggers, D. (2000). A review of the hatchery programmes for pink salmo in Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island, Alaska. Transactions of the America Fisheries Society 129: 333-350.
+ICES (2005). ICES Code of Practice on the Introductions and Transfers of Marin Organisms 2005. Copenhagen: International Council for the Exploration of th Sea. 30 pp.
+Johnson, T. H., Lincoln, R., Graves, G. R. and Gibbons, R. G. (1997). Status of wild salmo and steelhead stocks in Washington State. In Stouder, D.J., Bisson, P.A. an Naiman, R. (editors). Pacific Salmon & their Ecosystems. New York: Springer. pp 127-144.
+Jonasson, J., Gjedre, B., and Gjedrem, T. (1997). Genetic parameters for return rate an body weight in sea-ranched Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 154: 219-231.
+Kline, P. A., & Flagg, T. A. (2014). Putting the red back in Redfish Lake, 20 years o progress toward saving the Pacific Northwest's most endangered salmo population. Fisheries 39: 488-500.
+Klinger, D.H., Turnipseed, M., Anderson, J.L., Asche, F., Crowder, L.B., Guttormsen, A.G. Halpern, B.S., O'Connor, M.1I., Sagarin, R., Selkoe, K.A., Shester, G.G., Smith, M.D. and Tyedmers, P. (2012). Moving beyond the fished or farmed dichotomy Marine Policy 38: 369-374.
+Knapp, G., Roheim, C. & Anderson, J. (2007). The Great Salmon Run: Competitio Between Wild and Farmed Salmon. TRAFFIC North America. Washington D.C. World Wildlife Fund
+Leber, K.M. (2013). Marine fisheries enhancement: Coming of age in the ne millennium. In: Christou, P., Savin, R., Costa-Pierce, B.A., Misztal, |., and
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
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+Whitelaw, C.B.A., editors. Sustainable Food Production. New York, NY: Springe Science. pp. 1139-1157.
+Leleu, K., Remy-Zephir, B., Grace, R., and Costello, M.J. (2012). Mapping habitat chang after 30 years in a marine reserve shows how fishing can alter ecosyste structure. Biological Conservation 155: 193-201.
+Le Vay, L., Carvalho, G.R., Quinitio, E.T., Lebata, J.H., Ut, V.N., and Fushimi, H. (2007) Quality of hatchery-reared juveniles for marine fisheries stock enhancement Aquaculture 268: 169-180.
+Lorenzen, K. (2005). Population dynamics and potential of fisheries stock enhancement practical theory for assessment and policy analysis. Philosophical Transactions o the Royal Society B 360: 171-189.
+Lorenzen, K. (2008). Understanding and managing enhancement fisheries systems Reviews in Fisheries Science 16: 10-23.
+Lorenzen, K. (2014) Understanding and managing enhancements: why fisherie scientists should care. Journal of Fish Biology 85: 1807-1829.
+Lorenzen, K., Leber, K.M., and Blankenship, H.L. (2010). Responsible approach to marin stock enhancement: an update. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18: 189-210.
+Lorenzen, K., Beveridge, M.C.M., and Mangel, M. (2012). Cultured fish: integrativ biology and management of domestication and interactions with wild fish Biological Reviews 87: 639-660.
+Lorenzen, K., Agnalt, A.L. Blankenship, H.L. Hines, A.H., Leber, L.M., Loneragan, N.R., an Taylor, M.D. (2013). Evolving context and maturing science: aquaculture-base enhancement and restoration enter the marine fisheries management toolbox Reviews in Fisheries Science 21: 213-221.
+Michael, J.H., Appleby, A., and Barr, J. (2009). Use of the AHA model in Pacific salmo recovery, hatchery, and fishery planning. American Fisheries Society Symposiu 71: 455-464.
+Miller, L.M., Kapuscinski, A.R. (2003). Genetic guidelines for hatchery supplementatio programmes. In: Hallerman, E.M., editor. Population Genetics: Principles an Applications for Fisheries Scientists. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society pp. 329-355.
+Mobrand, L.E., Barr, J., Blankenship, L., Campton, D.E., Evelyn, T.T., Flagg, T.A. Mahnken, C.V.W, Seeb, L.W., Seidel, P.R., and Smoker, W.W. (2005). Hatcher reform in Washington State: principles and emerging issues. Fisheries 30: 11-23.
+Naish, K.A., Taylor, J.E., Levin, P.S., Quinn, T.P., Winton, J.R., Huppert, D., and Hilborn, R (2007). An evaluation of the effects of conservation and fishery enhancement
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+hatcheries on wild populations of salmon. Advances in Marine Biology 53: 61 194.
+Nicholas, J.W. and Hankins, D.G. (1989) Chinook salmon populations in Oregon coasta river basins: description of life histories and assessment of recent trends in ru strengths. Corvallis: Oregon State University Extension Service. 359 pp.
+NMFS 2000. Viable Salmonid Populations and the Recovery of Evolutionarily Significan Units. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS NWFSC-42. Seattle: Northwest Fisheries Center.
+ODFW (1998). Fish Propagation Annual Report for 1997. Salem, OR: Oregon Departmen of Fish and Wildlife.
+Olla, B.L., Davis, M.W., and Ryer, C.H. (1998). Understanding how the hatcher environment represses or promotes the development of behavioral surviva skills. Bulletin of Marine Science 62: 531-550.
+Paquet, P.J., Flagg, T., Appleby, A., Barr, J., Blankenship, L., Campton, D., Delarm, M. Evelyn, T., Fast, D., Gislason, J. Kline, P., Maynard, D., Mobrand, L., Nandor, G. Seidel, P., and Smith, S. (2011). Hatcheries, conservation, and sustainabl fisheries—achieving multiple goals: results of the Hatchery Scientific Revie Group's Columbia River basin review. Fisheries 36: 547-561.
+Pinkerton, E. (1994). Economic and management benefits from the coordination o capture and culture fisheries: the case of Prince William Sound pink salmon North American Journal of Fisheries Management 14: 262-277.
+Smith, C. (2014). Hatcheries and harvest: meeting treaty obligations through artificia propagation. Fisheries 39: 541-542.
+Tringali, M.D., Bert, T.M., Cross, F., Dodrill, J.W., Gregg, L.M., Halstead, W.G., Krause R.A., Leber, K.M., Mesner, K., Porak, W., Roberts, D., Stout, R., and Yeager, D (2007). Genetic Policy for the Release of Finfishes in Florida. Florida Fish an Wildlife Research Institute Publication Number IHR-2007-001. St. Petersburg Florida Fish and Wildlife Research Institute.
+Uki, N. (2006). Stock enhancement of the Japanese scallop Patinopecten yessoensis i Hokkaido. Fisheries Research 80: 62-66.
+Utter, F., and Epifanio, J. (2002). Marine aquaculture: Genetic potentials and pitfalls Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 12: 59-77.
+Walters, C.J., and Martell, $.J.D. (2004). Fisheries Ecology and Management. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. 399 pp.
+Williams, J.R., Hartill, B., Bian, R. and Williams, C.L. (2014). Review of the Souther scallop fishery (SCA 7). New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report 2014/07, 71
+Pp.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+Zhang, C.I., Kim, S., Gunderson, D., Marasco, R., Lee, J.B., Park, H.W., and Lee, J.H (2009). An ecosystem-based fisheries assessment approach for Korean fisheries Fisheries Research 100: 26-41.
+© 2016 United Nations
+1 
+

data/datasets/onu/Chapter_14.txt

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+Chapter 14. Seaweeds
+Contributors: John West and Hilconida P. Calumpong (Co-lead member), Georg Marti (Lead member)
+1. Introduction
+Seaweeds are a group of photosynthetic non-flowering plant-like organisms (calle macroalgae) that live in the sea. They belong to three major groups based on thei dominant pigmentation: red (Rhodophyta), brown (Phaeophyta) and gree (Chlorophyta). Seaweeds were traditionally and are currently still used as food in China Japan and the Republic of Korea. About 33 genera of seaweeds, mostly red and brown are harvested and farmed commercially (McHugh, 2003), although close to 500 specie in about 100 genera are collected and utilized locally (Mouritsen, 2013). Currentl about 80 per cent of total seaweed production is for direct human consumption, eate dried or fresh for its nutritional value or for flavouring (see Kilinc et al., 2013 for  comprehensive listing of nutrients and compounds) in the form of sushi, salad, soup dessert and condiments, and the remaining 20 per cent is used as a source of th phycocolloids extracted for use in the food, industrial, cosmetic, and medical industr (Browdy et al., 2012, Critchly et al., 2006, Lahaye, 2001, McHugh, 2003, Mouritsen 2013, Ohno and Critchley, 1993), as well as for animal feed additive, fertilizer, wate purifier, and probiotics in aquaculture (Abreu et al., 2011, Chopin, 2012, Chopin et al. 2001, Chopin et al., 2012, Fleurence et al., 2012, Kim et al., (2014), Neori et al., 2004 Pereira and Yarish, 2008, 2010, Rose et al., 2010). Carrageenan and agar are extracte from red seaweeds, and alginates and fucoidan are extracted from brown seaweeds generally from kelp species. Recently, the kelp species Saccharina lattisima wa considered for bioethanol production (Adams et al., 2009).
+2. Production
+World production of seaweeds comes from two sources: harvesting from wild stock and from aquaculture (including land-based culture, mariculture and farming) Production from harvesting of wild stocks has been stable at over 1 million tons (we weight) in the last 10 years (2003 to 2012) according to FAO (2014) statistics (see Figur 1). Top producers in 2012 were Chile (436,035 tons representing 39 per cent of tota world production), China (257,640 tons or 23 per cent), Norway (140,336 or 13 pe cent), Japan (98,514 or 9 per cent), France (41,229 tons or 4 per cent), Ireland (29,50 tons or 2.73 per cent), Iceland (18,079 tons or 2 per cent), South Africa (14,509 tons or  per cent) and Canada (13,833 tons or 1 per cent). Contributing less than 1 per cent eac were 24 other countries. Chile has consistently been the number one top produce © 2016 United Nations  
+
+since 2003, except in 2007 when China exceeded Chile’s production by 1 per cent Norway and Japan have maintained their position as third and fourth top producers respectively, since 2003.
+Three countries posted only one year’s production in 10 years (Namibia in 2003 wit 408 tons, Samoa in 2004 with 478 tons, Senegal in 2012 with 1,028 tons. India posted  ton of production in 2004 to 2008, except in 2005 when it posted 2 tons of production).
+World Seaweed Harvest from Wild Stocks by Country/Territory (Dat from FAO 2014)
+140 1200 Hi  _ z 100 80  Z   > 60  x   » 40 x 8   & 20  w   C e  2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 201 m Australia m Canada m Chile m@ China, incl. Taiwa @ Others m Estonia m Fiji m Franc mlceland m Indonesia mlreland mltal mJapan m Korea Rep m Madagascar m Mexic m= Morocco m New Zealand m Norway m Peru
+Figure 1. World seaweed production from wild stocks in 2003-2012 by country/territory in tons we weight. Data from FAO, 2014. Four countries with production in 10 years of less than 1000 tons or wit only one production within 10 years are lumped under Others (see text) tp://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+The bulk of seaweeds produced worldwide come from aquaculture. The FAO (2014 reported that the production of aquatic seaweeds from mariculture, reached 24. million tons in 2012, valued at about $6 billion United States dollars. The red, brow and green seaweeds constitute about 88 per cent (21 million tons). About 96 per cen (23.8 million tons) of the total production were produced from aquaculture (see Figur 14.2). Data from FAO showed a steady increase of about 8 per cent per year over th last 10 years (range of 4-12 per cent), specifically for red seaweeds (Figure 3) with th brown seaweeds showing stable production. The cultured seaweeds are mainly thos that produce carrageenan (Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma spp. - 8.3 million tons) followed by the alginate-producing brown seaweeds (kelps - 5.7 million tons). China i the consistent top supplier, although showing a decreasing trend, with 50 per cent o the world production over a 10-year period (2003-2012). The Philippines ranked secon in 2003 to 2006, producing 9-10 per cent, after which it was overtaken by Indonesia. Th Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and Japan produce between 2-5 per cent of the annual total, and 31 other countries produced less than  per cent of the annual total, except for Malaysia, which showed an increasin production equivalent to 1.09-1.39 per cent of the annual global quantity during 2010 t 2012.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+25000
+20000
+15000
+10000
+5000
+Tonnes wet weight
+World Seaweed Production From Aquaculture in 2003-2012 b Country/Territory (Data from FAO, 1914)
+2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
+China i Indonesia @ Philippines
+@ Korea, Republic of @ Korea, Dem. People's Rep Japan
+@ Malaysia VietNam @ Zanzibar
+Solomon Islands § Kiribati ™ Tanzania, United Rep. o ™ Denmark @ India = Chile
+™ Taiwan POC = South Africa @ Russian Federatio Timor-Leste @ Madagascar @ Brazil
+MFiji, Republic of & Myanmar ™@ France
+| Tonga ™ Peru | Namibia
+Figure 2. World seaweed production from aquaculture in 2003-2012 by country/territory in tons we weight. Data from FAO 2014. http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+World Seaweed Production and Value from Aquaculture 2003-201 by Species Group (Data from FAO, 2014)
+14000 400 @ 1300 & 12000 350 2 11000 300 = 10000  c  = 9000 2500  = 8000  5  ‘37000 2000  = y 2 6000  2 5000 150 % 4000  vu
+1000  e 3000  = 2000 500
+100 0 0
+2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
+Mam BROWN SEAWEEDS tonnes mall RED SEAWEEDS tonne mmm GREEN SEAWEEDS tonnes ———= BROWN SEAWEEDS US $
+———GREEN SEAWEEDS US$ === RED SEAWEEDS US $
+Figure 3. World aquaculture production from 2003-2012 by species groups in tons wet weight and tota value in United States dollars per group. (Unidentified aquatic plants excluded.) Green algae production i minimal, as shown in this graph. Data from FAO 2014.
+3. Social and economic impacts and challenges
+Harvests from wild populations are affected by overexploitation and climatic changes In Northern Ireland, for example, which is listed as one of the top 10 producers of wil stocks globally (FAO, 2014), McLaughlin et al., (2006) described in detail the advers impacts of seaweed harvesting at small, artisanal and commercial scales on areas o conservation importance, protected and priority habitats and species, includin disturbance of birds and wildlife, disruption of food webs, damage to substrata, habita destruction, localized biodiversity changes, and changes in particle-size distribution i sediments. Direct effects on the seaweed population include mortalities due t increased growth rate and cover of other algae which are not harvested, such a filamentous green algae and the brown seaweed, Fucus vesiculosus, which outcompet the desired species, and die-back due to increased predation. In several areas o Norway, the kelp Saccharina lattisima has been reported by Moy and Christie (2012) t have suffered dieback by 40-80 per cent due to sea urchin predation.
+The brown seaweed kelps are most affected by rising water temperature, becaus sexual reproduction (gamete formation) in most kelps will not occur above 20°C (Dayto 1985, Dayton et al., 1999). Already along the European coasts and especially in Brittany © 2016 United Nations  
+
+France, the brown kelp, Laminaria digitata, which is heavily harvested for commercia uses, is reported to be on the verge of local extinction. The already reduce reproductive potential of the kelp due to dwindling population and harvesting-induce ecosystem changes may be exacerbated by climate-caused increase in sea temperatur (Brodie et al., 2014, Raybaud et al., 2013). Two other kelp species, Laminari ochroleuca, a warm-temperate perennial, and Saccorhiza polyschides, a wide-rangin cool- to warm-temperate annual, have somewhat higher temperature tolerances fo sexual reproduction than other kelps (Pereira et al., 2011); however, Saccorhiz outcompetes L. ochroleuca in shared habitats. Brittany is the northern limit of L ochroleuca’s range. Since 1940, L. ochroleuca has been found on the coasts of souther England, which is apparently indicative of a slow northward extension of warme waters. Anticipated increasing ocean temperatures in the future in the boreal regio may result in L. ochroleuca possibly replacing L. hyperborea (Brodie et al., 2014). On th other hand, the kelp Ecklonia maxima is extending eastward on the tip of South Afric because of a northward intrusion by cooler inshore water (Bolton et al., 2012); thi could greatly benefit the whole ecosystem and provide more food for the abalon industry there. All this is quite a contrast from southward intrusion patterns by war water on the east and west coasts of Australia, causing extensive retreat of kelps an fucoids (another group of brown algae) southward from their previous northern-mos limits (Wernberg et al., 2011, Millar, 2007).
+Seaweed farming and culture are seriously affected by diseases. Ice-ice disease ha impacted the farming of the kappa-carrageenan-producing Kappaphycus alvarezii commercially called “cottonii”. Another species, Eucheuma denticulatum, commerciall called “spinosum,” is ice-ice-resistant, but contains iota-carrageenan which fetches  much lower price on the world market (Valderrama, 2012). This problem may be a resul of the low genetic variation in K. alvarezii, all of whose cultured stocks around the worl have a similar mitochondrial haplotype, which is not the case for £. denticulatu (Halling et al., 2013; Zuccarello et al., 2006). Significant diseases affecting cultivate kelps (e.g., Saccharina japonica) include green-rot, white-rot, blister disease, which ma be environmentally induced, and malformation disease of summer sporelings an swollen stipe or “frond twist disease" which are caused by bacteria (Brinkhaus et al. 1987, Tseng, 1986). Parasites such as Pythium, an oomycete fungus, causes “red rot” o “red wasting” disease in the red seaweed Pyropia commonly used in making sushi (Hur et al., 2014). However, based on case studies from six countries, Valderrama (2012 reported that the socioeconomic impacts of seaweed farming have been positive. H attributed this mainly to small-scale, family operations resulting in the generation o substantial employment as compared to other forms of aquaculture. He added tha seaweed farming is often undertaken in remote areas where coastal communities fac fewer economic alternatives and where many of these communities have traditionall relied on coastal fisheries which are currently being affected by overexploitation Valderrama stated that the impact of seaweed farming in these cases goes beyond it immediate economic benefits to communities as it also reduces the incentives fo overfishing. However, one challenge faced by farmers in these remote areas is low
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+profits due to high shipping costs. This disadvantage is exacerbated by the dependenc of farmers on processors for the procurement of their farming materials and their lac of farm-management skills. In addition, food safety issues can sometimes affec markets and prices. This is because seaweeds are efficient nutrient extractors (Kim e al., 2014) and may accumulate compounds that pose harm to human health (Mouritse 2013; see also Chapter 10).
+4. Information and Knowledge Gaps
+Despite the long history of utilization, it is reported that kelp-dominated habitats alon much of the NE Atlantic coastline have been chronically understudied over recen decades in comparison with other regions such as Australasia and North America. Fo example, McLaughlin et al. (2006) noted that information on the distribution an biomass of commercial seaweeds in Northern Ireland is lacking. Smale and Wernber (2013) highlight the changing structure of kelp forests in the North- East Atlantic i response to climate- and non-climate-related stressors, which will have majo implications for the structure and functioning of coastal ecosystems. This paucity o field-based research is impeding ability to conserve and manage this importan resource.
+References
+Abreu, M.H., Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Buschmann, A.H., Sousa-Pinto, I. (2011). IMTA wit Gracilaria vermiculophylla: productivity and nutrient removal performance of th seaweed in a Land-based pilot scale system. Aquaculture 312 (1-4): 77-87.
+Adams, J., Gallagher, J., Donnison, |. (2009). Fermentation study on Saccharina lattisim for bioethanol production considering variable pre-treatments. Journal o Applied Phycology 21: 569-574.
+Bolton, J., Anderson, R., Smit, A., Rothman, M. (2012). South African kelp movin eastwards: the discovery of Ecklonia maxima (Osbeck) Papenfuss at De Hoo Nature Reserve on the South Coast of South Africa, African Journal of Marin Science 34: 147-151.
+Brinkhuis, B.H., Levine, H.G.,Schlenk, C.G., Tobin, S. (1987). Laminaria cultivation in th far-east and North America. In: Seaweed Cultivation for Renewable Resources (Bird, K.T. Benson, P.H., eds.). Developments in Aquaculture and Fisherie Science 16: 107-146.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Brodie, J., Williamson, C.J., Smale, D.A., Kamenos, N.A., Mieszkowska, N., Santos, R. Cunliffe, M., Steinke, M., Yesson, C., Anderson, K.M., Asnaghi, V., Brownlee, C. Burdett, H.L., Burrows, M.T., Collins, S., Donohue, P.J.C., Harvey, B., Noisette, F. Nunes, J., Ragazzola, F., Raven, J.A., Foggo, A., Schmidt, D.N., Suggett, D. Teichberg, M., Jason M. Hall-Spencer, J.M. (2014). The future of the northeas Atlantic benthic flora in a high CO2 World. Ecology and Evolution 1-12 doi:10.1002/ece3.1105.
+Browdy, C.L., Hulata, G., Liu, Z., Allan, G.L., Sommerville, C., Passos de Andrade, T. Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Shpigel, M., Chopin, T., Robinson, S., Avnimelech, Y. Lovatelli, A. (2012). Novel and emerging technologies: can they contribute t improving aquaculture Sustainability? In Subasinghe, R.P., Arthur, J.R., Bartley D.M., De Silva, S.S., Halwart, M., Hishamunda, N., Mohan, C.V., Sorgeloos, P (eds.), Farming the Waters for People and Food. Proceedings of the Globa Conference on Aquaculture 2010, Phuket, Thailand. 22-25 September 2010. pp 149-191. FAO, Rome and NACA, Bangkok.
+Chopin, T. (2012). Aquaculture, Integrated Multi-Trophic (IMTA). In: Meyers, R.A. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, Dordrecht, Th Netherlands. pp. 542-64.
+Chopin, T., Buschmann, A. H., Halling, C., Troell, M., Kautsky, N., Neori, A., Kraemer, G.P. Zertuche-Gonzales, J.A., Yarish, C., Neefus, C. (2001). Integrating seaweeds int marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. Journal of Phycolog 37: 975-986.
+Chopin, T., Cooper, J. A. ,Reid, G., Cross, S., Moore, C. (2012). Open-water integrate multi-trophic aquaculture: environmental biomitigation and economi diversification of fed aquaculture by extractive aquaculture. Reviews i Aquaculture 4: 209-220.
+Critchley, A.T., Ohno, M,. Largo, D.B. (2006). World Seaweed Resources: A Authoritative Reference System. DVD-ROM. Wokingham, UK: ETI Informatio Services.
+Dayton, P.K. (1985). Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology an Systematics 16: 215-245.
+Dayton, P.K., Tegner, M.J., Edwards, P.B., Riser, K.L. (1999). Temporal and spatial scale of kelp demography: the role of oceanography and climate. Ecologica Monographs 69: 219-250.
+FAO. (2014). Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. Aquaculture production 1950-201 (FishstatJ). In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online or CD-ROM] Rome. Updated 2014 http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en.
+Fleurence, J., Morangais, M., Dumay, J., Decottignies, P., Turpin, V., Munier, M. Garcia Bueno, N., Jaouen, P. (2012). What are the prospects for using seaweed i © 2016 United Nations  
+
+human nutrition and for marine animals raised through aquaculture? Trends i Food Science & Technology 27:57-61.
+Halling, C., Wikstrém, S.A., Lillieskéld-Sj66, G., Mork, E., Lundsgr, E., Zuccarello, G.C (2013). Introduction of Asian strains and low genetic variation in farme seaweeds: indications for new management practices. Journal of Applie Phycology 25:89—95, doi: 10.1007/s10811-012-9842-0.
+Hurd, C.L., Harrison, P.J., Bischof, K., Lobban, C.S. (2014). Seaweed Ecology an Physiology, (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
+Kiling, B. Cirik, S., Turan, G., Tekogul, H., Koru, E. (2013). Seaweeds for Food an Industrial Applications. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53172. In: Food Industr http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41694/InTech Seaweeds_for_food_and_industrial_applications.pdf
+Kim, J.K., Kraemer, G.P., Yarish, C. (2014). Field scale evaluation of seaweed aquacultur as a nutrient bioextraction strategy in Long Island Sound and the Bronx Rive Estuary. Aquaculture 433: 148-156.
+Lahaye, M. (2001). Chemistry and physico-chemistry of phycocolloids, Cahiers d Biologie Marine. 42: 137-157.
+McHugh, D.J. (2003). A Guide to the Seaweed Industry. FAO Fisheries Technical Pape 441.
+McLaughlin, E., Kelly, J., Birkett, D., Maggs, C., Dring, M. (2006). Assessment of th Effects of Commercial Seaweed Harvesting on Intertidal and Subtidal Ecology i Northern Ireland. Environment and Heritage Service Research and Developmen Series. No. 06/26.
+Millar, A.J.K. (2007). The Flindersian and Peronian Provinces. In: McCarthy, P. Orchard, A., (eds.), Algae of Australia. An Introduction. CSIRO Publishing Melbourne, pp. 554-559.
+Mouritsen, O.G. (2013). Seaweeds Edible, Available & Sustainable. The University o Chicago Press, Chicago & London, 287 pp.
+Moy, F., Christie, H. (2012). Large-scale shift from sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) t ephemeral algae along the south and west coast of Norway. Marine Biolog Research 8: 309-321.
+Neori, A., Chopin, T., Troell, M., Buschmann, A.H., Kraemer, G. Halling, C., Shpigel, M. Yarish, C. (2004). Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the ar emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern aquaculture. Aquaculture 231: 361 391.
+Ohno, M., Critchley, A., (eds.). (1993). Seaweed Cultivation and Marine Ranching. JICA Yokosuka, Japan, i-xvii, 431, i-xii pp.
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+Pereira, T., Engelen, A., Pearson, G., Serrdo, E., Destombe, C., Valero, M. (2011) Temperature effects on the microscopic haploid stage development of Laminari ochroleuca and Sacchoriza polyschides, kelps with contrasting life histories Cahiers de Biologie Marine 52: 395-403.
+Pereira, R., Yarish, C. (2008). Mass production of Marine Macroalgae. In: Jorgensen, S.E. Fath, B.D., (eds.), Ecological Engineering. Vol. [3] of Encyclopedia of Ecology,  vols. pp. 2236-2247. Elsevier: Oxford.
+Pereira, R., Yarish, C. (2010). The role of Porphyra in sustainable culture systems Physiology and Applications. In: Israel, A., Einav, R., (eds.), Role of Seaweeds in Globally Changing Environment. Springer Publishers, pp. 339-354.
+Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Critchley, A. (2012). Seaweed Aquaculture for Human Foods i Land Based and IMTA Systems. In: Meyers, R. (eds.), Encyclopedia o Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer Science, N.Y. pp. 9109-9128.
+Raybaud,V., Beaugrand, G., Goberville, E., Delebecq, G., Destombe, C. Valero, M. Davoult, D., Morin, P., Gevaert, F. (2013). Decline in Kelp in West Europe an Climate. PLoS ONE 8(6): e66044. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066044.
+Rose, J.M., Tedesco, M., Wikfors, G.H., Yarish, C. (2010). International Workshop o Bioextractive Technologies for Nutrient Remediation Summary Report. U Department of Commerce, Northeast Fisheries Science Center Referenc Document 10-19; Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Wate Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1026, or online a http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/publications/12 p.
+Smale, D.A., Wernberg, T. (2013). Extreme climatic event drives range contraction of  habitat-forming species. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280: 20122829.
+Tseng, C.K. (1986). Laminaria mariculture in China. In: Doty, M.S., Caddy, J.F. Santelices, B. (eds.), Case studies of seven commercial seaweed resources. FA Fisheries Technical Papers, (281): 311 p.
+Valderrama, D. (2012). Social and economic dimensions of seaweed farming: a globa review. IIFET Tanzania Proceedings https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/handle/1957/33886
+Wernberg, T., Russell, B., Thomsen, M., Gurgel, F., Bradshaw, C., Poloczanska, E. Connell, S. (2011). Seaweed communities in retreat from Ocean Warming Current Biology 21: 1828-1832.
+Zuccarello G.C., Critchley, A.T., Smith, J., Sieber, V., Lhonneur, G.B. (2006). Systematic and genetic variation in commercial Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (Solieriaceae Rhodophyta). Journal of Applied Phycology (2006) 18: 643-651doi 10.1007/s10811-006-9066-2.
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+Chapter 15. Social and Economic Aspects of Sea-Based Food and Fisheries
+Contributors: Ratana Chuenpagdee, Patrick McConney, and Gordon Munro;
+Beatrice Ferreira, Enrique Marschoff, Jake Rice, Andrew Rosenberg (Group of experts 1. Introduction
+Fish are one of the most internationally traded foods, and the value of global fish trad exceeds the value of international trade of all other animal proteins combined (Worl Bank, 2011). In 2012, international trade represented 37 per cent of the total fis production in value, with a total export value of 129 billion United States dollars, o which 70 billion dollars constituted developing countries’ exports (FAO, 2014). Estimate indicate that small-scale fisheries contribute about half of global fish catches (FAO 2014; HLPE, 2014). When considering catches destined for direct human consumption the share contributed by the subsector increases, as small-scale fisheries generally mak broader direct and indirect contributions to food security through affordable fish an employment to populations in developing countries.
+This chapter, in addressing the economic and social aspects of marine fisheries examines both macro and micro issues. The macro issues considered are some aspect of the economics of marine capture fishery. Among the micro issues explored are loca to regional socioeconomic effects, competition for space between various ocea activities and user groups, the relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture and gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture.
+The contribution of small-scale fisheries has been increasingly recognized as a majo factor for food security and livelihoods at household and community levels, particularl for poor communities around the world. Information on small-scale fisheries is often no captured in national statistics as a result of difficulties due to many factors, includin their socioeconomic complexity and the highly dynamic nature of their operatio (Chuenpagdee, 2011). Numerous initiatives around the world reflect their importance including those led by FAO in the development of the Voluntary Guidelines for Securin Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries.*
+2. Marine Capture Fisheries Social and Economic Value
+The global marine capture fisheries harvest expanded rapidly from the early 1950s, an is currently estimated to be about 80 million tons per annum (see Chapter 11 and FAO,
+* The Guidelines have recently been adopted at the 31" Session of the Committee on Fisheries, June 2014 The final text is available at www.fao.org.
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+2014). This harvest is estimated to have a first value (gross) in the order of 80 billion U dollars (World Bank and FAO, 2009). Although it is difficult to produce accurat employment statistics, capture fisheries provide, direct and indirect employment, for a least 120 million persons worldwide (ibid.).
+Global and regional fishery catch statistics in most cases do not distinguish betwee large scale and small-scale fisheries, so the small-scale sector is often poorly covered i official statistics and chronically under-evaluated in general. The Big Numbers Projec (BNP)? carried out case studies in populous developing countries and the results fro these case studies, together with other available information, formed the basis for  first disaggregated review of the fisheries sector as a whole (WorldFish Center, 2008) Tentative estimates were calculated for developing countries at 28-30 million MT/yea for marine fisheries. This represents half of the catch in those countries, of which 90-9 per cent is destined for domestic human consumption. Those figures highlight th importance of small-scale fisheries for food security in developing countries.
+Small-scale fisheries employ more than 90 per cent of the world’s capture fishers an fish workers, about half of whom are women. In addition to employment as full- or part time fishers and fish workers, seasonal or occasional fishing and related activitie provide vital supplements to the livelihoods of millions. These activities may be  recurrent sideline activity or become especially important in times of difficulty. Man small-scale fishers and fish workers are self-employed and engaged in directly providin food for their household and communities as well as working in commercial fishing processing and marketing (FAO, 2014).
+The quality of such employment is increasingly seen as an important social an economic aspect of fisheries as attested to by the attention to decent work in the FA Voluntary Guidelines on Securing Small-Scale Fisheries (SSF Guidelines) that draws fro several international instruments concerning, gender, child labour, workers’ rights an the like. Much of this labour is linked directly, through short value chains, to providin critical income along with food and nutrition security, especially in rural coasta communities.
+Over time, there has been a shift in the relative scale and geography of captur fisheries. In the 1950s, capture fisheries were largely undertaken by developed fishin States in the northern hemisphere. Since then, developing countries increased thei share of the total. Consider Figure 1, which presents geo-referenced distributions o decadal averages of annual landed values of the world’s fisheries and highlights th southward and offshore expansion of the fishing grounds over time (Swartz et al., 2013) Although the two hemispheres do not reflect developed vs. developing fishing State precisely, the figures are, nonetheless, indicative. In the 1950s, the Souther hemisphere accounted for no more than 8 per cent of landed values. By the last decade,
+* This is a joint activity of FAO and the WorldFish Center and funded through the World Bank’s PROFISH Partnership.
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+the Southern hemisphere’s share had risen to 20 per cent of the total. This change likel resulted from a combination of factors including transfer of fishing effort from north t south, overall increases in fisheries in the south and improvement in reporting systems Nevertheless, the relative contribution to global landings from the two hemispheres ha changed.
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 1. Spatial distribution of average annual landed values (2005 United States dollars per squar kilometre per year) by decade (from Swartz et al 2013; with permission of Springer).
+In terms of volume, the shift seen in Figure 1 is even more striking; as shown in Figure 2 the top ten capture fisheries producers include seven developing countries®.
+Indeed, net exports of fish and fishery products from developing countries have grow significantly in recent decades, rising from 3.7 billion dollars in 1980 to 18.3 billion
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+dollars in 2000, 27.7 billion dollars in 2010, and reaching 35.1 billion dollars in 2012. Fo Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs) net export revenues amounted to 4. billion dollars in 2010, compared with 2.0 billion dollars in 1990 (HLPE, 2014). The shar of exports from developing countries is close to 50 per cent (value) and 60 per cent (i volume of live weight equivalent) of global fish exports (FAO, 2012).
+Marine and inland capture fisheries: top ten producer countries in 2008
+Chin Per Indonesia
+United States of Americ Japan
+India
+Chile
+Russian Federation
+Philippines
+Myanmar
+0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
+Million tonnes
+Figure 2. From FAO, 2010.
+This also reflects the impacts of globalization of fish markets, which have grown at a accelerating rate in the last decades. This has been viewed either as positive or negative depending on the value systems used (Taylor et al., 2007). Although fish trad contributes to food security through the generation of revenues, adverse effects b international trade on the environment, small-scale fisheries culture, livelihoods an special needs related to food security are a matter of concern. Articulation with globa demand may provide incentives to overexploit or waste resources, endanger the lives o fisherfolk, change cultural traditions and more — much of which can be unintended  shark finning, spiny lobster dive fisheries, and sea cucumber fisheries are examples Small-scale fisheries stakeholders cannot often adapt to, and benefit equitably from opportunities of global market trends (FAO, 2014-consultation). Also, there have bee evidences that when global figures are considered, although there is quantit equivalence in trade, a quality exchange also takes place, with developing countries
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+exporting high-quality seafood in exchange for lower quality seafood (Asche et al. 2015).
+Regarding the trends in world marine capture fisheries, production has levelled off a the capacity of the ocean to produce ongoing harvest is approached (FAO, 2014- SOFIA) Overall production might be increased however, if overfished stocks are rebuilt an fisheries and ecosystems are used more sustainably. This requires overall reductions i exploitation rates, achievable through a range of context dependent management tool (Worm et al., 2009).
+As noted in Chapter 11, global fisheries agreements and the FAO generally utilize th concept of Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) as a reference point for gauging whether  fishery resource is fully exploited, overexploited, and less than fully exploited. Accordin to this reference point, FAO classifies the status of marine capture fishery resource (Table 1).
+Table 1. Status of World Marine Capture Fishery Resources 2011. Source: FAO, 2014, p.7.
+Status Percentag Less than fully exploited 1 Fully exploited 6 Overexploited 29
+In the beginning of the 1950s, fully exploited and overexploited fishery resource combined accounted for less than 5 per cent of the total. Over 95 per cent fell into th less than fully exploited category (FAO, 1997, p. 7).
+Over the following 25 years, the percentage of overexploited marine capture fish stock rose to 10 per cent of the total. The percentage of these overexploited stocks the increased alarmingly from 10 to 26 per cent between the mid-1970s and the end of th 1980s. That percentage has continued to increase, but at a much slower pace (FAO 2014).
+The FAO states that:
+“{...] the declining global marine catch over the last few years together with th increased percentage of overexploited fish stocks [...] convey the strong messag that the state of world marine fisheries is worsening [...] which leads to negativ social and economic consequences” (FAO, 2012, p.12).
+Further, these analyses of individual stocks do not fully account for the broader ecosystem-level effects of fisheries exploitation that may be hindering futur productivity in various ways, such as loss of habitat, or impacts on food webs an ecological functions needed to continue to produce desirable fish for harvest. There are
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+two inter-related general considerations regarding management of these ecosystem level effects: 1) the potential impacts of fisheries themselves on the ecosystems, i order to maintain overall ecosystem function including productivity, usually referred t as ecosystem-based fishery management (FAO, 2003); 2) the interaction of fisherie with other sectors of human activity and consideration of the cumulative impact of al sectors on marine ecosystems, usually referred to as ecosystem-based managemen (McLeod and Leslie, 2009).
+The discussion here and in Chapter 11 on full exploitation and overexploitation o capture fishery resources was essentially cast in biological terms. When examined i economic terms, the situation portrayed in Table 1 implies a loss in the potential o economic returns accruing to society from capture fisheries compared to the situatio where all fisheries were managed to maximize economic benefits. The maximu economic yield (MEY), when adopted as a reference point, is more conservative an reached at lower fishing effort levels than the MSY, the latter argued to be used as a upper limit rather than a management target (Worm et al., 2009; Froese and Proelf 2010).
+Translated into monetary terms, the figures in Table 1 have been estimated in som analyses to cost to the world economy in the order of 50 billion dollars per year in los resource rent (World Bank and FAO, 2009). This implies that, the economic return fro marine capture fisheries could be improved compared to the current situation. If othe incentives such as subsidies of the fisheries sector are taken into account, there ar some estimates that this global economic return amounts to minus 5 -12 billion dollar per year (World Bank and FAO, 2009; Munro, 2010; Sumaila et al., 2012). Som estimates of world fishery subsidies are in the order of 25-30 billion dollars per yea (Sumaila, et al., 2010). Other estimates are of lower levels of subsidies (Cox an Schmidt, 2002). The differences may be largely due to definitional issues with regard t what is considered to be a subsidy in the different analyses.
+This is not to say that all world capture fisheries are yielding negative economic returns Clearly several capture fisheries are yielding positive, and in some cases large positive net economic returns. From a global perspective, however, the positive returns fro these fisheries are more than offset by those yielding negative net economic returns. N clear divide between developed and developing fishing States is observed. (Sumaila e al., 2012, p.3).
+From an economic standpoint, the extent of the capture fishery’s resource depletio shown in Table 1, which was due to the rapid expansion of the world capture fishin industry over several decades, involved the running down of world’s stock of th capture fishery’s natural capital.
+Rebuilding capture fishery resources requires reducing harvests below the net growt rates of the fish stock. As the resources grow, potential resource rent can be expecte to emerge, which must go unrealized in all or in part, if the resource investment is t continue — hence the cost. Using a 50-year time horizon, Sumaila et al. (2012) estimat that after 12 years of resource investment, the net economic returns from the
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+investment would begin to outweigh the costs. Over the 50-year period, the return would far outweigh the costs* (Sumaila, et al., 2012). Economic and_ technica considerations that arise in rebuilding fisheries were explored in additional detail in a Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development workshop (OECD, 2012).
+3. Issues in Regulation of Marine Capture Fisheries
+It has now long been recognized that the inherent difficulties in regulating marin capture fishery resources are a problem of scope and management objectives in th decision-making process, and are often framed as the well-known “Tragedy of th Commons” (Hardin, 1968). When access is open to all for exploitation, incentives ar created that promote inefficiencies, including: (1) loss of economic “rent” because o the “race to fish”, (2) high transaction and enforcement costs incurred to reduc overuse and (3) low productivity, because no one has an incentive to work hard in orde to increase their private returns (Ostrom, 2000). All of these factors reduce the ne economic return from fisheries. The management of common property requires  minimum set of rules, defining access conditions and conservation measures to ensur sustainability and economic returns.
+Where social, economic, and governance circumstances allow effective management o entry into a fishery and effort by those allowed to participate, substantial progress ca be made at improving both the ecological and economic performance of a fishery, bu often at the cost of few people receiving employment. On the west coast of Canada, fo example, a move to Individual Transferrable Quotas in a complex, multispecies fisher for rockfish (Sebastes spp) resulted in improved stock status for the entire complex, an particularly reduced catches of the stocks most in need of reduced fishing mortality while improving economic returns to the fishery. However, the fleet size an employment dropped by nearly half from the period before the programme wa introduced (Rice, 2003; Branch, 2006; Branch and Hilborn, 2008).
+In the context of fisheries, management efforts also need to take into consideratio how the legitimacy of rules and regulations may be perceived differently when applie to large- vs. small-scale. The majority of the world’s fisheries comprise small-scale multi-species, multi-gear, commercial fishing vessels, operating in all bodies of wate (inland, brackish and marine), both near urban centres and in remote areas. Thei operation involves family members, in pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest parts o the fish chain. Women and children often participate in the fisheries. Small-scal fisheries catches are landed relatively close to where fishing occurs and are distribute through various channels. A certain portion is generally sold to local markets or t intermediaries by family members and some remains for household consumption. Thes characteristics of the fisheries imply that they require different managemen approaches than large-scale, industrialized fisheries. As at least half of the world’s fish
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+catches derive from small-scale fisheries, success in fisheries management needs to b demonstrated, not only where large-scale fisheries dominate, but also in the small-scal sector, with its high potential to address global food security.
+Community-based resource management has been shown to be effective in establishin fishery rules (Berkes, 2005). Cinner and Aswani (2007), however, found that customar management was effective in smaller, remote communities with high levels of equality but it is susceptible to economic pressures and by fishermen who do not practic customary fishing traditions.
+4. Impacts of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing
+There are additional economic and social considerations related to IUU fishing (see als Chapter 11). It is a complex phenomenon involving vessel owners, vessels, crew, fla State authorities and logistics. Often IUU vessels are related, through ownership, t authorized vessels obtaining cover to sell their catches.
+Marine Resources Assessment Group (2005) states that the most obvious impact of IU fishing is direct loss of the value of the catches that could be taken by the coastal State i the IUU fishing was not occurring. This is mostly from vessels operating without licence and licensed vessels misreporting catches (quantity, species, fishing area, etc.) an illegal trans-shipment of catches. Secondary economic impacts from the loss of fish t IUU vessels may include reduced revenue from seafood exports and reduce employment in the harvest and postharvest sectors. Reduced fishing port activity has  ripple or multiplier effect across economies, adversely affecting labour an transportation as well as the manufacturing sector.
+IUU fishing may also increase poverty and reduce food security and food sovereignty Conflict between authorized, compliant vessels and IUU vessels is common in som fisheries and can become violent with threats to both life and livelihoods on a larg scale. Armed resistance to surveillance and enforcement is increasing in some location with the potential to undermine all monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) a resources are allocated to address what may be seen as a threat to national securit rather than fisheries management. It can be noted that conflicts and IUU fishin generally occur between vessels of any size. There may also be gender and socio cultural effects, depending upon the composition of the harvest and post-harvest labou forces.
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+5. Space-use conflicts: industrial capture fisheries vs. artisanal capture fisheries aquaculture vs. artisanal capture fisheries
+Due to recent improvements in technology and affordability, vessel monitoring system (VMS) are increasingly available for both large- and small-scale fishing vessels, and thu can provide geo-referenced data that accurately describe fishing areas on geographi scales applicable to MSP. Combined with validated logbook data, rich time-series dat are potentially available from intensely fished and monitored sea areas in develope countries. The data situation is slowly improving in developing countries. Land tenur systems that extend to parcels of seabed and water for aquaculture also provide clea boundaries. Superimposed on these spaces are increasingly sophisticated layers o information on the interactions among fisheries, and between aquaculture an fisheries. Although not all fisheries conflicts concern spatial use, or can be manage through MSP, many are potential candidates for spatial conflict management.
+Sources of conflict between large and small-scale fisheries are a well-reported concer (FAO, 2014). Spatial components of conflict concern:
+— Sea tenure and territorial use rights
+— Fishery resource allocations by site
+— Fishing gear and method interactions
+— Ecosystem (species) interactions
+—  |UU fishing (several aspects)
+— Port access and market transactions
+— Management jurisdiction and governanc Sources of conflict between fisheries and aquaculture with spatial components concern:
+— Sea tenure and territorial use rights
+— Natural resource allocations by site
+— Fishing interactions with infrastructure
+— Ecosystem (species) interactions
+— Area access and market transactions
+— Management jurisdiction and governance
+The lists are quite similar, although the specific nature of the conflicts varies greatl between the lists and site-specific situations. The next section looks more closely a fisheries-aquaculture conflicts (see also Chapter 12).
+Cataudella et al. (2005) note that the FAO (1995) Code of Conduct for Responsibl Fisheries (CCRF) defines the global framework in which marine aquaculture and capture
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+fisheries are to be considered as interactive parts of the same system. The assessmen of such interactions is crucial for implementing the CCRF, especially in areas where th use of the coastal zone results in conflicts between many resource users competing fo space (e.g. fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, shipping, energy). The CCRF treat aquaculture as an important part of the fisheries system to be responsibly develope and managed for sustainability (FAO, 1999), but in the nearly two decades that hav intervened, this has proven to be challenging.
+The relationships between marine aquaculture and capture fisheries can be complex operating at multiple levels of governance and crossing several spatial and tempora scales, affecting different points along value chains, as well as ecosystems or target an culture species in a variety of ways. Cataudella et al. (2005) categorize the conflic interactions as old and new, somewhat based arbitrarily on the currency of the topic.
+Old interactions are issues generated by the — Allocation of public financial resource — Likelihood of disease spreading and new outbreak — Environmental pollutio — Employment threats and opportunitie — Introduction of exotic or invasive specie — Need for stocking programme — Ownership of resources and of confined environment — Use of wild seed to supply aquacultur — Use of fishery products to supply the fish-feed farming industry New interactions are issues concerning the — Stocking and restocking model — Genetic origin of cultured organism — Biodiversity conservation and valu — Genetic improvement through breeding programmes and genetic engineerin — Development of aquaculture in sensitive environment — Direct impact of farmed products on markets and price — Growing role of aquaculture in meeting the demand for fishery product — Product quality and labellin — Feasibility of capture fisheries and aquaculture within a sustainable system The above interactions are most in need of conflict management through legislation and
+policy related to planning for integrated coastal zone management and marine spatial
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+planning. However, considerable guidance is available on appropriate approaches tha include conflict management (e.g. Ehler and Douvere, 2009) as well as enabling polic (e.g. EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive).
+Marine spatial planning (MSP) is the public process of analyzing and allocating th spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achiev ecological, economic, and social objectives that are usually specified through a politica process (Ehler and Douvere, 2006). It is linked to ecosystem-based management (EBM (see McLeod and Leslie, 2009), the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) (see FAO 2003), marine protected areas (MPAs) (FAO report on MPAs and Fisheries, 2011) an similar endeavours that have the potential to assist in managing conflicts throug participation among diverse stakeholders (Ehler and Douvere, 2009). Managing spac use conflicts between large- and small-scale fisheries and with other sectors is a increasingly important issue in many parts of the world.
+6. Gender in fisheries
+On a global level, fisheries are often perceived as male-dominated, laden with culturall stereotypical images of fishermen. The term “fishing industry”, for example, conjures a image that focuses attention on harvest and men’s work more than the term “seafoo industry” which is more equitable (Aslin et al., 2000). The involvement of women is no reflected by the increasing use of gender-neutral terms such as “fisher” and “fisherfolk” and more international discussion of gender (Williams et al., 2005). Yet recent globa investigation has shown that if post-harvest (e.g., fish processing and trade) an ancillary activities (e.g., fishing inputs and financing) are taken into account, then th gendered image is quite different. Overall, women may be in the majority in fisheries, o nearly so (FAO et al., 2008). This does not take into account the growing number o women engaged worldwide in fisheries policy, planning, management, science education, civil society advocacy and other activities related to fisheries that wer previously more male-dominated.
+The post-harvest situation is particularly inequitable. Women outnumber men in fis processing and trading across the world, but their informal sector activities are ofte not recorded, and they are invisible in national labour and economic statistics. Thus th socioeconomic contribution of women to fisheries is underestimated at national an global levels. Only a few countries in the developing world collect and use gender disaggregated statistical data and other information data for fisheries policy an planning (Weeratunge and Snyder, 2009). Without comparative data for women an men, it is difficult in most places to determine the disparity between female and mal socioeconomic activities and well-being. This scarcity of gender-disaggregated fisherie data constrains gender-sensitive policies and mainstreaming, with little action taken t address the disadvantageous position of women (Sharma, 2003).
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+It is widely accepted in the developing world that women strongly influence the social economic and cultural aspects of fishing households and the industry as a whole. Ther are increasing numbers of women in technical, scientific and managerial fisheries job around the world, but this varies markedly by region. In some societies where me engage in the most conspicuous fisheries-related socioeconomic and political activities the women are labelled “fisher wives”, but the implied subordination is misleadin (Weeratunge and Snyder, 2009). In Ghana, “fisher wives” or “fish mammies” suppor the entire small-scale fishing industry as they invest in fishing boats and gear, an provide loans to husbands and other fishers while running small socioeconomic empire without formal political power (Walker, 2001). Although addressing gender-inequity i critical, interventions need to be carefully designed. ‘Women in development’ project have contributed to reducing the real power that women held, for example, b introducing poorly designed credit and fish marketing schemes that exacerbat unsustainable fishing for short-term monetary gain or loan servicing.
+Small-scale fisheries in developed and developing countries have striking similarities. I both, gender issues are often overlooked or misunderstood because of an analytica focus that looks at the fisheries sector in isolation from the broader society, and i concerned primarily with narrow ecological and economic factors such as maintainin fish stocks to ensure a viable long-term harvest. Interventions have been directed mor at men harvesting at sea, rather than at women engaged in postharvest on shore, or a the interconnections between harvest and postharvest (Weeratunge and Snyder, 2009) Although this narrow, male sectoral perspective is changing as the EAF becomes mor widely adopted (FAO 2003), gender is not yet mainstreamed into this approach despit advances in incorporating other social, cultural and institutional dimensions (De Youn et al, 2008). EAF is just one facet of the changing face of fisheries governance. Gende issues are more appropriately considered in the wider context of fisheries governanc than fisheries management.
+Gender remains a key governance issue in both developed and developing countries. It many interconnected dimensions relate to vulnerabilities, assets, opportunities capabilities, coping strategies, outcomes, food security, empowerment and more. Wit new attention to sustainable development goals based on blue and green economies gender in fisheries should feature more prominently. State and civil society agencie realize that well-being will not be improved and poverty will not be reduced if gender i not adequately addressed. Gender mainstreaming should be an integral part o fisheries, but this is not occurring, because gender research to support fisheries policy i insufficient. As the links between gender in fisheries and poverty, climate, health an other major developmental issues become apparent (Bene and Merten, 2008; Bennett 2005; FAO, 2006; Neis et al., 2005), more attention will need to be paid to gender i fisheries in the context of the development post-2015 agenda.
+Certain issues, particularly at the micro level, demand additional research. The state o small-scale fisheries throughout the world, and gender issues in fisheries are particularl prominent. A further issue that has been seriously under-researched is that of th relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture.
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+7. Climate change and small-scale fisheries
+Pollution, environmental degradation, climate change impacts and natural and human induced disasters pose serious challenges to fisheries sustainability. Because of th heavy reliance on fisheries for food security, employment and livelihoods, these factor become additional threats facing small-scale fishing communities (FAO, 2011-2015).
+Expected impacts of climate change include increase in the severity and intensity o natural disasters and changes in the local distribution and abundance of harvested fis and shellfish populations (Barange et al., 2014), with consequences on the post-harves and trade (FAO, 2011-2015; HPLE, 2014). Impacts of climate change are predicted to b more severe where the relative importance of fisheries to national economies and diet is higher and there is limited societal capacity to adapt to potential impacts an opportunities (Allison et al., 2009). The severity of threats increases due to combine effects of climate change and ecosystem degradation and overfishing, highlighting th importance of appropriate co-management measures (HPLE, 2014).
+A comprehensive understanding of how communities respond to these threats an other global change, in their environmental, social and political contexts, is require (Bundy et al., 2015). These issues are also treated in the Summary (under Impacts of th Climate Changes).
+8. Specific additional issues raised in regional workshops for the World Ocea Assessment
+Fisheries management requires time-consuming and dedicated human resources an failure to meet or prioritize these efforts is a widespread problem, leading to poo fisheries management. During the regional workshops for this World Ocean Assessmen it became apparent that lack of data, including difficulties in maintaining data collectio and conducting stock assessments, as well as obtaining fishery-independent data, wa an issue for all developing countries. Problems with databases and data integration due to different methods of data collection and lack of long time-series, were raised i all regions. Lack of data on the small-scale, as well as recreational fisheries, was  problem in developed and developing States. In particular, catches from subsistenc fishing are often missing from national catch statistics, leaving a gap in the ecological social and economic aspects of fisheries. Ecosystem-based management is seldo applied due to the lack of practical examples and applications, and difficulties i assessing ecosystem impacts.
+Fish is one of the most internationally-traded foods. This has an impact on th infrastructure needed to commercialize the product, especially given the fact that fish i a perishable commodity. The difficulties to adapt to international-market requirements -
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
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+including means to abide by regulations - and the lack of fish preserving and processin facilities was a recurring issue, especially in developing countries that are near, or trad often with, developed countries.
+Contamination of fish products as well as the effects on catches caused by pollution an habitat degradation were raised at the workshops. Developing countries reporte difficulties in assessing those risks and monitoring those impacts. The main focus of fis certification has been eco-labelling that addresses environmental sustainabilit issues. With limited exceptions, certification concerns predominantly develope countries and large-scale fisheries. Fish certification is progressively moving to includ social responsibility and labour considerations, but it is unclear whether food securit and nutrition considerations can or will be included in future.
+9. Conclusion
+Fisheries around the world are deeply embedded in the issues of food and economi security, livelihoods for large numbers of people, gender equity and poverty alleviation Both large and small-scale fishery operations provide essential economic and socia benefits to society. Small-scale fisheries, in particular, constitute half of the world’s tota catches and involve more than 90 per cent of total fishing population (in harvest an post-harvest activities). The significant contribution to food security, livelihoods an local economic development means that small-scale fisheries can no longer b overlooked. Instead, management and governance of fisheries needs to incorporate ke features distinguishing small-scale fisheries from their large-scale counterpart. Thi implies changes in information systems, fisheries assessment, monitoring an surveillance, and research and development. Importantly, issues related to fishin rights, tenure and access to resources, health and safety, gender and social justice among others, deserve special attention in policy and decision-making. Finally, it i worth noting that small-scale fisheries governance would have different priorities focusing for instance on stakeholder participation and subsidiarity principles. Tensio and conflicts between different scales of operations, and with other marine activities will continue to challenge policy-makers in many areas. They can be overcome however, with an attempt to create policy coherence through a holistic and integrate approach to fisheries governance. During the regional workshops the need to improv the capacity of States to more effectively manage these critical resources, and i particular in regions where sustainability of fisheries needs to be improved, wa recognized. The need to build capacity is also essential to address issues of equity an broader sustainable development efforts.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+References
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+Asche, F., Bellemare, M.F., Roheim, C., Smith, M.D., & Tveteras, S. (2015). Fair Enough Food Security and the International Trade of Seafood. World Development, 67 151-160.
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+Barange, M., Merino, G., Blanchard, J. L., Scholtens, J., Harle, J., Allison, E.H., Allen, J.1. Holt, J., and Jennings, S. (2014). Impacts of climate change on marine ecosyste production in societies dependent on fisheries. Nature Climate Change 4: 211 216. Available fro http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v4/n3/full/nclimate2119.html?mess ge-global=remove. Accessed on: 14 July, 2015.
+Bene, C. and Merten, S. (2008). Women and Fish-for-Sex: Transactional Sex, HIV/AID and Gender in African Fisheries. World Development 36: 875-899.
+Bennett, E. (2005). Gender, Fisheries and Development. Marine Policy 29: 451-459.
+Berkes, F. (2005). Why keep a community-based focus in times of global interactions Keynotes of the 5" International Congress of Arctic Social Sciences (ICASS) University of Alaska Fairbanks, May 2004. Topics in Arctic Social Sciences 5: 33 43.
+Branch, T.A. (2006). Discards and revenues in multispecies groundfish trawl fisherie managed by trip limits on the US West Coast and by ITQs in British Columbia Bulletin of Marine Science 78: 669-689.
+Branch, T.A. and R. Hilborn (2008) Matching catches to quotas in a multispecies traw fishery: targeting and avoidance behavior under individual transferable quotas Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 65: 1435-1446.
+Bundy, A., Chuenpagdee, R., Cooley, S. R., Defeo, O., Glaeser, B., Guillotreau, P. Isaacs, M., Mitsutaku, M. and Perry, I. (2015). A decision support tool fo response to global change in marine systems: the IMBER-ADApT framework. Fis and Fisheries. DOI: 10.1111/faf.12110.
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+Chuenpagdee, R. (2011). A matter of scale: prospects in small-scale fisheries. I Chuenpagdee (ed.). Contemporary Visions for World Small-Scale Fisheries Eburon, Delft.
+Cinner, J. and Aswani, S. (2007). Integrating Customary Management into Marin Conservation. Biological Conservation 140 (3/4): 201-216.
+Cox, A. and Schmidt, C.-C. (2002). Subsidies in the OECD Fisheries Sector: A review o recent analysis and future directions. Background paper for the FAO exper consultation on identifying, assessing and reporting on subsidies in the fishin industry; 3.6.
+De Young, C., Charles, A., and Hjort, A. (2008). Human Dimensions of the Ecosyste Approach to Fisheries: An Overview of Context, Concepts, Tools and Methods FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 489. Rome.
+Ehler, C., and Douvere., F. (2006). Visions for a Sea Change. UNESCO, Intergovernmenta Oceanographic Commission. Paris.
+Ehler, C., and Douvere., F. (2009). Marine Spatial Planning: A Step-by-Step Approac Toward Ecosystem-Based Management. UNESCO, Intergovernmenta Oceanographic Commission, Paris.
+FAO (1995). Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. FAO, Rome.
+FAO (1997). Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Marine Fisheries. FA Fisheries Circular No. 920, Rome.
+FAO (1999). Indicators for Sustainable Development of Marine Capture Fisheries. FA Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, Rome.
+FAO (2003). The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries. FAO Technical Guidelines fo Responsible Fisheries. No. 4, Suppl. 2, Rome.
+FAO (2006). Gender Policies for Responsible Fisheries. FAO, Rome. (See also links fro http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16605/en).
+FAO (2010). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. FAO, Rome.
+FAO (2011). Marine protected areas and fisheries. FAO Technical Guidelines fo Responsible Fisheries, No. 4, Suppl. 4, Rome.
+FAO (2012). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. FAO, Rome FAO (2014). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2014. FAO, Rome.
+FAO (2011-2015). Small-scale fisheries - Web Site. Voluntary Guidelines on Securin Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries [SSF Guidelines]. Fl Institutiona Websites.In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome Updated 15 April 2014. http://www.fao.org/fishery/ssf/guidelines/en
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
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+FAO, WorldFish, and World Bank (2008). Small-scale Capture Fisheries - A Globa Overview with Emphasis on Developing Countries: A Preliminary Report of th Big Numbers Project, Rome and Penang.
+Froese, R., and ProelfS, A. (2010). Rebuilding fish stocks no later than 2015: will Europ meet the deadline? Fish and fisheries 11.2: 194-202.
+Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, Vol. 162 no. 3859: 1243-1248.
+HLPE, 2014. Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition.  report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of th Committee on World Food Security, Rome 2014.
+Kronbak, L.G., and Lindroos, M. (2006). An Enforcement-Coalition Model: Fishermen an Authorities Forming Coalitions. Environmental and Resource Economics 35: 169 194.
+Marine Resources Assessment Group Ltd (2005). Review of Impacts of Illegal Unreported and Unregulated Fishing on Developing Countries, Synthesis Report prepared by MRAG for the UK’s Department for International Developmen (DFID), with support from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperatio (NORAD).
+McLeod, K.O. and Leslie, H. (eds). (2009). Ecosystem-based management for the oceans Island Press, Washington, D.C. USA. 392p.
+Munro, G. (2010). From Drain to Gain in Capture Fishery Rents: A Synthesis Study. FA Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 538, Rome.
+Munro, G. (2011). On the Management of Shared Living Marine Resources, Proceeding of the Danish Conference on Environmental Economics 2011. Available from http://www.dors.dk/graphics/SynkronLibrary/Konference%20201/Abstracts/M nro_paper.pdf. Accessed on: 6 August, 2014.
+Munro, G., Van Houtte, A., and Willmann, R. (2004). The Conservation and Managemen of Shared Fish Stocks: Legal and Economic Aspects. FAO Fisheries Technica Paper No. 465, Rome.
+Munro, G., and Sumaila, U.R. (2011). On the Curbing of Illegal, Unreported an Unregulated (IUU)) Fishing. In: Tubiana, L., Jacquet, P., and Pachauri, R., editors A Planet for Life 2011 — Oceans. IDDRI, Paris.
+Munro, G., Sumaila, U.R., and Turris, B. (2012). Catch Shares, the Theory of Cooperativ Games and the Spirit of Elinor Ostrom: A Research Agenda. I/FET 201 Conference Proceedings. Available at https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/33889/Paper% Ofor%20Dar%20es%20Salaam.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed on: 6 August, 2014.
+Munro, G., Turris, B., Kronbak, L., Lindroos, M., and Sumaila, U.R. (2013). Catch Shar Schemes, the Theory of Dynamic Coalition Games and the Groundfish Trawl
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+Fishery of British Columbia. Paper presented to the North American Associatio of Fisheries Economists Conference, 2013.
+Neis, B., Binkley, M., Gerrard, S. and M. Maneschy (eds.). 2005. Changing Tides: Gender Fisheries and Globalisation. Halifax: Fernwood
+OECD (2012). Rebuilding Fisheries: The Way Forward. OECD, Paris.
+Ostrom, E. (2000). Private and common property rights. In Brouckaert, B., an De Geest, G., editors. Encylopedia of Law and Economics, Vol.II: The History an Methodology of Law and Economics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar: pp. 332 379.
+Rice, J. (2003) The British Columbia rockfish trawl fishery. In Report and documentatio of the International Workshop on Factors of Unsustainability an Overexploitation in Fisheries, Mauritius, 3—7 February 2003. Edited by J. Swa and D. Gréboval. FAO, Rome, Italy.
+Sharma, C. (2003). The Impact of Fisheries Development and Globalization Processes o Women of Fishing Communities in the Asian Region. APRN Journal 8:1-12. ICSF Chennai.
+Sumaila, U.R. (2013). Game Theory and Fisheries: Essays on the Tragedy of Free For Al Fishing. London, Routledge.
+Sumaila, U.R., Marsden, D., Watson, R., and Pauly, D. (2007). Global Ex-vessel Fish Pric Database: Construction and Applications. Journal of Bioeconomics 9: 39-51.
+Sumaila, U.R., Teh, L., Watson, R., and Munro, R. (2010). A Bottom-up Re-estimation o Global Fisheries Subsidies. Journal of Bioeconomics 12: 201-225.
+Sumaila, U.R., Cheung, W., Dyck, A., Gueye, K., Huang, L., Lam, V., Pauly, D. Srinivasan, T., Swartz, W., Watson, R., and Zeller, D. (2012). Benefits o Rebuilding Global Marine Fisheries Outweigh Costs. PLoS ONE 7: e40542 DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0040542.
+Swartz, W., Sumaila, U.R., and Watson, R. (2013). Global Ex-vessel Price Databas Revisited: A New Approach for Estimating “Missing” Prices. Environmental an Resource Economics 56: 467-480. DOI: 10.1007/s10640-012-9611-1.
+Taylor, W., Schechter, M.G., and Wolfson, L.G. (2007). Globalization: Effects on Fisherie Resources. Cambridge University Press.
+Walker, B.L.E. (2001). Sisterhood and Seine-nets: Engendering Development an Conservation in Ghana’s Marine Fishery. Professional Geographer 53: 160-177.
+Weeratunge, N., and Snyder., K. (2009). Gleaner, Fisher, Trader, Processor Understanding Gendered Employment in the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector Paper presented at the FAO-IFAD-ILO Workshop on Gaps, Trends and Curren Research in Gender Dimensions of Agricultural and Rural Employment Differentiated Pathways out of Poverty, Rome, 31 March - 2 April 2009.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+Williams, M.J., Nandeesha, M.C., and Choo, P.S. (2005). Changing Traditions: First Globa Look at the Gender Dimensions of Fisheries. NAGA, Worldfish Center Newsletter vol. 28, No. 1 & 2 (January and June).
+World Bank (2005). Hamilton, K., Ruta, G., Bolt, K., Markandya, A., Pedroso-Galinato, S. Silva, P., Ordoubadi, M.S., Lange, G., and Tajibaeva, L. Where Is the Wealth o Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21" Century. World Bank, Washington.
+World Bank (2011). The Global Program on Fisheries: Strategic Vision for Fisheries an Aquaculture. World Bank, Washington.
+World Bank and FAO (2009). Kelleher, K., Willmann, R., and Arnason, R., eds. The Sunke Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform. World Bank and FAO Washington.
+WorldFish Center (2008). "Small-scale capture fisheries: a global overview wit emphasis on developing countries: a preliminary report of the Big Number Project." The WorldFish Center Working Papers.
+Worm, B., Hilborn, R., Baum, J. K., Branch, T. A., Collie, J. S., Costello, C., Fogerty, M.J. Fulton, E.A., Hutchings, J.A., Jennings, S., Jensen, O.P., Lotze, H.K., Mace, P.M. McClanahan, T.R. Minto, C., Palumbi, $.R., Parma, A.M., Ricard, D. Rosenberg, A.A., Watson, R., Zeller, D. (2009). Rebuilding globa fisheries. Science, 325(5940), 578-585
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_16.txt

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+Chapter 16. Synthesis of Part IV: Food Security and Safety
+Group of Experts: Andrew A. Rosenberg
+Fish products, including finfish, invertebrates and seaweeds, are a major component o food security around the world. In addition to providing a source of high-quality protei and critical long chain omega-3 fatty acids with well-known nutritional benefits in man countries, fish and fishery products are the major source of animal protein for  significant fraction of the global population, and in particular in countries where hunge is widespread. Even in the most developed countries, consumption of fish is increasin both per capita and in absolute terms, with implications for both global food securit and trade.
+Fisheries and aquaculture are a major employer and source of livelihoods in coasta States. Significant economic and social benefits result, including providing a key sourc of both subsistence food and much-needed cash for many of the world’s poores peoples. As a mainstay of many coastal communities, fisheries and aquaculture play a important role in the social fabric of many areas.
+Small-scale fisheries, particularly those that provide subsistence in many poo communities, are often a key source of employment, cash, and food in coastal areas Many such coastal fisheries are under threat due to over-exploitation, conflict wit larger fishing operations, and loss of productivity in coastal ecosystems due to a variet of other impacts. These include habitat loss, pollution and climate change, as well a loss of access to space as coastal economies and uses of the sea diversify.
+Globally, world capture fisheries are near the ocean’s productive capacity with catche in the order of 80 million metric tons. Only a few means to increase yields are available More effectively addressing sustainability concerns including ending overfishing eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, rebuilding deplete resources, reducing broader ecosystem impacts of fisheries, and adverse impacts o them from pollution, are important aspects of improving fishery yields and thereby foo security. For example, ending overfishing and rebuilding depleted resources may resul in an increase of as much as 20 per cent in potential yield, if the transitional costs o rebuilding depleted stocks can be addressed.
+In 2012, more than one-quarter of fish stocks worldwide were classified by FAO a overfished. Although these stocks clearly will benefit from rebuilding once overfishin has ended, other stocks may still be classed as fully fished despite being on th borderline of overfishing; these stocks could yield more if effective governanc mechanisms were in place.
+Current estimates of the number of overfished stocks do not take into account broade effects of fishing on marine ecosystems and their productivity. These impacts, includin by-catch, habitat modification, and food web effects, are important elements in the
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+sustainability of the ocean’s capacity to continue to produce food and must be carefull managed. These very real threats endanger some of the most vulnerable population and marine habitats around the world and need to be directly addressed to improv food security and answer other social needs.
+Fish stock propagation may provide a tool to help rebuild depleted fishery resources i some instances. Propagation programs must be carefully designed and maintained i order to really benefit resource sustainability.
+Fishing effort is subsidized by many mechanisms around the world and many of thes subsidies undermine the net economic benefits to States. Subsidies that encourag over-capacity and overfishing result in losses for States and these losses are often born by communities dependent upon fishery resources for livelihoods and food security.
+Aquaculture production, including seaweed culture, is increasing more rapidly than an other source of food production in the world and is expected to continue to increase Aquaculture, not including the culture of seaweeds, now provides half of the fis products covered in the global statistics.
+Aquaculture and capture fisheries are co-dependent in some ways, as feed for culture fish is in part provided from capture fisheries. They are also competitors for space i coastal areas, for markets, and potentially for other resources (labour, governmenta support and attention, etc.). Significant progress has been made in replacing fee sources from capture fisheries with agricultural production (e.g., soybeans), althoug more work is certainly needed.
+Aquaculture itself poses some environmental challenges, including potential pollution competition with wild fishery resources, potential contamination of gene pools, diseas problems, and loss of habitat (e.g., from the construction of shrimp ponds). Examples o these challenges, and measures that can mitigate them, have been observed worldwid and need to be directly addressed by management action.
+In both capture fisheries and aquaculture, gender and other equity issues arise.  significant number of women are employed in both types of activities, either directly o in related activities along the value chain. Women are particularly prominent in produc processing, but often their labour is not equitably compensated, and working condition do not meet basic standards. Poor communities are often subject to poorer marke access, unsafe conditions for labour, and other inequitable practices that need to b remedied.
+The ongoing impacts of a changing climate, including ocean acidification, pose grea challenges for fisheries and aquaculture. Climate change is already resulting in shifts i the distribution and productivity of fishery resources and marine ecosystems mor generally. This impacts fishing businesses and communities, yields and food security Changes in availability and yields for individual resources may be positive or negativ but in any case result in greater uncertainty for fishers, communities, businesses an fishery governance frameworks.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+There are major capacity-building needs with regard to food security and food safety.
+— The complexity of the issues concerning food provisioning from the sea requires  multidisciplinary approach to research. While the fields of fishery and aquacultur science are well developed, there are critical needs for research on small-scal subsistence uses of the marine environment as well as recreational, cultural an spiritual aspects of marine resources. In addition, greater understanding must b developed of the structure, function and dynamics of marine ecosystems and of the
+economic and social aspects of human society that depend upon these resources.
+— It is necessary to improve understanding of the role of fisheries and aquaculture i commerce, employment and the support livelihoods. Therefore advanced capacit building is necessary for appropriate skills to be able to use advanced technologies
+to create wealth from capture fisheries and aquaculture in a sustainable way.
+1. Capture fisheries
+— Efforts have been made to create awareness to reduce post-harvest losses especially in small-scale fisheries, as a means of increasing production. However little is known about what new methods are being implemented and to what exten they impact on production. There is a gap in capacities needed to develop, deploy and evaluate approaches to reduce waste and post-harvest losses and ensure that
+new technology is transferred to those that need it most.
+— Efforts have been made to reduce by-catch and other broader ecosystem impacts o fishing and to increase awareness of these problems. For example, globally it is stil poorly known whether by-catch excluder devices have been successfully adopted i terms of the relative ratio of the target catch landed and the by-catch either lande or discarded. It is necessary to build capacity to monitor and ensure compliance
+with measures such as these that are intended to reduce ecosystem level impacts.
+— If ecosystem-based approaches to management are to be implemented, integratin fisheries governance with governance of other marine sectors, greater scientific and
+technical capacity will be needed to inform the process.
+— If further depletion of fishery stocks due to overfishing, climate impacts or othe pressures is to be avoided, trends in fishing effort, landings, geographical scope species composition and other key attributes must be ascertained and consistentl monitored, and data must be made broadly available. It is necessary to buil enough capacity with appropriate technological and scientific skills and th necessary equipment to provide adequate information and data to facilitate regional
+and global management.
+— Technical capacity to monitor and control seafood safety is urgently needed Methodologies must be shared and deployed and greater training in procedures that
+safeguard seafood supplies is necessary.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+— Certain issues, particularly at the micro level, demand additional research an therefore need capacity-building to address them. The state of small-scale fisherie throughout the world, and gender issues in fisheries, are particularly prominent an are poorly studied. A further issue that has been seriously under-researched is th relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture.
+2. Aquaculture
+— Much better data and analysis of the trends, character and factors influencin aquaculture production are needed. In principle these data should be mor accessible than capture fisheries data but in practice this is not the case Understanding this rapidly growing sector is vital to the understanding of foo security patterns and needs.
+— Disease and product safety are a key challenge for aquaculture. Greater scientifi and technical capacity is needed to address these challenges in many countries an data and scientific information must be shared in order to exchange lessons learned.
+— Aquaculture technology crosses the spectrum from relatively simple small-scal operations to larger-scale enterprises. It includes breeding, feeding, health an safety aspects. Sharing both technology and approaches to improve efficiency an sustainability is an important aspect of improving food security and safety.
+3. Fish stock propagation
+- For propagation efforts to be successful, capacity must be developed that wil promote efficient and effective approaches and comprehensive monitoring of thes efforts. These must be well designed experiments that rely on lessons learned fro other efforts around the globe.
+- Proposed propagation efforts will benefit from a comprehensive, integrated ecosystem-based fisheries-management approach. Capacity is needed in terms o individuals, infrastructure and institutions to deliver effective stock propagation.
+4. Seaweeds as a resource
+- Seaweed aquaculture is seriously affected by disease, as with other forms o intensive aquaculture. Research on seaweed diseases and new techniques fo combating the diseases are needed along with the technical capacity to deploy ne methods.
+- Undertaking and building capacity for biochemical research on seaweed extract from various species will enable them to be harnessed for their wide variety o nutrient, medicinal and food values.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+

data/datasets/onu/Chapter_18.txt

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+Chapter 18. Ports
+Group of Experts: Alan Simcock (Lead member)
+1. Introduction
+Ports are the nodes of the world’s maritime transport system. Every voyage of a shi must begin and end at a port. Their size and distribution will therefore both reflec and contribute to the pattern of maritime transport described in Chapter 1 (Shipping). Since the maritime transport system is part of a much larger globa transport system, including road, rail, river and canal transport and the interchange between all the modes, the factors that determine the location and growth (an decline) of ports are manifold, and go well beyond an assessment of the marin environment. These non-marine factors (such as land and river transpor connections, location of population and industry and size of domestic markets) wil determine, to a large extent, the development of ports and, therefore, the way i which they affect the marine environment. Nodes, however, can becom bottlenecks, restricting the free flow of trade. Before the economic crisis of 2008 there were fears that port capacity could limit the development of world trad (UNCTAD, 2008). That problem has receded with the widespread economic slow down, but could easily re-appear. This would lead to increased pressure for ne port developments.
+Just as containerization has transformed general cargo shipping from the mid-20 century onwards, so it has also transformed the nature of the ports that containe ships use. In the past, ports relied on large numbers of relatively unskille dockworkers to do the physical work of loading and unloading general cargo, ofte on a basis of casual labour, with no security of regular work. Containerization an parallel improvements in the handling of bulk cargoes have transformed thi situation. Ports now require smaller numbers of much more skilled workers, an even more investment in handling equipment.
+2. Scale and magnitude of port activity
+Ports can be classified in several different ways. Some ports are dedicated to  single function (such as the handling of oil). Others are general, handling a variety o trades. Some are private, used for the traffic of one trader (or a small number o traders). Others are general, open to shipping in general. Some are designed fo bulk traffic, both dry and liquid. Others are for general cargo, which today usuall implies containers. And some ports are a mix of these various categories. (Thi chapter does not deal with marinas and other harbours for recreational vessels those are covered in Chapter 27 (Tourism and recreation)).
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Dry bulk traffic covers the five major bulk trades (iron ore, coal, grain bauxite/alumina and phosphate rock), together amounting to 2,786 million tons i 2013, and the minor bulk trades (soymeal, oilseed/meal, rice, fertilizers, metals minerals, steel andforest products), together amounting to 2,300 million tons in 2013 The main tanker bulk traffic (crude oil, petroleum products, and liquefied natural gas amounted to 2,904 million tons. There is also a much smaller market in bulk tanke carriage of chemicals (UNCTAD, 2013).
+The location of ports for handling bulk traffic is usually determined by the location o their sources of supply and demand. A new oil field may well demand the creatio of a completely new port, as happened with the creation of Sullom Voe in th Shetland Islands in the United Kingdom in the 1970s at the beginning of th exploitation of North Sea oil and gas (Zetland, 1974). A large iron and steel work may be linked to the creation of new port facilities to receive imports of iron ore, a is happening at Zhanjiang in China (Baosteel, 2008). As a result of geographical o historical factors, some ports for bulk traffic can have awkward conjunctions in thei location. For example, in Australia, the coal mines in Queensland need more por outlets, but the likely locations for ports are near the Great Barrier Reef, which give rise to difficult decisions (Saturday Paper, 2014). In the United Kingdom, the Milfor Haven oil terminal grew up gradually over many years in the safe natural harbour o Milford Haven. It is currently the United Kingdom’s largest oil port, with  throughput of hydrocarbons in bulk of 40 million tons a year. However, the Unite Kingdom’s first marine nature reserve, Skomer Island, is near the mouth of th harbour (Donaldson, 1994; DfT, 2014).
+The containerization of general cargo, the consequent reduction of trans-shipmen costs and the use of ever larger ships has changed the nature of the demand fo general cargo ports over the past half century. Instead of relatively small ship moving directly from the origin to the destination of the cargo, thus minimising th then expensive trans-shipment costs, there is now a hierarchy of ports, with cargoe passing through entrepdts where they are trans-shipped. Rotterdam, in th Netherlands, is a good example of such an entrepdt, with many other North Se ports receiving the trans-shipped goods. (Haralambides, 2002). The proportion o worldwide total container movements that involve trans-shipment is graduall increasing (25 per cent in 2000: 28 per cent in 2012 (Notteboom et al., 2014)). Th nature of this hierarchy shows that there is a major equatorial shipping route linkin major ports, with supporting north-south and transoceanic routes. The “trans shipment markets” identified are the zones within which ports are competing wit each other for the long-haul business, which will be trans-shipped for delivery to it final destination by ship, road or rail (Rodrigue, 2010, figure 13). Containerize general cargo amounted to 1.6 billion tons in 2012 — an estimated 52 per cent o global seaborne trade in terms of value (UNCTAD, 2013). The imbalances i containerized exports and imports, the liberalization of trade regulation and transi facilitation are resulting in a growth of containerization of trades previously handle as bulk. Since more containerized imports arrive in some ports than there ar exports from those ports to fill the containers, the shipping costs for the return o onward journey using the surplus containers are low. This acts as a form of subsid on the use of such containers, and thus attracts business from the bulk trades. For
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+example, between 2008, when grain trading was deregulated in Australia, and 2013 the country’s containerized wheat export shipments increased tenfold (UNCTAD 2013).
+The world’s busiest container port is Shanghai in China, with 33.62 million TE movements in 2013. Table 1 sets out the numbers of container movements for eac of the further five container ports with the heaviest traffic. Outside these areas there are of course other very large and busy ports — for example (with millions o TEU movements in 2013): Los Angeles, California, USA (7.87), Long Beach, California USA (6.73) and New York/New Jersey, USA (5.47). In total, the world’s 50 busies container ports in 2013 were spread as follows:
+(a) Twenty-four in the west Pacific (ten in China; three in Japan; two each i Indonesia and Malaysia; and one each in Hong Kong, China, th Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan Province of China Thailand and Viet Nam);
+(b) Four in the eastern Pacific (two in the United States of America and on each in Canada and Panama);
+(c) Seven in the Indian Ocean (two in the United Arab Emirates and one eac in India, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka and South Africa);
+(d) Eleven in the eastern Atlantic and adjacent seas (two each in German and Spain and one each in Belgium, Egypt, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands Turkey and the United Kingdom); and
+(e) Four in the western Atlantic (two in the United States and one each i Brazil and Panama) (WSC, 2014).
+Table 1. The world’s busiest container ports in the five major transhipment markets — 2013.
+PorT COUNTRY TEU MOVEMENT 2013
+(MILLIONS)
+World’s busiest container port
+Shanghai China 33.62
+North-East Asia
+Busan Republic of Korea 17.6 Qingdao China 15.5 Tianjin China 13.0 Dalian China 10.8 Keihin ports (Kawasaki, Tokyo, Yokohama) Japan 8.3 Central East Asia
+Hong Kong China 22.3 Ningbo-Zhoushan China 17.33
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+Port CouNTRY TEU MOVEMENT 201 (MILLIONS Guangzhou China 15.3 Kaohsiung Taiwan Province of 9.9 Chin Xiamen (formerly known as Amoy) China 8.0 South-East Asi Singapore Singapore 32.6 Port Kelang Malaysia 10.3 Tanjung Pelepas Malaysia 7.6 Tanjung Priok Indonesia 6.5 Laem Chang Thailand 6.0 Middle East and Indian Sub-Continen Jebel Ali, Dubai United Arab Emirates 13.6 Jeddah Saudi Arabia 4.5 Colombo Sri Lanka 4.3 Jawaharlal Nehru Port (near Mumbai) India 4.1 Sharjah United Arab Emirates 4.1 Mediterranea Algeciras Bay Spain 4.5 Valencia Spain 4.3 Ambarli (near Istanbul) Turkey 3.3 Port Said Egypt 3.1 Marsaxlokk Malta 2.7 North-West Europ Rotterdam Netherlands 11.6 Hamburg Germany 9.3 Antwerp Belgium 8.5 Bremen and Bremerhaven Germany 5.8 Felixstowe United Kingdom 3.7 South-East USA and Central Americ Colon Panama 3.3 Balboa Panama 3.1 Georgia Ports (Savannah, Brunswick) United States 3.03
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+Port COUNTRY TEU MOVEMENT 201 (MILLIONS Hampton Roads (Newport News, Norfolk, United States 2.2 Virginia Beach) Houston* United States 1.47
+* Not among the world’s 50 busiest container ports.
+Source: WSC, 2014: http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world container-ports.
+3. Socioeconomic aspects of ports
+The arrival of containerization of general cargo and the increased mechanization o the handling of bulk cargoes has transformed employment in the dock industry. I has reduced the amount of human physical effort, increased the amount of wor done by machinery and reduced substantially the risks of death and injury t dockworkers. As a result, it has also decreased substantially the number o dockworkers required. Negotiations over the change have therefore often bee difficult, particularly in the early years of the introduction of containerization. Th change has now spread worldwide, and few ports still rely on the handling of genera cargo parcel by parcel. However, statistics at global level on the effects of th change are not available (ILO, 2002).
+The economic effects on port operations have been no less thoroughgoing. Thre main strands of change have been noticeable:
+(a) As the economics of ship operation have created pressures for eve larger ships, both for bulk carriage of cargoes and for containers (se Chapter 17 — Shipping), so pressures have developed on ports to creat the facilities to handle these larger ships. These pressures have require ports to invest in deeper-water facilities, bigger cranes and navigationa improvements in order to accommodate the larger ships. These have al required substantial investment;
+(b) The general liberalization of the terms of world trade and consequen growth in shipping have led to ports being placed more and more i competition with each other. Coupled with the development o hierarchies among ports in container traffic, where large ships are use for long voyages between hubs, and the containers are then re distributed in smaller ships on shorter voyages, this has led to the nee for ports to work together to offer shipping lines and (through them shippers a comprehensive service. At the same time, in many parts o the world there has been a substantial transfer of the operation of port (and, in some cases, the ownership of the land and equipment of th ports) from the public sector to the private sector. The combined effec of these various trends has been the creation of large commercial
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+groupings of ports around the world. Some of these groupings hav sprung from a successful operator of a specific port: the Port o Singapore Authority is the leading example of this type of development with interests in 25 terminals around the world. Others have sprun from major shipping lines: APM Terminals is controlled by the majo Danish maritime shipping enterprise A P Mgller Mzersk, and has interest in 71 ports around the world. Another starting point for assembling  chain of ports has been sovereign wealth funds: for example, Dubai Port World has interests in more than 65 terminals around the world. Th final major type of port grouping is represented by Hutchison Por Holdings, part of the Hutchison Whampoa group, which developed fro a dock-operating company in Hong Kong; it has interests in 52 ports These four groups alone therefore have major interests in over 200 port worldwide. There are a number of smaller similar chains, largely with  regional focus: these include SSA Marine in North America and Eurogat in Europe (privately-owned companies), Hanjin and Evergreen (linked t ocean carriers) and Ports America (owned by financial holdin companies) (Rodrigue, 2010). In many countries, however, ports remai under the control of government agencies or chambers of commerce, o are independent public agencies;
+(c) The larger sizes of ships have intensified the pressures to handle them i port in the shortest possible time. Ship owners want their capital to b earning money on voyages as much as possible, and therefore dislike th ships being tied up in port — or, even more, waiting at sea until they ca get into a port berth. This, coupled with the more stringen requirements arising from growing trade volumes, global value chains increasingly time-sensitive trade and lean supply chains, has led t increased competition between ports, intensified the pressure on port to service ships and handle their cargo the shortest possible time an produced an intense focus on the efficiency of ports.
+One important aspect of the economics of port operation is security against thef and disruption. In 2002, the International Maritime Organization adopted a ne chapter in the International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) an promulgated the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code to improv ship and port security. This is supported by the joint IMO/International Labou Organization code of practice on security in ports. These instruments provide  consistent baseline worldwide, by clarifying the desirable division of responsibilitie for issues such as access control, cargo and ship stores control, and facilit monitoring to prevent unauthorized persons and materials from gaining access t the port. The ISPS Code came into force in 2004. Gaps still remain in some areas t implement these arrangements (IMO, 2015).
+3.1 Efficiency
+In 2012, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD published a study on port efficiency that it had commissioned (Merk and Dang,
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+2012). This study sought to compare the efficiency of ports around the world, in th different fields of containers, grain, iron ore and oil, looking at proxies for the input of each type of port to the handling of cargoes and the throughput achieved measured in terms of the dead-weight tonnage (dwt) passing through the port. Fo container ports, the study concluded that, with the exception of Rotterdam in th Netherlands, the most efficient ports were mostly located in Asia. |The mos efficient container ports were not necessarily the largest ports. Among most efficien ports are some of the largest global container ports (for example, Hong Kong, China Singapore; and Shenzhen and Shanghai in China) (handling from 20 to 60 million dw per port per month), but also medium to small size ports. For bulk oil ports, i concluded that, with the exception of Galveston, Texas, in the United States an (again) Rotterdam in the Netherlands, the most efficient oil ports are mostly locate in the ROPME/RECOFI area’, but not all ports in that region are operating efficiently In this case, size does matter: the most efficient terminals are largely those with th largest throughput. In the case of bulk coal ports, the study concluded that a grou of coal ports in Australia and China were clearly more efficient than nearly all th rest of the sample, although Velsen/IJmuiden in the Netherlands, Banjamarsin i India and Puerto Bolivar in Colombia were equally good. In the case of iron-ore an grain ports, the study concluded that, in both cases, larger ports were more efficient It also concluded that, for grain ports, the least efficient terminals tend to be foun in developed OECD countries. It should be noted, however, that the methodology o the study inevitably tends to rate a port as less efficient if, for historical reasons, it past investment has provided more facilities than is required for current levels o traffic.
+It is instructive to compare the results of this study with the ranking published by th World Bank of the quality of the infrastructure of ports in different countries. This i based on a questionnaire to members of the World Economic Forum, which ha been running for some 30 years. Recent rounds of the survey have included aroun 13,000 respondents from around 130 countries. Although subjective, the view expressed are likely to influence trade and investment decisions. The classificatio runs from 7 (efficient by international standards) to 1 (extremely underdeveloped) In 2012, the best-regarded ports were those in the Netherlands and Singapore, bot being ranked at 6.8. Table 2 shows the countries whose ports are regarded as bein in categories 6 and 5.
+, Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Members: Bahrain Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates Regional Commission for Fisheries (RECOFI) Members: Bahrain, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kuwait Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates.
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+Table 2. Quality of Port Infrastructure
+Category6: Bahrain, Belgium, Finland VY, Germany VY, Hong Kong, China V, Iceland, Netherlands*\ Panama‘, Singapore, United Arab Emirates‘\.
+Category5: Australia7\, Barbados, Canada‘, Chile V, Cyprus VY, Denmark YW, Estonia, France VY, Ireland,
+Jamaica V, Japan, Lithuania, Malaysia, Maltat’, Namibia, New Zealand, Norway V, Oman’ Portugal, Qatar‘4s, Republic of Korea”, Saudi Arabia‘, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spaints, Suriname’S Sweden, United Kingdom’, United States of Americav.
+Those countries marked “fs had a higher ranking, and those marked WV a lower ranking, in 2012 than in 2009.
+Source: World Bank, 2012.
+The message from both these sources is that well-equipped and well-managed port can be found in all parts of the world — as can less well-equipped and less well managed ports. Given the importance of port effectiveness for world trade improving capacities both in the planning and construction of ports and in thei management could have beneficial effects. The facilities for the provision o accurate and timely navigational information to ships using ports is an importan element of the equipment for the efficiency and effectiveness of ports, particularl in view of the adverse impacts on the marine environment from ships’ casualties.
+3.2. Charging
+Charges for the use of ports raise some important issues. First, there is how t charge for services rendered. The normal recommendation of economists is tha charges should only be levied if a service is delivered: economic theory argue against cross-subsidization between services. In the case of ports, however, there i a strong argument that ships’ operators should not normally be able to opt out o paying for port waste-reception facilities. If they can opt out, they have an economi incentive not to pay for the disposal of their waste and to retain it on board unti they can throw it into the sea, thereby aggravating the problem of marine debris The European Union has adopted legislation requiring its ports generally to apply th rule of no separate charge for waste-reception facilities (EU, 2000). Whatever for a charge takes, it is important that the money is applied towards th environmentally sustainable disposal of the waste (see Chapter 17).
+Secondly, there is the question of how far the port operator should be expected t cover the costs of providing the port. This applies both landward and seaward. I the landward direction, it is important that ports have adequate road, rail or inland waterway connections to the port’s hinterland. Otherwise, any efficiency gains i the port are cancelled out by the inefficiencies of transport into the hinterland. Thi can be very important for the economic viability of the port, since competitors ma be able to offer a better deal overall. There is then the question of how far the cost of such adequate connections should be financed from the port charges rather tha from government revenues or charges on the users of the connections. Decisions o this can only be taken for each port in the light of the policies of its possibl competitors.
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+A parallel situation arises in the seaward direction, where there is often a need fo dredging to maintain the access channels. In some countries, port operators hav pressed governments to fund all or part of the costs of deepening and widenin navigation channels, since they find themselves faced with competition fro neighbouring ports which have natural deep-water harbours.
+3.3 Landlocked countries
+Because of the large proportion of international trade that is transported by sea (se Chapter 17 — Shipping), landlocked countries have particular difficulties from thei lack of seaports. The 31 landlocked developing countries (LLDCs), 16 of which ar among the least-developed countries (LDCs), face serious challenges to their growt and development, derived in substantial part from their problems in accessin maritime transport. In general, LLDCs face a 45 per cent higher ratio of freigh charges to total value of exports and imports than the average of the developin countries through which their exports and imports must transit (LLDCs, 2011). Thi is a further aspect of capacity-building gaps to improve the efficiency of ports in th transit countries.
+4. Impacts on the marine environment from port operations
+The direct impacts on the marine ecosystem from ports take three main forms: first the concentration of shipping, secondly, the demand for coastal space and, thirdly the need for deep water. Chapter 26 (Land/sea interaction) considers other impact that result from the transformations caused to the shoreline by the creation of port and harbours.
+4.1. Concentration of shipping
+The concentration of shipping is generally an inevitable result of a successful port Where a port takes part in a general market for port services, the more successfu the port is, the greater are the size and number of the ships that it will serve. Thi means that discharges and emissions from the ships will be higher and have a mor concentrated effect on the marine environment around the port. Even if eac individual ship maintains the best practicable level of control over its impact increasing levels of shipping to and from a port will result in increasing overal impacts, unless the best practicable means of control can be improved. Chapter 1 (Shipping) discusses the impacts from ships, particularly chronic oil discharges garbage, sewage, anti-fouling treatments, air pollution and noise. All these can b controlled, but that control is more in the hands of the ships’ masters and owner than in the hands of the port authority. Port authorities and governments can however, influence these aspects through their charging policies and thei enforcement of international standards. Because many ports have competition fro their neighbours, effective action is likely to require agreement at a regional level.
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+For this reason, the regional memorandums of understanding on port-state contro have an important role in managing the impact of ports on the marine environment Other effects, such as the turbidity caused by ships’ propellers disturbing sediments are more site-specific, and can to some extent be controlled by port navigation rules Nevertheless, such turbidity (and the subsequent re-settlement of sediment) ca have adverse impacts on sensitive habitats, such as corals and sea-grass beds (Jones 2011).
+In all these cases, port authorities and port operators have some important roles t play in managing the impacts of ships. Adequate waste-reception (and especially fo cruise ships) sewage-reception facilities are important for preventing marine debri and eutrophication problems. Likewise, adequate land-based electricity supplie (“cold ironing”) for ships that need to run equipment while in port (especiall refrigerator ships) are essential to reduce air pollution, since otherwise they mus run the ships’ generators while they are in port.
+The IMO has set up a system whereby ships’ operators can report inadequacies i port reception facilities. This can be found a https://gisis.imo.org/Public/PRF/ReportedCases.aspx. It enables ships to report th problems that they have encountered and port authorities to offer (if they wish explanations for such shortcomings and information on steps that are being taken t resolve them. Since the beginning of 2005, 279 inadequacies have been reported States have responded in only 76 cases (although there are several where the por State had not been notified).
+4.2 Coastal space
+The demand for coastal space in ports is tied up with the growth in container traffic Space is needed next to the berths for the containers to be off-loaded. In step wit the development of container traffic, there has therefore been a substantial growt in the land needed for container ports. Rodrigue (2010, in figure 3) shows th current scale of coastal space occupied by container ports. These are particularl demanding of coastal space because they have to have level space to hold th containers until they can be forwarded into the hinterland: bulk cargoes ar normally transferred directly to less space-demanding storage.
+Further growth in port throughput will inevitably result in further demand fo container storage space at ports. This demand is rarely going to be able to be me from land that is not part of the coast, because around most ports this land i already committed to other forms of development (such as housing or industry which are also essential for the growth of the port. As discussed in Chapter 2 (Land/sea physical interaction), this demand has therefore often been met by lan reclamation — often from mangroves or salt marshes (for the pressures on which se Chapters 48 (Mangroves) and 49 (Salt marshes). These pressures are likely t continue. There is therefore a need for further investigation on how ports ca handle increasing numbers of containers without increasing their demands fo coastal space.
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+4.3 Deep water
+The third pressure generated by ports is for deep water access channels. Thi normally means that dredging is used to deepen and widen the channels throug sedimentary deposits, although in some cases it can involve blasting a channe through rock or (in rare cases) through coral reefs. Lack of available dredging service may constrain what can be done to provide deep-water access, and thus affect  port’s competitiveness. Dredging can also affect the hydrodynamics of an estuar with consequences for adjacent beaches and seabed stability over broad area (Pattiaratchi and Harris, 2002). Where dredging is used on areas not previousl dredged, the impact on the bottom-dwelling flora and fauna may have to b balanced against the advantages of the improved access for ships. Where blasting i the only method available for providing the necessary deep-water access, th judgement is even more difficult, because it may mean the destruction o ecosystems based on a rocky or coral reef substrate. The quantities of material to b lifted by dredging can be immense (see Chapter 24 — Disposal of solid waste) an difficult judgements may have to be made about where the disposal should tak place (Brodie, 2014). Where the dredging has to be done in the estuary of a rive with a history of heavy industrial development, even more difficult judgements ma have to be made about whether the dredged material should be re-introduced to th sea at all, given the risk of remobilising hazardous substances that have bee sequestered in the sediments (see again Chapter 24 — Disposal of solid waste). Th effects of elevated turbidity from dredging operations can have negative impacts o seagrasses (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006) and other benthic communities (Newell e al., 1998).
+5. Integrating environmental, social and economic aspects
+Port development is a special case of the issues raised by integrated coastal-zon management. Economically, it is always of high importance for the coastal Stat (and for the landlocked States that depend on transit through the coastal State). Th pressures from ports will grow in step with the growth in international trad between coastal States, except to the extent that it is possible to improve th performance of ships and port installations. Port development also focuses togethe a large bundle of difficult trade-offs: increased benefits from trade, increase impacts from shipping, increased demand for coastal space and increased deman for creating or maintaining access channels. The growth in port throughput wil therefore nearly always be accompanied by increased pressures on th environment. Social effects will be less pressing, because the changes needed as  result of the changeover to containerization are now largely in the past, and th social adjustments have been made. They will, however, need to be taken int consideration for those ports that have not yet joined the global consensus o containerization. A careful review of the different interests will therefore always b essential if port development is to be sustainable.
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+6. Information and capacity-building gaps
+6.1 Knowledge gaps
+Since ports constitute a significant economic sector, much information is availabl about them and their operations. What seems to be lacking is systemati information bringing together worldwide the operational aspects of ports and thei impacts on the local marine environment, and their contribution to economi activity.
+6.2 Capacity-building
+Since the operation of a port can significantly affect both the successful operation o ships and the economic performance of the countries it serves, some ports nee capacity-building in the operational skills needed for successful port operation. Thi is particularly important for ports that are serving as transit ports for landlocke countries, since the landlocked countries rely on the quality of port management i the transit country or countries, and are not in a position to insist on improvements.
+It is important to develop (and then maintain) the capacities of port States both t implement the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code and relate instruments and to carry out port-State inspections of ships, so as to enforce th internationally agreed standards for ships. Capacities to provide ships with good real-time information on local navigational issues are also important.
+Since the delivery to shore of garbage from ships in general is an important elemen of combating marine debris problems, ports which do not have adequate and easil used port waste-reception facilities need to have their capacities in this fiel improved. The same applies to sewage-reception facilities for cruise ships in relatio to eutrophication problems.
+Where ports which need dredging to maintain or improve navigation adjoin bays rivers or estuaries with a history of industrial discharges, there is a need for them t have the capacity to examine the dredged material to decide whether it can safel be re-deposited in the sea.
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+References
+Baosteel (2008). Baostee! Bought Shares of Zhanjiang Port Group http://www. baosteel.com/group_en/contents/2863/38876.html (accessed 1 June 2014).
+Brodie, J. (2014). Dredging the Great Barrier Reef: Use and misuse of science Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 142.
+DfT (United Kingdom Department for Transport) (2014). UK Port Freight Statistic 2013 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ ile/347745/port-freight-statistics-2013.pdf (accessed 20 October 2014).
+Donaldson of Lymington, Lord (1994). Cleaner Seas, Safer Ships: Report of Lor Donaldson's Inquiry into the Prevention of Pollution from Merchant Shipping Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London (ISBN 978-0101256025).
+Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis Ill, R.R.R. (2006). Environmental impacts of dredging o seagrasses: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52.
+EU (European Union) (2000). Directive on port reception facilities (Directiv 2000/59/EC).
+Haralambides, H.E. (2002). Competition, Excess Capacity, and the Pricing of Por Infrastructure, International Journal of Maritime Economics, Vol. 4 (4).
+ILO (International Labour Organization) (2002). General Survey of the report concerning the Dock Work Convention (No. 137) and Recommendation (No 145), 1973. (ISBN 92-2-112420-7).
+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2015). The International Ship and Por Facility Security Code (ISPS Code (http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Security/Instruments/Pages/ISPSCode.asp accessed 20 April 2015).
+Jones, R.J. (2011). Environmental Effects of the Cruise Tourism Boom: Sedimen Resuspension from Cruise Ships and the Possible Effects of Increased Turbidit and Sediment Deposition on Corals (Bermuda). Bulletin of Marine Science Volume 87, Number 3, 2011.
+LLDCs (Group of Landlocked developing Countries) (2011). Position Paper on th draft outcome document for UNCTAD XIII, Geneva (UNCTAD Documen TD/450).
+Merk, O., Dang, T.T. (2012). Efficiency of World Ports in Container and Bulk Cargo
+(oil, coal, ores and grain), OECD Regional Development Working Papers 2012/09, OECD Publishing, Paris.
+Newell, R.C., Seiderer, L.J., Hitchcock, D.R., (1998). The impact of dredging works i coastal waters: a review of the sensitivity to disturbance and subsequen recovery of biological resources on the sea bed. Oceanography and Marin Biology Annual Review 36.
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+
+Notteboom, T., Parola, F. and Satta, G. (2014). Progress Report on EU Researc Project: Synthesis of the information regarding the container transshipmen volumes (http://www.portopia.eu/wp content/uploads/2015/01/Transshipment.pdf accessed on 20 April 2015).
+Pattiaratchi, C.B., Harris, P.T. (2002). Hydrodynamic and sand transport controls o en echelon sandbank formation: an example from Moreton Bay, easter Australia. Journal of Marine Research 53.
+Rodrigue, J. (2010). Maritime Transportation: Drivers for the Shipping and Por Industries, in International Transport Forum 2010 “Transport and Innovation Unleashing the Potential” http://www. internationaltransportforum.org/Proceedings/Genoa2010/Rodrig e.pdf (accessed 29 November 2013).
+Saturday Paper (2014). Great Barrier Reef dredging goes to federal court, 29 March http://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/environment/2014/03/29/great barrier-reef-dredging-goes-federal-court/1396011600 (accessed 3 Decembe 2014).
+UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2008). Outcom of the meeting “Globalization of port logistics: opportunities and challenges fo developing countries” (UNCTAD document TD/419).
+UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2013). Review o Maritime Transport, Geneva (ISBN 978-92-1-112872-7).
+World Bank (2012). Quality of Port Infrastructure http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IQ.WEF.PORT.XQ (accessed 14 Januar 2014).
+WSC (World Shipping Council) (2014). Top 50 World Container Ports http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world container-ports (accessed 20 October 2014).
+Zetland (1974). Zetland County Council Act (1974 c. viii).
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data/datasets/onu/Chapter_19.txt

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+Chapter 19. Submarine Cables and Pipelines
+Group of Experts: Alan Simcock (Lead member)
+1. Submarine communications cables
+1.1 Introduction to submarine communications cables
+In the last 25 years, submarine cables have become a dominant element in th world’s economy. It is not too much to say that, without them, it is hard to see ho the present world economy could function. The Internet is essential to nearly al forms of international trade: 95 per cent of intercontinental, and a large proportio of other international, internet traffic travels by means of submarine cables. This i particularly significant in the financial sphere: for example, the SWIFT (Society fo Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication) system was_ transmittin financial data between 208 countries via submarine cables in 2010. As long ago a 2004, up to 7.4 trillion United States dollars were transferred or traded on a dail basis by cables (Rauscher, 2010). The last segment of international internet traffi that depended mainly on satellite communications was along the East coast o Africa: that was transferred to submarine cable with the opening of three submarin cables along the East coast of Africa in 2009-2012 (Terabit, 2014). Submarine cable have advantages over satellite links in reliability, signal speed, capacity and cost: th average unit cost per Mb/s capacity based on 2008 prices was 740,000 dollars fo satellite transmission, but only 14,500 dollars for submarine cable transmissio (Detecon, 2013).
+Submarine telegraph traffic by cable began between England and France in 1850 1851. The first long-term successful transatlantic cable was laid betwee Newfoundland, Canada, and Ireland in 1866. The early cables consisted of coppe wire insulated by gutta percha, and protected by an armoured outer casing. Th crucial development that enabled the modern systems was the development o fibre-optic cables: glass fibres conveying signals by light rather than electric current The first submarine fibre-optic cable was laid in 1986 between England and Belgium the first transatlantic fibre-optic cable was laid in 1988 between France, the Unite Kingdom and the United States. It was just at that time that the Internet wa beginning to take shape, and the development of the global fibre-optic network an the Internet proceeded hand in hand. The modern Internet would not have bee possible without the vastly greater communications possibilities offered by fibre optic cables (Carter et al., 2009). Over the 25 years from 1988 to 2013, an average o 2,250 million dollars a year was invested in laying 50,000 kilometres of cable a year However, this includes a great burst in the development of the global fibre-opti network that took place in 2000-2002, in conjunction with the massive interest i investment in companies based on the Internet: the so-called dot-com bubble. A the peak, in 2001, 12,000 million dollars were invested in submarine cables in on year. After the dot-com bubble burst in 2002, the cable-laying industry contracte severely, but by 2008 had recovered to what has since been a steady growth
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+(Terabit, 2014). Figures 1 and 2 show diagrammatically the transatlantic an transpacific submarine communications cables that exist. More detaile diagrammatic maps showing submarine cables in the Caribbean, the Mediterranean North-West Europe, South and East Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa can be found here http://submarine-cable-map-2014.telegeography.com/.
+Two Arctic submarine communications cables are reported to be planned, linkin Tokyo and London: one will go around the north of the Eurasian continent, th other around the north of the American continent through the North-West passage both would service Arctic communities en route. In 2012, both were planned to b in service by 2016. The link by the American route is said to be under constructio but is not now expected to be complete until 2016. The link around the Eurasia route is reported to be stalled (Hecht, 2012; Arctic Fibre, 2014; Telegeography, 2013 APM, 2015).
+Deployed international bandwidth (in other words, the total capacity of the world’ international cables) increased at a compound annual growth rate of 57 per cen between 2007 and 2011. It reached 67 Terabits per second (Tbps) in 2011, whic was six times the bandwidth in use in 2007 (11.1 Tbps). It has increased steadil since then and was estimated to be increasing to about 145 Tbps in 2014 (Detecon 2013). Submarine cable bandwidth is somewhat lower, as shown in Table 1. Th investment necessary to support this steady stream of investment is provide through consortia. The precise balance of the different interests varies from case t case, but the major players are nearly always national telecommunication Operators, internet service providers and private-sector equity investors Governments are rarely involved, except through government-owne national telecommunications operators (Terabit, 2014; Detecon, 2013).
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+Table 1. Activated Capacity on Major Undersea Routes (Tbps), 2007-2013
+South Asia  Middle East Inter continental
+Australia & Ne Zealand Intercon tinental
+Global Transoce anic Bandwidth
+(Tbps)
+Source: Terabit, 2014.
+CAGR 2007-2013
+1.2 Magnitude of the impact of submarine cables on the marine environment
+In 2007, the total route length of submarine fibre-optic cables was about 1 millio route kilometres (Carter et al., 2009). This has now extended to about 1.3 millio route kilometres, given the extensions reported in the 2014 Submarine Cable Repor (Terabit, 2014). Although these are great lengths, the breadth of the impact on th marine environment is much, much less: the diameter of the fibre-optic cables o the abyssal plain is about 17-20 millimetres — that is, the width of a typical garde hose. On the continental shelf, the width of the cable has to be greater — about 28 50 millimetres — to allow for the extra armour to protect it from impacts an abrasion in these more dynamic waters and the greater threats from shipping and
+bottom trawling (Carter et al., 2009).
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+The cable is normally buried in the seabed if the water depth is less than 1,000-1,50 metres and the seabed is not rocky or composed of highly mobile sand. This is t protect the cable against other users of the sea, such as bottom trawling. Know areas where mineral extraction or other uses are likely to disturb the seabed ar avoided. In greater water depths, the cable is normally simply laid on the seabe (Carter et al., 2009). Where a cable is buried, this is normally done by a ploug towed by the cable ship that cuts a furrow into which the cable is fed. In a soft t firm sedimentary seabed, the furrow will usually be about 300 millimetres wide an completely covered over after the plough has passed. On other substrates, th furrow may not completely refill. The plough is supported on skids, and the tota width of the strip disturbed may be between two and eight metres, depending o the type of plough used. Various techniques have been used to minimis disturbance in specially sensitive areas: on the Frisian coast in Germany, a speciall designed vibrating plough was used to bury a cable through salt marshes (recover was monitored and the salt-marsh vegetation was re-established in one to two year and fully recovered within five years); in Australia, cables crossing seagrass bed were placed in narrow slit trenches (400 millimetres wide), which were late replanted with seagrass removed from the route prior to installation; in the Puge Sound in Washington State in the USA, cables were installed in conduits drilled unde a seagrass bed. Mangroves are reported to have recovered within two to seve months, and physical disturbance of sandy coasts subject to high-energy wave an tide action is reported to be removed within days or weeks. Where burial has no been possible, it has sometimes been necessary to impose exclusion zones and t monitor such zones (as between the North and South Islands of New Zealand (Carte et al., 2009)).
+Further disturbance will occur if a cable failure occurs. Areas of cable failure ar likely to have already been disturbed by the activity that caused the cable failure Normally, the cable will have to be brought to the surface for repair. This will involv the use of a grapnel dragged across the seabed, unless a remotely operated robo submarine can be used. Reburial of the cable may involve agitating the sediment i which it has been buried. This disturbance will mobilise the sediment over a strip u to 5 metres wide. Fibre-optic cables have a design life of 20-25 years, after whic the cable will need to be lifted and replaced, with a recurrence of the disturbance although there is also the possibility of leaving them in place for use for purposes o scientific research (Carter et al., 2009; Burnett et al., 2014).
+Evaluating the impact on marine animals and plants of this disturbance is not easy since the area affected, though long, is narrow. In general, the verdict is that th seabed around a buried cable will have returned to its normal situation within a most four years. In waters over 1,000-1,500 metres deep (where burial is unusual) no significant disturbance of the marine environment has been noted, although an repairs will disturb the plants and animals that may grow on the cable. Such growt is common on exposed cables in shallow calm water, but is limited in water depth greater than 2000 metres, where biodiversity and macrofaunal abundance are muc reduced (Carter et al., 2009). Some noise disturbance may be caused by the proces of laying cables, but this is not significantly more than would be caused by ordinar shipping (OSPAR, 2008).
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+1.3 Threats to communications cables from the marine environment
+Soon after transoceanic communications cables were laid, problems wer experienced from impacts of the marine environment on the cables: specifically submarine earthquakes and landslides breaking the cables (Milne, 1897). However around 70 per cent of all cable failures are associated with external impacts cause by fishing and shipping in water depths of less than 200 metres (Carter et al., 2009).
+Nevertheless, the risks of damage through catastrophic geological events (includin those triggered by storms) are real, and some aspects of such risks are probabl growing (see the discussion of the effects of climate change on storms in Chapter 5) The most recent major events have been near the Taiwan Province of China. On 2 December 2006, an earthquake occurred at the south end of the island. Thi triggered multiple submarine landslides. The landslides and subsequent turbidit currents travelled over 330 kilometres and caused 19 breaks in seven cable systems Damage was located in water depths to 4,000 metres. The cable repair work involved 11 repair vessels and took 49 days. The result was a major disruption o services in the whole region: the internet connections for China, Japan, Philippines Singapore and Viet Nam were seriously impaired. Banking, airline bookings, emai and other services were either stopped or delayed and financial markets and genera commerce were disrupted (Detecon, 2013; Carter et al., 2014).
+Three years later, Typhoon Morakot hit the island of Taiwan Province of China, on  August 2009. Three metres of rain fell on the central mountains, causing muc erosion. The sediment carried into sea caused several submarine landslides whic broke a number of cables. The level of disruption was shorter and less serious tha in 2006. This case is particularly significant, however, because it was the result of a extreme weather event. Given the consensus that climate change is causing th poleward migration of storms, areas that have previously been spared this kind o event are more likely in future to suffer from such storms. This is likely to increas the chances of submarine landslides, since an instability will be introduced into area where it has not previously been generated (Carter et al., 2012).
+The seas off East Asia present a combination of a very dense network of submarin communications cables (see the diagrammatic map in http://submarine-cable-map 2014.telegeography.com/) and an area of unstable geology. The scale of disruptio that might be caused, either by a geological incident or by a vessel, can be envisage by considering the Straits of Malacca. Fourteen of the 37 main submarine cables i the Western Pacific run through this narrow strait. These cables represent virtuall the entire data connection between Asia, India, the Middle East and Europe. I addition, it is one of the busiest shipping routes worldwide. This drastically increase the likelihood of disruptions by anchors and other manmade hazards. Suc disruptions unfortunately do happen regularly (Detecon, 2013). This, and th situation on the Isthmus of Suez, is one of the main attractions in a submarine cabl route from the Pacific to the Atlantic around the north of either the American or th Eurasian continent. There is further a risk from deliberate human interference, bu statistically this is a rare event (Burnett et al., 2014).
+The International Cable Protection Committee Ltd. (ICPC) is a non-profit organization
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+that facilitates the exchange of technical, legal and environmental informatio concerning submarine cable installation, maintenance and protection. It has ove 150 members representing telecommunication and power companies, governmen agencies and scientific organizations from more than 50 countries, and encourage cooperation with other users of the seabed. It is thus the main forum in which issue about the protection of these submarine cable connections, vital to globa commerce, are being discussed.
+1.4 Information and capacity-building gaps
+A large body of knowledge already exists about the construction and operation o submarine communication cables, including how to survey environmentall acceptable routes and allow for the submarine geology. Coastal States need acces to these skills to decide on safe locations and to take account of areas of potentia geological change and disruption, or (at least) to negotiate successfully wit commercial undertakings planning to install cables.
+As with many other uses of the marine environment that involve uses of the seabe within their jurisdictions that may prevent or limit other legitimate uses of the sea States need to have the capacities, in taking decisions on submarine cables, fo resolving the conflicting demands of these uses with the other parties involved.
+2. Submarine power cables
+2.1 The nature and magnitude of submarine power cables
+The number and extent of submarine cables carrying power rather tha communications are much less significant, both in terms of their impact on th marine environment and in their importance to the world economy. They ar essentially of only local interest.
+Most of the world’s submarine power cables are found in the waters around Europe The cables fall into one of two classes, depending on whether the electricity i carried as direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). The choice depends o several factors, including the length of the submarine cable and the transmissio capacity needed: DC cables are preferred for longer distances and highe transmission capacities. DC cables can be either monopolar (when the curren returns through the sea water) or bipolar (when the cable has two components wit opposite polarities). Because monopolar DC cables tend to produce electrolysis they are now rarely used for major projects.
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+United States
+Ay Gulf o pe Mexico
+Brazil
+Sout Atlanti Ocean
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 1. Diagrammatic map of transatlantic submarine cables. Source: Telegeography, 2014.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+Last updated on November 9, 2014
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 2. Diagrammatic map of transpacific submarine cables. Source: Telegeography, 2014.
+The AC cables include those between the mainland of Germany and its island o Heligoland, between Italy and its island of Sicily, between Spain and Morocco between Sweden and the Danish island of Bornholm and, outside Europe, betwee the islands of Cebu, Negros and Panay in the Philippines. The DC cables includ cables linking the Danish islands of Lolland, Falster and Zealand to Germany Denmark to Norway, Denmark to Sweden, Estonia to Finland, Finland to Sweden France to the United Kingdom, Germany to Sweden, the Italian mainland to its islan of Sardinia and to the French island of Corsica, the Netherlands to Norway (at 58 kilometres, this is the longest submarine power cable in the world), the Netherland to the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland to Scotland in the United Kingdom of Grea Britain and Northern Ireland and the mainland of Sweden to its island of Gotland Outside Europe, there are DC cables linking the mainland of Australia to its island o Tasmania, the mainland of Canada to its Vancouver Island, Honshu to Shikoku i Japan, the North Island to the South Island in New Zealand and Leyte to Luzon in th Philippines.’ As can be seen, all these cables (with the exception of th Netherlands/Norway cable) cross fairly narrow stretches of water. They play  locally important part in managing electricity supply, enabling surpluses in on country or area to be transferred to another, or to enable an island to benefit fro the economies of scale in power generation through a link to power stations serving
+1 This list has been compiled from a variety of sources.
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+a much bigger area. The links between Denmark, Norway and Sweden play a important role in the common power policy of those three States.
+2.2 Environmental impacts of submarine power cables
+The disturbance of the marine environment caused by the installation of a powe cable will usually be larger than that for a communications cable, simply because th cable will be larger, in order to carry the current. However, neither the physica disturbance nor the associated noise is likely to have more than a temporary effect.
+The other two aspects that have given rise to concern are heat and electromagneti fields. There are few empirical studies of heat emitted from submarine powe cables. AC cables are theoretically likely to emit more heat than DC cables Calculations for the cable from the Australian mainland through the Bass Strait t Tasmania suggested that the external surface temperature of the cable would reac about 30°C-35°C. The seabed surface temperature directly overlying the cable wa expected to rise by a few degrees Celsius at a burial depth of 1.2 metres. Reading taken at a Danish wind farm in 2005 showed that, for a 132 kV cable, the highes temperature recorded closest to the cable between March and September wa 17.7°C. German authorities have set a precautionary standard for new cables suc that the cables should not raise the temperature at a depth of 20 cm in the seabe by more than 22C. This can be achieved by burying the cables at an appropriat depth (OSPAR, 2008).
+Concerns have been raised about the effects of the electromagnetic fields generate by the electric current flowing along submarine power cables, since some fish an marine mammals have been shown to be sensitive to either electric fields o magnetic fields. The World Health Organization, however, concluded in 2005 tha “none of the studies performed to date to assess the impact of undersea cables o migratory fish (e.g. salmon and eels) and [on] all the relatively immobile faun inhabiting the sea floor (e.g. molluscs), have found any substantial behavioural o biological impact” (WHO, 2005). A literature survey in 2006 reached a simila conclusion (Acres, 2006), and nothing had emerged by the 2010 European Unio report on the implementation of the EU Marine Strategy Directive to cast doubt o those conclusions (Tasker et al., 2010).
+2.3 Knowledge and capacity-building gaps
+As with communications cables, coastal States need to have access to the skills t locate submarine power cables in a safe and environmentally acceptable way, and t evaluate the economic and social benefits of introducing such links.
+3. Submarine Pipelines
+3.1 The nature and magnitude of submarine pipelines
+Submarine pipelines are used for transporting three main substances: gas, oil and
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+water. Submarine gas and oil pipelines fall into three groups: intra-field pipelines which are used to bring the oil or gas from well-heads to a point within the operatin field for collection, processing and onward transport; export pipelines, whic transport the gas and oil to land; and transport pipelines, which have no necessar connection with the operating field, but transport gas or oil between two places o land. The last category is often included with the export pipelines. The intra-fiel and export pipelines are discussed in Chapter 21 as part of the processes o extracting the oil and gas. This section is concerned only with the transpor pipelines. In general, what is said about submarine pipelines in Chapter 21 applies t gas and oil transport pipelines.
+Submarine transport pipelines are used mainly for the transport of gas and ar located predominantly around the Mediterranean and the Baltic and North Seas Many have been created since 2000. In the Mediterranean, the earliest gas pipelin was the Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline, built in 1983 to link Algeria and the Italia mainland, via Sicily. This was followed in 1996 by the Maghreb-Europe Pipeline t link Morocco and Spain across the Strait of Gibraltar. Subsequent Mediterranea pipelines are: the Greenstream Pipeline, built in 2004 between Libya and Sicily, th interconnector built in 2007 between Greece and Turkey, the link completed in 200 between Arish in Egypt and Ashkelon in Israel (which has been out of service sinc 2012), and the Medgaz Pipeline built in 2011 between Algeria and Spain. Furthe north, a link was built between Scotland and Northern Ireland in the United Kingdo in 1996. An interconnector was built between Belgium and the United Kingdom i 1998. The Balgazand/Bacton Line (BBL) connected the Netherlands and the Unite Kingdom in 2006. Finally, the Nord Stream Pipeline was completed in 2011 and 201 through the Baltic, between Vyborg in the Russian Federation and Kiel in Germany This is the longest gas transport pipeline in the world (1,222 kilometres in length) Issues about its environmental impact bulked large in the negotiations leading to it construction, and particular problems were encountered over munitions dumped i the Baltic at the end of the Second World War (see Chapter 24 (Solid wast disposal)).2 There are also a number of gas pipelines linking Norwegian ga production to its export markets. The Norwegian upstream gas transportatio system has been developed from the 1970s, and continues to develop, to cater fo the transportation of natural gas produced on the Norwegian continental shelf Norwegian domestic consumption of natural gas is limited. Almost all the ga produced is exported (101,000 million standard cubic metres) to European ga markets through landing terminals in Belgium, France, Germany and the Unite Kingdom. The pipeline network in 2014 forms a 7,980-kilometre integrate transportation system, transporting gas from nearly 60 offshore fields and thre large gas processing plans on the Norwegian mainland, to European gas markets The latest main addition to the system is the Langeled Pipeline, opened in 2007 which goes from the onshore processing plant in Norway for the Ormen Lange ga field to the United Kingdom, via a riser platform at the Sleipner field.
+Outside Western Europe and the Mediterranean, there is a gas pipeline linking th Russian Federation and Turkey across the South-Eastern corner of the Black Sea, and
+? This list has been compiled from a variety of sources.
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+one linking the island of Sakhalin to the mainland of the Russian Federation in th North-West Pacific. Oil transport pipelines exist between Indonesia and Singapor across the Strait of Malacca, and in China, linking the island of Hainan to Hong Kong. Generally, these submarine transport pipelines have been built and financed by oi and gas operators (including national oil and gas companies), sometimes i consortiums with national gas distribution undertakings.
+3.2 Environmental impacts of oil and gas pipelines
+The environmental impacts of intra-field and export submarine pipelines ar discussed in Chapter 21 (Offshore hydrocarbon industries). The impacts of oil an gas submarine transport pipelines are essentially the same.
+3.3 Submarine water pipelines
+Because of the high cost and maintenance difficulties, submarine pipelines are onl used to supply small islands close to continents or larger islands where the natura water supplies of the islands are insufficient for their needs. The supply of water t Singapore from Malaysia is the only significant international example (PUB, 2014) Domestic examples include: China (where Xiamen Island receives some of its wate from the mainland through 2.3 kilometres of submarine pipelines), Fiji (wher several small islands with tourism resorts are supplied through submarine pipelines) Malaysia (where Penang receives some of its water supply from the Malaysia mainland through 3.5 kilometres of submarine pipelines), the Seychelles (where fiv small islands are supplied through submarine pipelines of up to 5 kilometres i length) and, most significantly, in Hong Kong, China (where water is supplied t some of the islands, including the densely populated Hong Kong Island, from th Chinese mainland, through 1.3 kilometres of submarine pipelines) (UNESCO, 1991).
+3.4 Knowledge and capacity-building gaps
+For oil and gas transport pipelines, the requirements are likely to arise from th overall planning of the exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves and the provision of ga services. The comments in Chapter 21 on this subject are therefore relevant.
+For submarine water pipelines, the essential questions will be linked to the plannin and implementation of freshwater supply services. Questions of access t information and the necessary skills need to be addressed in that context. As wit the laying of submarine communication cables, in taking decisions on submarin water pipelines within their jurisdictions, States need to have the capacities fo resolving the conflicting demands of these uses.
+3 woe . :  This information has also been compiled from a variety of sources.
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+References
+Acres, H. (2006). Literature Review: Potential electromagnetic field (EMF) effects o aquatic fauna associated with submerged electrical cables. Supplement t the Environmental Assessment Certificate (EAC) Application for th Vancouver Island Transmission Reinforcement (VITR) Project. Prepared for B Hydro Environment & Sustainability Engineering, Victoria BC.
+Arctic Fibre (2014). www.arcticfibre.com (accessed 10 November 2014).
+APM (Alaska Public Media). (2015). “Arctic Fiber Project Delayed Into 2016 (http://www.alaskapublic.org/2014/12/23/arctic-fiber-project-delayed-into 2016/ accessed 10 June 2015).
+Burnett, D.R., Beckman, R.C. and Davenport, T.M. (eds.), (2014). Submarine Cables The Handbook of Law and Policy, Nijhoff, Leiden (Netherlands) and Bosto (USA) (ISBN 978-90-04-26032-0).
+Carter, L., Burnett, D. Drew, S. Marle, G. Hagadorn, L. Bartlett-McNeil, D., and Irvine N. (2009). Submarine Cables and the Oceans — Connecting the World. UNEP WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31. ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC, Cambridg (England.
+Carter, L., Milliman, J.D., Talling, P.J., Gavey, R., and Wynn, R.B. (2012). Near synchronous and delayed initiation of long run-out submarine sediment flow from a record-breaking river flood, offshore Taiwan, Geophysical Researc Letters, Volume 39, 12, doi:10.1029/2012GL051172.
+Carter, L., Gavey, R. Talling, P.J. and Liu, J.T. (2014). Insights into submarin geohazards from breaks in subsea telecommunication cables. Oceanograph 27(2).
+Detecon (2013). Detecon Asia-Pacific Ltd, Economic Impact of Submarine Cabl Disruptions, prepared for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Policy Suppor Unit (Document APEC#213-SE-01.2).
+Hecht, J. (2012). Fibre optics to connect Japan to the UK — via the Arctic, Ne Scientist, 2856.
+Milne, J. (1897). Sub-Oceanic Changes: Section III, The Geographical Journal, Vol 10(3).
+OSPAR (2008). OSPAR Commission, Background Document on potential problem associated with power cables other than those for oil and gas activities London.
+PUB (Singapore Public Utilities Board) (2014). The Singapore Water Story Water From Vulnerability to Strength http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/Pages/singaporewaterstory.aspx (accessed 2 October 2014).
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
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+Rauscher, K. F. (2010). ROGUCCI — Reliability of Global Undersea Cabl Communications Infrastructure — Report. IEEE Communications Society, Ne York, USA.
+Tasker, M.L., Amundin, M., Andre, M., Hawkins, A., Lang, W., Merck, T. Scholik-Schlomer, A., Teilmann, J., Thomsen, F., Werner, S. and Zakharia, M (2010). Marine Strategy Framework Directive Task Group 11 Report Underwater noise and other forms of energy, Luxembourg.
+Telegeography (2013). Is dormant Polarnet project back on the agenda Telegeography (https://www.telegeography.com/products/commsupdate/articles/2013/01 28/is-dormant-polarnet-project-back-on-the-agenda/ accessed 10 Octobe 2014).
+Telegeography (2014). Submarine Cable Map 2014. Telegeograph (http://submarine-cable-map-2014.telegeography.com/ accessed 3 September 2014).
+Terabit (2014). Terabit Ltd/Submarine Telecoms Forum Inc, Submarine Cable Industry Report, Issue 3 (http://www.terabitconsulting.com/downloads/2014-submarine-cable market-industry-report.pdf accessed 20 August 2014).
+UNESCO (1991). United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization Hydrology and Water Resources of Small Islands, A Practical Guide. Studie and Reports on Hydrology No. 49, UNESCO, Paris.
+WHO (2005). World Health Organization, Electromagnetic Fields and Public Health  Effects of EMF on the Environment, (http://www.who.int/peh emf/publications/facts/envimpactemf_infosheet.pdf accessed on 2 November 2014). Geneva.
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+Chapter 22. Other Marine-Based Energy Industries
+Contributors: Amardeep Dhanju and Lars Golmen, Peyman Eghtesadi Araghi (Co Lead member), Peter Harris (Co-Lead member)
+1. Marine Renewable Energy Resources: Background
+This chapter concerns ocean processes that are viable sources of renewable energ in various forms, such as offshore wind, waves, tides, ocean currents, marin biomass, and energy from ocean thermal differences among different layers (Appiot et al., 2014). Most of these energy forms are maintained by the incoming heat fro the sun, so they represent indirect solar energy. Tidal energy is an exception, drive by the varying gravitational forces that the moon and sun exert on both the eart and its oceans (Butikov 2002). Marine renewable energy offers the potential to mee the increasing global energy demand, while reducing long-term carbon emissions Although some marine renewable energy resources are still in a conceptual stage other sources have been operational with varying degrees of technical an commercial success. The following section briefly discusses various forms of marin renewable energy sources that are currently in operation or in a demonstratio phase.
+1.1 Offshore Wind Power: Background
+Offshore wind power relates to the installation of wind turbines in large wate bodies. On average, winds blow faster and more uniformly at sea than on land, and  faster and steadier wind means less wear on the turbine components and mor electricity generated per turbine (Musial et al., 2006). The potential energy produce from wind is proportional to roughly the cube of the wind speed. As a result,  marginal increase in wind speed results in a significantly larger amount of energ generation. For instance, a turbine at a site with an average wind speed of 25 km/ would provide roughly 50 per cent more electricity than the same turbine at a sit with average wind speeds of 22 km/h.
+Offshore wind power is also the most developed form of marine renewable energy i terms of technology development, policy frameworks, and installed capacity Turbine design and other project elements for offshore wind have benefite significantly from research on and experience with land-based wind energy project and offshore oil and gas development (Steen and Hansen, 2014). It is already a viabl source of renewable energy in many regions and is attracting global attentio because of its large-scale resource potential, also often close to major electrical loa centers in coastal areas. In light of these factors, offshore wind energy appears t have the greatest immediate potential for energy production, grid integration, an climate change mitigation.
+© 2016 United Nations  
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+1.2 Ocean Wave Energy: Background
+As the wind flows over the ocean, air-sea interface processes transfer some of th wind energy to the water, forming waves which store this energy as potential energ and kinetic energy (Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climat Change, 2011). The immense power of waves can be observed at the coast, wher this energy can have considerable impacts on coastal landscapes, shorelin topography, and infrastructure. Efforts are now underway to tap this resource fo electric generation using wave energy conversion (WEC) devices. WECs transfor mechanical energy from the surface motion of ocean waves or from velocit fluctuations below the surface into electrical current.
+1.3 Tidal Power: Background
+Tides are regular and predictable changes in the height of the ocean, driven b gravitational and rotational forces between the Earth, Moon, and Sun, combine with centrifugal and inertial forces. Many coastal areas experience roughly two hig tides and two low tides per day (called “semi-diurnal” tides); however in som locations there is only one tidal cycle per day (these are “diurnal” tides Specia Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change, 2011). Tidal power can b harnessed either through a barrage or through submerged tidal turbines in straits o sounds. Tidal barrages involve the use of a dam across an inlet. Sluice gates on th barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to empty throug the turbine system on the outgoing tide (U.S. EIA, 2013).
+Energy extraction using tidal barrages is derived from the potential energy create when elevation differences develop between two water bodies separated by a da or barrage, which is analogous to the way a turbine operates in a hydroelectric plan on a dammed river. Conversely, submerged tidal turbines that operate without  barrage only rely on the kinetic energy of the freely moving water. Because water i about 800 times denser than air and is more corrosive, tidal turbines must be muc sturdier than wind turbines (U.S. EIA, 2013).
+1.4 Ocean Current Energy: Background
+Ocean currents are the continuous flow of ocean waters in certain directions, drive or controlled by wind flows, salinity, temperature gradients, gravity, and the Earth’ rotation or coriolis; (U.S DOE, 2013). Although surface ocean currents are generall wind driven, most deep ocean currents are a result of thermohaline circulation —  process driven by density differences in water due to temperature (thermo) an salinity (haline) in different parts of the ocean. Currents driven by thermohalin circulation move much slower than surface currents (NOAA, 2007). Many large an powerful ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream off the east coast of the Unite States and the Kuroshio Current off the east coast of Japan, represent an enormou source of untapped energy that can be harnessed through large underwate turbines.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+1.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Background
+The OTEC system produces electricity from the natural thermal gradient of the ocea between the surface and subsurface ocean waters in tropical and subtropica regions. Heat stored in warm surface water is used to create vapor to drive a turbin and generator, and cold, deep water pumped to the surface recondenses the vapo (Avery and Wu, 1994). The OTEC heat engine is usually configured to operate as  thermodynamic Rankine vapor cycle in which a low-boiling-point working fluid (suc as ammonia) is evaporated by heat transfer from the surface seawater and produce electricity by expanding through a turbine connected to a generator. The vapo exiting the turbine is condensed with the cold deep water. This is the Closed-Cycl process. The Open-Cycle process uses expendable water/seawater as the drivin fluid, under low (<0.1 Atmosphere) pressure. After the flash evaporation of the fluid fresh, potable water may be collected on the condensers, while new seawater i being evaporated upstream. Additional freshwater may be collected in a secon exchanger utilizing the remaining Delta-T after the first stage. Thus, the Open-Cycl process generates both electricity and potable water.
+The OTEC systems have been demonstrated to work successfully, but no large-scal plant has been built yet. A benefit of OTEC is that it produces constant base-loa electricity, in contrast to other forms of ocean energy sources that fluctuat according to varying winds and currents.
+1.6 Osmotic Power: Background
+Salinity gradient energy is an often-overlooked potential source of renewable energ from the ocean. The mixing of freshwater and seawater that occurs where rivers an streams flow into the salty ocean releases large amounts of energy. Various concept on how to make use of this salinity gradient have existed for over twenty years. On such concept is Pressure-Retarded Osmosis (PRO), in which seawater is pumped int a pressure chamber where the pressure is less than the osmotic pressure differenc between fresh river water (low salinity water) and seawater (higher salinity water) Freshwater then flows through a semi-permeable membrane and increases th volume (or pressure) within the chamber; a turbine is spun as the pressure i relieved. Early technologies were not considered to be promising, primarily becaus they relied on expensive membranes. Membrane technologies have advanced, bu they remain the main technical barrier to economical osmotic energy productio (Appiott et al., 2014). Also, water on both sides must be low in particulates and othe solids, eliminating many rivers from being a potential freshwater source.
+1.7. Marine Biomass Energy: Background
+Some researchers are looking towards marine biomass, including seaweeds an marine algae as a viable source of biofuel. Interest in marine biomass is driven bot by the potential productivity of microalgae, which is tenfold greater than that o agricultural crops, and because, unlike first-generation biofuels, microalgae do no require arable land or freshwater, nor do they compete with food production (NERC 2014). Marine ecosystems are highly productive because they cycle energy and
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+nutrients much more rapidly and efficiently than terrestrial ecosystems. Marin algae are photosynthetic aquatic plants that use light as the energy source an seawater as a growth medium. Algae can be harvested and processed into biofuels including biodiesel and bioethanol.
+Biodiesel is a non-toxic and biodegradable fuel that is being used in existing diese engines without requiring significant modification. Bioethanol can also be used a fuel when mixed with gasoline. Algae grown for biofuels can also provide a sink fo carbon dioxide, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation (replacing fossi CO, with biogenic CO2 emissions). Algae are an economical choice for biodiese production because of their wide availability and low cost. Despite these advantages however, offshore production of algae is still developing and most algae productio takes place onshore.
+2. Resource Assessment and Installed Capacity (Global and Regional Scales)
+2.1 Offshore Wind Capacity
+An assessment of the world’s exploitable offshore wind resources has placed th estimates around 22 TWa’ (Arent et al., 2012) which is approximately nine time greater than the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 2010 estimate of average globa electricity generation (IEA, 2012). According to a report by the United State National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), offshore wind resource potential fo contiguous United States and Hawaii for annual average wind speeds greater tha 7.0 m/sec and at 90 m above the surface is 4,150 GWa (Schwartz et al., 2010) Similarly, a report by the European Environmental Agency (EEA) calculated th technical offshore wind power potential, based on the forecasted costs o developing and running wind power projects in 2020 at 2,850 GWa (EEA, 2009). Thi figure does not account for spatial use conflicts in developing the wind resourc offshore.
+As of 2012, large-scale commercial offshore wind projects and demonstration-scal or pilot projects are already operational in the Belgium, China, Denmark, Finland Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Republic of Korea Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Unite States of America (EWEA, 2008; RenewableUK, 2010; 4C Offshore, 2013; WWEA 2014). Currently, the North Sea region is considered to be the global leader i offshore wind, both in installed and planned capacity and in technical capability. B the end of 2013, the offshore wind industry has achieved a cumulative globa installed capacity of 7,357 MW (WWEA, 2014). Offshore wind turbines can be eithe bottom-mounted or floating. Currently, most offshore wind projects are bottom mounted; floating wind turbines are still in the demonstration phase. Moreover most installations are near the shore in relatively shallow waters due to the higher
+* TWa: The average number of terawatt-hours, not terawatts, over a specified time period. Fo example, over the course of one year, an average terawatt is equal to 8,760 terawatt-hours, or 2 hours x 365 days x 1 terawatt.
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+cost of transmission cabling further offshore, and due to the technical and economi challenges of installing turbines in deeper waters.
+Figure 1. Photo credit: Principle Power. The WindFloat Prototype (WF1) floating wind turbine deployed by Principle Power in 2011, 5km off the coast of Agucadoura, Portugal. The WF1 is outfitte with a Vestas v80 2.0 MW offshore wind turbine. As of December 2015, the system has produced i excess of 16 GWh of renewable energy delivered to the local grid.
+2.2 Wave Energy Capacity
+The global exploitable wave energy resource is estimated at around 3,700 GW (M@grk et al., 2010), which is large enough to meet the average global electri generation (IEA, 2012). Wave energy can be harnessed using either floating or fixe conversion devices. Floating devices convert the wave energy by coupling it to  hydraulic system as the device is lifted up and down by the movements of the waves Fixed devices generally use the oscillating water column generated by the wave t push air (or water) through a turbine. Other types of wave energy technology, suc as overtopping devices and attenuators, are also undergoing testing an demonstration.
+The world’s first grid-connected wave energy device, a 500 kW unit in Scotlan (United Kingdom) called the Islay Limpet, has been operating successfully since 200 (UKDTI, 2004). The Agugadoura Wave Farm, the world’s first utility-scale wav energy project, was launched off the coast of Portugal in September 2008. Thi installation, developed by PelamisWave Power, utilized three 750 kW devices with  total capacity of 2.25 MW (RenewableUK, 2010). The project operated for tw months before technical problems forced the developers to abandon it.
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+Figure 2. Waves4power OWC plant in operation offshore Sweden (Reprinted with permission fro Waves4power AB).
+2.3 Tidal Energy Capacity
+The global tidal energy resource is estimated to be 3,000 GWa by the World Offshor Renewable Energy Report 2004-2008 (UK DTI, 2004), however, less than 3 per cen of this energy is located in areas suitable for power generation. Tidal energy i feasible only where strong tidal flows are amplified by factors such as funneling i estuaries, making it highly site-specific (UK DTI, 2004). Traditionally, tidal energy ha been harnessed using large barrages in areas of high tidal ranges. Many countries such as Canada, China, France, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation and the Unite Kingdom have sites with large tidal ranges that are viable for tidal energy captur facilities. The Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in the Republic of Korea, which ha been operational since August 2011, is the world’s largest tidal power barrage with  capacity of 254 MW, surpassing the 240 MW Rance Tidal Power Station in France which has been generating power since 1967. Numerous projects have also bee proposed in other areas, including in the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom (Hall 2012).
+As part of its technology development initiative, the United States Department o Energy (US DOE) has funded research into several new types of technology, includin a turbine under development by Verdant Power Inc. Verdant Power was the firs company in the United States of America to be granted a license for a commercia tidal energy project, and looks to build upon an earlier demonstration project in Ne York’s East River with an installation of up to 30 turbines along the strait tha connects Long Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean in the New York harbour.
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+2.4 Ocean Current Energy Capacity
+There are no commercial grid-connected turbines currently operating, although  number of prototypes and demonstration units are under development. In 2014 the United States Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) issued a lease t Florida Atlantic University (FAU) for testing ocean current turbines. FAU’s Southeas National Marine Renewable Energy Center (SNMREC) plans to deploy experimenta demonstration devices in areas located 10 to 12 nautical miles offshore Florid (Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 2014).
+2.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Capacity
+OTEC technologies have been tested as early as the 1930s. However, OTEC has bee limited to small-scale pilot projects, and has yet to encourage much investment an commercial development (US DOE, 2008). Research initiatives in the France, India Japan and United States of America and elsewhere are currently examining an testing different types of OTEC technologies (Lockheed Martin Corporation, 2012).  modern-type, but very small OTEC plant was constructed in Hawaii, United States, i 1979 (Kullenberg et al., 2008), and similar demonstration projects have bee proposed by other nations (IOES, 2015). Most experience is derived from land-base plants. For floating installations, reference material is mostly derived from desig studies, but with successful demonstrations in Hawaii (MiniOTEC, OTEC-1) an Okinawa, Japan (OTEC Okinawa, 2014).
+2.6 Osmotic Power Capacity
+The world’s first complete prototype osmotic power plant was launched in Norwa in 2009 by Statkraft. This plant is located in Tofte, southwest of Oslo. According t the company’s assessment, osmotic-power technologies remain several years awa from commercial viability (Kho, 2010). Statkraft recently (2014) decided to shelv development plans.
+2.7 Marine Biomass Energy Capacity
+Research into algae production has largely been guided down three tracks: open an covered ponds, photobioreactors, and fermenters; the first two are the most widel pursued. Siting algae farms in ocean areas has also been investigated (Lane, 2010). I the United States, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) i investigating the feasibility of growing algae in floating photobioreactors on th outer (geomorphic) continental shelf or in the open ocean. The Offshore Membran Enclosures for Growing Algae (OMEGA) system would use freshwater algae an wastewater in the photobioreactors to produce biofuel while also cleanin wastewater, creating oxygen, and providing a sink for carbon dioxide (NASA, 2012) As the technology is developed further and States with favourable growin conditions begin to look towards marine renewable energy, this option may becom commercially viable in the future.
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+3. Environmental Benefits and Impacts from Offshore Renewable Energ Development
+Marine renewable energy installation and generation invariably has environmenta impacts, both positive and negative. These impacts depend on the installation siz and footprint, location, and the use of specific technology. A major positive impact o ocean renewable energy is the provision of low-carbon electricity. Analysis suggest that the carbon intensity of offshore wind and marine hydrokinetic resources, suc as wave and tidal power, is more than an order of magnitude lower than fossil fue generation. In a life cycle analysis, greenhouse gas emissions from wave energ projects average between 13-50 gCO2eq/kWh?, tidal current projects emi approximately 15 gCO,eq/kWh, and offshore wind projects between 4- gCO2eq/kWh (Raventos et al., 2010); these are to be compared with emissions close to 800-1000 gCO2eq/kWh for coal power plants and 400-600 gCO2eq/kWh fo natural gas power plants (POST, 2006 and 2011).
+Other environmental benefits include no emissions of toxic air or water pollutant (such as NO, [Nitrogen dioxide], SO, [sulfur dioxide], mercury, particulate matter and thermal pollution from cooling water discharge) and minimal land-us disturbance with the exception of land-use changes related to assembly, equipmen loading/offloading and cable landfalls along the coast. In addition, there ar potential biodiversity benefits from the installation of offshore turbines or marin energy conversion devices. Offshore renewable energy (ORE) structures increase th amount of hard substrate for colonization and provide marine organisms wit artificial reefs. Such structures also create increased heterogeneity in the area: this i important for maintaining species diversity and density (Langhamer, 2012) Investigations have found greater fish abundance in the vicinity of offshore turbine compared to the surrounding areas (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006). One negative impac is that invasive species can find new habitats in these artificial reefs and possibl adversely influence the native habitats and associated environment (Langhamer 2012).
+The broader environmental impacts from marine renewable energy can b understood in the context of an ecological risk assessment framework developed b the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This approach provides  conceptual model for developing a systematic view of possible ecological effect (McMurray, 2008). The terminology needed for this model requires definin stressors and receptors. Stressors are features of the environment that may chang due to installation, operation, or decommissioning of the facilities, and receptors ar ecosystem elements with a potential for some form of response to the stressor(s (Boehlert and Gill, 2010). Stressors can be considered in terms of different stages o development (survey, construction, operation, and decommissioning) as well as th duration, frequency, and intensity of the disturbance. Project size and scale are also
+2 gCO2eq/kWh : grams of CO, equivalent per kilowatt hour of generation.
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+determining factors in the magnitude of stressors and receptors. Within thi framework, we discuss various ecological impacts in the following sections.
+Potential negative impacts on flora and fauna including marine mammals, birds, an benthic organisms, as well as impacts on the larger ecosystem may occur fro offshore renewable energy (OREI) development. Some of these impacts are limite to the construction phase, while other impacts span operation and decommissionin phases (Linley et. al., 2009). Potential impacts include habitat loss or degradation a various stages of a project life cycle; injurious noise and displacement of marin mammals from pile driving of wind and tidal-stream generators. Tide powe turbines may also induce local seabed scouring and/or changes to the curren regime, with unintended consequences for biota. Turbine construction may induc mortality due to physical collision with the ORE! structures; effects of operationa noise; and electromagnetic field (EMF) impacts from submerged cables (U.S Department of Interior, 2011).
+Noise created during pile-driving operations involves sound pressure levels that ar high enough to impair hearing in marine mammals and disrupt their behaviour at  considerable distance from the construction site (Thomsen et. al., 2006). During pil driving for the Horns Rev II offshore wind project in Denmark, a negative effect wa detected out to a distance of 17.8 km (Brandt et. al, 2011). Although it has bee observed that marine mammals temporarily abandon the construction area, the tend to return once pile driving operations cease. Acoustic impact on marin mammals is a major concern and an important topic of assessment and mitigatio strategies in many States. More information is required almost everywhere t understand impacts on and responses by marine organisms to such stresses.
+Fixed and moving parts of Ocean Renewable Energy (ORE) devices can lead to fata strikes or collisions with birds and aquatic fauna. Blades used in marine turbines such as those in ocean current or tidal energy devices, are relatively slow-movin and therefore not considered to pose a significant threat to wildlife (Scott an Downie, 2003). However the speed of the tip of some horizontal axis rotors could b an issue for cetaceans, fish, or diving strike birds (Boehlert and Gill, 2010). Operatio of the SeaGen tidal energy device in Strangford Lough, United Kingdom, considere the presence of seals and porpoises and the potential threat of blade strikes; t minimize strike risk, the turbine was shut down when the presence of seals wa observed within 30 meters (Copping et al., 2013). Similarly, investigation of long tailed geese and ducks in and around the Nysted offshore wind project in Denmar suggests that flocks employ an avoidance strategy. Research suggests that th percentage of flocks entering the wind project area decreased significantly from pre construction to initial operation. Overall, less than 1 per cent of ducks and gees migrated close enough to be at any risk of collision (Desholm and Kahlert, 2005). Thi avoidance strategy or adjustment of flight paths, a form of receptor, has also bee observed in other projects, such as Horns Rev (NERI, 2006). It is important t highlight that the additional distances travelled by migratory birds to avoid thes wind farms were relatively trivial (around 500 m) compared to their total migrator trajectory of 1,400 km. However, construction of further utility-scale projects coul have a cumulative impact on the population, especially when considered i combination with other human actions (Masden et. al., 2009).
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+Submerged cables carrying electricity from ORE devices to onshore substations emi low-frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF). Marine and avian species ar sensitive and responsive to naturally occurring magnetic fields; these are commonl used for direction-finding using the Earth’s geomagnetic field. Anthropogeni sources of EMFs are an overlay to naturally occurring sources, and as these source become increasingly common, there are potential impacts on marine organisms Industry standards for the design of submarine cables require shielding, whic restricts directly emitted electric fields, but cannot shield the magnetic fiel component of EMFs (Boehlert and Gill, 2010). Moreover, an alternating current (AC magnetic field has a rotational component that induces an additional electric field i the surrounding environment. There is evidence that EMF’s from wind farms ca cause disturbance to air traffic control radar systems (De la Vega et al., 2013).
+Magnetic fields are strongest over the cables, decreasing rapidly with vertical an horizontal distance from the cables. In projects where the electric current i delivered along two sets of cables that were separated by at least several meters the magnetic field appeared as a bimodal peak (Normandeau et al., 2011). Studie suggest that behavioural effects of EMF on species occur, although the impacts var significantly among species.
+Thermal aspects of electricity-transmission cables should also be considered. Whe electric energy is transported, a certain amount is lost as heat, leading to a increased temperature in the cable surface and subsequent warming of th surrounding marine environment (Merck and Wasserthal, 2009). Temperatur changes can affect benthic organisms, although data on measureable impacts ar sparse. Increased temperatures can also attract marine organisms, exposing them t a higher amount of EMF radiation.
+In addition, there are other potential impacts such as chemical effects from potentia spills or leaching of anti-fouling paints from ocean renewable energy device (Boehlert and Gill, 2010), or impacts on benthic creatures and certain fish specie which have not yet been fully investigated and assessed. Many such effects ar localized, depend on marine and avian biodiversity in a region and can b understood only through comprehensive site-specific environmental impac assessment. Substantial work is proceeding to gather and disseminate availabl information and data on ecological impacts of ocean energy devices. Th International Energy Agency-Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy System (OES) Annex IV? is maintaining the Tethys database, an important reference for bot developers and policy makers (http://tethys.pnnl.gov/).
+4. Socioeconomic Benefits and Impacts from Offshore Renewable Energ Deployment
+3 Annex IV. Assessment of Environmental Effects and Monitoring Efforts for Ocean Wave, Tidal an Current Energy Systems, Tethys.pnnl.gov.
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+Socioeconomic impacts cover a range of issues, including access to the ocean, visua impacts amenity, impact on coastal and offshore cultural heritage sites, and othe uses of the ocean, including recreational tourism and fisheries, related to offshor renewable energy sites. In many regions, these issues have been examined withi the context of comprehensive marine spatial planning. Marine spatial plannin provides an understanding of the extent to which certain activities take place in a area identified for offshore renewable energy development and provides a baselin assessment of critical ecological and cultural sites.
+Sociological surveys of coastal residents, ocean users and other stakeholders hav been widely used to assess perceived and experienced impacts from offshor renewable energy facilities. Survey results from two operational offshore win projects in Denmark, Hons Rev and Nysted, indicate a generally positive attitud among coastal residents (Ladenburg et al, 2006). Relative open access to the project for marine resource extraction could be a reason for high levels of public approval o the projects. Also, the visual impact of the installations may not have affected thos people who were surveyed, since wind farms have caused a loss of amenity in othe areas (see below). Both the projects provide access to sailing and fishing within thei waters. The Nysted offshore wind project provides access for fishing with net an line, Horns Rev allows only line fishing, and bottom-trawling fishing is prohibited i both projects. Fishing can be further restricted as setting of lobster traps may b limited near cables and turbines. Wave, tidal power, and ocean current energ sources have not yet been commercially deployed at a large enough scale to enabl an assessment of potential socio-economic impacts.
+The effect of impaired visual amenity from ORE deployment can affect propert prices, result in loss of recreational value, and reduce demand for tourism in coasta areas. It can also affect historic and culturally significant resources. These impact are expected to be more prominent for an offshore wind project than for a wave tidal, or ocean current installation, as the latter will be underwater and of smalle scale, for similar capacity. Research in the United Kingdom, England and Wales which have extensive offshore wind capacity, concludes that offshore wind project have a measureable impact on property prices. The impact is more pronounced i areas which are closest to the wind projects. On the other hand, a small increase i housing value is also seen in areas where wind projects are not visible, indicating  potential economic benefit to landowners near non-visible wind project operation due to an increased rental rate (Gibbons, 2014). This latest assessment is consisten with earlier published studies, which strongly suggest that, given a choice consumers prefer offshore wind projects sited away from the coast and, in som cases, completely out of sight (Ladenburg and Lutzeyer, 2012).
+Utility-scale offshore renewable energy projects can use significant ocean space an impose restrictions for navigational purposes. A large project, if placed along a existing navigational route, can increase the distance that ships and boats would b required to travel. The extent of transit through offshore renewable energy project depends on safety issues and ease of access. In Denmark, transit through offshor wind energy projects is possible via certain routes; in Germany, navigation is allowe as close as 500 meters (Albrecht et al., 2013). The International Association o Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities has promulgated
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+recommendations on how to mark different types of offshore renewable energ installations so that they are conspicuous under different meteorological conditions This, along with proper charting of installations and associated cables, can limi navigational risks (Detweiler, 2011).
+Planning, construction, and maintenance of offshore renewable energy operation have the potential to create direct and indirect employment in various sector including manufacturing, construction, operation, and maintenance. In 2013 offshore wind represented 3.6 per cent of the United Kingdom’s electricity supply contributed close to 1 billion United Kingdom pounds to the economy and supporte 20,000 jobs, including 5,000 direct jobs (Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult, 2014) As the industry continues to grow, it has the potential to add thousands of new jobs not just in the United Kingdom, but around Europe and other parts of the world tha form a critical link to the supply chain. In Europe, offshore wind energy and ocea energy create 7-9 job-years/MW‘ during construction and installation. In addition offshore wind projects can generate up to 11 job-years/MW in manufacturing, an 0.2 jobs/MW for operation and maintenance during the operational years of  project. These figures are comparable to those for conventional sources like coal although offshore wind and other marine renewable sources have no job-creatio potential related to fuel extraction, processing, and transportation for the life of  project (Energy [rJevolution, 2012).
+Above and beyond the employment generation factor, offshore renewable energ also offers other intrinsic economic and electrical system integration benefits. Fo instance, many offshore renewable energy projects are sited, or proposed, close t densely populated coastal areas. Proximity to major electrical load centres ca significantly reduce the cost of transmission and offset transmission congestion Moreover, ocean renewable sources, particularly offshore wind power, offers th additional value proposition of load coincidence in many regions (Bailey and Wilson 2014).
+5. Offshore Renewable Energy Assessment Capacity Gaps
+A capacity gap is a lack of information that, if available, would or could identif whether environmental effects [of a project] will have substantial negative impact (McMurray, 2012). In many regions, sufficient knowledge exists in the near-shor and offshore waters to provide an initial baseline assessment, although it is ofte insufficient to provide a site-specific impact assessment. Significant capacity gap exit in assessing environmental, social, and economic impacts from deployin devices in the marine environment. Most forms of ocean renewable energies hav still not reached commercial scale, although some are at a high Technologica Readiness Level (TRL).
+* Job-years per MW denote the total amount of labour needed to manufacture equipment o construct a power plant that will deliver a peak output of one megawatt of power (The Energy Polic Institute, 2013).
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+Certain marine environments and species present additional challenges i addressing capacity gaps. For instance, it is technically difficult to obtain informatio on benthic biota, as compared to species in the pelagic zone. Due to the lack of high quality benthic information, resource managers and developers are often require to conduct time-consuming and resource-extensive surveys before siting decision can be finalized. In the pelagic zone, marine migratory species pose additiona challenges for site characterization. Further site-specific research is required t understand migratory species such as whales to ensure that project siting ha minimal impact on migratory routes or traditional foraging grounds. Similarly impacts on avian species in the offshore environment, particularly migratory bir species and bats, have not been fully understood and require further research an assessment.
+In the absence of operational utility-scale projects, it is often difficult to determin the socioeconomic impacts of an emerging renewable energy technology. One wa to address such capacity gaps is to make long-term monitoring an integral part of th construction and operation phase, though if long-term monitoring regimes are to costly developers may be dissuaded from pursuing commercial projects. Studies an surveys assessing impacts before and during the operation of a project can provid valuable information on impacts, and can suggest substantive mitigation measure to address those impacts.
+The knowledge and capacity gaps should be addressed within a comprehensiv framework that considers all ecological resources and human uses in an area. Thi framework, also referred to as marine spatial planning, provides a process fo analysing and allocating spatial and temporal distribution of human activities i marine areas to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives that are usuall specified through a political process (UNESCO, 2014). States are increasingly usin marine spatial planning as the tool for identifying and siting offshore renewabl energy projects. More importantly, the collaborative processes at the heart o marine spatial planning foster relationships and linkages among ocean uses stakeholders and resources managers to enhance the quality of scientifi information and traditional knowledge available. This collaboration and informatio exchange can lead to better-informed siting decisions and can minimize social an environmental impacts.
+6. Conclusion
+Offshore renewable energy is an immense resource awaiting efficient usage Technological progress to harness the resource is steadily increasing around th world. When fully developed and implemented, ocean renewable energy ca enhance the diversity of low-carbon energy options and provide viable alternative to fossil fuel sources. For developing countries and new growing economies installing renewable energy systems represents a viable path towards a low-carbo future.
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+To achieve a commercial break-through such that ocean renewable energy become cost-competitive, many governments have funded Research and Development (R&D projects and provided financial support for technological developments an demonstrations within this sector. Traditional commercial funding sources are ofte insufficient to achieve this goal in the long-term, so innovative strategies ar required. In addition, higher education courses on ocean renewable energies mus be promoted, and research to understand and mitigate potential environmental an socio-economic impacts of these new technologies must be conducted. Given it immense potential, offshore renewable energy is well positioned to be part of  carbon-constrained energy future.
+References
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+Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) (2014). BOEM issues first renewabl energy lease for marine hydrokinetic technology testing. Retrieved fro http://www.boem.gov/press06032014/.
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+European Environmental Agency (EEA) (2009). Europe’s onshore and offshore win energy potential: An assessment of environmental and economic constraints EEA Technical report No 6/2009. Retrieved fro http://www.energy.eu/publications/a07.pdf.
+European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) (2008). Pure Power: Wind Energ Scenarios up to 2030. European Wind Energy Association. Retrieved fro http:/ www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/00_POLICY_docum nt/PP.pdf.
+Gibbons, S. (April 2014). Gone with the Wind: Valuing the visual impacts of win turbines through house prices. Spatial Economic Research Center (SERC Discussion Paper 159. Retrieved from http://docs.wind-watch.org/Gone with-wind-SERC-April-2014.pdf.
+Hall, C. (2012). Largest renewable energy projects in the World. Energy Digital Retrieved from http://www.energydigital.com/top_ten/top-10 business/largest-renewable-energy-projects-in-theworld.
+Institute of Ocean Energy (IOES) (website accessed May, 2015) Study of OTE technology in the world. Retrieved from http://www.ioes.saga u.ac.jp/en/about_oetc_03.html
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+
+International Energy Agency (IEA) (2012). Key World Energy Statistics, 2012 Retrieved fro http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf.
+Kho, J. (2010). Osmotic Power: a Primer. Retrieved fro http://www.statkraft.com/Images/Osmotic_Power_report_KACHAN_06101 %5B1%5D_tcm9-19279.pdf.
+Kullenberg, G., Mendler de Suarez, J., Wowk, K., McCole, K. and Cicin-Sain, B. (2008) Policy brief on climate, oceans, and security. In: Presented at the 4th Globa Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, April 7-11, 2008, Hanoi, Vietnam Retrieved fro http://globaloceanforumdotcom.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/climate-and oceans-pb-april2.pdf.
+Ladeburg, J. and Lutzeyer, S. (2012). The properties of visual disamenity costs o offshore wind farms — the impacts on wind farm planning and cost o generation. International Association for Energy Economics: Energy Forum Retrieved fro http://www.iaee.org/en/publications/fullnewsletter.aspx?id=23.
+Ladenburg, J., Tranberg, J. and Dubgaard, A. (2006). Chapter 8: Socioeconomi effects, in Danish offshore wind: Key environmental issues. Retrieved fro http://188.64.159.37/graphics/Publikationer/Havvindmoeller/danish_offsho e_wind.pdf.
+Lane, J. (2010). Salt water: The tangy taste of energy freedom, Biofuels Dig. Retrieve from http://www. biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2010/04/09/salt-water-the tangytaste-of-energy-freedom/.
+Langhamer, O. (2012). Artificial reef effect in relation to offshore renewable energ conversion: State of the art. The Scientific World Journal, 2012 Doi:10.1100/2012/386713.
+Linley, A., Laffont, K., Wilson, B., Elliott, M., Perez-Dominguez, R. and Burdon, D (2009). Offshore and coastal renewable energy: Potential ecological benefit and impacts of large-scale offshore and coastal renewable energy projects Retrieved fro http://web2.uconn.edu/seagrantnybight/documents/Energy%20Docs/nerc arinerenewables.1.pdf.
+Lockheed Martin Corporation (2012). Ocean Thermal Extractable Energ Visualization http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/12/f5/1055457.pdf.
+Masden, E.A., Haydon, D.T., Fox, A.D., Furness, R.W., Bullman, R. and Desholm, M (2009). Barriers to movement: impacts of wind farms on migrating birds. ICE Journal of Marine Science, 66 (4): 746-753. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsp031.
+McMurray, G. R. (2008). Wave energy ecological effects workshop: Ecologica assessment briefing paper. Pp. 25-66 in Ecological Effects of Wave Energ Development in the Pacific Northwest: A Scientific Workshop. October 11-12 2007, G.W. Boehlert, G.R. McMurray, and C.E. Tortorici, eds, NOAA Technica Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-92.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+McMurray, G.R. (2012). Gap analysis: Marine renewable energy environmenta effects on the U.S. West Coast. Oregon Marine Renewable Energ Environmental Science Conference, Corvallis, Oregon, November 28-29 2012. Retrieved from http://hmsc.oregonstate.edu/rec/gap-analysis.
+Merck, T. and Wasserthal, R. (2009). Assessment of environmental impacts of cables OSPAR Commission. Retrieved fro http://qsr2010.ospar.org/media/assessments/p00437_Cables.pdf.
+Mork, G., Barstow, S., Kabuth, A., and Pontes, M.T. (2010). Assessing the global wav energy potential. In: Proceedings of OMAE2010 29th Internationa Conference on Ocean, Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, June 6e11 Shanghai, China. Retrieved fro http://www.oceanor.no/related/59149/paper_OMAW_2010_20473 _final.p f.
+Musial, W., Butterfield, S. and Ram, B. (2006). Energy from Offshore Wind Conference paper presented at Offshore Technology Conference, Houston TX, May 1-4, 2006. Retrieved fro http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39450.pdf.
+National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (2012). OMEGA: Offshor Membrane Enclosure for Growing Algae. National Aeronautics and Spac Administration (NASA), 17 April 2012. Web. 30 August 2012. Retrieved fro http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/OMEGA/index.html.
+National Environmental Research Institute (NERI) (2006). Final result of bird studie at the offshore wind farms at Nysted and Horns Rev, Denmark. Retrieve from http://www. vattenfall.dk/da/file/69662-Horns-Rev--Nysted birds_7842547.pdf.
+National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2007). Welcome t currents. Retrieved fro http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/lessons/currents tutorial.pdf.
+National Environment Research Council (NERC) (2014). Algal bioenergy specia interest group. Retrieved fro http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/programmes/algal/background.asp?cookie onsent=A.
+Normandeau, Exponent, Tricas, T. and Gill, A. (2011). Effects of EMFs from Underse Power Cables on Elasmobranchs and Other Marine Species. U.S. Dept. of th Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, an Enforcement, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA. OCS Study BOEMRE 2011-09 Retrieved from http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFlmages/ESPIS/4/5115.pdf.
+Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult (2014). Generation energy and prosperity Economic impact study of the offshore renewable energy industry in the UK Retrieved fro https://ore.catapult.org.uk/documents/2157989/0/ORE+CatapulttUK+econ mictimpact+report/2c49a781-ffle-462f-a0c7-b25eb9478b0f eversion=1.0.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+OTEC Okinawa (2014). Retrieved from http://otecokinawa.com/en/.
+Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) (October 2006). Carbo footprint of electricity generation. (Report Number 268). Retrieved fro http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/postpn268.pdf
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+Raventos, A., Simas, T., Moura, A., Harrison, G., Thomson, C. and Dhedin, J. (2010) Life cycle assessment for marine renewables. (Deliverable D6.4.2). Retrieve from http://mhk.pnl.gov/wiki/images/e/eb/EquiMar_D6.4.2.pdf
+RenewableUK (2010). Marine Renewable Energy. RenewableUK, London. Retrieve from http://www.bwea.com/marine/resource.html.
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+Scott, W. and Downie, A.J. (2003). A review of possible marine renewable energ development projects and their natural heritage impacts from a Scottis perspective. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report FO2AA414.
+SRREN (2011). Special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Chang Mitigation). Retrieved from http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report
+Steen, M., and Hansen, G.H. (2014). Same sea, different ponds: Cross-sectiona knowledge spillovers in the North Sea. European Planning Studies, 22 (10) 2030-2049. doi: 10.1080/09654313.2013.814622.
+The Energy Policy Institute (March 2013). Employment estimates in the energ sector: Concepts, methods, and results. Retrieved fro http://epi.boisestate.edu/media/16370/employment%20estimates%20in%2 the%20energy%20sector;%20concepts%20methods%20and%20results.pdf.
+Thomsen, F., Ludemann, K., Kafemann, R. and Piper, W. (2006). Effects of offshor wind farm noise on marine mammals and fish. A report funded by COWRI Ltd. Retrieved from http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~ling/2A_EU3.pdf.
+UK Department of Trade and Industry (UK DTI) (2004). The World Offshor Renewable
+Energy Report 2004-2008. UK Department of Trade and Industry, London. Retrieve fro http://www. ppaenergy.co.uk/Insights/d,czoxMToiMzU20DY2ZGYyZDliOw== html.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+
+United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2014) Marine Spatial Planning. Retrieved from http://www.unesco-ioc marinesp.be/marine_spatial_planning_msp.
+U.S. Department of Interior (U.S. DOI) (2011). Effects of EMFs from undersea powe cables on Elasmobranchs and other marine species. OCS Study BOEMR 2011-09. Retrieved fro http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFlmages/ESPIS/4/5115.pdf.
+U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE) (2008). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversio (Updated 30 Dec 2008). U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC Available at http://www.energysavers.gov/renewable_energy/ocean/index.cfm/mytopi %50010?print.
+U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE) (2012). Turbines off NYC East River will provid power to 9,500 residents. Retrieved from http://energy.gov/articles/turbines nyc-east-river-will-provide-power-9500-residents.
+U.S Department of Energy (DOE) (2013). Assessment of energy production potentia from ocean currents along the United States coastline. Retrieved fro http://www1.eere.energy.gov/water/pdfs/energy_production_ocean_curre ts_us.pdf
+U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2013). Hydropower explained: Tida power. Retrieved fro http://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=hydropower_tidal.
+World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) (2014). Key statistics of World Wind Energ Report 2013. Retrieved fro http://www.wwindea.org/webimages/WWEA_WorldWindReportKeyFigures 2013.pdf
+Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T. and Ohman, M.C. (2006). The influence of offshor windpower on demersal fish. [CES Journal of Marine Science, 63: 775-784 doi:10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.02.001.
+© 2016 United Nations 1 
+

data/datasets/onu/Chapter_23.txt

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+Chapter 23. Offshore Mining Industries
+Contributors: Elaine Baker (Lead member and Convenor of Writing Team) Francoise Gaill, Aristomenis P. Karageorgis, Geoffroy Lamarche Bhavani Narayanaswamy, Joanna Parr, Clodette Raharimananirina, Ricardo Santos Rahul Sharma, Joshua Tuhumwire (Co-Lead member)
+Consultors: James Kelley, Nadine Le Bris, Eddy Rasolomanana, Alex Rogers Mark Shrimpton
+1. Introduction
+Marine mining has occurred for many years, with most commercial venture focusing on aggregates, diamonds, tin, magnesium, salt, sulphur, gold, and heav minerals. Activities have generally been confined to the shallow near shore (les than 50 m water depth), but the industry is evolving and mining in deeper wate looks set to proceed, with phosphate, massive sulphide deposits, manganes nodules and cobalt-rich crusts regarded as potential future prospects.
+Seabed mining is a relatively small industry with only a fraction of the know deposits of marine minerals (Figure 1) currently being exploited. In comparison terrestrial mining is a major industry in many countries (estimated to be worth i excess of 700 billion United States dollars per year, PWC, 2013). Pressure on land based resources may spur marine mining, especially deep seabed mining. However global concerns about the impacts of deep seabed mining have been escalating an may influence the development of the industry (Roche and Bice, 2013).
+The exploitation of marine mineral resources is regulated on a number of levels global, regional and national. At the global level, the most important applicabl instrument is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). It i complemented by other global and regional instruments. At the national level legislation governing the main marine extractive industries (i.e. aggregate mining may be extremely complex and governed in part by national or subnationa authorities (Radzevicius et al., 2010). As regards national legislation to regulat deep-sea mining, terrestrial mining legislation often applies to the continental shel or EEZ, rather than specific deep-sea mining legislation (EU, 2014). However man Pacific Islands States, that are gearing up for deep seabed mining have mad significant efforts to adopt concise and comprehensive domestic laws (SPC, 2014).
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+>
+ic CF Ofer  = Tees.”  F5e4 ms
+ms ce ATLANTIC OCEA us
+w oP . Red\ y ——
+‘a>  L M Sze a lg pura? Tmze Sum.
+u 5 x INDIAN OCEA a: onnnets
+PACIFIC | OCEA EQUATOR
+Coretta?
+PLATE BOUND (GEOTHERMAL PO Divergent
+~~ Convergent
+Transform faults not shown
+ARIE Pa TENTIAL)
+~A ws
+As SILVER ©» LIME MUD, SAND, SHELLS Hs. MERCURY mw NICKEL SILICEOUS SAND, UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSIT A BAUXITE ¢r CHROMITE POTASH sm PHOSPHORITE er © UNDEVELOPE so Ti
+av GOLD cu COPPER ™ MONAZITE Pt PLATINUM © DEVELOPE THORIUM
+82 BARITE © DIAMONDS Ms MASSIVE nee RARE EARTH CONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS.
+SULFIDES ELEMENTS IUMENITE, RUTILE 1D _UNDEVELOPE “4 MAGNESIUM «SALT URANIU FRESH WATE ZIRCON
+© COAL Fe IRON, MAGNETIT co COBALT-RICH  @ GEMS
+fe, FERROMANG- MANGANES " ANESE CRUST NODULES
+@ DEVELOPE s SULFUR
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 1. Global distribution of known marine mineral resources (from Rona, 2008).
+2. Scale and significance of seabed mining
+2.1 Sand and gravel extraction
+Aggregates are currently the most mined materials in the marine environment an demand for them is growing (Bide and Mankelow, 2014). Due to the low value of th product, most marine aggregate extractions are carried out at short distances fro landing ports close to the consumer base and at water depths of less than 50  (UNEP, 2014).
+In Europe, offshore sand and gravel mining is an established industry in Denmark France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom of Great Britain an Northern Ireland (Earney, 2005). Marine aggregates are also mined in the tida channels of the Yellow River China, the west coast of the Republic of Korea, tida channels between the islands south of Singapore and in a range of settings in th waters surrounding Hong Kong, China (James et al 1999). In many of the Pacifi Islands States, aggregates for building are in short supply and the mining o terrestrial sources, principally beaches, has been associated with major increases i coastal vulnerability (e.g. impacts of beach mining in Kiribati and the Marshall Island are well documented (Webb 2005, McKenzie et al 2006). Therefore, marine source of aggregates are considered as a preferred source. The Secretariat of the Pacifi Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), now part of the Secretariat of th Pacific Community, has been involved in assisting Pacific Island States in the
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+planning, development and management of sand and gravel resources, (SOPAC 2007).
+Although globally the majority of the demand for aggregates is met by aggregate extracted from land-based sources, the marine-based industry is expanding (JNCC 2014). However, no figures are available on the global scale of marine aggregat mining.
+2.1.1 Case Study: North-East Atlantic
+The Working Group on the Effects of Extraction of Marine Sediments (WGEXT) of th International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has provided yearl statistics since 1986 on marine aggregate production (ICES 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 2011, 2012, 2013; Sutton and Boyd, 2009; Velegrakis et al., 2010). Since 1995, a average of 56 million m® y* has been extracted from the seabed of the North-Eas Atlantic (Figure 2). Five countries account for 93 per cent of the total marin aggregate extraction (Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the Unite Kingdom; OSPAR, 2009). The Netherlands is the largest producer (average 27. million m? y*). There are thirteen landing ports and 17 specialist wharves in Europ (Belgium, France and the Netherlands; Highley et al., 2007).
+Total Aggregate Extraction
+56
+Millions Cubic Metre    ro g
+1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 #2005 2006 2007
+Figure 2. Total marine aggregate extraction in the OSPAR maritime area (in million m’). Data from ICES, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 (OSPAR 2009).
+The United Kingdom, one of the largest producers of marine aggregates in th region, currently extracts approximately 20 million tons of marine aggregate (san and gravel) per year from offshore sites (Figure 3). Production meets around 20 pe cent of the demand in England and Wales (Crown Estate, 2013). Around 85 per cen of the mined aggregate is used for concrete, with the remainder used for beac nourishment and reclamation. In 2010, the area of seabed dredged was 105.4 km’,
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+although 90 per cent of dredging effort was confined to just 37.63 km’. Betwee 1998 and 2007, aggregate extraction produced a dredge footprint of 620 km (BMAPA, 2014). In 2012, 23 dredging vessels were operating (BMAPA, 2014) an aggregates were landed at 68 wharves in 45 ports in England and Wales. Wharve are mainly located in specific regions where a shortfall in land-derived supplies exist and/or there are economic advantages because of river access and proximity to th market (Highley et al., 2007).
+oe
+UK and Continental Aggregat Dredging Areas
+Ml UK Dredging Areas
+Xl Continental Dredging Areas
+ OUNOALK
+ SF
+\
+oust HARLINGEN
+wewic °
+BELGIUM
+FRANCE
+ HONFLEUR
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 3. Map of the coastline showing the location of aggregate license areas in the United Kingdo and the adjacent coast of continental Europe (Newell and Woodcock, 2013).
+The European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD: 2008/56/EC requires that its Member States take measures to achieve or maintain Goo Environmental Status (GES) by 2020. The Descriptor 6 of the MSFD, referred to a “Sea-floor integrity”, is closely linked to marine aggregate extraction from th seabed — seafloor integrity is defined as a level that ensures that the structure an functions of the ecosystems are safeguarded and benthic ecosystems, in particular are not adversely affected (Rice et al., 2010). Descriptor 6 requires immediat actions from Member States to develop suitable pressure indicators (calculated fro several parameters such as the species diversity, the number of species and th proportion of different types of species in benthic invertebrate samples) and launc continuous monitoring schemes to contribute to GES achievement.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+2.1.2 Case Study: Pacific Islands - Kiribati
+The adverse effects of sand mining on the beaches (above the high water mark) o South Tarawa, the main island of Kiribati, were recognized in the 1980s. Removal o the beach sand changes the shape of the beach, increasing erosion and the island’ vulnerability to flooding from storm surges and rising sea level. As a consequence o ongoing beach mining, the EU-funded Environmentally Safe Aggregate Project fo Tarawa (ESAT) was started in 2008. A purpose-built dredge vessel, the “M Tekimarawa” was commissioned and a State-owned dredging company wa developed to provide marine aggregates for urban construction. The mined materia is processed by local people at a processing facility, used on the island for buildin material and also sold to other islands. The resource area in Tarawa Lagoon (Figur 4), which is currently being mined for coarse sand and gravel, is expected to provid aggregates for 50 to 70 years. ESAT also has a license to excavate access channels o the intertidal reef flats in Beito and Bonriki. This provides fine intertidal silt suitabl for road base.
+The introduction of marine mining in Tarawa Lagoon has not stopped illegal beac mining. Reviews have found that controlling beach mining by communities i difficult, and that trying to regulate this practice in the absence of a suitabl alternative source of revenue is next to impossible (Babinard et al., 2014).
+The shoreline and beach profile in South Tarawa has been severely altered, with th almost complete removal of the high protective berm. Mining has now moved on t other untouched beaches. It is estimated that natural recovery of damaged area will take decades (SOPAC, 2013).
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 4. Tarawa Atoll. ESAT resource area in yellow (50-70 year supply). The dot is larger than th absolute maximum surface area that could be mined in any given year (SOPAC, 2013, Figure courtes Dr. Arthur Webb).
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+2.2 Placer mining
+Placer deposits include minerals that have been concentrated by physical processes such as waves, wind and currents. Globally, diamonds dominate this sector, bu placer deposits also contain valuable minerals. Harben and Bates (1990) identify th most economically important of these minerals (and their associated elements) as cassiterite (tin), ilmenite (titanium), rutile (titanium), zircon (zirconium), chromit (chromium), monazite (thorium), magnetite (iron), gold and diamonds. About 75 pe cent of the world’s tin, 11 per cent of gold, and 13 per cent of platinum are extracte from placers (Daesslé and Fischer, 2013).
+Table 1. Principal marine placer mining activities (from Murton, 2000)
+Placer Minerals Mined locations
+Rutile and ilmenite South-east and south-west Australi Eastern South Africa
+South India
+Mozambique
+Senegal
+Brazil
+Florida
+Titanium-rich magnetite North Island, New Zealan Java, Indonesi Luzon, Philippines
+Hokkaido, Japan
+Tin Indonesian Sunda shelf, extending fro the islands of Bangka, Belitung, an Kundur
+Malaysi Thailand
+Diamonds West Coast, South Afric Namibia
+Northern Australia
+Diamond placer deposits exist in two distinct areas: a 700-km stretch along th coastal borders of Namibia and South Africa, and an area off the northern coast o Australia (Rona, 2005). Deposits off the coast of South Africa have not been activel mined since 2010 (De Beers, 2012) and Australian operations have not progressed
+© 2016 United Nations
+
+since discovery. Offshore of Namibia, five vessels operated by NAMDEB (a join partnership between the Namibian government and De Beers) currently extrac approximately 1 million carats/year (De Beers, 2007; 2012). In addition there ar diver operated mining activities conducted from smaller vessels. A report from Th World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) South Africa (Currie et al., 2008) identified  number of environmental concerns associated with offshore diamond mining. Thes included destruction of kelp beds, which provide important habitat for juvenile roc lobsters and the destruction of healthy reefs during the removal of diamondiferou gravels. The authors also suggested that the dumping of tailings back into the ocea or onto the beach (after processing) could also potentially result in the formation o land bridges from some islands to the mainland in the vicinity of islands.
+Dredging of tin placers is the largest marine metal mining operation in the worl (Scott, 2011). The tin belt, as it is called, stretches from Myanmar, down throug Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. The largest operations are offshore o Indonesia, where submerged and buried fluvial and alluvial fan deposits are mine up to 70 meters below sea level, using large dredgers. P.T. TIMAH, a state-owne enterprise, operates the official tin mine offshore of Bangka and Belitung islands Their dredges can recover more than 3.5 million cubic meters of material per mont (Timah, 2014). Numerous “informal miners” also dredge in the shallow coastal are (see Figure 5). These operations use divers to suck sediment from the seafloor usin plastic tubing connected to a diesel pump (which also pumps air to the divers). Th Indonesian islands produce 90 per cent of Indonesia's tin, and Indonesia is th world's second-largest exporter of the metal.
+Commercial production of tin began in Thailand in the late 1800s. Most of th offshore tin is located off the Malay Peninsula. The major offshore mining operation ceased in 1985 when the tin price collapsed. Prior to that, large-scale operation were located in the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Siam (now Gulf of Thailand). Th Thaisarco tin smelter in Phuket processes tin from inside and outside Thailand. Whil most of the Thai-sourced tin originates from land-based deposits, a number o privately owned suction boats still work the near shore during the dry season;  typical boat can recover about 15 kg of cassiterite ore per day.
+Gold placer deposits along the Gulf of Alaska of the United States of America coas have been worked since 1898. The gold is recovered from sands exposed at low tide but the gold-bearing sands extend for approximately 5 km offshore to water depth of 20 m (Jewett et al., 1999). The deposit was most recently actively mined fro 1987 to 1990, when the lease was terminated. During that period, 3,673 kg of gol were recovered (Garnett, 2000). The Placer Marine Mining Company purchased a offshore lease at Nome from the Alaska Department of Natural Resources in 2011 The AngloGold-De Beers partnership also has an offshore lease and has investe several million US dollars in exploration and baseline studies. They are hoping t have the required permits in place to begin mining by 2017. There are also a numbe of individual leases, and due to interest from the general public in shallow wate gold mining, the Alaska Department of Natural Resources has also established tw recreational mining areas offshore of Nome.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+Figure 5. Homemade dredges operating offshore Bangka Island Indonesia (Photo Rachel Kent, Th Forest Trust).
+2.2.1. Case Study: New Zealand
+Iron sands constitute a very large potential resource in New Zealand. Iron sand occur extensively in the coastal zone, and exploration off the west coast of the Nort Island of New Zealand’s exclusive economic zone has identified potential resource concentrated on the continental shelf. In 2014, following an exploration phase Trans-Tasman Resources Limited (TTR) was granted a 20-year mineral mining permi by the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment for th extraction of iron sand from the South Taranaki Bight (Figure 6). This permit is th first step in a regulatory process that may allow the company to extract iron san over a 66-km? area of seabed located in water depths of between 20-42 m, up to 3 km offshore. It is estimated that 50 million tons per year of sand could be extracte from the seabed (TTR, 2015). It may still take several years before minin commences and, in addition, the company also needs to obtain consent from th New Zealand Petroleum and Minerals branch of the Environmental Protectio Authority (EPA) before any mining can begin (NZ Petroleum and Minerals, 2014). A the time of publication of this report, the decision-making Committee appointed b the EPA has refused to grant the mining consent to TTR (NZ EPA, 2015). The reaso for this decision is related in part to the uncertainties about the scope an significance of the potential adverse environmental effects.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+lronSand | Concentration |}
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 6. Surficial concentrations of iron sand along the west coast of the North Island of New Zealan (Taranaki region) (modified from Carter, 1980, Taylor & Francis, Ltd., www.tandfonline.com).
+2.3 Sulphur mining
+Sulphur is used in manufacturing and agriculture. Most is produced onshore, bu native sulphur is associated with offshore salt domes in the Gulf of Mexico. On offshore mine, the Main Pass 299 facility, located in shallow water off centra Louisiana, United States, was operational until 2000 (Kyle, 2002). The sulphur wa extracted by the Frasch system, which uses the injection of superheated wate through boreholes to melt the sulphur, which is then forced to the surface b compressed air (Ober, 1995). The mine facility is one of the largest platfor configurations in the Gulf, with 18 platforms. However, it is unlikely that the min will resume operations in the near future, due to a glut in the supply of sulphur. Thi over-supply stems from the fact that sulphur is now extracted in environmenta control systems and petroleum refining, which account for 55 per cent of the worl sulphur production.
+© 2016 United Nation 
+
+3. Significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t offshore mining industries
+3.1 Environmental Impacts
+The current shallow-water seabed mining activities all employ dredging systems t excavate material from the seabed. Dredging techniques vary depending on th nature of the material being mined. They include: a plain suction dredge, whic vacuums up unconsolidated material; a rotary cutter dredge, which has a cuttin tool at the suction inlet to dislodge more consolidated material; and bucket dredges which drag a bucket along the sea floor. In marine mining, the dredged material i generally placed into an onboard hopper and excess water and tailings ar discharged back into the environment.
+Environmental impacts include physical alteration of the benthic environment an underwater cultural heritage. Table 2 summaries the environmental impact associated with aggregate mining, which are potentially applicable to all types o shallow water marine mining. Examples of documented impacts are listed in Table 3 The most immediate impacts relate to sediment removal resulting in loss of benthi communities. The removal of the sediment may also affect (re) colonization an recovery rates of impacted communities (Tillin et al., 2011). Most studies on th impact of dredging on marine benthos show that dredging can result in a 30-70 pe cent reduction in species variety, a 40-95 per cent reduction in the number o individuals, and a similar reduction in biomass in dredged areas (Newell et al., 1998).
+In addition to removal, sediment disturbance can expose marine organisms t increased turbidity and elevated suspended sediment concentrations. This ca reduce light availability, which can impact photosynthetic organisms lik phytoplankton. Tides and currents can spread turbidity plumes and sedimen beyond the mine area. This can be accompanied by changes in water chemistry an contamination (such as algal spores, and from formerly buried substances).
+Changes in hydrodynamic processes and seabed geomorphology can also occur. Fo example, trailer suction dredging, a common form of aggregate dredging, involve dragging the dredge slowly along the seabed, resulting in furrows that are up to 2- m wide and 0.5 m deep. These furrows can persist, depending on the local curren regime and mobility of the sediments (Newell and Woodcock, 2013). Static suctio dredges are employed at sites where deposits are thick and can result in th formation of large pits. Hitchcock and Bell (2004 and references therein) reporte that pits within gravelly substrates may fill very slowly and persist after several years whereas pits in channels with high current velocities have been observed to fil within one year, and those in intertidal watersheds can take 5-10 years to fill.
+The European SANDPIT project (Van Rijn et al 2005) aimed to develop reliabl techniques to predict the morphological behaviour of large-scale sand minin pits/areas and to understand associated sediment transport processes (Idier et al. 2010). In the study, a baseline pit, based on an actual Dutch pit, was defined as a inverted truncated pyramid 10 m below the seabed, with dimensions at the seabed
+© 2016 United Nations
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+of 500m x1300m, an excavated volume of 3.5Mm}, and located 1.5km from shore a a water depth of 10m (Soulsby et al., 2005). Modelling results using this baseline pi indicate that, for example, there could be a reduction of current speed of up to 1 per cent in the pit; an increase in wave height in the centre of the pit of 1-5 per cent increasing to 10-15 per cent in the areas surrounding the pit; a reduction o sediment transport in the centre of the pit by 40-90 per cent and an increase of 70 200 per cent outside the pit (Soulsby et al., 2005).
+Changes in sediment grain size composition can also occur. For example, diamon mining on the continental shelf of Namibia in 130 m depth was shown to hav altered the surficial sediments in a mined area, from previously predominantl homogenous well-sorted sediment, to a more heterogeneous mud, coarse sand an gravel. This is because, as part of the on-board processing, cobbles, pebbles an tailings are discarded over the side (Rogers and Li, 2002). Long-term or permanen changes in grain size characteristics of sediments will affect other factors such a organic content, pore-water chemistry, and microbe abundance and compositio (Anderson, 2008).
+Less well-documented potential impacts include underwater noise. A review b Thomsen et al. (2009) summarized information on the potential risks from dredgin noise. They noted that dredging produces broadband and continuous low frequenc sound, that studies indicate that dredging can trigger avoidance reaction in marin mammals, and that marine fish can detect dredging noise over considerabl distances. They report that the sparse data available indicates that dredging is not a noisy as seismic surveys, pile driving and sonar; but it is louder than most shipping operating offshore wind turbines and drilling, and should be considered as a mediu impact activity. Marine fauna and birds may collide with or become entangled i operating vessels, but this potential impact is also not well studied. Todd et al (2015 noted that collisions with marine mammals are possible, but unlikely, given the slo speed of dredgers.
+Because most marine mining currently occurs close to shore there has bee considerable concern regarding the potential impact of mining on archaeologica sites. Mining activities, particularly aggregate dredging, has been shown t irreversibly damage underwater cultural heritage, including shipwrecks, airplan crash sites and submerged prehistoric sites (Firth, 2006). Individual States, such a the United States have prepared recommendations and guidelines to avoid dredgin impacts on cultural sites (Michel et al., 2004). These include improved location o cultural sites using remote sensing technology, the establishment of buffer zone around known sites, and preparation of plans to preserve resources and subsequen monitoring of dredging activity. Government policies in the United Kingdom o marine mineral extraction from the seabed off the coast of England are set out i Marine Minerals Guidance Note 1 (MMG 1; Wenban-Smith, 2002). The MMG  states that all applications for dredging in previously undredged areas require a environmental impact assessment. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, whic approves applications, can request the applicant to provide information relating t potential impacts to archaeological heritage and landscape and provide informatio on the measures envisaged to prevent, reduce and where possible offset an significant adverse effects. A review by Firth (2013) of marine archaeology in the
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+United Kingdom recommends that thorough exploration of cultural sites, t constrain their area, may be more cost effective than blanket buffer zones, whic can disrupt dredging activity.
+Table 2. Spatial and tem
+the confidence associated with the evidence (from Tillin et al 2011).
+poral scale of the main effects arising from aggregate extraction activities and
+Effects arising fro aggregat extractio activities
+Spatial Scale o Effect
+Temporal Scale o Effect
+Confidence i Evidence
+Direct Impacts:
+Removal o aggregates:
+Impacts on benthi marine organism and seabe morphology Confined t footprint o extraction: th active dredge zone.
+Recovery ma begin afte cessation o activity.
+Good evidence fo impacts on seabe habitats an biologica assemblage (Newell et al 2004).
+Direct Impacts:
+Removal o aggregates:
+Impacts on cultura heritage an archaeology
+May be permanen and irreversible
+Good evidence fo impacts (Michel e al., 2004)
+Direct Impacts:
+Formation o sediment plumes
+From 300-500m fo sand particl deposition to 3k where particles ar remobilised b local hydrodynami conditions
+Longevity o sediment plumes up to 4-5 tida excursions for fin particles (MALS 2009)
+Confidence i understanding o sediment plum has been assesse as high (MALS 2009)
+Indirect Impacts:
+Visual Disturbance
+May affect seabird and marin mammals, spatia extent of effec depends on visua acuity of organis and response.
+Confined to perio of extractio activities
+Little evidence unlikely to b different fro other forms of
+shipping.
+Indirect Impacts:
+Noise Disturbance
+Changes in nois levels detectabl up to several km Behavioura responses likely t occur over muc more limite distances and little
+Confined to perio of extractio activities
+Evidence of hearin thresholds onl available for a fe species (Cefa 2009).
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+risk of hearin damage.
+Indirect Impacts:
+Collision Risk
+Confined to activit footprint
+Confined to perio of extractio activities
+Little evidence unlikely to b different fro other forms of
+shipping Indirect Impacts: From 300-500m for | Heaviest particles High (fro Sediment sand particle settle almost modelling studie deposition deposition to 3km__| immediately, and direct
+where particles ar remobilised b local hydrodynamic
+lightest particle will settle within  tidal excursion (a
+observations at  number of sites).
+conditions. tidal cycle of eb and flood) (Cefas
+2009).
+The scale of impacts will vary depending on the method and intensity of dredging level of screening (for example in aggregate mining screening may be employed t alter the sand to gravel ratio, in which case significant quantities of sediment typically unwanted fine sediment particles, can be returned to the seabed), sedimen type and local hydrodynamics (Newell and Woodcock, 2013).
+Physical and biological impacts (e.g. smothering leading to death or impaire function) may persist well after the mining finishes. Recovery times are likely to var greatly and be species dependent (Foden et al., 2009). Cumulative impacts such a climate change and other anthropogenic activities may also affect recovery timing.
+Some of the mitigation measures now used with dredging operations include — The use of silt curtains to contain dredge plumes — The return of overflow waste to the seabed rather than in the water column;
+— Locating mining activities away from known migratory pathways and calving o feeding grounds;
+— Limiting the number of vessels or operations in given areas — Requiring reduced boat speeds in areas likely to support marine mammals;
+—Engineering to reduce the noise of the primary recovery and ore-lif operations;
+— Limiting unnecessary use of platform and vessel flood lights at night an ensuring that those that are required are directed approximately verticall onto work surfaces to avoid or mitigate seabird strikes;
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+—Leaving patches within a mining site un-mined to increase the rate o recolonization and recovery of benthic fauna;
+— Excluding areas from mining if they support unique populations of marine life;
+— Excluding areas of mining if they are potential sites of cultural heritage;
+— Depositing tailings within as small an area as possible surrounding the minin block, or onshore; and
+— Avoiding the need for re-mining areas by mining target areas to completio during initial mining.
+Table 3. Documented environmental impacts of offshore mining
+Mining activity Location Impact Referenc Shell and sand Owen Anchorage, Dredging in shallow near-shore Walker et al. extraction south-west of waters associated with significant 2001
+Fremantle, Wester Australia
+conservation values, e.g. seagrass, coral communities adverse effects on marine habitat due to direct seabed disturbanc and indirect effects, such a elevated turbidity levels. Othe concerns include changes in near shore wave and curren conditions, which could affec shipping movements an seabed/shoreline stability
+Sand and grave extraction
+European Union
+Loss of abundance, specie diversity and biomass of th benthic community in the dredge area. Similar effects from turbidit and resuspension of sedimen over a wide area. Benthic impac is a key concern where dredgin activities may impinge on habitat or species classified as threatene or in decline (such as Maerl o Sabellaria reefs).
+OSPAR, 2009
+Sand and grave extraction
+Dieppe, France
+10-year monitoring programm revealed a change in substrat from gravel and coarse sand t fine sand in the dredged area. Th maximum impact on benthi macrofauna was a reduction by 8 per cent in species richness and 9 per cent in both abundance an biomass. In the surrounding area the impact was almost as severe Following cessation of dredging species richness was fully restore after 16 months, but densities an biomass were still 40 per cent and
+Desprez, 2000
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+25 per cent, respectively, lowe than in reference stations after 2 months. The community structur differed from the initial one corresponding to the new type o sediment.
+Sand and grave extraction
+United States o America
+Comprehensive review of impact from dredging operation identifying the most sever effects: entrainment of benthi organisms; destruction o essential habitat; increase turbidity affecting sensitive faun like corals and suspension-feedin organisms.
+Michel et al. 2013
+Sand and grave extraction
+Moreton Bay Australia
+Alteration of the existing tida delta morphology by the remova of a small area of shallow banks In most cases, the prevailin sediment transport processe would result in a gradual infill o extraction sites.
+Fesl, 2005
+Sand and grave extraction
+Puck Bay, Souther Baltic Sea
+Benthic re-colonization at a sit formed by sand extraction wa investigated some 10 years after th cessation of dredging. The examine post-dredging pit is one of five dee (up to 14 m) pits created with  static suction hopper on the sandy flat and shallow (1-2 m) part of th inner Puck Bay (the southern Balti Sea). Organic matter was found t accumulate in the pit, resulting i anaerobic conditions and hydroge sulfide formation. Macrofauna wa absent from the deepest part of th pit and re-colonization by pre mining benthic fauna wa considered unlikely.
+Szymelfenig e al., 2006
+Diamond mining
+Benguela Region Africa (offshore o Namibia and Sout Africa)
+Cumulative impacts of seabe diamond mining assessed ove time and as a combination o numerous operations. Four to 1 years for benthic recovery biodiversity altered in favour o filter feeders and algae, resultin in decreased biodiversity bu increased biomass.
+Pulfrich et al. 2003; Pulfric and Branch 2014
+Diamond mining
+Offshore Namibia Orange Delta
+Changes in surficial sedimen grain size composition fro unimodal to polymodal, wit increased coarse sand and gravel.
+Rogers and Li 2002
+Tin mining
+Bangka-
+Hundreds of makeshift pontoons
+IDH, 2013
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+Belitung Province operate alongside a fleet of 5 Indonesia dredgers belonging to P.T. TIMAH The island coastline has bee altered by tailing dumps, and up t 70 per cent of coastal
+ecosystems, particularly coral, sea grass and mangroves, are
+degraded Gold mining Norton Sound, Mining with a bucket-line dredge Jewett et al. northeastern Bering occurred near shore in 9 to 20 m 199 Sea, United States. during June to November 1986 to
+1990. Sampling a year after minin ceased indicated that benthi macrofaunal community parameter (total abundance, bio- mass diversity) and abundance o dominant families were significantl reduced at mined stations
+Several studies have looked at the restoration of seabed habitat after mining activit (e.g., Cooper et al., 2013, Kilbride et al., 2006, Boyd et al., 2004). In the OSPA region, where damage to protected species and habitat occurs, restoration i identified within the obligations of the Convention for the Protection of the Marin Environment of the North-East Atlantic, various European directives, and in variou United Kingdom marine policy documents, (Cooper et al., 2013). A study on seabe restoration identified three issues central to decisions about whether to attemp restoration following marine aggregate dredging. They include: (i) necessity (e.g.  clear scientific rationale for intervention and/or a policy/legislative requirement), (ii technical feasibility (i.e. whether it is possible to restore the impacts), and (iii whether is it affordable (Cooper et al., 2013).
+A recent study of the Thames Estuary, United Kingdom, an area of aggregat extraction, used the estimated value of ecosystem goods and services to determin if seabed restoration was justifiable in terms of costs and benefits; they conclude that in this case it was not (Cooper et al., 2013). The proposed restoration involve levelling the seabed and restoring the sediment character for an estimated cost o over 1 million British pounds. In order to determine if this expenditure could b justified, the authors assessed the significance of the persistent impacts on th ecosystem goods and services and the cost and likelihood of successful restoration While the site-specific cost benefit analysis precluded restoration, they suggest tha the approach taken could be used at other sites to determine if restoration i practical and effective.
+In the United Kingdom a research fund, (the Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund), wa established in 2002 and ran until March 2011, using revenue from the Aggregate Levy introduced in 2002 - a tax of 2.00 British pounds per ton on primary aggregat sales (including land- and marine-derived aggregates; Newell and Woodcock, 2013) There was intense public criticism when the Fund was discontinued in 2011, a previously 7 per cent of the Fund had been directed to communities, non-
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+governmental organizations and other stakeholders to fund projects deliverin conservation, local community and other sustainability benefits (e.g., BBC 2011 MPA 2011). Cooper et al., 2013 also suggest that the fund could have been used t finance seabed restoration projects.
+3.2 Social impacts
+Social impacts of offshore mining are likely to be complex and different an generally less than that for terrestrial mining (Roche and Bice, 2013). Table 4 detail potential social impacts from offshore mining. In countries where offshore mining i relatively new and untested (like Australia), societal expectations set highe standards for its acceptance, particularly with regard to environmental protectio and strengthening of the national economy (Mason et al., 2014).
+Table 4. Positive and negative potential social impacts identified (after Tillin et al, 2011; Roche an Bice, 2013)
+Impact Effect
+Environmental Loss of ecosystem services that negatively affects livelihoods degradation
+Provision of For coastal defence and beach replenishment.
+material
+Revenue Revenue to industry, government and community; Foreign exchang earner.
+Reduced Avoidance of social impacts for resource extraction on land, including
+pressure on land | competing resources, community relocations based resources
+Employment Employment for local community, accompanied by influx of people t new industry; particularly for small island communities.
+Cultural impacts | Loss of cultural sites; changes/loss in resource distribution (food territory, etc.); ignoring of/loss of traditional knowledge.
+Governance and_ | New regulatory regimes; implementation of policy; social an policy environmental degradation can lead to conflict.
+Regional initiatives, targeted at developing a holistic approach to decision-making that incorporate social, environmental and economic evaluation and stakeholde engagement, are outlined in Table 5. In some areas, such as the Pacific Island region, emphasis is on making informed decisions about deep-sea mining. Countrie which decide to engage in deep sea mining can obtain assistance from th Secretariat of the Pacific Community to develop national regulatory framework (offshore national policy, legislation and regulations) in close collaboration with al key stakeholders and in particular, local communities (SPC-EU, 2012). Elsewhere, th framework is focused more on the sustainable management of the marin environment, including non-living resources, and includes ecosystem-based
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+approaches and valuation of ecosystem services affected by human activity. Fo example the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008) advocate a transition from a sector-specific policy landscape to a system-based one, in whic activities are regulated in concert, based on shared space and time acros boundaries. Uncertainty remains, however, about how to value coastal assets an quantitatively measure social impact (Beaumont et al., 2007).
+Awareness is increasing of the potential social impacts of marine and coasta extractive mineral industries, such as coastal dredging for aggregates and beach re nourishment schemes (e.g., Austen et al., 2009; Drucker et al., 2004). Strong publi sentiments about environmental and social issues already exist around land-base mining (e.g., Mudd, 2010). However, there is currently not the same level o understanding and informed debate around offshore mining (Mason et al., 2014). A offshore mining becomes more commonplace, information and data on the marin environment and impacts will be collected, and it is important that this informatio is disseminated to stakeholders. It is worth noting that the value of stakeholde participation in developing and implementing policy was included in Principle 10 o the Rio Declaration, which states that: “environmental issues are best handled wit the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level...”
+Studies suggest that for an informed society to accept a nascent offshore minin industry, stakeholders require: better information (particularly rigorous scientifi analysis of potential impacts, costs and benefits); a transparent and sociall responsive management process within a consistent and efficient regulatory regime and meaningful engagement with stakeholders (Boughen et al., 2010; Mason et al. 2010).
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+Table 5. Relevant regional and national initiatives
+Initiative
+European MSFD (2008): “Directive 2008/56/EC on establishing a framework fo Union community action in the field of marine environmental policy”
+This directive provides a transparent legislative framework for a ecosystem-based approach to the management of human activities supports the sustainable use of marine goods and services; an integrates the value of marine ecosystem services into decision
+making United Marine Environment Protection Fund 2010: Framework to allo Kingdom marine aggregates extraction options to be analysed using socio-
+economic information. The framework analyses the interaction between different uses of the marine environment at both local an regional levels (Dickie et al., 2010)
+Pacific SPC-EU DSM Project (2011-2016): Technical assistance and advisor Islands service for Pacific Island countries choosing to engage in deep se mining to help them improve governance and management i accordance with international law, with particular attention to th protection of the marine environment and securing equitable financia arrangements for their people.
+United Executive Order 13547- Stewardship of the Ocean, Our Coasts, and th States Great Lakes. The Order adopts the recommendations of th Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force, except where otherwise provide in this Order, and directs executive agencies to implement thos recommendations under the guidance of a National Ocean Council Based on those recommendations, this Order establishes a nationa policy to ensure, amongst other things, the protection, maintenance and restoration of the health of ocean and coastal ecosystems an resources.
+3.2.1 Case Study: Kiribati
+A recent study by Babinard et al. (2014) examined the potential social impacts o offshore aggregate mining in South Tarawa (see section 2.1.3). The author determined that as the ESAT (Environmentally Safe Aggregates for Tarawa) dredgin operation develops, it could have adverse consequences for the welfare of thos Kiribati residents who are either sellers or users of aggregates. Sellers of aggregate rely on beach mining for their livelihood (they currently receive 1 Australian dolla per bag). A 2006 household survey found that 206 out of 280 households surveye were involved in some form of beach mining (Pelesikoti, 2007). There is widesprea belief that they are acting within their rights as customary owners of the land, an they will likely lose economic opportunities as a result of the offshore dredgin operations. For users of aggregates on the island, the main issue is whether they wil be legally able to continue to mine aggregates from their own beaches. Residents
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+argue that the customary rights to mine are included in the Foreshore Amendmen Act of 2006 (Pelesikoti, 2007).
+3.3 Economic benefits from marine mining
+The economic benefits from near-shore mining are difficult to estimate. Marin aggregates are often sourced locally and reporting is scattered, but the marin sector is often distinguished from the land sector, so the value of the resource ca be estimated. In contrast, commodities like tin and diamonds are part of a globa market, which does not distinguish between land-derived and marine-derive materials. Table 6 gives estimated values where reported.
+Table 6. Estimates of marine aggregates and minerals
+Locations
+Europea Union, Unite Kingdom Japan, Unite States (minor)
+South Africa Namibia Australi (Inactive)
+Indonesia Malaysia Thailand;
+Australi (inactive)
+New Zealan (inactive)
+United States South America Australia, Ne Zealand, Africa Portugal, Indi (all inactive)
+Mexic (inactive)
+United State (now inactive)
+Resource
+Aggregate
+Diamond Placers
+Tin
+Iron Sands
+Phosphates
+Phosphates
+Sulphur
+© 2016 United Nations
+Quantity
+~ 50-150+ millio m?/ year (can var strongly year t year depending o demand)
+1.1 million carat (2012).
+19,000 tons /yr tin
+Total of 327. million ore tons a 18.5% P,Os,
+0
+Revenue
+1-3+ billion U dollars)
+3.5 billion US dollars
+Indonesia 500 millio US dollars
+Employment
+5,000-15,00 (estimate)
+~1,600
+Indonesia ~3,500
+Malaysia  Thailand N/A
+N/A
+N/A
+References
+Ifremer, 201 Herbich, 200 Marinet, 2012
+Newell an Woodcock, 2013
+NAMDEB, 201 NAMDEB, 2014
+Timah, 2012
+Don Deigo (2015)
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+
+4. Developments in other forms of seabed mining: current state and potentia scale
+4.1 Phosphate mining
+Phosphorites are natural compounds containing phosphate in the form of cement binding sediments in tropical to sub-tropical regions (Murton, 2002). They are widel distributed on the continental shelves and upper slopes, oceanic islands, seamount and flanks of atolls. Deposits have been found off the west coast of Tasmania Australia; Congo, Ecuador, Gabon, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, New Zealand, Peru South Africa, and the United States. They are usually located in less than 1,000 m o water and their formation is linked to zones of coastal upwelling, divergence an biological productivity.
+Currently proposals to mine phosphate are under consideration in New Zealand Namibia and Mexico. In New Zealand, the Ministry of Business, Innovation an Employment has granted a 20-year mining permit to Chatham Rock Phosphate Ltd for the extraction of rock phosphate nodules from an 820-km2 area of the Chatha Rise (Figure 7). Before mining can commence, the company still needs to obtai consent from the Environmental Protection Authority. At the time of publication o this report the Authority had refused an application by Chatham Rise Phosphat limited for a marine consent to mine phosphorite nodules on the Chatham Rise (N EPA, 2015). The decision-making committee found that that “the destructive effect of the extraction process, coupled with the potentially significant impact of th deposition of sediment on areas adjacent to the mining blocks and on the wide marine ecosystem, could not be mitigated by any set of conditions or adaptiv management regime that might be reasonably imposed.” They also concluded tha the economic benefit to New Zealand of the proposal would be modest at best.
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+HIKURANG PLATEAU
+Chatha Islands
+Matheson Bank
+Bh Mining Permit A BOUNTY TROUG mien rrr rea
+Continental Shel Prospecting Licence Area
+Prospecting Permit i L100 k Application Areas 7 al
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 7. Location of Chatham Rise phosphate project area (RSC, 2014).
+In Namibia, an Environmental Impact Assessment Report and an Environmenta Management Plan were submitted in March 2012 for the Sandpiper Phosphat Project (Figure 8), which proposed to dredge phosphate-enriched sediments sout of Walvis Bay, Namibia, in depths of 180-300 m (Midgley, 2012). The compan planned to extract 5.5 Mt of phosphate-enriched marine sediments.on an annua basis, for over 20 years. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) identified low level potential adverse impacts including biogeochemical changes, benthic habita loss, loss of biodiversity and cumulative impacts (Namibian Marine Phosphates 2012; Midgley, 2012; McClune, 2012). No official decision has been issued on th Sandpiper Phosphate Project application as yet, however in September 2013, an 18 month moratorium on environmental clearances for bulk seabed mining activitie for industrial minerals, base and/or rare metals (including phosporites) was declare by the Government of Namibia. During this period the Ministry of Fisheries an Marine Resources is required to make a strategic impact assessment on the potentia impacts of the proposed phosphate mining on the fishing industry. While th Ministry of Mines and Energy is allowing marine phosphate exploration activities t continue during the moratorium period, such activities are not currently bein undertaken in areas within the national jurisdiction of Namibia.
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+vy
+|
+NAMIBIAN MARINE PHOSPHATE LTD  LICENCE ARE Location
+The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
+Figure 8. The Sandpiper Project (license area shown) includes the zone of highest regional phosphat concentration (Namibian Marine Phosphate, 2012).
+A proposed Mexican underwater phosphate mine, the Don Diego project, is locate in 60-90m water depth, approximately 40 km off the cost of the Bay of Ulloa, on th west coast of Baja California. The permit area is 912 km? and it is estimated that i the project proceeds the area dredged annually would be around 1 per cent (1. km?; Don Diego, 2015). Phosphorite resources at the Don Diego deposit have bee estimated to total 327.2 million ore tons at 18.5 per cent P2O;. Odyssey Marin Exploration has lodged an environmental impact assessment for the recovery of th phosphate sands with the Mexican Secretary of Environment and Natural Resource and is awaiting a decision (Odyssey Marine Exploration, 2014). Local non governmental organizations including WildCoast, Centro Mexicano Derech Ambiental (CEMDA), Grupo Tortuguero, Vigilantes de Bahia Magdalena and Medi Ambiente Sociedad have been vocal in their opposition to the project (Pier, 2014).
+4.2 Deep-Sea Mining
+Although commercial deep-sea mining has not yet commenced, the three mai deep-sea mineral deposit types — sea-floor massive sulphides (SMS), polymetallic
+© 2016 United Nations
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+nodules and cobalt-rich crusts — have been the subject of interest for some time (se SPC 2013a,b,c,d). Recent announcements make it seem likely that SMS mining wil begin in the Manus Basin of Papua New Guinea (Nautilus Minerals, 2014a and b) Other Pacific Island States (e.g., Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu) hav issued exploration licenses to various companies to evaluate the commercia feasibility of mineral resources development in their exclusive economic zones. Th economic interest in SMS deposits is their high concentrations of copper, zinc, gold and silver; polymetallic nodules for manganese, nickel, copper, molybdenum an rare earth elements; and ferromanganese crusts for manganese, cobalt, nickel, rar earth elements, yttrium, molybdenum, tellurium, niobium, zirconium, and platinum.
+In addition, the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which regulates deep-se mining in the Area (the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil thereof beyond the limits o national jurisdiction) has entered into 15-year contracts for exploration fo polymetallic nodules, SMS and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabe with 26 contractors (composed of companies, research institutions and governmen agencies) plus 1 contract pending ISA Council action in July 2015 (ISA, 2000; IS 2001; ISA 2010; ISA 2013).
+Seventeen of these contracts are for exploration for polymetallic nodules in th Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCZ, 16) and Central Indian Ocean Basin (1). Ther are six contracts for exploration for SMS in the South West Indian Ridge, Centra Indian Ridge and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and four contracts for exploration fo cobalt-rich crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean (3) and Atlantic (1) (ISA 2015a). Thes licences allow contractors to explore for seabed minerals in designated areas of th Area.
+The ISA has called for comments on draft regulations for exploitation licensing in th Area (ISA 2015b). The decision to commence deep-sea mining in the Area wil depend in part on the availability of metals from terrestrial sources and their price in the world market, as well as technological and economic considerations based o capital and operating costs of the deep-sea mining system.
+5. Gaps in capacity to engage in offshore minerals industries and to assess th environmental, social and economic aspects.
+Despite the importance of marine extractive industries in many developin countries, the environmental, social and economic aspects are often not adequatel understood. Therefore it is necessary to strengthen the approach to planning an managing these activities. This includes implementing the precautionary principl and adaptive management, as well as transparent monitoring. There is also a lack o consensus on what is an acceptable condition in which to leave the seabed pos mining. Increasing public awareness and engendering a custodial and stewardshi attitude to the environment may help curb the most damaging practices.
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+Unregulated mining often occurs in parallel to regulated mining activities. Fo example, numerous small operators participate in the marine sector of the ti mining industry in Bangka and Belitung, Indonesia. Many of the practices associate with these workers are unsafe and miners are killed or injured every year; local new reports refer to over 100 fatalities per year (Jakarta Post, 2010). The lack o regulation or the lack of enforcement of regulations, allows mining to take place i critical marine habitats and extensive damage has been done to coral reefs an mangrove environments (IDH, 2013). Improved licensing, regulation, enforcemen and monitoring, in conjunction with social programmes to find alternative sources o revenue, would be needed. How the industry is being regulated would also need t be considered. The export data, published by the Bangka Belitung regiona administration, showed that P.T. Timah, which owns 473,800 hectares of concessio areas, exported 8,899 tons of tin in 2009, and privately owned smelters, whic Operate concession areas of 16,884 hectares, exported 13,867 tons. Thes discrepancies highlight the magnitude of the problem. The penalties provided b mining and/or environmental legislation may need to be strengthened to stop thes practices.
+For any State or company planning resource development, integrating coastal an marine ecosystem services into the development process is important; however information on the services provided or the value of these services is often scarce. I many developing countries the interface between governments and offshor minerals industries needs to be strengthened. Deficiencies exist in the informatio available and in the institutional capacity to manage non-living marine resources. I summary, the following gaps can be identified:
+—Increased capacity in coastal and marine geosciences information system (including social, cultural, economic, ecological, biophysical and geophysica information) to improve geoscientific advice for management and monitorin of coastal environments to meet the requirements of ecosystem-base management and sustainable development;
+— Development and implementation of robust regulatory frameworks for marin mineral extraction industries, which include environmental impac assessments, environmental quality and social laws, environmental liability and monitoring capacity;
+— Increased public awareness of the vulnerability of coastal environments, th benthic habitats and the fishery nursery grounds that may be affected b marine mining; and
+— Technology transfer and skills development to ensure best practice in marin mineral extraction.
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+References
+Austen, M.C., Hattam, C., Lowe, S., Mangi, C., Richardson, K. (2009). Quantifying an Valuing the Impacts of Marine Aggregate Extraction on Ecosystem Goods an Services. MALSF funded project MEPF 08-P77 www.cefas.co.uk/media/462458/mepf-08-p77-final-report.pdf. Accesse June 2014.
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+© 2016 United Nations 2 
+
+Mason, C., Paxton, G., Parsons, R., Parr, J., Moffat, K. (2014). “For the Benefit o Australians”: Exploring expectations for the mining industry from a nationa perspective, Resources Policy, 41, 1-8.
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+MSFD (2008). Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council  17 June 2008 establishing a framework for community action in the field o marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive http://eur lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do ?uri=OJ:L:2008:164:0019:0040:EN:P F. Accessed June 2014.
+Mudd, G.M. (2010). The environmental sustainability of mining in Australia: ke mega-trends and looming constraints. Resources Policy, 35 (2), 98-115.
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+© 2016 United Nations 3 
+
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+Ober, J. (1995). Sulfur, from Mineral Commodity Summaries, U.S. Bureau of Mines January 1995, pp. 166-167 http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/industrial/special/mining/minedock/ d/id4-sulf.pdf Accessed March 2015.
+Odessey Marine Exploration Inc. (2014) http://ir.odysseymarine.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaselD=869839 Accesse March 2015.
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+rock lobster Jasus lalandii. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 150, 179-191.
+© 2016 United Nations 3 
+
+Pulfrich, A., Parkins, C.A., Branch, G.M., Bustamante, R.H. and Velasquez, C.R. (2003) The effects of sediment deposits from Namibian diamond mines on intertida and subtidal reefs and rock lobster populations. Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 13(3), 257-278.
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+© 2016 United Nations 3 
+
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+© 2016 United Nations 3 
+
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+© 2016 United Nations
+3 
+

data/datasets/onu/Chapter_24.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+Chapter 24. Solid Waste Disposal
+Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member), Juying Wang (Co-lead member)
+1. Introduction — the regulatory system
+The disposal at sea of waste generated on land and loaded on board vessels fo dumping is the object of long-standing global, and (in many areas) regional, system of regulation. (These systems also cover, for completeness, dumping from aircraf and waste (other than operational discharges) from fixed installations in the sea) Such dumping must be distinguished from discharges into rivers and directly fro land into the sea and emissions to air from land-based activities discussed in Chapte 20 (Land-based inputs).
+When concerns about the environment developed in the 1960s, growing constraint on the land disposal of waste and discharges into rivers led to pressures to find ne routes for waste disposal. Concerns about these pressures led to action in severa forums. Several United Nations specialized agencies set up the Group of Experts o the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP* — later altered to “Marin Environmental Protection”).
+The preparatory committee for the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Huma Environment, set up by the United Nations General Assembly, established a intergovernmental working group on marine pollution. At the national level, severa countries started developing approaches to control such dumping. The United State of America put forward proposals for an international agreement on the subject Spurred from the national level by an attempt by the vessel Stella Maris to dump 65 tons of chlorinated waste, several countries started developing approaches t control such dumping. States adjoining the North-East Atlantic adopted a international convention regulating dumping in that area in Oslo, Norway, on 1 February 1972 (OSPAR, 1982; IMO, 1991).
+Later that year, the Stockholm Conference adopted a set of principles fo international environmental law and called, among other things, for an internationa instrument to control dumping of waste at sea. The United Kingdom, in consultatio with the United Nations Secretariat, organized a further conference in London, an the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes an Other Matter 1972 (the 1972 London Convention) was signed on 13 November 197 in London, Mexico City and Moscow (ICG, 1982, IMO, 2014f).”
+"At present, it is jointly sponsored by IMO, FAO, IAEA, WMO, UNESCO-IOC, UN, UNDP, UNEP an UNIDO * United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1046, No. 15749.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+1.1 The 1972 London Convention
+The main provisions of the 1972 London Convention can be summarized as follows:
+(a)
+(b)
+(c)
+(d)
+(e)
+(f)
+A definition of “dumping” to cover the deliberate disposal of waste an other matter at sea from ships, aircraft, platforms or other man-mad structures in the sea;
+A ban on dumping at sea of any of the substances on the “black list (Annex | to the Convention): toxic organohalogen compounds, agree carcinogenic substances, mercury and cadmium and their compounds crude oil and petroleum products® taken on board for the purpose o dumping them, high-level radioactive substances as defined by th International Atomic Energy Agency and persistent synthetic substance (including plastics) liable to float or remain in suspension. Exception were allowed for force majeure and for trace amounts not added fo disposal purposes;
+A requirement for a special prior permit for any dumping of an substances on the “grey list” (Annex II to the Convention) — arsenic, lead copper and zinc and their compounds, organosilicon compounds cyanides, fluorides and pesticides not in Annex |, bulky objects and ta likely to obstruct fishing or navigation, medium-level and low-leve radioactive waste and substances to be dumped in such quantities as t cause harm;
+A requirement for at least a general prior permit for all other dumping Such permits were required to follow an approach set out in Annex III t the Convention, which required consideration of alternative land-base disposal and the avoidance of harm to legitimate uses of the sea;
+A requirement to appraise the effectiveness of the regulator assessment process through compliance monitoring and field monitorin of effects;
+An obligation to report to the Secretariat of the Convention (which i hosted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in London) o dumping permits issued and amounts permitted to be dumped (IGC 1982; LC-LP, 2014a).
+When the 1972 London Convention entered into force in 1975, dumping at sea wa still a major disposal route for many kinds of waste. Over the years, the meetings o the Contracting Parties have tightened the requirements of the Convention, with th result that the amounts of waste that may be dumped were reduced significantly:
+(a)
+Guidance was adopted on the approaches to the grant of special an general permits for dumping. In many respects this guidance wa gradually made more precise and restrictive (IMO, 2014a);
+> “Petroleum products” includes wastes from crude oil, refined petroleum products, petroleu distillate products, and any mixtures containing these substances.
+© 2016 United Nations  
+
+(b) In 1972 incineration of hazardous waste at sea was just beginning to b practised. In 1978 an amendment was adopted clarifying that th incineration at sea of oily wastes and organohalogen compounds wa permitted as an interim solution, but requiring a special prior permit i accordance with agreed guidelines for this practice. This amendmen came into force in 1979 (IGC, 1982). In 1988, the Consultative Meetin of the States parties called for such incineration to be minimized and fo a re-evaluation of the practice (LDC, 1988). In 1993 an amendment t prohibit this practice was adopted and entered into force from 199 (IMO, 2012);
+(c) In 1990, the Contracting Parties adopted a resolution calling for th phasing out of the dumping of industrial waste (LDC, 43(13)). Followin this, an amendment to Annex | of the Convention was adopted in 1993 which entered into force in 1994, to prohibit the dumping of industria waste from the end of 1995 (IMO, 2012; IMO, 2014c).
+(d) Even though the 1972 London Convention, as adopted, prohibited th dumping of high-level radioactive waste, many Contracting Partie remained unhappy with any dumping of radioactive waste of any kind. I 1983, a voluntary moratorium on such dumping was agreed. In 1993 a amendment was adopted to prohibit all dumping of radioactive waste subject to a review before February 2019, and every twenty-five year thereafter. The Consultative Meeting of the Contracting Parties i beginning preparations for this review (IMO, 2012; LC-LP, 2014).
+1.2. The 1996 London Protoco/*
+The generally restrictive policy of the Contracting Parties to the 1972 Londo Convention towards the dumping of waste and other matter at sea resulted in  further development in 1996, when a protocol to the convention was adopted. Thi Protocol is intended gradually to replace the 1972 London Convention. The Londo Protocol entered into force in 2006. Among a number of other changes, th fundamental difference between the 1972 Convention and the 1996 Londo Protocol is that the Protocol adopts a “reverse list” approach. All dumping of wast is prohibited, except for a limited number of categories where dumping could b permitted, in contrast to the 1972 Convention approach, which prohibited dumpin only of a specified list of substances, while requiring a permit (general or special) fo everything else. The limited number of categories where dumping can still b permitted under the Protocol as originally adopted are:
+(a) Dredged material (b) Sewage sludge;
+(c) Fish waste, or material resulting from industrial fish processin operations;
+* 36 International Legal Materials 1 (1997).
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+(d) Vessels and platforms or other man-made structures at sea (e) Inert, inorganic geological material (f) | Organic material of natural origin;
+(g) Bulky items primarily comprising iron, steel, concrete and simila unharmful materials for which the concern is physical impact and limite to those circumstances, where such wastes are generated at locations such as small islands with isolated communities, having no practicabl access to disposal options other than dumping.
+Shortly after the Protocol entered into force in 2006, the Meeting of Contractin Parties to the London Protocol adopted an amendment to add “sub-seabed carbon dioxide (CO) streams from CO capture processes for sequestration” to the list o permitted forms of disposal (LP.1(1)). States Parties may therefore issue permits t allow the injection into a sub-seabed geological formation of CO streams from CO capture processes. This amendment entered into force in 2007. In 2012, specifi guidelines were adopted to for such disposal activities and the potential effects o the marine environment in the proximity of the receiving formations. In 2009,  further amendment was adopted, allowing the export of CO2 from CO, captur processes for sequestration in sub-seabed geological formations (LP.3(4)). Thi amendment is not yet in force. Guidance on the implementation of the export of C streams for disposal in sub-seabed geological formations for the purposes o sequestration was adopted in 2013. The intention of carbon dioxide sequestration i sub-seabed geological formations is to prevent release into the biosphere o substantial quantities of carbon dioxide derived from human activities, by retainin the carbon dioxide permanently within such geological formations.
+In 2008, the Contracting States to both the 1972 London Convention and the 199 London Protocol adopted a resolution agreeing that the scope of the Londo Convention and Protocol includes ocean fertilization activities, that is, any activit undertaken by humans with the principal intention of stimulating primar productivity in the oceans. (Ocean fertilization does not include ordinar aquaculture, or mariculture, or the creation of artificial reefs). It was further agree that:
+(a) In order to provide for legitimate scientific research, such researc should be regarded as placement of matter for a purpose other than th mere disposal thereof under Article III.1(b) (ii) of the London Conventio and Article 1.4.2.2 of the London Protocol;
+(b) Scientific research proposals should be assessed on a case-by-case basi using an assessment framework to be developed by the Scientific Group under the London Convention and Protocol;
+(c) Such an assessment framework should include, inter alia, tools fo determining whether the proposed activity is contrary to the aims of th Convention and Protocol;
+(d) Until specific guidance is available, Contracting Parties should be urge to use utmost caution and the best available guidance to evaluate the
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+scientific research proposals to ensure protection of the marin environment consistent with the Convention and Protocol;
+(e) For the purposes of the resolution, legitimate scientific research shoul be defined as those proposals that have been assessed and foun acceptable under the assessment framework;
+(f) | Given the present state of knowledge, ocean fertilization activities othe than legitimate scientific research should not be allowed. To this end such other activities should be considered as contrary to the aims of th Convention and Protocol and should not currently qualify for an exemption from the definition of dumping in the Convention and th Protocol (LC-LP, 2008).
+In 2010, the Contracting Parties to the 1972 London Convention and the 199 London Protocol adopted the Assessment Framework for Scientific Researc Involving Ocean Fertilization (LC-LP, 2010). In 2013, the Contracting Parties to th London Protocol adopted amendments to incorporate into the Protocol provision regulating the placement of matter for ocean fertilization and other marine geo engineering activities (LP.4(8)). These amendments are not yet in force (LC-LP, 2013) Guidance on implementing the provisions was adopted in 2014 (LC-LP, 2014).
+1.3 Acceptance of the system of regulation
+As of October 2014, there are 87 parties to the 1972 London Convention, and 4 parties to the 1996 London Protocol. Thirty-four States are parties to both th Convention and the Protocol (IMO, 2014b). There are, however, many regiona conventions on marine environmental protection that have specific reference to, or contain provisions relating to, the regulation of disposal of wastes into the sea Most regional conventions (the Abidjan, Antigua, Barcelona, Bucharest, Cartagena Helsinki, Jeddah, Kuwait, Lima, Nairobi, Noumea, OSPAR Conventions’) have specific
+° Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coasta Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention) http://abidjanconvention.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100&ltemid=200&l ng=en
+The Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine an Coastal Environment of the Northeast Pacific (Antigua Convention) http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/nonunep/nepacific/instruments/nep_convention.p f
+Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of th Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention). United Nations Treaty Series. vol. 1102, No. 16908 Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention). Unite Nations Treaty Series. vol. 1764, No. 30674.
+Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbea Region (Cartagena Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1506, No. 25974.
+Convention on the protection of the marine environment of the Baltic sea Area, 1992 (Helsink Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2099, No. 36495.
+Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (Jedda Convention). http://www.persga.org/Documents/Doc_62_20090211112825.pdf.
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+provisions that regulate sea dumping. The dumping clauses are largely based on, o are more stringent than, the London Convention or London Protocol. (An overvie of Contracting Parties to the London Protocol, London Convention and Regiona Agreements that include management of sea dumping issues is set out in IM 2014e). Most States are therefore Contracting Parties to an international agreemen that relates to the management of sea dumping of solid waste or other matter However, there remain some States, including some of the world’s 20 larges economies, which are not party to any of these agreements. It is not known how fa such States apply policies along the lines of those required by the 1972 Londo Convention or the 1996 London Protocol.
+2. Amounts and nature of current dumping
+Agreements in, and under, the 1972 London Convention and the 1996 Londo Protocol provide for annual reporting of the number of permits and the quantity an nature of the waste dumped under them. However, reporting under th Convention and the Protocol is not consistent. Figure 1 shows, for 1976 to 2010, th number of States that are Contracting States of the 1972 London Convention, th number submitting reports and the proportion that the latter are of the former.
+Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment fro Pollution (Kuwait Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1140, No. 17898.
+Agreement on the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacifi (Lima Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1648, No. 28325.
+The Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coasta Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention) http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/The_Convention/index.asp.
+Convention for the Protection of Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Regio (Noumea Convention) https://www.sprep.org/attachments/Legal/Files_updated_at_2014/NoumeaConvProtocols.pd Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the north-east Atlantic (the ‘OSPA Convention’). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2354, No. 42279.
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+DAV ABAM oD ON 64.9% QP. 2 SN eB. QM 6D ON. TV... oO HV oH. 0% DN VL. MM... HA SBABRRA HH Pegwegpwgv nov ooo Ho NH HN oO I (Number of Contracting Parties to LC&LP == Number of Contracting Parties that Reporte ——— Percentage of Contracting Parties that Reported === Linear (Percentage of Contracting Parties that Reported)
+Figure 1. Contracting Parties to the 1972 London Convention, Contracting Parties submitting report to the Convention Secretariat and the latter as a proportion of the former, 1976 — 2010. Source: IMO 2014g.
+When the Meeting of Contracting Parties to the 1996 London Protocol set up  compliance mechanism in 2007, the worrying decline in reporting led it to includ the issue of reporting in the terms of reference of the Compliance Group, whic formed part of that mechanism (LC-LP, 2007). Reports under the London Conventio and Protocol take some time to be compiled and submitted. It is usually only in th fourth year after the year being reported on that it is possible to take a final view o the reporting for that year. It is worth noting that non-reporting is the highes amongst London Convention parties, while reporting from London Protocol parties i above 75per cent. It may well be that some or all of the 59 per cent of Contractin States that did not submit reports had not authorized any dumping —like eight of th States in 2010 that did submit reports — but the absence of reports makes i impossible to draw clear conclusions. Also, several non-reporting States are land locked, and therefore may also not have had any dumping to report. There is also  substantial degree of variation from year to year in which States submit reports.
+The Meetings of the Contracting Parties have made efforts to try to improve th level of reporting on the dumping of waste at sea, but so far with limited success The steps taken include reviews and simplifications of the reporting forms and mor recently the introduction of on-line reporting. Improved outreach to Parties an contact with the industrial organizations (such as the International Association o Ports and Harbours) involved in dumping is beginning to produce some results Some States (such as Nigeria and South Africa) have also sought to assist neighbour to set up reporting systems (LC-LP, 2013).
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+100.0%
+90.0%
+80.0%
+70.0%
+60.0%
+50.0%
+40.0%
+30.0%
+20.0%
+10.0%
+0.0 
+
+In spite of these efforts, it is therefore difficult to derive a clear picture of th quantity and nature of wastes and other matter being dumped at sea from th reports under the 1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol.
+Nevertheless, it is clear that the overwhelming type of dumping is of dredge material. For the last year for which a summary of the national reports is availabl (2010), 35 of the 38 reports submitted recorded the dumping of dredged material Most, if not all, of this is derived from dredging for navigational purposes. Some i “capital dredging” for the creation of new berths or shipping channels, but most i “maintenance dredging” for the maintenance of existing harbours and shippin channels. The quantity of material involved is considerable. For example, Belgiu reported dumping 52 million tons in 2010: over 200,000 tons per working day. It i not, however, possible to give an overall picture of how much is the result of regula dredging and how much is new construction, because many reports do no differentiate between capital dredging and maintenance dredging.
+The impacts of this dumping of dredged material are essentially twofold (althoug there can be other effects): the smothering of the seabed by the dredged material and the remobilization of hazardous substances contained in the dredged material The effects of smothering depend essentially on the nature of the dump area. If th dumpsite were to have a biodiverse benthic life, such smothering would b catastrophic. Where tidal action is very dynamic and there is a sedimentary bottom effects are limited, because much of the seabed material will be kept in motion b the tidal action. The choice of dumpsite is therefore important. The regular use o the same dumpsites (which is reported to be common) limits adverse effects. Th remobilization of hazardous substances is a different matter. The Guidance unde the London Convention and Protocol sets out procedures and criteria for decidin whether it is safe to dump contaminated dredged material. Where the harbour fro which the dredged material comes is on the estuary of a river with a history of heav industry (for example, the Rhine), it is frequently contrary to this Guidance (or, in th example quoted, parallel guidance from OSPAR, the local regional organization) t dump the material at sea, and it should be returned to land.
+In the past, a substantial number of States dumped sewage sludge or animal slurry a sea. Where this was done, of course, it was an addition to the nutrient input. I many areas, this has now been stopped because it was a potential contributor t eutrophication problems. In 2010, only Australia (up to 20,000 litres) and th Republic of Korea (556,534 tons) reported dumping of this kind (IMO, 2014b). Th Republic of Korea has also reported that dumping of sewage sludge will end by th end of 2015 (LC-LP, 2013).
+The other substances reported as dumped cover a miscellaneous range. Dumping o fish waste was reported in 2010 by six countries. The total amount dumped wa around 100,000 tons (not all reporting was in terms of tonnage). The othe categories of material dumped included rock, sand and gravel, spoilt cargoes (fo example, wheat, rice and fertilizer), molasses waste and a handful of ships an platforms (some of the latter being intended to create artificial reefs). In addition permits were granted for a few burials at sea (see Chapter 8 Cultural ecosyste services). The overall impression is that, for the countries submitting reports,
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+disposal of waste at sea is now a minor impact on the marine environment an human uses of the sea, except for the dumping of dredged material.
+3. Dumping of radioactive material
+As noted above, the dumping of high-level radioactive waste has been prohibite under the 1972 London Convention since 1975, and dumping of medium- and low level radioactive waste has been prohibited also under the 1996 London Protoco (subject to a review every 25 years) since 1994. The first reported sea disposal o radioactive waste took place in 1946 and the last authorized disposal appears t have been in 1993. During the 48-year history of sea disposal, 14 countries hav used more than 80 sites to dispose of approximately 85,000 terabecquerels o radioactive waste. Some countries used this waste management option only fo small quantities of radioactive waste. Two countries conducted only one disposa each and one country conducted only two disposals (IAEA, 1999).
+In 1992, reports that the former Soviet Union had dumped large amounts of high level radioactive wastes for over three decades in shallow waters in the Arctic Ocea caused widespread concern, especially in countries with Arctic coastlines. In 1992,  joint Norwegian-Russian Expert Group was established to investigate radioactiv contamination due to dumped nuclear waste in the Barents and Kara Seas. Th Russian Federation provided information on the dumping, some of which had take place before 1975. It arranged exploratory cruises to the dumping areas, with th participation of the International Atomic Energy Agency. The results obtained durin the cruises did not indicate any significant radioactive contamination at the dumpin sites, although the levels near some dumped objects are slightly elevated compare with elsewhere (IAEA, 1995).
+Norway undertook further radiological monitoring of the Barents Sea in 2007, 200 and 2009. Activity concentrations of the anthropogenic radionuclides usually used t trace the impact of radioactive waste were reported as low, and up to an order o magnitude lower than in previous decades, including in marine biota. Weighte absorbed dose rates to biota from anthropogenic radionuclides were low, and order of magnitude below a predicted no-effect screening level of 10 micrograys per hou (uGy/hr). Dose rates to man from consumption of seafood and dose rates to biota i the marine environment were found to be dominated by the contribution fro naturally occurring radionuclides (Gwynn et al., 2012). In 2012, a further join Norwegian/Russian project examined radioactive pollution in the Kara Se (Straleverninfo, 2012). It concluded that the situation gave rise to no immediat cause for concern, but that further monitoring of the situation is warranted (JNREG 2014). A further joint Norwegian/Russian study of radioactive contamination in th Barents Sea has been launched.
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+4. Dumped explosives and military chemicals
+After both World Wars, States were faced with the problem of how to dispose of th residues of explosive materials and other warlike stores (“munitions”), including  number of containers of poisonous gases. The solution adopted for substantia quantities was to dump them in the sea. During peacetime, some States have als adopted this method of disposal for unwanted explosives and military chemicals The dump sites were usually chosen to avoid seabed areas then being used b people, but over time some of these areas have come into use as a result o improved technologies and pressures from other uses of the sea.
+In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution noting th importance of raising awareness of the environmental effects related to wast originating from chemical munitions dumped at sea, and invited relevan international organizations to keep the issue under review (UNGA, 2010).
+Munitions dumped at sea present a risk to several classes of users of the sea. Fisher in the location of the dump sites can bring the munitions up in their nets, especiall bottom-trawling nets. Construction of offshore installations, submarine cables an submarine pipelines can interact with dumped munitions. Some munitions based o phosphorus can break out from the (often wooden) boxes in which they were store at the time of disposal, float to the surface, be stranded on beaches and then (as th tide recedes and they dry out) spontaneously burst into flame, and burn a temperatures around 1,000 degrees centigrade. These present potential risks t users of beaches, especially tourists (HELCOM, 2013).
+Exercises have been carried out in several parts of the world to map the dump site and to establish what was dumped there. The Baltic Marine Environment Protectio Commission (HELCOM) estimated that 40,000 tons of munitions were dumped in th Baltic at the end of World War II. Some of these munitions are contained in ship onto which they were loaded and which were then scuttled. Others were throw overboard piece by piece, a process which means that the munitions can end u scattered over a wide area. Similar conclusions about dispersed dumping have bee reached in other areas. The four main dumping areas in the Baltic were south-eas of the Swedish island of Gotland and south-west of the Latvian city of Liepaja, east o the Danish island of Bornholm and south of the Little Belt between the main Danis islands and Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. There is also evidence that munition were thrown overboard as the ships left port (HELCOM, 2013). The OSPA Commission has carried out a similar exercise, resulting in an “Overview of Pas Dumping at Sea of Chemical Weapons and Munitions”, together with a database o encounters with dumped conventional and chemical munitions, which it is intende to keep up-to-date. Best estimates suggest that over one million tons of munition were dumped in Beaufort’s Dyke (a trough in the United Kingdom of Great Britai and Northern Ireland between Scotland and Northern Ireland), some 168,000 tons o ammunition were dumped in the Skagerrak, some 300,000 tons of munitions o various types, such as bombs, grenades, torpedoes and mines, were dumped in th North Sea and an estimated 35,000 tons were dumped off Knokke-Heist, Belgiu (OSPAR, 2010).
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+In other parts of the world, problems have arisen with dumped munitions. Fo example, in 2006 New Zealand had problems with munitions that had been dumpe improperly at the end of the Second World War. An estimated 1,500 tons o munitions had ended up in relatively shallow water and were posing threats t fisheries and recreational uses of the sea. The New Zealand authorities conclude that the best solution was to lift them and re-dump them in much deeper wate before they dried out: if they were brought ashore and allowed to dry, there was  high risk that they would become unstable (LC-LP, 2006).
+A non-governmental organization, the James Martin Center for Nonproliferatio Studies, conducted a general survey of dumped chemical warfare munitions an published an interactive map of 168 munitions dump-sites, with the publicl available information about them, on the interne (https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=zwm9Gb8KEKxl.kKMpXo9rjqlLZM&hl en).
+In 2010, the Research and Technology Organization of the North Atlantic Treat Organization (NATO) reviewed the environmental aspects of the disposal o unwanted munitions. The overall conclusion was that that the technology an expertise existed to deal with immediate problems and with the current generatio of munitions, including the legacy of munitions dumped at sea, but that th expertise and technology was often lodged in countries where there was n significant problem, and that a mechanism was required to assist in the transfer o the technology and expertise to the places where it was needed. It was noted tha this could be significant in measures to control terrorism (NATO, 2010).
+5. Illegal dumping
+If there are problems in obtaining an overall global picture of dumping authorize under the London Convention and London Protocol, trying to gain an overview of th potential effects of illegal dumping presents much greater problems. While the 197 London Convention and the 1996 London Protocol have a mechanism for reportin illegal dumping’, no report has been received in the recent past. An alleged case o illegal dumping in Canadian waters is currently under investigation with a repor expected to be provided to the governing bodies of the London Convention an Protocol in the near future.
+Several cases have been reported of illegal export of waste from industrialize countries for disposal in States in Africa. Most of these have concerned disposal o land. There have also been persistent informal reports of dumping of radioactive o toxic waste in the sea off the coast of the Federal Republic of Somalia. Informa information given to INTERPOL suggested that the naval force present off the coas of the Federal Republic of Somalia to combat piracy may have detected vessel suspected of illegal dumping of waste. Following the tsunami on 26 December 2004,
+® See http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Reporting/incidents/Pages/default.aspx
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+UNEP responded to an urgent request from the authorities in the Puntland region o the Federal Republic of Somalia for help in assessing potential environmenta damage. After an initial UNEP report, an inter-agency mission, which included FAO UNDP, UNEP and WHO, went to Puntland in March 2005. It investigated thre sample sites along a 500-kilometre coastal stretch between the three mai populated coastal locations of Xaafuun, Bandarbeyla and Eyl where toxic waste ha reportedly been uncovered by the tsunami. No evidence of toxic waste was found b the mission. In June 2010, Greenpeace International claimed to have proof of th dumping of toxic waste in the Federal Republic of Somalia by European an American companies in the period from 1990 to 1997, citing testimony from a Italian parliamentary commission, evidence uncovered by an Italian prosecuto (including wiretapped conversations with alleged offenders) and warnings by th Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Somalia in 2008 of possibl illegal dumping in the Federal Republic of Somalia. While INTERPOL and some of th entities cited in the Greenpeace International report have uncovered fragmentar evidence and signs of the dumping of toxins, no international investigation has eve been able to verify the dumping of illegal waste in the Federal Republic of Somalia largely because of the security situation (UNSC, 2011).
+Other evidence of illegal dumping appears from time to time as a result of ocea monitoring. For example, the authorities in Japan have detected within areas unde its jurisdiction high levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and butyl tin an phenyl tin compounds. The origins of such pollution could not be identified (Japa MOE, 2009).
+6. Conclusions on knowledge gaps and capacity-building gaps
+The disposal of solid waste at sea has been regulated under internationa agreements for the past 40 years. The majority of coastal States have accepted thi regime. If the 1972 London Convention and the 1996 London Protocol wer effectively and consistently applied, this source of inputs of harmful substance would be satisfactorily controlled. The problem is basically that we do not kno whether this regime is generally being fully implemented, since there is substantia under-reporting of what is happening.
+There is therefore a major knowledge gap about the implementation of the 197 London Convention and the 1996 London Protocol, as has been acknowledged b the Meetings of the Contracting Parties to the two agreements. Some capacity building is available from the International Maritime Organization and some of th Contracting Parties, to promote better implementation of the agreements an better reporting of what is being done. However, a significant capacity-building ga remains.
+The information gap about the scale and nature of dumping of waste and othe matter that is taking place is further compounded by the absence of informatio about dumping under the control of States which are subject to any formal reportin system under the 1972 London Convention, the 1996 London Protocol or regional
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+dumping agreements and which do not publish any national data. This categor includes some of the world’s largest economies.
+Much work has been done to identify the locations where munitions have bee dumped. However, some gaps in the knowledge remain on this subject. There ar gaps in building capacities to help fishers and other users of the sea to draw on thi knowledge, in order to reduce the risks to which they are subjected and to kno how they should respond if they bring up dumped munitions in their nets.
+References
+Gwynn, J.P., Heldal, H.E., Gafvert, T., Blinova, O., Eriksson, M., Sveren, I. Brungot, A.L., Stralberg, E., Mgller, B., Rudjord, A.L. (2012). Radiologica status of the marine environment in the Barents Sea, Journal o Environmental Radioactivity, 113.
+HELCOM (Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission) (2013). Chemica Munitions Dumped in the Baltic Sea. Report of the ad hoc Expert Group t update and Review the Existing Information on Dumped Chemical Munition in the Baltic Sea, Baltic Sea Environment Proceeding (BSEP) No. 142, Helsinki.
+IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (1995). Special Report: Marine scientist on the Arctic Seas: Documenting the radiological record by Pavel Povinec lolanda Osvath, and Murdoch Baxter, in IAEA Bulletin 2/1995.
+IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (1999). Inventory of Radioactive Wast Disposals at Sea, |AEA-TECDOC-1105.
+IGC (Inter-Governmental Conference on the Convention on the Dumping of Waste at Sea (1982). Final Act of the Conference, International Maritim Organization, London.
+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (1991). The London Dumping Convention The First Decade and Beyond. International Maritime Organization, London.
+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2012). International Maritim Organization, Status of the London Convention and Protocol (IMO Documen LC 34/2), 2012.
+LC-LP (International Maritime Organization) (2014a). Convention on the Preventio of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/Convent on-on-the-Prevention-of-Marine-Pollution-by-Dumping-of-Wastes-and Other-Matter.aspx accessed 9 April 2014).
+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014b). Final report on permits issued i 2010 (IMO Document LC-LP.1/Circ.63).
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+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014c). Status of multilatera Conventions and instruments in respect of which the International Maritim Organization or its Secretary-General performs depositary or other functions 2014 (http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/StatusOfConventions/Documents Status%20-%202014.pdfaccessed 28 October 2014).
+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014e). The London Protocol — What is i and how to implement it, IMO 1533E.
+IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014f). Origins of the Londo Convention (http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/ReferencesAndArchives/IMO_Conf rences_and_Meetings/London_Convention/VariousArticlesAndDocumentsA outTheLondonConvention/Documents/Origins%200f%20the%20London%20 onvention%20 %20Historic%20events%20and%20documents%20%20M.%20Harvey%20Sep ember%202012.pdf accessed 12 October 2014).
+IMO International Maritime Organization (2014g). Direct Communication from th IMO Secretariat in 2014.
+Japan MOE (Ministry of the Environment) (2009). Present Status of Marine Pollutio in the Sea around Japan, Ministry of Environment, Tokyo.
+JNREG (Joint Norwegian-Russian Expert Group) (2014). Investigation into th Radioecological status of Stepovogo Fjord. The dumping site of the nuclea submarine K-27 and solid radioactive waste. Result from the 2012 researc cruise. Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority. ISBN: 978-82-90362-33-6.
+LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2006). Notificatio under Article 8.2 of the 1996 London Protocol regarding a case of emergency London Convention document LC-LP.1/Circ.2.
+LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2007). Complianc Procedures and Mechanisms pursuant to Article 11 of the 1996 Protocol t the 1972 London Convention (Report of the Twenty-Ninth Consultativ Meeting Annex 7 (London Convention document LC 29/1 7, annex 7).
+LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2008). Resolution LC LP.1 on the Regulation of Ocean Fertilization (LC-LP document 30/16, Anne 6).
+LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2010). Resolution LC-
+LP.2 on the Assessment Framework for Scientific Research (LC-LP documen 32/15, Annex 5).
+LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2013). Report of th Thirty-Fifth Consultative Meeting of Contracting Parties to the Londo Convention & Eighth Meeting of Contracting Parties to the London Protoco (London Convention document LC 35/15).
+LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2014). (36t Consultative Meeting of Contracting Parties (1972 London Convention) and
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+9th Meeting of Contracting Parties (1996 London Protocol), 3-7 Novembe 2014 (http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/LCLP/Pages/LC-36 LP-9.aspx accessed 20 November 2014).
+LDC (London Convention) (1988). Resolution LDC.35 (11) Status of Incineration o Noxious Liquid Wastes at Sea.
+NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) (2010). Environmental Impact of Munitio and Propellant Disposal. RTO Technical Report Tr-Avt-115.
+OSPAR (Oslo and Paris Commissions ) (1982). The Oslo and Paris Commissions — th first ten years. London.
+OSPAR (Oslo and Paris Commissions) (2010). OSPAR Commission for the Protectio of the North-East Atlantic, Overview of Past Dumping at Sea of Chemica Weapons and Munitions, London 2010 (ISBN 978-1-907390-60-9).
+Straleverninfo (2012). Statens Stralevern, Felles norsk-russisk tokt til dumpe atomavfall | Kara havet (http://www.nrpa.no/dav/6ced2cea4b.pdf accesse 19 April 2014).
+UNGA (United Nations General Assembly) (2010). Cooperative measures to asses and increase awareness of environmental effects related to waste originatin from chemical munitions dumped at sea (A/RES/65/149).
+UNSC (United Nations Security Council) (2011). Report of the Secretary-General o the protection of Somali natural resources and waters (S/2011/661).
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