diff --git "a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt" "b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt" @@ -0,0 +1,1001 @@ +Chapter 20. Coastal, Riverine and Atmospheric Inputs from Land +Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member and Convenor), Benjamin Halpern Ramalingam Kirubagaran, Md. M. Maruf Hossain, Marcos Polette, Emma Smith Juying Wang (Co-lead member). +Commentators: Arsonina Bera, Mark Costello, Robert Duce, Ralf Ebinghaus Jim Kelley, Thomas Malone, Jacquis Rasoanaina. +Some material originally prepared for Chapter 36F (Open Ocean Deep Sea) an Chapter 51 (Seamounts and other submarine features potentially threatened b disturbance) has been incorporated into parts of this Chapter. The contributors t those chapters were Jeroen Ingels, Malcolm R. Clark, Michael Vecchione Jose Angel A. Perez, Lisa A. Levin, Imants G. Priede, Tracey Sutton, Ashley A. Rowden Craig R. Smith, Moriaki Yasuhara, Andrew K. Sweetman, Thomas Soltwedel Ricardo Santos, Bhavani E. Narayanaswamy, Henry A. Ruhl, Katsunori Fujikura Linda Amaral Zettler, Daniel O. B. Jones, Andrew R. Gates, Paul Snelgrove, J. Anthon Koslow, Peter Auster, Odd Aksel Bergstad, J. Murray Roberts, Alex Rogers Michael Vecchione. +1. Introduction +The movement of materials from land to sea is an inevitable part of the hydrologica cycle and of all geological processes. Nevertheless, human activities have bot concentrated and increased these flows as a result of the creation of large huma settlements, the development of industrial processes and the intensification o agriculture. Until the 1960s, many took the view that the oceans were capable o assimilating everything that humans wanted to discharge into the oceans. In th 1960s, this view came to be seen as out-dated (UNESCO, 1968). Following the 197 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, many steps were taken t address issues of marine pollution. During the preparations for the United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (“the first Earth Summit”), held in Ri de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, there was general agreement that, in spite of what ha been done, a major initiative was needed to address the problems of land-base inputs to the oceans. As a result, Agenda 21 (the non-binding action plan from th 1992 Earth Summit) invited the United Nations Environment Programme (“UNEP”) t convene an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine environmen from land-based activities (Agenda 21, 1992). In October 1995, the Globa Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Base Activities (GPA) was adopted in Washington, DC. First among the priorities of thi Programme was improving the management of waste-water: this concerned not onl waste-water containing human wastes, but also waste-water from industria processes. In addition, a wide range of other source categories also creating +© 2016 United Nations + +problems for the marine environment was identified (UNEP, 1995). The Programm reflected the experience of over twenty years’ work by governments, bot individually and through regional seas organizations, to address these problems Subsequent intergovernmental reviews of the implementation of the GPA show tha progress is being made in many parts of the world, but only slowly. +In evaluating the impacts of contamination on the marine environment, there ar significant difficulties in comparing the situations in different areas. For man aspects of contamination, evaluating the levels of contamination requires chemica analysis of the amounts of the contaminants in samples of water, biota and/o sediments. Unless there is careful control of the sampling methods and analytica techniques in all the cases to be compared, it is difficult to achieve scientifically an statistically valid comparisons. Lack of clear and practical comparisons create problems in setting priorities. For example, a fairly recent review of availabl evidence in the Wider Caribbean concluded that, among the 30 pollution studie examined, analyses varied in terms of sampling schemes, parameters and analytica techniques, and data were presented in ways which made comparison all bu impossible — whether data were in terms of dry weight or wet weight, wha sediment fraction was analyzed, and whether data were presented in absolute term or as a percentage of lipids (Fernandez et al., 2007). Such differences mak meaningful comparisons of the available data very difficult. For this reason, thi chapter does not attempt to give detailed figures on concentrations o contaminants. The Global Environment Facility is supporting the Transboundar Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP), to enable priorities between different area to be established. +The main issues relating to inputs to the oceans and seas from land-based source can be categorized for the purposes of this chapter under the headings of: hazardou substances (including the effects of desalinization plants), endocrine disruptors, oil nutrients and waterborne pathogens, and radioactive substances. +In all cases, consideration has to be given to the variety of means by which th movement of the substances from land to water takes place. The main distinction i between waterborne and airborne inputs. Waterborne inputs can either be direc (through a pipeline from the source directly into the sea, by run-off from lan directly into the sea or by seepage of groundwater directly into the sea) or riverin (through runoff or leaching from land to a watercourse or by a direct discharge into watercourse, and the subsequent flow from such watercourses into the sea) Waterborne inputs are much more readily measured, and for that reason have so fa attracted more attention. There is increasing evidence that airborne inputs ar more significant than has hitherto been thought, not only for heavy metals and othe hazardous substances but also for nitrogen (GESAMP, 2009; Duce et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations + +2. Hazardous Substances +2.1 Which substances are hazardous? +A wide range of substances can adversely affect marine ecosystems and people. Th adverse effects can range from straightforward fatal poisoning to inducing cancers weakening immune systems so that diseases develop more easily, reducin reproductive performance and inducing mutations in offspring. A first requiremen for controlling the input of hazardous substances into the marine environment whether from point or diffuse sources or through the atmosphere is therefore t establish what substances show sufficient grounds for concern that regulatory actio is needed. Lists of substances identified as hazardous can never be closed: ne substances are constantly being developed, and new uses are likewise constantl being found for a wide range of elements and compounds. +International effort to define substances hazardous to the marine environmen began in relation to dumping of waste at sea (see Chapter 24). In this context, th Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships an Aircraft of 15 February 1972 (Oslo Convention) and the Convention on th Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter of 1 November 1972 (London Convention) established the first internationally agree lists of substances whose introduction into the marine environment should b controlled. In both Conventions, a ban on dumping was agreed for similar “blac lists”. These included, among other items, substances such as toxic organohaloge compounds, agreed carcinogenic substances and mercury and cadmium and thei compounds. Controls were agreed on dumping for similar “grey lists’, whic included, among other items, arsenic, lead, copper and zinc and their compounds organosilicon compounds, cyanides, fluorides and pesticides not in the “black list (Oslo Convention 1972; IMO, 1972). When attention was thereafter given to dealin with discharges and emissions from land, these “black” and “grey” lists wer adapted and used by many national and international authorities concerned with th marine environment for the initial work in the field of regulation of land-base inputs of hazardous substances. +Over the past 40 years, regulatory authorities have added further categories to b controlled. In 1976 the United States Environment Protection Agency produced a lis of “toxic pollutants” and an explanatory list of “priority pollutants” (EPA, 1976; EPA 2003). An important contribution to the more general debate on the approach t control of hazardous substances was made in 1993, when the Great Lake Commission proposed the virtual elimination of discharges of substances which ar toxic and persistent (JC, 1993). The most extensive exercise that has focuse specifically on the marine environment was undertaken from 1998 by the OSPA Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlanti to implement its long-term strategy of eliminating discharges, emissions and losse of hazardous substances which could reach and affect the marine environment. Fo this purpose, “hazardous substances” were defined as substances that are toxic persistent and liable to bioaccumulate (bioaccumulation occurs when a substanc taken in by an organism is not excreted, but builds up in the organism), or which give +© 2016 United Nations + +rise to an equivalent level of concern (OSPAR, 1998). This required a definition o thresholds of toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulativity. These agreed levels wer applied to the more than 11,000 substances listed in the Nordic Substance Database with experimental data. The resulting list of substances of possibl concern was then analysed in 2001-2004 to see which substances were only found a intermediates in closed systems, or were not being produced or used, and wer therefore unlikely to affect marine ecosystems. After these had been discounted the resulting list of chemicals for priority action was used to see what action wa needed to meet the cessation target (OSPAR, 2010). The European Union, throug its Regulation, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH Regulation (EU, 2006), is addressing all “persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic” (PBT and “very persistent and very bioaccumulative” (vPvB) substances that are i substantial (more than 1 ton/year) use in its area, or proposed to be introduced China has developed its Catalogue of Toxic Chemicals Prohibited or Strictl Controlled (China, 2014). Other organizations, such as the Arctic Monitoring an Assessment Programme, have developed similar lists (Macdonald et al., 1996). +Although there is substantial overlap between the various lists of substances wher action is considered to be needed to protect the marine environment, there ar variations. These result from differences in evaluation of the level of risk. Differen methods of evaluation, and different choices of cut-off levels for toxicity, persistenc and bioaccumulativity can lead to differing views. Different judgements are made o the extent to which precautions by users can sufficiently guard against the risks t the environment. Different views are taken on the reasonable practicability of th use of acceptable substitutes: what is regarded in some jurisdictions as acceptabl (because, for example, its use can be managed acceptably) is regarded in others a unacceptable. Sometimes (as with chlordane) international action can help chang what is regarded as reasonably practical. The result is that there is no single agree list of hazardous substances that are of concern: substances that are regarded a acceptable in one area are banned in another. +Table 1 shows the principal substances which the range of authorities mentioned i the previous paragraph have regarded as hazardous to the marine environment, an on which action is being taken in all or some parts of the world to control inputs o them to the sea from land. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 1. Background information on substances classified by the authorities mentioned in the text as +presenting hazardous characteristics and therefore justifying action. +SUBSTANCES +SOURCES AND MAIN UsEs* +PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +t = Persistent Organic Pollutan (POP) under the Stockhol Convention on Persistent Organi Pollutants 2001; ++? = Substance unde consideration for listing as a POP under the Stockholm Convention +* = diffuse sources, where th pathways will be mainly from leachin (especially from land-fill wast disposal), emissions to air and/o runoff +Heavy metals +Cadmium Large combustion plants; electro- World production of cadmium is fairly stabl plating; incinerators; paints*; (around 20,000 tons/year) between 2001 an batteries* 20117 +Copper Mining; electric wiring and World production of copper increased 15% to +machinery*; pesticides* +16.2 million tons/year during 2001-2011? +Lead and organic lead compounds +Roofing*; fuel for internal combustio engines*; paint*; PVC stabilizer* +The phasing out of lead in vehicle fuel ha significantly reduced inputs of lead to the seas Emissions in Europe have decreased by 92 during 1990-2003, with similar decreases in Nort America®. World production of lead has, however risen 53% to 4.75 million tons/year during 2001 20117. Over half of this is in Australia and China. +Mercury and organic mercur compounds +Large combustion plants; electrolysi chlor-alkali plants; primitive gold refining* +World production of mercury is relatively stable fluctuating between 1,120 and 2,280 tons/yea during 2001-2011’. A substantial stock-pile is however, emerging as mercury-cell chlor-alkal plants change technology. A global Conventio was adopted at Minamata, Japan, in 2013 t control trade in, and the use of, and plant discharging or emitting it. The Convention is no yet in force. +Zinc +Large combustion plants; surface treatment of sheet metal*; cosmetics* +World production of zinc has risen by 38 % to 12. million tons during 2001-2011, over half i Australia, China and Peru. +Organohalogens +Brominated diphenyls (BDPs (hexa-BDPTt) and BDP ether (BDEs)(tetra-BDEt, penta-BDEt hexa-BDEt, hepta-BDE and deca BDEs) +Fire retardants in automobiles; plastic and textiles* +World production is about 40,000 tons/year. Al BDEs are now controlled in a number of countries Production and use of hexa-BDP and tetra-, penta , hexa- and hepta-BDEs are to be eliminated unde the Stockholm Convention‘. +Hexabromobiphenylt, +Fire retardant* +No current production or use is known. +Hexabromocyclododecane +Fire retardant in plastic foam* +At its peak in the 1970s, production was about +1 http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/tabid/673/Default.aspx and associated risk assessments together with the relevant OSPAR Background Paper (http://www.ospar.org/content/content.asp?menu=00200304000000_000000_000000 * British Geological Survey, World Minerals Statistics Archive +(http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/wms.cfc?method=searchWMS +3 United Nations Environment Programme, Final review of scientific information on lead, Nairobi, 2010 * Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2256, No. 40214. +© 2016 United Nations + +SUBSTANCES +SOURCES AND MAIN Uses" +PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +(HBCDD) t? +6,000 tons /year. No production is now reported. +Hexachlorobutadienet? +Fumigant*; transformer, hydraulic o heat transfer liquid*; viticultur pesticide* +Production and use have ceased in Europe. +Perfluorooctanyl sulphonic aci and its salts (PFOS)t an perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluorid (POSF-F)+ +Electronic components*; fire-fightin foams*; insecticide*; stain repellen for carpets*; fat repellent in food packaging +Production and use to be eliminated unde Stockholm Convention, subject to specifi exemptions. +Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)t +Heat exchange fluids*; electri transformers and capacitors*; pain additives*; carbonless copy paper* plastics* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. Such a prohibition has +been in force since about 1990 in many States, bu residues often remain. +Polychlorinated dibenzodioxin (PCDDs)t and polychlorinate dibenzofurans (PCDFs)t +Incomplete combustion of materia containing organic substances and +chlorine; emissions from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plants. +Emissions to be minimised under the Stockhol Convention +Polychlorinated naphthalenest? +Wood preservatives*, additives t paints and engine oils*, cabl insulation*; in capacitors* +Short chained chlorinated +Lubricants in metal working; leather +SCCPs are produced in Brazil, China, India, Japan, +paraffins (SCCPs)t? treatment; production of rubber and Russia, Slovakia and the United States. Use i plastics Europe and North America has dropped by abou 75% since peaks in the 1990s Vinyl chloride Mainly used in the production of +polyvinylchloride (PVC); +Pesticides/biocides +Aldrint, Dieldrint, Endrint (Aldri rapidly converts to Dieldrin) +Insecticides*. Endrin also used i rodent control*. +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention, subject to som transitional exemptions. +Atrazine and Simazine +Herbicide (used extensively in maiz and sugarcane agriculture to contro weeds)* +Production and use have been phased out in som countries (where it has largely been replaced b less persistent herbicides. Still produced and use in some other countries, where controls on us are seen as sufficient to keep it out of the wate environment. +© 2016 United Nations + +SUBSTANCES +SOURCES AND MAIN Uses" +PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +Chlordanet +Insecticide, particularly for termites +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. The Global Environmen Facility in 2006 provided USD 14 million for programme to enable China to achieve this. +Chlordeconet +Insecticide, particularly used in banan culture +No current production or use is known. +Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan (DDT)t +Originally use widely as a broad spectrum insecticide, now almos exclusively for controlling insec disease-vectors* +Production and use controlled under th Stockholm Convention. 18 Convention Partie have registered to continue to use DDT fo disease-vector control, of which 5 reported no us in their last report. One Party (the Gambia reported use, but had not registered. +Dicofol +Pesticide, especially for mites o tomatoes and melons* +Some countries have phased out the use o dicofol. It is still used in Brazil, China, India an Israel. Produced by chemically modifying DDT. +Endosulfant +Pesticide* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention, subject to specifi exemptions. +Heptachlor +Insecticide, especially for soil insect and termites* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. +Hexachlorobenzene Fungicide* Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention Lindane (y-hexachlorocyclohexane | Insecticide* Production and use to be eliminated under the +(HCH)t, including a-HCHt and B HCH? isomers (produced in larg quantities as by-products to y HCH) +Stockholm Convention, subject to exception fo use against head-lice and scabies. Production an use have largely already ceased, but stockpiles o a- and B-HCH exist. +Methoxychlor +Insecticide for use on both animals an plants* +Phased out in the European Union and the Unite States. Information is lacking on production an use elsewhere. +Mirext +Insecticide, particularly for termites* fire retardant* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. The Global Environmen Facility in 2006 provided US$14 million for programme to enable China to achieve this. +Pentachlorophenol (PCP) and it salts and esterst? +General pesticide, now widel restricted to use as a fungicide an wood preservative* +PCP is being considered under the Stockhol Convention because it transforms int pentachloroanisole (PCA) which is seen as problem. PCP has been phased out in th European Union. +Pentachlorobenzenet +Used to make PCBs less viscous*; i dyestuff carriers*; as a fungicide*; as flame retardant* +No current intentional production or use is known probably still produced as a by-product i imperfect incineration. +Toxaphenet +Insecticide, particularly used for cotto and soya-bean culture* +Production and use is to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. +Aromatics +Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) +Incinerators; large combustion plants Sdderberg-process aluminium smelting plants; coke plants; imperfec combustion of wood and fossil fuels +Reductions in PAH emissions are being achieve by tighter regulation of vehicles, combustio plants and incinerators, technology changes i aluminium-smelting plants and (in some areas) +© 2016 United Nations + +SUBSTANCES SOURCES AND MAIN Uses" PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +treatments (including creosote)* processes. +Particularly important are: +(a) Heavy metals: All heavy metals occur naturally and, because of natural +weathering processes and the immunity of natural elements to destruction are found at measurable levels even in waters generally regarded generally a pristine. Some heavy metals (such as cadmium, mercury and lead) are alway highly toxic. Others (especially copper and zinc) are essential trace elements i diet or intake for many biota. Some heavy metals, especially copper an arsenic, have been used extensively in the past for plant protection purposes resulting in widespread additional dispersal and higher concentrations in som areas. In excessive amounts, however, even these can interfere with th absorption of other essential trace elements and, at high levels, become toxic At lower levels, they also appear capable of affecting the immune systems o biota (Coles et al., 1995; Kakuschka et al., 2007) or their reproductive succes (Leland et al., 1978); +(b) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): \n contrast, POPs are man-made. They +are organic compounds (that is, compounds involving carbon, most ofte combined with hydrogen and/or with chlorine, bromine or other halogens that resist degradation in the environment through chemical, biological o other processes. Many were developed as biocides (insecticides, herbicides etc.) since about 1910-1930. Others are used in manufacturing processes or i electrical appliances. From the 1960s, concerns developed about their effect on immune systems and reproductive success, and about their carcinogeni effects. As a consequence of the call in the GPA in 1995, subsequentl endorsed by the UNEP Governing Council, the Stockholm Convention o Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted on 22 May 2001° and now provide a global mechanism for controlling the production and use of POPs. Initially agreement was reached in 2004 that production and use of 12 POPs should b banned or strictly controlled. Since then a further 10 POPs have been brough under the Convention’s controls; +(c) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): PAHs are complex compounds of +hydrogen and carbon (and, in some cases, other elements such as nitrogen oxygen or sulphur). They occur naturally, and are also typically created b imperfect combustion processes. Many, but not all, are carcinogenic and/o affect reproductive success; +(including vehicles)*; coal-tar surface elimination of the use of some surface-treatment +It is important to note that the category of hazardous substances is not closed. Ne substances are constantly being developed, and new uses are constantly being found +for a wide range of elements and compounds. +The questions whether these +substances and elements are toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative and whether +° 2256 United Nations Treaty Series 119. +© 2016 United Nation + +their uses present risks to the marine environment need to be kept under continua review. Substances where such questions arise are sometimes referred to a “contaminants of emerging concern” (see, for example, Yuan et al., 2013). +Knowledge of the extent of the presence of hazardous substances in the marin environment is patchy. Some issues, such as the presence in the marin environment of contamination from heavy metals and lindane, have been studie for over 30 years in some areas and, to a lesser extent, have also been studied quit widely around the world. Other issues have only been looked at more recently, an a number have only been examined from the point of view of laboratory tests o substances on marine biota, without monitoring for the presence of the substance in the sea itself or its biota and sediments. +Some hazardous substances reach the marine environment in inflows of water others are airborne. Waterborne contaminants tend to be found mainly near th inflows, and thus concentrated in estuarial and coastal waters, particularly wher they are adsorbed onto particles in the water and settle as sediments. Airborn contaminants are carried much further out to sea, and therefore are found mor generally. For some hazardous substances, sampling around the world’s continent has shown that they are present in all continents (for example, dioxins and furan (which are most often airborne) have been found in butter samples from al continents, though to a lesser extent in the southern hemisphere (Weiss et al. 2005). Where hazardous substances have been spread worldwide largely by ai transport, it can be assumed that they have also reached the ocean. It is known tha some POPs have been concentrated on the higher latitudes of northern hemispher land-masses by a process of volatilization from land and redeposition — sometime described a “multi-hop” process, as compared with “one-hop” contaminants that ar carried in one step to their final destination. +3. Point Sources +The most obvious threats to the marine environment from hazardous substance come from point sources. Such point sources can be either discharges into river which ultimately reach the sea, or direct discharges through pipelines into the sea There can be cases (usually volcanic eruptions) in which natural processes result i the introduction of naturally occurring hazardous substances into the ocean However, many point sources are large industrial plants which provide concentrated source from which the hazardous substances pass into the marin environment. Waste-water treatment plants can also be regarded as point sources since they can concentrate hazardous substances from a substantial area and funne them to a single discharge point. Historically, it was the impact of such poin sources on inland waters that first gave rise to concern. In England, effectiv legislation was introduced as early as 1875 (Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Ac 1875). Similar legislation followed in other industrialized countries. Because of th then current belief in the almost infinite absorptive capacity of the sea, genera measures on discharges and emissions reaching and affecting the sea were not +© 2016 United Nations + +adopted until the 1970s. Initially the measures were “end of the pipe” methods o removing contaminants from discharges and emissions. Gradually, the emphasis ha moved more to “clean technology”, where the contaminants are not used in, or no generated by, the process. Among the most significant point sources in respect o hazardous substances are the following: +(a) Large combustion plants: Since fossil fuels naturally contain other minerals such as heavy metals, their combustion releases those elements. Since th gases from combustion are released to the air, large combustion plants are significant source for airborne transport of contaminants to the ocean. Man large combustion plants do not have sufficient scrubbers to clean the flu gases. Such plants are particularly significant for emissions of mercury: al forms of coal-burning account for 24 per cent of the total global estimate annual anthropogenic releases of 1,960 tons (estimate range: 304 to 678 tons (UNEP, 2013a based on a 2010 inventory). This estimate differs in absolut amount and relative proportion of the total emissions from an earlier one i 2008 based on a 2005 inventory: in 2008 all forms of coal-burning wer estimated to be in the range of 1,230 to 2,890 tons, and to constitute th largest sector emitting mercury; the change is due to revised estimates o emissions from domestic heating (revised downwards from 2008 to 2013), an emissions from artisanal gold refining (revised upwards from 2008 to 2013 and thus estimated in 2013 to be the largest mercury-emitting sector). If th 2005 inventory figures are compared with the 2010 inventory figures and th same methodology used is considered, and the estimates employ the sam 2010 methodology, the emissions in 2010 from coal combustion in powe generation and industrial uses combined are the same as, or perhaps slightl higher than, in 2005. The fact that emissions from this sector are not higher even though new coal-fired power plants are being built, rests on th improving combustion efficiency and emissions controls in most parts o the world (UNEP, 2008; UNEP, 2013a). Emissions of mercury from larg combustion plants should eventually be controlled by the actions require under the Minamata Convention on Mercury of 10 October 2013 (Minamat Convention). Coal-fired power stations are also significant sources of cadmium zinc and PAHs. Cement production is another form of large combustion plan which can emit heavy metals both from the fuel and from the raw materials: i 2013, mercury emissions from this sector were estimated on the basis of th 2010 inventory at 173 tons (estimate range 65.5 — 646 tons) (EU BREF, 2013 UNEP, 2013a). +Between 2001 and 2012, the proportion of the total amount of electricit generated by coal-fired power stations declined or remained stable in much o the world (Africa, Europe and Central Asia, North and South America, Sout Asia). It can therefore be expected that emissions of mercury from such powe stations reaching the ocean will stabilise or decline. The proportion, however grew steadily in East Asia — from 51 per cent to 63 per cent (although China’ proportion of coal-derived electricity remained stable at around 80 per cent) Unless even greater efforts are made to control emissions of hazardou substances from coal-fired power stations, the levels of contaminants reaching +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +the ocean from this source in that part of the world are likely to increas (World Bank, 2014). +The pattern of development in cement production is different from that o coal-fired power generation: except in Europe, there has been significan growth over the past decade: 33 per cent in the Americas, 66 per cent i Oceania, over 200 per cent in Africa and over 250 per cent in Asia. Thi increase in production appears to have been accompanied by marke improvements in the quality of control of emissions: for one of the mos significant, mercury, the UNEP 2013 estimate of mercury emissions from thi sector was lower than the 2008 estimate (173 tons as against 189 tons) (UNEP 2008; UNEP, 2013a). +Index 2001 = 100 +2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 +—Africa —BeAmerica Asia = 36-CIS) «Europe —®-Oceania +Figure 1 World Cement Production 2001-12. Source: European Cement Association, 2014. +(b) Chemical industries: Chemical industries can give rise to a wide range o contaminant emissions and discharges: the products themselves may presen problems — as can be seen from the list of substances in Table 1 — and othe hazardous substances can be released either in the production process or a part of the waste stream. Where efforts have been focused on combatin pollutant discharges and emissions, chemical plants have usually been high o the list of targets. For traditional technologies, the focus has to be o removing pollutants from the waste streams and preventing leaks during th process. Increasingly, however, the focus is on new technologies which do no present the same pollution problems as the traditional technologies (fo example, the membrane process in chlor-alkali production and the “no chlorine” processes in paper and pulp production). +The world of chemical production is, moreover, changing fast. Measuring th overall situation is not easy, because of the wide range of products that com under the umbrella of the chemical industries. One measure that can be use to indicate the scale of change in the chemical industries, however, is the valu of the goods produced. In real terms, the statistics of such product values wil show changes in the level of activity of the chemical industries in differen countries. Such statistics will, of course, hide changes in chemical industrie where bulk production of basic chemicals is replaced by production of +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +specialist chemicals of higher intrinsic value. Nevertheless, they can give a overall view of the way in which the world’s chemical industries are changin (see Appendix to this chapter): +(i) Between 2003 and 2012, the value of the total world output of chemical rose by 12 per cent in real terms; +(ii) In 2003, 60 per cent by value of the world output of chemicals was i North America and Europe. By 2012, this had dropped to 40 per cent; +(iii) In contrast, the proportion by value of world chemical production in Asi and the Pacific rose from 29 per cent to 49 per cent, in spite of a reductio of 24 per cent in the value of Japanese chemical products. The value o Chinese chemical products in real terms rose by 293 per cent between 200 and 2012 (to 29 per cent of total world production), that of Singapore by 7 per cent, that of India by 56 per cent, and that of the Republic of Korea by +32 per cent 201 200 North America. +Asia-Pacific 2 North Americ @ Europ OLatin America. +Africa and Middl Russia +3% @ Africa and Middle East +B Asia-Pacifi Russia. Europ 1% 34 Latin Amaia 1% 2% +Figure 2 World Chemical Production by value in 2003 and 2012. Source: Appendix to this chapter. +There has therefore been a significant change in the potential for the impac of chemical industries on the marine environment, with a change of focus fro the Atlantic Ocean basin to the Pacific Ocean basin. +Certain types of chemical plants merit specific mention: chlor-alkali plants polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plants and titanium-dioxide plants. +(c) Chlor-alkali plants: Chlorine and caustic soda are basic requirements fo many chemical industries. Since 1892, they have been produced b electrolysis of brine. The (original) mercury-cell process uses a layer o mercury as the cathode, which is constantly withdrawn and reacted wit water. The resulting water discharges, unless purified, have a high mercur content. This original process is increasingly being replaced, initially by th diaphragm process (which used an asbestos diaphragm) and now by th membrane process, neither of which use mercury. One hundred mercury-cel process plants still exist in 44 countries. Existing plans will result in thi number diminishing to 55 plants in 25 countries by 2020 (UNEP, 2013b). +(d) Polyvinyl chloride plants: PVC plants use various processes to convert viny chloride monomer into the plastic PVC which has manifold uses throughou the world. Global production in 2009 was around 30 million tons, representin a growth of 50 per cent since 1995. The world’s production capacity is +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +significantly higher (around 48 million tons/year), but the economic recessio reduced use of this capacity (Deloitte, 2011). Production levels are expected t recover quickly and to continue to grow. Capacity in China has grow particularly rapidly, from about 375,000 tons in 2001 to nearly 16,000,000 ton in 2008. +The adverse environmental impact from PVC plants consists mainly of th emission of dioxins and furans and the risks from the emission of vinyl chlorid monomer (VCM), a known carcinogen. Although the immediate threats are t the vicinity of the plants, there is evidence that all these emissions can reac the marine environment (OSPAR, 2000). +In China, there is an additional problem in that the large majority of PVC plant in that country develop the PVC by an acetylene-based process starting fro coal, in contrast to plants in the rest of the world which mainly use a ethylene-based process starting from oil. The production of the acetylen from coal requires a catalyst, which is currently mercury chloride (althoug research is in hand to develop a mercury-free alternative). About 574-80 tons/year of mercury are used (2009 figures), of which about 368-514 tons ar lost in waste (China, 2010). It is not clear how much of this reaches the sea. +140 1200 |— 1000 | = Cepacity 300 "Seoaaae ena = mOutput 60 400 i wi 200 =" +o | +2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 | +Figure 3. China: PVC production capacity and output (in 10,000 tons). Source: Chlor-Alkali Industr Association in China, 2010. +(e) Titanium dioxide (TiO) plants: TiO is used as a very white pigment, mainl in paint, plastics and paper. Different production processes are used for th two main mineral sources (ilmenite and rutile), but both produce larg amounts of acid waste. In Europe in the 1970s, much of this was disposed o into the sea, either by pipeline or dumping. This gave rise to concern abou effects on fish (Vethaak et al., 1991). Improved waste management methods mainly through recycling the acid or its use in other products, have now largel removed these problems in Europe. Estimated production of TiO, is about 1. million tons/year each in Europe and the United States, and about 2.3 millio tons/year in China, where production is growing rapidly (USGS, 2013). +(f) Mining: Mining is a significant part of the economy in a number of States and everywhere is a basic source of supply to manufacturing industry. In 2010 eight States were responsible for over 70 per cent by value of global +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +production from mining: Australia (15.6 per cent), China (15.0 per cent), Brazi (10.2 per cent), Chile (6.8 per cent), the Russian Federation (6.2 per cent) South Africa (5.9 per cent), India (5.6 per cent) and the United States (5.0 pe cent). Mining formed over a tenth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Papu New Guinea (33.4 per cent), Zambia (23.8 per cent), Chile (14.7 per cent) Ghana (12.7 per cent) and Peru (12.0 per cent) (ICMM, 2012). +From the point of view of the aquatic environment, the main concern abou mining is the disposal of waste. Large amounts of pulverized rock mixed wit water (“tailings”) are produced, which have to be stored or disposed of. Excep that some mines remove cyanide (used in extracting metals), tailings are no treated before disposal. They therefore contain a large range of potentiall hazardous substances. They can also cause problems through siltation an smothering of biota, particularly in the sea. Concerns about the consequen problems for the sea go back 600 years in south-west England (Worth, 1953) Tailings are most often stored on land behind dams. Catastrophic collapses o tailings dams can release toxic materials into watercourses and thence to th sea. Twenty-six tailing-dam failures in 15 countries have been noted betwee 2000 and 2014 (WISE, 2014). Not all of these will have affected the sea, bu the 1996 event at Marinduque, in the Philippines, clearly had effects on th marine environment, making the sea much more acid, with elevated heavy metal levels, as well as smothering a substantial area of the seabed (USGS 2000). In some cases, tailings are also disposed of directly into rivers and int the sea. In 2012, there were 12 mines (1 in Indonesia, 5 in Norway, 4 in Papua New Guinea, 1 in Turkey and 1 in the United Kingdom) practising disposa direct into the sea (IMO, 2012). In all cases the aim was to have a pipelin taking the waste well below the bulk of marine life in the water column However, the tailings smother a large area of seabed, and are capabl (depending on the local geology) of introducing substantial amounts of heav metals into the marine environment. +(e) Smelting: The smelting of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous, can result i the emission of heavy metals to the atmosphere, which may then be deposite in coastal catchments and transported to the sea by watercourses, o deposited direct onto the sea by wet or dry deposition. For example, aroun 70 per cent of the emissions of lead to the atmosphere in Australia in 2003/0 were from non-ferrous metal processing (though not generally adversel affecting the marine environment). Ferrous-metal production also leads t emissions of lead to air: in Europe in 2000, it was estimated that lead emission from iron and steel production was about half as much again as that from non ferrous metal production. There is no recent estimate of the amount of globa emissions of lead to air, but in 1983 it was estimated at 87,000-113,000 ton (this will have reduced substantially since with the reduction in use of leade petrol/gasoline) (UNEP, 2010). When properly managed, metal smelting ca have very limited adverse effects on the marine environment. However production of many metals is increasing rapidly (see, for example, the figure in Table 1 for heavy metals). Likewise, the production of iron and steel is als increasing rapidly: pig-iron production increased by 85 per cent between 2001 +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +and 2011 to 1,158 million tons/year (BGS, 2012). In particular, pig-iro production in China over the same period rose by over 300 per cent, so that i is now over half the annual world production. Even if the levels of emission per ton of production are kept steady at the present level, the total load wil increase in proportion. +Aluminium presents a special case. The primary form of production is b electrolysis. The Sdderberg process became the predominant method. Th carbon anode used in this process is consumed at a rate of about 0.5 ton fo every ton of aluminium produced (ALCOA, 2014). Much of this carbon used t be emitted as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Over time, bette controls on PAH emission have been introduced, and more importantly, th Sdderberg-process aluminium-smelting plants are being phased out — onl about 7 per cent of global aluminium production is now by that process. Fro 2005 to 2010, world primary aluminium production increased by almost 30 pe cent to 41.6 million tons (over one-third of which is in China, which has n Soderberg plants), but PAH emissions to air were reduced by 50 per cent pe ton of aluminium produced (IAI, 2013); +(f) Paper industry: Paper mills can give rise to a variety of environmenta concerns. In relation to hazardous substances, the problems arise mainly fro bleaching the pulp, a process needed for the production of most paper. Durin the period before the 1970s-1980s, the pulp and paper industry was the sourc of inputs giving rise to concern: polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDDs an PCDFs) were detected in effluents of pulp mills, resulting from the long established use of chlorine in bleaching. It has proved possible to reduce thi problem substantially by a mix of measures: principally by replacing elementa chlorine with chlorine dioxide and other oxygen-containing substances and b introducing closed systems and recycling the bleach-plant effluent. Ne processes have also been introduced: the Elemental-Chlorine-Free (ECF) an the Totally-Chlorine-Free (TCF) processes, which avoid the by-products of th chlorine bleaching process (EU BREF, 2001). +The paper industry has seen substantial growth in the period 2001-2012 worldwide production has increased by 23 per cent to just over 400 millio tons. This growth has not been uniform: production in Canada and the Unite States has declined, while production levels in Africa, Europe, Oceania and th Russian Federation have remained more or less stable. The growth has been i Asia and Latin America, where production has increased over this period by 7 per cent and 34 per cent, respectively; production in China alone has grown b nearly 220 per cent to 103 million tons in 2012 (see Table 1 in Appendix to thi chapter). Even if levels of contaminants per ton of production are kept a previous levels, growth on this scale will substantially increase the total load o contaminants finding its way to the sea. There is evidence (Zhuang, 2005) tha the expansion of Chinese paper-making capacity has been accompanied b improved environmental management, but data to show the total effect d not seem to have been collated. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(g) Incinerators: Increasingly, significant amounts of domestic and municipa waste consist of plastics containing chlorine. Much of this waste is disposed o through incineration. Where this happens in uncontrolled open-air burning there is a substantial risk of the formation of dioxins and furans: almost an combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine can yield som polychlorinated dioxins/furans under the wrong conditions (Altwicker et al. 1990). Even where the incineration takes place in purpose-built incinerators, risk of such formation remains, especially where controls do not ensure tha appropriate temperatures are reached during combustion or where devices t scrub or filter the flue gases are not installed or not properly maintained an Operated. The same problem arises where incineration is used to dispose o wastes from industries that produce waste containing hazardous substances: i incineration is not properly done, both the hazardous substances in the wast and other newly created hazardous substances may be emitted. +(h) Fertilizer production: The production of phosphate fertilizer produce substantial amounts of waste from the rock that has to be processed. Heav metals, especially cadmium, are found in this waste, and reach the sea eithe from direct discharges or, in some cases, by leaching from land-based wast storage. Total world fertilizer production has risen by 23 per cent betwee 2002 and 2011, rising even more in South America (89 per cent) and East Asi (78 per cent). Production in Africa represents a fifth of the total worl production, and concern has been raised about the impacts of some of th discharges (Gnandi et al., 2006). +(i) Desalination: Desalination is very important in some parts of the world wher fresh water is in short supply (see chapter 28). Desalination plants requir massive intakes from the sea (capacity in the north and central Red Sea, fo example, is over 1,750 megalitres® a day (PERSGA, 2006), and in the Persia Gulf, it is over 10,900 megalitres a day (Sale et al., 2011)) and produc substantial discharges. The potential contaminants are found in discharges o heated, concentrated brine and of chemicals added to improve performanc and to prevent corrosion (chlorine, copper and antiscalants). The effects of th brine discharge are mostly local (within tens of metres of the discharge), an are quickly diluted and dispersed, but in extreme cases they can be traced fo several kilometres (Roberts et al., 2010). They are particularly significant i areas with high tidal ranges where the discharge is above the high-tide mark where they can affect biota in the inter-tidal zone. Chlorine concentrations i discharges in the Red Sea average 0.25 ppm (standard swimming-poo chlorination is 1.0-3.0 ppm), and so local biocidal effects are possible. Coppe concentrations in the discharges of a typical desalination plant are around 1 ppb, significantly above generally accepted criteria for satisfactory water quality. In Red Sea desalination plants, about 9 tons of antiscalants a day ar used and discharged. They have a relatively low toxicity and are dilute rapidly, and are therefore judged unlikely to pose a significant threat, but there +A megalitre is equivalent to one million litres or one thousand cubic metres. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +is limited information on them. In general, the conclusion of a review o articles studying these problems was that discharge site selection is th primary factor that determines the extent of ecological impacts of desalinatio plants (Roberts et al., 2010). Overall, the Regional Organization for th Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA determined in 2006 that desalination was not a threat to the Red Sea (PERSGA 2006). No overall assessment of effects in the Persian Gulf appears to hav been made (Sale et al., 2011). +4. Diffuse Sources +There are manifold diffuse sources of hazardous substances that can reach an affect the ocean. The main pathways are through surface water runoff i watercourses (both from liquid discharges and from leaching), groundwate discharges, and wet and dry deposition of emissions to the atmosphere. The mos significant processes are waste disposal, routine combustion processes, abrasion use of biocides and accidents. All of these affect both land and sea, and there i nothing special about the methods to control these processes for the purpose o protecting the marine environment. It is, however, necessary to ensure that marin aspects of the impact of all hazardous substances are specifically considered i decision-making on control measures, because the effects of some hazardou substances are significantly greater (or different) than in freshwater or lan environments. Other compounds released from diffuse sources that have bee suggested for consideration include pharmaceuticals (both human and veterinary and cosmetic ingredients (such as musk xylene). Evaluation of such substances ha not yet shown general agreement that there are significant problems which nee action, although some regulatory bodies are keeping some of these substance under observation. +4.1 Waste disposal +Adverse effects on the marine environment from waste disposal can arise from wide range of processes. Leaching from land-fills into which waste has bee deposited is probably the major source. This can be significant for brominated flam retardants (PBDEs and related substances (see entry in Table 1)). Industrial liqui waste will often enter into municipal waste water treatment systems — these can b regarded as point sources, but at the same time they usually collect waste wate from a large area. The waste entering municipal waste water treatment systems als includes runoff from accidents involving the spilling of hazardous substances. A larg number of hazardous substances will form part of materials in waste streams Among the heavy metals, lead and cadmium are particularly significant given thei widespread use in batteries: 80 per cent of all lead used in OECD countries is used i batteries (ILZG, 2014). Although there is a strong economic interest in recycling suc lead (and lead is the most recycled non-ferrous metal), there is a substantial risk tha it will eventually leach to the ocean from badly managed waste streams. The same +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +applies to other heavy metals (such as cadmium) which are also used in batterie and electronic equipment. +Plastics containing chlorine compounds (such as PVC) form a significant part of wast streams in most countries. These therefore also present problems for the marin environment if disposal is not properly managed, because inadequately controlle combustion can result in the release of hazardous substances to the marin environment. +The Global Alliance on Health and Pollution (which includes, among others, UNEP UNDP, UNIDO and the World Bank) has developed an international register of ove 2,000 sites in middle- and low-income countries (as defined by the World Bank where pollution problems are occurring (http://www.pollutionproject.org/about tsip/). A large number of these sites are in the immediate coastal zone. Althoug this exercise has been focused on implications for human health, the extent to whic the problems at these sites consist of uncontrolled releases of hazardous substance gives an indication of the extent to which badly managed waste-disposal sites an other sites with toxic deposits can present a problem for the ocean. In mor developed countries, there are also problems from sites with toxic deposits, bu remediation efforts appear to have been implemented in many of these case (Ericson et al., 2013). +4.2 Use of Pesticides +The purpose of pesticides is that they are spread into the environment in order t control the pest against which they are aimed. If the pesticides are applie improperly, if surplus pesticides are not adequately disposed of, or if the chemical involved have a sufficiently high degree of persistence before they degrade, they wil eventually reach the marine environment. As shown above, action has been take to remove from use many of the pesticides that give rise to most concern about thei impact on the marine environment because of their toxicity, persistence an bioaccumulativity. However, even where such pesticides have been removed fro the market, stocks often remain, and residues from past use persist in the soil an watercourse sediments that can make their way to the sea. In some cases, th judgement has been made that controls on the use of the pesticide will be sufficien to guard against harm to the oceans (see above on atrazine). In all these cases therefore, there is a strong case for continued monitoring to check that bans ar working and that usage conditions are being observed. +4.3 Routine combustion processes +Some hazardous substances, especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), ca be created by relatively common combustion processes, such as wood-burnin stoves (Oanh et al., 1999). Uncontrolled burning of waste, such as rubber tyres, i another such source. Such emissions can be limited by better design of stoves an by better management of waste disposal. However, effective control of all suc sources is unlikely to be practicable. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +4.4 Abrasion +Some hazardous substances are used in products such as vehicle tyres and paint where eventual abrasion is likely to free them into the environment, as the tyres ar worn down or the paint peels off. Significant progress was made in reducing thi kind of contaminant with the replacement of white lead paint by paint based o titanium dioxide (Waters, 2011). Substitution of this kind is the most effective wa of resolving this kind of problem. +4.5 Small-scale gold-mining +A traditional, but crude, refining process for recovering gold from ore uses mercur to create an amalgam with the gold and subsequently vaporizes the mercury to leav high-quality gold. The vaporized mercury becomes an airborne contaminant, an can reach and affect the ocean. Artisanal gold-mining has been estimated t account for about 25 per cent of global gold production (Donkor et al., 2006). Th predominant refining process in artisanal gold-mining is the mercury-amalga process. It is judged to be the sector with the largest source of mercury emissions t the air (UNEP, 2008). The Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013) requires State bound by the Convention which have artisanal and small-scale gold mining to reduc and, where possible eliminate the use and environmental releases of mercury fro such mining and processing. +4.6 Accidents +Wherever hazardous substances are produced, stored or transported, there is scop for accidental releases. There is no effective global source for statistics of accident involving hazardous substances (ILO, 2007). In several countries, systems have bee established to provide for the location, design and inspection of premises wher hazardous substances are produced or stored and of vehicles carrying them, and fo response to, and investigation of, significant accidents that do occur (for example the European Union Seveso Directive (EU, 1996)). +5. Regional View of the Impact of Hazardous Substances on the Ocean +The lack of data makes it impossible to develop a general assessment of the relativ impacts of hazardous substances on the ocean in the different parts of the world. I some areas, regional or national efforts have produced time-series of observation that enable trends to be established. But even here, the need to work through number of institutions often means that clear comparisons between the absolut situation in different areas is not possible: different measuring techniques may b used; significantly different ranges of varieties of chemicals may be observed; and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +there is often an absence of any ring-testing to validate the accuracy of differen institutions. +5.1 Open ocean generally +Observations of the presence of heavy metals and other hazardous substances in th open ocean’ are very limited, including areas around islands and archipelagos in th open ocean. Few specific studies of pollution in the open ocean have bee conducted. What information is available is concentrated on the north Atlantic. Th Indian Ocean and the southern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans have hardl been assessed. +For hazardous substances, the most significant route for impacts on the open ocea is transport through the atmosphere: hazardous substances can be carried either a aerosols (that is, microscopically fine particles of solids or liquids suspended in th air) or as gases (particularly in the case of mercury). The substances can remai suspended for long periods, and thus travel long distances. However, availabl evidence does not show that heavy metals in the open ocean are at levels causin adverse effects on humans or biota — with the exception of mercury. The load o mercury in the atmosphere has approximately tripled in the last two centuries. Thi has led to a probable doubling of inputs to the ocean. However, evidence also exist that, in some open-ocean areas such as near Bermuda, levels of mercury in the se have decreased from the early 1970s to 2000. Nevertheless, there is good evidenc that some fish concentrate mercury in their flesh to levels which give rise to risks fo humans who eat a lot of such fish. Mercury concentrations in midwater fishes ar several-fold higher than in epipelagic fishes at the same trophic level. Mercury level in deep-sea fishes, such as morids and grenadiers, are substantially higher than i shelf-dwelling fishes, such as cod; notably long-lived fishes on seamounts, such a orange roughy and black cardinalfish, have mercury levels near or at the level normally regarded as permissible for human consumption (0.5 ppm). Huma activities have also led to higher levels of airborne inputs of lead and cadmium, bu in these cases there is no evidence yet of toxic effects ((Monteiro et al., 1996 Koslow, 2007; GESAMP, 2009). +For persistent organic pollutants (POPs), there is no doubt about their ability to b carried long distances through the atmosphere — this was one of the major reason for the concerns that led to the Stockholm Convention. Although the effects o deposition of POPs on land have been extensively studied, information specificall on the levels of deposition of these substances in the open ocean and their possibl effects is very limited (GESAMP, 2009). Estimates suggest that concentration o POPs may be an order of magnitude higher in deep-sea than in near-surface dwelling fishes, and the deep sea has been referred to as their ultimate global sin (Froescheis et al., 2000; Mormede and Davies, 2003). +’ As explained in Chapter 1, “open ocean” in this Assessment refers to the water column o deep-water areas that are beyond (that is, seawards of) the geomorphic continental shelf. I is the pelagic zone that lies in deep water (generally >200 m water depth). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +5.2 Arctic Ocean +In the Arctic, downward trends are reported in concentrations of the POP controlled by the Stockholm Convention. Levels in marine mammals, some seabird and polar bears are still high enough to cause adverse effects on their immun systems and reproductive success, but this is not the case for fish. Of the heav metals, lead concentrations in biota were assessed as low in 1997 and since the they have been found to be decreasing. Mercury has been found at relatively hig levels in whales, but the presence of selenium is also high enough to neutralize an detrimental effects. Parts of northern Canada have substantial natural levels o cadmium. The runoff from these deposits is reflected in the marine biota. Loca pollution from heavy metals and some POPs is found around some mines, especiall on the Kola Peninsula (Russian Federation) and some military installations, such a the Distant Early Warning System stations in northern Canada. In addition, on report suggests that 12 million drums of unknown, but potentially polluting contents have been left in the Russian Federation: remediation is under way (AMAP 1997; AMAP, 2009). Nevertheless, atmospheric transport and transport by ocea currents of pollutants are still significant issues for the Arctic (Stemmler et al., 2010 Ma et al., 2015). +5.3. Atlantic Ocean and Adjoining Sea 5.3.1 North-East Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, Celtic Seas +The North-East Atlantic is one of the most thoroughly assessed areas of the ocean two comprehensive assessments were carried out in 2000 and 2010 (OSPAR, 2010) It is also an area where major efforts have been made since 1975 to reduce inputs o hazardous substances. Assessments are made of each of the contaminants studied rather than attempting to combine them in a single indicator. +Statistically robust results show major reductions in the amounts of heavy metal being introduced into the marine environment in this area (Green et al., 2003). Thi is also demonstrated from monitoring by the OSPAR Commission (see Table 2). +Table 2 Percentage change in inputs of some heavy metals into North Sea and Celtic Sea 1990-2006. +Area Cadmium - | Cadmium - Lead - Lead — Mercury — | Mercury riverine direct riverine direct riverine direc input discharges inputs discharges inputs discharge North -20% -75% -50% -80% -75% -70 Se Celtic -60% -95% | No trend -90% -85% -95 Seas +Source: OSPAR, 2010 +© 2016 United Nations 21 + +A large part of these reductions was achieved in the 1990s: progress since 1998 ha been slower. Concentrations in some areas, such as around the industrial estuarie of the Rhine (the Netherlands), the Seine (France) and the Tyne, Tees and Thame (United Kingdom), as well as in certain industrialized estuaries in Norway (Inne Sg@rfjord) and Spain (Ria de Pontevedra) and the inner German Bight, are still at level giving rise to risk of pollution effects. High concentrations of cadmium found in fis and shellfish around Iceland seem to be linked to volcanic activity, such as th eruption of the Eyjafjellajokull volcano in Iceland in 2010 (OSPAR, 2010). +Trends in concentrations of PAHs in fish and shellfish are predominantly downward especially in the Celtic Sea but, in many estuaries and urbanized and industrialize locations, they are still at levels which pose pollution risks. In many locations i coastal waters, concentrations of at least one polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB congener pose a risk of causing pollution effects. Similar concern has arisen over th exposure to perfluorinated compounds, particularly perfluorinated octanoi sulfonate (PFOS). Over 25 years after being banned, PCBs are thought to be possibl causing adverse biological impacts in some areas: the Faroese authorities (Denmark have initiated a risk management process for the human consumption of pilot-whal meat (a traditional food source in the Faroe Islands) because of the presence o POPs. +Observations show that concentrations in fish and shellfish of the pesticide lindan (which has been banned since the early 1980s) are decreasing generally. However concentrations in some localities are still of concern. These probably represent pas use on nearby land. The more recent cessation of the use of other pesticides classe as hazardous substances is seen as likely to achieve similar results. +5.3.2 Baltic Sea +The Baltic Sea is an enclosed water-body with very limited water exchange with th North Sea and the North-East Atlantic. Periodically major inflows occur, bringing i substantial amounts of new water with high salinity from the North Sea. Thes inflows were fairly frequent until about 1980, but thereafter became infrequent occurring in 1993, 1997, 2003, 2011 and 2014. The large quantity of freshwater fro the Baltic catchments, together with the limited exchange with the North Sea, allow the build-up of hazardous substances in the basins of the Baltic Sea. Like the North East Atlantic, the Baltic has a long-standing practice of assessment of the state of th marine environment. The Helsinki Commission has developed a multimetri indicator-based assessment tool. This has been used to integrate the status o contamination by individual chemicals and biological effects at specific sites or area into a single status value termed the “Contamination Ratio” (CR). This CR is the rati of the current status (the measurement of the concentration of a substance o biological effect) and a threshold level or quality criterion for that particula substance or biological effect. The CRs of all substances or indicators are groupe under four different ecological objectives (contaminant concentrations in th environment generally, contaminant concentrations in fish, biological effects o wildlife and levels of radioactivity) and integrated to yield a status classificatio (“high”, “good”, “moderate”, “poor” or “bad”) for each ecological objective. Th ecological objective receiving the lowest status classification serves as the overall +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +classification of the assessed site or area, giving the classification of the “hazardou substances status” of that site or area. The criteria used are not all uniform, but ma include nationally set criteria. Therefore the results are not strictly comparabl between assessment units. The overall picture is shown in the adjacent map, base on assessments at 144 sites, where “high” indicates good conditions and “bad” ba conditions of the marine environment with respect to hazardous substance (HELCOM, 2010a; HELCOM, 2010b). +CHAS High +Ba HELCOM 2010 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Baltic Sea: Combined Hazardous Substances Contamination Index. Source: HELCOM, 2010a. +Overall, there has been a steady and substantial improvement in the quality of th Baltic in respect of hazardous substances over the past two decades. This is du partly to the focus of the Baltic States in tackling the hotspots of pollution that wer identified, and partly to the closure during this period of a number of the mor polluting plants in countries in economic transition, as a result of economi circumstances. In the countries in economic transition, the former large installation have been superseded by a larger number of small and medium-sized enterprises which makes the task of adequate regulation more difficult. There is, nevertheless much further progress to be made before the goals set by the Helsinki Commissio are reached. +5.3.3 Mediterranean Sea +The Barcelona Commission has carried out assessments of many aspects of the stat of the Mediterranean over the last four decades. Nevertheless, there are major gaps +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +in the data available for assessment: much more is known about contaminants in th sea off the northern coasts of the Mediterranean than about those off the souther and eastern coasts. Major sources of discharges and emissions of heavy metals ar seen as the cement industry, electricity generation, metal mining and smelting, an fertilizer production. Many waste-water treatment plants are also seen as problem. Based upon the available information, high concentrations of heavy metal (especially lead and/or mercury) in sediments and shellfish (blue mussel (Mytilu galloprovincialis)) are found around Barcelona, Cartagena and Malaga (Spain) Marseilles/Fos and Toulon (France), the Gulf of Genoa, the Po delta, the Gulf o Trieste and around Naples (Italy), the coast of Croatia, Vlora Bay (Albania), aroun Athens, Thessaloniki and Kavala (Greece), around Izmir (Turkey) (though subsequen Turkish Government tests have found nothing that would require action to b taken), Haifa Bay (Israel), the Nile delta (Egypt) and the coastal lagoons of Bizert and Tunis (Tunisia). Insufficient data were available for robust trend analysis, bu the limited analysis possible showed a general pattern of stable to declining trends although in some places there were slightly increasing trends (UNEP, 2012). +In the past, high levels of POPs have been measured in top predators in th Mediterranean. More recently, a study of data from 1971-2005 has concluded tha the contamination of sediments by POPs is mainly associated with major urba areas, the mouths of major rivers, major ports and coastal lagoons, and that ther has been a general decline in such concentrations. A 2011 study identified the area of the mouth of the River Ebro and Barcelona (Spain), the mouth of the Rhéne an Marseilles (France), the coast from Nice (France) to Livorno (Italy), the area aroun Genoa (Italy), the coast of Croatia and the port of Piraeus (Greece) as showin elevated levels of PCBs. Most of these locations, together with the Bay of Naples the coast of the Marche and the Gulf of Trieste (Italy), the area around Durres an Vloa Bay (Albania), the Ambracian, Saronic and Thermaic Gulfs (Greece), the are around Izmir (Turkey), the Bay of Tunis (Tunisia) and the Bay of Algiers (Algeria) als showed moderate to high levels of chlorinated pesticides. Again, data wer insufficient for trend analysis (UNEP, 2012). Turkish authorities have subsequentl indicated that there have been no findings which would have required measures t be taken. +5.3.4 Black Sea +Contamination by pesticides and heavy metals has not been judged to be a basin wide problem by the Black Sea Commission. Elevated concentrations of heavy metal in bottom sediments and biota near river mouths, hot-spots and ports ar decreasing. Pesticides are mostly introduced through rivers and streams dischargin from agricultural areas. However, as a result of economic change, the use of thes substances has decreased considerably and no longer presents a major hazard except where their use was very intensive in the past. Elevated concentrations o HCH (mainly lindane) have been found along the coastal areas influenced by th Danube River: some sites near the Danube Delta were found to be among th highest levels of HCH recorded globally. In 2002, evidence was found of DDT and it breakdown products, probably from inappropriate storage of expired pesticide (Black Sea Commission, 2008; Heileman et al., 2008c). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +5.3.5 North-West Atlantic +As in the Arctic, the problems of airborne transport of POPs found in the Arctic ar also of concern in Labrador and Newfoundland. The main influence further south i Canada is the outflow of the St Lawrence River, which drains a large part of th heavily populated interior of Canada and the United States. The work derived fro the efforts of the Canada/United States International Joint Commission (on share water bodies) has done much to reduce the hazardous-substance content of thi outflow. Similarly much has been done in Canada to address the problems posed b coastal industries, especially paper and pulp mills. As a result, hazardous substance are not seen as a priority for the Canadian Atlantic (Janowicz et al., 2006) Nevertheless, some problems remain, particularly in the Saguenay Fjord, wher mercury and other metals were found in beluga whales at levels sufficient to caus concern. Cultured and wild scallops have been found to contain cadmium above th levels acceptable for human consumption, although its main source seems to be o natural origin (Dufour et al., 2007). +In the United States, the National Coastal Condition Reports (NCCR) (of which th latest NCCR IV was completed at the end of 2012, though based on data from 2003 2006 (EPA, 2012)) have been prepared regularly since 2000. They consider indices o water quality, sediment quality, benthic quality, coastal habitats and fish-tissu contaminants. They examine the coastal waters (estuaries and embayments) an also look at some of the waters further offshore. The sediment-quality index and th fish-tissue contaminants are the most relevant to the question of contamination b hazardous substances, although the benthic index (which looks at the structure o the benthos and the extent to which it is affected by pollution) can also b illuminating. The sediment-quality index is based on measurements of toxicity amounts of contaminants (heavy metals, PAHs and PCBs) and total organic carbo content in samples taken from a range of stations, which number thousands acros the country. The fish-tissue contaminants index is based on samples of fish fo human consumption of species appropriate to the region. The indices for th sampling stations within a region are used to classify the region as “good”, “fair” o “poor”, according to the proportions of sampling stations within different bands o the indices. +The United States divides its Atlantic coast into two regions: the North-East regio (Maine to Virginia, including Chesapeake Bay), and the South-East region (Nort Carolina to Florida). The North-East region is the most heavily populated part of th United States, and the overall condition of its coastal waters is judged to be “fair” The positions on the sediment-quality index (overall “fair’) and the fish-tissu contaminant index (overall “fair to poor”) are shown in the pie charts below. Th problem zones for both sediments and fish-tissue contaminants are principally i Great Bay (New Hampshire)’” "8, Narragansett Bay (Rhode Island), Long Islan Sound, the New York/New Jersey harbour area °°” "8, the Upper Delaware Estuar and the western tributaries of Chesapeake Bay. The impaired ratings for the larg majority of these sites were due to the presence of PCBs. Advice was also issued a various dates during 2006 against eating fish caught along about 84 per cent of th length of the coast of the North-East region — mainly because of the presence of +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +PCBs. Those marked °°’ also showed, above the thresholds, moderate to high level of DDT and those marked "® showed moderate levels of mercury. The NCCR als considered whether trends could be detected over the period from 2001 to 2006 No overall statistically valid trends were noted, but a significant reduction wa observed in the areas judged as “poor” on the element of the presence o contaminants from Narrangassett Bay to the Delaware River. +USA North East Region: Sediment Quality Index +Goo Fai @ Poo OMissing +USA North East Region: Fish Tissue Contaminant Index +Goo Fair +1m Poor +Figure 5. United States North-East Region Sediment and Fish-Tissue Contaminants Indices. Source EPA, 2012. +In Chesapeake Bay, where a combination of problems of toxic contaminants an eutrophication resulted in 2009 in a special programme involving the Federa Government and the five States, the most recent report shows that for PCBs an mercury, many locations in the catchment have an impaired ecological status, largel stemming from concentrations in sediments and in fish tissue (where huma consumption often has to be discouraged). A limited number of locations hav severe problems from dioxins/furans, PAHs, some chlorinated pesticides (aldrin chlordane, dieldrin, DDT/DDE, heptachlor epoxide, mirex), and some metal (aluminium, chromium, iron, lead, manganese, zinc). For other products (atrazine some pharmaceuticals, some household and cosmetic products, some brominate flame retardants and biogenic hormones), it was not possible to assess where sever impacts were occurring, but it is known that that the substances have potential fo adverse, sub-lethal ecological effects (EPA et al., 2012). +The NCCR also looked at the condition of the Mid-Atlantic Bight: that is, the sea between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras out to the edge of the continental shelf. Non of the contaminants for which tests are made for the sediment-quality index or th fish-tissue contaminants index was found in excess of their corresponding Effect Range Medium (ERM) values (values probably causing harmful effects). Only thre chemicals (arsenic, nickel, and total DDT) exceeded their corresponding Effects +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Range Low (ERL) values (values possibly causing harmful effects), and these lower threshold exceedances occurred at only a few sites. This implies that, on the sam basis as for waters closer to the shore, this sea area should be regarded as in “good” condition. +The overall condition of the South-East region (North Carolina to Florida) was judge to be fair. The sediment-quality index was judged to be “fair to poor” and the fish tissue contaminants index was rated “good”. No statistically significant trends wer observed for the period 2001-2006. Conditions in the bight between Cape Hattera and the south of Florida were also examined. Three metals (arsenic, cadmium, an silver) were found at concentrations between ERL and ERM values at 9 of the 5 offshore sampling sites, but no sites had more than one ERM value exceeded Nevertheless, advice was in force in the whole area against eating king mackere (Scomberomorus cavalla), because of mercury contamination. +A separate study — the National Mussel Watch — looked over a 20-year period (198 — 2005) at levels of contamination by hazardous substances in mussels and oyster along the coast. For the Atlantic coast, this has shown in general no significan trends in contamination by heavy metals, but some locations show a decreasin trend. It has shown no significant trend in cadmium contamination in Chesapeak Bay, in spite of major efforts at reduction, and has shown significant increasin trends in mercury and lead at a few locations in the zones where problems wer identified by the NCCR. Nevertheless, it has shown significant decreasing trends i contamination by POPs all along the Atlantic coast of the United States (Kimbroug et al., 2009; Mussel Watch, 2011). +5.3.6 Wider Caribbean +Information on hazardous substances in the Wider Caribbean (that is, the Gulf o Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic immediately east of the Leeward an Windward Islands) is mixed: for the United States and its dependencies, the sam type of information is available as for the Atlantic coast; elsewhere, there is n systematic record. +The overall condition of the United States Gulf coast is judged to be “fair”. Th sediment-quality index was judged to be “fair to poor” and the fish-tissu contaminants index was rated “good”. The areas rated “poor” on the sediment quality index lay mainly around the Florida Keys, the coasts of Alabama an Mississippi, Galveston (Texas) and the Texas coast south of Corpus Christi. N statistically significant trends were observed for the period 2001-2006, but substantial reduction in areas failing the test for the presence of contaminants wa found. Nevertheless, in 2006 advice was in force along the whole of the Unite States Gulf Coast against the eating of king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) because of mercury contamination (EPA, 2012). The Mussel Watch has likewis shown some locations with decreasing trends in heavy-metal contamination and general decreasing trend in contamination by POPs (Mussel Watch, 2011). +There is no recent, comprehensive compilation and analysis of inputs of hazardou substances to the remainder of the Wider Caribbean (Fernandez et al., 2007) although specific areas are known where problems of this kind are found (Cartagena +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Bay, Colombia; Puerto Limon, Costa Rica; Havana Bay, Cuba; Kingston Harbour Jamaica; and some locations in Puerto Rico). These largely result from the discharg of untreated waste-water from local industries. Mining also presents significan problems, particularly mining of bauxite in Guyana, Jamaica and Suriname and (to lesser extent) in the Dominican Republic and Haiti (GEF, 1998; EPA, 2012). Heav and increasing usage of agricultural pesticides is reported from the mainlan countries of Central America, and from Jamaica and Cuba (UNEP-UCR/CEP, 2010). I addition, chlordecone (an agricultural pesticide, the use of which was prohibite from 1993) gave rise to concern in fish and seafood from Martinique in 200 (Bocquenéa and Franco, 2005). The presence of the same chemical in seafood wa still preventing it being marketed in 2013 (Le Monde, 2013). +5.3.7 North Atlantic open ocean +The OSPAR Quality Status Report 2000 (OSPAR, 2000) examined the situation in th open ocean of the Atlantic (beyond the 200-m isobath) east of 422W longitude. Thi showed limited information about the state of the marine environment in this area No later comprehensive survey has been made. The conclusions on contaminatio by hazardous substances were that: +(a) Airborne inputs of hazardous substances from land were very significant probably equal to the effects of waterborne inputs reaching the dee Atlantic; +(b)Anthropogenic inputs to the North Atlantic were higher than those to othe deep ocean areas, representing up to 25 per cent of the total estimate global deposition rates for a range of substances; +(c) Nevertheless, the level of concern for the area about contamination b hazardous substances was rated as low. +5.3.8 South-East Atlantic +The coastal waters of the South-East Atlantic are dominated by three currents: fro north to south, the Canaries Current, the Guinea Current and the Benguela Current These three areas have been adopted for the tasks of addressing the problems of th marine environment. Little detailed information is available about land-base sources of pollution in these areas. What is clear is that the main problems are “ho spots” in the proximity of the principal coastal cities: Abidjan (Cdte d’lvoire), Accr (Ghana), Cape Town (South Africa), Casablanca and Rabat (Morocco), Daka (Senegal), Douala (Cameroon), Lagos and Port Harcourt (Nigeria), Luanda (Angola and Walvis Bay (Namibia). Most of the industries operating in the region are locate in or around these coastal areas and discharge untreated effluents directly int sewers, canals, streams and rivers that end up in the ocean. Outside the immediat areas of discharge, however, the effects are limited by the strong marine curren (Heileman, 2008b). +Nevertheless, some specific problems are more than local. Mercury emissions fro artisanal gold-mining in West Africa are a general problem. This gold production i an important part of the national economies of several States in the area, bu significant levels of mercury have been found in many West African rivers, and +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +therefore present risks to the marine environment (Donkor et al., 2006). Othe mining activities also present significant threats. For example, phosphate mining a Hahatoé-Kpogamé in Togo results in discharges of tailings and other waste with hig levels of cadmium and lead being found in fish and crustaceans (Gnandi et al., 2006). +Samples from the Korle (Accra, Ghana), Ebrié (Abidjan, Céte d’Ilvoire) and Lago (Nigeria) lagoons, show heavy metals in the sediments up to three (Cd), six (Hg) an eight (Pb) times more than those from uncontaminated areas, and in shellfish at o above WHO standards for Cu, Pb and Zn (GCLMEP, 2003). +5.3.9 South-West Atlantic +Although there are studies of several locations along the coast of Brazil, there doe not appear to be a comprehensive study of the levels of heavy metals or POPs fo the coastal sea of Brazil as a whole. It is clear that there are many untreated direc and riverine discharges from coastal cities which produce significant local effects Sao Paulo, with a population of over 11 million and a concentration of petrochemica and fertilizer industries, and Rio de Janeiro, with over 6 million inhabitants, are th most significant, but there are other examples, such as Rio Grande. The Rive Amazon also has a major effect on the northern part of the area. The diffuse source contributing to this effect include agricultural pesticides and mercury from small scale gold mining (Heileman, 2008a, Heileman, 2008c; Heileman and Gasalla, 2008 Niencheski et al., 2006). +The situation is much the same further south: there are hot-spots associated wit major coastal cities, but no overall survey. The River Plate is a major influence, sinc it drains areas with a high concentration of potentially polluting industries, and i assessed as highly polluted. Apart from that, the most serious area is around Bahi Blanca, where the general level of contamination has been assessed as moderat (Marchovecchio, 2009). However, the San Matias Gulf has also been identified a having relatively high levels of cadmium and lead (Heileman, 2008e). +5.3.10 South Atlantic open ocean +Very limited information is available on levels of contaminants in the central Sout Atlantic. Nevertheless, samples of skipjack tuna, tested for brominated flam retardants as a marker for widely dispersed POPs, show levels that are lower than i the open ocean of the Pacific (Ueno et al., 2004). +5.4 Indian Ocean +No comprehensive studies or time series of the incidence of hazardous substances i the Indian Ocean exist, although there are a number of local, one-off studies. +5.4.1 Western Indian Ocean +In general, the areas of both the Agulhas Current (the waters off the coasts o eastern South Africa and Mozambique and around the Comoros, Madagascar Mauritius, Réunion (France) and the Seychelles) and the Somali Current (the water off the coasts of the Federal Republic of Somalia, Kenya and the United Republic o Tanzania) are not heavily polluted with heavy metals or POPs (Heileman et al., +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +2008b). Nevertheless, some top predators (yellowfin tuna) are reported to sho high concentrations of HCB and lindane by comparison with the same specie elsewhere, although levels of PCBs and DDTs are not so high. The residues of PCBs DDTs, lindane and HCB were higher than those measured in 1999 (Machado Torre et al., 2009). +However, relatively severe localized problems are found near major cities an industrialized areas in all the countries. The main industries that contribute toward chemical contamination in this region include: manufacturing, textiles, tanneries paper and pulp mills, breweries, chemical, cement, and sugar and fertilizer factories Coastal solid-waste dumps add to the problems. The intensive use of agro chemicals, such as DDT, aldrin and toxaphene, has been common throughout th region. Inappropriate utilization, storage and dumping of agrochemicals are growing concern. Direct discharge of wastes from fertilizer factories is a sever problem in the region (Heileman et al., 2008a)._ Mozambique has instituted a lega and institutional framework for the management and treatment of municipal an industrial waste, including the development of sanitation infrastructure (landfills industrial and wastewater treatment plants. +5.4.2 Red Sea, including the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Aden +Slow water turnover makes the Red Sea particularly vulnerable to pollution build-up Pollution is severe in localized areas around industrial zones and facilities, includin especially the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba and near the port of Aden. The installation include phosphate mines, desalination plants, chemical industrial installations and oi production and transportation facilities. In 2003, elevated levels of some heav metals were found near Suez, in the Sharm al Maya Bay in Egypt (PERSGA, 2006 EEAA, 2003). +5.4.3 Persian Gulf +Major manufacturing industries operate in the coastal States of the Persian Gulf based largely on the raw materials from oil and gas extraction, producing fertilizers chemicals, petrochemicals, minerals and plastics. The demand for fresh food ha also led to intensive agriculture and the use of pesticides. All these activities hav resulted in waste-water and runoff taking heavy metals and other hazardou substances into the semi-enclosed sea of this area (Sale et al., 2011). +5.4.4 Arabian Sea and waters west of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka +Overall, pollution from hazardous substances in the northern Arabian Sea has bee assessed as severe in several coastal hotspots, but in general it has been evaluate as moderate. The major issues in these hotspots are heavy metals from industria installations. Other hotspots are found at the mouths of some major rivers (fo example, the Tigris, Euphrates, Karun, Hileh and Mand rivers). Other hotspot involving PAHs have been recorded in coastal areas receiving effluents from highl industrialized zones. In waters off Pakistan, chlorinated pesticides are mor prominent. Since persistent organic pesticides are not to be marketed in the State bordering the Arabian Sea, these findings likely result from the remains of histori use (Heileman et al., 2008a). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Along the coasts of India the picture is mixed. High concentrations have been noted for example, off the Maharashtra coast. Near Mumbai, sample fish have also bee shown to have concentrations of lead, cadmium and mercury above levels that ar generally regarded as fit for human consumption (Heileman et al., 2008a; Deshpand et al., 2009). Around the Alang-Sosiya ship-breaking yards in Gujarat, India (whic employ 40,000 people), on the basis of samples taken in 2001, particularly hig levels, above approved limits of heavy metals in sediments, have been reporte (Janil et al., 2011). On the other hand, along the Gujarat coast, the concentrations o mercury in sediments have decreased to below the limits of detection, reflecting th decrease in its concentrations in land-based effluents. Along the Maharashtra coast mercury levels in sediments have declined and are currently about 0.1ug/g. Alon the Karnataka coast, observations have been made off Mangalore and Karwar. A both locations, concentrations of mercury in sediments have shown decreasin trends. Along the Kerala coast, concentrations of mercury were low at all samplin locations, and exhibited declining trends (NIOT, 2014). +In Sri Lanka, most industrial plants are concentrated near Colombo. They lack waste water treatment capacity, and textile and metal-finishing plants are dischargin significant quantities of some heavy metals. The Lunawa coastal lagoon has bee ruined by such discharges (BOBLME, Sri Lanka, 2011). +5.4.5 Waters east of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka (Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea Malacca Strait) +The dominant influence in the north of this area is the River Ganges, the second largest hydrological system on the planet. The Bay of Bengal Large Marin Ecosystem Project (BOBLME) has organized recent surveys of marine pollution in al the coastal States. These show that much information is available, but there are n time series or sufficient metadata for comparisons. +In the waters off India, along most of the coast, concentrations of mercury i sediments have declined: off Tamil Nadu, concentrations were observed at <0. ug/g; off Andhra Pradesh, there has been a substantial decline to a similar level; an the coast off Orissa exhibited a decline to concentrations of 0.1-0.2 yg/g. I contrast, off West Bengal mercury content of sediments showed a marginall increasing trend both in-shore and near-shore: recent values of up to 0.3 ug/ suggest continued release of industrial waste containing mercury (NIOT, 2014). Hot spots for heavy-metal pollution are found in the Ganges estuary (the Hooghly River Diamond Harbour, Sagar Island and Haldia). Further south, hot-spots have bee reported at Bhitarkarnik, Visakhapatnam, Ennore, Cuddalore, and Tuticorin. At al these places, pollution from heavy metals results from direct industrial discharge and the inputs of rivers carrying industrial discharges. Pollution from POPs stem mainly from pesticide-manufacturing plants and ineffective storage of withdraw pesticides, as well as the leaching of pesticides and past uses of PCBs. Recen surveys indicate significant levels of DDT, PCBs and dieldrin in both near-shore an off-shore fish in the Bay of Bengal (BOBLME, India, 2011). +For Bangladesh, the picture is very similar. In addition, heavy metal pollution i particularly noticeable near the Sitakunado ship-breaking area of Chittagong Reports from 2004 suggest that banned organo-chlorine pesticides are being sold on +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +the black market and that some are being used in fish-processing plants (BOBLME Bangladesh, 2011). +In the waters off Myanmar, significant levels of heavy metals have been reported i fish samples, but at levels below those at which human consumption is not advised Organochlorine pesticides are not regarded as a problem because of lack o availability for use (BOBLME Myanmar, 2011). +In the Andaman Sea off Thailand, levels in sediments of lead and cadmium wer reported in 2009 that were well above levels regarded elsewhere as likely to caus harm, and in 2007 levels of mercury in sample fish were reported that were abov Thai and many other national standards for human consumption (BOBLME, Thailand 2011). +On the western coast of peninsular Malaysia, levels of contamination of hazardou substances observed in 2009 and 2010 were in general within national standards which are consistent with generally recognized standards. Exceptions were off th coast of Perak, where significant numbers of samples showed lead and cadmiu levels in excess of these standards. This is attributed to major historic minin activities in that State (BOBLME, Malaysia, 2011). +5.4.6 Waters north and west of Australia +In general, the waters north and west of Australia are in very good condition. Th large-scale mining in the catchments has not generally caused problems wit hazardous substances because of the low rainfall and consequent absence of majo watercourses. There are some localized problems around the Gulf of Carpentaria such as Darwin Harbour and Melville Bay (Nhulunbuy, Northern Territory), where localized, biologically dead area has been created by mining wastes (SE201 Committee, 2011). +5.4.7 Indian Ocean open ocean +As with other open-ocean areas, information on levels of contamination fro hazardous substances is limited. Studies in 1996 around the Chagos Archipelag (over 500 km from the nearest continental land) showed that only some PCBs an lindane were above the limits of detection, and then only just. The conclusion therefore were that atmospheric transport was the main source, and that the are was amongst the least affected coastal areas (Everaarts et al., 1999). Air samplin around the Chagos Archipelago has also concluded that the atmosphere over th Indian Ocean in 2006 was substantially less contaminated from atmospheric POP than it was according to the available data from the 1970s and 1990s (Wurl et al. 2006). Samples of skipjack tuna from the mid-Indian Ocean were studied as a way o examining the distribution of airborne contaminants. They showed (like all tun studied from around the world) detectable levels of brominated diphenyl ethers, bu at lower levels than in the north Pacific (Ueno et al., 2004; Tanabe et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +5.5 Pacific Ocea 5.5.1 North-East Pacifi - Waters west of Canada and the mainland of the United States +The United States applies the general principles of the National Coastal Conditio Report to its Pacific coasts, although the sheer scale of the Alaskan coast make some aspects inappropriate. For Alaska, the results show an overwhelmingly goo condition: as with the Alaskan Arctic coast, there are some local natural sources o heavy metals, but the presence of other hazardous substances is mainly from long range transport through the seas or the atmosphere (EPA, 2012). +In Canada, the situation is much the same for the northern and central coast o British Columbia, where population density and levels of industrial development ar low. Further south, however, some hot-spots with severe adverse effects from hig concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals have been found, fo example, in the Port Moody arm of the strait separating Vancouver Island from th mainland (Belan, 2004). +For the area of the Alaska current as a whole, samples of biota obtained durin 2003-08 have generally not detected concentrations of PCBs, pesticides or mercur at levels of concern (PICES, 2009). +The waters off the western coasts of the contiguous United States are also assesse as being “good”, with 86-89 per cent of the sampling stations being put in this clas on the individual indices. The areas where the sampling stations fail to achiev “good” status are mainly around San Francisco, Los Angeles and San Diego i California (EPA, 2012). Nonetheless, the Mussel Watch shows significant decreasin trends of levels of heavy metals and other hazardous substances at sampling station all along the Pacific coast of the contiguous United States, except for Puget Sound where increases in the levels of lead contamination have been found (Mussel Watch 2011). +- Waters west of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua an Costa Rica +From the point of view of contamination by hazardous substances, the waters wes of the countries of Central America are affected mainly by the discharges from local relatively small-scale industries and agricultural runoff. The overwhelming majorit of industrial effluent is discharged to the sea without treatment, and usage o pesticides is one of the highest in Latin America (Heileman, 2008e). +5.5.2. East Asian Coastal Seas - General +At the regional level, no information is regularly collected on inputs of hazardou substances and their effects. Levels of heavy metal contamination in the East Asia coastal seas are, however, known to have been rising over the last two decades largely due to untreated municipal waste-water and industrial effluents. The ris was rapid in some areas, particularly in coastal waters of China, over the twent years to 2000. For most of the area, there is no general evidence that this has +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +ceased. In the Gulf of Thailand, lead and cadmium have been found at high level near the mouths of all major rivers. In some areas, the levels of heavy metals in fis and shellfish have made them unsuitable for human consumption. Depth profile of sediment samples suggest in many cases that these inputs of heavy metals ar linked to recent rapid growth of electronics, ship-painting and chemical industries. +Persistent organic pollutants are measurably present in most coastal areas of th East Asian Seas at levels higher than many other parts of the world, but studies hav shown decreasing levels of those which had previously been banned. Endosulfa has been found in most coastal sediments, especially off Malaysia, suggesting recen use. Both DDT and PCBs are found at levels above limits generally recognised a tolerable, but in some areas (for example, the Macau estuary in China), studies hav shown that such levels peaked as much as twenty years ago (UNEP/COBSEA, 2010). +5.5.3 Coastal waters of China +At the national level, the Chinese authorities have been carrying out systemati monitoring of the coastal waters and coastal sediments as part of their nationa environmental monitoring programme. For water quality, their system uses a assessment classification based on a range of parameters covering not onl hazardous substances but also problems caused by non-hazardous waste elements As far as hazardous substances are concerned, levels are reported as satisfyin national standards. The combined assessment is shown below in the section o nutrients. In addition, the Chinese authorities study sediment quality in relation t hazardous substances. Decreases in concentrations have been observed generall since 1997. However, in 2010 areas around 36 coastal pollutant discharge outfall did not meet the sediment quality requirements, mainly because of the levels o copper and cadmium, and some of the area showed a worsening (China, 2012). I Hong Kong, China, waters, monitoring focused specifically on hazardous substance has been undertaken to evaluate the effects of the stringent measures to comba pollution from these substances. These monitoring programmes have demonstrate a steady decline between 1991 and 2012 of, in total, about 30 per cent in the level of heavy metals in sediments at the west end of Hong Kong Island. Even there however, levels in enclosed bays used as typhoon shelters can be much higher Sediments around Hong Kong, China, show a slight decline in levels of PCBs (Hon Kong, China, 2013). Other evidence (from sea-bird feathers) shows that there ar high levels of mercury in the South China Sea (Watanuki et al., 2013). +5.5.4 Yellow Sea and waters between Japan and the Korean Peninsula +The absence of data, and (even where they are available) their incompleteness an lack of consistency, make any assessment of the impact of hazardous substances o the Yellow Sea as a whole very difficult. There seems to be little doubt, however that inputs of hazardous substances are at levels which give rise to concern, largel because of the discharges of untreated industrial waste-water (NOWPAP, 2007) Where detailed information is available about specific areas, however, there is goo evidence of improvement: in the waters around Japan, for example, levels of PC concentrations in both fish and shellfish have decreased by over 75 per cen between 1979 and 2005. Nevertheless, concentrations in both fish and sediment remain at levels sufficient to cause concern, particularly in enclosed sea areas +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +surrounded by big cities (Japan MOE, 2009). Local sources of pollution, mainly fro mining, are also significant along the northern coast of the Russian Asia-Pacifi Region (Kachur et al., 2000). +5.5.5 North-West Pacific (Kuroshio and Oyashio Currents) +The areas east of the Japanese main island and the islands north and south of it ar significantly less affected by industrial, mining and agricultural activities than th seas along the coast of the Asian mainland, except close to the Japanese mai islands. In enclosed sea areas surrounded by big cities on the Japanese main island there are levels of contamination from POPs much (up to five times) higher than o the western coast. This is particularly the case in Ise Bay and Tokyo Bay (I. Belkin e al., 2008; Heileman and Belkin, 2008; Japan MOE, 2009). +5.5.6 North Pacific open ocean +Apart from some major island ports, such as Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (which show evidence of PCB contamination (EPA, 2012)), contamination from heavy metals an other hazardous substances is not a major concern in the central north Pacific However, mercury concentrations in the North-East Pacific increased between 200 and 2006 and modelling suggests an average increase of 3 per cent per yea between 1995 and 2006 (Sunderland et al., 2009). Samples of skipjack tuna from th western part of the central north Pacific, studied to assess airborne transport o contaminants, showed higher levels of brominated diphenyl ethers than sample from the central Indian Ocean and off Brazil. The suggestion is made that this migh be the result of atmospheric transport from locations in south-east Asia where wast goods containing these fire retardants were being dismantled (Ueno et al., 2004). +5.5.7 South-East Pacific (Waters west of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile) +Little new information on the situation in this area as a whole is available since th survey conducted in 2000 by the Permanent Commission of the South Pacific (CPPS 2000). In respect of discharges of hazardous substances, this survey showed a majo problem with mining waste, particularly in the south of Peru and the north of Chile The mining industry in these countries is mainly in the coastal areas. A substantia number of mines disposed of their waste directly into the sea, and others indirectl through rivers: none of these wastes were treated. The areas said to be highl polluted were at the mouth of the River Rimac (into which a number of mine discharged) and between Pisco and Ite in Peru, and around Chajfiaral in Chile. In th north of Chile, as well, there were beaches which had been used in the past for th disposal of mine waste, and from which heavy metals (especially copper) wer leaching into the sea. In addition, a heavy load of agricultural pesticides was though to be present: nearly 5,000 tons of active ingredient were thought to be use annually in the 1990s, resulting in what was judged to be serious pollution in th coastal areas of the province of Chiriqui in Panama, in the extreme south o Colombia, around Guayaquil in Ecuador, around Pisco in Peru, and in regions V (Rancagua), VII (Talca), VIIl Concepcidn), X (Puerto Montt) and XI (Cohaique) in Chile. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +5.5.8 South Pacific open ocean +Even less is known about the contamination of the open ocean by hazardou substances in the South Pacific than in the other open-ocean areas. The islan States of the area have neither major industrial sites, nor major mines. A wide rang of pesticides has been used for local agriculture, although the most hazardous are n longer used. A result of this use, however, is that residues have been found in th soil, as well as stocks of persistent organo-chlorine pesticides and contaminated site where the pesticides were stored (Samoa, for example, has three such sites). Ther were also a number of electrical devices containing PCBs (the Federated States o Micronesia had 13.5 tons). With Australian and GEF assistance, programmes are i place to dispose of stocks and remediate contaminated sites. The States have however, recorded their concern about lack of capacity to prevent the accidenta creation of dioxins and furans from imperfect incineration (Samoa, 2004; FSM 2004). +5.5.9 Waters east of Australia and around New Zealand +The waters to the east of Australia are renowned for the Great Barrier Reef — th world’s largest coral reef system. Although the catchments draining into this part o the sea are not heavily industrialized, they contain intensive agriculture, especiall for sugar cane. The pesticides (and other runoff) from these catchments are judge likely to cause environmental harm, particularly to the central and southern parts o the Great Barrier Reef. Models of the mean annual loads of a range of commo pesticides (ametryn, atrazine, diuron, hexazinone, tebuthiuron and simazine) sho that inputs are in the range of 16-17 tons of active ingredient. The total pesticid load to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon is likely to be considerably larger, given tha another 28 pesticides have been detected in the rivers (Lewis et al., 2009; RWQPP 2013). +Further south, the coast of the south-eastern part of Australia is the most heavil populated area in the country: nearly one-third of the total population is in centra New South Wales. Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) is locally contaminated with heav metals, especially lead and zinc, and a large proportion of the estuary ha sedimentary metals at concentrations where some adverse biological effects can b expected. Most of the contamination is a legacy of past poor industrial practice, bu some evidence exists for continuing entry of contaminants, probably from leachin (Birch, 2000). Further south, in the State of Victoria, the Government acknowledge that data on the condition of marine and coastal ecosystems are not gathered in comprehensive manner, making assessment of the condition of coastal and marin systems difficult. Estuarine and bay systems, such as Port Phillip Bay (Melbourne) Western Port and the Gippsland Lakes, have impaired water quality, partly fro industrial and agricultural sources (Victoria, 2013). +In New Zealand, a study was made of dioxins, furans, PCBs, organochlorin pesticides, estuarine sediments and shellfish. The catchments covered ranged fro highly urbanized to areas relatively remote from anthropogenic influences. Th results showed that concentrations of these substances in New Zealand estuaries ar low, and in most cases markedly lower than concentrations reported for estuaries i other countries, although concentrations in some estuaries are approaching those +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +reported elsewhere for urbanized estuaries (NZMOE, 1999). Examination o sediment cores from Tamaki Creek, near Auckland (New Zealand’s largest city) ha shown a four-fold increase in levels of heavy metals since the European settlemen of the area, with most of the increase in the last 50 years. Tamaki Estuary i classified as a polluted area (Abrahim et al., 2008). The estuaries around Aucklan and near other large urban areas seem likely to be subject to the same pressures. +5.6 Southern Ocean +Levels of contamination by heavy metals and other hazardous substances are low Long-distance transport through marine currents and the atmosphere means tha measurable levels of contamination are found, but not at levels that give rise t concern. Some of the research stations have accumulated waste contaminated wit heavy metals and other hazardous substances. Australia has removed a quantit from the Thala Valley base (Australian Government, 2011). Recently, brominate flame retardants are reported to have escaped from McMurdo Sound base (NGN 2014). +6. Endocrine Disruptors +As discussed above, hazardous substances are usually defined in relation to th qualities of being toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate. Toxicity is usuall defined in relation to being fatal when ingested, to causing cancers (carcinogens), t causing birth defects (teratogens) or to causing mutations (mutagens). Many of th substances regarded as hazardous substances within these accepted definition were also shown to affect endocrine systems and thus to interfere with th reproductive success of individuals and populations, and were therefore describe as “endocrine disruptors”. +In the 1990s, a consensus emerged that certain substances outside the accepte definitions of hazardous substances could also disrupt endocrine systems, and thu affect the ability of individuals and populations to reproduce successfully. In th marine context, the issue was highlighted by the discovery that tributyl tin, whic had been adopted widely as a component in anti-fouling treatments for ships’ hulls had a severe effect at very low concentrations on molluscs: initially, the effects wer observed at concentrations so low that they could not be detected by the the available methods of chemical analysis. The effects were referred to as “imposex” and took the form of females developing male sexual characteristics and thu becoming infertile. In some harbours, whole populations of molluscs disappeared Where such substances were not within the accepted definitions of hazardou substances, new initiatives were needed. The question of “endocrine disruptors” fo those concerned with the marine environment therefore became more focused o substances which are not within the accepted definitions of hazardous substances but which may nonetheless have serious effects on the health of the marin environment (OSPAR, 2003). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +The case of tributyl tin is discussed further in Chapter 17 (Shipping). Systems hav been developed, principally by the Organization for Economic Cooperation an Development (OECD), to test substances to see whether they have the potential t disrupt endocrine systems (OECD, 2012). +In the application of these testing procedures, some substances not otherwis identified as hazardous substances have been identified that are, or may be, o particular concern to the marine environment. These include: +(a) Nony! phenyl ethoxylates: These are used as emulsifiers, dispersive agents surfactants and/or wetting agents. These degrade quickly to nonyl phenyl and short-chained nonyl phenyl ethoxylates, which are toxic to aquati organisms and are thought to have endocrine-disrupting properties. The mai users are the industrial, institutional and domestic cleaning sectors (30 pe cent of use in Europe; other significant sectors in Europe are emulsio polymerisation (12 per cent), textiles (10 per cent), chemical synthesis (9 pe cent) and leather (8 per cent)). Estimated use in Western Europe in 1997 wa 76,600 tons. Action has been taken within the European Union and i proposed in the United States (OSPAR, 2009; EPA, 2010); +(b) Estrogenic contaminants: There is some evidence that human-derive steroids, such as estradiol and ethinyl estradiol (the active ingredient of th contraceptive pill) can affect aquatic biota. In fresh water, intersex condition induced in male fish (trout) in rivers in England were attributed to ethiny estradiol from sewage (Desbrow et al., 1998; Routledge et al., 1998; Tyler an Jobling, 2008). In contrast, androgenic effects have been found in female fis in rivers carrying pulp and paper mill effluents (mosquito fish) and feedlo effluent (fathead minnows) (Orlando et al., 2004). Whether such substance persist enough to continue to cause such effects after a lapse of time, and ho the substances might operate in more dynamic or more dilute environment (such as the sea) is not clear; +(c) Phthalates: Phthalates are a class of chemicals most commonly used to mak rigid plastics (especially PVC) soft and pliable. They can leach from PV products, particularly when they enter waste streams. Phthalates can affec reproduction and development in a wide range of wildlife species Reproductive and developmental disturbances include changes in the numbe of offspring and/or reduced hatching success and disruption of larva development. They generally do not persist in the environment over the lon term, but there is evidence that environmental concentrations are above level that give rise to concern in some aquatic environments. (Engler, 2012 Oehlmann et al., 2009). +7. Oil +The United States National Research Council has carried out two major studies, i 1985 and 2003, on the amounts of oil that enter the marine environment, both for +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +United States waters and for the world as a whole (NRC, 2003). The studie concluded that the global estimates of hydrocarbons from land-based sources wer particularly uncertain. The 2003 study placed the best estimate of runoff from lan globally at 140,000 tons/year, but recognized that this could be as much as 5 millio tons, or as little as 6,800 tons. This compares with its estimate of: +(a)The amounts of oil spilled (on average) in the process of extractin hydrocarbons from the seabed. Here the best estimate was 38,000 tons within a range of 20,000 tons to 62,000 tons; +(b)The amounts of oil seeping naturally into the sea from submarine seeps, suc as those off south California. Here the best estimate was 600,000 tons/year within a range of 200,000 tons to 2 million tons; +(c) The total amount of hydrocarbons entering the sea from all sources. Here th best estimate was 1.3 million tons/year, within a range of 470,000 tons to 8. million tons. +Land runoff is therefore a significant component of the impact of hydrocarbons o the sea. As discussed in chapter 17 (Shipping), however, the significance for th marine environment depends crucially on the location: warm, sunny zones will resul in much more rapid breakdown of the hydrocarbons by bacteria into harmles substances. Likewise, in areas with high levels of natural seepage of hydrocarbons oleophilic bacteria will often be abundant and thus the breakdown of anthropogeni inputs will be quicker than in areas with little or no natural seepage. Moreover within the land-based sources, much of the runoff is the result of relatively larg numbers of relatively small accidents and mishaps, which are difficult to prevent Mitigation, in the form of well designed drainage systems, accident-respons systems and public education, has to be the main response. +Oil refineries, however, can represent significant point-sources of hydrocarbo discharges that can reach and affect the sea. No global information seems to b available on losses and discharges from oil refineries. In some areas the impact o the marine environment is serious. In the Persian Gulf, heavy (>200 ug/g contamination of sediments in the central offshore basin is reported, and attribute to industrial effluents from onshore industries (Elshorbagy, 2005). Efforts in Europ and North America have shown, however, that it is possible to reduce this impac substantially. In Europe, CONCAWE (the oil companies’ environmental organization reports that, under pressure from regulators, the oil companies have diminishe substantially the amounts of oil discharged in process water from refineries i relation to throughput: +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Table 3. Levels of oil content of aqueous discharges from European oil refineries. +Year | Throughput | Oil content of water Year | Throughput | Oil content of wate (million tons discharges per ton (million tons discharges per to of throughput (g per of throughput (g pe per year) per year ton of throughput) ton of throughput 1981 440 24.0 1997 627 1.8 1984 422 12.1 2000 524 1.4 1987 449 10.3 2005 670 1.5 1990 511 6.54 2008 748 1.3 1993 557 3.62 2010 605 1.30 +Source: Baldoni-Andrey et al., 2012. +8. Nutrients and Waterborne Pathogens +8.1 General +The second main aspect of land-based inputs that cause marine pollution involve the input of organic matter and nutrients. Organic matter and nutrients are not i themselves harmful, but can cause pollution problems when the inputs ar excessive. There are a number of sources from which they enter the ocean. One o these is sewage, in the narrow sense of the waterborne disposal of human faece and urine. Given the origin of sewage in this narrow sense, inputs of huma pathogens are unavoidably bound up with sewage inputs. It is convenient therefor to consider issues of waterborne pathogens alongside nutrients. +8.2 The effects of organic matter +Sewage, in the narrow sense described above, contains high levels of organic matter both particulate and dissolved. In a broader sense, the terms “sewage” an “municipal waste water” are used to describe the mix of waterborne disposal o human waste and discharges from artisanal and industrial undertakings when thes are processed together. Organic matter also enters riverine discharges from natura sources, from direct or riverine inputs of industry and from aquaculture. Man artisanal or industrial discharges also contain high levels of organic matter, bot particulate and dissolved. All this particulate and dissolved organic matter tend either to be oxidised or broken down by bacteria. Both processes require oxygen The need for oxygen for chemical oxidisation is the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) The oxygen needed by the bacteria is the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). Whe the COD and BOD in a body of water exceed the oxygen available, the body of wate can become hypoxic or anoxic, with a reduced ability to support aquatic lif (Metcalfe & Eddy, 2004). +© 2016 United Nations 40 + +8.3 The effects of nutrients +Several nutrients are significant for the marine environment: mainly compounds o nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon and iron. In much of the ocean, primary production i limited by the availability of nitrogen. The inputs of nitrogen compounds ar therefore of greatest significance. However, other aspects of nutrient input are als important: changes in the balance between available nitrogen and phosphorus ca be the cause of blooms of various species of algae. Some species of algae produc toxins which can lead to amnesic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisonin and paralytic shellfish poisoning (which can have death rates of 10 per cent-20 pe cent) (GESAMP, 2001). +Anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus into estuarial and coasta ecosystems have more than doubled in the last century. These inputs are mad through both the waterborne routes described above, but also significantly throug airborne inputs, particularly in the forms of oxidized nitrogen, ammonia (especiall from livestock), and water-soluble organic nitrogen. The importance of this airborn route for problems of the marine environment can be seen from the statistics for th North Sea and the Celtic Sea in the North-East Atlantic. In 2005 the total amounts o nitrogen estimated to be discharged in liquid discharges (riverine and direct) int these areas was 1,205 kilotons. These discharges came from 11 of the 15 States i the North-East Atlantic catchments. If we look at the airborne emissions of nitroge from these 15 States, we find that these are estimated at 4,600 kilotons — 47 pe cent from agriculture, 28 per cent from transport (including shipping), 21 per cen from combustion, and 3 per cent from other sources (OSPAR, 2010). These 4,60 kilotons of emissions are from a larger area (the total area of 15 States rather tha the catchments in those States that discharge into the North-East Atlantic). Som will therefore be carried to sea areas other than the North Sea and the Celtic Sea and some are already included in the 1,205 kilotons of riverine and direct inputs since they will fall on land in the catchments of the North Sea and Celtic Sea Nevertheless, it is clear that consideration of managing excessive inputs of nutrient must take into account the nutrients that reach the sea through the atmospheri transport of nutrients. +Atmospheric transport of nutrients is also important for the range over which th nutrients can be carried. As an example, the adjacent map shows the spread o nitrogen inputs to the North-East Atlantic from North-Western Europe in 2006: th inputs reach well into the open ocean (the area marked V on the map). +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Total nitroge depositio (mg/m’ >100 500-100 200-50 100-20 50-10 20-5 10-2 <10 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 6. Atmospheric Transport of Nitrogen to the North-East Atlantic from North-West Europe Source: EMEP model in OSPAR, 2010. +At the global level, the scale of the problem can be grasped from studies aimed a showing the implications of the secular trends in airborne inputs of nitrogen to th world ocean. Drawing on work by Galloway and others (Galloway et al., 1995) an Ducklow (Ducklow, 1996), Duce and others have demonstrated the increases in th inputs of total atmospheric reactive nitrogen (N,) over the last 140 years (Figure 7) This brings out the significance of urbanization and industrialization and o intensified agriculture. +N, 186 (mg N m*? year") +Mo-14 +Mi 15-42 +@ 43-7 71-140 +BB 141-21 Gi 211 - 28 281 - 42 @ 421 - 56 561 - 70 (0701 - 84 841 - 1,12 @ 1,121 - 1.40 B 1,401 - 2,10 WB 2,101 - 2.80 WB 2,801 - 3,500 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +N, 200 (mg N m* year") +mo-14 +@ 15-4 43-7 71-140 +GB 141-21 Gi 211 - 28 281 - 42 D 421 - 560 +( 561 - 70 (701 - 84 B® 841 - 1,12 G 1,121 - 1,40 BB 1,401 - 2,10 BB 2,101 - 2,80 GB 2,801 - 3,500 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 7. Airborne Reactive Nitrogen Inputs 1860 and 2000. Source: Duce et al., 2008. Tota atmospheric reactive nitrogen (N,) deposition to the ocean in mg per square metre per year in 186 and 2000. Both organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen are included. +Inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus to the ocean provide nutrients to marine plants especially to phytoplankton. Increased inputs stimulate growth (unless there is som countervailing factor, such as turbidity to reduce the availability of the light neede for photosynthesis). Excessive net phytoplankton production in coastal and shel ecosystems can lead to an accumulation of phytoplankton biomass and t eutrophication problems. Among other phenomena, excessive net production o phytoplankton can result in marées vertes (“green tides”) and red tides, when larg areas of sea are infested with algae. Eventually, primary production will tail off a nutrients are exhausted and again growth is limited. The masses of alga (phytoplankton) will decay under the action of bacteria. This process will use up th oxygen dissolved in the seawater, and the resulting hypoxic (where oxygen is belo 2 mg per litre) or anoxic (absence of oxygen) conditions will result in the death of th animals on the seabed and of fish that cannot leave the area. In the worst cases these conditions will lead to “dead zones” (Diaz et al., 2008), loss of sea grass bed (Orth et al., 2006)), and increases in the occurrence of toxic phytoplankton bloom (Heisler et al., 2008). These dead zones reduce the amount of habitat available t aerobic animals upon which fisheries depend. The number of low-oxygen zones i coastal waters has increased exponentially to over 400 systems since the 1960s an has reached an area of about 245,000 km? worldwide (Figure 8; Rabalais et al., 2001 Diaz et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Te ees) CU BT nr c e ea m 10-20 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 8. Global Map of Dead and Hypoxic Zones. Source http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/inline/2008-08-15_bigMap.jpg. +The occurrence of stratification, where different layers in the sea do not mix, can b significant for problems from nutrients, since concentrations of nutrients may b much higher in one layer as a result of the water inputs having a different density Since stratification is often seasonal, problems from nutrients can often also b seasonal. Significant seasonal meteorological changes (such as the monsoons, rain seasons or changes in insolation (the amount of sunlight)) can also create seasona problems from nutrients through changes in runoff and primary production. +At the same time, even high levels of nutrients in discharges to the seas do no necessarily create problems: in estuaries and coastal lagoons, depending on loca circumstances, bacterial action can result in a net conversion of nitrates from lan runoff into nitrogen gas released to the air, thus reducing the load to the sea. Also the turbidity of coastal water, resulting from tidal disturbance of sediments and/o coastal erosion and other causes, can limit the depth to which sunlight can penetrat and thus inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of phytoplankton. The precis consequences of heavy loads of nutrients in discharges to the sea will therefor often depend on local circumstances, including the rate at which semi-enclose areas are flushed by tides and currents. +In certain circumstances, anoxic zones occur naturally (Helly and Levin, 2004). In th Black Sea, the large inflows of fresh water from rivers such as the Danube, Don an Dnieper result in a high degree of stratification, with little mixing between the layers The result is that a large part of the central deep water of the Black Sea (estimated a about 90 per cent of its volume) is naturally anoxic (Heileman et al., 2008c) Likewise, where narrow continental shelves and currents flowing from the ope ocean against the continental slopes are found, nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water ca be brought up into coastal waters, and produce hypoxic or even anoxic conditions Examples of this are found on the western coasts of America immediately north and +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +south of the equator, the western coast of sub-Saharan Africa, and the western coas of the Indian sub-continent (Chan et al., 2008). +8.4 Sources of nutrient 8.4.1 Municipal waste-water +Urban settlements have, of course, always produced waste-water, but a stee change in the quantities and their effect on the environment occurred from th middle of the 19” century, with the introduction of waterborne methods o disposing of human excrement and their connection to collective drains. Until then the main system of disposal had been cess-pits and the collection of "night soil" i carts and its disposal on land for use as agricultural fertilizer. The first majo changeover came in England in 1848, when legislation made the use of sewers fo disposal of human excrement compulsory as a measure against cholera. Within te years, some of the problems that the new approach could cause were shown by th Great Thames Stink of 1858, which, among other things, made the newly buil Houses of Parliament almost unusable: the decomposition of the waterborn excrement produced intolerable levels of stinking gas. Sewage treatment for waste water discharges to inland waters was adopted as the solution, and sewag treatment processes gradually improved in effectiveness and spread to more an more parts of the world. +The idea that treatment of waste-water discharges direct to the sea was als essential took much longer to be accepted: as late as 1990, some large towns i Western Europe still discharged major parts of their municipal waste-wate untreated direct to the sea. The belief that the ocean had an almost unlimite absorptive capacity of the ocean was difficult to eradicate. However, the problem resulting from municipal waste-water discharges to relatively enclosed bays an harbours were acknowledged early - in the United Kingdom, the problems of th semi-enclosed Belfast Lough were one of the reasons for the investigations of th 1896 Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, which established ground-breakin standards for sewage treatment, in terms of suspended solids and BOD per uni volume of discharge. However, it took the recognition of the significance of th problems from nutrients in relatively open sea areas such as Chesapeake Bay or th German Bight in the 1980s to create more general acceptance that action wa needed, and to draw attention more generally to the issue of nutrient inputs to th sea. +The main routes of nutrient input are through rivers and direct discharges throug pipelines of waste-water from sewage-collection systems and factories. When th Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment (GPA was adopted in 1995, there was general agreement that the most important nee for protecting the marine environment and improving human well-being wa improved management of sewage, especially that from large conurbations. Wher sewage treatment is applied to sewage discharges, three levels of treatment ar typically recognized: primary (removal of solids and floating oil and grease) secondary (breaking-down of biological substances by microbes or protozoa) and +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +tertiary (disinfection and removal of nutrients). It is not always essential fo discharges from sewage-collection systems to be treated before discharge. In som circumstances, very long discharge pipelines can take untreated sewage sufficientl far out to sea, and into sufficiently dynamically active waters, that the nutrients an microbes in the sewage are adequately dispersed and assimilated and problems o eutrophication avoided. For this to be the case, the pipelines must take the sewag well beyond immediate coastal waters and strong currents must be present t provide the dispersal. Even then, in most cases, at least primary treatment of th sewage is preferable. Progress has been made in many parts of the world but overall, untreated sewage inputs remain a major threat to the marine environment. +Increasingly, in addition, inputs of water across the coastline through undergroun aquifers are being recognized as a significant pollution route, although statistica estimates of the amounts of water, nutrients and contaminants through this rout are rarely available. +8.4.2 Food and related industries +The preparation of human food inevitably results in the generation of organic waste milling grain produces chaff; brewing and distilling produce the spent malt or othe grain used; wine-making leaves the pressed grapes; fish preparation leaves guts heads and tails, and so on. Some of these wastes are liquid or semi-liquid and can b discharged to the sea. Others can conveniently be disposed of into the se (especially the waste from fish-processing), directly or through a watercourse. A explained in chapter 12, aquaculture is also a source of nutrients to the marin environment. All these elements will create BOD or COD, and will release nutrient as they are decomposed or oxidized. +8.4.3 Land runoff +The world has been able to produce more and more food from land, through combination of improvements in strains of crops, agricultural techniques an pesticides, increased use of fertilizers, as well as bringing new areas into cultivation The scale of this increase in agricultural production can be seen from FAO statistic on cereal production: an increase of over 25 per cent in the tonnage of cereal produced worldwide between 2002 and 2012. This increase in overall tonnage i also reflected in increased yield per hectare: over the period 2002 to 2012, yield increased by over 7 per cent in southern Asia, by over 9 per cent in eastern an south-eastern Asia, by over 18 per cent in Africa and by over 20 per cent in wester Asia. +The substantial increases in total crops and in yield, while essential to feed th world’s growing population, carry with them some environmental problems for th marine environment. As discussed above, some of the pesticides used on land hav had impacts on the marine environment as a result of runoff. Likewise, th increased use of fertilizers has resulted in increased runoff of nutrients to the seas These nutrients, intended to promote photosynthesis in land plants, also encourag primary production in the seas, and result in eutrophication problems. The runof not only takes the obvious form of surface water entering the sea through rivers an watercourses, it can also enter the sea through groundwater seepage through +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +aquifers. Estimates suggest that direct subterranean/submarine discharges of fres water to the oceans around the world deliver up to 12 per cent of total surfac water runoff, with the most accepted values between 5 per cent and 10 per cen (Basterretxea et al., 2010). +The use of nitrogen-based fertilizers has grown enormously in recent decades. Thi growth continues, as Table 4 shows: world consumption has increased by 42 pe cent between 2002 and 2012, including more than doubling in Latin America southern Asia, eastern Asia and Oceania. +Table 4. World Nitrogen Fertilizer Consumption +Million tons +2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 201 Europe and Centra Asia 5,330 5,090 5,743 5,798 5,705 6,699 6,902 6,711 6,559 6,997 7,17 North America 2,736 2,620 2,715 3,150 2,763 3,151 2,884 2,466 2,685 2,868 2,95 Latin America 691 722 865 880 1,043 1,253 1,106 1,091 1,277, 1,455 1,45 Africa 800 920 1,112 1,160 1,022 990 $1,013 1,017 1,054 1,067 1,14 West Asia 409 462 547 533 441 440 456 595 550 455 41 South Asia 99 96 137 164 141 138 167 197 210 232 23 East Asia 908 1,199 1,275 1,315 1,391 1,490 1,671 1,428 1,692 1,737 1,96 Oceania 161 372 378 462 389 422 468 531 544 556 679 +11,29 11,77. 12,77. + 13,47. 12,90 14,58 14,66 14,04 14,57 15,37 16,0 World 5 9 5 3 1 3 5 5 8 4 0 +Source: FAOSTAT. +Increased use of agricultural fertilizers does not necessarily result in increase nutrient inputs to the seas: good agricultural practices can help avoid this. Adjustin amounts of fertilizer applied to likely take-up by crops, applying fertilizers at the tim of year when take-up by crops will be greatest, ploughing so that the furrows do no promote runoff, and leaving buffer zones along watercourses can all help reduce th leaching of nutrients to the watercourses and the seas. +The type of crop cultivated can also be very significant. Legumes, such as soy beans, naturally fix nitrogen from the air into soil, from where it can then run off The vast increases in soya bean cultivation in some tropical countries (such as Brazil can increase nitrogen fluxes in the same way as the use of nitrogen fertilizers (Filos et al., 2006). +Intensive raising of livestock is another major source of nutrients: both solid an liquid wastes are involved, as well as gaseous emissions of ammonia and methane all of which can find their way to the seas through runoff from the land or depositio from the air. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +8.4.4 Other sources of nutrients +The processing of many food products by food and drink industries for consumptio also frequently results in waste-water containing nutrients in various forms. Thes waste-water streams are a further factor affecting nutrient inputs to the seas. +The combustion of petrol/gasoline and other liquid fuels also produces nitroge compounds, which can be carried through the air to the seas. Vehicles powered b internal-combustion engines are obvious sources of such compounds (especially o ammonia). Near major shipping routes, the contribution from ships can also b significant. In north-western Europe, for example, over 25 per cent of nitroge emissions to the atmosphere are from these sources (OSPAR, 2010). +8.5 Waterborne pathogens +Untreated municipal waste-water inevitably contains infectious microbes fro humans. If these microbes reach the seas, they can infect humans both when the immerse themselves in sea water (sea-bathing) and through the consumption of fis and shellfish (especially the latter, since shellfish filter large quantities of seawater i the course of obtaining their food). Similar contamination also arises from anima excrement. In bathing waters, the probability of respiratory and intestinal disease and infections rises for bathers rises in an almost direct relationship with the sewag pollution in the water. GESAMP and the World Health Organization estimated i 1999 that bathing in polluted seas causes some 250 million cases a year o gastroenteritis and upper respiratory disease. The same study estimated that eatin contaminated shellfish is responsible for the loss every year of 3,500,000-7,000,00 disability-adjusted life-years (a standard measure of time lost due to prematur death and time spent disabled by disease), putting it in the same bracket as stomac cancer, intestinal nematodes and upper respiratory tract infections (GESAMP, 2001). +9. Regional view of impacts of Nutrients and Waterborne Pathogens +The foregoing review of the sources of oxygen demand (both COD and BOD) nutrients and waterborne pathogens and the ways in which they can affect th ocean sets out the general mechanisms. It is necessary then to see to what exten the various parts of the ocean have in fact been affected. Because this kind o problem is confined to coastal waters (since distribution and dilution remove th detrimental effects), it is not necessary to examine the open ocean area. +9.1. Arctic Ocean +No problems are reported from elevated levels of nutrients in the Arctic Ocea because there are no major concentrations of population or agriculture. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +9.2. Atlantic Ocean and Adjacent Sea 9.2.1 North-East Atlantic, North Sea and Celtic Seas +Serious problems from eutrophication became apparent in the North Sea in th 1980s, as dead zones appeared, particularly in the German Bight. As a result, th coastal States committed themselves to a 50 per cent reduction in inputs of nitroge and phosphorus compounds by 1995. The 1998 OSPAR Eutrophication Strateg extended the goals of combating eutrophication to the whole of the North-Eas Atlantic. In 1991, the European Union adopted legislation requiring improve treatment of urban waste-water and reduction in inputs of nitrates from agriculture Assessing the impacts of anthropogenic nutrient inputs (especially inputs fro diffuse sources) is complicated by the delivery of nutrient-rich water from the dee Atlantic. Most North Sea countries achieved the target reduction in phosphoru inputs by 1995, and some countries have now reduced phosphorus inputs to 15 pe cent or less of their 1985 level. Although the target for 50 per cent reductions i nitrogen inputs between 1985 and 1995 was not achieved (and still has not bee achieved, except in Denmark), the resulting major programmes have achieve substantial reductions in inputs. Germany and the Netherlands have almost achieve the 50 per cent reduction. Even after these reductions, eutrophication proble areas, with enhanced levels of nutrients, are still found along the coasts of Belgium Demark, Germany and the Netherlands, while a number of estuaries and fjords i Ireland, Norway, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom also show such levels an are therefore regarded as eutrophication problem areas. In France, the estuaries o the Loire and Seine and much of the coast of Brittany (where beaches covered i sea-lettuce create serious health impacts on both locals and tourists) are stil eutrophication problem areas. Mass mortality of benthic and pelagic animals has however, been limited to a few estuaries and fjords in Denmark, the Netherlands Norway and Sweden (OSPAR, 2010). +Since 1976, the European Union has had programmes to reduce the inputs o waterborne pathogens to the waters of its member States. This has required majo investment in sewage treatment and the management of storm-water runoff. Th results have been a steady improvement in water quality, both for bathing and fo shell-fish production. By 2012 (which was a very wet summer in Europe) wit consequential high levels of storm runoff), only 1.7 per cent of the monitored coasta bathing sites failed to meet the European Union’s mandatory standards. Most o these were in the North Sea (EEA, 2013). +9.2.2 Baltic Sea +The Baltic Sea is sensitive to eutrophication because of the strong halocline, th limited water exchange with the North Sea and the consequent long residence tim of water in it. High nutrient loads and a long residence time mean that nutrient discharged to the sea will remain in the basin for a long time. In addition, th stratification of the water masses increases the vulnerability of the Baltic Sea t eutrophication, because it hinders or prevents ventilation and oxygenation of th bottom waters and sediments. Furthermore, absence, or low levels, of oxygen +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +worsen the situation by affecting nutrient transformation processes by bacteria such as nitrification and denitrification and the capacity of sediments to bin phosphorus, and lead to release of significant quantities of it. +As a result, most of the Baltic is regarded as suffering from problems o eutrophication. Only the Gulf of Bothnia (the northernmost part of the water between Finland and Sweden) is generally free of these problems, although eve here, there are small coastal sites with pronounced eutrophication problems. Th worst affected areas are the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, the Baltic Proper (th area between Sweden and Estonia and Latvia), the area east of the island o Bornholm, the Belts and the Kattegat. Smaller sites on the coasts of Sweden and th Gdansk Bight are also classified as suffering eutrophication (HELCOM, 2010a). I general, the anoxic and hypoxic areas of the Baltic Sea are regarded as one of th largest areas of dead zones in the world. +9.2.3 Mediterranean Sea +Eutrophication is assessed as being a localized problem in the Mediterranean basin The main causes, as elsewhere, are inadequately treated sewage and runoff an emissions from animal husbandry and high usage levels of agricultural fertilizers. 3 per cent of coastal towns with a population of more than 2,000 have no sewag treatment at all, and a further 12 per cent have only primary treatment. Thes towns are concentrated on the southern shore of the western Mediterranean, i coastal Sicily, on the eastern coast of the Adriatic and in the Aegean and the north eastern corner of the Levantine basin. Fertilizer usage reaches over 200 kg pe hectare of arable land in Croatia, Egypt, Israel and Slovenia, and is over 100 kg pe hectare in France, Greece, Italy and Spain. Since the eastern Mediterranean i naturally oligotrophic, locally enhanced levels of nutrient input can produce marke results. The main hypoxic area is along the delta of the River Nile (Egypt) and ther are areas at high risk of hypoxia at the mouth of the River Po (Italy) and the Rive Rhone (France). Medium risks of hypoxia have been reported at the mouth of th River Ebro (Spain) and in the Gulf of Gabés (Tunisia), the Gulf of Sidra (Libya), som bays and estuaries around the Aegean Sea and the Gulf of Iskenderun (Turkey) although Turkish authorities indicated that risks of hypoxia have not been confirme in the latter area (UNEP, 2012). +9.2.4 Black Sea +As noted above, the Black Sea has historically had an anoxic zone in deep water below 200 m. However, a major hypoxic (and, at times, anoxic) zone developed i the shallower north-western shelf from the 1950s. The inputs of nutrients by 199 were estimated at approximately 80 per cent from agriculture and 15 per cent fro municipal waste-water (most large towns having at least secondary sewag treatment). Between 1960 and 1990 the nutrient input into the catchments of th Rivers Danube, Dnipro and Don increased approximately 10-fold. The resultin anoxic or hypoxic zones at their peak in 1983-1990 extended to between 18,000 an 40,000 square kilometres, with consequential effects on fisheries and benthi biodiversity. +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +Three causes reduced the massive agricultural inputs: the economic problems o Eastern Europe from 1990 onwards, the adoption of stringent standards for nitrat emissions by the European Union (which required changes in the practices of State in the upper Danube basin) and the preparation for the entry of some States in th lower Danube basin into the European Union (which required the adoption of thos standards). The very substantial reductions in the nutrient inputs meant that th worst effects of the hypoxia had disappeared by 1995, although the effects o changes in benthic biodiversity are still being felt (Borysova et al., 2005; Diaz et al. 2008). +9.2.5 North-West Atlantic +Nitrogen releases to air and water are low in most of Canada, but southern area where rapid development is taking place show signs of emerging problems. A present, there is little sign of estuarine eutrophication on the Atlantic coast o Canada, but hypoxic conditions have been found in the lower St Lawrence estuar areas since the mid-1980s. These are at depths below 275 m. About a third of th problem is attributed to land-based inputs. The other two-thirds seem to be th result of changed oceanic circulation, resulting in larger amounts of Atlantic wate from south of the Gulf Stream entering the estuary. This water has lower oxyge levels and a higher temperature (resulting in more bacteriological activity an consequent consumption of oxygen) than the previously dominant Labrador Curren water (Schindler et al., 2006; DFO-MPO, 2013). +The United States National Coastal Condition Report (NCCR) uses a measure of wate quality relevant to the occurrence of eutrophication based on a combination o levels of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen and the degree of water clarity. Cut-off point (varying between regions) are used to classify these indicators into good, fair an poor categories, and an algorithm gives an overall value in the light of thes classifications (EPA, 2012). The United States has also carried out a Nationa Estuarine Eutrophication Assessment (NEEA), looking at 141 estuaries in th contiguous 48 states. An update was published in 2007. Although full conclusion could be reached on only 64 of the estuaries, 29 showed moderately high to hig eutrophic conditions (NEEA, 2007). +For the North-East Region (Maine to Virginia, including Chesapeake Bay), there is marked gradient from north to south: the overall evaluation is that the region ha fair water quality, but this ranges from very good quality in the open estuaries of th north, to poor in many of the southern estuaries, which have poor levels of wate exchange and drain densely populated catchments. Particular problem areas ar Great Bay (New Hampshire), Narragansett Bay (Rhode Island), Long Island Soun (between Connecticut and Long Island, New York), New York/New Jersey (NY/NJ harbour, the Delaware Estuary, and the western tributaries of Chesapeake Bay. Hig levels of enteric bacteria resulted in advice for short periods in the mid-2000s agains bathing at about 17 per cent of the beaches monitored. Further out to sea, the wate quality in the Mid-Atlantic Bight was generally rated as “good” (EPA, 2012). Th NEEA showed a similar division between the estuaries in the northern and souther parts of this region, with the former being generally good and the latter generally +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +showing the worst conditions nationally. It also noted a worsening between 199 and 2004 in the status of 8 of the 22 estuaries assessed in the southern part (NEEA 2007). +Chesapeake Bay presents a complex of problems, in part because of its larg catchment basin with extensive industrial agriculture and a large and rapidly growin population, and in part because of the long residence time of water in the estuarin system (measured in months) (Kemp et al., 2005). Efforts to address the problem began in 1983 with the Environmental Protection Agency’s Chesapeake Ba Program. By the mid-1990s, this seemed to be bearing fruit, but by 2005 it was clea that it was not reaching its goals (GAO, 2005). New efforts began in 2009, focuse on a range of measures to address the multiple causes of the problems, includin measures to achieve by 2025 a specified total maximum daily load from all source of nitrogen and phosphorus (Chesapeake Bay Program, 2014). +For the South-East Region (North Carolina to Florida), the overall rating was that th water quality was “fair”, with only 22 per cent of the sampling points rated “good and 13 per cent “poor”. The main problem areas were the large estuaries o Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds (North Carolina) and the major ports of Charlesto (South Carolina) and Savannah (Georgia). Away from the immediate coast, th South Atlantic Bight was regarded as having overwhelmingly “good” water qualit (EPA, 2012). This picture is generally consistent with the NEEA, but that assessmen was unable to classify the Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, while judging th Charleston and Savannah port areas as presenting lesser problems (NEEA, 2007). +9.2.6 Wider Caribbean +The water quality of the waters of the Gulf Coast of the United States along th immediate shoreline is judged by the National Coastal Condition Report to be “fair” with 30 per cent of the sampling stations “good” and 10 per cent “poor” (and 7 pe cent not evaluated because of lack of data) (EPA, 2012). This picture was consisten with that presented by the NEEA (NEEA, 2007). +However, a little further out into the shelf waters, there is a major eutrophicatio problem area. Since 2000 this dead zone has fluctuated annually in size from abou 8,500 sq km to about 21,750 sq km (NOAA, 2013). This is regarded as the second largest dead zone in the world. The reasons for the fluctuation are not full understood, but are largely connected with the levels of flow in the Mississippi River This drains about 3.1 million sq km (about 40 per cent of the contiguous Unite States), with a very high level of arable and livestock agriculture and correspondingly high level of nitrogen and phosphorus runoff. The first problem were noted by shrimp fishermen in the 1950s. Studies of the sediments show tha algal growth (and hence eutrophication problems) in the area of the dead zon increased significantly in the second half of the 20" century. The dead zone has ha a significant effect on the shrimp fishery (Turner et al., 2008; Rabalais et al., 2001 Diaz et al., 2008). +In other parts of the wider Caribbean, significant progress has been made i addressing the problems of sewage and other nutrient discharges. In 2010, th Caribbean Environment Programme conducted a comprehensive survey of the +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +problems. In spite of some uncertainties, this showed major progress in Colombi and Venezuela in reducing inputs from municipal waste-water since an earlier surve in 1994: total nitrogen inputs had reduced by more than 80 per cent, and als substantial reductions in organic matter (BOD). Elsewhere, smaller reductions ha been achieved in mainland States, but large increases were found in the islan States. Much more general progress had been made in reducing organic matte (BOD) and nutrients from industrial sites in coastal areas: reductions of 50 per cent 90 per cent in the former in all parts, and 90 per cent or more in the latte everywhere except in the United States and Mexico (UNEP-UCR/CEP, 2010). +Nevertheless, there are major issues with sewage, both in terms of health an eutrophication. The Caribbean relies heavily on the tourist industry for its economi well-being. Clean bathing waters and coral reefs are two important supports for tha tourist industry. Eutrophication leads to excessive algal growth which can smothe and kill corals — especially if the herbivore fish (such as groupers) have been reduce by over-fishing. Untreated sewage harms the health of both local populations an visiting tourists. Both effects have serious implications for the tourist industry. +9.2.7 South-East Atlantic +Detailed studies and analysis conducted in the Guinea Current region, and mor generally in West and Central Africa, show that sewage constitutes the main sourc of pollution in that area from land-based activities. A similar situation applied in th regions of the Benguela Current (where harmful algal blooms also appear to be o the increase) and the Canaries Current (where the waters off the cities of Dakar i Senegal and Casablanca and Rabat in Morocco appear to be specially affected). Al the countries assessed reflect high urban, domestic loads, sometimes from industria origin, which create problems from BOD, suspended sediments, nutrients, bacteri and pathogens. For example, the mean annual amount of oxygen required to mee BOD for the entire West and Central Africa region, including the countries adjoinin the Guinea Current, has been estimated to be 288,961 tons for BOD from municipa sewage and 47,269 tons for BOD from industrial discharges: a total of 336,230 ton (For comparison, the mean annual amount of oxygen required to meet BOD for th River Rhine at the border between Germany and the Netherlands is about 60,00 tons.). Again, the rapid growth of urban populations is far beyond the capacity o relevant authorities and municipalities to provide adequate basic services of sewag and waste-water-treatment facilities (GCLMEP, 2003; Heileman, 2008b). +9.2.8 South-West Atlantic +The waters off the northern coasts of Brazil have naturally relatively low levels o nutrients. During most of the year, therefore, there are no problems fro eutrophication. However, during the rainy season, runoff from land brings sudde increases in the levels of nutrients, and consequently algal blooms then occur (d Lacerda et al., 2002). Estuaries, bays and lagoons close to the larger conurbation tend to show eutrophication from sewage and other nutrient inputs, often enhance by the effects of limited water circulation (Costa, 2007). +Further south, in the heavily populated areas of south-eastern Brazil, high levels o nutrients and consequent eutrophication problems are common. Guanabara Bay +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +(on which the city of Rio de Janeiro (population 6.3 million) is located) is the mos heavily affected area, with very high nutrient levels and high levels of microbia pollution (de Lacerda et al., 2002). In the south of Brazil, in the State of Sant Catarina, in urban estuaries, the dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) was generall three times greater than in non-urban ones (Pagliosa et al., 2006). +In Brazil, the majority of households and industries generally do not have access t sewerage. The national average of those with connections to a sewer in 2008 wa 44 per cent, ranging from 1.7 per cent in the State of Para in the north, to 82 pe cent in the State of Sdo Paulo in the south. Supply of piped water was much mor common than sewerage connections, and sewerage connections were mor common than sewage treatment: only 28 per cent of the volume of water supplie passed into the sewer system and only 68 per cent of the sewage was treated, only little over half of that treated receiving secondary or higher treatment. Thi situation in 2008, however, represented a big improvement (for example, a increase of 40 per cent of households connected) on that at the time of the previou survey in 2000. Brazil currently has a major programme of investment (equivalent t 4.2 billion United States dollars) for the improvement of sanitation. So it i reasonable to hope that the situation will improve (IBGA, 2008; PAC2, 2014). Furthe south again, Uruguay and Argentina, which contain the large conurbations o Montevideo and Buenos Aires, have serious microbial pollution in some localize areas of their coastal waters, where pathogens have been detected which in som cases have exceeded international recommended levels for recreational water. Toxi red tides are becoming more frequent and of longer duration (Heileman, 2008e). +9.3. Indian Ocea 9.3.1 Western Indian Ocean +Throughout this area, there is a tendency for high nutrient levels to encourag ecosystem change, leading to dominance by algal communities. On the coasts of th Agulhas Current, the growing coastal populations and increasing tourism, for whic sewage treatment facilities are inadequate, result in the increasing discharge of ra sewage directly into rivers or the sea, leading to eutrophication in localized areas Untreated effluents from fish processing plants and abattoirs are also frequentl discharged into the sea, causing varying degrees of localized pollution. +On the coasts of the States bordering the Somali current, most of the coasta municipalities do not have the capacity to handle the vast quantities of sewage an solid wastes generated daily. Raw sewage containing organic materials, nutrients suspended solids, parasitic worms and benign and pathogenic bacteria and viruses i discharged into coastal areas. High microbial levels are observed in areas nea sewage outfalls (Heileman and Scott, 2008). +In the Comoros, there is no sewerage, drainage or waste-water treatment. In Kenya microbial water quality studies have been completed in a number of locations an microbial pollution levels near urban centres, such as Mombasa, were several order of magnitude higher than in coastal waters in rural areas. In Mozambique, faeca coliform counts in the channel adjacent to the Infulene River in Maputo were found +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +to be worryingly high. In Madagascar, similar high counts of bacteria from huma excrement have been measured in coastal waters. Microbial pollution is an ongoin problem in several Mascarene coastal areas. Periodic draining of waste-water pond on fish farms adds to nutrient discharges. At present, in Mauritius, 73 per cent o households use cesspits or septic tanks whilst 2 per cent use pit latrines; so most o the effluents are discharged directly to the sea or are carried to the sea by runof and rivers with higher potential for microbial pollution, particularly after heavy rains Agricultural practices in Mauritius (both intensive agriculture and small-scale marke gardening, and livestock rearing) also pose a serious threat to coastal ecosystem and give rise to algal blooms and red tides (ASCLME/SWIOFP, 2012). +9.3.2 Red Sea, including the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez +Although its effects are usually limited to a small area around urban areas and larg tourist developments, sewage is a major source of coastal contamination throughou the Red Sea and the Gulfs of Aden, Aqaba and Suez. Because of rapid populatio growth and inadequate treatment and disposal facilities, poorly treated or untreate sewage is dumped in coastal areas. Inputs of sewage also results in eutrophication o the coastal waters around some population centres, major ports and tourist facilitie (Gerges, 2002). +9.3.3 Persian Gulf +The shortage of freshwater resources and the availability of financial resource resulted in an extensive investment in sewage treatment in the Gulf States on th southern shore of the Persian Gulf, in order to permit re-use of the treated water fo irrigation and other purposes. The treatment applied is generally secondary o tertiary. This re-use also reduces the demand for water from desalinization. Henc there has not been the same pressure from discharge of nutrients as in other part of the world from urban growth and consequent increases in urban waste-water. A long ago as 1999, 252 million cubic metres of water were being produced annually i this way (Alsharhan et al., 2001). The latest FAO figures show that this has risen t 551 million cubic metres/year. Elsewhere in the area, coastal water quality at th lraq-Kuwait border has declined as a result of increased agricultural pollution due t the draining and subsequent loss of the filtering role of the Mesopotamia marshlands (Heileman et al., 2008b). On the northern shore, moreover, some cities such as Bushehr, are discharging treated sewage effluent, which is giving rise t enhanced levels of nutrients, although it is not clear that this results i eutrophication problems (Rabbaniha et al., 2013). +9.3.4 Arabian Sea, including waters west of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka +This area is affected by natural nutrient enrichment, at the time of the south western monsoon, as deep-level nutrient-rich water is brought up onto the narro continental shelf (Naqvi et al., 2009). +In the north of the area, sewage, fertilizers and other effluents have resulted i eutrophication in coastal areas such as Karachi. Fish kills in some localities, such a off the Karachi coast and Gawadar Bay, have been attributed to harmful algal bloom caused by the growing pollution (Heileman et al.,2008b). +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +Further south, the Indian Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimates that th 644 cities and towns of over 50,000 population across the country (coastal an inland) discharge 5,500 megalitres a day of sewage, of which only 522 megalitres day — less than a tenth — receives any treatment before discharge. Of this, the 12 cities and towns of populations of over 50,000 in the coastal area generate abou 6,835 megalitres a day of waste-water, out of which only 1,492 megalitres (22 pe cent) receive any treatment. The rest is discharged without any kind of treatment t the coastal waters. This represents an increase of about 150 per cent over the level of discharge twenty years ago, although the rate of increase has recently slowe (CPCB, 2014). There have also been large increases in the amounts of artificia fertilizers used. However, it is argued that much of this usage is in relative dry area from which there is little runoff (NIOT, 2014). Considering the west coast of Indi separately, the state of Maharashtra, in the middle, accounts for the majority of th 3,220 megalitres discharged daily into the Arabian Sea (CPCB, 2014). In spite of thi heavy nutrient load, which produces some hypoxic zones, few eutrophicatio problems (such as harmful algal blooms) are reported, probably because of the ver dynamic tidal action which produces rapid dispersal. The algal mass, measured a chlorophyll-a, is lower in this area than in the Bay of Bengal (BOBLME, India 2011). +Given the statistics on sewage, it is not surprising that high levels of pathogeni bacteria are reported all along the coast (except in the Karwar (Karnataka) region) with increasing levels on the coasts of Goa, the rest of Karnataka and Kerala. Thes increasing trends in levels of nutrients and waterborne pathogens point to th significant influence of sewage inputs (NIOT, 2014). +9.3.5 Waters east of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka (Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea Malacca Strait) +In the waters to the east of the Indian subcontinent, hypoxic areas regularly occu along the coast, although severe eutrophication problems appear to be rare. Thes hypoxic areas are partly a natural situation brought about by enhancement o nutrient levels by the monsoon winds bringing nutrient-rich water to the surfac (Vinayachandran, 2003), and partly by high levels of nutrient input from the land The major inputs are from West Bengal in India (which provides well over 50 pe cent of the inputs from the Indian coast) and from Bangladesh. The Indian input o sewage is around 2,330 megalitres/day into the Bay of Bengal, 80 per cent of whic has had no treatment (CPCB, 2014). The hypoxic areas are also associated wit frequent harmful algal blooms, for which seven hotspots have been identifie (Gopalpur (Orissa), Visakhapatnam and Coringa (Andra Pradesh) and Ennore Kalpakkam, Porto Nova, and the Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)) (BOBLEME, Indi 2011; Satpathy et al., 2013; NIOT, 2014). High levels of pathogenic bacteria ar found all along the Indian coast of the Bay of Bengal (NIOT, 2014). +In Bangladesh, sewage collection and treatment exists only for one-third of Dacc (the capital), although investment is taking place to extend this and develop sewerage system for the port city of Chittagong. Human wastes from most of th 150 million population are therefore liable, eventually, to find their way into the Ba of Bengal. Increasing amounts of artificial fertilizers are being used — imports rose b 2.3 times between 2003 and 2006 — but no data are available for inputs to the sea. +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +Harmful algal blooms are frequent, and have been linked to mass mortalities i shrimp farms. Information is lacking on illnesses linked to food from the sea, but i thought to be increasing in parallel to increasing marine pollution (BOBLME Bangladesh, 2011). +In Myanmar, there seems to be no evidence of hypoxic zones linked to majo population centres. Generally, seawater samples showed acceptable levels o nutrients and dissolved oxygen, although samples from the mouth of the Yango (Rangoon) river showed increased levels of suspended solids and COD (BOBLME Myanmar, 2011). +On the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand, little provision is made for sewage treatmen of the human wastes from the massive tourist industry. In particular, at Patong (th main town of the tourist island of Phuket), sewage discharges are leading to elevate nutrient levels and algal blooms in December-February of most years. However, th Thai authorities have established a comprehensive marine water-quality monitorin system, which shows that around 90 per cent of the sampling stations on this coas are “fair” or better. The only station with badly deteriorated water quality is at th mouth of the Ranong River, on the border with Myanmar. A major algal bloom an fish kill took place on this coast in 2007, but it seems likely that this was due t unusual upwelling of nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean (BOBLME, Thailand 2011). +Malaysia also has a long-standing marine water-quality monitoring system. On th basis of this Malaysia more recently developed a marine water-quality index. Thi brings together parameters for suspended solids, oxygen demand and microbes together with those for heavy metals. For the coasts facing the Andaman Sea an the Straits of Malacca, this index shows that in 2012, of the 62 coastal monitorin stations in this area, 3 per cent were rated “excellent”, 10 per cent “good”, 79 pe cent “moderate” and 8 per cent “poor”. Three of the five “poor” monitoring station were near the port of Malacca and the other two were beaches apparently badl affected by oil pollution. Similar results were reported for estuarine and islan monitoring stations (BOBLME, Malaysia, 2011). +9.3.6 Waters west of Australia +In general, the waters around Australia have naturally low levels of nutrients, sinc they are not affected by any marine current that can bring water with a high nutrien content to the coastal waters, and since much of the coast has limited land runof because of the low rainfall. Blooms of toxic and nuisance algae, however, continu to be a problem in a number of the estuaries and in inshore waters along th western coast, with adverse impacts that include major events of fish mortality When they occur, algal blooms in this region can cover large areas. In Wester Australia, major nutrient and algal bloom problems have a long history in the Peel Harvey Estuary, caused principally by nutrient pollution from upstream agricultura lands. Major works were undertaken to improve flushing of the estuary, but the seem to have brought only temporary relief (SE2011 Committee, 2011). +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +9.4 Pacific Ocea 9.4.1 Waters west of Canada and the mainland of the United States +The low population density and the small areas that are devoted to arable an livestock farming of Alaska as compared with the rest of the United States mean tha problems of enhanced nutrient and microbiological inputs do not exist. The handfu of sampling sites classified as “fair” rather than “good” from the point of view o water quality by the National Coast Condition Report are thought probably to be th result of so-far-unidentified natural factors rather than of human impact (EPA, 2012). +The west coast of Canada also does not show any problems of eutrophication o microbiological disease. However, there appear to be risks that such problems ma develop near the border with the United States, where the main population centre and agriculture are found. This is the possible result of expanding huma populations and intensifying agriculture in the lower Fraser Valley and Puget Soun (Schindler et al., 2006). +9.4.2 Waters west of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua an Costa Rica +In the coastal waters of these countries, waste-water discharges and agricultur runoff are the main sources of anthropogenic nutrient enrichment. Very little urba waste-water is treated: for example, in El Salvador, less than 3 per cent is treate (Romero Deras, 2013). Fertilizer consumption increased from 76 kilogrammes pe hectare to about 131 kilogrammes per hectare between 1990 and 2001, and ha continued to rise. Deforestation and associated increases in erosion and runoff als contribute to enhanced nutrient runoff. Eutrophication problems have been note in the Gulf of Nicoya (Costa Rica), Jiquilisco Bay (El Salvador) and Corinto and E Realejo (Nicaragua). Harmful algal blooms associated with eutrophication have als been observed (Heileman, 2008d). +9.4.3 East Asian Coastal Seas — General +Both municipal waste-water and agricultural runoff present problems for the Eas Asian Seas. No consistent assessment is possible across the area as a whole, but it i clear that both these major sources are causing problems, particularly in the area near the major conurbations. In the Philippines, Manila Harbour is a clear example o this. In Thailand, the national marine water-quality index shows that the mai problem areas are in the inner Gulf of Thailand, around the mouths of the Cha Phraya, Thachin, Mae Klong, and Bangpakong Rivers. In Malaysia, the overwhelmin majority of sampling stations on the east coast of the peninsula and in Sarawak Sabah and Labuan were put into the “moderate” quality classification. The bes areas are in the north of Sabah. Harmful algal blooms have become much mor frequent in recent years in all parts of the region (UNEP/COBSEA 2009). +9.4.4 Coastal waters of China +The Chinese authorities have developed a water-quality assessment system whic looks at the parameters related to (a) oxygen and nutrients (dissolved oxygen, COD pH, inorganic nitrogen and phosphates), (b) heavy metals and (c) oil. Microbiologica parameters are also monitored. Norms have been established for each of four +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +categories (Category I: Clean water, Category II: Relatively clean water, Category III Slightly polluted water, Category IV: Medium polluted water). Water that is wors than Category IV is classed as “Heavily polluted water”. Classifying waters, works o the “one out, all out” principle: if the samples from an area fail to meet the leve specified for a category for any one of the parameters, then the area is demoted to lower category. In practice, the determinant parameter for all areas is th parameter for inorganic nitrogen, except for Liaodong Bay (the north-eastern gulf o the Bohai Sea), where the determinant parameter is inorganic phosphate. Figure shows the results in 2014 for studies in major bays along the coast of China: man are heavily polluted (the absence of indications seaward of the lines enclosing th bays, of course, does not mean that the water there is clean; merely that the dat for such areas is not included in this map). The total area of waters that could not b classified as Category | (clean water) increased steeply, at about 20,000 squar kilometres/year, from 1990 to 2000. Since then, the amount of water that i classified as other than clean has remained more stable, although the areas withi the different categories below Category | have fluctuated. In particular, the tota area classified as heavily polluted water (worse than Category IV) has remained mor or less stable over the decade from 2000 to 2009. The fluctuations have, however been different in the different areas. In the Bohai Sea, although the area of clea water has increased, the other areas have deteriorated in status. It should b remembered that about 10 per cent of the planet’s population live in th catchments of the Bohai Sea. In the Yellow Sea, the area in category Il and wors increased by about 40 per cent between 2003 and 2004, but by 2009 had recovere its pre-2003 level. In the East China Sea, the area in Category | (clean water increased until 2005, but after that point remained constant. In the South China Sea the area of water in Categories Il and worse increased by about 75 per cent fro 2000 to 2004, but then fell back again in 2005; it then worsened again by 2009 to level worse than in 2004. These figures show that the extent of marine pollutio measured in this way is probably significantly related to changing levels of runof from land, since it is the levels of nutrients that are determinative (Wang et al. 2011). +Harmful algal blooms in Chinese coastal waters increased massively in number an extent since the 1990s, affecting areas up to 30,000 square kilometres (Wang et al. 2011). Since 2006, the areas affected by “red tides” have decreased, now being les than 20,000 square kilometres. The areas affected by “green tides” have, however increased since 2008 (China, 2012). +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +fe . a Liaodong Bay\~* = ~Pulandian Bay’| +Legen Area of Category |) Area of Category I [EBB area of Category 11 HEB aves of Category 1V +HEB area of Worse tha ] Category IV +a +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 9. Water Quality in 2014 in Major Bays along the Coast of China. Source: China NMEMC, 2015. +9.4.5 Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, and the NOWPAP region +Assessment of relative inputs of nutrients to the Yellow Sea from China and th Korean Peninsula is not possible because comparable data are lacking. The sam applies to discharges into the parts of the NOWPAP region®. From the pattern of +8 The NOWPAP (Northwest Pacific Action Plan) was established by China, Japan, the Republic of Kore and the Russian Federation in 1994 as an integral part of the Regional Seas Programme of the Unite Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). As stated in the Northwest Pacific Action Plan, it covers th "marine environment and coastal zones of the following States: [Democratic People's Republic o Korea]; Japan; People's Republic of China; Republic of Korea; and Russian Federation from abou 121°E to 143°E longitude and from approximately 52°N to 33°N latitude, without prejudice to th sovereign right of any State". +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +harmful algal blooms, however, it is clear that real problems exist here. Harmfu algal blooms have been observed along all the coasts, particularly concentrated i the Bohai Sea, on the south of the Korean Peninsula and on the north-west of th island of Kyushu (Japan). Harmful algal blooms off the Chinese coast are usuall judged to be much larger than those off the Korean Peninsula and Japan. This ma be due to the means of observation: China uses aircraft more than the Republic o Korea and Japan, which rely on ships. In Russian Federation waters, the blooms ar confined to Peter the Great Bay, and appear to be the result of the size of the loca urban population: no serious harm is attributed to them (NOWPAP, 2007). A UNDP GEF Strategic Action Programme has committed China and the Republic of Korea t reduce nutrient discharges to the Yellow Sea by 10 per cent every 5 years up unti 2020 (UNDP, 2011). +9.4.6 North-West Pacific (Kuroshio and Oyashio Currents) +Japan has a long history of sewage collection and treatment. The sewage fro about 85 per cent of the population is treated: about 60 per cent by sewerag networks and about 25 per cent by small local plants. Nutrient removal durin sewage treatment is, however, much less common (JSWA, 2014). On the easter coasts of Japan, there are problems of high levels of nutrients, but these appear t be confined to the more enclosed waters near major conurbations, such as Toky Bay and Osaka Bay (Japan MOE, 2009). +9.4.7 South-East Pacific Ocean +As with hazardous substances, the information available on a consistent basis i relatively old. What it showed is that major conurbations lack effective sewag treatment works: the Tumaco estuary in Colombia, the Gulf of Guayaquil (especiall the inner area, where oxygen levels were so low that fish were absent) in Ecuador areas near Ferrol, Callao and Ilo-Ite in Peru, and the bays of San Vicente, Valparais and Concepcién in Chile showed high levels of nutrients, and consequen eutrophication problems (CPPS, 2000). In spite of substantial programmes o investment in sewage collection and treatment (Peru has increased the proportio of the population served from 9 per cent to 37 per cent between 1985 to 2010) problems remain. Likewise, high levels of fertilizer use add to the problems. +Darwin was one of the first to record red tides (algal blooms) in this area, but the remained rare until the 1980s. Since then, they have become frequent (several year) along the whole length of the coast from Colombia to Chile (ISP, 2010). +9.4.8 South-West Pacific +The east coast of Australia suffers from enhanced levels of nutrient runoff. Thes are particularly serious for the Great Barrier Reef. Compared to pre-Europea conditions (before 1850), modelled mean annual river loads to the Great Barrie Reef lagoon have increased 3.2 to 5.5-fold for total suspended solids, 2.0 to 5.7-fol for total nitrogen and 2.5 to 8.9-fold for total phosphorus. However, the effects var widely depending on the level of agriculture in the catchment. Almost no change i loading for most pollutants has been observed in the rivers capable of affecting th northern Great Barrier Reef, but there have been much greater changes in river capable of affecting the central and southern Great Barrier Reef. Given the +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +sensitivity of the corals of the Great Barrier Reef, the risk of adverse effects is high Recent work suggests that a substantial part of the decline in hard coral is due to th high nutrient levels in the southern areas (Bell et al., 2014). +Further south, more than half the estuaries in New South Wales are subject t double the natural levels of sediment and nutrient inputs, and around one-third o these estuaries have been cleared of more than 50 per cent of their natural marin vegetation. These and other pressures are directly linked to the poor water qualit found in a high proportion of New South Wales estuaries: only 11 per cent of th estuaries have been found to comply more than 90 per cent of the time with th guidelines for chlorophyll-a. © Many of the estuaries are under pressure fro excessive inputs of sediments and nutrients, and altered freshwater inputs an hydrological regimes (SE2011 Committee, 2011). +In New Zealand, significant eutrophication problems generally only occur in shallo estuaries and bays with restricted circulation. Guidelines for nutrient discharge hav been adopted to deal with these problems (ESNZ, 2014). However, delivery o suspended sediment to the sea around New Zealand is 1.7 percent of the world tota delivery, when the New Zealand land area is only 0.2% of the global land area (Hick et al., 2011). +10. Inputs of Radioactive Substances +The waters, biota and sediments of the ocean all contain radioactivity. Some of thi is entirely natural, representing the dispersion of naturally radioactive isotope throughout the earth and the effects of cosmic radiation. Some, however, is th product of relatively recent human activities: the use of atomic bombs during Worl War Il, the testing of further nuclear weapons, discharges and emissions fro nuclear power plants and nuclear reprocessing plants, dumping of radioactive waste accidents involving nuclear material and other less significant activities. Som human activities that concentrate naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM have a longer history. +In considering radioactivity in the marine environment, it is essential to distinguis between: +(a)The occurrence of ionizing radiation, emitted through the decay o radionuclides, with the level of activity measured in becquerels (one becquere being the activity of a quantity of radioactive material in which one nuclid decays every second); and +(b)The impact of such radiation on living organisms, where the energy deposite in the tissues of the organism (the absorbed dose) is measured in grays, an the sum of the effects of that dose on the different parts of the body (th effective dose) is measured, for humans, in sieverts. The biological effects o the absorbed dose vary according to the nature of the radiation (a-radiatio can have a much more significant effect than B- or y-radiation) and the part o the body affected. When the radioactive substance is incorporated into the +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +body (for example, by being eaten), its effects integrated over a period of 5 years (70 years for children) are estimated through the committed effectiv dose, expressed in sieverts. +Naturally occurring radioactivity in the oceans +The natural background radioactivity in the ocean varies considerably. A stud conducted under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) i 1995 examined the variations between the FAO major fishing areas. This looked a the distribution of polonium-210 (7"°Po), based on the view that, on a global scale this isotope was radiologically the most important representative of naturall occurring radioactive material. The study concluded that insufficient evidence wa then available to estimate the levels of polonium radioactivity in seawater in th different areas of the world. However, data for levels of polonium radioactivity i fish (shown in Figure 10), crustacea and molluscs for those areas for which data wer available showed variations by factors of 58, 250 and 71, respectively, between th highest and lowest levels (MARDOS, 1995). +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +210, +Figure 10. Concentrations of “Po in fish for FAO major fishing areas. Becquerels per kilogramme o wet weight. Source: IAEA, MARDOS, 1995. +10.1 Anthropogenic radioactivity in the oceans +Anthropogenic releases of radionuclides into the ocean have had a measurabl effect on the levels of radioactivity in the oceans and its distribution. The distribution +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +in space and time can be quite complex, but is always related to four genera processes: the type and location of the input, radioactive decay, biogeochemistr and oceanic processes, such as transport by ocean currents and sedimentation. Th complex interaction of these processes over time means that all parts of the ocea are affected by anthropogenic releases of radionuclides, but that the distribution i quite varied. The 1995 IAEA study, using caesium-137 (**’Cs) as typical o anthropogenic radionuclides, estimated that radioactivity levels of *°’Cs in seawate and fish vary by factors of around 40-60 between the Southern Ocean (the lowest and the North-East Atlantic (the highest) (MARDOS, 1995). Although the ocea contains most of the anthropogenic radionuclides released into the environment the radiological impact of this contamination is low. Radiation doses from naturall occurring radionuclides in the marine environment (for example, 7*°Po), are o average two orders of magnitude higher (WOMARS, 2005). +Becquerels per cubic metre +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 11. Concentrations of +37Cs in seawater for FAO major fishing areas. Source: MARDOS, 1995. +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 12. Concentrations of *37Cs in fish for FAO major fishing areas. Becquerels per kilogramme o net weight. Source: MARDOS, 1995. +10.1.1 Testing of nuclear weapons +Much of the anthropogenic radioactivity in the ocean derives from global fall-ou from the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons between 1945 and 1963. Most o this global fall-out resulted from the input of radioactive material from th explosions into the stratosphere. There was also additional local fall-out fro material which did not reach the stratosphere. The United Nations Scientifi Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) estimates that this globa fall-out totalled around 2,500 million terabecquerels (TBq) (UNSCEAR, 2008). Usin sr and *2’Cs as indicators, an IAEA study estimated that about 64 per cent of thi fell on the oceans, of which 1 per cent fell on the Arctic Ocean, 26 per cent on th North Atlantic Ocean, 7 per cent on the South Atlantic Ocean, 14 per cent on th Indian Ocean, 35 per cent on the North Pacific Ocean and 17 per cent on the Sout Pacific Ocean. The IAEA study further estimated that the inventory of radioactivit from this source in the oceans had decreased (through natural decay) by 2000 t about 13,850,000 TBq. Much of this reduction was, of course, the result of the deca of short-lived isotopes (WOMARS, 2005). There have been no atmospheric tests o nuclear weapons since 1980, and so this major source of anthropogenic radioactivit appears to be purely historic. +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +10.1.2 Nuclear reprocessing +Overall, the second largest source of anthropogenic inputs of radioactive materia into the ocean has been nuclear re-processing plants. In this sector, the majo sources are the plants at Cap de la Hague (France: current capacity 1,700 tons/yea of waste reprocessed) and Sellafield (United Kingdom: current capacity 2,10 tons/year). When the plants at these sites started work in the 1970s, relatively hig levels of radioactive materials were discharged to the sea, reaching a peak in 1975 o 5,230 TBq of *°’Cs and 466 TBq of °’Sr from Sellafield. Over the period 1970 — 1983 discharges from Cap de la Hague were much lower, representing about 2 per cen and 16 per cent respectively, of the levels of *?’Cs and °°Sr discharges from Sellafield In both cases, steps were taken to reduce discharge levels drastically, and ne technology was developed and installed. The result was that aggregate annua discharges (other than tritium) from the two sites were reduced, by 2000, to aroun 98.2 TBq (0.2 TBq of a-emitting substances and 98 TBq of B-emitting substance other than tritium). Since then efforts at reductions have continued: by 2011 discharges were down to 18.2 TBq (0.1 TBq of a-emitting substances and 18.1 TBq o B-emitting substances other than tritium). This represents a reduction of 99.7 pe cent from the peak of annual discharges (WOMARS, 2005; OSPAR, 2013; NEA, 2013) Although some States remain concerned at these discharges, the major impact i now only historic. It has been announced that one of the Sellafield plants (th Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP)) will close in 2018, when the currentl programmed reprocessing has been completed, although this programme i currently reported to be behind schedule (NDA, 2014). +During the implementation of these reductions, some European States raise concerns about discharges of technetium-99 (°°Tc) from a new plant at Sellafield Technetium has chemical properties close to those of manganese, which is naturall concentrated by many crustacea, especially lobsters. The “Tc discharges from th new plant at Sellafield were initially high: just over 180 TBq in 1994. This wa substantially due to treating a backlog accumulated while the new plant was built but “Tc discharges were still at around 40 TBaq/year in 2003. In response t continued pressure from these European States, the United Kingdom has no implemented a chemical process to remove much of the Tc from the discharg stream, and levels are now below 5TBq/year (OSPAR, 2010). +Other civilian reprocessing plants on much smaller scales were operational i Belgium, Germany and Italy, but have been closed since 1991 or earlier. China has small nuclear reprocessing plant (capacity 50 tons/year) in operation in the inlan province of Gansu. A larger plant (capacity 800 tons/year) is reported to be planne to start operation in the same province in 2017, and plans for a further plant exist India has small reprocessing plants at coastal sites at Trombay (near Mumbai capacity 60 tons/year), Tarapur (in Maharashtra: capacity 100 tons/year) an Kalpakkam (in Tamil Nadu: capacity 100 tons/year). A further plant (capacity 10 tons/year) was opened in 2011 at Tarapur, and further capacity is being built a Kalpakkam. Japan has a pilot reprocessing plant at Tokai on the coast north of Toky (capacity 40 tons/year) and is in the process of opening a large plant (capacity 80 tons/year) at Rokkasho (on the coast at the northern end of Honshu). No data on +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +discharges from any of these plants seem to be available. The Russian Federatio has operated the Mayak reprocessing plant (capacity 400 tons/year) near Ozyersk i the Ural Mountains since 1971. The nearby Lake Karachay has been used for th discharge of large quantities of radioactive waste. The IAEA 2005 study noted tha this lake represents a potential source for future contamination of the Ob Rive system, and thus of the Arctic Ocean. New reprocessing facilities are also unde construction at Zhelenogorsk, near the border with the Ukraine. Apart from the ris from Lake Karachay, there is no evidence to suggest that these other civilia reprocessing plants have led, or might lead, to significant contamination of th ocean (NEA, 2013; WNA, 2013; WOMARS, 2005). +10.1.3 Nuclear accidents +There have been two nuclear accidents that reached level 7 (the highest level) on th IAEA’s International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale: Chernobyl and Fukushima These have resulted in substantial amounts of radioactive material reaching th ocean. +10.2. Chernobyl +On 26 April 1986, the Number Four reactor at the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl Ukraine, went out of control during a test at low power, leading to an explosion an fire that demolished the reactor building and released large amounts of radioactiv material into the atmosphere. Around 100,000 TBq of **’Cs were released to th atmosphere. Although most of this activity was deposited on land, a significant par went to the sea, particularly the Baltic Sea. The total input of *°”Cs from Chernoby to the Baltic Sea has been estimated at 4,700 TBq, including post-Chernobyl rive discharges of *3’Cs to the Baltic Sea estimated at 300 TBa. Inputs from Chernobyl t the Black Sea have been estimated at 2,000-3000 TBq *2’Cs. The North Sea and th Mediterranean Sea also received inputs of radioactive material, and continue to d so through outflows from the Baltic Sea and Black Sea, respectively. +Because of the Chernobyl input, the Baltic Sea has the highest concentrations o 137Cs of any sea region. Average concentrations of **’Cs in fish from the Baltic Sea i 1990 were similar to those in the Irish Sea (which were affected by the Sellafiel discharges), about 4 times higher than in the Black Sea, and about 30 times highe than in the Mediterranean Sea. However, radiation doses to humans in the Balti Sea area from marine pathways (including those from *°”Cs in fish) during 1999-200 have not exceeded an annual value of 0.02 mSv, and the dose for a person eating 9 kilogrammes a year of fish was estimated at 0.014 mSv over the period 2007 — 201 — both well below the limit of 1 mSv per year for the general public set in the IAE Basic Safety Standards. HELCOM assessments in 2009 and 2013 concluded tha concentrations of radioactive substances in the Baltic Sea are not expected to caus harmful effects to wildlife in the foreseeable future (WOMARS, 2005; HELCOM 2009; HELCOM, 2013). Likewise, a 2006 IAEA report concluded that radioactivit concentrations in marine fish resulting from the inputs from the Chernobyl disaste to the marine environment are not of concern (IAEA, 2006). +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +10.3 Fukushima +On 11 March 2011, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake occurred near Honshu, Japan creating a devastating tsunami that left a trail of death and destruction in its wake The earthquake and the subsequent tsunami, which flooded over 500 squar kilometres of land, resulted in the loss of more than 20,000 lives and destroye property, infrastructure and natural resources. They also led to the worst civi nuclear disaster since Chernobyl. Three of the six nuclear reactors at Fukushim Daiichi nuclear power station suffered severe core damage. This resulted in th release, over a prolonged period, of very large amounts of radioactive material int the environment. UNSCEAR concluded that the information available to it implie atmospheric releases of iodine-131 (**"I) and caesium-137 (*?’Cs) in the ranges o 100,000-500,000 TBq and 6,000-20,000 TBaq, respectively. (721 and *°’Cs are two o the most significant radionuclides from the point of view of exposures of people an the environment). Winds transported a large portion of the atmospheric release onto the Pacific Ocean. In addition, liquids containing radioactivity were discharge directly into the surrounding sea. The direct discharges amounted to around 10 pe cent (for 871) and 50 per cent (for *2’Cs) of the corresponding atmospheri discharges. Low-level releases into the ocean were still ongoing in May 2013. Th estimated releases are about 10 per cent (**"I) and 20 per cent (*°’Cs) of th corresponding estimated atmospheric releases from the Chernobyl acciden (UNSCEAR, 2013), but because of the sea-side site and the effects of the winds, th Fukushima event was the largest-ever accidental release of radioactive material t the ocean, being slightly more than the amount reaching the sea from th intrinsically much larger Chernobyl event (Japan, 2011; Pacchioli, 2013). +UNSCEAR further concluded that exposures of marine biota to radioactivity followin the accident were, in general, too low for acute effects to be observed, though ther may have been some exceptions because of local variability. Effects on biota in th marine environment would have been confined to areas close to where the highl radioactive water was released into the ocean (UNSCEAR, 2013). +Within a few weeks of the disaster, traces of °4Cs were found over 1,900 km across +the Pacific from Fukushima. By August 2011, bluefin tuna caught off California wer found to contain *“Cs which could only have come from Fukushima. **Cs has a half life of only two years, and so material from pre-Fukushima sources (such as weapon testing) would have decayed long before. Further sampling suggested that th strong Kurushio current acted as a barrier preventing significant amounts o radioactive material moving south in the Pacific, and confining it to around th latitude of Fukushima (Pacchioli, 2013; Fisher et al., 2013). +In December 2013, the IAEA confirmed that a comprehensive Sea Area Monitorin Plan had been established, noting that radionuclide concentrations remain withi the WHO guidelines for drinking water and that the public is safe. The IAE assessment also addressed monitoring of food products, adding that the join FAO/IAEA Division concluded that measures taken to monitor and rapidly respond t any issues regarding radionuclide contamination in the food system are appropriat and that the public food supply (including food from the sea) is safe (IAEA, 2013a IAEA, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +10.4 Other nuclear accidents +The 2005 IAEA study reviewed the full range of accidents involving radioactiv material resulting in inputs to the ocean, but did not consider that the amounts wer significant, beyond noting that the six sunken nuclear submarines which remain i the ocean with their reactors may be considered as potential sources of radioactiv contamination of the ocean, and that nuclear-powered satellites burning up in th atmosphere on re-entry can affect radioactivity in the ocean (a 1964 incident ove the southern hemisphere resulted in a measurable increase in the ratio betwee 385uy and 7°°74°py between the northern and southern hemispheres (WOMARS 2005). +10.4.1 Nuclear power plants +There were 434 commercial nuclear power reactors in 30 countries in operation a the end of 2013. The plants containing them have a total capacity of over 370,00 megawatts (MW). A little over 300,000 MW of this capacity is in OECD countries About 72 more reactors are under construction. These plants produce over 11 pe cent of the world's electricity: from nearly 75 per cent of the national supply i France to 1.5 per cent in the Islamic Republic of Iran (see Table 5). Other State which do not have nuclear power plants, such as Denmark and Italy, impor substantial amounts of their electricity from neighbouring States which rel substantially on nuclear power (IAEA, 2013b). Electricity generated from nuclea power is therefore a significant source of energy. +Table 5. Proportion of electricity generated from nuclear power 2013. +STATE PER CENT OF STATE PER CENT OF STATE PER CENT O ELECTRICITY FROM ELECTRICITY FROM ELECTRICITY FRO NUCLEAR POWER NUCLEAR POWER NUCLEAR POWE France 73.3 | Bulgaria 30.7 | South Africa 5. Belgium 52.1 | Armenia 29.2 | Mexico 4. Slovakia 51.7 | Korea, 27.6 | Argentina 4 Republic o Hungary 50.7 | United 19.4 | Pakistan 4 States o Americ Ukraine 43.6 | United 18.3 | India 3. Kingdo Sweden 42.7 | Russia 17.5 | Brazil 2. Switzerland 36.4 | Romania 19.8 | Netherlands 2. Czech 35.9 | Spain 19.7 | China 2. Republi Slovenia 33.6 | Canada 16.0 | Japan 1. Finland 33.3 | Germany 15.4 | Iran, Islamic 1. Republic o Source: IAEA PRIS Database, IAEA, 2013b. +© 2016 United Nations 69 + +Emissions and discharges are inevitable from the operation of these plants. For th purposes of the World Ocean Assessment, the crucial question is the extent of th impact of these emissions and discharges on the marine environment. The 200 IAEA survey of sources of anthropogenic inputs of radioactive materials to the ocea commented that routine discharges from nuclear power plants contribute orders o magnitude less to the radioactive contamination of the world ocean than nuclear weapons testing, nuclear reprocessing plants and nuclear accidents (WOMARS 2005). The supporting material for the 2008 UNSCEAR report to the United Nation General Assembly gives a figure of approximately 1.3 TBq as the worldwid aggregate level of radioactivity from radionuclides other than tritium released fro nuclear power plants in liquid effluents in 2002 (UNSCEAR, 2008). Data from som plants is not included but, as can be seen from comparison with the figures quote above for other sources, this is consistent with the WOMARS conclusion. The 200 UNSCEAR report further comments that radiation doses from nuclear power reactor decrease over time because of lower discharge levels. This is consistent with th observations recorded by the OSPAR Commission, which noted a statisticall significant reduction of 38 per cent in total B-activity (other than tritium) fro nuclear industries discharging into the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR, 2010). At th same time, aggregate discharges from nuclear power plants are likely to increas somewhat as the nuclear power stations under construction and planned come o stream. +Discharges of tritium are, however, rather different. The production of tritium b nuclear power plants is normally related to the level of electricity generated. N accepted abatement technology exists, and the amount of radioactivity in discharge can be many times that from other radionuclides. However, tritium is a natura product produced by cosmic rays. This source accounts for a significant amount o the radionuclide found in the sea. It also has a very low dose coefficient an therefore exhibits a very low radiotoxicity to humans and inherently lo radiotoxicity to biota (OSPAR, 2007). +10.4.2 Human activities concentrating naturally occurring radioactive materia (NORM) +A wide range of materials used in an even wider range of human activities contai natural radioactivity. The effects of the human activities can be to concentrate thi naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) from these materials, usually in th form of waste. Recent studies by the OSPAR Commission (summarized in OSPAR 2010) conclude that the major source of NORM reaching the North-East Atlantic i the offshore oil and gas industry, where produced water (water coming from th reservoir with the oil and gas) and the scale that it deposits in pipelines (which has t be cleared periodically) contains low levels of radionuclides (mainly *”°Pb, **°Po, an 226/228R a) _ Although the proportion of total-a activity is higher than for discharge from the nuclear industries, the overall concentrations are not so far thought to b significant, although work to assess the levels is continuing. Apart from phosphat rock processing (see below), other anthropogenic sources of NORM in the marin environment are not thought to be significant. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +One form of NORM reaching the marine environment that has been thought to b significant in some States is the *“°Po found in phosphogypsum, a by-product of th treatment of rock containing phosphate to produce phosphate fertilizers. In man cases, this phosphogypsum has been discharged directly into the sea as slurry. A Workington, England, in the area affected by the Whitehaven phosphate-processin plant releases, it was found that molluscs were concentrating this “°Po to an exten that those who consumed substantial quantities of the molluscs might be ingestin 2109 at potentially dangerous levels. The closure of the plant in 1992 resolved th problem. Similar problems were also found at a plant at Rotterdam in th Netherlands, which was also closed. For these and other reasons, this method o disposing of phosphogypsum has been phased out in most countries. It continues i Lebanon, Morocco (where it is under review) and South Africa (IAEA, 2013c). +10.5 Impact of radioactivity in the marine environment +Two issues need to be differentiated: the impact of radioactivity from the marin environment on humans, and the impact of such radioactivity on marine biota. +As far as concerns the radiation impact on humans through food from the marin environment, the IAEA MARDOS study in 1995 reported on the exposure of human to *°7Cs and 7*°Po, as the anthropogenic and natural radionuclides, respectively, o most radiological significance. This study concluded that, worldwide, the mea individual committed effective doses in 1990 were: +Table 6. Estimated mean individual committed effective doses in 1990 from *°’Cs and *"°Po +Radionuclide Food Mean individual effective dose Uncertainty factor as source commitment worldwide result of limited data +(microsieverts) +BCs Fish 0.03 uSv 0.5 +(anthropogenic) +BCs Shellfish 0.002 Sv 0.5 +(anthropogenic) +219B9 (natural) Fish 1.9 - 2.3 uSv 5 +2°Bo (natural) Shellfish 2.8 —7.2 uSv 5 +Source, MARDOS, 1995 +In another way of considering the data, the study identified the critical group o humans (the group most at risk) as those eating seafood from the North-Eas Atlantic, the FAO major fishing area with the highest levels of radioactivity. Taking a the definition of the critical group those consuming 100 kg of fish and 10 kg o shellfish per year (a daily consumption of about 300 g (about 10% oz) of seafood) the total individual committed effective doses were estimated for 1990 at 3.1 uS from *°’Cs and 160 Sv from 7*°Po. There is no reason to consider that current level would be significantly higher. All these figures must be considered in relation to the +© 2016 United Nations 71 + +IAEA’s recommended annual limit for exposure of the general public to radiation o 1mSv (1,000 Sv). +For a long time, the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP — th international body of experts that agrees standards of radiation protection considered that the precautions necessary to protect humans will be adequate t protect other species: “The Commission believes that...if man is adequatel protected, then other living things are also likely to be sufficiently protected” (ICRP 1977). In the 1990s, this approach was questioned, particularly for habitats wher humans do not go — which covers much of the marine environment. It was no suggested that there were any obvious cases where the approach was failing t protect non-human species, but rather that it was desirable to adopt an approac which would explicitly demonstrate the proper protection of the whol environment. The ICRP debated this extensively from 2000 and in 2005 set up a ne standing committee to consider the radiological protection of the environment. Thi debate resulted in the inclusion of an approach for developing a framework t demonstrate radiological protection of the environment, as part of the general 200 revision of the ICRP recommendations (ICRP, 2007). The ICRP considered that thi approach needed to be based on a sound scientific system similar to that develope for human protection, and that this could best be achieved by the creation of a set o Reference Animals and Plants. Descriptions of 12 “reference animals and plants have been developed, of which three — a flatfish, a crab and a seaweed — ar relevant to the marine environment. These are generic biological descriptions of th types of animal and plant, accompanied by consideration of their vulnerability t radiation and the relationship between environmental levels of radionuclides an the corresponding levels in such animals and plants. Most recently, in 2014, the ICR has published guidance on the application of their recommendations to differen exposure situations with respect to the animals and plants living in different types o natural environments. Central to this approach is the “Derived Consideratio Reference Level” (DCRL): a band of dose rates within which there is some chance of deleterious effect from ionizing radiation occurring to individuals of that type o Reference Animal or Plant. The recommended DCRLs are shown in Figure 13 (ICRP 2009; ICRP, 2014). This work is being taken forward through the IAEA Internationa Plan of Activities on the Radiation Protection of the Environment. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Cra ‘Ee fi Grass Trout Frog Flatish © Seawee | ao 7 | +Duck | +jeer Rat Pine tee +0.001 +Figure 13. Derived Consideration Reference Levels for Reference Animals and Plants. In milligray (mGy)/day. Source: IPRC, 2014. +11. Significant environmental, economic and social aspects of land-based Input and related information and capacity-building gaps +The world needs to feed, clothe, house and keep happy its 7% billion people. Th agricultural and industrial developments of the past two centuries have substantiall enabled this to be done and, to a significant extent, have assisted in improvin human well-being. But these achievements have been obtained at a price: thes agricultural and industrial developments have seriously degraded important parts o the planet, including much of the marine environment. Land-based inputs to th ocean have contributed substantially to this degradation of the marine environment. +The GPA highlighted the need for action to deal with sewage. Although much ha been done to implement national plans adopted under the GPA, particularly in Sout America, this chapter shows that lack of sewage systems and waste-water treatmen plants is still a major threat to the ocean. This is particularly the case in respect o very large urban settlements. The lack of proper management of waste-water an human wastes leads to excessive inputs of both nutrients and hazardous substances which damage the marine environment. It also causes problems for human health both directly and through bacteriological contamination of food from the sea. +From the point of view of industrial development, many of the earlier industria processes brought with them serious environmental damage, especially whe concentrations of industry led to intense levels of waste inputs to the sea, beyond it carrying capacity. New technologies and processes have largely been develope which have the ability to avoid these problems, but there can be gaps in the capacit to apply these newer processes, often because of the costs involved. +This is particularly significant because of the major transfer in the growth o industrial production demonstrated in this chapter. In the past, industria production has been dominated by the countries around the North Atlantic basi and its adjacent seas, together with Japan. Over the past 15 years, the rapid growth +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +of industries along the rest of the western Pacific Rim and around the Indian Ocea has changed this. Rapidly growing proportions of the world’s industrial production and the associated waste discharges — are focused on the South Atlantic, the India Ocean and the western Pacific. +The survey in this chapter shows that some major information gaps need to be fille before this process of industrial growth can be managed in a way that can avoi reproducing, in the new areas of growth, the many problems that have bee discovered in the areas that have been industrialized longer. For long stretches o the coastal zones, information is lacking on what is happening with heavy metals an other hazardous substances. Information is also lacking on the extent to whic developing industries are able to apply the newer, cleaner technologies. Moreover information is very scarce on how problems in the coastal zones are affecting th open ocean. +The agricultural revolution of the last part of the 20" century, which has largel enabled the world to feed its rapidly growing population, has also brought with i problems for the oceans, in the form of enhanced runoff of both agricultura nutrients and pesticides, as well as the airborne and waterborne inputs of nutrient from wastes from agricultural stock. In the case of fertilizers, there is a rapid growt in their use in parts of the world where only limited use has occurred in the past This has the potential to lead to increased nutrient runoff to the ocean, if th increased use of fertilizers is not managed well. There are therefore problems i educating farmers, promoting good husbandry that causes less nutrient runoff an monitoring what is happening to agricultural runoff alongside sewage discharges. I the case of pesticides, the issues are analogous to those of industrial development Newer pesticides are less polluting than older ones, but gaps remain in the capacit to ensure that these less-polluting pesticides are used, in terms of educatin farmers, enabling them to afford the newer pesticides, supervising the distributio systems, and monitoring what is happening in the oceans. +The growth of dead zones, resulting from excessive nutrient runoff and th consequent eutrophication problems, is serious in terms of all three of environment economics and society. The dead zones drive fish away and kill the benthic animals Where the dead zone is seasonal, such regeneration as happens is usually at a lowe trophic level, and the ecosystems are therefore degraded. This affects the maritim economy seriously, both for fishers and (where tourism has some dependence o the attractiveness of the ecosystem (for example, where there are coral reefs)) fo the tourist industry. Social consequences are then easy to see, both through th direct economic effects on the fishing and tourist industries and in depriving th local human populations of the benefits of an attractive environment. +In respect of heavy metals and hazardous substances, frameworks have emerged a the international level for addressing some of these problems. In particular, th Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the Minamat Convention on Mercury provide agreed international frameworks for the States tha are party to them to address the issues that they cover. Implementing them however, will require many capacities and, as the organizations involved with these +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Conventions have noted, there are important gaps in those capacities around th world. +In the case of radioactive discharges into the ocean, the survey shows that, in th past, there have been human activities that have given rise to concern, but tha reactions to these concerns have largely removed the underlying problems, althoug there is a continuing need to monitor what is happening to radioactivity in th ocean. What remains is the concern voiced in the GPA that public reaction t concerns about marine radioactivity could result in rejection of fish as a food source with consequent harm to countries that have a large fisheries sector and damage t the world’s ability to use the important food resources provided by the marin environment. +Underlying all these issues is the major information gap in the information needed t see what is happening around the world to the ocean as a result of land-base inputs. This chapter has noted a range of differing systems for assessing the state o the ocean in respect of both hazardous substances and eutrophication. Thes systems usually differ for good reasons: conditions vary widely around the world There is a lack, however, of methods to compare explicitly the information that eac assessment system produces. This does not imply a need for a single global syste of monitoring: as has been said, good reasons for the differences often exist. But a important gap in information results from the lack of any means of comparing th answers given by the different assessment systems. Comparison betwee monitoring systems also presupposes good quality-assurance of monitoring data. +An even more important gap in information is the absence of any form of regular systematic assessment of the impact of land-based inputs in many parts of th world. In some parts of the world, such as the Caribbean, many one-off independent examinations of several aspects of the marine environment have bee undertaken, but they are not in forms which enable them to be assembled into wider, continuous assessment. Given the potential significance of transboundar effects from land-based inputs, this is a very serious information gap. In at leas some parts of the world where this is the case, universities and marine researc institutes have the capacity to carry out the monitoring and analysis that is needed what is lacking is more the capacity to organize these existing capacities to fill th wider information gap. +In summary, therefore, important changes are under way in the location around th world of industrial activity and agriculture, which have the potential to cause seriou problems if past errors are reproduced. Worrying gaps exist in the capacitie needed: to provide sewerage systems and waste-water treatment plants, t implement international conventions regulating which substances can be put int the sea from the land, and to monitor what is happening in the marine environmen as aresult. Finally, overall, major gaps remain in knowledge about land-based input and what knowledge about them is available in different parts of the world. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +References +Abrahim, G.M.S. and Parker, R.J. (2008). Assessment of heavy metal enrichmen factors and the degree of contamination in marine sediments from Tamak Estuary, Auckland, New Zealand. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 136 227-238. +ADB (2012). Promoting beneficial sewage sludge utilization in the People’s Republi of China. Asian Development Bank (ADB), Mandaluyong City, Philippines. +Agenda 21, (1992). United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Document A/CONF.151/26/Rev.| (Vol. I), 1992. +ALCOA (2014). Aluminium Smelting. ALCOA http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/about_alcoa/pdf/Smeltingpaper.pdf. +Alsharhan, A.S., Rizk, Z.A., Nairn, A.E.M., Bakhit, D.W., and Alhajari, S.A. (2001). Th Hydrogeology of an Arid Region: The Arabian Gulf and Adjoining Areas Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. +Altwicker, E.R., Schonberg, J.S., Konduri, R.K.N.V., and Milligan, M.S. (1990) Polychlorinated Dioxin/Furan Formation in Incinerators. Hazardous Wast and Hazardous Materials 7(1). +AMAP (1997). Arctic Pollution Issues: A State of the Arctic Environment Report AMAP, Oslo, Norway. +AMAP (2009). Arctic Pollution 2009. AMAP, Oslo, Norway. +ASCLME/SWIOFP (2012). Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the western India Ocean. Volume 2: Diagnostic Analysis. UNEP, South Africa. +Australian Government (2011). This week at Casey: 21 January 2011. Department o the Environment, http://www.antarctica.gov.au/living-and working/stations/casey/this-week-at-casey/2011/21-january-2011/3. +Baldoni-Andrey, P., Girling, A., Bakker, A., Muller, A, Struijk, K., Fotiadou, I. Andrés Huertas, A., Negroni, J., Neal, G., and den Haan, K. (2012). Trends i oil discharged with aqueous effluents from oil refineries in Europe: 201 survey data. CONCAWE Report no.6/12, Brussels, Belgium https://www.concawe.eu/DocShareNoFrame/Common/GetFile.asp?PortalS urce=1856&DoclD=37556&mfd=off&pdoc=1. +Basterretxea, G., Tovar-Sanchez, A., Beck, A.J., Masqué, P., Bokuniewicz, H.J. Coffey, R., Duarte, C.M., Garcia-Orellana, J., Garcia-Solsona, E. Martinez-Ribes, L., Vaquer-Sunyer, R. (2010). Submarine Groundwate Discharge to the Coastal Environment of a Mediterranean Island (Majorca Spain). Ecosystem and Biogeochemical Significance. Ecosystems, 13(5), 629 643. +Belan, T.A. (2004). Marine environmental quality assessment using polychaet taxocene characteristics in Vancouver Harbour. Marine Environmenta Research, 57(1-2), 89-101. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Belkin, |., Aquarone, M.C., and Adams, S. (2008). Kuroshio Current Large Marin Ecosystem. In: K. Sherman, Hempel G., eds. The UNEP Large Marin Ecosystem Report: A perspective on changing condi-tions in LMEs of th world’s Regional Seas. UNEP, Rep. Studi., 182: 393-402. +Bell, P., Elmetri, |., Lapointe, B.E. (2014). Evidence of large-scale chroni eutrophication in the Great Barrier Reef: quantification of chlorophyll thresholds for sustaining coral reef communities. Ambio, 43(3), 361-376. +Birch, G.F. (2000). Marine pollution in Australia, with special emphasis on centra New South Wales estuaries and adjacent continental margin. Internationa Journal of Environment and Pollution, 13(1), 573-607. +Black Sea Commission (2008). State of the Environment of the Black Sea (2001 2006/7). Temel Oguz, Istanbul, Turkey, http://www.blacksea commission.org/_publ-SOE2009.asp. +BOBLME, Bangladesh (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Countr report on pollution — Bangladesh. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-01 http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology 01.pdf. +BOBLME, India (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Country repor on pollution — India. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-07 http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology 07.pdf. +BOBLME, Malaysia (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Countr report on pollution — Malaysia. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-11 http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology 11.pdf. +BOBLME, Myanmar (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Countr report on pollution —- Myanmar. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-13 http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology 13.pdf. +BOBLME, Thailand (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Countr report on pollution — Thailand. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-08 http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology 08.pdf. +BOBLME, Sri Lanka (2011). Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project, Countr report on pollution — Sri Lanka. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-14 http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/BOBLME-2011-Ecology 14.pdf. +Bocquenéa, G. and Franco, A. (2005). Pesticide contamination of the coastline o Martinique. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 51(5), 612-619. +Borysova, O., Kondakov, A., Paleari, S., Rautalahti-Miettinen, E., Stolberg F., an Daler, D. (2005). Eutrophication in the Black Sea region; Impact assessmen and Causal chain analysis. University of Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden, +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r22/giwa_eutrophication_i _blacksea.pdf. +BGS, 2012: British Geological Survey, World Mineral Production 2008-2012, Britis Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham. +Chan, F., Barth, J.A., Lubchenco, J., Kirincich, A., Weeks, H., Peterson, W.T., an Menge, B.A. (2008). Emergence of Anoxia in the California Current Larg Marine Ecosystem. Science, 319 (5865), 920. +Chesapeake Bay Program (2014). Reducing Nitrogen Pollution. Annapolis, Unite States http://www.chesapeakebay.net/indicators/indicator/reducing_nitrogen_pol ution. +China (2010). Project Report on the Reduction of Mercury Use and Emission i Carbide PVC Production. People’s Republic of China, Ministry o Environmental Protection http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/Portals/9/Mercury/VC Production/Phase | Final Report - PVC Project Report for China.pdf. +China (2012). China Marine Environment Status Bulleti (http://wenku.baidu.com/view/512b78245901020207409cea accessed 1 April 2015). +China (2014). Catalogue of Toxic Chemicals Prohibited or Strictly Controlled. People’ Republic of China, Ministry of Environmental Protection http://english.mep.gov.cn/inventory/toxic_chemicals/200712/t20071212_1 4161.htm. +China NMEMC (National Marine Environment Monitoring Centre) (2015). Direc communication from the organization. +Coles, J.A., Farley, S.R., Pipe, R.K. (1995). Alteration of the immune response of th common marine mussel Mytilus edulis resulting from exposure to cadmium Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 22, 59-65. +Costa, O.S. (2007). Anthropogenic nutrient pollution of coral reefs in Southern Bahia Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 55(4). +CPCB (2009). Wastewater Generation and Treatment In Class-I Cities & Class-Il Town Of India. Indian Central Pollution Control Board, Status of Water Supply http://www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/Newltems/Newltem_153_Foreword.pdf. +CPCB (2014). Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System (COMAPS) at Glance. Indian Central Pollution Control Board http://www.cpcb.nic.in/comaps.php. +CPPS (2000). Estado del Medio Ambiente marino y costero del Pacifico Sudeste Comision Permanente del Pacifico Sur, Quito, Ecuador. +de Lacerda, L.D., Kremer, H.H., Kjerfve, B., Salomons, W., Marshall, J.1. an Crossland, C.J. (2002). South American Basins: LOICZ Global Chang Assessment and Synthesis of River Catchment - Coastal Sea Interaction and +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Human Dimensions. LOICZ, Texel, the Netherlands http://www. loicz.org/imperia/md/content/loicz/print/rsreports/report_21. df. +Deloitte (2011). PVC production profitability. Deloitte http://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom Russia/Local%20Assets/Documents/PDF_2011/dttl_PVC-production profitability_08042011.pdf. +Desbrow C., Routledge, E.J., Brighty, G.C., Sumpter, J.P., and Waldock, M. (1998) Identification of estrogenic chemicals in STW effluent. |: Chemica fractionation and in vitro biological screening. Environmental Science an Technology, 32, 1549-1558. +Deshpande, A., Bhendigeri, S., Shirsekar, T., Dhaware, D., and Khandekar, R.N (2009). Analysis of heavy metals in marine fish from Mumbai Docks Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 159(1-4), 493-500. +DFO-MPO (2013). Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans/Ministére de l Péche et des Océans, “Will “Dead Zones” Spread in the St. Lawrence River?” Fisheries and Oceans Canada, http://www.dfo mpo.gc.ca/science/publications/article/2005/01-12-2005-eng.htm. +Diaz, R.J. and Rosenberg, R. (2008). Spreading Dead Zones and Consequences fo Marine Ecosystems. Science, 321(5891), 926-929. +Donkor, A.K., Nartey, V.K. Bonzongo, J.C., Adotey, D.K. (2006). Artisanal Mining o Gold with Mercury in Ghana. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 9(1). +Duce, R.A., LaRoche, J., Altieri, K., et al. (2008). “Impacts of atmospheri anthropogenic nitrogen on the open ocean”, Science, 320, 893-897. +Dufour, R., and Ouellet, P. (2007). Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence marine ecosyste overview and assessment report. Canadian Technical Report on Fisheries an Aquatic Science, 2744. +EEA (2013). European bathing water quality in 2012. European Environment Agency Copenhagen, Denmark. +EEAA (2003). Marine Pollution in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez and its Effects o South Sinai: A Comprehensive Review. Egyptian Environmental Affair Agency, http://st-katherine.net/downloads/Marine%20Pollution.pdf. +Elshorbagy, W. (2005). Overview of Marine Pollution in the Arabian Gulf, Keynot Address Arabian Gulf Conference. Academia.edu https://www.academia.edu/2595870/Overview_of_marine_pollution_in_th _Arabian_Gulf_with_emphasis_on_pollutant_transport_modeling. +Engler, R.E. (2012). The Complex Interaction between Marine Debris and Toxi Chemicals in the Ocean. Environmental Science and Technology, 2012, 4 (22), 12302-12315 +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +EPA (1976). List of Toxic pollutants (as amended from time to time) and Appendix to Part 423-126 (List of Priority Pollutants). US Environmental Protectio Agency, Code of Federal Regulations, §401.15. +EPA (2003). Guide for industrial waste management. US Environmental Protectio Agency, Washington D.C, EPA-530-R-03-001. +EPA (2010). Nonylphenol (NP) and Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs) Action Plan. U Environmental Protection Agency http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/RIN2070 ZA09_NP-NPEs%20Action%20Plan_Final_2010-08-09.pdf. +EPA, 2012: National Coastal Condition Report \V, U.S. Environmental Protectio Agency, Washington D.C., EPA-842-R-10-003. +EPA, USGS, FWS (2012). Toxic Contaminants in the Chesapeake Bay and it Watershed: Extent and Severity of Occurrence and Potential Biological Effects US Environmental Protection Agency - Chesapeake Bay Program Office Annapolis, United States. +EPA (2013). Atrazine Up-date January 2013. US Environmental Protection Agency http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/reregistration/atrazine/atrazine_update.htm. +Ericson, B., Caravanos, J., Chatham-Stephens, K., Landrigan, P. and Fuller, R. (2013) Approaches to systematic assessment if environmental exposures posed a hazardous waste sites in the developing world: The Toxics Sites Identificatio Program. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(2), 1755-1766 http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10661-012-2665-2#page-1. +ESNZ (2014). Guidance Document: Nutrient Load Criteria to Limit Eutrophication i Three Typical New Zealand Estuary Types - ICOLL’s, Tidal Lagoon, and Tida River Estuaries. Environment Southland New Zealand http://www.es.govt.nz/media/26710/nutrient_criteria_nz_shallow_estuarie _leigh_copy.pdf. +EU (1996). Council Directive on the control of major-accident hazards involvin dangerous substances. EU Council Directive 96/82/EC of 9 December 1996. +EU (2004). European Commission Decision concerning the non-inclusion of atrazine i Annex | to Council Directive 91/414/EEC and the withdrawal of authorisation for plant protection products containing this active substance. Europea Commission Decision 2004/248/EC of 10 March 2004. +EU (2006). Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning th Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/E and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commissio Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC an Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC EU Council and Parliament Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of 18 Decembe 2006. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +EU BREF (2001). Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Pulp an Paper Industry. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Contro Bureau, http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/BREF/ppm_bref_1201.pdf. +EU BREF (2013). Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for th Production of Cement, Lime and Magnesium Oxide. European IPC Bureau Luxembourg. +European Cement Association (2014). Key facts & figures. European Cemen Association, http://www.cembureau.be/about-cement/key-facts-figures. +Everaarts, J.M., Booij, K., Fischer, C.V., Maas, Y.E.M., Nieuwenhuize, J. (1999) Assessment of the environmental health of the Chagos Archipelago. I Ecology of the Chagos Archipelago, Sheppard, C.R.C., and Seaward, M.R.D. eds., Linnean Society, Westbury Academic and Scientific Publishing, Wes Yorkshire, United Kingdom, pp. 305-326. +Fernandez, A., Singh, A., and Jaffé, R. (2007). A literature review on trace metals an organic compounds of anthropogenic origin in the Wider Caribbean Region Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54(11), 1681-91. +Fisher, N.S., Madigan, D.J., and Baumann, Z. (2013), Radioactive Cesium fro Fukushima Japan Detected in Bluefin Tuna off California: Implications fo Public Health and for Tracking Migration, Proceedings of the 16t International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment, Volume 1 2013 (doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20130132001) Filoso, S., Martinelli, L.A. Howarth, R.W., Boyer, E.W., and Dentener, F. (2006). Human Activitie Changing the Nitrogen Cycle in Brazil. Biogeochemistry, 71(1-2), 68-89. +Froescheis, O., Looser, R., Cailliet, G.M., Jarman, W.M., Ballschmiter, K. (2000) Th deep-sea as a final global sink of semivolatile persistent organic pollutants Part |: PCBs in surface and deep-sea dwelling fish of the North and Sout Atlantic and the Monterey Bay Canyon (California). Chemosphere 40: 651 660. +FSM (2004). Federated States of Micronesia POPs Project Country Plan. Secretaria of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme http://www.sprep.org/att/IRC/eCOPIES/Countries/FSM/29.pdf. +GAO (2005). United States Government Accountability Office. Report t Congressional Requesters, Chesapeake Bay Program: Improved Strategies Ar Needed to Better Assess, Report, and Manage Restoration Progress, GAO-06 96. +GCLMEP (2003). Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem, Transboundary Diagnosti Analysis. Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project http://gclme.iwlearn.org/publications/our-publications/transboundary diagnostic-analysis/view. +GEF (1998). Planning and Management of Heavily Contaminated Bays and Coasta Areas in the Wider Caribbean. Report on Project RLA/93/G41, Globa Environment Facility. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +GESAMP (2001a). A Sea of Troubles. Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspect of Marine Protection (GESAMP), Arendal. +GESAMP (2001b). Protecting the oceans from land-based activities. Joint Group o Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Protection (GESAMP), Arendal. +GESAMP (2009). Pollution in the Open Ocean: A Review of Assessments and Relate Studies. Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Protectio (GESAMP), UNEP and UNESCO-IOC. +Gerges, M.A. (2002). The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Action Plan - Facing th challenges of an ocean gateway. Ocean & Coastal Management, 45 (11-12) 885-903. +Gnandi, K., Tchangbedji, T., Killi, K., Baba, G., and Abbe, K. (2006). Impact o Phosphate Mining on the Bioaccumulation of Heravy Metals in Marine Fis and Crustacea from the Coastal Zonbe of Togo. Mine Water and th Environment, 25(1), 56-62. +Green, N., Bjerkeng, B., Hylland, K., Ruus, A., Rygg, B. (2003). Hazardous substance in the European marine environment: Trends in metals and persistent organi pollutants. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. +Haggarty, D.R., McCorquodale, B., Johannessen, D.I., Levings, C.D., and Ross, P.S (2003). Marine environmental quality in the central coast of British Columbia Canada: A review of contaminant sources, types and risks. Canadian Technica Reports on Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 2507, Sydney, Canada. +Hammond, A.L. (1972). Chemical Pollution: Polychlorinated Biphenyls. Science, 17 (4018), 155-156. +Hara A., Hirano, K., Shimizu, M., Fukada, H., Fujita, T., Itoh, F., Takada, H. Nakamura M., and Iguchi, T. (2007). Carp (Cyprinus caprio) vitellogenin Characterization of yolk proteins, development of immunoassays and utilit as a biomarker of exposure to environmental estrogens. Environmenta Sciences 14: 95-108. +Heileman, S. (2008a). East Brazil Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem. In: K. Sherman Hempel, G. (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: A perspectiv on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas. UNEP, Rep Studi., 182: 711-722. +Heileman, S. (2008b). Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem. In: Sherman, K. Hempel, G. (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: A perspectiv on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas. UNEP Regiona Seas Report and Studies, 182: 117-130. +Heileman, S. (2008c). North Brazil Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem. In: Sherman, K. Hempel G. (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: A perspective o changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas. UNEP Regiona Seas Report and Studies,182: 701-710. +Heileman, S. (2008d). Pacific Central-American Coastal Large Marine Ecosystem. In Sherman, K., Hempel, G.(eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: A +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies, 182: 735-746. +Heileman, S. (2008e). Patagonian Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem. In: Sherman, K. Hempel, G. (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: A perspectiv on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas. UNEP Regiona Seas Report and Studies, 182: 735-746. +Heileman, S. and Belkin, |. (2008). Oyashio Current Large Marine Ecosystem. In: K Sherman, Hempel, G. (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies, 182: 403-412. +Heileman, S., Bianchi, G. and Funge-Smith, S. (2008a). Bay of Bengal Large Marin Ecosystem. In: Sherman, K., Hempel, G. (eds.), The UNEP Large Marin Ecosystem Report: A perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of th world’s Regional Seas. UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies, 182: 237-254. +Heileman, S., Eghtesadi-Araghi, P., and Mistafa, N. (2008b). Arabian Sea Larg Marine Ecosystem. In: Sherman, K., Hempel, G., eds. The UNEP Large Marin Ecosystem Report: A perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of th world’s Regional Seas. UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies, 182: 221-234. +Heileman, S., and M. Gasalla (2008). South Brazil Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem. In K. Sherman, Hempel G., eds. The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies, 182: 723-734. +Heileman, S., W. Parr, and G. Volovik (2008c). Black Sea Large Marine Ecosystem. In K. Sherman, Hempel G., eds. The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies,182: 203-218. +Heileman, S., and L. E. P. Scott (2008). Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystem. In: K Sherman, Hempel G., eds. The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of the world’s Regional Seas UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies, 182: 159-172. +Heisler, J., Glibert, P.M., Burkholder, J.M., Anderson, D.M., Cochlane, W. Dennison, W.C., Dortch, Q., Gobler, C.J., Heil, C.A., Humphries, E., Lewitus, A. Magnien, R., Marshall, H.G., Sellner, K., Stockwell, D.A., Stoecker, D.K., an Suddleson, M. (2008). Eutrophication and harmful algal blooms: A scientifi consensus. Harmful Algae, Vol. 8(1), 3-13. +HELCOM (2009). Radioactivity in the Baltic Sea, 1999-2006: HELCOM themati assessment. Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission, Baltic Se Environment Proceedings No. 117, Helsinki, Finland. +HELCOM (2010a). Ecosystem Health of the Baltic Sea 2003-2007: HELCOM Initia Holistic Assessment. Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission Helsinki, Finland. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +HELCOM (2010b). Hazardous substances in the Baltic Sea: An integrated themati assessment of hazardous substances in the Baltic Sea. Baltic Marin Environment Protection Commission, Helsinki, Finland. +HELCOM, 2013. Thematic assessment of long-term changes in radioactivity in th Baltic Sea, 2007-2010. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings, No. 135. +Helly, J.J. and Levin, L.A. (2004). Global Distribution of Naturally Occurring Marin Hypoxia on Continental Margins. Deep-Sea Research Part |, 51(9), 1159-1168. +Hicks, D.M., Shankar, U., McKerchar, A.I., Basher, L., Lynn, |., Page, M., Jessen, M (2011). Suspended sediment yields from New Zealand rivers, Journal o Hydrology (New Zealand), 50 (1), 81-142. +Hong Kong, China (2013). Marine Water Quality in Hong Kong in 2012. Governmen of the China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/water/marine_qualit /files/Report2012eng.pdf. +IAEA (2006). Environmental consequences of the Chernobyl accident and thei remediation : twenty years of experience: a report of the Chernobyl Foru Expert Group ‘Environment’. International Atomic Energy Agenc, Vienna Austria. +IAEA (2013a). Events and highlights on the progress related to recovery operation at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, International Atomic Energ Agency http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2014/eventshighlightsjune2014.pdf. +IAEA (2013b). Power Reactor Information System (PRIS), data for 2013, Internationa Atomic Energy Agency http://www.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/NuclearShareofElectricityGenerat on.aspx. +IAEA (2013c). Radiation protection and management of NORM residues in th phosphate industry. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. +IAEA (2014). IAEA International Peer Review Mission on Mid-And-Long-Ter Roadmap towards the Decommissioning Of Tepco’s Fukushima Daiich Nuclear Power Station Units 1-4 http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/fukushima/final_report120214. pdf. +IAI (2013). Global Life Cycle Inventory Data for the Primary Aluminium Industry International Aluminium Institute, London, UK. +IBGA (2008). Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Bdsica. |Instituto Brasileiro d Geografia e Estatistica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. +ICMM (2012). The role of mining in national economies. International Council o Mining and Metals, https://www.icmm.com/document/4440. +ICRP (1977). 1977 Recommendations of the International Commission o Radiological Protection (ICRP Publication 26). Annals of the Internationa Commission on Radiological Protection, 1(3). +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +ICRP (2007). 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission o Radiological Protection (ICRP Publication 103). Annals of the Internationa Commission on Radiological Protection, 37(2-4). +ICRP (2009). Environmental protection: transfer parameters for reference animal and plants. (ICRP Publication 114). Annals of the International Commissio for Radiological Protection, 39(6). +ICRP (2014). Protection of the Environment under Different Exposure Situation (ICRP Publication 124). Annals of the International Commission fo Radiological Protection, 43(1). +JC (1993). Seventh Biennial Report on Great Lakes Water Quality. International Join Commission, Washington D.C. and Ottawa. +ILO (2007). Background information for developing an ILO policy framework fo hazardous substances. International Labour Organization, Geneva Switzerland. +ILZG (2014). End Uses if Lead. International Zinc and Lead Study Group http://www. ilzsg.org/static/enduses.aspx?from=2. +IMO (1972). Convention on the prevention of marine pollution by dumping of waste and other matter. London, 13 November 1972, United Nations, Treaty Series vol. 1046, No.15749. +IMO (2012). International Assessment of Marine and Riverine Disposal of Min Tailings. International Maritime Organization, London, UK. +ISP (2010). Informe Programa De Vigilancia De Fendmenos Algales Nocivos (Fan) E Chile 2009. Instituto de Salud Publica de Chile (http://www. ispch.cl/informes programa-marea-roja-2002-2009). +Janil, H.J., Kurup, S., Trivedi, R., Chatrabhuji, P.M., and Bhatt, P.N. (2011). Seawate quality and trends in heavy metal distribution in marine sediment along Alan Sosiya Ship Breaking Yard (ASSBY) region. Analytical Chemistry, 10, 374-380. +Janowicz, M. and D. Tremblay, eds (2006). Implementing Canada’s Nationa Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment fro Land-Based Activities: Second Atlantic Team Status Report 2004-2006 Environment Canada, Dartmouth, NS. +Japan MOE (2009). Present Status of Marine Pollution in the Sea around Japan Japanese Ministry of the Environment, Tokyo. +Japan (2011). Additional Report of the Japanese Government to the IAEA - Th Accident at TEPCO’s Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations - (Second Report (Summary) September 2011. International Atomic Energy Agency http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/fukushima/japan report2/japanreport120911.pdf. +JSWA (2014). Japan Sewage Works Association, Making Great Breakthroughs: Al About the Sewage Works in Japan (http://www.jswa.jp/en/jswa en/allabout.html accessed 20 October 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Kachur, A.N., and Tkalin, A.V. (2000). Sea of Japan. In: C. Sheppard (ed), Seas at th Millennium. Elsevier, Oxford, UK. +Kakuschke, A. and Prange, A. (2007). The Influence of Metal Pollution on the Immun System — A Potential Stressor for Marine Mammals in the North Sea. /nt. J Comp. Psy., 20, 179-193. +Kemp, W.M., Boynton, W.R., Adolf, J., Boesch, D., Boicourt, W., Brush, G. Cornwell, J., Fisher, T., Glibert, P., Hagy, J., Harding, L., Houde, E., Kimmel, D. Miller, W.D., Newell, R.I.E., Roman, M., Smith, E., and Stevenson, J.C. (2005) Eutrophication of Chesapeake Bay: Historical trends and ecologica interactions. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 303, 1-29. +Kimbrough, K. L., Johnson, W.E., Lauenstein, G.G., Christensen, J.D., and Apeti, D.A (2008). An Assessment of Two Decades of Contaminant Monitoring in th Nation’s Coastal Zone. United States National Ocean and Atmospheri Administration Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 74, Silver Spring Maryland. +Le Monde 16 April 2013: Guadeloupe : monstre chimique. +Leland, H.V., Luoma, S.N. and Wilkes, D.J. (1977). Heavy Metals and Related Trac Elements. Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), 49(6), 1340-1369. +Lewis, S.E., Brodie, J.E. Bainbridge, Z.T., Rohde, K.W., Davis, A.M., Masters, B.L. Maughan, M, Devlin, M.J., Mueller, J.F. and Schaffelke, B. (2009). Herbicides A new threat to the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Pollution 157(8-9) 2470-84. +Ma, Y., Xie, Z., Halsall, C., Moller, A., Yang, H., Zhong, H., Cai, G. (2015). The spatia distribution of organochlorine pesticides and halogenated flame retardants i the surface sediments of an Arctic fjord: The influence of ocean currents vs glacial runoff, Chemosphere, Vol. 119, 953-960. +Macdonald, R.W. and Bewers, J.M. (1996). Contaminants in the arctic marin environment: priorities for protection. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 53(3) 537-563. +Marchovecchio, J.E. (2009). Land Sources of Pollutants Impacting Coastal Marin Ecosystems From Argentina. Instituto do Milenio http://www. institutomilenioestuarios.com.br/pdfs/Paticipacao_Eventos/10 CBO2008/apresentacoes/04_J_E Marcovecchio_PollutionArgentina.pdf. +MARDOS (1995). Sources of radioactivity in the marine environment and thei relative contributions to overall dose assessment from marine radioactivit (MARDOS), International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA-TECDOC-838, Vienna Austria. +Metcalf & Eddy (2004). Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., and Stensel, H.D. (eds) Wastewater engineering: Treatment and reuse (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Minamata Convention on Mercury of 10 October 2013 http://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2013/10/20131010%2011 16%20AM/CTC-XXVII-. 17. pdf. +Mormede, S., and Davies, |.M., (2003) Horizontal and vertical distribution of organi contaminants in deep-sea fish species. Chemosphere 50: 563-574. +Mussel Watch (2011). Mussel Watch Program 2011. National Centers for Coasta Ocean Science http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/about/coast/nsandt/download.aspx. +Naqvi, S.W.A., Naik, H., Jayakumar, A., Pratihary, A.K., Narvenkar, G., Kurian, S. Agnihotri, R., Shailaja, M.S. and Narvekar, P.V, (2009). Seasonal Anoxia Ove the Western Indian Continental Shelf. Geophysical Monograph Series, 185. +NDA (2014). Annual Report and Accounts 2013-2014. United Kingdom Nuclea Decommissioning Authority, House of Commons Paper 187 of Sessio 2013/2014. +NEA (2013). Nuclear Energy Data/Données sur I’énergie nucléaire 2013. Nuclea Energy Agency of the Organization for Economic Cooperation an Development, NEA publication 7162, Paris, France. +NGN (2014 ). National Geographic News 4 March 2014. National Geographic http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140304-antarctica research-toxic-adelie-penguins-mcmurdo-station-science/#close-modal. +Niencheski, L.F.H., Baraj, B., Windom, H.L. and Franca, R.G. (2006). Natura background assessment and its anthropogenic contamination of Cd, Pb, Cu Cr, Zn, Al and Fe in the sediments of the Southern area of Patos Lagoon Journal of Coastal Research, S139(\l),1040-1043. +NIOT (2014). National Report for the Workshop, under the Auspices of the Unite Nations, in Support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, Including Socio-economi Aspects, Chennai. DOALOS http://www.un.org/depts/los/global_reporting/Chennai_2013/National%20 eport.pdf). +NOAA (2013). (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). NOAA-supported +scientists find large Gulf dead zone, but smaller than predicted http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013/2013029_deadzone.html. +NOWPAP (2007). State of the Marine Environment in the NOWPAP Region UNEP/NOWPAP. +NRC (National Research Council, Marine Board and Ocean Studies Board) (2003). Oi in the Sea Ill: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. National Academies Press Washington, DC. +NZMOE (1999). Ambient concentrations of selected organochlorines in estuarie (Revised edition), New Zealand Ministry of the Environment, Wellington, Ne Zealand. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Oanh, N.T.K., Reutergardh, L.B., Dung, N.T. (1999). Emission of Polycyclic Aromati Hydrocarbons and Particulate Matter from Domestic Combustion of Selecte Fuels. Environmental Science and Technology, 33(16), 2703-2709. +OECD (2012). Information on OECD Work Related to Endocrine Disrupters Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development http://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/testing/50067203.pdf. +Oehlmann J., Schulte-OehImann, U, . Kloas, W. Jagnytsch, O., Lutz, 1, Kusk, K.O., Wollenberger, L., Santos, E,M., Paull, G.C., Van Look, K.J.W. and Tyler, C.R (2009). A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Science 364.1526, 2047-2062. +Orlando E. F., Kolok, A.S., Binzcik, G.A., Gates, J.L., Horton, M.K. and Lambright, C.S (2004). Endocrine-disrupting effects of cattle feedlot effluent on an aquati sentinel species, the fathead minnow. Environmental Health Perspective 112, 353-358. +Orth, R. J., Carruthers, T.J.B., Dennison, W.C., Duarte, C.M., Fourqurean, J.W. Heck Jr., K.L., Hughes, A.R., Kendrick, G.A., Kenworthy, W.J., Olyarnik, S. Short, F.T., Waycott, M. and Williams, S.L. (2006). A Global Crisis for Seagras Ecosystems. BioScience Volume 56 (12), 987-996. +Oslo Convention 1972 — Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution b Dumping from Ships and Aircraft. Oslo, 15 February 1972, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 932 No. 13269. +OSPAR (1998). Ministerial Meeting of the OSPAR Commission: Sintra, 22-23 July 199 - The Main Results. OSPAR Commission, London, UK. +OSPAR (2000). Quality Status Report 2000. OSPAR Commission, London, UK. +OSPAR (2003). Survey of the use of effect related methods to assess and monito wastewater discharges - Testing of endocrine effects. OSPAR Commission London, UK. +OSPAR (2007). Second Periodic Evaluation of progress towards the objective of th Radioactive Substance Strategy 2007. OSPAR Commission, London, UK. +OSPAR (2009). Background Document on Nony! Phenyl Ethoxylates. OSPA Commission, London, UK. +OSPAR (2010). Quality Status Report 2010. OSPAR Commission, London, UK. +OSPAR (2013). Liquid discharges from nuclear installations 2011. OSPAR Commission London, UK. +PAC2. (2014). Programma de AceleracGo de Crescimento 2. Ministerio d Planejamento, http://www.pac.gov.br/cidade-melhor/saneamento. +Pacchioli, D. (2013). Radioisotopes in the Ocean. Oceanus, 50(1). +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Pagliosa, P.R., Fonseca, A., Barbosa, F.A.R., Braga, E. (2006). Urbanization impact o Subtropical Estuaries: a Comparative Study of Water Properties in Urba Areas and in Protected Areas. Journal of Coastal Research, \l, 731-735. +PERSGA (2006). State of the Marine Environment Report for the Red Sea and Gulf o Aden. Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of th Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. +PICES (2010). Marine Ecosystems of the North Pacific Ocean, 2003-2008. Nort Pacific Marine Science Organisation (PICES) Special Publication 4 https://www.pices.int/publications/special_publications/NPESR/2010/NPES _2010.aspx. +Rabalais, N.N., and Turner, R.E., eds. (2001). Coastal Hypoxia:Consequences for Livin Resources and Ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C. +Rabbaniha, M., Ghasemzadeh, J., Owfi, F. (2013). Spatial and Temporal Patterns o Fish Larvae Assemblage in the Northern Coastal Waters of Persian Gulf alon the Bushehr Province Shoreline. Journal of Fisheries Science, 7.2 (2013), 141 151. +Roberts, D.A., Johnston, E.L., Knott, N.A. (2010). Impacts of desalination plan discharges on the marine environment: A critical review of published studies Water Research, 44(18), 5117-5128. +Romero Deras, M.A.R. (2013). Proyecto de Desarrollo de Capacidades para el Us Seguro de Aguas Servidas en Agricultura (FAO, WHO, UNEP, UNU-INWEH UNW-DPC, IWMI e ICID). Produccidn de aguas servidas, tratamiento y uso e El Salvado. UNWater http://www.ais.unwater.org/ais/pluginfile.php/378/mod_page/content/144 EL_SALVADOR.pdf accessed 24 April 2014. +Routledge, E.J., Sheahan, D., Desbrow, C., Brighty, G.C., Waldock, M., Sumpter, J.P (1998). Identification of estrogenic chemicals in STW effluent. 2. In viv responses in fish and roach. Environmental Science and Technology, 32, 1559 1565. +RWOPP (2013). Reef Water Quality Protection Plan, 2013 Scientific Consensu Statement. Government of Australia and Government of Queensland http://www. reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/assets/scientific-consensus statement-2013.pdf. +Sale, P.F., Feary, D.A., Burt, J.A., Bauman, A.G., Cavalcante, G.H., Drouillard, K.G. Kjerfve, B., Marquis, E., Trick, C.G., Usseglio, P., Van Lavieren, H. (2011). Th Growing Need for Sustainable Ecological Management of Marin Communities of the Persian Gulf. Ambio, 40(1), 4-17. +Samoa (2004). Government of Samoa, POPS assessment for Samoa. Secretariat o the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme http://www.sprep.org/att/IRC/eCOPIES/Countries/Samoa/4.pdf. +Satpathy, K.K., Panigrahi, S., Mohanty, A.K., Sahu, G., Achary, M.S., Bramha, S.N. Padhi, R.K., Samantara, M.K., Selvanayagam, M. and Sarkar, S.K. (2013). +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Severe oxygen depletion in the shallow regions of the Bay of Bengal off Tami Nadu coast. Current Science India, 104(11), 1467. +Schindler, D.W., Dillon, P.J. and Schreier, H. (2006). A Review of Anthropogeni Sources of Nitrogen and Their Effects on Canadian Aquatic Ecosystems Biogeochemistry, 79, 25-44. +SE2011 Committee (2011). Australia state of the environment 2011: Independen report to the Australian Government Minister for Sustainability, Environment Water, Population and Communities. DSEWPaC, Canberra, Australia http://www.environment.gov.au/science/soe/2011-report/download. +SOA (2010). Marine Environment Quality Communiqué of China (1989-2009). Stat Oceanic Administration of China http://www.mep.gov.cn/plan/zkgb.2010.8.13. +Stemmler, |. and Lammel, G. (2010). Pathways of PFOA to the Arctic: variabilitie and contributions of oceanic currents and atmospheric transport an chemistry sources, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10. +Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, United Nations Treat Series, vol. 2256, No. 40214. +Sunderland, E.M., Krabbenhoft, D.P., Moreau, J.W., Strode, S.A., Landing, W.M (2009) Mercury sources, distribution, and bioavailability in the North Pacifi Ocean: Insights from data and models. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 23(2) GB2010. +Tanabe, S., Ramu, K., Isobe, T. and Takahashi, S. (2008). Brominated flame retardant in the environment of Asia-Pacific: an overview of spatial and tempora trends. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10, 188-197. +Machado Torres, J.P., Munschy, C., Héas-Moisan, K., Potier, M., Ménard F. an Bodin, N. (2009). Organohalogen Compounds in Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnu Albacares) from the Western Indian Ocean. IFREMER http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00077/18866/16445.pdf accessed 20 Apri 2014. +Turner, R. E., Rabalais, N.N. and Justic, D. (2008). Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia: Alternat States and a Legacy. Environmental Science and Technology 42, 2323-2327. +Tyler C. R. and Jobling, S. (2008). Roach, sex, and gender-bending chemicals: Th feminization of wild fish in English rivers. Bioscience 58 (11), 1051-1059. +Ueno, D., N. Kajiwara, N. Tanaka, H., Subramanian, A. Fillmann, G., Lam, P.K.S. Zheng,G.J. Muchitar, M. Razak, M., Prudente, M. Chung, K-H. and Tanabe, S (2004). Global Pollution Monitoring of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers Usin Skipjack Tuna as a Bioindicator. Environmental Science and Technology, 38(8) 2312-2316. +UNDP (2011). Historic deal to safeguard Yellow Sea. UNDP http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/articles/2011/0 /07/historic-deal-to-safeguard-yellow-sea-is-made.html. +© 2016 United Nations 9 + +UNEP (1995). Global Programme of Actions for thwe Protection of the Marin Environment against Land-Based Activities. UNEP Documen UNEP(OCA)/LBA/IG.2/7. +UNEP (2008). The Global Atmospheric Mercury Assessment: Sources, Emissions an Transport. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. +UNEP (2010). Final review of scientific information on lead. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. +UNEP (2012). State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment UNEP/MAP — Barcelona Convention, Athens. +UNEP (2013a). The Global Atmospheric Mercury Assessment: Sources, Emissions Releases and Environmental Transport. UNEP, Geneva. +UNEP (2013b). Up-dated Global Inventory of Mercury-Cell Chlor-Alkali Facilities UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. +UNEP/COBSEA (2010). State of the Marine Environment Report for the East Asia Seas 2009. COBSEA Secretariat, Bangkok, Thailand. +UNEP-UCR/CEP, (2010). Domestic and Industrial Pollutant Loads and Watershe Inflows in the Wider Caribbean Region: Updated CEP Technical Report No. 3 Land-based Sources and Activities in the Wider Caribbean Region. UNEP Kingston, Jamaica, http://www.cep.unep.org/publications-and resources/technical-reports/technical-reports. +UNESCO (1968). Inter-Governmental Conference of Experts on the Scientific Bases fo the Rational Utilization and Conservation of Biospheric Resources. UNESCO Paris, France. +UNSCEAR (2008). Sources and Effects of lonizing Radiation — Report to the Genera Assembly. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomi Radiation, New York. +UNSCEAR (2013). Sources and Effects of lonizing Radiation — Report to the Genera Assembly. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomi Radiation, New York. +USGS (2000). An Overview of Mining-Related Environmental and Human Healt Issues, Marinduque Island, Philippines: Observations from a Joint U.S Geological Survey. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Reconnaissance Fiel Evaluation, May 12-19, 2000 (U. S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00 397). +USGS (2013). Titanium and Titanium Dioxide. USGS http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/titanium/mcs-2013 titan.pdf. +Vethaak, D. and Meer, J.V.D. (1991). Fish Disease Monitoring in the Dutch Part o the North Sea in Relation to the Dumping of Waste from Titanium Dioxid Production. Chemistry and Ecology, 5(3), 149-170. +Victoria (2013). Victoria: State of the Environment — Science, Policy, People. Victori Commissioner for Environmental Sustainability, +© 2016 United Nations 9 + +http://www.ces.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/230770/Introducti n.pdf. +Vinayachandran, P.N. and Mathew, S. (2003). Phytoplankton bloom in the Bay o Bengal during the northeast monsoon and its intensification by cyclones Geophysical Researearch Letters, 30(11), 1572. +Wang, B., Xie, L., and Sun, X. (2011). Water quality in marginal seas off China in th last two decades. International Journal of Oceanography, Jan2011, 1-6. +Watanuki, Y., Yamashita, A., Ishizuka, M., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S.M.M., Ishii, C. Yamamoto, T., Ito, M., Kuwae, T. and Trathan, P.N. Feathers of tracke seabirds reveal a spatial pattern of marine pollution. PICES http://www.pices.int/publications/presentations/PICES-2013/2013-S3/S3 0955-Watanuki.pdf. +Waters, P. (2011). White Hiding Pigments, Brushstrokes, May 201 (http://www.scanz.org.nz/pm/may-white-hiding-pigments accessed 13 Apri 2015). +Weiss, J., Papke, O., and Bergman, A. (2005). A Worldwide Survey of Polychlorinate Dibenzo-p-dioxins, Dibenzofurans, and Related Contaminants in Butter Ambio, 34(8), 589-597. +WISE (2014). Chronology of major tailings dam failures. World Information Syste on Energy, http://www.wise-uranium.org/mdaf.html. +WNA (2013). Information Library. World Nuclear Association, http://www.world nuclear.org/info/countryprofiles. +WOMARS (2005). Worldwide marine radioactivity studies (WOMARS). Radionuclid levels in oceans and seas.|nternational Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna Austria. +World Bank (2009). World Bank, Project Appraisal Document on a Propose Adaptable Program Loan in the Amount Of US$840 Million to the Argentin Republic for the Matanza-Riachuelo Basin Sustainable Development Projec Phase 1 (Apli) in support of the First Phase of the Matanza-Riachuelfo Basi Sustainable Development Program. World Bank, http://www wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/05 19/000333037_20090519030356/Rendered/PDF/484430PADO0P105101Offic al0UseO0Only1.pdf. +World Bank (2013). Catalina Marulanda, Implementation Status & Results Argentina — Matanza-Riachuelo Basin (MRB) Sustainable Developmen Adaptable Lending Program (P105680). World Bank, http://www wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/LCR/2013/ 1/25/090224b0820beb2a/1_0/Rendered/PDF/ArgentinaOOOMa0Report000 equence008.pdf. +World Bank (2014). World Bank Data. World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.COAL.ZS. +Worth, R.H. (1953). Worth’s Dartmoor, David & Charles, Newton Abbot 1967. +© 2016 United Nations 9 + +Wurl, O., Potter, J.R., Obbard, J.P. and Durville, C. (2006). Persistent organi pollutants in the equatorial atmosphere over the open Indian Ocean Environmental Science and Technology, 40(5), 1454-1461. +Yuan, S., Gou, N., Akram, N., Alshawabkeh, A., Gu, Z. (2013). Efficient degradation o contaminants of emerging concerns by a new electro-Fenton process wit Ti/MMO cathode, Chemosphere 93(11), 2796-2804. +Zhuang Z., Ding, L., and Li, H. (2005). China’s Pulp and Paper Industry: A Review Georgia Tech, http://www.cpbis.gatech.edu/files/papers/CPBIS-FR-08 03%20Zhuang_Ding_Li%20FinalReport-China_Pulp_and_Paper_Industry.pdf +© 2016 United Nations 9 +