diff --git a/corpora/corpora.py b/corpora/corpora.py index 3e3997fcf6f795cdb228e3aca3e06e7107daff77..df52802a021a581ac35c5cef6b9ce027ce6bb95a 100644 --- a/corpora/corpora.py +++ b/corpora/corpora.py @@ -1,9 +1,20 @@ from .sourcer import search_web import pandas as pd import os +import glob root_dir = 'data/datasets' + pira_df = pd.read_csv(os.path.join(root_dir, 'pira_simplified.csv')) +pira_corpus = pira_df.text.to_list() + +txt_path = os.path.join(root_dir, 'onu') +filenames = glob.glob(txt_path + '/*.txt') + +onu_corpus = [] +for filename in filenames: + with open(filename, 'r') as f: + onu_corpus.append(f.read()) def gen_corpus(query: str, pira: bool=True, ONU: bool=True, web: bool=True)->list: corpus = [] @@ -11,10 +22,9 @@ def gen_corpus(query: str, pira: bool=True, ONU: bool=True, web: bool=True)->lis # TODO: raise error pass if pira: - corpus += pira_df.text.to_list() + corpus += pira_corpus if ONU: - # TODO: implement PDFs - pass + corpus += onu_corpus if web: corpus += search_web(query) diff --git a/corpora/pira.py b/corpora/pira.py deleted file mode 100644 index ea30c27a38a837b1f248d9b055019dbb7d91d2c8..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/corpora/pira.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -import pandas as pd -import os - -# Open dataset -root_dir = 'data/datasets' -pira_df = pd.read_csv(os.path.join(root_dir, 'pira_simplified.csv')) -pira = pira_df.text.to_list() \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_01.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_01.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..410b24fc9a38abc79859985a8e860abcfc08938b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_01.txt @@ -0,0 +1,151 @@ +Part Il +The Context of the Assessment +Chapter 1. Introduction — Planet, Oceans and Life +Contributors: Peter Harris (Lead member and Convenor), Joshua Tuhumwire (Co Lead member) +1. Why the ocean matters +Consider how dependent upon the ocean we are. The ocean is vast — it cover seven-tenths of the planet. On average, it is about 4,000 metres deep. It contain 1.3 billion cubic kilometres of water (97 per cent of all water on Earth). But there ar now about seven billion people on Earth. So we each have just one-fifth of a cubi kilometre of ocean to provide us with all the services that we get from the ocean That small, one-fifth of a cubic kilometre share produces half of the oxygen each o us breathes, all of the sea fish and other seafood that each of us eats. It is th ultimate source of all the freshwater that each of us will drink in our lifetimes. Th ocean is a highway for ships that carry across the globe the exports and imports tha we produce and consume. It contains the oil and gas deposits and minerals on an beneath the seafloor that we increasingly need to use. The submarine cables acros the ocean floor carry 90 per cent of the electronic traffic on which ou communications rely. Our energy supply will increasingly rely on wind, wave and tid power from the ocean. Large numbers of us take our holidays by the sea. That one fifth of a cubic kilometre will also suffer from the share of the sewage, garbage spilled oil and industrial waste which we produce and which is put into the ocea every day. Demands on the ocean continue to rise: by the year 2050 it is estimate that there will be 10 billion people on Earth. So our share (or our children’s share) o the ocean will have shrunk to one-eighth of a cubic kilometre. That reduced shar will still have to provide each of us with sufficient amounts of oxygen, food an water, while still receiving the pollution and waste for which we are all responsible. +The ocean is also home to a rich diversity of plants and animals of all sizes — from th largest animals on the planet (the blue whales) to plankton that can only be see with powerful microscopes. We use some of these directly, and many mor contribute indirectly to our benefits from the ocean. Even those which have n connection whatever with us humans are part of the biodiversity whose value w have belatedly recognized. However, the relationships are reciprocal. W intentionally exploit many components of this biodiverse richness. Carelessly (fo example, through inputs of waste) or unknowingly (for example, through ocea acidification from increased emissions of carbon dioxide), we are altering th circumstances in which these plants and animals live. All this is affecting their abilit to thrive and, sometimes, even to survive. These impacts of humanity on the oceans +© 2016 United Nations + +are part of our legacy and our future. They will shape the future of the ocean and it biodiversity as an integral physical-biological system, and the ability of the ocean t provide the services which we use now and will increasingly need to use in th future. The ocean is vital to each of us and to human well-being overall. +Looking in more detail at the services that the ocean provides, we can break the down into three main categories. First, there are the economic activities in providin goods and services which are often marketed (fisheries, shipping, communications tourism and recreation, and so on). Secondly, there are the other tangibl ecosystem services which are not part of a market, but which are vital to human life For example, marine plants (mainly tiny floating diatoms) produce about 50 per cen of atmospheric oxygen. Mangroves, salt marshes and sea grasses are also natura carbon sinks. Coastal habitats, including coral reefs, protect homes, communitie and businesses from storm surges and wave attack. Thirdly, there are the intangibl ecosystem services. We know that the ocean means far more to us than just merel the functional or practical services that it provides. Humans value the ocean in man other ways: for aesthetic, cultural or religious reasons, and for just being there in al its diversity — giving us a “sense of place” (Halpern et al., 2012). Not surprisingly given the resources that the ocean provides, human settlements have grown up ver much near the shore: 38 per cent of the world’s population live within 100 km of th shore, 44 per cent within 150 km, 50 per cent within 200 km, and 67 per cent withi 400 km (Small et al 2004). +All these marine ecosystem services have substantial economic value. While there i much debate about valuation methods (and whether some ecosystem services ca be valued) and about exact figures, attempts to estimate the value of marin ecosystem services have found such values to be on the order of trillions of U dollars annually (Costanza, et al., 1997). Nearly three-quarters of this value resides i coastal zones (Martinez, et al., 2007). The point is not so much the monetary figur that can be estimated for non-marketed ecosystem services, but rather the fact tha people do not need to pay anything for them — these services are nature’s gift t humanity. But we take these services for granted at our peril, because the cost o replacing them, if it were possible to do so, would be immense and in many cases incalculable. +There are therefore very many good reasons why we each need to take very goo care of our-fifth of a cubic kilometre share of the ocean! +2. Structure of this Assessment +It is this significance of the ocean as a whole, and the relatively fragmented way i which it is studied and in which human activities impacting upon it are managed that led in 2002 the World Summit on Sustainable Development to recommen (WSSD 2002), and the United Nations General Assembly to agree (UNGA 2002), tha there should be a regular process for the global reporting and assessment of th marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects. Under the arrangements +© 2016 United Nations + +developed for this purpose, this Assessment is the first global integrated assessmen of the marine environment (see further in Chapter 2). +Three possible focuses exist for structuring this Assessment: the ecosystem service (market and non-marketed, tangible and intangible) that the marine environmen provides; the habitats that exist within the marine environment, and the pressure that human activities exert on the marine environment. All three have advantage and disadvantages. +Using ecosystem services as the basis for structuring the Assessment would follo the approach of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). This has th advantage of broad acceptance in environmental reporting. It would cove provisioning services (food, construction materials, renewable energy, coasta protection), while highlighting regulating services and quality-of-life services that ar not captured using a pressures or habitats approach to structuring the Assessment It would have the disadvantage that some important human activities using th ocean (for example, shipping, ports and minerals extraction) would be covered onl incidentally. +Using marine habitats as the basis for structuring the Assessment would have th advantage that habitats are the property that inherently integrates many ecosyste features, including species at higher and lower trophic levels, water quality oceanographic conditions and many types of anthropogenic pressures (AoA, 2009) The cumulative aspect of multiple pressures affecting the same habitat, that is ofte lost in sector-based environmental reporting (Halpern et al., 2008), is captured b using habitats as reporting units. It would have the disadvantage that consideratio of human activities would be fragmented between the many different types o habitats. +Using pressures as the basis for structuring the Assessment would have th advantage that the associated human activities are commonly linked with dat collection and reporting structures for regulatory compliance purposes. Fo instance, permits that are issued for offshore oil and gas development requir specific monitoring and reporting obligations to be met by operators. It would hav the disadvantage that many important ecosystem services would only be covered i relation to the impacts of the human activities. +Given that all three approaches have their own particular advantages an disadvantages, the United Nations General Assembly endorsed a structure for thi Assessment that combined all three approaches, thereby structuring the Worl Ocean Assessment into seven main Parts, as follows. +Part I. Summary +The Summary is intended to bring out the way in which the assessment has bee carried out, the overall assessment of the scale of human impact on the oceans an the overall value of the oceans to humans, and the main threats to the marin environment and human economic and social well-being. As guides for future actio it also describes the gaps in capacity-building and in knowledge. +© 2016 United Nations + +Part Il. The context of the Assessment +This chapter is intended as a broad, introductory survey of the role played by th ocean in the life of the planet, the way in which they function, and humans relationships to them. Chapter 2 explains in more detail the rationale for th Assessment and how it has been produced. +Part Ill. Assessment of major ecosystem services from the marine environmen (other than provisioning services) +Part III looks at the non-marketed ecosystem services provided to the planet by th ocean. It considers, first, the scientific understanding of such ecosystem service and then looks at the earth’s hydrological cycle, air/sea interactions, primar production and ocean-based carbonate production. Finally it looks at aesthetic cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services (including some cultural object which are traded). Where relevant, it draws heavily on the work o Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — the aim is to use the work o the IPCC, not to duplicate or challenge it. +Part IV. Assessment of the cross-cutting issues: food security and food safety +The aim of Part IV is to look at all aspects of the vital function of the ocean i providing food for humans. It draws substantially on information collected by th Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The economi significance of employment in fisheries and aquaculture and the relationship thes industries have with coastal communities are addressed, including gaps in capacity building for developing countries. +Part V. Assessment of other human activities and the marine environment +All human activities that can impact on the oceans (other than those relating t food) are covered in Part V of the assessment. Each chapter describes the locatio and scale of activity, the economic benefits, employment and social role environmental consequences, links to other activities and capacity-building gaps. +Part VI. Assessment of marine biological diversity and habitats +The aim of Part VI is: (a) to give an overview of marine biological diversity and wha is known about it; (b) to review the status and trends of, and threats to, marin ecosystems, species and habitats that have been scientifically identified a threatened, declining or otherwise in need of special attention or protection; (c) t review the significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t the conservation of marine species and habitats; and (d) to find gaps in capacity t identify marine species and habitats that are viewed as threatened, declining o otherwise in need of special attention or protection and to assess the +© 2016 United Nations + +environmental, social and economic aspects of the conservation of marine specie and habitats. +Part VII. Overall assessment +Part VII finally looks at the overall impact of humans on the ocean, and the overal benefit of the ocean for humans. +3. The physical structure of the ocean +Looking at a globe of the earth one thing that can be easily seen is that, althoug different names appear in different places for different ocean areas, these areas ar all linked together: there is really only one world ocean. The seafloor beneath th ocean has long remained a mystery, but in recent decades our understanding of th ocean floor has improved. The publication of the first comprehensive, global map o seafloor physiography by Bruce Heezen and Marie Tharp in 1977 provided a pseudo three-dimensional image of the ocean that has influenced a long line of scholars That image has been refined in recent years by new bathymetric maps (Smith an Sandwell, 1997) which are used to illustrate globes, web sites and the maps on man in-flight TV screens when flying over the ocean. +A new digital, global seafloor geomorphic features map has been built (especially t assist the World Ocean Assessment) using a combination of manual and ArcGI methods based on the analysis and interpretation of the latest global bathymetr grid (Harris et al., 2014; Figure 1). The new map includes global spatial data layer for 29 categories of geomorphic features, defined by the International Hydrographi Organization and other authoritative sources. +The new map shows the way in which the ocean consists of four main basins (th Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean) betwee the tectonic plates that form the continents. The tectonic plates have differin forms at their edges, giving broad or narrow continental shelves and varying profile of the continental rises and continental slopes leading from the abyssal plain to th continental shelf. Geomorphic activity in the abyssal plains between the continent gives rise to abyssal ridges, volcanic islands, seamounts, guyots (plateau-lik seamounts), rift valley segments and trenches. Erosion and sedimentation (eithe submarine or riverine when the sea level was lower during the ice ages) has create submarine canyons, glacial troughs, sills, fans and escarpments. Around the ocea basins there are marginal seas, partially separated by islands, archipelagos o peninsulas, or bounded by submarine ridges. These marginal seas have sometime been formed in many ways: for example, some result from the interaction betwee tectonic plates (for example the Mediterranean), others from the sinking of forme dry land as a result of isostatic changes from the removal of the weight of the ic cover in the ice ages (for example, the North Sea). +The water of the ocean circulates within these geological structures. This water i not uniform: there are very important physical and chemical variations within the +© 2016 United Nations + +sea water. Salinity varies according to the relativity between inputs of freshwate and evaporation. Sea areas such as the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, with larg amounts of freshwater coming from rivers and relatively low evaporation have lo salinity — 8 parts per thousand and 16 parts per thousand, respectively, as compare with the global average of 35 parts per thousand (HELCOM 2010, Black Se Commission 2008). The Red Sea, in contrast, with low riverine input and hig insolation, and therefore high evaporation, has a mean surface salinity as high a 42.5 parts per thousand (Heilman et al 2009). Seawater can also be stratified int separate layers, with different salinities and different temperatures. Suc stratification can lead to variations in both the oxygen content and nutrient content with critical consequences in both cases for the biota dependent on them. A furthe variation is in the penetration of light. Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis o inorganic carbon (mainly CO2) into the organic carbon of plants and mixotrophi species’. Even clear water reduces the level of light that can penetrate by about 9 per cent for every 75 metres of depth. Below 200 metres depth, there is not enoug light for photosynthesis (Widder 2014). The upper 200 metres of the ocean ar therefore where most photosynthesis takes place (the euphotic zone). Variations i light level in the water column and on the sea bed are caused by seasonal fluctuatio in sunlight, cloud cover, tidal variations in water depth and (most significantly, wher it occurs) turbidity in the water, caused, for example, by resuspension of sedimen by tides or storms or by coastal erosion. Where turbidity occurs, it can reduce th penetration of light by up to 95 per cent, and thus reduce the level of photosynthesi which can take place (Anthony 2004). +@® Shelf - high profile @® Hadal shelf valley ©) tis @ Shelf - medium profile @® canyon @® iift valley terrac Shelf - low profile @® guyot @® glacial trough @® trenc Slope @ seamount @® trough @ platea @® Abyss - mountains ™) bridge @® ridge “- @cean boundarie @® Abyss - hills @ sil @ spreading ridge ques Kilometer Abyss - plains @® escarpment @®) fan/apron 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +* That is, plankton species that both photosynthesize and consume other biota. +© 2016 United Nations + +Figure 1. Geomorphic features map of the world’s oceans (after Harris et al., 2014). Dotted blac lines mark boundaries between major ocean regions. Basins are not shown. +The new map provides the basis for global estimates of physiographic statistic (area, number, mean size, etc.): for example, it can be estimated that the globa ocean covers 362 million square kilometres and the ocean floor contains: 9,95 seamounts covering 8.1 million square kilometres; 9,477 submarine canyon covering 4.4 million square kilometres; and the mid-ocean spreading ridges cover 6. million square kilometres with an additional 710,000 square kilometres of rift valley where hydrothermal vent communities occur (Harris et al., 2014). +There is an important distinction to be made between the terminology used i scientific description of the ocean and the legal terminology used to describe States rights and obligations in the ocean. Some important terms that will be use throughout this Assessment include the “continental shelf”, “open ocean” and “deep +” +sea. +Unless stated otherwise, “continental shelf” in this Assessment refers to th geomorphic continental shelf (as shown in Figure 1) and not to the continental shel as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The geomorphi continental shelf is usually defined in terms of the submarine extension of continent or island as far as the point where there is a marked discontinuity in th slope and the continental slope begins its fall down to the continental rise or th abyssal plain (Hobbs 2003). In total, continental shelves cover an area of 32 millio square kilometres (out of a total ocean area of 362 million square kilometres). +The term “open ocean” in this Assessment refers to the water column of deep-wate areas that are beyond (that is, seawards of) the geomorphic continental shelf. It i the pelagic zone that lies in deep water (generally >200 m water depth). +The term “deep sea” in this Assessment refers to the sea floor of deep-water area that are beyond (that is, seawards of) the geomorphic continental shelf. It is th benthic zone that lies in deep water (generally >200 m water depth). +4. Seawater and the ocean/climate interaction +The Earth’s ocean and atmosphere are parts of a single, interactive system tha controls the global climate. The ocean plays a major role in this control, particularl in the dispersal of heat from the equator towards the poles through ocean currents The heat transfer through the ocean is possible because of the larger heat-capacit of water compared with that of air: there is more heat stored in the upper 3 metre of the global ocean than in the entire atmosphere of the Earth. Put another way, th oceans hold more than 1,000 times more heat than the atmosphere. Hea transported by the major ocean currents dramatically affects regional climate: fo example, Europe would be much colder than it is without the warmth brought by th Gulf Stream current. The great ocean boundary currents transport heat from th equator to the polar seas (and cold from the polar seas towards the equator), along +© 2016 United Nations + +the margins of the continents. Examples include: the Kuroshio Current in th northwest Pacific, the Humboldt (Peru) Current in the southeast Pacific, th Benguela Current in the southeast Atlantic and the Agulhas Current in the wester Indian Ocean. The mightiest ocean current of all is the Circumpolar Current whic flows from west to east encircling the continent of Antarctica and transporting mor than 100 Sverdrups (100 million cubic meters per second) of ocean water (Rintou and Sokolov, 2001). As well as the boundary currents, there are five major gyres o rotating currents: two in the Atlantic and two in the Pacific (in each case one nort and one south of the equator) and one in the Indian Ocean. +The winds in the atmosphere are the main drivers of these ocean surface currents The interface between the ocean and the atmosphere and the effect of the wind also allows for the ocean to absorb oxygen and, more importantly, carbon dioxid from the air. Annually, the ocean absorbs 2,300 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (IPCC 2005; see Chapter 5). +In addition to this vast surface ocean current system, there is the ocea thermohaline circulation (ocean conveyor) system (Figure 3). Instead of being drive by winds and the temperature difference between the equator and the poles (as ar the surface ocean currents), this current system is driven by differences in wate density. The most dense ocean water is cold and salty which sinks beneath war and fresh seawater that stays near the surface. Cold-salty water is produced in se ice “factories” of the polar seas: when seawater freezes, the salt is rejected (the ic is mostly fresh water), which makes the remaining liquid seawater saltier. This col saltier water sinks into the deepest ocean basins, bringing oxygen into the dee ocean and thus enabling aerobic life to exist. +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +© 2016 United Nations + +Figure 2. The global ocean “conveyor” thermohaline circulation (Broecker, 1991). Bottom water i formed in the polar seas via sea-ice formation in winter, which rejects cold, salty (dense) water. Thi sinks to the ocean floor and flows into the Indian and North Pacific Oceans before returning t complete the loop in the North Atlantic. Numbers indicate estimated volumes of bottom wate production in “Sverdrups” (1 Sverdrup = 1 million m?/s), which may be reduced by global warmin because less sea ice will be formed during winter. Blue indicates cold currents and red indicates war currents. The black question marks indicate sites long the Antarctic margin where bottom water ma be formed but of unknown volumes. The question mark after the “S” indicates that this value i certain. +Wind-driven mixing affects only the surface of the ocean, mainly the upper 20 metres or so, and rarely deeper than about 1,000 metres. Without the ocean’ thermohaline circulation system, the bottom waters of the ocean would soon b depleted of oxygen, and aerobic life there would cease to exist. +Superimposed on all these processes, there is the twice-daily ebb and flow of th tide. This is, of course, most significant in coastal seas. The tidal range varie according to local geography: the largest mean tidal ranges (around 11.7 metres) ar found in the Bay of Fundy, on the Atlantic coast of Canada, but ranges only slightl less are also found in the Bristol Channel in the United Kingdom, on the norther coast of France, and on the coasts of Alaska, Argentina and Chile (NOAA 2014). +Global warming is likely to affect many aspects of ocean processes. Changes in sea surface temperature, sea level and other primary impacts will lead, among othe things, to increases in the frequency of major tropical storms (cyclones, hurricane and typhoons) bigger ocean swell waves and reduced polar ice formation. Each o these consequences has its own consequences, and so on (Harley et al., 2006 Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007). For example, reduced sea ice production in the pola seas will mean less bottom water is produced (Broecker, 1997) and hence les oxygen delivered to the deep ocean (Shaffer et al., 2009). +5. The ocean and life +The complex system of the atmosphere and ocean currents is also crucial to th distribution of life in the ocean, since it regulates, among other factors, (as sai above) temperature, salinity, oxygen content, absorption of carbon dioxide and th penetration of light and (in addition to these) the distribution of nutrients. +The distribution of nutrients throughout the ocean is the result of the interaction o a number of different processes. Nutrients are introduced to the ocean from th land through riverine discharges, through inputs direct from pipelines and throug airborne inputs (see Chapter 20). Within the ocean, these external inputs o nutrients suffer various fates and are cycled. Nutrients that are adsorbed onto th surface of particles are likely to fall into sediments, from where they may either b remobilised by water movement or settle permanently. Nutrients that are taken u by plants and mixotrophic biota for photosynthesis will also eventually sink toward the seabed as the plants or biota die; en route or when they reach the seabed, they +© 2016 United Nations + +will be broken up by bacteria and the nutrients released. As a result of thes processes, the water in lower levels of the ocean is richer in nutrients. +Upwelling of these nutrient-rich waters is caused by the interaction of currents an wind stress. In simple terms, along coasts (especially west-facing coasts with narro continental shelves), coastal, longshore wind stress results in rapid upwelling further out to sea, wind-stress produces a slower, but still significant, upwellin (Rykaczewski et al., 2008). Upwelled, nutrient-rich water is brought up to th euphotic zone (see previous section), where most photosynthesis takes place (se Chapter 6). The reality is far more complex, and upwelling is influenced by numerou other factors such as stratification of the water column and the influence of coasta and seafloor geomorphology, such as shelf-incising submarine canyons (Sobarzo e al., 2001). Other important factors are river plumes and whether the upwellin delivers the nutrient that is the local limiting factor for primary productivity (fo example, nitrogen or iron; Kudela et al., 2008). Ocean upwelling zones commonl control primary productivity hotspots and their associated, highly productiv fisheries, such as the anchoveta fishery off the coast of Peru. The Peruvian upwellin varies from year to year, resulting in significant fluctuations in productivity an fisheries yields. The major factor producing these variations is the El Nifio Souther Oscillation, which is the best studied of the recurring variations in large-scal circulation, and its disruptive effects on coastal weather and fisheries are well known (Barber and Chavez, 1983). +The major ocean currents connect geographic regions and also exert control o ocean life in other ways. Currents form natural boundaries that help define distinc habitats. Such boundaries may isolate different genetic strains of the same specie as well as different species. Many marine animals (for example, salmon and squid have migration patterns that rely upon transport in major ocean current systems and other species rely on currents to distribute their larvae to new habitats Populations of ocean species naturally fluctuate from year to year, and ocea currents often play a significant role. The survival of plankton, for example, i affected by where the currents carry them. Food supply varies as changin circulation and upwelling patterns lead to higher or lower nutrient concentrations. +The heterogeneity of the oceans, its water masses, currents, ecological processes geological history and seafloor morphology, have resulted in great variations in th spatial distribution of life. In short, biodiversity is not uniformly distributed acros the oceans: there are local and regional biodiversity “hotspots” (see Chapters 33 an 35). Figure 3 shows a way in which the diversity of species is consequentl distributed around the world. Various classification systems have been devised t systematize this variety, including the European Nature Information System (EUNIS (Davies and Moss, 1999; Connor et al., 2004) and the Global Open Ocean and Dee Sea-habitats (GOODS) classification and its refinements (Agnostini 2008; Rice et a 2011)). +Part VI (Assessment of marine biodiversity and habitats) describes in more detail th diversity that is found across the ocean, and the way in which it is being affected b human activities. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +BIODIVERSIT +—More diverse Less diverse — +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. Distribution of biodiversity in the oceans. Biodiversity data: Tittensor et al., 2010. Huma impact data: Halpern et al., 2008, Map: Census of Marine Life, 2010; Ausubel et al., 2010; Nationa Geographic Society, 2010). +6. Human uses of the ocean +Humans depend upon the ocean in many ways and our ocean-based industries hav had impacts on ocean ecosystems from local to global spatial scales. In the larg majority of ocean ecosystems, humans play a major role in determining crucia features of the way in which the ecosystems are developing. +The impacts of climate change and acidification are pervasive through most ocea ecosystems. These, and related impacts, are discussed in Part Ill (Assessment o major ecosystem services from the marine environment (other than provisionin services)), together with the non-marketed ecosystem services that we enjoy fro the ocean and the ways in which these may be affected by the pervasive impacts o human activities. +For wide swathes of the Earth’s population, fish and other sea-derived food is provisioning ecosystem of the highest importance. Part IV (Assessment of the cross cutting issues: food security and food safety) examines the extent to which human rely on the ocean for their food, the ways in which capturing, growing and marketin that food is impacting on ecosystems and the social and economic position of thos engaged in these activities and the health risks to everyone who enjoys this food. +The wide range of other human activities is examined in Part V (Assessment o human activities and the marine environment): these activities include the growin importance of worldwide transport in the world economy; the major role of the +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +seabed in providing oil and gas and other minerals; the non-consumptive uses of th ocean to provide renewable energy; the potential for non-consumptive use o marine genetic resources; the uses of seawater to supplement freshwater resources and the vital role of the ocean in tourism and recreation. In addition, it is necessar to consider the way in which human activities that produce waste can affect th marine environment as the wastes are discharged, emitted or dumped into th marine environment, and the effects of reclaiming land from the sea and seeking t change the natural processes of erosion and sedimentation. Finally, we need t consider the marine scientific research that is the foundation of all our attempts t understand the ocean and to manage the human activities that affect it. +7. Conclusion +Our planet is seven-tenths ocean. From space, the blue of the ocean is th predominant colour. This Assessment is an attempt to produce a 3602 review o where the ocean stands, what the range of natural variability underlies its futur development and what are the pressures (and their drivers) that are likely t influence that development. As the description of the task set out in Chapter (Mandate, information sources and method of work) shows, the Assessment doe not attempt to make recommendations or analyse the success (or otherwise) o current policies. Its task is to provide a factual basis for the relevant authorities i reaching their decisions. The aim is that a comprehensive, consistent Assessmen will provide a better basis for those decisions. +References +Agnostini, V., Escobar-Briones, E., Cresswell, I., Gjerde, K., Niewijk, D.J.A. Polacheck, A., Raymond, B., Rice, J., Roff, J.C., Scanlon, K.M., Spalding, M. Vierros, M., Watling, L. (2008). Global Open Oceans and Deep Sea-habitat (GOODS) bioregional classification, in: Vierros, M., Cresswell, |. Escobar-Briones, E., Rice, J., Ardron, J. (Eds.). United Nations Conference o the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), p. 94. +Anthony, K.R.N., Ridd, P.V., Orpin, A.R., Larcombe, P. and Lough, J. (2004). Tempora Variation of Light Availability in Coastal Benthic Habitats: Effects of Clouds Turbidity, and Tides. Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 49, No. 6. +Ausubel, J.H., Crist, D.T., Waggoner, P.E. (Eds.) (2010). First census of marine lif 2010: highlights of a decade of discovery. Census of Marine Life, Washingto DC. +Barber, R.T., Chavez, F.P. (1983). Biological Consequences of El Nifio. Science 222 1203-1210. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Black Sea Commission (2008). Commission on the Protection of the Black Se Against Pollution, State of Environment Report 2001 - 2006/7, Istanbul. (ISB 978-9944-245-33-3). +Broecker, W.S. (1991). The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography 4, 79-89. +Broecker, W.S. (1997). Thermohaline circulation, the Achilles Heel of our climat system: will man-made CO2 upset the current balance? Science 278, 1582 1588. +Census of Marine Life (2010). Ocean Life: Past, Present, and Futur http://comlmaps.org/oceanlifemap/past-present-future. +Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N., Howell, K.L., Lieberknecht, L.M., Northen, K.O. Reker, J.B. (2004). Marine habitat classification for Britain and Ireland Versio 04.05. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough UK. +Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K. Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital Nature 387, 253-260. +Davies, C.E., Moss, D. (1999). The EUNIS classification. European Environmen Agency, 124 pp. +Halpern, B.S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K.A., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., D'Agrosa, C. Bruno, J.F., Casey, K.S., Ebert, C., Fox, H.E., Fujita, R., Heinemann, D. Lenihan, H.S., Madin, E. M.P., Perry, M.T., Selig, E.R., Spalding, M., Steneck, R and Watson, R. (2008). A Global Map of Human Impact on Marin Ecosystems. Science. 319, 948-952. +Halpern, B.S., Longo, C., Hardy, D., McLeod, K.L., Samhouri, J.F., Katona, S.K. Kleisner, K., Lester, S.E., O'Leary, J., Ranelletti, M., Rosenberg, A.A. Scarborough, C., Selig, E.R., Best, B.D., Brumbaugh, D.R., Chapin, F.S. Crowder, L.B., Daly, K.L., Doney, S.C., Elfes, C., Fogarty, M.J., Gaines, S.D. Jacobsen, K.I., Karrer, L.B., Leslie, H.M., Neeley, E., Pauly, D., Polasky, S., Ris B., St Martin, K., Stone, G.S., Sumaila, U.R., Zeller, D. (2012). An index t assess the health and benefits of the global ocean. Nature 488, 615-620. +Harley, C.D.G., Hughes, A.R., Hultgren, K.M., Miner, B.G., Sorte, C.J.B., Thornber, C.S. Rodriguez, L.F., Tomanek, L., Williams, S.L. (2006). The impacts of climat change in coastal marine systems. Ecology Letters 9, 228-241. +Harris, P.T., MacMillan-Lawler, M., Rupp, J., Baker, E.K. (2014). Geomorphology o the oceans. Marine Geology 352, 4-24. +Heezen, B.C., Tharp, M. (1977). World Ocean Floor Panorama, New York, In ful color, painted by H. Berann, Mercator Projection, scale 1:23,230,300, 1168 1930 mm. +Heilman et al (2009). S Heilman and N Mistafa, Red Sea, in United Nation Environment Programme, UNEP Large Marine Ecosystems Report, Nairob 2009 (ISBN 978-92080702773-9). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +HELCOM (2010). Helsinki Commission, Ecosystem Health of the Baltic Sea 2003 2007: HELCOM Initial Holistic Assessment, Helsinki (ISSN 0357 — 2994). +Hobbs, Carl Ill (2003). Article “Continental Shelf” in Encyclopedia of Geomorphology ed Andrew Goudie, Routledge, London and New York. +IPCC (2005) Caldeira, K., Akai, M., Ocean Storage in IPCC Special Report on Carbo dioxide Capture and Storage, pp 277-318. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special reports/srccs/SRCCS_Chapter6.pdf +Kudela, R.M., Banas, N.S., Barth, J.A., Frame, E.R., Jay, D.A., Largier, J.L., Lessard, E.J. Peterson, T.D., Vander Woude, A.J. (2008). New Insights into the control and mechanisms of plankton productivity in coastal upwelling waters of th northern California current system. Oceanography 21, 46-59. +Martinez, M.L., Intralawan, A., Vazquez, G., Pérez-Maqueo, O., Sutton, P., Landgrave R. (2007). The coasts of our world: Ecological, economic and socia importance. Ecological Economics 63, 254-272. +Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC., 155 p. +National Geographic Society (2010). Ocean Life (poster). National Geographi Society, Washington, D.C. +NOAA (2014). USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Tid Predictions and Data (http://www.co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/faq2.html#2 accessed 15 Oc tober 2014). +Occhipinti-Ambrogi, A. (2007). Global change and marine communities: Alie species and climate change. Marine Pollution Bulletin 55, 342-352. +Rice, J., Gjerde, K.M., Ardron, J., Arico, S., Cresswell, |., Escobar, E., Grant, S. Vierros, M. (2011). Policy relevance of biogeographic classification fo conservation and management of marine biodiversity beyond nationa jurisdiction, and the GOODS biogeographic classification. Ocean & Coasta Management 54, 110-122. +Rintoul, S.R., and Sokolov, S. (2001). Baroclinic transport variability of the Antarcti Circumpolar Current south of Australia (WOCE repeat section SR3). Journal o Geophysical Research: Oceans 106, 2815-2832. +Rykaczewski, Ryan R., and Checkley Jr., D.M. (2008). Influence of Ocean Winds o the Pelagic Ecosystem in Upwelling Regions, Proceedings of the Nationa Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 105, No. 6. +Shaffer, G., Olsen, S.M., Pedersen, J.O.P. (2009). Long-term ocean oxygen depletio in response to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels. Nature Geoscience 2, 105-109. +Small, Christopher and Cohen, J.E. (2004). Continental Physiography, Climate, an the Global Distribution of Human Population, Current Anthropology Vol. 45 No. 2. +Smith, W.H., Sandwell, D.T. (1997). Global Sea Floor Topography from Satellite +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Altimetry and Ship Depth Soundings. Science Magazine 277, 1956-1962. +Sobarzo, M., Figueroa, M., Djurfeldt, L. (2001). Upwelling of subsurface water int the rim of the Biobio submarine canyon as a response to surface winds Continental Shelf Research 21, 279-299. +Tittensor, D.P., Mora, C., Jetz, W., et al. (2010). Global patterns and predictors o marine biodiversity across taxa. Nature 466:1098-1101. doi 10.1038/nature09329. +UNEP, IOC-UNESCO (2009). An Assessment of Assessments, findings of the Group o Experts. Start-up phase of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment including Socio-economi aspects. UNEP and IOC/UNESCO, Malta. +UNGA (2002). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 57/141 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea), paragraph 45. +Widder (2014). Edith Widder, Deep Light in US National Oceanic and Atmospheri Administration, Ocean Explore (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/O4deepscope/background/de plight/deeplight.htm accessed 15 October 2014). +WSSD (2002). Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002 (United Nations +publication, Sales No. E.03.1I.A.1 and corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2 annex, para. 36 (b). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_01.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_01.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_02.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_02.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..422949f8f904f06f7872a646df1163bb79ecdd42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_02.txt @@ -0,0 +1,118 @@ +Chapter 2. Mandate, Information Sources and Method of Work +Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member and Convenor), Amanuel Ajawin Beatrice Ferreira, Sean Green, Peter Harris, Jake Rice, Andy Rosenberg, an Juying Wang (Co-lead members). +The World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002, recommended that there should be established a Regular Process for th Global Reporting and Assessment of the Marine Environment, includin Socioeconomic Aspects (WSSD, 2002). This recommendation was endorsed by th United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2002 (UNGA, 2002). +After considerable preparatory work, including as a first phase the production of th assessment of assessments (AoA, 2009), the United Nations General Assembl approved in 2009 the framework for the Regular Process developed by its Ad Ho Working Group of the Whole. This framework for the Regular Process consisted of (a) the overall objective for the Regular Process, (b) a description of the scope of th Regular Process, (c) a set of principles to guide its establishment and operation an (d) the best practices on key design features for the Regular Process as identified b the group of experts established for the assessment of assessments (see below) The framework further provided that capacity-building, sharing of data, informatio and transfer of technology would be crucial elements of the framework. Th following paragraphs set out these elements in the terms approved by the Genera Assembly (AHWGW, 2009; UNGA, 2009). +1. Overall objective +The Regular Process, under the United Nations, would be recognized as the globa mechanism for reviewing the state of the marine environment, includin socioeconomic aspects, on a continual and systematic basis by providing regula assessments at the global and supraregional levels and an integrated view o environmental, economic and social aspects. Such assessments would suppor informed decision-making and thus contribute to managing in a sustainable manne human activities that affect the oceans and seas, in accordance with internationa law, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’ and othe applicable international instruments and initiatives. +The Regular Process would facilitate the identification of trends and enabl appropriate responses by States and competent regional and_ internationa organizations. +The Regular Process would promote and facilitate the full participation of developin countries in all of its activities. +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363. +© 2016 United Nations + +Ecosystem approaches would be recognized as a useful framework for conductin fully integrated assessments. +2. Capacity-building and technology transfer +The Regular Process would promote, facilitate and ensure capacity-building an transfer of technology, including marine technology, in accordance wit international law, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Se and other applicable international instruments and initiatives, for developing an other States, taking into account the criteria and guidelines on the transfer of marin technology of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. +The Regular Process would promote technical cooperation, including South-Sout cooperation. +States and global and regional organizations would be invited to cooperate with eac other to identify gaps and shared priorities as a basis for developing a coheren programme to support capacity-building in marine monitoring and assessment. +The value of large-scale and comprehensive assessments, notably in the Globa Environment Facility’s international waters large-marine ecosystems initiatives, i identifying and concentrating on capacity-building priorities would be recognized. +Opportunities for capacity-building would be identified, in particular on the basis o existing capacity-building arrangements and the identified capacity-buildin priorities, needs and requests of developing countries. +States and relevant international organizations, bodies and institutions would b invited to cooperate in building the capacity of developing countries in marin science, monitoring and assessment, including through workshops, trainin programmes and materials and fellowships. +Quality assurance procedures and guidance would be developed to assis Governments and international organizations to improve the quality an comparability of data. +3. Scope +The scope of the Regular Process is global and supraregional, encompassing the stat of the marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects, both current an foreseeable. +In the first cycle, the scope of the Regular Process would focus on establishing baseline. In subsequent cycles, the scope of the Regular Process would extend t evaluating trends. +The scope of individual assessments under the Regular Process would be identifie by Member States in terms of, inter alia, geographic coverage, an appropriat analytical framework, considerations of sustainability, issues of vulnerability and +© 2016 United Nations + +future scenarios that may have implications for policymakers. +4. Principles +The Regular Process would be guided by international law, including the Unite Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and other applicable internationa instruments and initiatives, and would include reference to the following principles: +(a) Viewing the oceans as part of the whole Earth system; +(b) Regular evaluation by Member States of assessment products and th regular process itself to support adaptive management; +(c) Use of sound science and the promotion of scientific excellence; +(d) Regular analysis to ensure that emerging issues, significant changes an gaps in knowledge are detected at an early stage; +(e) Continual improvement in scientific and assessment capacity, includin the promotion and development of capacity-building activities an transfer of technology; +(f) Effective links with policymakers and other users; +(g) Inclusiveness with respect to communication and engagement with al stakeholders through appropriate means for their participation, includin appropriate representation and regional balance at all levels; +(h) Recognition and utilization of traditional and indigenous knowledge an principles; +(i) | Transparency and accountability for the regular process and its products (j) | Exchange of information at all levels; +(k) Effective links with, and building on, existing assessment processes, i particular at the regional and national levels; +(I) | Adherence to equitable geographical representation in all activities o the regular process. +5. Reasons for these decisions +This framework largely reflected the recommendations of a group of experts established by the General Assembly in 2005 (UNGA, 2005) and in place by the en of 2006, to carry out (under the guidance of an ad hoc steering group and with th assistance of the lead agencies, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission/United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (IOC-UNESCO)) an “assessment of assessments” reviewing the way in which past assessments, particularly of the marin environment at global and regional levels, had been carried out, in order to establish +© 2016 United Nations + +the approaches which could ensure that assessments under the Regular Proces would be relevant, legitimate and credible — the three necessary conditions for a influential assessment. +The report of the assessment of assessments (AoA, 2009) summarised th justification for the Regular Process as follows: +“5.1 Marine ecosystems provide essential support to human well-being. However they are undergoing unprecedented environmental changes, driven by huma activities, and becoming depleted and disrupted... Keeping the world’s oceans an seas under continuing review will help to improve the responses from nationa governments and the international community to the challenges posed by thes changes. Reviews based on sound science can help the world as a whole understan better what is happening, what is causing it, [and] what the impacts are.” +The report saw an urgent need for a more integrated approach, at the global level a well as at the regional and sub-regional levels. It indicated that such an integrate approach was feasible, and would help to develop a more coherent overview of th state of the global marine environment and its interactions with the world econom and human society. A better understanding is needed of how human activitie themselves interact and cumulatively affect different parts of marine ecosystems Baselines, reference points and reference values would also be needed as a basis fo evaluating status and trends over time. More consistent information, both i coverage and quality, and integrated analyses would improve understanding of th rapid changes that are occurring in the oceans and their possible causes. Th resulting knowledge would facilitate decisions to manage in a sustainable manne human activities affecting the oceans. Assessment is a necessary, integral part o the cycle of adaptive management of human activities that affect the oceans. +The report went on to explain the benefits from a Regular Process that could be means for integrating existing information from different disciplines to show ne and emerging patterns and to stimulate further development of the informatio base. +The elements relevant to the framework established by the General Assembl include actions to: +(a) Demonstrate the importance of oceans to human life and as component of the planet; +(b) Integrate, analyze and assess environmental, social and economi aspects of all oceans components and interactions among all sectors o human activity affecting them; it could thus support sustainable ecosystem-based management throughout the oceans; +(c) Promote well-designed assessment processes, conducted to the highes standards and fully documented by those responsible for them; +(d) Promote international collaboration to build capacity; +(e) Improve the quality, availability, accessibility, interoperability an usefulness of information for ocean assessment; it would also increas consistency in the selection and use of indicators, reference points an reference values; +© 2016 United Nations + +(f) Support better policy and management at the appropriate scale b providing sound and integrated scientific analyses for decision-making b the relevant authorities; +(g) Build on existing assessment frameworks, processes and institutions an thus provide a base for cooperation among governments and at the leve of international institutions. +The essential features which differentiate this assessment from earlier assessment are that it is global in scope, that it is to integrate the different sectors that ar involved with the ocean and that it is to integrate environmental, social an economic aspects of the ocean. This is an ambitious project, and it has been clea from the outset that the first assessment of this kind would be breaking new ground and that there would therefore be scope for improvement in future cycles of th Regular Process. +6. Timing +In 2009, the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole recommended that the Regula Process should involve a series of cycles and that the first cycle of the Regula Process should cover the five years from 2010 to 2014. This was endorsed by th General Assembly in 2009, on the basis that there would be two phases of the firs cycle, the first phase up to the end of 2012 to agree the issues to be covered and th second phase from 2013 to 2014 to produce the first assessment (AHWGW, 2009 UNGA, 2009). +7. Modalities +In 2010, the General Assembly endorsed a series of recommendations from the A Hoc Working Group of the Whole on the modalities for the way in which the work o the Regular Process should be organized and implemented (AHWGW, 2009 AHWGW, 2010; UNGA, 2010). The modalities, consisting of key features, capacity building and institutional arrangements, were developed further in a series o decisions of the General Assembly, on the basis of recommendation of the Ad Ho Working Group of the Whole of the General Assembly (AHWGW, 2011a; UNGA 2011a; AHWGW, 2011b; UNGA, 2011b; AHWGW, 2012; UNGA, 2012; AHWGW 2013; UNGA, 2013; AHWGW, 2014; UNGA, 2014), informed, among other things, b material prepared by the initial group of experts appointed in 2009. Th arrangements for the Group of Experts of the Regular Process were set out in th Terms of Reference and Working Methods (AHWGW, 2012; UNGA, 2012), an various paragraphs of the relevant General Assembly resolutions. +The main institutional arrangements thus established are as follows: +(a) The Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole on the Regular Process fo Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marin Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects: +© 2016 United Nations + +The Regular Process is to be overseen and guided by an Ad Hoc Workin Group of the Whole of the General Assembly comprised o representatives of Member States. Relevant intergovernmental and non governmental organizations with consultative status recognized by th Economic and Social Council are to be invited to participate in th meetings of the Ad Hoc Working Group. Relevant scientific institution and major groups identified in Agenda 21 may request an invitation t participate in the meetings of the Ad Hoc Working Group. In 2011, th Ad Hoc Working Group agreed on the establishment of a Bureau to put i practice its decisions and guidance during the intersessional perio (AHWGW, 2011b; UNGA, 2011b). +(b) The Group of Experts of the Regular Process: The general task of th Group of Experts, as set out in the Terms of Reference and Workin Methods approved by the General Assembly, is “to carry out an assessments within the framework of the Regular Process at the reques of the General Assembly under the supervision of the Ad Hoc Workin Group of the Whole”. It was noted that an assessment would only b carried out at the request of the General Assembly. Within this genera task, the Group of Experts were to draw up a draft implementation pla and timetable, a draft outline of the assessment, proposals for writin teams for each chapter and proposals for independent peer review. Lea Members for each chapter, drawn from the Group of Experts, are to hav a general task of managing each chapter, and a convenor of the writin team from the chapter (who might also be the Lead Member) is to b responsible for ensuring the proper development of the chapter. Th Terms of Reference and Working Methods make clear that the Group o Experts is collectively responsible for the Assessment, and was to agre on a final text of any assessment for submission through the Bureau t the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, and to present that text to th Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole. +The Group of Experts, originally appointed in 2009 to develop thinking o the “basic building blocks” identified by the Assessment of Assessments were invited to continue for the first cycle of the Regular Proces pursuant to a series of decisions of the General Assembly. +The Group could be constituted of a maximum of 25 members, fiv appointed by each regional group within the General Assembly. On regional group only made two appointments, and therefore the ful membership of the Group has been 22. In accordance with the Terms o Reference and Working Methods, the Group appointed two coordinator from within its membership, one from a developed country and one fro a developing country. The members of the Group of Experts ar volunteers or are supported by their parent institutions. +(c) The Pool of Experts: The General Assembly approved criteria for th appointment of experts to a Pool of Experts to assist in the preparatio of the first assessment and to cover the wide range of issues that a assessment of the ocean integrated across sectors and across +© 2016 United Nations + +environmental, social and economic aspects would have to address. Thi assistance would include several distinct potential roles: convenors an members of the writing teams, commentators to enable expertise abou parts of the world not covered by the writing teams to be brought in t the Assessment without making writing teams unmanageably large, an peer reviewers to review the complete draft of the Assessment. Thes experts have been nominated by States through the chairs of th regional groups of the United Nations. In addition, members of th Group of Experts and writing teams could consult widely with relevan experts. +(d) Secretariat: On the recommendation of the Ad Hoc Working Group o the Whole, the General Assembly requested the Secretary-General t designate the Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea as th secretariat of the Regular Process. Since no additional staff was allocate specifically for this work, the secretariat function has been provided b the existing staff. +(e) Technical and Scientific Support: Technical and scientific support for th Regular Process has been available from the IOC-UNESCO, UNEP, th International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the Food and Agricultur Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the International Atomi Energy Agency (IAEA). These agencies were invited by the Genera Assembly, together with other competent United Nations specialize agencies, to provide such support as appropriate. A dedicated web-base platform was set up to make information about this Assessment availabl and to provide a means of communication between members of th Group of Experts and the members of the Pool of Experts. Agreemen was reached between Australia, Norway and the United Nation Environment Programme to host such a website at GRID/Arendal i Norway. +(e) Workshops: In addition to the Pool of Experts, steps were taken t convene workshops as forums where experts (including governmen officials) could make an input to the planning and development of th Assessment. The General Assembly approved guidelines for thes workshops, which were held in Santiago in September 2011 (at th invitation of the Government of Chile), in Sanya in February 2012 (at th invitation of the Government of China), in Brussels in June 2012 (at th invitation of the Government of Belgium, supported by the Europea Union), in Miami in November 2012 (at the invitation of the Governmen of the United States of America), in Maputo in December 2012 (at th invitation of the Government of Mozambique), in Brisbane in Februar 2013 (at the invitation of the Government of Australia), in Grand Bassa in October 2013 (at the invitation of the Government of Céte d'Ivoire and in Chennai in January 2014 (at the invitation of the Government o India). The workshops were open to representatives of all States although participation was mainly from experts in the respective regions Each workshop aimed to consider the scope and methods of this +© 2016 United Nations + +Assessment, the information available in the region where it was held and capacity-building needs in that region. Reports of each worksho were made available on the website of the Division of Ocean Affairs an Law of the Sea and on the website of the first Assessment. +8. Finance +The General Assembly decided that the costs of the first cycle of the Regular Proces should be financed from a voluntary trust fund, and invited the Secretary-General t establish such a fund for the purpose of supporting the operations of the first five year cycle of the Regular Process, including for the provision of assistance t members of the Group of Experts from developing countries. The Trust Fund i managed and administered by the Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea Contributions to this fund have been made by Belgium, China, Céte d’Ivoire, Iceland Ireland, Jamaica, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal and the Republic of Korea. I addition, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Céte d’Ilvoire, India, Mozambique the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland an the United States of America have supported workshops in the region and/or th travel and accommodation costs of members of the Group of Experts from thei countries. Generous support to the Regular Process has also been provided financially and technically, by the European Union, IOC-UNESCO and UNEP. +9. Guidance +On the advice of the Group of Experts, the Ad Hoc Working Group decided that ther should be comprehensive guidance for the Regular Process. Accordingly it prepare such guidance, covering the responsibilities of the Group of Experts, the members o the Pool of Experts, the writing teams and their convenors, the commentators an the peer reviewers, the approaches to achieve integration and to deal wit uncertainty, risk, ethical questions and style. This was approved by the Genera Assembly (UNGA, 2012), and can be found in AHWGW, 2012. +10. Collection of information +When the methods of work were being developed, it was thought that there woul be time for a number of working papers to bring together detailed information an thus to serve as the basis for the preparation of this Assessment. In practice, th time available has not proved sufficient to adopt this approach generally. In som cases, detailed background information has been included in appendices to th relevant chapter. +© 2016 United Nations + +11. Development of the first World Ocean Assessment +The starting point for each substantive chapter has been the outline developed b the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, on the basis of proposals from the Grou of Experts, approved by the General Assembly (AHWGW, 2012; UNGA, 2012) an slightly amended by the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole in 2014 (AHWGW 2014). The writing teams, constituted as described above, elaborated this outlin and, in some cases, assigned drafting duties within the Group. A draft chapter wa prepared, reviewed by the Lead Member (where not part of the writing team), b other members of the Group of Experts to ensure consistency among chapters, an (in some cases) by a panel of commentators chosen from the Pool of Experts, but no otherwise part of the writing team. The writing teams responded as necessary t comments from these reviews and prepared a consensus draft chapter. Th consensus draft was submitted to the Group of Experts and secretariat. The Grou of Experts collectively reviewed all these consensus draft chapters, in order t ensure consistency and to prepare the synthesis chapters for each Part of thi Assessment and Part | (the summary). An editor overseen by the secretaria reviewed each chapter for format and consistency, raising questions for clarificatio with the writing team where necessary. After any concerns raised by the copy edito had been addressed, the secretariat circulated the entire draft of the firs Assessment for review by States, by a team of peer reviewers assigned by th Bureau of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, on a proposal from the Group o Experts and by intergovernmental organizations. In March 2015, close to 500 comments were received. The Group of Experts and the writing teams the proceeded to respond to the comments and revise the draft chapters accordingly. A the end of April 2015, the Group of Experts met again in New York to discuss th finalization of the responses and the revision of the chapters. Following a review b the secretariat of the responses and revisions, all chapters of the Assessment wer ready for submission to the Bureau by mid-July. The Assessment, including it summary” is to be considered by the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole i September 2015. +References +AHWGW (2009). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole t recommend a course of action to the General Assembly on the regular proces for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment including socio-economic aspects, United Nations General Assembl document A/64/347. +* See A/70/112. +© 2016 United Nations + +AHWGW (2010). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/65/358. +AHWGW (2011a). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/65/759. +AHWGW (2011b). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/66/189. +AHWGW (2012). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socio-Economic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/67/87. +AHWGW 2013). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/68/82. +AHWGW (2014). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole o the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of th Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects, United Nation General Assembly document A/69/77. +AoA (2009). UNEP and IOC-UNESCO, An Assessment of Assessments, Findings of th Group of Experts. Start-up Phase of a Regular Process for Global Reportin and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment including Socio economic Aspects. (ISBN 978-92-807-2976-4). +UNGA (2002). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 57/141 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea), paragraph 45. +UNGA (2005). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 60/30 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea), paragraph 91. +UNGA (2009). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 64/71 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea). +UNGA (2010). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 65/37 A (Oceans and th Law of the Sea). +UNGA (2011a). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 65/37 B (Oceans an the Law of the Sea). +UNGA (2011b). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 66/231 (Oceans an the Law of the Sea). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +UNGA (2012). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 67/78 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea). +UNGA (2013). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 68/70 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea). +UNGA (2014). United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 69/245 (Oceans and th Law of the Sea). +WSSD (2002). Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002 (United Nation publication, Sales No. E.03.1I.A.1 and corrigendum), chap. |, resolution 2 annex, para. 36 (b). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_02.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_02.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_03.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_03.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..df4eeeac3c11a80f3036d57354803ccc0a64049d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_03.txt @@ -0,0 +1,338 @@ +Part Ill +Assessment of Major Ecosystem Services from the Marine Environment (Othe than Provisioning Services) +Chapter 3. Scientific Understanding of Ecosystem Services +Contributors: Marjan van den Belt (Lead author and Convenor), Elise Granek Francoise Gaill, Benjamin Halpern, Michael Thorndyke, Patricio Bernal (Lea member) +1. Introduction to the concept of ecosystem services from oceans +Humanity has always drawn sustenance from the ocean through fishing, harvestin and trade. Today 44 per cent of the world's population lives on or within 15 kilometres from the coast (United Nations Atlas of Oceans). However thi fundamental connection between nature and people has only very recently bee incorporated into trans-disciplinary thinking on how we manage and account for th human benefits we get from nature. Today, when a product taken from a ecosystem’, for example, fibres, timber or fish, enters the economic cycle (i.e., a par of the human system), it receives a monetary value that accounts at least for th costs associated with its extraction and mobilization. If that natural product is th result of cultivation, as in the case of agriculture, forestry and aquaculture, th monetary value also includes the production costs. However, the extraction o natural products and other human benefits from ecosystems has implicit costs o production and other ancillary costs associated with preserving the integrity of th natural production system itself. Traditionally these benefits and costs have bee hidden within the “natural system,” and are not accounted for financially; suc hidden costs and benefits are considered “externalities” by neoclassical economists While the neoclassical economic toolbox includes non-market valuation approaches an ecosystem services approach emphasizes that ‘price’ is not equal to “value” an highlights human well-being, as a normative goal. The emergence and evolution o the ecosystem services concept offers an explicit attempt to better capture an reflect these hidden or unaccounted benefits and associated costs when the natura “production” system is negatively affected by human activities. The ecosyste services approach has proven to be very useful in the management of multi-secto processes and already informs many management and regulatory processes aroun the world (e.g. United Kingdom National Ecosystem Assessment, 2011). +Ecosystems, including marine ecosystems, provide services to people, which are life sustaining and contribute to human health and well-being (Millennium Ecosystem +1 . * Synonyms for ‘ecosystems’ in the literature are: natural systems, natural capital, nature, natura assets, ecological resources, natural resources, ecological infrastructure. +© 2016 United Nations + +Assessment, 2005; de Groot, 2011). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment define an ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organis communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit” an goes on to define ecosystem services as “the benefits that humans obtain fro ecosystems” (p. 27). This definition encompasses both the benefits people perceiv and those benefits that are not perceived (van den Belt et al., 2011b). In othe words, a benefit from ecosystems does not need to be explicitly perceived (o empirically quantified) to be considered relevant in an ecosystem services approach Similarly, ecosystems and their processes and functions can be described i biophysical (and other) relationships whether or not humans benefit from them Ecosystem services reflect the influence of these processes on society's wellbeing including people’s physical and mental well-being. While ecosystems provid services not only to people, the evaluations of services are, by definitio anthropocentric. +The deliberate interlinking between human and natural systems is not new, but ove the past few decades interest in “ecosystem services” as a concept has surged, wit research and activities involving natural and social scientists, governments an businesses alike (Costanza et al., 1997; Daily, 1997; Braat and de Groot, 2012). Thi interest is in part driven by the growing recognition that the collective impact o humans on the earth is pushing against the biophysical limits of many ecosystems t sustain the well-being of humankind. Such pressures are well recognized (e.g. Halpern et al., 2008; Rockstrom et al., 2009) and are felt by pelagic, coastal, an intertidal ecosystems. +The human system — comprising built, human and social capital” —ultimately is full dependent on natural capital. Ecosystems can exist without humans in them, bu humans cannot survive without ecosystems. Therefore, the human system ca usefully be considered as a sub-system of natural capital. An ecosystem service approach then becomes an organizing principle to make visible the relativ contribution of natural capital toward the goal of human well-being. The use of suc an organizing principle can be the basis for investments to maintain and enhanc natural capital to ensure a flow of ecosystem services (Costanza et al., 2014). +Natural capital is the natural equivalent of the human-made agricultural an aquaculture production systems mentioned above (Daly and Cobb, 1989). I essence, natural capital refers to ecosystems (i.e., coastal shelves, kelp forests mangroves, coral reefs and wetlands) as a network of natural production systems i the most fundamental sense. Humans with our many production systems are part o this natural capital and collectively have much to gain or lose from maintaining o neglecting, respectively, its sustainability. +The normative goal underpinning the ecosystem services concept is to maintai long-term sustainability, as well as local and immediate enhancement of huma well-being within the carrying capacity of the biophysical system. To continue +* Built Capital refers to human-made infrastructure. Human Capital refers to the ability to deal wit complex societal challenges, including education, institutions and health. Social Capital refers to th networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling tha society to function effectively. +© 2016 United Nations + +receiving a sustainable flow of ecosystem services, it is crucial to manage the scale o the human system relative to its natural capital base (Rockstrom et al., 2009). Th ecosystem services approach acknowledges natural capital as the paradigm in whic the human subsystem exists, highlighting (but not limiting to) the anthropocentri aspect of this concept (Costanza et al., 2014). At the same time the ecosyste services approach draws into decision-making the less visible aspects of sustainabl development, such as supporting, regulating and cultural services. Through a ecosystem services approach, people, governments and businesses are increasingl using this approach as an organizing principle for finding new ways to invest thei human, social and built capital in this common goal (Déring and Egelkraut, 2008). +The magnitude of human pressures on the earth’s natural systems an acknowledgement of the interconnectedness between ecosystems and human sub systems has revealed a need to transition from an emphasis on single-species o single-sector management to multi-sector, ecosystem-based management (TEEB 2010a; Kelble et al., 2013) across multiple geographic (Costanza, 2008) and tempora (Shaw and Wlodarz, 2013) dimensions. Intensification of use of natural capita increases interactions between sectors and production systems that in turn increas the number of mutual impacts (i.e., externalities). This requires accountabilit among tradeoffs in a way that was, perhaps, not as necessary when the use o natural capital was less intense. On land, negative impacts can be partially manage or contained in space. However, in the ocean, due to its fluid nature, impacts ma broadcast far from their site of origin and are more difficult to contain and manage For example, there is only one Ocean when considering its role in climate chang through the ecosystem service of “gas regulation”. +An ecosystem services approach supports assessment and decision-making acros land and seascapes; i.e., to consider benefits from ecosystems in natural, urban rural, agricultural, coastal and marine environments in an integrated way, an ultimately to understand the potential and nature of tradeoffs among services give different management actions. An example derived from Food and Agricultur Organization (FAO) states that 50 billion United States dollars is lost annually fro global income derived from marine fisheries, compared to a more sustainabl fishing, due to fish stocks over-exploitation, when viewed through an ecosyste services lens (FAO, 2012). +Principles for sustainable governance of oceans’ are straightforward (Costanza et al. 1998; Crowder et al., 2008,), but use of an ecosystem services approach has th potential to provide a basis for collaborative investments (in monetary o governance efforts), based on common ground and shared values. In other words, +3 Lisbon’ Principles for Sustainable Development of Oceans: 1) Responsibility: ability to respond t social and ecological goals. 2) Scale-matching: ensuring flow of ecological and social informatio allows for timely and appropriate action across scales. 3) Precaution: in the face of uncertainty abou potentially irreversible ecological impacts, decisions about natural capital err on the side o precaution. The burden of proof shifts to those whose activities potentially damage natural capital. 4 Adaptive management: decision-makers collect and integrate socio-cultural-economic-ecologica information, adapting their decisions accordingly. 5) Full-cost accounting: where appropriate, externa costs allow markets to reflect full costs.6) Participation: foster stakeholder awareness an collaboration. +© 2016 United Nations + +the ecosystem services approach has the potential to provide a new “currency” o organizing principle to consider multi-scale and cross-sectoral synergies an tradeoffs. +Several recently developed and evolving frameworks outline an ecosystem service approach and its underlying connection between natural and human systems Although the essence of the ecosystem services concept is the dependence o human well-being on ecosystems, there are diverse definitions of the concept reflecting differing worldviews on how human systems relate to ecosystems. Fo example, ecological economists emphasize that human societies are a sub-set o ecosystems and as a consequence assume limited substitutability betwee built/manufactured and natural capital (Daly and Farley, 2004; van den Belt 2011a Braat and de Groot, 2012; Farley, 2012). Some definitions of ecosystem service emphasize the functional aspects of ecosystems from which people derive benefit (Costanza et al., 1997; Daily, 1997) and others put more exphasis on their utilitaria aspects and seek conformity with economic accounting (Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007 United Nations Statistics Division, 2013). Still others emphasize human health an well-being (Fisher et al., 2009) and values (TEEB, 2010a). +The ecosystem services approach aims to address and make explicit the inheren complexity of the coupling between biophysical and human systems. For example, i allows regulating ecosystem services at a global scale, such as climate regulation an sea level rise, to be integrated into local decision-making (Berry and Bendor, 2015) An important point here is that though climate change is perceived as a broadl global phenomenon, its impacts will be local, depending on a host of local/regiona drivers that will interact with global climate changes. This means that assessments o natural capital and ecosystem services are best done at multiple scales. At the sam time, integration across and between regions is essential to ensure shared bes practices, agreed protocols and data-access policies, etc. This is an importan function for governance at the global level. +The ecosystem services approach has been embraced by different fields an perspectives. For example, those concerned with biodiversity (e.g., TEEB, 2009 TEEB, 2010a; TEEB, 2010b; TEEB, 2010c; Intergovernmental Panel for Biodiversit and Ecosystem Services-IPBES) and climate change (e.g., Intergovernmental Panel fo Climate Change-IPCC) have generally aligned themselves with this approach. Man international organizations (e.g., United Nations, World Bank, the Organization fo Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), The Nature Conservancy International Union for the Conservation of Nature(IUCN), FAO), governments (e.g. European Union, United Kingdom, United States of America), and increasingl companies (e.g., Dow Chemical and potentially those connected to the Worl Oceans Council) are collaborating to explore the potential for efficient and effectiv decision-making offered by an ecosystem services approach. An example o intergovernmental collaboration on ecosystem services is the Group on Eart Observations (GEO)* and particularly GEO’s Biodiversity Network (GEO BON), voluntary partnership among intergovernmental, non-governmental an governmental organizations (www.earthobservations.org/geobon). The +* GEO, the Group on Earth Observations has today 89 member states and the European Commission. +© 2016 United Nations + +Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service (IPBES) enhances this integration effort at sub-regional, regional and global level (Larigauderie and Mooney, 2010; www. ipbes.net). +Although the concept has achieved broad acceptance, caution is needed i implementing ecosystem services approaches to avoid a simplistic or biase commodification of ecosystems that prioritizes some elements of nature that ar economically useful to the detriment of overall ongoing preservation of thos ecosystems for their intrinsic value. An unbalanced approach focused primarily o assigning monetary values can exacerbate power asymmetries and increase socio ecological conflicts (e.g., Beymer-Farris and Bassett, 2012). Giving equal focus t non-market/non-use services within the ecosystem services framework is both desirable approach and a strength of this method for decision-making (Chan et al. 2012). When ecosystem services are approached as an organizing principle, thi includes the development of common units of measurement for decision support beyond application of existing tools in the natural and social science toolboxes. I needs to be acknowledged that we don’t, and may never, fully understand social ecological systems to the point that people can confidently predict changes an impact or ‘optimize’ these systems. A precautionary stance regarding managemen and governance for maintenance of resilience of social-ecological systems i highlighted (Bigagli, 2015). +The ecosystem services approach gained momentum in the late 1990s, whe monetary values associated with ecosystem services from natural capital wer conservatively estimated (at a rate double that of global Gross Domestic Produc (GDP) to highlight the potential economic and societal value of previously unvalue ecosystem services (Costanza et al., 1997). These values were globally expresse with a single spatial dimension, a snapshot of which is shown in Figure 1. Thes values only provided a starting point of a necessary debate, as they relied on man and generally conservative assumptions about how to, in a broader sense, valu services globally. Although they expressed these services in monetary values, th authors did not claim that these services were suitable for exchange in the marke system (Costanza et al., 1997). A recent re-assessment of these global value indicated that the values of global ecosystem services have increased with additiona studies on ecosystem services, but these values simultaneously have decrease where natural capital has been converted to other types of capital (Costanza et al. 2014). +© 2016 United Nations + +100 1,000 10,00 USS hat yr-1 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Global map of values of estimated ecosystem services in 1997. Source: Costanza et al., 1997. +An ecosystem services approach certainly isn’t without controversy and critique i offered by neoclassical economists and ecologists (McCauley, 2006), albeit fo different reasons. Some critiques of an ecosystem services approach are highlightin the utilitarian manner in which this approach has been implemented (Wegner an Pascual, 2011; Bscher et al., 2012). Ecosystem services, or "nature's benefits provide a strengths-based, organizing principle to more deliberately an systematically consider the contributions biophysical communities (includin biodiversity and habitat) provide to human well-being (including health). A wea application of an ecosystem services approach builds on traditional natural resourc management tools by considering a broader appreciation of the advantage provided by natural systems to include social, economic, health and ecologica benefits. This approach is then used to analyze, in more detail, aspects of ecosyste services currently considered externalities and builds upon natural resourc management strategies of the 20th century. This may incrementally expand th quality and quantity of relevant indicators considered when making decisions abou tradeoffs. In a strong application of an ecosystem services approach, it can be use to synthesize systemic aspects of managing the human sub-system within a ecosystem. A strong application of an ecosystem services approach requires th design of tools and skill sets suitable to support multi-faceted management an governance strategies fit for the 21* century. +The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) classified ecosystem services as provisioning services (e.g., food — including food traded in formal markets an subsistence trade and barter -, pharmaceutical compounds, building material) regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, moderation of extreme events, wast treatment, erosion protection, maintaining populations of species); supporting +© 2016 United Nations + +services (e.g., nutrient cycling, primary production) and cultural services (e.g. spiritual experience, recreation, information for cognitive development, aesthetics). +Supporting services are often considered at an ‘intermediate’ level as suppor functions toward “final ecosystem services” (Landers and Nahlik, 2013). While th intermediate nature of supporting services makes accounting more challenging, i.e avoiding double counting, it is also important to acknowledge the “unaccountable” characteristics of ecosystems for three reasons. First, the complexity of ecosystem is such that applying accounting practices modelled in accordance with traditiona economic accounting is often both impossible and inappropriate. In other words while economic activities can be aggregated to a certain extent°, attributes o ecosystems and their functions do not lend themselves well to aggregation. Second supporting services or support functions underlie all other services (e.g., provisionin and cultural services are made available in part by supporting services). Third supporting services are often considered to be most important from cultural an spiritual perspectives, which have their own specific value (Chan et al 2012). +Scientific publications concerning ecosystem services have grown exponentially sinc the late 1990s. As shown in Figure 2, the marine and coastal ecosystem service (MCES) literature is no exception. Liquete et al. (2013) recently categorized 14 articles on the current status of MCES. +15 8 2g 100 g 6 a S a & 4 S 2 50 2 a 0 gsgaseeegeeg Cuanthative Quettative 2egRgR FRRBR lapping onceptu Year Type of analysi 6 6 ? & 2 20 2 2 | | o Coastal Coastal& Marine Terrestrial& econom. environ. social mixe Marine Marin Study area Perspective +Figure 2. Data and analysis from 145 MCES assessments by Liquete et al. (2013). A. Number o publications per year. *The year 2012 covers 1 January to 4 April. B. Number of studies per type o analysis. C. Number of papers per type of environment analyzed. D. Number of publications pe scientific discipline. +The analysis by Liquete et al. (2013) found that most of the MCES case studies the reviewed: 1) were concentrated in Europe and North America; 2) did not cover the +° The System of National Accounts does not account for everything either. +© 2016 United Nations + +area beyond the continental shelf edge, with benthic habitats generally lacking, an 3) focused on mangroves for supporting and provisioning services and on coasta wetlands for regulating and supporting services. A primary focus on local or regiona geographic location raises a concern for MCES, as biophysical events and condition are generated further afield. For example, patterns of upwelling and migrator species will be influenced by benthic and oceanic conditions that might occur a some distance from the affected region and thus will be difficult to predict. As i other domains, decision-makers have to make decisions under conditions of hig uncertainty with limited ability to conclusively consider all risks. An ecosyste services approach has the advantage of making visible the non-linear behaviour® o ecosystems and draw attention in decision-making to fundamentally differen alternatives (Barbier et al., 2008). Such alternatives may lead to synergies (i.e. shared values across sectors as a basis for social-ecological enterprises and povert alleviation) or to difficult trade-offs between different uses or user groups. valuation spectrum should include “all that is important to people”, whether th people themselves perceive this or not (van den Belt et al., 2011b) and regardless o whether the value is monetary, spiritual, cultural, or otherwise. +2. Evolving ecosystem services frameworks, principles and methods +An overview follows of accepted typologies, principles and methods currently use for assessing and measuring ecosystem services in the rapidly growing internationa literature. Although concepts and methodologies show a consistent pattern in loca applications, no generally accepted classification of ecosystem goods and service for global accounting purposes exists (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2010; Bohnke Henrichs et al., 2013). The complexity of such a task requires a pluralistic approac across temporal and spatial scales to make ecosystem services visible in decision making processes and to decision-makers. Capabilities for temporal and spatia analyses are evolving rapidly (e.g. Altman et al., 2014). These now enable decisio support and the use of an ecosystem services approach at local, regional, nationa and global scales (e.g. Zurlini et al., 2014). However, consistency across scales an across terrestrial and marine environments has not been achieved. This is ofte highlighted as a research, policy and management priority (Braat and de Groot 2012). For example, the Ecosystem Service Partnership (ESP) (www.es partnership.org) attracts scientists and practitioners working with the ecosyste services concept in a self-organizing manner. The ESP website allows the assessmen of ecosystem services through the various themes, geographic locations and biomes The themes (Table 1) provide a good overview of the variety of methods and tool and required skills through which the ecosystem services concept can be viewed Associated with ESP, the Marine Ecosystem Services Partnershi (http://marineecosystemservices.org/) features a library of valuation-oriente literature, organized by ecosystem, on the delivery of ecosystem services an offering interconnection with other databases (see Appendix 2 for an overview of +° Non-linear behaviour refers to the characteristic of complex systems where effects are no proportional to their causes. +© 2016 United Nations + +relevant databases). Currently organized by country, further analyses of scal addressed by the valuation studies included may help progress toward a multi-scal approach. For example, completion of Table 1 for marine ecosystem services coul be very useful for a future second United Nations World Ocean Assessment. +Table 1. Overview of thematic working groups of the Ecosystem Service Partnership (ESP), whic would be useful to complete for a subsequent World Oceans Assessment Thematic working groups of ESP Biomes Scale +1. Ecosystem services assessment frameworks and typologies +2. Biodiversity and ecosystem services +3. Ecosystem service indicators +4. Mapping ecosystem services +uw +. Modeling ecosystem services +6. Valuation of ecosystem service 6A. Cultural services and value 6B. Ecosystem services and public healt 6C. Economic and monetary valuation +6D. Value integration +N +. Ecosystem services in trade-off analysis and project evaluation +io) +. Ecosystem services and disaster-risk reduction +wo +. Application of ecosystem services in planning and management +9A. Restoring ecosystems and their services +10. Co-investment and reward mechanisms for ecosystem services +10A. Ecosystem services and poverty alleviation +11. Ecosystem service accounting and greening the economy +12. Governance and institutional aspects +The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) started as a UNEP projec (2007 — 2010) initiated by the G8. This resulted in the promotion of steps toward th management of values that people derive from ecosystems (Figure 3). In essence the TEEB framework clusters and links the ESP themes into a process suitable fo decision support for projects, governments and businesses (TEEB, 2010b). Thi process is then ideally implemented systemically, with appropriate feedbac mechanisms for on-going assessments of all aspects involved at multiple scales. +© 2016 United Nations + +Feedback to improve all aspects over time +Capture value Incentives +- Subsidies +- Fiscal +- Payments for E - Policy change +* Institutiona + Instrumental +Estimate value - Valuation in physical unit - Ranking +- Valuation in monetary terms, +Identify & Asses - Indicators +- Mapping +- Quantification +Figure 3. Process of ecosystem service assessments based on TEEB, redrawn after Hendriks et al. 2012. +2.1 The flow of ecosystem services +For this introductory chapter on ecosystem services, however, we elaborate on th cascading Haines-Young and Potschin (2010) framework. This framework is relevan because of its close alignment with the evolving United Nations System o Environmental-Economic Accounting (United Nations Statistics Division, 2013) an its effort to seek a consistent classification system and set of accounting principle (Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007; Landers and Nahlik, 2013). +Conceptual models, such as the Common International Classification of Ecosyste Goods and Services (CICES) (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2010), enable practitioner to differentiate between natural capital, i.e., the natural resources or ecologica infrastructure, and the services that are derived from that infrastructure. This i presented in a framework cascading from biome to function/process, service benefit and value (Figure 4). This framework is influenced by two perspectives: 1) th desire to account for ecosystem services and avoid double counting by economist and 2) an opportunity for natural scientists to rapidly communicate the value o particular ecological structures and processes. When applying this framework supporting and cultural ecosystem services are easily ignored, as non-market’ value are at best considered at the end of the cascade and more often are not considere at all; and the flow of ecosystem services is portrayed as linear or unidirectional mimicking a production chain, and implies a “trickling down” from natural capital t value for people, whose task it is to perceive this value. Appreciated for its simplicity this framework relies, in theory, on coherent and collective policy action to correc cumulative pressures when values are perceived. This feedback requires active +7 In a weak application of an ecosystem services approach, cultural services are often limited to monetary equivalent of ‘recreation’. In a stronger application of this approach spiritual connections sense of place and mental well-being are recognized. Social sciences contribute a myriad of tools t appreciate such values (e.g. (Pike et al.,, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +management to allow natural capital to function and provide essential services an benefits, whether people perceive such values or not. This framework show similarities to the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response®) framework. I comparison, the U.S. EPA draft classification system for Final Ecosystem Goods an Services (FEGS-CS) attempts to provide a categorization of beneficiaries and assist i tracking changes in ecosystem services upon those beneficiaries (Landers and Nahlik 2013). +Economists often use the term ‘ecosystem goods and services’, in part to see comparability and consistency with the System of National Accounting (Unite Nations Statistics Division, 2013). It is important to recognize that the provision o ecosystem goods and services relies on the integrity of ecosystem processes an functions, referred to as regulating and supporting ecosystem services, wit characteristics that make them less than suitable for rigorous accounting (Farley 2012). Disparate disciplinary perspectives occur in the context of applying a ecosystem services approach; e.g., economists appreciate an ability to account fo outputs and optimization of the ‘production process’, whether it is human- o nature-made, whereas ecologists tend to resist such a linear accounting o ecosystems as inaccurate because ecosystems are ‘complex systems’, with highl non-linear behaviours, and simplifying these complexities can lead t misrepresentation of management needs required to maintain valued services. +Following the steps of this cascading framework, marine ecological infrastructur includes (but are not limited to) biophysical structures, e.g., the open ocean continental shelves, coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass beds, mangroves, sal marshes, rocky intertidal and subtidal zones, sand dunes and beaches. These ar ecological systems and the associated structures created by biological and physica processes, e.g., primary production, wave generation, and decomposition of organi matter. Ecosystem functions and processes emphasize the potential capacity o natural capital to deliver an ecosystem service, which includes resource function (e.g., mineral deposits and deep-sea fish), sink capacity (e.g., the ability to absorb dilute or keep out of sight unwanted by-products) and service functions (e.g., habita to support biodiversity, wave attenuation, degradation of organic matter). ° +This flow from biophysical structures to functions and processes to ecosyste services is labelled the “supply of ecosystem services” (Figure 4). Ecosystem service also provide benefits (such as, air to breathe, water to drink, fish to eat, sustenanc of marine life, energy to harness from wave/wind/tidal/thermal power, health safety and increased human well-being). Because these benefits are essential for +5 ppsir: Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response generally focusses on impacts as in costs rathe than on the benefits people derive from ecosystems. Another difference is that the ‘State’ in DPSI has a biophysical focus, whereas in the ES framework, the ‘State’ of the human dimension is equall important. (Kelble et al., 2013). +° Some scholars (e.g., Aronson et al., 2007) separate natural capital into renewable natural capita (living species and ecosystems); non-renewable natural capital (subsoil assets, e.g., petroleum, coal diamonds); replenishable natural capital (e.g., the atmosphere); and cultivated natural capital (e.g. aquaculture). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +human well-being, a market or non-market value’’ can, in some cases, be placed o these ecosystem services. This is part of the cascade labelled ‘demand for ecosystem +services’. +Global +National +Biophysica structures Natural capita (e.g., ope ocean continental shelf, +Supp Y of Cosy stem, Vices +Service (e.g. coastal +Local +protection, Benefits (e.g. recreational health opportunity) safety Value (e.g. human well- ill ee willingness to +pay for ree surveillance, +or kelp fish) +v +SOLUTION-ORIENTE LOCAL RESPONSES +~Den an Sor Cosy ster, "Vices +NABLING SOLUTION ORIENTE LOBAL RESPONSES +<< +Figure 4. The flow of ecosystem services at multiple scales. Adapted from Haines-Young and Potschi (2010. While not a part of the original model, we added and highlight the ‘supply of and demand fo ecosystem services’ and the gap between ‘supply and demand’, signalling a shortage or abundance o ecosystem services. This is one basis for establishing ‘value’ in a broader sense. +In essence, the flow diagram has two fundamental purposes: (1) identifying th ecological processes required to attain ecosystem services; and (2) developing th ability to account more rigorously for this natural ‘production system’, particularly a a global level. At this analytical level, the ecosystem services concept effectivel reveals and communicates the ‘invisible’ biophysical processes and functions an thereby broadens, guides and informs local decision alternatives and scenarios. Thi is not a uni-directional flow - the ‘cascading production chain’ (as shown in Figure 4 also requires attention for reverse processes taking ‘values’ in a broad pluralisti sense, as a starting point, to collectively develop solutions (Haines-Young an Potschin, 2010; van den Belt, 2014; Maes et al., 2012; Tallis et al., 2012) Understanding this flow of ecosystem services at multiple scales, top-down an bottom-up, facilitates practical local solution-oriented responses, enabled by globa guidance. +Sometimes a limited set of ecosystem services can be locally managed for short-ter benefits, whereas other ecosystem services have globalized characteristics and/or +10 Market and non-market values are sometimes also referred to as use or non-use values or a instrumental and intrinsic values. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +have longer-term benefits. Therefore, this approach has the potential to effectivel connect mutual or competing interests at local to global scales and facilitat cohesive decision support. Given that the ecosystem services approach is a inherently anthropocentric concept and is context-dependent, any value attribute to ecosystem services is not absolute and depends on the supply of (i.e., how muc of a service is available, if it is limiting) and demand for the service (i.e., how muc people need or want a service). A ‘gap’ between supply and demand of ecosyste services indicates a shortage or abundance (Figure 4). The gap varies temporally an spatially, per societal sector, and by the political scale of the perspective (i.e., local regional, or global). When an abundant supply of ecosystem services exists relativ to demand, the governance or management requirement is primarily one o monitoring. A shortage of supply of ecosystem services, relative to demand, make the necessity of effective governance and management more acute (see also ‘tim preference’ below) - quality and efficiency of delivery of ecosystem service need t be considered. Supply and demand are dynamically interconnected and therefor employment of methodologies beyond market-based theories is crucial. +2.2 Biophysical supply of ecosystem services +Any assessment of ecosystem services must begin with natural capital. The natura system encompasses species present, the flows of matter and energy to which thes species contribute, their functional attributes, and the interactions with the physica environment that serve to enhance or dampen the functional attributes an processes. This may require principles and practical guidelines codifyin simplification schemes (e.g., Townsend et al., 2011), as science will not be able t provide all of the answers in the time needed to develop management responses. A assessment of natural capital in marine systems should include the distribution an level of ecosystem services in relation to space and time, so that changes i ecosystem services may be better understood following different managemen practices and proximity to tipping points of marine ecosystems (MacDiarmid et al 2013; Townsend and Thrush, 2010). +Assessing the supply of ecosystem services in practice requires a process similar t the generic TEEB approach highlighted in Figure 3. First, one must define, a specifically as possible, how an ecosystem function or process of interest connects t specific human benefits of interest and exactly which aspects of a species o ecosystem structure are connected to that function. Developing such a conceptua model following ecological principles (Foley et al., 2010) is important because, fo example, a single species can provide more than one function, and differen attributes or processes of the species may be more or less important for (a particular service(s) of interest. For example, mangrove forests provide coasta protection, carbon storage, nursery habitat, and wood, among other services, an these services are provided primarily by the density of above-ground biomass below-ground biomass, submerged root structures, and the absolute amount o above-water/ground biomass, respectively. Mangroves can provide bundles o ecosystem services, which are inter-related to each other. Measurements requir knowledge of such bundles and how they occur at multiple spatial scales over whic their benefits are conferred (Costanza, 2008). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +The second step is to develop a model describing how the biophysical syste produces or inhibits production of the metric of interest, and which key driver modify that production. This step corresponds to step 1 in Figure 3. In the mangrov example above, if we are interested in the coastal protection function of mangrov forests and thus the above-ground density of the woody biomass, we ideally woul have or develop a mangrove growth model that could predict how wave height an intensity, sunlight, rainfall, sedimentation, etc., affect production, and especially th inter-plant density, of the woody biomass. In order to do this modelling, for al potential functions (and services) of interest, one can draw on or develop species specific population models coupled with ecosystem dynamics models, although th parameters of the model may vary spatially and temporally. Once in place, thes models then permit relatively simple sensitivity analyses that identify key drivers o change in the metric of interest. +Such models are always challenged by the availability of data, particularly in man developing countries. Thus, model development must proceed hand-in-hand wit data discovery and, where possible, data-gap filling, so that models are tailored t the scale, resolution, and complexity of the data available for a region (Figure 5) Typically useful data include physical data on sea level, pH, temperature and wav height and intensity, and biological data on the demographics, densities, dispersal and trophic dynamics of species. Although the data needs are similar at a global leve across the major oceans, these data will vary by locale and temporally (sometime seasonally). Availability of data and scientific understanding to properly paramatiz such models in particular, depends on scale and differs between regions Local/regional data for marine ecosystem services assessments are generally muc more available for counties including, but not limited to Europe, North America Australia/New Zealand, and Japan, and are very poor in most of Africa, Asia, an Latin America. A complete world assessment of ecosystem services is beyond th scope of this Assessment, but would ideally be undertaken for a future assessment. +The final step in the process of assessing the supply of ecosystem services is to ma and monitor the modelled or empirically derived values for the metrics of interes (step 2 in Figure 3) and the communication thereof (step 3 in Figure 3). Mapping an modelling are inherently constrained by the spatial resolution of the input data fo the models described above. Without such maps, one cannot say from where withi a region of interest the supply of and demand for the service is actually coming, an thus managers are left to make decisions about how to maintain or improve th supply, in order to meet demand, at the coarsest scale of assessment (for example for an entire country). Such coarse-scale decision-making may be appropriate, and i fact is often all that is needed for many decision contexts that occur at a scopin level. Scoping is the process used to identify the key issues of concern at an earl stage in any planning process. Scoping should be carried out at an early stage t facilitate strategic planning and reporting. However, when management is using a ecosystem services framework to make smaller-scale decisions, such as designatio of Marine Protected Areas, issuing permits for offshore mining, oil or wind-energ installations, and offshore aquaculture installations, then more detailed maps o service supply are critical. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Numerous examples of both types of decision-making exist. On the one hand is th more general, coarse-scale, often data-poor heuristic assessment, where decision makers are primarily interested in whether service supply will go up, stay constant or decline under a given management action. For example, model-building, includin indigenous stakeholders, can be used to scope for changes over time in ecosyste service values in a non-spatial manner (van den Belt et al., 2012). On the other hand more specific, finer-scale, often data-rich quantitative scenario developmen requires detailed assessments of who wins and loses under a given managemen action, and by how much, when and where. Examples include decisions on wav energy (Kim et al., 2012) and offshore aquaculture facility locations (Buck et al. 2004), considering specific tradeoffs. +At local and regional scales, often considerable but incomplete data are available, t make visible the biophysical supply of ecosystem services. Fundamental to suc efforts are sufficient data to map the location and interaction of key biophysica attributes (such as wave energy, ocean temperature, species density an composition, quality and health of those species, etc.), and for some places aroun the world such data exist. However, for many regions of the world such data do no exist or are extremely limited, constraining the ability to produce precise global regional and local estimates of the supply of and demand for ecosystem services. detailed assessment of the most limiting data gaps between regions is a highl desirable study to be conducted before a second United Nations World Ocea Assessment. The ability to map and monitor key areas for ecosystem service suppl is crucial for the development of scenarios and strategies to ensure future suppl (Burkhard et al., 2012; Maes et al., 2012a; Maes et al., 2012b; Martinez-Harms an Balvanera, 2012). Furthermore, more complete data sets can be achieved throug complementary strategies including baseline assessments in key ecosystems and/o in-depth pilot research efforts that can support model development fo extrapolation to similar habitats/ecosystems. +The provisioning of ecosystem services depends not only on the presence o biophysical structure and processes, but the condition (intact vs. degraded) and, i some cases, temporal variability (e.g., seasonal variability in the density or height o seagrasses or kelps, or variability in storm-driven waves). To determine the quantit of an ecosystem service, one must identify the spatial scale (local, regional, global and temporal scale (short- to long-term) of both supply and demand (also illustrate in Figure 4). A mismatch often exists between the data available on supply versu demand due to the variability in spatial provisioning and jurisdictional disconnect between supply and demand and the corresponding data available. For example global studies often draw on low-resolution, remotely sensed data on a global scale whereas local studies draw on higher-resolution data on a smaller spatial scale. Thi difference in data quality and spatial extent can lead to different conclusions on th quantity and quality of service provisioning available and the need to handl differences and uncertainty with care. Nevertheless, considering this ‘mismatch’ o data and information available to assess a gap between supply and demand o ecosystem services is an important move toward broadening the notion of valu away from narrow commodification of ecosystem services. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Of particular importance is the multi-scale aspect of the ecosystem service approach, as it provides an invitation to consider a connection between local an global scales at different temporal/seasonal intervals (Costanza, 2008). Som ecosystem services are produced and consumed in situ (e.g., coastal protection) whereas others have clear global aspects (e.g., carbon sequestration, climat regulation, biodiversity, global fisheries and mineral extraction). Certain services ar primarily seasonal (e.g., coastal protection), and others are provided or utilized year round (e.g., food provision). +2.3 Demand for ecosystem services +The ‘Benefits’ and “Value’ steps in the cascading framework (Figure 4) represent th ‘demand for ecosystem services’ and indicate where drivers of management an decision-making can be incorporated. The perception of values and benefits sets th context when determining the ‘supply of ecosystem services’. Therefore, it i important to consider demand for ecosystem services through at least two lenses (1) demand, as identified by market-based, economic sectors (as defined in th United Nations System of National Accounts); and (2) demand from non-marke sectors or societal groups, including ‘needs’ and ‘wants’, whether perceived b people or not. Therefore, value statements, if perceived, are bi-directional and ca be viewed as “trickling down” through Total Economic Values and/or “trickling up through participatory involvement of local communities. +Although the biophysical knowledge of the supply of ecosystems services i progressing, the understanding and visibility of socio-cultural-health-economi benefits from ecosystems (i.e., the understanding of the demand for ecosyste benefits) remain fragmented and are lagging behind, especially for oceans. On difficulty in profiling demand is partly due to the vast geographic scope and overal invisibility of supporting and regulating ecosystem services. Demand for ecosyste services is frequently assessed based on diverse rationales, such as risk reduction revealed preferences, direct use or consumption of goods and services (Wolff et al 2015). Also, the relative importance of these ecosystem services is often locall perceived by non-market sectors, especially through diverse cultural perspectives. A a result, management and decision-making frequently prioritize quantifiabl ecosystem services (e.g., provisioning services). This prioritization of provisionin services often occurs to the exclusion or detriment of supporting and regulatin services. On the other hand, cultural services are frequently highlighted togethe with provisioning services, as indigenous livelihoods are often tightly coupled t provisioning services as part of cultural services. +As a consequence, in any comprehensive process of ecosystem services valuation, i will be necessary to utilize both monetary and non-monetary valuations, as befit the spatial and temporal characteristics of each ecosystem service. When classica economic theory addresses “market failures”, it resorts to the following distinctions: +e Arrival good declines in abundance as it is consumed or used, e.g., when on fishing boat catches a fish, the same fish cannot be caught be another boat. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +e Non-rival goods can be used by many without being ‘used up’, e.g., one an the same fish can be admired by multiple divers, or clean coastal waters ca be available. +e Agood is excludable if the use of it can be prevented, e.g., one need permission to drill for minerals in the Exclusive Economic Zone. +e Anon-excludable good is freely accessible to all, e.g. Storm protectio provided by mangroves, seagrasses and reefs and dunes. +Most provisioning goods are ‘rival and excludable’ and therefore more suitable fo valuation through markets, (e.g., fisheries in an Exclusive Economic Zone). However some provisioning services are ‘rival but non-excludable’ (e.g., fisheries outside o Exclusive Economic Zones). Depending on place, some non-rival, excludable good can be enjoyed by those who can afford them; these include some recreational an research services. Most regulatory and cultural services are non-rival and non excludable, such as the existence of diverse marine life or practically, whale watching from shores. Based on these characteristics, it is generally inappropriat and unconventional to value non-rival and/or non-excludable ecosystem service using market mechanisms. Even non-market valuation approaches have sever limitations in this realm, which requires socio-political and_ institutiona considerations. Hence, processes to support “trickling up” of local demand fo ecosystem services become increasingly important, preferably supported b appropriate data and an ability to integrate and make these data visible. +Some basic global data is available that can be used for the socio-economi component of assessments based on ecosystem services, such as revenue fro coastal and marine related economic sectors. Jobs related to coastal and marin related economic sectors - and cultural values related to culturally important specie - may be available at regional level in some places, but are less available in othe places. Until the multiple ecosystem services, their interconnections and tradeoff between different sectors are more accurately recognized and at least semi quantified in the decision-making sphere, full inclusion of all available globa databases is beyond the scope of this first assessment. However, the distinctio between markets and other interests, resolution, geographic spread and ease o access are important characteristics of any evolving framework of data sets. ‘Scale sets the direct context for any situation where an ecosystem services approach i envisioned, used and under improvement. The ecosystem services approach has th ability to effectively communicate land-sea connectivity and tradeoffs associate with a variety of ocean- and land-based human uses, economic sectors, stakeholder and governance (Butler et al., 2013). In such an analysis, costs (e.g., due to a loss o ecosystem services, often expressed in indirect values) and benefits (e.g., due to monetary or non-monetary gain in direct or indirect values) are incurred by differen groups over different time scales. +Data on ecosystem services and their valuation for specific case studies are often re used for similar case studies in different locations, because local data collection an analysis are expensive and require specific skills in non-market analysis. Suc ‘benefits transfer’ approaches to valuation can be controversial because they requir assumptions about similarities among regions that are often inaccurate, but the remain a powerful and necessary approach to filling data gaps, when used with +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +caution. Table 2 provides a sample of references to local case studies of ecosyste services and their values associated with a sample of particular marine ecosystems The development of such matrices is often referred to as a ‘rapid ecosystem servic assessment (RESA)’ to identify where ecosystem services and valuation data ar available and where data gaps exist. The 17 per cent of boxes that are grey and hav no studies referenced represent ecosystem services provided by a_ particula ecosystem for which insufficient studies have been conducted. +Table 2. Each marine ecosystem provides a suite of ecosystem services, a subset of which ar identified; policy and management decisions result in tradeoffs among ecosystem services. * Ope ocean may include benthic and pelagic systems. Grey boxes indicate services provided by th ecosystem on the left. Numbers are examples of studies of the ecosystem service in that particula ecosystem. The numbers in table 2 correspond to the case studies listed in Appendix 1. (expanded +from Granek et al. 2010) Selected t . ecosystem services g 5 & E g a c = £ u s : z 5 B b 9 < o 3 5 S 3 J 2 bo : 3 3 s 3S v £ 2 e 5 a = es 3 = 73 a ov 3 2 = % o s o 3 2 2 3 © oD © 5 Sc Qa 3 2 < f < . = S % 8 < os & gs Marine 3 ce 3 8 5 2a z e 3 Ss : E z gs s o 25 S 2 Ss s ecosystems 3 5 3D a s 3 os 3 2 ¥ zg 88 2 ¢ @ és 2 6 Rocky intertidal 13,45, 5 22,29, Salt marshes 12,36, 37 15,39,4 10,49, Mangrove forests 8 3,20,33 16,17, 41 4,23,47 | 6,30, 61 16,17 19, 27 Seagrass beds 41 16,17, 41 1,34, 52 6,3 9,16, 9,11 Coral reefs 21,28, 42 | 17,41 9,61 6,30, 61 | 13,25 6 24,43 Kelp forests 32,54 55,56 30 2,38, 6 Sand dunes 13,51,57 | 5,35, 4 Open ocean* 7,8,26 | 18,31,59 | 44,53, 60 14,46, 58 +Because it is both essential and expensive to initiate studies of local ecosyste services, various databases have been developed to extract relevant informatio from site-specific case studies and ‘transfer’ such knowledge to similar sites. Th ‘benefit transfer’ approach also comes with severe limitations and risk o propagation of errors (Liu et al., 2011). Appendix 2 provides a limited overview of +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +publicly searchable databases that can assist decision-makers in populating matrice suitable to their region, following the exemplified structure of Table 2. The selectio of data bases in Appendix 2 was based on explicit reference to an ‘ecosyste services’ approach, and does not provide an exhaustive list of databases that coul be used when applying an ecosystem services approach. +2.4 Managing gaps, tradeoffs, and values across multiple spatial scales +Managing tradeoffs, for example between prioritizing fish-protein production fro coastal waters versus coastal protection (Maes et al., 2012b), recreational us (Ghermandi et al., 2011) or cultural considerations (Chan et al., 2012), can lead t difficult decisions for managers and policy-makers. Fairness of distribution an environmental justice beyond direct costs and benefits for user groups need to b considered. The supply of ecosystem services is affected by decision-making tha may favour production or provisioning of one service over others. For example, i kelp harvest is a favoured service that is managed, associated “costs” may be reduction in fish protein, as fish habitat is reduced, and/or a reduction i recreational diving, as the kelp forest is extracted from the ocean (Menzel et al. 2013). Poor decision-making often results in benefits to some users (i.e., those wh harvest kelp) and costs to other users (i.e., those who fish for animals that live i kelp, recreational divers, etc.). To achieve equitable distributions via policy-making, i is necessary to consider who wins (i.e., gains, benefits) and who loses (i.e., suffers cost or loss), directly and indirectly as well as now and in the future. In the absenc of regulation or when decision-making fails to consider the suite of services provide by an ecosystem and the range of users of those services, decisions on how best t manage a marine ecosystem may lead to unintended consequences (e.g., costs t recreational divers and fishing communities). +In decision making, stakeholders or managers often choose a set of possible action to take and then assess the tradeoffs that exist among the identified options. On strength of an inclusive ecosystem services assessment is that it allows exploratio of a broader set of possible actions and outcomes and distributive impacts, ofte identifying and highlighting true ‘win-win’ solutions (e.g., Lester et al., 2012; Whit et al., 2012). +Decision-makers are faced with the challenge of considering the spatial an temporal distribution of these services, which directly affects the flow of services Certain services may be provisioned in close proximity to local communities, bu utilized by both local users and others that live far from the location of provisioning For example, coral reefs may provide protein and coastal protection to loca community members on an island, and recreational opportunities, as well as som protein, to outsiders who visit the location as tourists. Even within the loca community, individuals residing along the coast may prioritize the coastal protectio service of the reefs or mangroves, whereas residents who live inland or upland ma prioritize the provisioning of marine protein. The ecosystem services framework when systematically applied, allows for considerations of multiple ecosystem services over time and space and thus, in this example, highlighting regulating and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +supporting services, such as habitat needed for spawning to ensure long ter provisioning of protein. +Decisions on how best to manage marine resources frequently require consideratio of the tradeoffs among a suite of possible scenarios. These tradeoffs generally entai values gained or lost with each scenario. Most commonly such values assigned ar monetary. Historically, this has led to consideration of values that can be given monetary worth, whereas services that are difficult to measure and value are ofte excluded from the decision-making process (TEEB, 2010a). Rodriguez et al. (2006 found that provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services are generall traded off in this respective order. This approach results in a focus on one or a fe ecosystem services and in decisions that have an unequal distribution of costs an benefits across sectors of the population. Failure to include supporting and cultura services, specifically on par with provisioning services, may have unintende consequences. +In other words, understanding the flow of production (i.e., supply) and consumptio (i.e., demand) of ecosystem services is complex, leaves room for cultura interpretation (Chan et al., 2012), and has distributive implications (Rodriguez et al. 2006; Halpern et al., 2011). However, tools are available - ranging from simple (fo scoping purposes or in the face of poor data) to complex (for management purpose and when adequate data are available) - to assist in the development of scenario and decision-support for this purpose. +2.5 Time preferences +Just as spatial analysis at multiple scales is crucial in understanding the supply o ecosystem services, the understanding of time scales and time preferences ar important in assessing tradeoffs, especially with regard to the demand for ecosyste services. The perception of time is often culturally defined. Indigenous peoples ofte think in terms of multiple generations and time can have a spiritual element. For market-oriented investor or government, time is captured in a ‘discount rate’. I essence, a high discount rate reflects a desire to consume resources now rather tha later. From an economic perspective, this choice also determines how quickly a investment returns a profit. Long-term planning to safeguard the benefits of les visible, non-provisioning ecosystem services requires low or even negative discoun rates (Carpenter et al., 2007). For investments in natural capital and for people t receive ecosystem services and benefits, multiple discount rates are required. Suc ecological discount rates may be place-based (e.g., when considering in sit ecosystem services) or universal (e.g., when ecological infrastructure is providin global ecosystem services) and should also reflect the (often slow) recovery time o ecosystems. This would apply to most supporting, regulatory and cultural services, a they are ‘non-rival, non-excludable’ services. In addition, certain ecosystem service may be provisioned (e.g., coastal protection when seagrass beds are dense enoug to attenuate waves) or utilized (intertidal or inshore fisheries during seasons whe ocean conditions do not permit offshore fishery) seasonally, highlighting th importance of managing for time frames that reflect seasonal availability of or acces to a service (TEEB, 2010a). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +2.6 The challenge of multi-scale integrated assessments for ecosystem services +There are indicators that allow us to reflect on the health of oceans, e.g., the Ocea Health Index (Halpern et al., 2012) and retrospectively how ocean health is changing A general indicator for ecosystem services from oceans is not available, nor may it b desirable as one indicator. Such an indicator would require integration acros biophysical and human dimensions, with relevance across multiple scales an developing a transparent ability to consider tradeoffs with a forward perspective This requires the gathering of data at local, regional, national and global scales, an in principle with three dimensions: space, time and values. Although not unique t the ecosystem services concept, the need to connect local to global scales throug bottom-up and top-down governance is paramount. +Database management and modeling capacity are increasingly important to suppor decision-making at multiple levels of scale. This capacity needs to be ‘fit for purpose (i.e., it needs to answer specific questions by decision-makers in a timely fashion), a well as contribute to the development of knowledge across scales (i.e., be relevan beyond the boundary of an individual decision-maker). Currently several tools ar available, each emphasizing particular strengths, such as the ability to: (1 communicate effectively with local stakeholders (e.g., Rapid Ecosystem Servic Assessments (RESA), Seasketch (McClintock et al., 2012); (2) illustrate spatial aspect (e.g., INVEST (Lester et al., 2012; White et al., 2012); and (3) consider scenarios an changes over time, e.g., Mediated Modeling at the scoping (van den Belt et al. 2012), research, and MIMES/MIDAS (Altman et al., 2014) at management levels Table 3 illustrates some tools with differing strengths and weaknesses. comprehensive overview of all tools is beyond the scope of this assessment. +Table 3. A subset of tools that can be included in an ecosystem services valuation ‘toolbox’. The tool range from crude conversation starters (e.g. RESA) to spatially dynamic decision support framework (e.g. MIMES). +Dimension | Rapid SeaSketch InVEST Mediated Modeling MIME Ecosyste Servic Assessmen (RESA Context | Social / Possible Yes Yes Yes Ye value Content | Spatial Limited Yes Yes No Ye Dynamic/ No No No Yes Ye change over tim Ecological Yes Yes Yes Yes Ye Economic Yes Limited Yes, where Yes, where benefits Yes, wher benefits are are not perceived benefits ar perceived not perceive Process | Adaptive Scoping Scoping Research Scoping Management +© 2016 United Nations +21 + +These tools draw on local ‘small data’ and global ‘big data’ to various extents. Eac case study has the potential to be used in education and add to the collectiv building of knowledge on ecosystem services. As discussed, multiple databases o ecosystem services and their values are already available (Appendix 1), many o which feature ecosystem-based management tools (e.g. http://ebmtoolsdatabase.org). Newly initiated local case studies, as well as th output from modelling tools and applications of TEEB-like processes, add to thi body of knowledge, and draw on ‘big data’ sets. Bringing together the variou databases, tools and knowledge gained from various applications is a top priority fo multiple stakeholders, such as policy makers, industry and non-governmenta organizations. The iMarine infrastructure is one example of an emergin "Community Cloud" platform which offers Virtual Research Environments tha integrate a broad range of data services with scientific data and advanced analysis Such scenarios then result in new datasets. This could be expanded to includ protocols for an ecosystem services approach. Figure 5 illustrates a connectio between: (1) ‘big data’, primarily spatial information relevant to the supply o ecosystem service and (2) ‘small data’, the transferable insights that can be gaine from local case studies. These data are brought together in (modeling) tools evolving (1) from scoping to management level and (2) from static to dynamic tools In the same way, but with a much more “bottom-up” and integrated emphasis, th European Marine Biodiversity Observation System (EMBOS: http://www.embos.eu/ offers the advantages of scale and expert identification of relevant organism (taxonomy). This holistic approach is important since marine biodiversity provide many ecosystem services. However, biodiversity is undergoing profound changes due to anthropogenic pressures, climatic warming and natural variation. Prope understanding of biodiversity patterns and ongoing changes is needed to asses consequences for ecosystem integrity, in order to be in a position to manage th natural resources. +SMALL DATA on human dimensions Socio-Cultural-Health-Economic: e.g. Botto up, participatory, community-based valu studies, original Total Economic Valuation Benefit Transfer tools: e.g studies, Surveys RESA, SERVES, TEEB, +NN SO InVest, Seasketc Data Bases: e.g. oN | +Ecosystem Servic Valuation Tool +BIG DATA, Specialized models, aggregate Scoping Models: e.g. socio-economic information: e.g. Remot ~+—___ Mediated Modeling sensing, Geographic Information Systems weather data, components of well-bein SMALL DATA on biophysica dimensions - new ecosyste knowledge relevant wit transferability potential Research/Managemen Models: e.g. MIMES +Figure 5. Evolution of ecosystem services knowledge. Adapted from van den Belt et al., 2013. +Appropriate application of an ecosystem services approach as an organizing principl in a consistent manner across multiple scales (space, time and values), require capacity development. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +3. Capacity-building and knowledge gaps +This section highlights knowledge gaps regarding the application of ecosyste services and discusses opportunities for capacity development. This concern ‘human capital’, often interpreted as the ‘ability to deal with complex societa challenges’. In the context of marine ecosystem services, this is reflected in th capacity to collect and use available data to make visible ‘the benefits that peopl derive from ecosystems’ relevant for effective decision-making at multiple scales This includes effective global policies and agreements, education and awarenes programmes. Assessing governance and institutional changes that are required a multiple scales is beyond the scope of this chapter, although it should be noted tha a feedback to this effect is included in all of the ecosystem services frameworks. +There is a gap in social sciences and economics’ ability to support ecosystem-base science. Application of an ecosystem services approach emphasizes the need fo human dimensions of well-being, bridging natural and social sciences. Suc integrative approach requires capability building in skills beyond existing disciplines Generic skills that are needed to work within an ES framework, include: technica (e.g. modellers) and specialists (including scientists in specific disciplines), integrator (to make links between the parts), translators (to change policy questions int assumptions) and interpreters (who can communicate complex issues in simpl terms). +The multi-scale and process-oriented aspects of an ecosystem services approac provide both a challenge and an opportunity for capacity development i understanding and capturing value regarding the supply of and demand fo ecosystem services. Table 4 attempts to relate the scale of the demand for an supply of ecosystem services with data gaps and capacity to interlink/disseminat data for decision-support. +Table 4. Gaps regarding data and ability to interlink data for decision-support at multiple scales coherent across marine and terrestrial systems. +Local National Globa Supply of Need = high resolution data and Need = mixed resolution Need = low resolutio ecosystem ability to interlink data for data and ability to interlink data and high ability t services decision-support in the short data for decision-support in interlink and disseminate +term. +Available = Mixed data an multiple tools; sufficient fo scoping purposes in develope countries. Insufficient fo management in develope countries. +Insufficient for scoping o management in developin countries. +the short and long term. +Available = Multipl databases often organize per country and multipl tools. +data for decision-suppor in the long term. +Available = Sufficien data for scoping insufficient ability t interlink. +© 2016 United Nations +23 + +Demand for Need = high ability for Need = ability for recognizing | Need = ability to suppor ecosystem recognizing market and non- market and supporting non- all sectors wit services market sectors in managing market sectors in managing understanding of globa tradeoffs. tradeoffs in the short and ecosystem services an long term. humanity’s long-term collective needs Available = Market-base information often available Available = market-base through the system of national information and some socio- | Available = market-base accounting. Non-market-based cultural information information and som information depends on local depending on country. socio-cultura governance and community information involvement Gap Matching data between supply Examples of ecosystem Shortage in some globa and demand of ecosystem services supply; demand-side | ecosystem services services and ability to lagging. Interconnections . . . . Interlinkages amon interconnect with regional/global | among ecosystem services global ecosystem service scales. and between local and global . elusive scales elusive. +The following are important capacity-development needs: +Data availability and resolution at different scales and geographic spread: Here th most important action item will be to map key areas, identify existing gaps and pu in place mechanisms for filling those gaps in a coordinated and strategic way. Fo example, in the developing world data gaps complicate even rapid ecosystem servic assessments at the scoping level. Although other areas have access to data fo scoping purposes, crucial knowledge is lacking to use such data through a ecosystem services approach for management purposes. +The ability to use data in an integrated manner, both for ‘trickling down’ accounting as well as for “trickling up” community empowerment and participatory purposes This is exacerbated by the severe lack of local empowerment and understanding o the ecosystem services concept and by the fact that it is a multi-factoral and trans regional, trans-national issue. This can be addressed by coordinated knowledg transfer and information exchange at the global level, for example, in coordinatio with IPBES. +Capabilities to undertake heuristic/participatory processes: Once again, this shoul be approached in a regional to global dimension, albeit for enhancement of specifi purposes at each level. Heuristics approaches to problem solving can be used in th domains of natural science and social science and refers to ‘operating under les than perfect circumstances to arrive at a way forward’. Perhaps most important wil be to encourage, facilitate, collate and promote understanding of regiona differences in valuation of ecosystem services according to culture and history. Th first step in capacity-building and filling in knowledge gaps will be to empower loca stakeholder communities and enable them to understand the impact that ecosyste services have on their lives and well-being. Empowerment and enablement are ke concepts in the social sciences and if we are to improve and develop an ecosyste services approach, it will be vital to equip communities, from the bottom up, t develop a stronger sense of ownership and responsibility for the protection and +© 2016 United Nations 24 + +sustainability of their local and global ecosystems and resultant services. However collectively, it is crucial for people to understand that ecosystem services do no respect national and international boundaries, necessitating an integrated approac and a trading off with adjacent regions. If not accomplished in a transparent manner this approach is likely to exacerbate regional conflicts. A simple example is the nee for an understanding of ecosystem life-processes by the community at large and th interdependence and cascading links between individual ecosystem services Furthermore, it is vital to understand how this varies region-to-region and culture-to culture. +Relevance and capacity for different regions, specifically for marine ecosyste services: +Human capacity-building (e.g. technology training/education) and the associate physical infrastructure (e.g., coastal marine laboratories and institutes, marin observatories/observations, oceanographic fleets, together with appropriate an robust technology/instrumentation) are important to understand marine biomes a natural capital. This is expensive infrastructure and it is often lacking or operating a a low level in developing countries. Marine research stations are scattere worldwide, are often long established, and can act as important focal points fo community-wide understanding and appreciation of marine/coastal ecosyste services. However, they lack capacity to recognize and value ecosystem services o use this approach as an organizing principle. Yet, these infrastructures have th potential to underpin the ecosystem services approach and facilitate gap-filling, e.g. by collecting data relevant to different sea-users and providing avenues to educat local communities. Improvement in these domains requires appropriate nationa policies in science and significant institutional strengthening. Education and trainin are vital to share best practices, data and experience and to create a truly globa approach. Good examples of the human capital that is available but is, as yet fragmented, in terms of supporting the development and understanding o ecosystem services, are the various networks of marine infrastructures exemplifie by MARS (http://www.marsnetwork.org) in Europe and NAM (http://www.naml.org/) in the USA, together with smaller Japanese and Australia counterparts. Recently a global initiative has been launched with the help of th Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, i.e., the World Association of Marin Stations (WAMS) (http://www.marsnetwork.org/world-association-marine-stations wams), with the mission to unite and integrate their strategies from training education, and outreach to best practice and shared research agendas. Ne initiatives emerging from the EMBRC consortium (http://www.embrc.eu) an Euromarine (www.euromarinenetwork.eu) are acting as vibrant platforms bringin together all actors in the marine sphere. An important development recentl available is The European Marine Training Portal (http://www.marinetraining.eu/) The European Marine Training portal is a centralized access point for education an training in the field of marine sciences. It will help European scientists, technician and other stakeholders to navigate in the jungle of courses and _ trainin opportunities. Marinetraining.eu offers a variety of services to both trainin organizers and trainees. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Databases and tools available to Marine Stations and Meteorological Centres nee to integrate and share data/tools/strategy. Time series are vital fo biological/chemical/physical/geological datasets. +As original local studies of ecosystem services are expensive, guidance is needed fo local stakeholders and decision-makers to progress from scoping to managemen tools. This includes a continuum of multiple discount rates relevant to the variou ecosystem services (TEEB, 2010a). The network of existing marine research station and institutes can play a central and coordinating role in providing relevan information and assist in preparation of options to consider bundles of ecosyste services. Many marine stations have historical data sets that, if properly digitized an shared, could help to fill gaps. Many are still locally collecting biogeochemical biophysical and biodiversity data and recording their changes. These are powerfu tools but tend to be restricted to local or regional databases. Although generally no private, they are often not widely known; this is where the United Nations Membe States could come together to identify all sources and repositories of knowledge an data and bring them together to benefit the global community. Indeed this is one o the key missions of WAMS, supported by UNESCO-IOC. Whereas this is wel recognized in Europe, North America and Australia, for example, an urgent nee exists to embrace and empower other less well-supported regions, including but no limited to Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the Polar regions. +4. Conclusion +Many fundamental Earth system processes are approaching or have crossed saf boundaries for their continued sustainability. Oceans play a crucial role in thes Earth systems. After two decades of development, the ecosystem services approac has made good progress in making more visible the benefits people derive fro ecosystems, which are often taken for granted. The ecosystem services approac outlined above provides an organizing methodology to assess and analyze the suppl of and demand for ecosystem services and to connect across multiple geographi and temporal scales. However, this chapter does not fully outline the necessar steps to determine the potential supply and tradeoffs of ecosystem services for region. The trans-disciplinary nature of an ecosystem services approach is comple and goes well beyond a mechanical application of both natural and social science including decision making. The definitions of ecosystem services are multiple an broad and leave room for interpretation. A strong application of the ecosyste services concept can have a transformational impact, shift paradigms and provid new organizing principles advancing sustainability. A weak application of thi concept may provide justification for business-as-usual. For example, a robust an strategic application has the potential to create a collaborative space to addres fundamental challenges facing humanity; a weak application may address scattere local challenges at best or justify undesirable outcomes at worst. +Establishing principles, approaches and consistent terminology and guidelines fo use of marine ecosystem services are needed. Linkages to people are often missin and more data and knowledge on attitudes, perceptions and beliefs of resource +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +users and resource dependents is key. Several networks (e.g., MEA, GEO-BON, IPBES TEEB, Lisbon Principles) have developed and are further developing such principle and guides. A significant development in Europe is EMBOS (http://www.embos.eu/) This has a focus on observation systems for marine biodiversity. This represents significant challenge since biodiversity varies over large scales of time and space, an requires research strategies beyond the tradition and capabilities of classic research Research that covers these scales requires a permanent international network o observation stations with an optimized and standardized methodology. In this way we recognize that it is increasingly important to develop ‘frameworks of frameworks and understand the underlying purpose and worldview of each contributin framework in order to unify instead of divide the potential support for an ecosyste services approach, especially for oceans. Developing overarching principles, creatin consistency in reporting, and generating relevant shared data and information, a well as the capacity to use such information, are creating an exciting opportunity fo the United Nations and its members. +The ecosystem services approach has the potential to support a variety o management frameworks, including Marine Spatial Planning and tools fo coordinating national and international sustainable marine resource management Marine laboratories and fleets provide much of the needed data and human capita to better understand the supply of ecosystem services. Opportunities to fill dat gaps exist (especially in developing countries), as well as developing capability t make available data suitable for use in ecosystem services approaches. Thes opportunities should be identified and acted upon with some urgency. +An increasing amount of spatial data/information is readily available/accessible However, global data are often too coarse in resolution to make accurate estimate for certain regions and the capacity to access and use global data is limited and ofte lacking in developing countries and even developed countries. In addition, local o fine resolution spatial data and information are often unavailable and expensive Also, nomenclatures and protocols should be standardized to enable meaningfu integration, comparison and shared analyses. +Perhaps the most important gap in knowledge is understanding and integration of a ecosystem services ethos. This can be remedied by initiating a global approach wit coordinated knowledge and education transfer amongst both developed an developing nations. Marine ecosystems exist regardless of the status of developmen of nations, but their integrity is certainly dependent on anthropogenic effects of al kinds under the influence of cultures around the globe. Thus, the ecosystem service approach must be multi-scalar in all facets. A thematic link with IPBES for ocean could address this. +Numerous methodologies have been developed to guide the ecosystem service approach; these range from scoping to highly advanced research and managemen approaches. Some methodologies provide static ‘snapshots,’ and others provide spatially dynamic framework highlighting inter-linkages between bundles o ecosystem services and their changes over time. +The top-down progression of the cascading model (Figure 4) reflects steps involve in scoping the provision and value of ecosystem services. Inclusive, participatory +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +approaches are important if we are to enhance ecosystem service models wit bottom-up considerations to incorporate non-market and monetary values. Th incorporation of local or bottom-up perspectives provides the opportunity to bette integrate the distribution of costs and benefits and thereby enhance the fairness o decision-making. +When a participatory, bottom-up approach to ecosystem service valuation is taken the ‘gap’ between ‘supply of’ and ‘demand for’ ecosystem services can mor accurately define and measure ‘value’; either there is an abundance, a sufficiency, o a shortage in time and space, applying both market and non-market perspectives Mapping such gaps and how they change over time and space can be used t identify ‘hotspots’ for prioritization of management actions at multiple scales Increasingly, marine ecosystem services are used in marine spatial planning (Whit et al., 2012; Altman et al., 2014). +It is important that the ecosystem services approach is used to influence beyond th immediate jurisdiction of those undertaking or sponsoring an ecosystem service assessment. Marine ecosystems function independently of national boundaries an Exclusive Economic Zones and so require an integrated global approach, if humanit wants to receive ecosystem services. When local biophysical data are not available more heuristic methods can still guide conversations among multiple stakeholders t consider options to govern, manage and sustain the ‘benefits people derive fro ecosystems’. +At a global level, assessment of slow-moving biophysical processes (e.g., climat regulation, ocean acidification) need to be interpreted in terms of ecosyste services for their relevance to and impact on bundles of local ecosystem service i case studies. +In order to facilitate and enable the use of an ecosystem services approach agreement on a global nomenclature and resulting classification would be useful However, such a classification ought to be flexible enough to allow for loca variability in applications. 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Annali di Botanica, 4, 53-63 Available: DOI 10.4462/annbotrm-11754. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_03.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_03.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_04.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_04.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..39a6a9024c4b64ca4011624dd27a807a39c46525 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_04.txt @@ -0,0 +1,268 @@ +Chapter 4. The Ocean’s Role in the Hydrological Cycle +Contributors: Deirdre Byrne and Carlos Garcia-Soto (Convenors), Gordon Hamilton Eric Leuliette, LisanYu, Edmo Campos, Paul J. Durack, Giuseppe M.R. Manzella Kazuaki Tadokoro, Raymond W. Schmitt, Phillip Arkin, Harry Bryden, Leonard Nurse John Milliman, Lorna Inniss (Lead Member), Patricio Bernal (Co-Lead Member) +1. The interactions between the seawater and freshwater segments of th hydrological cycle +The global ocean covers 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface, and contains 97 per cent o all the surface water on Earth (Costello et al., 2010). Freshwater fluxes into the ocea include: direct runoff from continental rivers and lakes; seepage from groundwater runoff, submarine melting and iceberg calving from the polar ice sheets; melting of se ice; and direct precipitation that is mostly rainfall but also includes snowfall Evaporation removes freshwater from the ocean. Of these processes, evaporation precipitation and runoff are the most significant at the present time. +Using current best estimates, 85 per cent of surface evaporation and 77 per cent o surface rainfall occur over the oceans (Trenberth et al., 2007; Schanze et al., 2010) Consequently, the ocean dominates the global hydrological cycle. Water leaving th ocean by evaporation condenses in the atmosphere and falls as precipitation completing the cycle. Hydrological processes can also vary in time, and these tempora variations can manifest themselves as changes in global sea level if the net freshwate content of the ocean is altered. +Precipitation results from the condensation of atmospheric water vapour, and is th single largest source of freshwater entering the ocean (~530,000 km?/yr). The source o water vapour is surface evaporation, which has a maximum over the subtropical ocean in the trade wind regions (Yu, 2007). The equatorward trade winds carry the wate vapour evaporated in the subtropics to the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) nea the equator, where the intense surface heating by the sun causes the warm moist air t rise, producing frequent convective thunderstorms and copious rain (Xie and Arkin 1997). The high rainfall and the high temperature support and affect life in the tropica rainforest (Malhi and Wright, 2011). +Evaporation is enhanced as global mean temperature rises (Yu, 2007). The water holding capacity of the atmosphere increases by 7 per cent for every degree Celsius o warming, as per the Clausius-Clapeyron relationship. The increased atmospheri moisture content causes precipitation events to change in intensity, frequency, an duration (Trenberth, 1999) and causes the global precipitation to increase by 2-3 pe cent for every degree Celsius of warming (Held and Soden, 2006). +© 2016 United Nations + +Direct runoff from the continents supplies about 40,000 km?/yr of freshwater to th ocean. Runoff is the sum of all upstream sources of water, including continenta precipitation, fluxes from lakes and aquifers, seasonal snow melt, and melting o mountain glaciers and ice caps. River discharge also carries a tremendous amount o solid sediments and dissolved nutrients to the continental shelves. +The polar ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are the largest reservoirs of freshwate on the planet, holding 7 m and 58 m of the sea-level equivalent, respectively (Vaugha et al., 2013). The net growth or shrinkage of such an ice sheet is a balance between th net accumulation of snow at the surface, the loss from meltwater runoff, and th calving of icebergs and submarine melting at tidewater margins, collectively known a marine ice loss. There is some debate about the relative importance of these in the cas of Greenland. Van den Broeke et al. (2009), show the volume transport to the ocean i almost evenly split between runoff of surface meltwater and marine ice loss. In a mor recent work, Box and Colgan (2013) estimate marine ice loss at about twice the volum of meltwater (see Figure 5 in that article), with both marine ice loss and particularl runoff increasing rapidly since the late 1990s. According to the Arctic Monitoring an Assessment Programme (AMAP, 2011), the annual mass of freshwater being added a the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet (the surface mass balance) has decreased sinc 1990. Model reconstructions suggest a 40% decrease from 350 Gt/y (1970 - 2000) t 200 Gt/y in 2007. Accelerating ice discharge from outlet glaciers since 1995 - 2002 i widespread and has gradually moved further northward along the west coast o Greenland with global warming. According to AMAP (2011), the ice discharge ha increased from the pre-1990 value of 300 Gt/y to 400 Gt/y in 2005. +Antarctica’s climate is much colder, hence surface meltwater contributions ar negligible and mass loss is dominated by submarine melting and ice flow across th grounding line where this ice meets the ocean floor (Rignot and Thomas, 2002) Freshwater fluxes from ice sheets differ from continental river runoff in two importan respects. First, large fractions of both Antarctic ice sheets are grounded well below se level in deep fjords or continental shelf embayments; therefore freshwater is injecte not at the surface of the ocean but at several hundred meters water depth. This dee injection of freshwater enhances ocean stratification which, in turn, plays a role i ecosystem structure. Second, unlike rivers, which act as a point source for freshwate entering the ocean, icebergs calved at the grounding line constitute a distributed sourc of freshwater as they drift and melt in adjacent ocean basins (Bigg et al., 1997; Enderli and Hamilton, 2014). +Sea ice is one of the smallest reservoirs of freshwater by volume, but it exhibit enormous seasonal variability in spatial extent as it waxes and wanes over the pola oceans. By acting as a rigid cap, sea ice modulates the fluxes of heat, moisture an momentum between the atmosphere and the ocean. Summertime melting of Arctic se ice is an important source of freshwater flux into the North Atlantic, and episodes o enhanced sea ice export to warmer latitudes farther south give rise to rapid freshenin episodes, such as the Great Salinity Anomaly of the late 1960s (Gelderloos et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations + +The spatial distributions of these freshwater fluxes drive important patterns in regiona and global ocean circulation, which are discussed in Chapter 5. +The Southern Ocean (defined as all ocean area south of 60°S) deserves special mentio due to its role in the storage of heat (and carbon) for the entire planet. The Antarcti Circumpolar Current (ACC) connects the three major southern ocean basins (Sout Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian) and is the largest current by volume in the world. Th ACC flows eastward, circling the globe in a clockwise direction as viewed from the Sout Pole. In addition to providing a lateral connection between the major ocean basin (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific), the Southern Ocean also connects the shallow and deep part of the ocean through a mechanism known as the meridional overturning circulatio (MOC) (Gordon, 1986; Schmitz, 1996, see Figures I-90 and I-91). Because of its capacit to bring deep water closer to the surface, and surface water to depths, the Souther Ocean forms an important pathway in the global transport of heat. Although there is n observational evidence at present, (WG II AR5, 30.3.1, Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014) mode studies indicate with a high degree of confidence that the Southern Ocean will becom more stratified, weakening the surface-to-bottom connection that is the hallmark o present-day Southern Ocean circulation (WG | ARS 12.7.4.3, Collins et al., 2013). similar change is anticipated in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas (WG | AR5 12.7.4.3 Collins et al., 2013), another region with this type of vertical connection between ocea levels (Wust, 1928). These changes will result in fresher, warmer surface ocean water in the polar and subpolar regions (WGII ARS 30.3.1, Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014; WG | AR 12.7.4.3, Collins et al., 2013), significantly altering their chemistry and ecosystems. +Imbalances in the freshwater cycle manifest themselves as changes in global sea level Changes in global mean sea level are largely caused by a combination of changes i ocean heat content and exchanges of freshwater between the ocean and continents When water is added to the ocean, global sea level adjusts, rapidly resulting in relatively uniform spatial pattern for the seasonal ocean mass balance, as compared t the seasonal steric signal, which has very large regional amplitudes (Chambers, 2006) ‘Steric’ refers to density changes in seawater due to changes in heat content an salinity. On annual scales, the maximum exchange of freshwater from land to ocea occurs in the late Northern Hemisphere summer, and therefore the seasonal ocea mass signal is in phase with total sea level with an amplitude of about 7 mm (Chamber et al., 2004). Because most of the ocean is in the Southern Hemisphere, the seasona maximum in the steric component occurs in the late Southern Hemisphere summer when heat storage in the majority of the ocean peaks (Leuliette and Willis, 2011) Because globally averaged sea level variations due to heat content changes largel cancel out between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the size of the steri signal, globally averaged, is only 4mm. +Globally averaged sea level has risen at 3.2 mm/yr for the past two decades (Church e al., 2011), of which about a third comes from thermal expansion. The remainder is du to fluxes of freshwater from the continents, which have increased as the melting o continental glaciers and ice sheets responds to higher temperatures. Multi-decada fluctuations in equatorial and mid-latitude winds (Merrifield et al., 2012; Moon et al., +© 2016 United Nations + +2013) cause regional patterns in sea-level trends which are reflected in the E Nifio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) indices in th Pacific (Merrifield et al., 2012; Zhang and Church, 2012) and northern Australia (Whit et al., 2014). Interannual changes in global mean sea level relative to the observed tren are largely linked to exchanges of water with the continents due to changes i precipitation patterns associated largely with the ENSO; this includes a drop of 5 m during 2010-11 and rapid rebound in 2012-13 (Boening et al., 2012; Fasullo et al., 2013). +Some key alterations are anticipated in the hydrological cycle due to global warming an climate change. Changes that have been identified include shifts in the seasona distribution and amount of precipitation, an increase in extreme precipitation events changes in the balance between snow and rain, accelerated melting of glacial ice, and o course sea-level rise. Although a global phenomenon, it is the impact of sea-level ris along the world’s coastlines that has major societal implications. The impacts of thes changes are discussed in the next Section. +Changes in the rates of freshwater exchange between the ocean, atmosphere an continents have additional significant impacts. For example, spatial variations in th distribution of evaporation and precipitation create gradients in salinity and heat that i turn drive ocean circulation; ocean freshening also affects ecosystem structure. Thes aspects and their impacts are discussed in Sections 3 and 4. +Another factor potentially contributing to regional changes in the hydrological cycle ar changes in ocean surface currents. For example, the warm surface temperatures of th large surface currents flowing at the western boundaries of the ocean basins (th Agulhas, Brazil, East Australian, Gulf Stream, and Kuroshio Currents) provide significan amounts of heat and moisture to the atmosphere, with a profound impact on th regional hydrological cycle (e.g., Rouault et al., 2002). Ocean surface currents like thes are forced by atmospheric winds and sensitive to changes in them - stronger winds ca mean stronger currents and an intensification of their effects (WGII AR5 30.3.1, Hoegh Guldberg, 2014), as well as faster evaporation rates. Shifts in the location of winds ca also alter these currents, for example causing the transport of anomalously war waters (e.g., Rouault, 2009). However, despite a well-documented increase in globa wind speeds in the 1990s (Yu, 2007), the overall effect of climate change on winds i complex, and difficult to differentiate observationally from decadal-scale variability, an thus the ultimate effects of these currents on the hydrological cycle are difficult t predict with any high degree of confidence (WGIl ARS 30.3.1, Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014). +2. Environmental, economic and social implications of ocean warming +As a consequence of changes in the hydrological cycle, increases in runoff, flooding, an sea-level rise are expected, and their potential impacts on society and natura environment are among the most serious issues confronting humankind, according t the Fifth Assessment Report (ARS) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on +© 2016 United Nations + +Climate Change (IPCC). This report indicates that it is very likely that extreme sea level have increased globally since the 1970s, mainly as a result of global mean sea-level ris due in part to anthropogenic warming causing ocean thermal expansion and glacie melting (WGI ARS 3.7.5, 3.7.6; WGI ARS 10.4.3). In addition, local sea-level changes ar also influenced by several natural factors, such as regional variability in oceanic an atmospheric circulation, subsidence, isostatic adjustment, and coastal erosion, amon others; combined with human perturbations by land-use change and coasta development (WGI AR5 5.3.2). A 4°C warming by 2100 (Betts et al., 2011; predicted b the high-end emissions scenario RPC8.5 in WGI AR5 FAQ12.1) leads to a median sea level rise of nearly 1 m above 1980-1999 levels (Schaeffer et al., 2012). +The vulnerability of human systems to sea-level rise is strongly influenced by economic social, political, environmental, institutional and cultural factors; such factors in turn wil vary significantly in each specific region of the world, making quantification challenging task (Nicholls et al., 2007; 2009; Mimura, 2013). Three classes o vulnerability are identified: (i) early impacts (low-lying island states, e.g., Kiribati Maldives, Tuvalu, etc.); (ii) physically and economically vulnerable coastal communitie (e.g., Bangladesh); and (iii) physically vulnerable but economically "rich" coasta communities (e.g., Sydney, New York). Table 1 outlines the main effects of relative sea level rise on the natural system and provides examples of socio-economic syste adaptations. +It is widely accepted that relative trends in sea-level rise pose a significant threat t coastal systems and low-lying areas around the world, due to inundation and erosion o coastlines and contamination of freshwater reserves and food crops (Nicholls, 2010); i is also likely that sea-level effects will be most pronounced during extreme episodes such as coastal flooding arising from severe storm-induced surges, wave overtoppin and rainfall runoff, and increases in sea level during ENSO events. An increase in globa temperature of 4°C is anticipated to have significant socio-economic effects as sea-leve rise, in combination with increasingly frequent severe storms, will displace population (Field et al., 2012). These processes will also place pressure on existing freshwate resources through saltwater contamination (Nicholls and Cazenave, 2010). Figure outlines in more detail the effects of sea-level rise on water resources of low-lyin coastal areas. +Small island countries, such as Kiribati, Maldives and Tuvalu, are particularly vulnerable Beyond this, entire identifiable coherent communities also face risk (e.g., Torres Strai Islanders; Green, 2006). These populations have nowhere to retreat to within thei country and thus have no alternative other than to abandon their country entirely. Th low level of economic activity also makes it difficult for these communities to bear th costs of adaptation. A shortage of data and local expertise required to assess risk related to sea-level rise further complicate their situation. Indeed the response of th island structure to sea-level rise is likely to be complex (Webb and Kench, 2010) Traditional customs are likely to be at risk and poorly understood by outside agencies Yet traditional knowledge is an additional resource that may aid adaptation in suc settings and should be carefully evaluated within adaptation planning. A significant part +© 2016 United Nations + +of the economy of many island nations is based on tourism; this too will be affected b sea-level rise through its direct effects on infrastructure and possibly also indirectly b the reduced availability of financial resources in the market (Scott et al., 2012). +Coastal regions, particularly some low-lying river deltas, have very high populatio densities. It is estimated that over 150 million people live within 1 metre of the high-tid level, and 250 million within 5 metres of high tide. Because of these high populatio densities (often combined with a lack of long-range urban planning), coastal cities i developing regions are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise in concert with othe effects of climate change (World Bank, 2012). +Table 1. The main effects of relative sea-level rise on the natural system, interacting factors, and example of socio-economic system adaptations. Some interacting factors (for example, sediment supply) appea twice as they can be influenced both by climate and non-climate factors. Adaptation strategies: P Protection; A = Accommodation; R = Retreat. Source: based on Nicholls and Tol, 2006. +Natural System Effects Interacting Factors Socio-economic System Adaptations Climate Noe-climat 1. Inundation, a. Surge (sea) —wave/stormclimate | — sediment supply — dykes /surge barriers [P flood and storm — erosion —ficodmanagement | — building codes/floodwise buildings [A damage — sediment supply — erosion — land use planning/hazard delineation [A/R — land us b. Backwater effect runoff catchmen (rwer) man land us 2. Wetland loss (and change) CO, fertilization sediment supply land-use planning [A/R — sediment supply — migration space —Mmarniaged realignnent/forbid hard defence direct destruction nourishment/sediment managemen 3. Erosion (direct and indirect sediment supply sediment supply coast defences [P morphological change) —wave/stormclimate — nourishmen — building setbacks [R 4. Saltwater a. Surface Waters runoff catchment Saltwater intrusion barrier Intrusion management — change water abstraction [A/ land us b. Ground-water — rainfall — land use — freshwater injection [P — aquifer use — change water abstraction [A/R 5. Rising water tables/ impeded draii — rainfall — land use -u le drai system " wee — nun-off — aquifer use ~ pole ( mee — catchment — change land use [A management — land use planning/hazard delineation WR ) +Effects of sea-level rise are projected to be asymmetrical even within regions an countries. Nicholls and Tol (2006), extending the global vulnerability analysis o Hoozemans et al. (1993) on the impacts of and responses to sea-level rise with stor surges over the 21% century, show East Africa (including small island States an countries with extensive coastal deltas) as one of the problematic regions that coul experience major land loss. Dasgupta et al. (2009) undertook a comparative study o the impacts of sea-level rise with intensified storm surges on developing countrie globally in terms of its impacts on land area, population, agriculture, urban extent, +© 2016 United Nations + +major cities, wetlands, and local economies. They based their work on a 10 per cen future intensification of storm surges with respect to current 1-in-100-year storm-surg predictions. They found that Sub-Saharan African countries will suffer considerably fro the impacts. The study estimated that Mozambique, along with Madagascar, Mauritani and Nigeria account for more than half (9,600 km’) of the total increase in the region’ storm-surge zones. +Of the impacts projected for 31 developing countries, just ten cities account for two thirds of the total exposure to extreme floods. Highly vulnerable cities are found i Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Mozambique, the Philippines Venezuela and Viet Nam (Brecht et al., 2012). Because of the small population of smal islands and potential problems with implementing adaptations, Nicholls et al. (2011 conclude that forced abandonment of these islands seems to be a possible outcom even for small changes in sea level. Similarly, Barnett and Adger (2003) point out tha physical impact might breach a threshold that pushes social systems into complet abandonment, as institutions that could facilitate adaptation collapse. += +Figure 1. Effects of sea-level rise on water resources of small islands and low-lying coastal areas. Source Based on Oude Essink et al. (1993); Hay and Mimura (2006). +© 2016 United Nations + +Impacts of climate change on the hydrological cycle, and notably on the availability o freshwater resources, have been observed on all continents and many islands. Glacier continue to shrink worldwide, affecting runoff and water resources downstream. Figur 2 shows the changes anticipated by the late 21st century in water runoff into rivers an streams. Climate change is the main driver of permafrost warming and thawing in bot high-latitude and high-elevation mountain regions (IPCC WGIIl AR518.3.1, 18.5). Thi thawing has negative implications for the stability of infrastructure in areas now covere with permafrost. +Projected heat extremes and changes in the hydrological cycle will in turn affec ecosystems and agriculture (World Bank, 2012). Tropical and subtropical ecoregions i Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to ecosystem damage (Beaumont et al. 2011). For example, with global warming of 4°C (predicted by the high-end emission scenario RPC8.5 in WGI ARS FAQ 12.1), between 25 per cent and 42 per cent of 5,19 African plant species studied are projected to lose all their suitable range by 208 (Midgley and Thuiller, 2011). Ecosystem damage would have the follow-on effect o reducing the ecosystem services available to human populations. +The Mediterranean basin is another area that has received a lot of attention in regard t the potential impacts of climate change on it. Several modelling groups are taking par in the MedCORDEX (www.medcordex.eu) international effort, in order to bette simulate the Mediterranean hydrological cycle, to improve the modelling tools available and to produce new climate impact scenarios. Hydrological model schemes must b improved to meet the specific requirements of semi-arid climates, accounting i particular for the related seasonal soil water dynamics and the complex surface subsurface interactions in such regions (European Climate Research Alliance, 2011). +Even the most economically resilient of States will be affected by sea-level rise, a adaptation measures will need to keep pace with ongoing sea-level rise (Kates et al. 2012). As a consequence, the impacts of sea-level rise will also be redistributed throug the global economic markets as insurance rates increase or become unviable and thes costs are passed on to other sectors of the economy (Abel et al., 2011). +© 2016 United Nations + +Change in Runoff (percent) +-40 -20 0 20 40 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Changes in water runoff into rivers and streams are another anticipated consequence of climat change by the late 21st Century. This map shows predicted increases in runoff in blue, and decreases i brown and red. (Map by Robert Simmon, using data from Milly et al., 2005; Graham et al., 2010; NAS Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.) +3. Chemical composition of seawater +3.1 Salinity +Surface salinity integrates the signals of freshwater sources and sinks for the ocean, an if long-term (decadal to centennial) changes in salinity are considered, this provides way to investigate associated changes in the hydrological cycle. Many studies hav assessed changes to ocean salinity over the long term; of these, four have considere changes on a global scale from the near-surface to the sub-surface ocean (Boyer et al. 2005; Hosoda et al., 2009; Durack and Wijffels, 2010; Good et al., 2013). These studie independently concluded that alongside broad-scale ocean warming associated wit climate change, shifts in ocean salinities have also occurred. These shifts, which ar calculated using methods such as objective analysis from the sparse historical observin system, suggest that at the surface, high-salinity subtropical ocean regions and th entire Atlantic basin have become more saline, and low-salinity regions, such as th western Pacific Warm Pool, and high-latitude regions have become even fresher ove the period of analysis (Figure 3). Significant regional-scale differences may be ascribe to the paucity of observational data, particularly in the pre-Argo era, the difference i temporal period over which each analysis was conducted, and differences i methodology and data selection criteria. +© 2016 United Nations + +Despite regional differences, the broad-scale patterns of change suggest that long-term coherent changes in salinity have occurred over the observed record, and thi conclusion is also supported by shifts in salinity apparent in the subsurface ocea (Figure 4). These subsurface changes also show that spatial gradients of salinity withi the ocean interior have intensified, and that at depth, salinity-minimum (intermediate waters have become fresher, and salinity-maximum waters have become saltier (Durac and Wijffels, 2010; Helm et al., 2010; Skliris et al., 2014). Taken together, this evidenc suggests intensification of the global hydrological cycle; this is consistent with what i expected from global warming (see Section 1). Actual changes in the hydrological cycl may be even more intense than indicated by patterns of surface salinity anomalies, a these may be spread out and reduced in intensity by being transported (advected) b ocean currents. For example, the work of Hosoda et al. (2009) and Nagano et al. (2014 indicates that large (ENSO-scale) salinity anomalies are rapidly transported from th central Pacific to the northwestern North Pacific (the Kuroshio Extension region). +Latitude +Latitude +0 60E 120E 180 120W 60w 00 60E 120E 180 120W 6ow Longitude Longitude +-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. Four long-term estimates of global sea-surface salinity (SSS) change according to (A) Durac and Wijffels (2010; OAmerican Meteorological Society. Used with permission.), analysis period 1950 2008; (B) Boyer et al. (2005), analysis period 1955-1998; (C) Hosoda et al. (2009), analysis perio 1975-2005; and (D) Good et al. (2013), analysis period 1950-2012; all are scaled to represen equivalent magnitude changes over a 50-year period (PSS-78 50-year"). Black contours show th associated climatological mean SSS for the analysis period. Broad-scale similarities exist betwee each independent analysis of long-term change, and suggest an increase in spatial gradients o salinity has occurred over the period of analysis. However, regional-scale differences are due t differences in data sources, temporal periods of analysis, and analytical methodologies. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Q 1500 rer |A Dwi0 B Bo 70S 50S 30S 10S 10N 30N 50N 70N 70S 50S 30S 10S 10N 30N 50N 70N 70S 50S 30S 10S 10N 30N 50N 70 Latitude Latitude Latitud -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Three long-term estimates of global zonal mean subsurface salinity changes according to (A Durack and Wijffels (2010; OAmerican Meteorological Society. Used with permission.), analysi period 1950-2008; (B) Boyer et al. (2005), analysis period 1955-1998; and (C) Good et al (2013),analysis period 1950-2012; all scaled to represent equivalent magnitude changes over a 50 year period (PSS-78 50-year"). Black contours show the associated climatological mean subsurfac salinity for the analysis period. Broad-scale similarities also exist in the subsurface salinity changes which suggest a decreasing salinity in ocean waters fresher than the global average, and an increasin salinity in waters saltier than the global average. However, regional differences, particularly in th high-latitude regions, are due to limited data sources, different temporal periods of analysis an different analytical methodologies. +3.2 Nutrients +Many different nutrients are required as essential chemical elements that organism need to survive and reproduce in the ocean. Macronutrients, needed in large quantities include calcium, carbon, nitrogen, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, silicon an sulphur; micronutrients like iron, copper and zinc are needed in lesser quantities (Smit and Smith, 1998). Macronutrients provide the bulk energy for an organism's metaboli system to function, and micronutrients provide the necessary co-factors for metabolis to be carried out. In aquatic systems, nitrogen and phosphorus are the two nutrient that most commonly limit the maximum biomass, or growth, of algae and aquatic plant (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Environment Monitorin System (GEMS) Water Programme, 2008). Nitrate is the most common form of nitroge and phosphate is the most common form of phosphorus found in natural waters. On th other hand, one of arguably the most important groups of marine phytoplankton is th diatom. Recent studies, for example, Brzezinski et al., (2011), show that marine diatom are significantly limited by iron and silicic acid. +About 40 per cent of the world’s population lives within a narrow fringe of coastal lan (about 7.6 per cent of the Earth’s total land area; United Nations Environmen Programme, 2006). Land-based activities are the dominant source of marine nutrients, +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +especially for fixed nitrogen, and include: agricultural runoff (fertilizer), atmospheri releases from fossil-fuel combustion, and, to a lesser extent, from agricultural fertilizers manure, sewage and industrial discharges (Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects o Marine Environmental Protection, 2001; Figure 5). +An imbalance in the nutrient input and uptake of an aquatic ecosystem changes it structure and functions (e.g., Arrigo, 2005). Excessive nutrient input can seriousl impact the productivity and biodiversity of a marine area (e.g., Tilman et al., 2001) conversely, a large reduction in natural inputs of nutrients (caused by, e.g., dammin rivers) can also adversely affect the productivity of coastal waters. Nutrient enrichmen between 1960-1980 in the developed regions of Europe, North America, Asia an Oceania has resulted in major changes in adjacent coastal ecosystems. +Nitrogen flow into the ocean is a good illustration of the magnitude of changes i anthropogenic nutrient inputs since the industrial revolution. These flows hav increased 15-fold in North Sea watersheds, 11-fold in the North Eastern USA, 10-fold i the Yellow River basin, 5.7-fold in the Mississippi River basin, 5-fold in the Baltic Se watersheds, 4.1-fold in the Great Lakes/St Lawrence River basin, and 3.7-fold in South Western Europe (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). It is expected that globa nitrogen exports by rivers to the oceans will continue to rise. Projections for 2030 sho an increase of 14 per cent compared to 1995. By 2030, global nitrogen exports by river are projected to be 49.7 Tg/yr; natural sources will contribute 57 per cent of the total agriculture 34 per cent, and sewage 9 per cent (Bouwman et al., 2005). An example o this is discussed in Box 1. +Box 1: Example — Nutrients in the Pacific region +The Pacific Ocean basins form the largest of the mid-latitude oceans. In addition, th subarctic North Pacific Ocean is one of the most nutrient-rich areas of the worl ocean; in 2013, the most recent year for which statistics have been compiled, th North Pacific (north of 40° N) provided 30% of the world's capture, by weight, o ocean fish (FAO, 2015). Many oceanographic experiments have been carried ou over the last half century in the North Pacific Ocean; studies based on these dataset reveal the decadal-scale variation of nutrient concentrations in the surface an subsurface (intermediate) layers, as seen in Figure 6. +A linearly increasing trend of nutrient concentrations (nitrate and phosphate) ha been observed in the intermediate waters in a broad area of the North Pacifi (Figure 6b); Ono et al., 2001; Watanabe et al., 2003; 2008; Tadokoro et al., 2009 Guo et al., 2012; Whitney et al., 2013). Conversely, the concentration of nutrients i the surface layer has decreased (Figure 6a; Freeland, 1997; Ono et al., 2002; 2008 Watanabe et al., 2005; 2008; Aoyama et al., 2008, Tadokoro et al., 2009; Whitney, +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +2011). Surface nutrients are primarily supplied by the subsurface ocean through process known as "vertical mixing", an exchange between surface and subsurfac waters. Vertical mixing is partly dependent on the differences in density betwee adjacent ocean layers: layers closer to one another in density mix more easily. +A significant increase in temperature and a corresponding decrease in salinity (se above) have been observed during the last half-century in the upper layer of th North Pacific (IPCC, 2013, WG1 ARS). These changes are in the direction o increased stratification in the upper ocean and thus it is possible that this increase stratification has caused a corresponding decrease in the vertical mixing rate. +Superimposed on the linear trends, nutrient concentrations in the ocean have als exhibited decadal-scale variability, which is evident in both surface and subsurfac waters (Figure 6c). Unlike the linear trends, the decadal-scale variability appeare synchronized between the surface and subsurface layers in the western Nort Pacific (Tadokoro et al., 2009). These relationships suggest that the mechanism producing the trends and more cyclical variability are different. +4. Environmental, economic and social implications of changes in salinity an nutrient content +4.1 Salinity +Although changes to ocean salinity do not directly affect humanity, changes in th hydrological cycle that are recorded in the changing patterns of ocean salinity certainl do. Due to the scarcity of hydrological cycle observations over the ocean, and th uncertainties associated with these measurements, numerous studies have linke salinity changes to the global hydrological cycle by using climate models (Durack et al. 2012; 2013; Terray et al., 2012) or reanalysis products (Skliris et al., 2014). However these studies only considered long-term salinity changes, and not changes that occur o interannual to decadal time-scales. These latter scales are strongly affected by climati variability (Yu, 2011; Vinogradova and Ponte, 2013). As mentioned in Section 3, thes studies collectively conclude that changes to the patterns of ocean salinity are likely du to the intensification of the hydrological cycle, in particular patterns of evaporation an rainfall at the ocean surface. This result concurs well with the “rich-get-richer mechanism proposed in earlier studies, suggesting that terrestrial “dry” zones wil become dryer and terrestrial “wet” zones will become wetter due to ongoing climat change (Chou and Neelin, 2004; Held and Soden, 2006). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +4.2 Nutrients +Marine environments are unsteady systems, whose response to climate-induced o anthropogenic changes is difficult to predict. As a result, no published studies quantif long-term trends in ocean nutrient concentrations. However, it is well understood tha imbalances in nutrient concentration cause widespread changes in the structure an functioning of ecosystems, which, in turn, have generally negative impacts on habitats food webs and species diversity, including economically important ones; such advers effects include: general degradation of habitats, destruction of coral reefs and sea-gras beds; alteration of marine food-webs, including damage to larval or other life stages mass mortality of wild and/or farmed fish and shellfish, and of mammals, seabirds an other organisms. +Among the effects of nutrient inputs into the marine environment it is important t mention the link with marine pH. The production of excess algae from increase nutrients has the effect, inter alia, to release CO2 from decaying organic matter derivin from eutrophication (Hutchins et al., 2009; Sunda and Cai, 2012). The effects of thes acidification processes, combined with those deriving from increasing atmospheric CO2 can reduce the time available to coastal managers to adopt approaches to avoid o minimize harmful effects on critical ecosystem services, such as fisheries and tourism Globally, the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers has continued to increase (Galloway e al., 2008) accompanied by increasing eutrophication of coastal waters and degradatio of coastal ecosystems (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Seitzinger et al., 2010; Kim et al. 2011), and amplification of CO2 drawdown (Borges and Gypens, 2010; Provoost et al. 2010). In addition, atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic fixed nitrogen may no account for up to about 3 per cent of oceanic new production, and this nutrient sourc is projected to increase (Duce et al., 2008). +Figure 5 (a 80 0.3 70 0.2 60 0.2 50 0.2 40 0.2 30 0.1 20 0.1 10 0.1 0 0.12 +1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 +Figure 5 (b) +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +250 2020 +1989-199 200 1959-1960 + oO = 15 g ® 2 10 S = +50 +World Sub-Saharan Latin West Asia South East Developing Develope total Africa America North Africa Asia Asia countries countries +Figure 5 (a) Trends in annual rates of application of nitrogenous fertilizer (N) expressed as mass of N and of phosphate fertilizer (P) expressed as mass of P2Os, for all States of the world except for man of the countries belonging to the United Nations regional group of Eastern European States and th former USSR (scale on the left in 10° metric tons), and trends in global total area of irrigated crop lan (H20) (scale on the right in 109 hectares ). Source: Tilman et al., 2001. Figure 5 (b) Estimated growt in fertilizer use, 1960-2020. From GESAMP (2001). Source: Bumb and Baanante, 1996. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +a +/ +L f Geanteeennon tects 2 ayes 43 +!"East China Sea 7, e kutoshio-Oyashio Central North Pacific 2.3 ~ ~Kuroshio-Oyashio Transitio transition water 5 OF pr a-~ 6 os cy +@ sxv0pca waters +@rvcpica water +Gulf of Alaska 8 +este Noah Pace @oyastios, 8 10 _— Year(+1900 © (cerccti.0yea— Cenal Noth Paci 8 _— : \ transition water 5 — — — +. _ +\ _ +sa of Japan 10, +60_78~ 80 90 100 “110 60 7080 90 100 110 +7 +East China Sea 1) +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 6. Synthesis of the decadal-scale change in nutrient concentrations in the North Pacific Ocea in the last fifty years. (a) The blue area shows the waters for which a decreasing trend in nutrien concentrations was reported in the surface layer. (b) The pink area shows the waters for which a increasing trend in nutrient concentrations was reported in the subsurface. (c) Example of th nutrient change in the North Pacific Ocean. Five-year running mean of the annual mea concentration (mmol m?) of Phosphate concentration in the surface and North Pacific Intermediat Water (NPIW) of the Oyashio and Kuroshio-Oyashio transition waters from the mid-1950s to earl 2010. (Time series from Tadokoro et al., 2009). Blue broken lines indicate statistically significan trends of PO,. Thin green broken lines represent the index of diurnal tidal strength represented b the sine curve of the 18.6-yr cycle.’ The numbers following each area name indicate the reference literature: (1) Freeland et al., (1997); (2) Ono et al., (2008); (3) Whitney (2011); (4) Ono et al., (2002) (5) Tadokoro et al., (2009); (6) Watanabe et al., (2005); (7) Aoyama et al., (2008); (8) Watanabe et al. 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(2013) Nutrient enrichment of the subarcti Pacific Ocean pycnocline, Geophysical Research Letters, 40, 2200-2205 doi:10.1002/grl.50439. +World Bank. (2012). Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4 °C Warmer World must be Avoide (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics) http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Full_Report_V |_2_Turn_Down_The_Heat_%20Climate_Extremes_Regional_Impacts_Case_for Resilience_Print%20version_FINAL.pdf, last accessed on 2014-07-18. +Wist, G. (1928). Der Ursprung der Atlantischen Tiefenwassar. Jubilaums’ Sonderband Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. +Xie, P., and Arkin, P.A. (1997). Global precipitation: A 17-year monthly analysis based o gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs. Bulletin o the American Meteorological Society, 78(11), 2539-2558. +Yu, L., (2007). Global variations in oceanic evaporation (1958-2005): The role of th changing wind speed. Journal of Climate, 20(21), 5376-90. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Yu, L. (2011). A global relationship between the ocean water cycle and near-surfac salinity. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116 (C10), C10025. doi 10.1029/2010JC006937 +Zhang, X., and J.A. Church, (2012). Sea level trends, interannual and decadal variability i the Pacific Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(21), L21701 doi:10.1029/2012GL053240. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_04.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_04.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_05.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_05.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6171a34c726e39b7d9d29bd1bb5d3bd42dcc982d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_05.txt @@ -0,0 +1,274 @@ +Chapter 5. Sea-Air Interactions +Contributors: Jeremy T. Mathis (Convenor), Jose Santos, Renzo Mosetti Alberto Mavume, Craig Stevens, Regina Rodrigues, Alberto Piola, Chris Reason Patricio A. Bernal (Co-Lead member), Lorna Inniss (Co-Lead member) +1. Introduction +From the physical point of view, the interaction between these two turbulent fluids, th ocean and the atmosphere, is a complex, highly nonlinear process, fundamental to th motions of both. The winds blowing over the surface of the ocean transfer momentu and mechanical energy to the water, generating waves and currents. The ocean in tur gives off energy as heat, by the emission of electromagnetic radiation, by conduction and, in latent form, by evaporation. +The heat flux from the ocean provides one of the main energy sources for atmospheri motions. This source of energy for the atmosphere is affected by the turbulence at th air/sea interface, and by the spatial distribution of the centres of high and low energ transfer affected by the ocean currents. This coupling takes place through processe that fundamentally occur at small scales. The strength of this coupling depends on air sea differences in several factors and therefore has geographic and temporal scales ove a broad range. At these small scales on the sea-surface interface itself, waves, winds water temperature and salinity, bubbles, spray and variations in the amount of sola radiation that reaches the ocean surface, and other factors, affect the transfer o properties and energy. +In the long term, the convergence and divergence of oceanic heat transport provid sources and sinks of heat for the atmosphere and partly shape the mean climate of th earth. Analyzing whether these processes are changing due to anthropogenic influence and the potential impact of these changes is the subject of this chapter. Followin guidance from the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, much of the informatio presented here is based on or derives from the very thorough analysis conducted by th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for its recent Fifth Assessmen Report (ARS). +The atmosphere and the ocean form a coupled system, exchanging at the air-se interface gases, water (and water vapour), particles, momentum and energy. Thes exchanges affect the biology, the chemistry and the physics of the ocean and influenc its biogeochemical processes, weather and climate (exchanges affecting the water cycl are addressed in Chapter 4). +From a biogeochemical point of view, gas and chemical exchanges between the ocean and the atmosphere are important to life processes. Half of the Global Net Primar Production of the world is by phytoplankton and other marine plants, uptaking CO2 an releasing oxygen (Field et al., 1998; Falkowski and Raven, 1997). Phytoplankton is +© 2016 United Nations + +therefore also responsible for half of the annual production of oxygen by plants and through the generation of organic matter, is at the basis of most marine food webs i the ocean. Oxygen production by plants is a critical ecosystem service that keep atmospheric oxygen from otherwise declining. However, in many regions of the ocean phytoplankton growth is limited by a deficit of iron in seawater. Most of the iro alleviating this limitation reaches the ocean through wind-borne dust from the desert of the world. +Gas and chemical exchanges between the atmosphere and ocean are also important t climate change processes. For example, marine phytoplankton produces dimethy sulphide (DMS), the most abundant biological sulphur compound emitted to th atmosphere (Kiene et al., 1996). DMS is oxidized in the marine atmosphere to for various sulphur-containing compounds, including sulphuric acid, which influence th formation of clouds. Through this interaction with cloud formation, the massiv production of atmospheric DMS over the ocean may have an impact on the earth' climate. The absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere at the sea surface is responsibl for the fundamental role of the ocean as a carbon sink (see section 3 below). +2. Heat flux and temperature +2.1 Sea-Surface Temperature +Sea-surface temperature (SST) has been measured in surface waters by a variety o methods that have changed significantly over time. Furthermore the spatial patterns o SST change are difficult to interpret. Nevertheless a robust trend emerges from thes historical series after careful inspection and analysis of the datasets. Figure 1 shows th historical SST trend instrumentally observed using the best datasets of spatiall interpolated products, contrasted against the 1961 — 1990 climatology. Changes in SS are reported in this section and in Chapter 2 of the IPCC (Hartmann et al., 2013). +The IPCC in ARS concluded that ‘recent’ warming (since the 1950s) is strongly evident i SST at all latitudes of each ocean. Prominent spatio-temporal structures, including the E Nifio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), decadal variability patterns in the Pacific Ocean, and hemispheric asymmetry in the Atlantic Ocean, were highlighted as contributors to th regional differences in surface warming rates, which in turn affect atmospheri circulation (Hartmann et al., 2013). +© 2016 United Nations + +—— COBE ——ERSST HadISS —-—HadSST3 ve HadNMAT2 +Temperature anomaly (°C) +1850 1900 1950 2000 +Figure 1. Global annual average sea surface temperature (SST) and Night Marine Air Temperature (NMAT relative to a 1961-1990 climatology from state of the art data sets. Spatially interpolated products ar shown by solid lines; non-interpolated products by dashed lines. From Hartmann et al. 2013, Fig. 2.18. +“It is certain that global average sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have increased sinc the beginning of the 20th century. (...) Intercomparisons of new SST data record obtained by different measurement methods, including satellite data, have resulted i better understanding of uncertainties and biases in the records. Although thes innovations have helped highlight and quantify uncertainties and affect ou understanding of the character of changes since the mid-20" century, they do not alte the conclusion that global SSTs have increased both since the 1950s and since the lat 19" century.” (Hartmann et al., 2013). +2.2 Changes in sea-surface temperature (SST) as inferred from subsurfac measurements. +Upper ocean temperature (hence heat content) varies over multiple time scales including seasonal, interannual (e.g., associated with El Nifio), decadal and centennia (Rhein et al., 2013). Depth-averaged (0 to 700 m) ocean-temperature trends from 197 to 2010 are positive over most of the globe. The warming is more prominent in th Northern Hemisphere, especially in the North Atlantic. This result holds true in differen analyses, using different time periods, bias corrections and data sources (e.g., with o without XBT or MBT data’) (Rhein et al. 2013). Zonally averaged upper-ocea temperature trends show warming at nearly all latitudes and depths (Figure 2a) However, the greater volume of the Southern Hemisphere ocean increases th contribution of its warming to the global heat content (Rhein et al., 2013). Stronges warming is found closest to the sea surface, and the near-surface trends are consistent +* XBT are expendable bathythermographs, probes that using electronic solid-state transducers registe temperature and pressure while they free fall through the water column. MBT are their mechanica predecessors, that lowered on a wire suspended from a ship, used a metallic thermocouple as transducer © 2016 United Nations + +with independently measured SST (Hartmann et al., 2013). The global average warmin over this period is 0.11 [0.09 to 0.13] °C per decade in the upper 75 m, decreasing t 0.015°C per decade by 700 m (Figure 2c) (Rhein et al 2013). +The globally averaged temperature difference between the ocean surface and 200 increased by about 0.25°C from 1971 to 2010. This change, which corresponds to a 4 pe cent increase in density stratification, is widespread in all the oceans north of abou 40°S. Increased stratification will potentially diminish the exchanges between th interior and the surface layers of the ocean; this will limit, for example, the input o nutrients from below into the illuminated surface layer and of oxygen from above int the deeper layers. These changes might in turn result in reduced productivity an increased anoxic waters in many regions of the world ocean (Capotondi et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations + +70 80°S 60°S 40°S 20°S 0°S 20° (c) Latitude +1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 +(a,b) Temp. trend (°C per decade (c) Temp. anom. (°C o += 0.1 6.7 -0. -0.25 +6.3 -0.3 +d g 6. 3d 61 +Year +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. (a) Depth-averaged (0 to 700) m ocean-temperature trend for 1971-2010 (longitude vs. latitude colours and grey contours in degrees Celsius per decade); (b) Zonally averaged temperature trend (latitude vs. depth, colours and grey contours in degree Celsius per decade) for 1971-2010 with zonall averaged mean temperature over-plotted (black contours in degrees Celsius). Both North (25-652N) an South (south of 30°S), the zonally averaged warming signals extend to 700 m and are consistent wit poleward displacement of the mean temperature field. Zonally averaged upper-ocean temperature trend show warming at nearly all latitudes and depths (Figure 2 (b). A relative maximum in warming appear south of 30°S. (c) Globally averaged temperature anomaly (time vs. depth, colours and grey contours i degrees Celsius) relative to the 1971-2010 mean; (d) Globally averaged temperature difference betwee the ocean surface and 200 m depth (black: annual values, red: 5-year running mean). All panels ar constructed from an update of the annual analysis of Levitus et al. (2009). From Rhein et al. (2013) Fig 3.1. +© 2016 United Nations + +2.3 Upper Ocean Heat Content (UOHC) +The ocean’s large mass and high heat capacity allow it to store huge amounts of energy more than 1000 times that found in the atmosphere for an equivalent increase i temperature. The earth is absorbing more heat than it is emitting back into space, an nearly all this excess heat is entering the ocean and being stored there. +The upper ocean (0 to 700 m) heat content increased during the 40-year period fro 1971 to 2010. Published rates range from 74 TW to 137 TW (1 TW = 10” watts), whil an estimate of global upper (0 to 700 m depth) ocean heat content change, using ocea statistics to extrapolate to sparsely sampled regions and estimate uncertaintie (Domingues et al., 2008), gives a rate of increase of global upper ocean heat content o 137 TW (Rhein, et al. 2013). Warming of the ocean accounts for about 93 per cent of th increase in the Earth’s energy inventory between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence) Melting ice (including Arctic sea ice, ice sheets and glaciers) and warming of th continents and atmosphere account for the remainder of the change in energy (Rhein e al. 2013). Global integrals of 0 to 700 m upper ocean heat content (UOHC) (Figure 3. estimated from ocean temperature measurements all show a gain from 1971 to 201 (Rhein et al. 2013). +(a) + o +0-700 m OHC (ZJ ° +155 Levitu 5 Ishii 8 Domingue 9 Palme = Smith + 6 +-100 T T 7 7 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 +Year +Figure 3. Observation-based estimates of annual global mean upper (0 to 700 m) ocean heat content in Z (1Z= 107 Joules) updated from (see legend): Levitus et al. (2012), Ishii and Kimoto (2009), Domingues e al. (2008), Palmer et al. (2009; O©American Meteorological Society. Used with permission.) and Smith an Murphy (2007). Uncertainties are shaded and plotted as published (at the one standard error level, othe than one standard deviation for Levitus, with no uncertainties provided for Smith). Estimates are shifte to align for 2006-2010, 5 years that are well measured by the ARGO Program of autonomous profilin floats, and then plotted relative to the resulting mean of all curves for 1971, the starting year for tren calculations. +© 2016 United Nations + +2.4 The ocean’s role in heat transport +Solar energy is unevenly distributed over the earth’s surface, leading to excess hea reaching the tropics and a heat deficit in latitudes poleward of about 40° in eac hemisphere. The heat balance, and therefore a relatively stable climate, is maintaine through the meridional redistribution, or flux, of heat by the atmosphere and the ocean Quantification and understanding of this heat content and its redistribution have bee achieved through diverse methods, including international programmes maintainin instrumented moorings, transoceanic lines of XBTs, satellite observations, numerica modelling and, more recently, the ARGO Program of autonomous profiling instrument (Abraham et al., 2013; von Schuckmann and Le Traon, 2011). +In the latitude band between 25°N and 25°S, the atmospheric and oceanic contribution to the meridional heat fluxes are similar, and the atmosphere dominates at highe latitudes. In the ocean, the heat flux is accomplished by contributions from the wind driven circulation in the upper ocean, by turbulent eddies, and by the Meridiona Overturning Circulation (MOC). The MOC is a component of ocean circulation that i driven by density contrasts, rather than by winds or tides, and one which exhibits pronounced vertical component, with dense water sinking at high latitudes, offset b broadly distributed upwelling at lower ones. As distinct circulation patterns characteriz each of the ocean basins, their individual contributions to the meridional heat flux diffe significantly. Estimates indicate that, on a yearly average, the global oceans carry 1- PW (1PW=10"°W) of heat from the tropics to higher latitudes, with somewhat highe transports to the northern hemisphere (Fasullo and Trenberth, 2008). +Most of the heat excess due to increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases goes into th ocean (IPCC, 2013). Although all ocean basins have warmed during the last decades, th increase in heat content is not uniform; the increase in heat content in the Atlanti during the last four decades exceeds that of the Pacific and Indian Oceans combine (Levitus et al., 2009; Palmer and Haines, 2009). Enhanced northward heat flux in th subtropical South Atlantic, which includes heat driven from the subtropical Indian Ocea through the Agulhas Retroflection, may have contributed to the larger increase in hea content in the Atlantic Ocean compared with other basins (Abraham et al., 2013; Lee e al., 2011). +Numerical simulations also indicate that changes in ocean heat fluxes are the mai mechanism responsible for the observed temperature fluctuations in the subtropica and subpolar North Atlantic (Grist et al., 2010). +Meridional heat flux estimates inferred from the residual of heat content variation suggest that the heat transferred northward throughout the Atlantic is transferred t the atmosphere in the subtropical North Atlantic (Kelly et al., 2014). Observations fro the Rapid/Mocha instrument array at 26°N in the North Atlantic indicate that the mea Atlantic meridional heat flux at this latitude is 1.33 PW, with substantial variability du to changes in the strength of the MOC (Cunningham et al., 2007; Kanzow et al., 2007 Johns et al., 2011; McCarthy et al., 2012). Moreover, recent studies show tha interannual changes in the MOC (and the associated heat flux measured at 26°N) lead t temperature anomalies in the subtropical North Atlantic which, in turn, can have a +© 2016 United Nations + +strong impact on the northern hemisphere climate (Cunningham et al., 2013; Buchan e al., 2014). +2.5. Air-sea Heat fluxes +Heat uptake by the ocean can be substantially altered by natural oscillations in th earth’s ocean and atmosphere. The effects of these large-scale climate oscillations ar often felt around the world, leading to the rearrangement of wind and precipitatio patterns, which in turn substantially affect regional weather, sometimes wit devastating consequences. +The ENSO is the most prominent of these oscillations and is characterized by a anomalous warming and cooling of the central-eastern equatorial Pacific. The war phase is called El Nifio and the cold, La Nifia. During El Nifio events, a weakening of th Pacific trade winds decreases the upwelling of cold waters in the eastern equatoria Pacific and allows warm surface water that generally accumulates in the western Pacifi to flow east. +As a consequence, El Nifios release heat into the atmosphere, causing an increase i globally averaged air temperature. However, the “recharge oscillator theory” (Ren an Jin, 2013) indicates that a buildup of upper-ocean heat content is a necessar precondition for the development of El Nifio events. La Nifias are associated with strengthening of the trade winds, which leads to a strong upwelling of cold subsurfac water in the eastern Pacific. In this case, the ocean uptake of heat from the atmospher is enhanced, causing the global average surface temperature to decrease (Roemmic and Gilson, 2011). +The cycling of ENSO between El Nifio and La Nifia is irregular. In some decades El Nifi has dominated and in other decades La Nifia has been more frequent, also seen i phase shifts of the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (Meehl et al., 2013), which is relate to build up and release of heat. A strengthening of the Pacific trade winds in the pas two decades has led to a more frequent occurrence of La Nifias (England et al., 2014) Consequently, the heat uptake by the subsurface ocean was enhanced, leading to slowdown of the surface warming (Kosaka and Xie, 2013). This is one of the factor affecting the global mean temperature, expected to increase by 0.21°C per decade fro 1998 to 2012, but which instead warmed by just 0.04°C (the so-called recent warmin hiatus, IPCC, 2013). Although there are several hypotheses on the cause of the globa warming hiatus, the role of ocean circulation in this negative feedback is certain Drijfhout et al. (2014) have shown that the North Atlantic, Southern Ocean and Tropica Pacific all play significant roles in the ocean heat uptake associated with the warmin hiatus. +Chen and Tung (2014) analyzed the historical and recent record of sea surfac temperature and Ocean Heat Content (OHC), and found distinct patterns at the surfac and in deeper layers. On the surface, the patterns conform to the El Nifio/La Nifi patterns, with the Pacific Ocean playing a dominant role by releasing heat during an E Nifio (or capturing heat during La Nifia). At depth, the dominant pattern shows heating +© 2016 United Nations + +taking place in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Circumpolar Current region. Coinciding i time, changes in OHC could help to explain the observed slowdown in global warming. I is anticipated that the mechanisms involved may at some point reverse, releasing larg amounts of heat to the atmosphere and accelerating global warming (e.g., Levermann et al., 2012). +Many other naturally occurring ocean-atmosphere oscillations in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans have also been recognized and named. The ENSO as a globa phenomenon, has an expression in the Atlantic basin called the Atlantic Nifio. In the las six decades, this mode has weakened, leading to a warming of the equatorial easter Atlantic of up to 1.5°C (Tokinaga and Xie, 2011). Although the role of the Atlantic Nifi on the global heat budget is not significant, this Atlantic warming trend has led to a increase in precipitation over the equatorial Amazon, Northeast South America Equatorial West Africa and the Guinea coast, and a decrease in rainfall over the Sahe (Gianinni et al., 2003; Tokinaga and Xie, 2011; Marengo et al., 2011; Rodrigues et al. 2011). Moreover, recent studies have shown that the Atlantic Nifio can have an effec on ENSO (Rodriguez-Fonseca et al., 2009; Keenlyside et al., 2013). +In the Indian Ocean, the dominant basin-wide oscillation is the Indian Dipole Mode (Saj et al., 1999). A positive phase is characterized by cool surface-temperature anomalies i the eastern Indian Ocean, warm-temperature anomalies in the western Indian Ocean and easterly wind-stress anomalies along the equator. Similarly to ENSO, meridiona heat transport and the associated buildup of upper-ocean heat content are a possibl precondition for the development of the Indian Ocean Dipole event (McPhaden an Nagura, 2014). The warm surface temperatures in the western Indian Ocean ar associated with an increase in subsurface heat content and vice-versa for the east (Fen et al. 2001; Rao et al., 2002). This zonal contrast of ocean heat content is induced b anomalies of zonal wind along the equator and the resulting variability in zonal mas and heat transport (Nagura and McPhaden 2010). The warm surface temperatures i the western Indian Ocean are associated with an increase in subsurface heat conten and vice-versa for the east; the positive dipole causes above-average rainfall in easter Africa and droughts in Indonesia and Australia (Behera et al., 2005; Yamagata et al. 2004; Ummenhofer et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2011; Section 5 below). Although th phenomena discussed here are global, many of the most significant impacts are on th coastal environment (see following Section). +2.6 Environmental, economic and social impacts of changes in ocean temperatur and of major ocean temperature events +Coastal waters are valuable both ecologically and economically because they support high level of biodiversity. They act as nursery areas for many commercially importan fish species, and are the marine areas most accessible to the public. Because inshor habitats are shallow, water temperatures in coastal areas are closely linked to th regional climate and its seasonal and long-term fluctuations. Coastal waters also hos some of the most vulnerable marine habitats, because they are intensively exploited b (including, but not limited to) the fishing industry and recreational craft, and because of +© 2016 United Nations + +their proximity to outlets of pollution, such as rivers and sewage outfalls. Coasta development and the threat of rising sea level may also impinge upon these valuabl habitats (Halpern et al., 2008). Ecological degradation can lower the socio-economi value of coastal regions, with negative impacts on commercial fisheries, aquacultur facilities, damage to coastal infrastructure, problems with power-station cooling, an exert a dampening effect on coastal tourism from degraded ecological services. +It has been recently shown that when compared with estimates for the global ocean decadal rates of SST change are higher at the coast. During the last three decades approximately 70 per cent of the world’s coastline has experienced significant increase in SST (Lima and Wethey, 2012). This has been accompanied by an increase in th number of yearly extremely hot days along 38 per cent of the world’s coastline, an warming has been occurring significantly earlier in the year along approximately 36 pe cent of the world’s temperate coastal areas (defined as those between latitudes 30° an 60° in both hemispheres) at an average rate of 6.1 + 3.2 days per decade (Lima an Wethey, 2012). +The warming of coastal waters can have many serious consequences for the ecologica system (Harley et al., 2006). This can include changes in the distribution of importan commercial fish and shellfish species, particularly the movement of species to highe latitudes due to thermal stress (Perry et al., 2005). Warming of coastal waters also ca lead to more favourable conditions for many organisms, among them marine invasiv species that can devastate commercial fisheries and destroy marine ecosyste dynamics (Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007). Water quality might also be impacted by highe temperatures that can increase the severity of local outbreaks by pathogenic bacteria o the occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). These in turn would cause harm t seafood, consumers and marine organisms (Bresnan et al., 2013). Increased coral ree bleaching and mortality from warming seas (combined with ocean acidification, see nex sections) will lead to the loss of important marine habitats and associated biodiversity. +Changes in ocean temperatures have global impacts. As ocean temperatures warm species that prefer specific temperature ranges may relocate — as has been observed for instance, in copepod assemblages in the North Atlantic (Hays et al., 2005). Som organisms, like corals, are sedentary and cannot relocate with changing temperatures. I the water becomes too warm, they may experience a bleaching event. Higher sea leve and warmer ocean temperatures can alter ocean circulation and current flow an increase the frequency and intensity of storms, leading to changes in the habitat o many species worldwide. +Changes in ocean temperatures affect not only marine ecosystems, but also the climat over land, with devastating economic and social implications. Many natural oceani oscillations are known to have an impact on (terrestrial) climate, but these oscillation and the response of the climate to them are also changing during recent decades. Fo instance, an El Nifio phase of ENSO (see previous Section for more details on ENSO displaces great amounts of warm water from the western to the eastern Pacific, leadin to more evaporation over the latter. As a consequence, western and southern Sout America and parts of North America experience wetter conditions. At the same time Australia, Brazil, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, parts of Africa and the United State © 2016 United Nations 1 + +of America suffer droughts. La Nifia events usually cause the opposite patterns However, in the last several decades, ENSO events have changed their spatial an temporal characteristics (Yeh et al., 2009; McPhaden, 2012). +During recent decades, the warm waters of El Nifio events have been displaced to th central Pacific instead of to the eastern Pacific. It is not clear yet whether these change are linked to anthropogenic climate change or natural variability (Yeh et al., 2011). I any case, the effects on climate of an ENSO event centred in the central Pacific (a centra Pacific ENSO) are in sharp contrast to that associated with one centred in the easter Pacific. +For instance, northeastern and southeastern Australia experience a reduction in rainfal during the eastern Pacific El Nifios and there is a decrease in rainfall over northwester and northern Australia during central Pacific events (Taschetto and England, 2009 Taschetto et al., 2009). The Indian monsoon fails during eastern Pacific El Nifios, but i enhanced during central Pacific El Nifios (Kumar et al., 2006). Over the semi-arid regio of northeast Brazil, eastern Pacific El Niftios/La Nifias cause dry/wet conditions; centra Pacific El Nifios have the opposite effect, with the worst drought in the last 50 year associated with the strong 2011/12 La Nifia and not with El Nifios as in the pas (Rodrigues et al., 2011; Rodrigues and McPhaden, 2014). This drought caused th displacement of 10 million people and economic losses on the order of 3 billion Unite States dollars in relation to agriculture and cattle raising alone. In contrast to drought i Brazil, the 2011/12 La Nifia caused floods across southeastern Australia. +In other ocean basins, changes in oceanic oscillations and temperatures have also ha an impact on climate. For instance, in the Indian Ocean, a positive phase of the India Dipole Mode (warm/cold temperatures in the western/eastern equatorial Indian Ocean leads to flooding in east Africa and droughts in Indonesia, Australia, and India (Saji et al. 1999; Ashok et al., 2001; Gadgil et al., 2004; Yamagata et al., 2004; Behera et al., 2005 Ummenhofer et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2011). The counterpart of ENSO in the Atlanti (Atlantic Nifio) has weakened during the last six decades, leading to an increase in SST i the eastern equatorial Atlantic. As a consequence, rainfall has been enhanced over th equatorial Amazon and West Africa (Tokinaga and Xie, 2011). On the other hand, a unusual warming of the tropical North Atlantic in 2005 was responsible for one of th worst droughts in the Amazon River basin and a record Atlantic hurricane season Hurricanes Rita and Katrina caused the loss of almost 2000 lives and an estimate economic toll of 150 billion —135 billion US dollars from Katrina and 15 billion U dollars from Rita. (http://www.datacenterresearch.org/data-resources/katrina/facts for-impact/). Anomalous warm conditions also occurred in the tropical North Atlantic i 2010 leading to two once-in-a-century droughts in less than five years in the Amazo River basin (Marengo et al., 2011). +Ocean warming will stress species both through thermic changes in their environmenta envelope and through increased interspecies competition. These shifts become all th more important in shelf seas once they reach terrestrial boundaries, i.e., the shiftin species runs out of shelf. For example, changes in the coastal currents in south-easter Australia cause changes to primary production through to fisheries productivity. Thi then feeds through to local and regional socio-economic impacts (Suthers et al., 2011). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +The IPCC ARS concluded that “it is unlikely that annual numbers of tropical storms hurricanes and major hurricanes counts have increased over the past 100 years in th North Atlantic basin. Evidence, however, is for a virtually certain increase in th frequency and intensity of the strongest tropical cyclones since the 1970s in that region (Hartmann et al. 2013, Section 2.6.3). Moreover, the IPCC ARS states that “it is difficul to draw firm conclusions with respect to the confidence levels associated with observe trends prior to the satellite era and in ocean basins outside of the North Atlantic (Hartmann et al. 2013, Section 2.6.3). Although a strong scientific consensus on th matter does not exist, there is some evidence supporting the hypothesis that globa warming might lead to fewer but more intense tropical cyclones globally (Knutson et al. 2010). Evidence exists that the observed expansion of the tropics since approximatel 1979 is accompanied by a pronounced poleward migration of the latitude at which th maximum intensities of storms occur at a rate of 1° of latitude per decade (Kossin et al. 2014; Hartmann et al., 2013; Seidel et al., 2008). If this trend is confirmed, it woul increase the frequency of events in coastal areas that are not exposed regularly to th dangers caused by cyclones. Hurricane Sandy in 2012 may be an example of thi (Woodruff et al., 2013). +3. Water flux and salinity +3.1 Regional patterns of salinity, and changes in salinity” and freshwater content +The ocean plays a pivotal role in the global water cycle: about 85 per cent of th evaporation and 77 per cent of the precipitation occur over the ocean (Schmitt, 2008) The horizontal salinity distribution of the upper ocean largely reflects this exchange o freshwater: high surface salinity is generally found in regions where evaporatio exceeds precipitation, and low salinity is found in regions of excess precipitation an runoff. Ocean circulation also affects the regional distribution of surface salinity. +The Earth’s water cycle involves evaporation and precipitation of moisture at the Earth’ surface. Changes in the atmosphere’s water vapour content provide strong evidenc that the water cycle is already responding to a warming climate. Further evidenc comes from changes in the distribution of ocean salinity (Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2) Diagnosis and understanding of ocean salinity trends are also important, becaus salinity changes, like temperature changes, affect circulation and stratification, an therefore the ocean’s capacity to store heat and carbon as well as to change biologica productivity. +Seawater contains both salt and fresh water, and its salinity is a function of the weigh of dissolved salts it contains. Because the total amount of salt does not change over +2 ‘Salinity’ refers to the weight of dissolved salts in a kilogram of seawater. Because the total amount o salt in the ocean does not change, the salinity of seawater can be changed only by addition or removal o fresh water. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +human time scales, seawater’s salinity can only be altered—over days or centuries—b the addition or removal of fresh water. +The water cycle is expected to intensify in a warmer climate. Observations since th 1970s show increases in surface and lower atmospheric water vapour (Figure 4a), at rate consistent with observed warming. Moreover, evaporation and precipitation ar projected to intensify in a warmer climate. Recorded changes in ocean salinity in th last 50 years support that projection (Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). +The atmosphere connects the ocean’s regions of net fresh water loss to those of fres water gain by moving evaporated water vapour from one place to another. Th distribution of salinity at the ocean surface largely reflects the spatial pattern o evaporation minus precipitation (Figure 4b), runoff from land, and sea ice processes There is some shifting of the patterns relative to each other, because of the ocean’ currents. Ocean salinity acts as a sensitive and effective rain gauge over the ocean. I naturally reflects and smoothes out the difference between water gained by the ocea from precipitation, and water lost by the ocean through evaporation, both of which ar very patchy and episodic (Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). Data from the past 50 years sho widespread salinity changes in the upper ocean, which are indicative of systemati changes in precipitation and runoff minus evaporation. +(Figure 4b). Subtropical waters are highly saline, because evaporation exceeds rainfall whereas seawater at high latitudes and in the tropics—where more rain falls tha evaporates—is less so. The Atlantic, the saltiest ocean basin, loses more freshwate through evaporation than it gains from precipitation, while the Pacific is nearly neutral i.e., precipitation gain nearly balances evaporation loss, and the Southern Ocean i dominated by precipitation. (Figure 4b; Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). Changes in surfac salinity and in the upper ocean have reinforced the mean salinity pattern (4c). Th evaporation-dominated subtropical regions have become saltier, while th precipitation-dominated subpolar and tropical regions have become fresher. Whe changes over the top 500 m are considered, the evaporation-dominated Atlantic ha become saltier, while the nearly neutral Pacific and precipitation-dominated Souther Ocean have become fresher (Figure 4d; Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). +Observed surface salinity changes also suggest a change in the global water cycle ha occurred (Chapter 4). The long-term trends show a strong positive correlation betwee the mean climate of the surface salinity and the temporal changes in surface salinit from 1950 to 2000. This correlation shows an enhancement of the climatological salinit pattern: fresh areas have become fresher and salty areas saltier. +Ocean salinity is also affected by water runoff from the continents, and by the meltin and freezing of sea ice or floating glacial ice. Fresh water added by melting ice on lan will change global-averaged salinity, but changes to date are too small to observe (Rhei et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + ++6 (a) Trend i og (Otal precipitabl water vapou °° (4988-2010 -0. -1. (kg m* per decade) +too () Mea evaporatio o minu precipitatio -100 +(cm yr’) +E Se 0.8 (c) Trend i 04 surface salinit 0.0 (1950-2000 -0.4 +-08 +(PSS78 per decade) +a7 (d) Mea a surface salinity +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Changes in sea surface salinity are related to the atmospheric patterns of evaporation minu precipitation (E — P) and trends in total precipitable water: (a) Linear trend (1988-2010) in tota precipitable water (water vapour integrated from the Earth’s surface up through the entire atmosphere (kg m-2 per decade) from satellite observations (Special Sensor Microwave Imager) (after Wentz et al. 2007) (blues: wetter; yellows: drier). (b) The 1979-2005 climatological mean net E —P (cm yr—1) fro meteorological reanalysis (National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center fo Atmospheric Research; Kalnay et al., 1996) (reds: net evaporation; blues: net precipitation). (c) Tren (1950-2000) in surface salinity (PSS78 per 50 years) (after Durack and Wiljffels, 2010) (blues freshening yellows-reds saltier). (d) The climatological-mean surface salinity (PSS78) (blues: <35; yellows—reds: >35) From Rhein et al. 2013; FAQ. 3.2. Fig 1. +In conclusion, according to the last IPCC ARS, “It is very likely that regional trends hav enhanced the mean geographical contrasts in sea surface salinity since the 1950s: saline +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +surface waters in the evaporation-dominated mid-latitudes have become more saline while relatively fresh surface waters in rainfall-dominated tropical and polar region have become fresher” (Stocker et al., 2013). “The mean contrast between high- an low-salinity regions increased by 0.13 [0.08 to 0.17] from 1950 to 2008. It is very likel that the inter-basin contrast in freshwater content has increased: the Atlantic ha become saltier and the Pacific and Southern Oceans have freshened. Although simila conclusions were reached in AR4, recent studies based on expanded data sets and ne analysis approaches provide high confidence in this assessment” (Stocker et al., 2013) “The spatial patterns of the salinity trends, mean salinity and the mean distribution o evaporation minus precipitation are all similar. These similarities provide indirec evidence that the pattern of evaporation minus precipitation over the oceans has bee enhanced since the 1950s (medium confidence)” Stocker et al., (2013). “Uncertainties i currently available surface fluxes prevent the flux products from being reliably used t identify trends in the regional or global distribution of evaporation or precipitation ove the oceans on the time scale of the observed salinity changes since the 1950s” (Stocke et al., 2013). +4. Carbon dioxide flux and ocean acidification +4.1 Carbon dioxide emissions from anthropogenic activities +Since the start of Industrial Revolution, human activities have been releasing larg amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. As a result, atmospheric CO. ha increased from a glacial to interglacial cycle of 180-280 ppm to about 395 ppm in 201 (Dlugokencky and Tans, 2014). Until around 1920, the primary source of carbon dioxid to the atmosphere was from deforestation and other land-use change activities (Ciais e al., 2013). Since the end of World War II, anthropogenic emissions of CO2 have bee increasing steadily. Data from 2004 to 2013 show that human activities (fossil fue combustion and cement production) are now responsible for about 91 per cent of th total CO2 emissions (Le Quéré et al. 2014). +CO, emissions from fossil fuel consumption can be estimated from the energy data tha are available from the United Nations Statistics Division and the BP Annual Energ Review. Data in 2013 suggests that about 43 per cent of the anthropogenic CO emissions were produced from coal, 33 per cent from oil and 18 per cent from gas, an 6 per cent from cement production (Figure 5). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Growth rates +Data: CDIAC/GCP 2012-201 16- Coal 3.0 8 12- Oil 1.4 © to 8 a 6 Gas 1.4 oO 2- Cement 4.7% +1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 +Figure 5. CO emissions from different sources from 1958 to 2013 (Le Quéré et al. 2014). +Coal is an important and, recently, growing proportion of CO2 emissions from fossil fue combustion. From 2012 to 2013, CO, emissions from coal increased 3.0 per cent compared to the increase rate of 1.4 per cent for oil and gas (Le Quéré et al. 2014). Coa accounted for about 60 per cent of the CO2 emission growth in the same period. This i largely because many large economies of the world have recently resorted to using coa as an energy source for a wide variety of industrial processes, instead of oil, gas an other energy sources. +4.2 The ocean as a sink for atmospheric CO2 +The global oceans serve as a major sink of atmospheric CO2. The oceans take up carbo dioxide through mainly two processes: physical air-sea flux of atmospheric CO. at th ocean surface, the so called “solubility pump” and through the active biological uptak of CO, into the biomass and skeletons of plankters the so-called “biological pump” Colder water can take up CO2 more than warm water, and if this cold, denser wate sinks to form intermediate, deep, or bottom water, there is transport of carbon awa from the surface ocean and thus from the atmosphere into the ocean interior. Thi "solubility pump" helps to keep the surface waters of the ocean on average lower in C than the deep water, a condition that promotes the flux of the gas from the atmospher into the ocean. +Phytoplankton take up CO2 from the water in the process of photosynthesis, some o which sinks to the bottom in the form of particles or is mixed into the deeper waters a dissolved organic or inorganic carbon. Part of this carbon is permanently buried in th sediments and other part enters into the slower circulation of the deep ocean. Thi "biological pump" serves to maintain the gradient in CO, concentration between th surface and deep waters. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Depth +B 6 5 500 5 4 ) 4 £1000 3 & 3 2 1500 2 1 2000 S 1 c a Anthropogeni CO S 1000 & 1000 (umo! kg" a +2 Latitude +0 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 6. Anthropogenic CO, distributions along representative meridional sections in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans for the mid-1990s (Sabine et al. 2004). +Because the ocean mixes slowly, about half of the anthropogenic CO} (Cant) stored in th ocean is found in the upper 10 per cent of the ocean (Figure 6.). On average, th penetration depth is about 1000 meters and about 50 per cent of the anthropogeni CO, in the ocean is shallower than 400 meters. +Globally, the ocean shows large spatial variations in terms of its role as a sink o atmospheric CO, (Takahashi et al. 2009). Over the past 200 years the oceans hav absorbed 525 billion tons of CO2 from the atmosphere, or nearly half of the fossil fue emissions over the period (Feely et al. 2009). The oceanic sink of atmospheric CO, ha increased from 4.0 + 1.8 GtCO, (1 GtCO, = 10° tons of carbon dioxide) per year in th 1960s to 9.5 + 1.8 GtCO2 per year during 2004-2013. During the same period, th estimated annual atmospheric CO, captured by the ocean was 2.6 +0.5 Gt of CO compared with around 1.9 Gt of CO, during the sixties (Le Queré et al., 2014). However due to the decreased buffering capacity, caused by this CO2 uptake, the proportion o anthropogenic carbon dioxide that goes into the ocean has been decreasing. +Estimates of the global inventory of anthropogenic carbon, Cant (including marginal seas have a mean value of 118 PgC and a range of 93 to 137 PgC in 1994 and a mean of 16 PgC and range of 134 to 186 PgC in 2010 (Rhein et al 2013). When combined with mode results Khatiwala et al. (2013) arrive at a “best” estimate of the global ocean inventor (including marginal seas) of anthropogenic carbon from 1750 to 2010 of 155 PgC with a uncertainty of +20 per cent (Rhein et al 2013). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +The storage rate of anthropogenic CO, is assessed by calculating the change in Can concentrations between two time periods. Regional observations of the storage rate ar in general agreement with that expected from the increase in atmospheric CO concentrations and with the tracer-based estimates. However, there are significan spatial and temporal variations in the degree to which the inventory of Cant track changes in the atmosphere (Figure 7, Rhein et al 2013). +Indian Ocean +Atlantic Ocean (mol m? y" 24 +Pacific Ocean (mol m? y* - 0.8 +(mol m? y* 0.9 +WS oth 25°W 92 25 ois %e +Le gsGw 7557.2 POS OR ye +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 7. Maps of storage rate distribution of C,,¢ in (mol m? yr?) averaged over 1980-2005 for the thre ocean basins (left to right: Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean). From Khatiwala et al 2009, a slightl different colour scale is used for each basin. +Comprehensive evaluation of available data shows that in the context of the globa carbon cycle, it is only the ocean that has acted as a net sink of carbon from th atmosphere. The land was a source early in the industrial age, and since about 1950 ha trended toward a sink, but it is not yet clearly a net sink. (Ciais et al. 2013 and Khatiwal et al. 2009, Khatiwala et al. 2013). Latest data from 2004 to 2013 show that the globa oceans take up about one-fourth (26 per cent, Le Quéré, 2014) of the total annua anthropogenic emissions of CO2. This is a very important physical and ecological servic that the ocean has performed in the past and performs today, that underpins al strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of global warming. +4.3 Ocean acidification +As already seen in the previous section, the global oceans serve as an important sink o atmospheric CO, effectively slowing down global climate change. However, this benefi comes with a steep bio-ecological cost. When CO) reacts with water, it forms carboni acid, which then dissociates and produces hydrogen ions. The extra hydrogen ion consume carbonate ions (CO;”) to form bicarbonate (HCO3). In this process, the pH an concentrations of carbonate ions (CO3”) are decreasing. As a result, the carbonat mineral saturation states are also decreasing. Due to the increasing acidity, this proces is commonly referred to as “ocean acidification (OA)”. According to the IPCC AR 4 and 5 “Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in pH of the ocean over an extended period typically decades or longer, caused primarily by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO) fro the atmosphere.” (...)” Anthropogenic ocean acidification refers to the component of p reduction that is caused by human activity” (Rhein et al. 2013). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Although the average oceanic pH can vary on interglacial time scales, the changes ar usually on the order of “0.002 units per 100 years; however, the current observed rat of change is “0.1 units per 100 years, or roughly 50 times faster. Regional factors, suc as coastal upwelling, changes in riverine and glacial discharge rates, and sea-ice los have created “OA hotspots” where changes are occurring at even faster rates. Althoug OA is a global phenomenon that will likely have far-reaching implications for man marine organisms, some areas will be affected sooner and to a greater degree. +Recent observations show that one such area in particular is the cold, highly productiv region of the sub-arctic Pacific and western Arctic Ocean, where unique biogeochemica processes create an environment that is both sensitive and particularly susceptible t accelerated reductions in pH and carbonate mineral concentrations. The O phenomenon can cause waters to become undersaturated in carbonate minerals an thereby affect extensive and diverse populations of marine calcifiers. +4.4 The CO2 problem +Based on the most recent data of 2004 to 2013, 35.7 GtCO, (1 GtCO, = 10° tons o carbon dioxide) of anthropogenic CO2 are released into the atmosphere every year (L Quéré et al. 2014). Of this, approximately 32.4 GtCO2 come directly from the burning o fossil fuels and other industrial processes that emit CO. The remaining 3.3 GtCO, ar due to changes in land-use practices, such as deforestation and urbanization. Of thi 35.7 GtCO, of anthropogenically produced CO, emitted annually, approximately 10. GtCO, (or 29 per cent) are incorporated into terrestrial plant matter. Another 15. GtCO, (or 46 per cent) are retained in the atmosphere, which has led to some planetar warming. The remaining 9.5 GtCO> (or 26 per cent) are absorbed by the world’s ocean (Le Quéré et al. 2014). +As the hydrogen ions produced by the increased CO? dissolution take carbonate ions ou of seawater, the rate of calcification of shell-building organisms is affected; they ar confronted with additional physiological challenges to maintain their shells. Althoug alteration of the carbonate equilibrium system in the ocean reducing carbonate io concentration, and saturation states of calcium carbonate minerals will play a rol imposing an additional energy cost to calcifier organisms, such as corals an shellbearing plankton, this is by no means the sole impact of OA. +4.5 What are the impacts of a more acidic ocean? +Throughout the last 25 million years, the average pH of the ocean has remained fairl constant between 8.0 and 8.2. However, in the last three decades, a fast drop ha begun to occur, and if CO emissions are left unchecked, the average pH could fall belo 7.8 by the end of this century (Rhein, et al. 2013). +This is well outside the range of pH change of any other time in recent geologica history. Calcifying organisms in particular, such as corals, crabs, clams, oysters and th tiny free-swimming pteropods that form calcium carbonate shells, could be particularl vulnerable, especially during the larval stage. Many of the processes that cause OA hav © 2016 United Nations 1 + +long been recognized, but the ecological implications of the associated chemica changes have only recently been investigated. OA may have important ecological an socioeconomic consequences by impacting directly the physiology of all organisms i the ocean. +The altered environment is imposing an extra energy cost for the acid-base regulation o their internal body milieu. Through biological and evolutionary adaptation this proces might have a huge variation of expression among different types of organisms, a subjec that only recently has become the focus of intense scientific research. +Calcification is an internal process that in its vast majority does not depends directly o seawater carbonate content, since most organism use bicarbonate, that is increasin under acidification scenarios, or CO2 originating in their internal metabolism. It has bee demonstrated in the laboratory and in the field that some calcifiers can compensate an thrive in acidification conditions. +OA is not a simple phenomenon nor will it have a simple unidirectional effect o organisms. The abundance and composition of species may be changed, due to OA wit the potential to affect ecosystem function at all trophic levels, and consequentia changes in ocean chemistry could occur as well. Some species may also be better abl than others to adapt to changing pH levels due to their exposure to environment where pH naturally varies over a wide range. However, at this point, it is still ver uncertain what the ecological and societal consequences will be from any potentia losses of keystone species. +4.6 Socioeconomic impacts of ocean acidification +Some examples of economic disruptions due to OA have been reported. The mos visible case is the harvest failure in the oyster hatcheries along the Pacific Northwes coast of the USA. Hatcheries that supply the majority of the oyster spat to farms nearl went out of business as they unknowingly pumped low pH water, apparently corrosiv to oyster larvae, into their operation. Although intense upwelling that could hav brought low oxygen water to hatcheries might also be a factor in these massiv mortalities, low pH, “corrosive water” tends to recur seasonally in this region Innovations and interactions with scientists allowed these hatcheries to monitor th presence of corrosive incoming waters and adopt preventive measures. +Economic studies have shown that potential losses at local and regional scales may hav negative impacts for communities and national economies that depend on fisheries. Fo example, Cooley and Doney (2009) using data from 2007, found that of the 4 billio dollars in annual domestic sales, Alaska and the New England states likely to be affecte by hotspots of OA, contributed the most at 1.5 billion dollars and 750 million dollars respectively. These numbers clearly show that any disruption in the commercia fisheries in these regions due to OA could have a cascading effect on the local as well a on the national economy. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +References +Abraham, J.P., Baringer, M., Bindoff, N.L., Boyer, T., Cheng, L.J., Church, J.A., Conroy, J.L. Domingues, C.M., Fasullo, J.T., Gilson, J., Goni, G., Good, S.A., Gorman, J.M. Gouretski, V., Ishii, M., Johnson, G.C., Kizu, S., Lyman, J.M., Macdonald, A.M. Minkowycz, W.J., Moffitt, S. E., Palmer, M.D., Piola, A.R., Reseghetti, F. Schuckmann, K., Trenberth, K.E., Velicogna, I., & Willis, J.K. (2013). A review o global ocean temperature observations: Implications for ocean heat conten estimates and climate change, Review of Geophysics, 51, 450-483 doi:10.1002/rog.20022. +Ashok K., Guan, Z., Yamagata, T. (2001), Impact of the Indian Ocean dipole on th relationship between the Indian monsoon rainfall and ENSO, Geophysica Research Letters, 28, 4499-4502. +Behera S. 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Primary Production, Cycling of Nutrients, Surface Layer and Plankton +Writing team: Thomas Malone (Convenor), Maurizio Azzaro, Antonio Bode, Euan Brown Robert Duce, Dan Kamykowski, Sung Ho Kang, Yin Kedong, Michael Thorndyke, an Jinhui Wang, Chul Park (Lead member); Hilconida Calumpong and Peyman Eghtesad (Co-Lead members) +1. Primary Production* +1.1 Definition and ecological significance +Gross primary production (GPP) is the rate at which photosynthetic plants and bacteri use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and water to the high-energy organi carbon compounds used to fuel growth. Free oxygen (O2) is released during the process Net primary production (NPP) is GPP less the respiratory release of CO, b photosynthetic organisms, i.e., the net photosynthetic fixation of inorganic carbon int autotrophic biomass. NPP supports most life on Earth; it fuels global cycles of carbon nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients and is an important parameter of atmospheri CO2 and O, levels (and, therefore, of anthropogenic climate change). +Global NPP is estimated to be ~105 Pg C yr’, about half of which is by marine plant (Field et al., 1998; Falkowski and Raven, 1997; Westberry et al., 2008).” Within th euphotic zone of the upper ocean,* phytoplankton and macrophytes‘ respectivel account for ~94 per cent (~50 + 28 Pg C yr’) and ~6 per cent (~3.0 Pg C yr“) of NP (Falkowski et al., 2004; Duarte et al., 2005; Carr et al., 2006; Schneider et al., 2008 Chavez et al., 2011; Ma et al., 2014; Rousseaux and Gregg, 2014). All NPP is not equal i terms of its fate. Marine macrophytes play an important role as carbon sinks in th global carbon cycle, provide habitat for a diversity of animal species, and food fo marine and terrestrial consumers (Smith, 1981; Twilley et al., 1992; Duarte et al., 2005 Duarte et al., 2010; Heck et al., 2008; Nellemann et al., 2009; McLeod et al., 2011 Fourqurean et al., 2012). Phytoplankton NPP fuels the marine food webs upon whic marine fisheries depend (Pauly and Christensen, 1995; Chassot et al., 2010) and the +* Microbenthic, epiphytic and symbiotic algae can be locally important in shallow waters and corals, bu are not addressed here. Chemosynthetic primary production is addressed elsewhere. +21Pg=10¢ +3 Defined here to include the epipelagic (0-200 m) and mesopelagic (200 — -1000 m) zones. The euphoti zone lies within the epipelagic zone. +* Macrophytes include sea grasses, macroalgae, salt marsh plants and mangroves. Phytoplankton ar single -celled, photosynthetic prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms growing in the euphotic zon (the layer between the ocean’s surface and the depth at which photosynthetically active radiation [PAR] i 1 per cent of surface intensity). Most phytoplankton species are > 1 um and < 1 mm in equivalen spherical diameter (cf. Ward et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations + +“biological pump” which transports 2-12 Pg C yr* of organic carbon to the deep se (Falkowski et al., 1998; Muller-Karger et al., 2005; Emerson and Hedges, 2008; Doney 2010; Passow and Carlson, 2012), where it is sequestered from the atmospheric pool o carbon for 200-1500 years (Craig, 1957; Schlitzer et al., 2003; Primeau and Holzer, 2006 Buesseler, et al., 2007). +Changes in the size structure of phytoplankton communities influence the fate of NP (Malone, 1980; Legendre and Rassoulzadegan, 1996; Pomeroy et al., 2007; Marafion 2009). In general, small cells (picophytoplankton with equivalent spherical diameters < um) account for most NPP in subtropical, oligotrophic (< 0.3 mg chlorophyll-a m*) nutrient-poor (nitrate + nitrite < 1 uM), warm (> 20°C) waters. Under these conditions the flow of organic carbon to harvestable fisheries and the biological pump are relativel small. In contrast, larger cells (microphytoplankton > 20 um) account for > 90 per cent o NPP in more eutrophic (> 5 mg chlorophyll-a m°), nutrient-rich (nitrate + nitrite >1 uM), cold (< 15°C) waters (Kamykowski, 1987; Agawin et al., 2000; Buitenhuis et al. 2012). Under these conditions, diatoms® account for most NPP during spring blooms a high latitudes and periods of coastal upwelling when NPP is high and nutrients are no limiting (Malone, 1980). The flow of organic carbon to fisheries and the biological pum is higher when larger cells account for most NPP (Laws et al., 2000; Finkel et al., 2010). +1.2 Methods of measuring net primary production (NPP 1.2.1 Phytoplankton Net Primary Production +Phytoplankton (NPP) has been estimated using a variety of in situ and remote sensin methods (Platt and Sathyendranath, 1993; Geider et al., 2001; Marra, 2002; Carr et al. 2006; Vernet and Smith, 2007; Cullen, 2008a; Cloern et al., 2013). Multiplatform (e.g. ships, moorings, drifters, gliders, aircraft, and satellites) sampling strategies that utiliz both approaches are needed to effectively detect changes in NPP on ecosystem t global scales (UNESCO-IOC, 2012). +On small spatial and temporal scales (meters-kilometres, hours-days), severa techniques have been used including oxygen production and the incorporation of "° and “Cc labelled bicarbonate (Cullen, 2008a). The most widely used and standar method against which other methods are compared or calibrated is based on th incorporation of ““C-bicarbonate into phytoplankton biomass (Steeman-Nielsen, 1963 Marra, 1995; Marra, 2002; Vernet and Smith, 2007; Cullen, 2008a). On large spatia scales (Large Marine Ecosystems’ to the global ocean), the most effective way to detec space-time variability is via satellite-based measurements of water-leaving radianc combined with diagnostic models of depth-integrated NPP as a function of depth- +° Diatom growth accounts for roughly half of marine NPP and therefore for about a quarter of globa photosynthetic production (Smetacek, 1999). +8 Large marine ecosystems (200,000 km? or larger) are coastal ecosystems characterized by their distinc bathymetry, hydrography, productivity and food webs (Sherman et al., 1993). +© 2016 United Nations + +integrated chlorophyll-a concentration (W Chl), photosynthetically active solar radiation and temperature (Antoine and Morel, 1996; Perry, 1986; Morel and Berthon, 1989; Plat and Sathyendranath, 1993; Behrenfeld and Falkowski, 1997; Sathyendranath, 2000 Gregg et al., 2003; Behrenfeld et al., 2006; Carr et al., 2006; Arrigo et al., 2008; Bissinge et al., 2008; McClain, 2009; Westberry et al., 2008; Cullen et al., 2012; Siegel et al. 2013). +An overview of the latest satellite based models may be found at the Ocean Productivit website.’ Satellite ocean-colour radiometry (OCR) data have been used to estimate surfac chlorophyll-a fields and NPP since the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) mission (1978 1986). Uninterrupted OCR measurements began with the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-vie Sensor (SeaWiFS) mission (1997-2010) (Hu et al., 2012). A full accounting of current pola orbiting and geostationary ocean-colour sensors with their capabilities (swath width, spatia resolution, spectral coverage) can be found on the web site of the International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group.® +The skill of model-based estimates of NPP has been improving (O'Reilly et al., 1998; Lee 2006; Friedrichs et al., 2009; Saba et al., 2010; Saba et al., 2011; Mustapha et al., 2012) but further improvements are needed through more accurate estimates of W Chl Chlorophyll-a fields can be estimated more accurately by blending data from remot sensing and in situ measurements, especially in regions where in situ measurements ar sparse and in turbid, coastal ecosystems (Conkright and Gregg, 2003; Gregg et al., 2003 Onabid, 2011). An empirical approach has been developed for ocean-colour remot sensing called Empirical Satellite Radiance-In situ Data (ESRID) algorithm (Gregg et al. 2009). +1.2.2. Macrophyte Net Primary Production +The NPP of macroalgae, sea grasses, salt marsh plants and mangroves can be estimate by sequentially (e.g., monthly during the growing season) measuring increases i biomass (including leaf litter in salt marshes and mangrove forests) using a combinatio of in situ techniques (e.g., Mann, 1972; Cousens, 1984; Dame and Kenny, 1986 Amarasinghe and Balasubramaniam, 1992; Long et al., 1992; Day et al., 1996; Ross et al. 2001; Curco et al., 2002; Morris, 2007) and satellite-based multispectral imagery (e.g. Gross et al., 1990; Zhang et al., 1997; Kovacs et al., 2001; Gitelson, 2004; Liu et al., 2008 Kovacs et al., 2009; Heumann, 2011; Mishra et al., 2012; Son and Chen, 2013). Fo remote sensing, accurate in situ measurements are critical for validating models used t map these habitats and estimate NPP (Gross et al., 1990; Kovacs et al., 2009; Roelfsem et al., 2009; Mishra et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2013; Trilla et al., 2013). These include shoot or leaf-tagging techniques, measurements of “C incorporation into leaves, an measurements of dissolved O2 production during the growing season (Bittaker and +” http://www.science.oregonstate.edu/ocean.productivity/ 8 http://www.ioccg.org/sensors/current.html. +© 2016 United Nations + +Iverson, 1976; Kemp et al., 1986; Duarte, 1989; Kaldy and Dunton, 2000; Duarte an Kirkman, 2001; Plus et al., 2001, Silva et al., 2009). +1.2.3 The Phenology’ of Phytoplankton Annual Cycles +The timing of seasonal increases in phytoplankton NPP is determined by environmenta parameters, including day length, temperature, changes in vertical stratification, and th timing of seasonal sea-ice retreat in polar waters. All but day length are affected b climate change. Thus, phytoplankton phenology provides an important tool fo detecting climate-driven decadal variability and secular trends. Phenological metrics t be monitored are the time of bloom initiation, bloom duration and time of maximu amplitude (Siegel et al., 2002; Platt et al., 2009). +1.3 Spatial patterns and temporal trends +Marine NPP varies over a broad spectrum of time scales from tidal, daily and seasona cycles to low-frequency basin-scale oscillations and multi-decade secular trend (Malone, 1971; Pingree et al., 1975; Steele, 1985; Cloern, 1987; Cloern, 2001; Cloern e al., 2013; Duarte, 1989; Powell, 1989; Malone et al., 1996; Henson and Thomas, 2007 Vantrepotte and Mélin, 2009; Cloern and Jassby, 2010; Bode et al., 2011; Chavez et al. 2011). Our focus here is on low-frequency cycles and multi-decade trends. +1.3.1 Phytoplankton NPP +For the most part, the global pattern of phytoplankton NPP (Figure 1) reflects th pattern of deep-water nutrient inputs to the euphotic zone associated with winte mixing and thermocline erosion at higher latitudes, thermocline shoaling at lowe latitudes, and upwelling along the eastern boundaries of the ocean basins and th equator (Wollast, 1998; Pennington et al., 2006; Chavez et al., 2011; Ward et al., 2012) The global distribution of phytoplankton NPP is also influenced by iron limitation an grazing by microzooplankton in so-called High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (HNLC) zone which account for ~20 per cent of the global ocean, e.g., oceanic waters of the subarcti north Pacific, subtropical equatorial Pacific, and Southern Ocean (Martin et al., 1994 Landry et al., 1997; Edwards et al., 2004). Nutrient inputs associated with river runof enhance NPP in coastal waters during the growing season (Seitzinger et al., 2005 Seitzinger et al., 2010). Annual cycles of NPP associated with patterns of nutrient suppl and seasonal variations in sunlight tend to increase in amplitude and decrease i duration with increasing latitude. Seasonal increases in NPP generally follow winte mixing when nutrient concentrations are high, the seasonal thermocline sets up, an day length increases. Annual cycles are also more pronounced in coastal waters subjec to seasonal upwelling. +° Phenology is the study of the timing and duration of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena (e.g., sprin phytoplankton blooms, seasonal cycles of zooplankton reproduction), especially in relation to climate an plant and animal life cycles. +© 2016 United Nations + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Climatological map Distribution of annual marine NPP for (a) NASA Ocean Biogeochemical Mode and (b) Vertically-Integrated Production Model (VGPM) for the period from September 1998 to 201 (Rousseaux — August 1999 (Blue < 100 gC m7, Green > 110 gc m” and < 400 gc m?, Red > 400 gc m” (Rutgers Institute of Marine and Gregg, 2014). Globally, diatoms accounted for about 50 per cent of NP while coccolithophores, chlorophytes and cyanobacteria accounted for about 20 per cent, 20 per cent an 10 per cent, respectively. Diatom NPP was highest at high latitudes and in equatorial and easter boundary upwelling systems. Coastal Sciences, http://marine.rutgers.edu/opp/). Coastal ecosystems (re — green) and the permanently stratified subtropical waters of the central gyres (blue) each account fo ~30 per cent of the ocean’s NPP, whereas the former accounts for only ~8 per cent of the ocean’s surfac area compared to ~60 per cent for the open ocean waters of the subtropics (Geider et al., 2001; Marafid et al., 2003; Muller-Karger et al., 2005). +© 2016 United Nations + +The global distribution of annual NPP in the ocean can be partitioned into broa provinces with eastern boundary upwelling systems and estuaries exhibiting the highes rates and subtropical central gyres the lowest rates (Figure 1, Table 1). +Table 1. Ranges of phytoplankton mean daily NPP and annual NPP reported for different marin provinces. Estimates are based on in situ measurements and models using satellite-based observations o chlorophyll-a fields. Western boundaries of the ocean basins generally feature broad continental shelve and eastern boundaries tend to have narrow shelves with coastal upwelling. (Data sources: Malone et al. 1983; O’Reilly and Busch, 1983; Pennock and Sharp, 1986; Cloern, 1987; Malone, 1991; Barber et al. 1996; Karl et al., 1996; Malone et al., 1996; Pilskaln et 173 al., 1996; Smith and DeMaster, 1996; Lohren et al., 1997; Cloern, 2001; Smith et al., 2001; Steinberg et al., 2001; Marafion et al., 2003; Sakshaug, 2004 PICES, 2004; Teira et al., 2005; Tian et al., 2005; Pennington et al., 2006; Subramanian et al., 2008; Verne et al., 2008; Bidigare et al., 2009; Sherman and Hempel, 2009; Chavez et al., 2010; 176 Saba et al., 2011 Brown and Arrigo, 2012; Cloern et al., 2013; Lomas et al., 2013). +Province mg C md" gc m” y Subtropical Central Gyres 20 - 1,040 150-17 Western Boundaries 10 - 3,500 200 - 47 Eastern Boundaries 30 - 7,300 460 -— 1,25 Equatorial Upwelling 640 - 900 24 Arctic Ocean 3-1,100 5-40 Southern Ocean 290 — 370 50-45 Coastal Seas 100 — 1,400 40 - 60 Estuaries & Coastal Plumes 100 — 8,000 70 - 1,890 +Interannual variability and multi-decadal trends in phytoplankton NPP on regional t global scales are primarily driven by: (1) climate change (e.g., basin-scale oscillations an decadal trends, including loss of polar ice cover, upper ocean warming, and changes i the hydrological cycle); (2) land-based, anthropogenic nutrient loading; and (3) pelagi and benthic primary consumers. Global-scale trends in phytoplankton NPP remai controversial (Boyce et al., 2010; Boyce et al., 2014; Mackas, 2011; Rykaczewski an Dunne, 2011; McQuatters-Gollop et al., 2011; Dave and Lozier, 2013; Wernand et al. 2013).). Remote sensing (sea-surface temperature and chlorophyll fields), mode simulations and marine sediment records suggest that global phytoplankton NPP ma have increased over the last century as a consequence of basin-scale climate forcin that promotes episodic and seasonal nutrient enrichment of the euphotic zone throug vertical mixing and upwelling (McGregor et al., 2007; Bidigare et al., 2009; Chavez et al. 2011; Zhai et al., 2013). In contrast, global analyses of changes in chlorophyl distribution over time suggest that annual NPP in the global ocean has declined over the +© 2016 United Nations + +last 100 years (Gregg et al., 2003; Boyce et al., 2014). A decadal scale decline i consistent with model simulations indicating that both NPP and the biological pum have decreased by ~7 per cent and 8 per cent, respectively, over the last five decade (Laufkétter et al., 2013), trends that are likely to continue through the end of thi century (Steinacher et al., 2010). +Given uncertainties concerning global trends, long-term impacts of secular changes i phytoplankton NPP on food security and climate change cannot be assessed at this tim with any certainty. Resolving this controversy and predicting future trends will requir sustained, multi-decadal observations and modelling of phytoplankton NPP and ke environmental parameters (e.g., upper ocean temperature, pCO, pH, depth of th aragonite saturation horizon, vertical stratification and nutrient concentrations) o regional and global scales — observations that may have to be sustained for at leas another 40-50 years (Henson et al., 2010). +1.3.2 Macrophyte NPP +Marine macrophyte NPP, which is limited to tidal and relatively shallow waters i coastal ecosystems, varies from 30-1,200 g C m® yr“ (Smith, 1981; Charpy-Roubaou and Sournia, 1990; Geider et al., 2001; Duarte et al., 2005; Duarte et al., 2010 Fourqurean et al., 2012; Ducklow et al., 2013). In contrast to the uncertainty of decada trends in phytoplankton NPP, decadal declines in the spatial extent and biomass o macrophytes (a proxy for NPP) over the last 50-100 years are relatively wel documented. Macrophyte habitats are being lost and modified (e.g., fragmented) a alarming rates (Duke et al., 2007; Valiela et al., 2009; Waycott et al., 2009; Wernberg e al., 2011), i.e., 2 per cent for macrophytes as a group, with total areal losses to date o 29 per cent for seagrasses, 50 per cent for salt marshes and 35 per cent for mangrov forests (Valiela et al., 2001; Hassan et al., 2005; Orth et al., 2006; Waycott et al., 2009 Fourqurean et al., 2012). As a whole, the world is losing its macrophyte ecosystems i coastal waters four times faster than its rain forests (Duarte et al., 2008), and the rate o loss is accelerating (Waycott et al., 2009). +2. Nutrient Cycles +Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are major nutrients required for the growth of al organisms, and NPP is the primary engine that drives the cycles of N and P in the oceans The cycles of C, N, P and O, are coupled in the marine environment (Gruber, 2008). A discussed in section 6.1.3, the global pattern of phytoplankton NPP reflects the patter of dissolved inorganic N and P inputs to the euphotic zone from the deep ocean (Figur 1). Superimposed on this pattern are nutrient inputs associated with N fixation atmospheric deposition, river discharge and submarine ground water discharge. I regard to the latter, ground water discharge may be a significant source of N locally i some parts of Southeast Asia, North and Central America, and Europe, but on the scal of ocean basins and the global ocean, ground water discharge of N has been estimated +© 2016 United Nations + +to be on the order of 2-4 per cent of river discharge (Beusen et al., 2013). Given this and challenges of quantifying ground water inputs on ocean basin to global scales (NRC 2004), this source is not considered herein. +2.1 Nitrogen +The ocean's nitrogen cycle is driven by complex microbial transformations, including fixation, assimilation, nitrification, anammox and denitrification (Voss et al., 2013 (Figure 2). NPP depends on the supply of reactive N (N,)’°to the euphotic zone Although most dissolved chemical forms of N, can be assimilated by primary producers the most abundant chemical form, dissolved dinitrogen gas (Nz), can only be assimilate by marine diazotrophs.*" N, inputs to the euphotic zone occur via fluxes of nitrate fro deep water (vertical mixing and upwelling), marine No fixation, river discharge, an atmospheric deposition.’2 N, is removed from the marine N inventory throug denitrification and anammox”™ with subsequent efflux of N. and N20 to the atmospher (Thamdrup et al., 2006; Capone, 2008; Naqvi et al., 2008; Ward et al., 2009; Ward, 2013) Although there is no agreement concerning the oxygen threshold that defines th geographic extent of denitrification and anammox (Paulmier and Ruiz-Pino, 2009), thes processes are limited to suboxic waters with very low oxygen concentrations (< 22 uM). +© Reactive or fixed N forms include dissolved inorganic nitrate, nitrite, ammonium and organic compounds, such as urea and free amino acids. +™ Prokaryotic, free -living and symbiotic bacteria, cyanobacteria and archaea. +” River discharge and atmospheric deposition include nitrate from fossil fuel burning and fixed N i synthetic fertilizer produced by the Haber-Bosch process for industrial nitrogen fixation. +*8 Anaerobic ammonium oxidation. +© 2016 United Nations + +Nz Atmosphere +Nitrification +PON ——~NH,* —> NO, — > NO, +Suboxic NO; +| +Organic NO, +Nitrogen —_1__ +Remineralization +Figure 2. The biological nitrogen cycle showing the main inorganic forms in which nitrogen occurs in th ocean (PON-pariculate organic nitrogen) (adapted from Ward, 2012). +Variations in the ocean’s inventory of N, have driven changes in marine NPP an atmospheric CO, throughout the Earth’s geological history (Falkowski, 1997; Gruber 2004; Arrigo, 2005). Marine N> fixation provides a source of “new” N and NPP that fue marine food webs and the biological pump. Thus, the rate of N> fixation can affec atmospheric levels of CO2 on time-scales of decades (variability in upper ocean nutrien cycles) to millennia (changes in the N, inventory of the deep sea). This makes th balance between the conversion of N2 to biomass (Nz fixation) and the production of N (reduction of nitrate and nitrite by denitrification and anammox) particularly importan processes in the N cycle that govern the marine inventory of N, and sustain life in th oceans (Karl et al., 2002; Ward et al., 2007; Gruber, 2008; Ward, 2012). +2.1.1 The Marine Nitrogen Budget +Estimates of global sources and sinks of N, vary widely (Table 2). Marine biological N fixation accounts for ~50 per cent of Nz fixation globally (Ward, 2012). Most marine N fixation occurs in the euphotic zone of warm (> 20°C), oligotrophic waters between 30 N and 30° S (Karl et al., 2002; Mahaffey et al., 2005; Stal, 2009; Sohm et al., 2011) Denitrification and anammox in benthic sediments and mid-water oxygen minimum +© 2016 United Nations + +zones (OMZs) account for most losses of N from the marine N, inventory (Ulloa et al. 2012; Ward, 2013). +Table 2. Summary of estimated sources and sinks (Tg N yr’) in the global marine nitrogen budget. (Dat sources: Codispoti et al., 2001; Gruber and Sarmiento, 2002; Karl et al., 2002; Galloway et al., 2004 Mahaffey et al., 2005; Seitzinger et al., 2005; Boyer et al., 2006; Moore et al., 2006; Deutsch et al., 2007 Duce et al., 2008; DeVries et al., 2012; Grosskopf et al., 2012; Luo et al., 2012; Naqvi, 2012.) +Sources | N fixation 60-20 Rivers 35-8 Atmosphere 38-9 TOTAL 133-376 +Sinks Denitrification & anammox | 120-450 +Sedimentation 2 N20 loss 4- TOTAL 149-482 +Assuming a C:N:P ratio of 106:16:1 (the Redfield Ratio, Redfield et al., 1963), th quantity of N, needed to support NPP globally is ~8800 Tg N yr’. Given curren estimates, inputs of N, from river discharge and atmospheric deposition support 2-4 pe cent of NPP annually, i.e., most NPP is supported by recycled nitrate from deep water (cf. Okin et al., 2011). +Although the N20 flux is a small term in the marine N budget (Table 2), it is a significan input to the global atmospheric N20 pool. Given a total input of 17.7 Tg N yr- (Freing e al., 2012), marine sources may account for 20-40 per cent of N2O inputs to th atmosphere. As N20 is 200-300 times more effective than CO as a greenhouse gas increases in N,O from the ocean may contribute to both global warming and th destruction of stratospheric ozone. We note that although global estimates fo anammox have yet to be made, this anaerobic process may be responsible for most N production in some oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) (Strous et al., 2006; Hamersley et al. 2007; Lama et al., 2009; Koeve and Kahler, 2010; Ulloa et al., 2012). +The accounting in Table 2 suggests that total sinks may exceed total sources, but th difference is not significant. Many scientists believe that biological N2 fixation i underestimated or the combined rates of denitrification and anammox ar overestimated (Capone, 2008). On average, the Redfield Ratio approximates the C:N: ratio of phytoplankton biomass, and the distribution of deviations from the Redfiel Ratio (Martiny et al., 2013) suggests that: sources exceed sinks in the subtropical gyres sources and sinks are roughly equal in upwelling systems (including their OMZs); an sources tend to be less than sinks at high latitudes. This pattern is consistent with the +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +known distribution of marine diazotrophs and the observation that most marine N fixation occurs in warm, oligotrophic waters between 30° N and 30° S (Mahaffey et al. 2005; Stal, 2009; Sohm et al., 2011). However, given the wide and overlapping ranges o current estimates of N, sources and sinks (Table 2), the extent to which the two are i steady state remains controversial. +Atmospheric deposition of iron to the oceans via airborne dust may ultimately contro the rate of N> fixation in the global ocean and may account for the relatively high rate o N>2 fixation in the subtropical central gyres (Karl et al., 2002). Fe Il is required fo photosynthetic and respiratory electron transport, nitrate and nitrite reduction, and N fixation. The large dust plume that extends from North Africa over the subtropical Nort Atlantic Ocean dominates the global dust field (Stier et al., 2005). Consequently, iro deposition is particularly high in this region (Mahowald et al., 2005) where it ma increase phytoplankton NPP by stimulating N» fixation (Mahowald et al., 2005 Krishnamurthy et al., 2009; Okin et al., 2011). Model simulations indicate that th distribution and rate of N2 fixation may also be influenced by non-Redfield uptake of and P by non-N; fixing phytoplankton (Mills and Arrigo, 2010). In these simulations, N fixation in ecosystems dominated by phytoplankton with N:P ratios < Redfield is lowe than expected when estimated rates are based on Redfield stoicheiometry. In contrast in systems dominated by phytoplankton with N:P ratios > Redfield, N2 fixation is highe than expected based on Redfield stoicheiometry. +2.1.2 Time-Space Coupling of N2 Fixation and Denitrification/Anammox +Early measurements of N2 fixation and the geographic distribution of in situ deviation from the Redfield Ratio suggest that the dominant sites of No fixation and denitrificatio are geographically separated and coupled on the time scales of ocean circulatio (Capone et al., 2008 and references therein). In this scenario, the ocean oscillate between being a net source and a net sink of N, on time scales of hundreds to thousand of years (Naqvi, 2012). However, there is also evidence that N, fixation is closely couple with denitrification/anammox in upwelling-OMZ systems”, i.e., rates of No fixation ar high downstream from OMZs where denitrification/anammox is high (Deutsch et al. 2007). Their findings indicate that N2 fixation and denitrification are in steady state on global scale. Results from 3-D inverse modelling (DeVries et al., 2013) and observation that the marine N, inventory has been relatively stable over the last several thousan years (Gruber, 2004; Altabet, 2007) support the hypothesis that rates of N2 fixation an denitrification/anammox are closely coupled in time and space. +At the same time, global biogeochemical modelling suggests that the negativ feedbacks stabilizing the N, inventory cannot persist in an ocean where N> fixation an denitrification/anammox are closely coupled, i.e., spatial separation, rather than spatia proximity, promoted negative feedbacks that stabilized the marine N inventory and +* Oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) are oxygen-deficient layers in the ocean's water column (Paulmier an Ruiz-Pino, 2009). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +sustained a balanced N budget (Landolfi et al., 2013). If the coupling is close as argue above, the budget may not be in steady state. In this scenario, increases in vertica stratification of the upper ocean and expansion of OMZs associated with ocean warmin (Keeling et al., 2010) could lead to closer spatial coupling of N» fixation an denitrification, a net loss of N from the marine N, inventory, and declines in NPP an CO2 sequestration during this century. +2.2 Phosphorus +Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient utilized by all organisms for energy transport an growth. The primary inputs of P occur via river discharge and atmospheric depositio (Table 3). Biologically active P (BAP) in natural waters usually occurs as phosphate (PO 3), which may be in dissolved inorganic forms (including orthophosphates an polyphosphates) or organic forms (organically bound phosphates). Natural inputs of BA begin with chemical weathering of rocks followed by complex biogeochemica interactions, whose time scales are much longer than anthropogenic P inputs (Benitez Nelson, 2000). Primary anthropogenic sources of BAP are industrial fertilizer, sewag and animal wastes. +The Marine Phosphorus Budget: River discharge of P into the coastal ocean accounts fo most P input to the ocean (Table 3). However, most riverine P is sequestered i continental shelf sediments (Paytan and McLaughlin, 2007) so that only ~25 per cent o the riverine input enters the NPP-driven marine P cycle. Estimates of BAP reaching th open ocean from rivers range from a few tenths to perhaps 1 Tg P yr’ (Seitzinger et al. 2005; Meybeck, 1982; Sharpies et al., 2013). Mahowald et al., (2008) estimated tha atmospheric inputs of BAP are ~0.1 Tg P yr~. Together these inputs would support ~0. per cent of NPP annually. Thus, like Nr, virtually all NPP is supported by BAP recycle within the ocean on a global scale. +Table 3. Summary of estimated sources and sinks (Tg P yr-1) in the global marine phosphorus budget (Data sources: Filippelli and Delaney, 1996; Howarth et al., 1996; Benitez-Nelson, 2000; Compton et al., +2000; Ruttenberg, 2004; Seitzinger et al., 2005; Paytan and McLaughlin, 2007; Mahowald et al., 2008 Harrison et al., 2010; Krishnamurthy et al., 2010.) +Sources | River discharge 10.79 — 31.0 Atmospheric deposition 0.54-1.0 TOTAL 11.33 — 32.05 +Sinks Open ocean sedimentation | 1.30 — 10.57 +The primary source of P in the atmosphere is mineral dust, accounting for approximatel 80 per cent of atmospheric P. Other important sources include biogenic particles biomass burning, fossil-fuel combustion, and biofuels. The P in mineral particles is not +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +very soluble, and most of it is found downwind of desert and arid regions. Only ~0.1 Tg yr? of BAP appears to enter the oceans via atmospheric deposition (Mahowald et al. 2008). Although a small term in the P budget (Table 3), atmospheric deposition appear to be the main external source of BAP in the oligotrophic waters of the subtropical gyre and the Mediterranean Sea (Paytan and McLaughlin, 2007; Krishnamurthy et al., 2010). +Burial in continental shelf and deep-sea sediments is the primary sink, with mos riverine input being removed from the marine P cycle by rapid sedimentation o particulate inorganic (non-reactive mineral lattices) P in coastal waters (Paytan an McLaughlin, 2007). Burial in deep-sea sediments occurs after transformations fro dissolved to particulate forms in the water column. Of the riverine input, 60-85 per cen is buried in continental shelf sediments (Slomp, 2011). Assuming that inputs from rive discharge and atmospheric deposition are, respectively, ~15 Tg P yr’ and 1 Tg P yr’, an that 11 Tg P yr’ and 5 Tg P yr’, respectively, are buried in shelf and open-ocea sediments, the P budget appears to be roughly balanced on the scale of P turnove times in the ocean (~1500 years, Paytan and McLaughlin, 2007). +3. Variability and Resilience of Marine Ecosystems +3.1 Phytoplankton species diversity and resilience +Biodiversity enhances resilience by increasing the range of possible responses t perturbations and the likelihood that species will functionally compensate for on another following disturbance (functional redundancy) (McCann, 2000; Walker et al. 2004; Hooper et al., 2005; Haddad et al., 2011; Appeltans et al., 2012; Cleland, 2011) Annually averaged phytoplankton species diversity of the upper ocean tends to b lowest in polar and subpolar waters, where fast-growing (opportunistic) species accoun for most NPP, and highest in tropical and subtropical waters, where small phytoplankto (< 10 um) account for most NPP (Barton et al., 2010). Phytoplankton species diversity i also a unimodal function of phytoplankton NPP, with maximum diversity at intermediat levels of NPP and minimum diversity associated with blooms of diatoms, dinoflagellates Phaeocystis sp., and coccolithophores (Irigoien et al., 2004). This suggests that pelagi marine food webs may be most resilient to climate and anthropogenic forcings a intermediate levels of annual phytoplankton NPP. +3.2 Events, phenomena and processes of special interest +Zooplankton grazing: Zooplankton populations play key roles in both microbial foo webs” supported by small phytoplankton (< 10 um) and metazoan food webs’® +* The microbial food web (or microbial loop) consists of small phytoplankton (mean spherical diameter 10 um), heterotrophic bacteria, archaea and protozoa (flagellates and ciliates). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +supported by large phytoplankton (> 20 um). As such, they are critical links in nutrien cycles and the transfer of NPP to higher trophic levels of metazoan consumers. They fue the biological pump and they limit excessive increases in NPP (e.g., Corten and Linley 2003; Greene and Pershing, 2004; Steinberg et al., 2012). Microbial food webs dominat the biological cycles of C, N and P in the upper ocean and feed into metazoan food web involving zooplankton, planktivorous fish, and their predators (Pomeroy et al., 2007 Moloney et al., 2011; Ward et al., 2012). Zooplankton in microbial food webs ar typically dominated by heterotrophic and mixotrophic flagellates and ciliates. Metazoa food webs dominate the flow of energy and nutrients to harvestable fish stocks and t the deep sea (carbon sequestration). Zooplankton in metazoan food webs are typicall dominated by crustaceans (e.g., copepods, krill and shrimp) and are part of relativel short, efficient, and nutritionally rich food webs supporting large numbers o planktivorous and piscivorous fish, seabirds, and marine mammals (Richardson, 2008 Barnes et al., 2010; Barnes et al., 2011). +Microbial food webs support less zooplankton biomass than do metazoan food webs and a recent analysis suggests that zooplankton/phytoplankton ratios range from a lo of ~0.1 in the oligotrophic subtropical gyres to a high of ~10 in upwelling systems an subpolar regions (Ward et al., 2012). Such a gradient is consistent with a shift fro “bottom-up”, nutrient-limited NPP in the oligotrophic gyres, where microflagellates ar the primary consumers of NPP (Calbet, 2008), to “top-down”, grazing control of NPP b zooplankton in more productive high-latitude and upwelling ecosystems, wher planktonic crustaceans are the primary grazers of NPP (Ward et al., 2012). Thus zooplankton grazing on phytoplankton is an important parameter of spatial patterns an temporal trends in NPP, particularly at high latitudes and in coastal upwelling system (section 6.1.4). +3.2.1 NPP and Fisheries +Fish production depends to a large extent on NPP but the relationship between NPP an fish landings is complex. For instance, Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) of the coasta ocean account for ~30 per cent of marine phytoplankton NPP and ~80 per cent o marine fish landings globally (Sherman and Hempel, 2009). They are also “provin grounds” for the development of ecosystem-based approaches (EBAs) to fisherie management (McLeod and Leslie, 2009; Sherman and Hempel, 2009; Malone et al. 2014b). EBAs are guided in part by the recognition that the flow of energy and nutrient from NPP through marine food webs ultimately limits annual fish landings (Pauly an Christensen, 1995; Pikitch et al., 2004). +Both mean annual and maximum fish landings have been shown to be related to NPP o regional scales, with increases in potential landings at high latitudes (> 30 per cent) an decreases at low latitudes (up to 40 per cent) (Pauly and Christensen, 1995; Ware, 2000; +*© The so-called “classical” food web is dominated by larger phytoplankton, metazoan zooplankton an nekton. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Ware and Thomson, 2005; Frank et al., 2006; Chassot et al., 2007; Sherman and Hempel 2009; Blanchard et al., 2012). However, the NPP required to support annual fis landings (PPR) varies among LMEs, e.g., fisheries relying on NPP at the Eastern Boundar Upwelling Systems require substantially higher levels of NPP than elsewhere (Chassot e al., 2010). Variations in PPR/NPP are related to a number of factors, including th relative importance of microbial and metazoan food webs and differences in th efficiencies of growth and transfer efficiencies among trophic levels. The level o exploitation (PPR/NPP) increased by over 10 per cent from 2000 to 2004, and the NP appropriated by current global fisheries is 17-112 per cent higher than tha appropriated by sustainable fisheries. Temporal and spatial variations in PPR/NPP cal into question the usefulness of global NPP per se as a predictor of global fish landing (Friedland et al., 2012). Friedland et al. (2012) found that NPP is a poor predictor of fis landings across 52 LMEs, with most variability in fish landings across LMEs accounted fo by chlorophyll-a concentration, the fraction of NPP exported to deep water, and th ratio of secondary production to NPP. Given these considerations and uncertaintie concerning the effects of climate change on fluxes of nutrients to the euphotic zone, it i not surprising that there is considerable uncertainty associated with projections of ho changes in NPP will affect fish landings over the next few decades. +3.2.2 NPP Fisheries and zooplankton +Zooplankton is a critical link between NPP and fish production (Cushing, 1990 Richardson, 2008). Efficient transfer of phytoplankton NPP to higher trophic level ultimately depends on the relative importance of microbial and metazoan foods web and the coherence between the timing of phytoplankton blooms (initiation, amplitude duration) and the reproductive cycles of zooplankton and planktivorous fish (Cushing 1990; Platt et al., 2003; Koeller et al., 2009; Jansen et al., 2012). Energy transfer t higher trophic levels via microbial food webs is less efficient than for metazoan foo webs (e.g., Barnes et al., 2010; Barnes et al., 2011; Suikkanen et al., 2013). Coherence i time and space is especially important in higher-latitude ecosystems (Sherman et al. 1984; Edwards and Richardson, 2004; Richardson, 2008; Ohashia et al., 2013), wher seasonal variations in NPP are most pronounced and successful fish recruitment is mos dependent on synchronized production across trophic levels (Cushing, 1990; Beaugran et al., 2003). The phenological response to ocean warming differs among functiona groups of plankton, resulting in predator-prey mismatches that may influence PPR/NP in marine ecosystems. For example, phytoplankton blooms in the North Atlantic begi earlier south of 40°N (autumn — winter) and in spring north of 40°N (Siegel et al., 2002 Ueyama and Monger, 2005; Vargas et al., 2009). Likewise, a 44-year time series (1958 2002) revealed progressively earlier peaks in abundance of dinoflagellates (23 days) diatoms (22 days) and copepods (10 days) under stratified summer conditions in th North Sea (Edwards and Richardson, 2004). Such differential responses in phytoplankto and zooplankton phenology lead to mismatches between successive trophic levels and therefore, a decline in PPR/NPP, i.e., a decrease in carrying capacity for harvestable fis stocks. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.2.3 Coastal Eutrophication and “Dead Zones” +Excess phytoplankton NPP in coastal ecosystems can lead to accumulations o phytoplankton biomass and eutrophication. Anthropogenic N and P loading to estuarin and coastal marine ecosystems has more than doubled in the last 100 years (Seitzinge et al., 2010; Howarth et al., 2012),”” leading to a global spread of coastal eutrophicatio and associated increases in the number of oxygen-depleted “dead zones” (Duarte, 1995 Malone et al., 1999; Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Kemp et al., 2009), loss of sea grass bed (Dennison et al., 1993; Kemp et al., 2004; Schmidt et al., 2012), and increases in th occurrence of toxic phytoplankton blooms (see below). Current global trends in coasta eutrophication and the occurrence of “dead zones” and toxic algal events indicate tha phytoplankton NPP is increasing in many coastal ecosystems, a trend that is also likely t exacerbate future impacts of over-fishing, sea-level rise, and coastal development o ecosystem services (Dayton et al., 2005; Koch et al., 2009; Waycott et al., 2009). +3.2.4 Oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) +OMZs, which occur at midwater depths (200-1000 m) in association with easter boundary upwelling systems, are expanding globally as the solubility of dissolved O decreases and vertical stratification increases due to upper ocean warming (Chan et al. 2008; Capotondi et al., 2012; Bijma et al., 2013). Currently, the total surface area o ONZs is estimated to be ~30 x 10° km? (~8 per cent of the ocean’s surface area) with volume of ~10 x 10° km? (“0.1 per cent of the ocean’s volume). It is expected that th spatial extent of OMZs will continue to increase (Oschlies et al., 2008), a trend that i likely to affect nutrient cycles and fisheries — especially when combined with the sprea of coastal dead zones associated with coastal eutrophication. +3.2.5 Toxic Algal Blooms +Toxin-producing algae are a diverse group of phytoplankton species with only tw characteristics in common: (1) they harm people and ecosystems; and (2) thei initiation, development and dissipation are governed by species-specific populatio dynamics and oceanographic conditions (Cullen, 2008b). Negative impacts of algal toxin include illness and death in humans who consume contaminated fish and shellfish or ar exposed to toxins via direct contact (swimming, inhaling noxious aerosols); mas mortalities of wild and farmed fish, marine mammals and birds; and declines in th capacity of ecosystems to support goods and services (Cullen, 2008b; Walsh et al. 2008). Impacts associated with toxic algal blooms are global and appear to be increasin in severity and extent in coastal ecosystems as a consequence of anthropogeni nutrients, introductions of non-native toxic species with ballast water from ships, an climate-driven increases in water temperature and vertical stratification of the uppe ocean (Glibert et al., 2005; Glibert and Bouwman, 2012; Cullen, 2008b; Franks, 2008 Malone, 2008; Hallegraeff, 2010; Moore et al., 2008, Babin et al., 2008). +” Primarily due to the rapid rise in fertilizer use in agriculture, production of manure from farm animals domestic sewage, and atmospheric deposition associated with fossil-fuel combustion. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.2.6 Nanoparticles +Nanoparticles have dimensions of 1-100 nm and are produced both naturally an anthropogenically. Of concern here are anthropogenic nanoparticles, such as titaniu dioxide (TiOz)*® and nanoplastics*®. Nanoparticulate TiO. is highly photoactive an generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) when exposed to ultraviolet radiation (UV) Consequently, TiO. has been used for antibacterial applications, such as wastewate treatment. It also has the potential to affect NPP. For example, it has been found tha ambient levels of UV from the sun can cause TiO2 nanoparticles suspended in seawate to kill phytoplankton, perhaps through the generation of ROS (Miller et al., 2012) Recent work has also highlighted the potential environmental impacts of microplastic (cf. Depledge et al., 2013; Wright et al., 2013). Experimental evidence suggests tha nanoplastics may reduce grazing pressure on phytoplankton and perturb nutrient cycles For example, Wegner et al., (2012) found that mussels (Mytilus edulis) exposed t nanoplastics consume less phytoplankton and grow slower than mussels that have no been exposed. In addition, microplastics contain persistent organic pollutants, and bot mathematical models and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer o pollutants from plastic to organisms (Teuten et al., 2009). +Understanding the ecotoxicology of anthropogenic nanoparticles in the marin environment is an important challenge, but as of this writing there is no clear consensu on environmental impacts in situ (cf. Handy et al., 2008). We know so little about th persistence and physical behaviour of anthropogenic nanoparticles in situ tha extrapolating experimental results, such as those given above, to the natural marin environment would be premature. We urgently need to develop the means to reliabl and routinely monitor nanoparticles of anthropogenic origin and their impacts o production and fate of phytoplankton biomass. A first step towards risk assessmen would be to establish and set limits based on their intrinsic toxicity to phytoplankto and the consumers of plankton biomass. The provision of such information is part of th mission of Working Group 40 of the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects o Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP). WG 40 was established to assess th sources, fate and effects of micro-plastics in the marine environment globally.”” +3.2.7 Ultraviolet Radiation and the Ozone Layer +The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation (UV, 400-700 nanometers), with UV-B (280-315 nm having a wide range of potentially harmful effects, including inhibition of primary +*® The world production of nanoparticulate TiO, is an order of magnitude greater than the next mos widely produced nanomaterial, ZnO. About 70 per cent of all pigments use TiO, and it is a commo ingredient in products such as sunscreen and food colouring. Titanium dioxide is therefore likely to ente estuaries and oceans, for example, from industrial discharge. +*® Plastic nanoparticles are released when plastic debris decomposes in seawater. Nanoparticles are als released from cosmetics and from clothes in the wash, and enter sewage systems where they ar discharged into the sea. +?° http://www.gesamp.org/work-programme/workgroups/working-group-40. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +production by phytoplankton and cyanobacteria (Hader et al., 2007; Villar-Argaiz et al. 2009; Ha et al., 2012), changes in the structure and function of plankton communitie (Ferreyra et al., 2006; Hader et al., 2007; Fricke et al., 2011; Guidi et al., 2011; Santos e al., 2012a; Ha et al., 2014), and alterations of the N cycle (Goes et al., 1995; Jiang an Qiu, 2011). The ozone layer in the Earth’s stratosphere blocks most UV-B from reachin the ocean’s surface. Consequently, stratospheric ozone depletion since the 1970s ha been a concern, especially over the South Pole, where a so-called ozone hole ha developed.”* However, the average size of the ozone hole declined by ~2 per cen between 2006 and 2013 and appears to have stabilized, with variation from year to yea driven by changing meteorological conditions.”” It has even been predicted that ther will be a gradual recovery of ozone concentrations by ~2050 (Taalas et al., 2000). Give these observations and variations in the depths to which UV-B penetrates in the ocea (~1-10 m), a consensus on the magnitude of the ozone-depletion effect on NPP an nutrient cycling has yet to be reached. +4. Socioeconomic importance +Marine NPP supports a broad range of ecosystem services valued by society an required for sustainable development (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Wor et al., 2006; Conservation International, 2008; Perrings et al., 2010; Schlitzer et al., 2012 Malone et al., 2014b; Chapter 3 in this assessment). These include: +(1) food security through the production of harvestable fish, shellfish an macroalgae (Sherman and Hempel, 2009; Chassot et al., 2010; Barbier et al. 2011); +(2) climate regulation through carbon sequestration (Twilley et al., 1992; Cebrian 2002; Schlitzer et al., 2003; Duarte et al., 2005; Bouillon et al., 2008; Mitsch an Gosselink, 2008; Schneider et al., 2008; Subramaniam et al., 2008; Laffoley an Grimsditch, 2009; Nellemann et al., 2009; Chavez et al., 2011; Crooks et al. 2011; Henson et al., 2012); +(3) maintenance of water quality through nutrient recycling and water filtratio (Falkowski et al., 1998; Geider et al., 2001; Dayton et al., 2005; Howarth et al. 2011); +(4) protection from coastal erosion and flooding through the growth of macrophyt habitats (Danielsen et al., 2005; UNEP-WCMC, 2006; Davidson and Malone, +21 Ozone can be destroyed by reactions with by-products of man-made chemicals, such as chlorine fro chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Increases in the concentrations of these chemicals have led to ozon depletion. +2 http://www.nasa.gov/content/. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +2006/2007; Braatz et al., 2007; Koch et al., 2009; Titus et al., 2009; Barbier et al. 2011), and +(5) development of biofuels and discovery of pharmaceuticals through th maintenance of biodiversity (Chynoweth et al., 2001; Orhan et al., 2006; Han e al., 2006; Yusuf, 2007; Negreanu-Pirjol et al., 2011; Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011; Pereira et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2012). +On a global scale, the value of these services in coastal marine and estuarine ecosystem has been estimated to be > 25 trillion United States dollars annually, making the coasta zone among the most economically valuable regions on Earth (Costanza et al., 1997 Martinez et al., 2007). The global loss of macrophyte ecosystems threatens the ocean’ capacity to sequester carbon from the atmosphere (climate control), suppor biodiversity (Part V of this Assessment) and living marine resources (Part IV of thi Assessment), maintain water quality, and protect against coastal erosion and floodin (Boesch and Turner, 1984; Dennison et al., 1993; Duarte, 1995; CENR, 2003; Scavia an Bricker, 2006; Davidson and Malone, 2006/07; Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; MacKenzi and Dionne, 2008; Nellemann et al., 2009). Estimates of the value of these services b Koch et al., (2009) and Barbier et al., (2011) suggest that the socioeconomic impact o the degradation of marine macrophyte ecosystems is on the order of billions of U dollars per year. +5. Anthropogenic Impacts on Upper Ocean Plankton and Nutrient Cycles +5.1 Nitrogen loading +The rate of industrial Nitrogen gas (N2) fixation increased rapidly during the 20" centur and is now about equal to the rate of biological N2 fixation, resulting in a two- t threefold increase in the global inventory of Reactive nitrogen (N,) (Galloway et al. 2004; Howarth, 2008), a trend that has accelerated the global N cycle (Gruber an Galloway 2008). Today, anthropogenic N, inputs to surface waters via atmospheri deposition and river discharge are now roughly equivalent to marine N> fixation (Tabl 2) and are expected to exceed marine N> fixation in the near future as a result o increases in emissions from combustion of fossil fuels and use of synthetic fertilizers This trend is expected to continue (Duce et al., 2008; Seitzinger et al., 2010). +Atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic N, increased by an order of magnitude durin the 20" century to ~54 Tg N y1(80 per cent of total deposition), an amount that coul increase NPP by ~0.06 per cent. Estimates of anthropogenic emissions for 2030 indicat a 4-fold increase in total atmospheric N, deposition to the ocean and an 11-fold increas in AAN deposition (Duce et al., 2008). However, Lamarque et al., (2013) suggest tha oxidized Nr may decrease later this century because of increased control of the emissio of oxidized N compounds. At the same time, the geographic distribution of atmospheri deposition has also changed (Suntharalingam et al., 2012). In the late 1800s, +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +atmospheric deposition over most of the ocean is estimated to have been < 50 mg Nm y’. By 2000, deposition over large ocean areas exceeded 200 mg Nm~ y™ with intens deposition plumes (> 700 mg N m~ y”) extending downwind from Asia, India, North an South America, Europe and West Africa. Predictions for 2030 indicate similar patterns but with higher deposition rates extending farther offshore into the oligotrophic subtropical central gyres. Likewise, marine N2O production has increased compared t pre-industrial times downwind of continental population centres (in coastal and inlan seas by 15-30 per cent, in oligotrophic regions of the North Atlantic and Pacific by 5-2 per cent, and in the northern Indian Ocean by up to 50 per cent). These regiona patterns reflect a combination of high N, deposition and enhanced N2O production i suboxic zones. +The major pathway of anthropogenic N, loading to the oceans is river runoff Anthropogenic N, input to the coastal ocean via river discharge more than double during the 20" century due to increases in fossil-fuel combustion, discharges of huma and animal wastes, and the use of industrial fertilizers in coastal watersheds (Peierls e al., 1991; Galloway et al., 2004; Seitzinger et al., 2010). Riverine input of N, to th coastal ocean is correlated with human population density in and net anthropogeni inputs (NANI)?* to coastal watersheds (Howarth et al., 2012). NPP in coastal marine an estuarine ecosystems increases with increasing riverine inputs of N, (Nixon, 1992). Give predicted increases in population density in coastal watersheds and climate-drive changes in the hydrological cycle, global nutrient-export models predict that riverin inputs of N, to coastal waters will double again by 2050 (Seitzinger et al., 2010). In thi context, it is noteworthy that anthropogenic perturbations of the N-cycle caused b NANI already exceed the estimated “planetary boundary” (35 x 10° kg yr“) within whic sustainable development is possible (Rockstram et al., 2009). +Ocean warming and associated increases in vertical stratification are likely to exacerbat the effects of increases in NANI on phytoplankton NPP in coastal waters (Rabalais et al. 2009). As a consequence, excess NPP and the global extent of coastal eutrophication ar likely to continue increasing, especially in coastal waters near large watersheds population centres and areas of industrial agriculture (Kroeze and Seitzinger, 1998 Dayton et al., 2005; Seitzinger et al., 2005; UNESCO, 2008; Kemp et al., 2009; Rabalais e al., 2009; Sherman and Hempel, 2009). +5.2 Ocean warmin 5.2.1 Global impacts on NP Henson et al., (2013) used the results of six global biogeochemical models to project the +effects of upper ocean warming on the amplitude and timing of seasonal peaks in +3 Net anthropogenic nitrogen input (NANI) is the sum of synthetic N fertilizer used, N fixation associate with agricultural crops, atmospheric deposition of oxidized N, and the net movement of N into or out o the region in human food and animal feed. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +phytoplankton NPP. Amplitude decreased by 1-2 per cent over most of the ocean except in the Arctic, where an increase of 1 per cent by 2100 is projected. These result are supported by the response of phytoplankton and zooplankton to global climate change projections carried out with the IPSL Earth System Model (Chust et al., 2014) Projected upper ocean warming by the turn of the century led to reductions i phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass of 6 per cent and 11 per cent, respectively Simulations suggest such declines are the predominant response over nearly 50 per cen of the ocean and prevail in the tropical and subtropical oceans while increasing trend prevail in the Arctic and Antarctic oceans. These results suggest that the capacity of th oceans to regulate climate through the biological carbon pump may decrease over th course of this century. The model runs also indicate that, on average, a 30-40 year tim series of observations will be needed to validate model results. +Regardless of the direction of global trends in NPP, climate change may be causing shift in phytoplankton community size spectra toward smaller cells which, if confirmed, wil have profound effects on the fate of NPP and nutrient cycling during this centur (Polovina and Woodworth, 2012). The size spectrum of phytoplankton communities i the upper ocean’s euphotic zone largely determines the trophic organization of pelagi ecosystems and, therefore, the efficiency with which NPP is channelled to higher trophi levels, is exported to the deep ocean, or is metabolized in the upper ocean (Malone 1980; Azam et al., 1983; Cushing, 1990; Kigrboe, 1993; Legendre and Rassoulzadegan 1996; Shurin et al., 2006; Pomeroy et al., 2007; Marafion, 2009; Barnes et al., 2010 Finkel et al., 2010; Suikkanen et al., 2013; and section 6.3.2). +In today’s ocean, the proportion of NPP accounted for by small phytoplankton (cell with an equivalent spherical diameter < 10 um) generally increases with increasin water temperature in the ocean (Atkinson et al., 2003; Daufresne et al., 2009; Marafion 2009; Huete-Ortega et al., 2010; Moran et al., 2010; Hilligsge et al., 2011) and wit increasing vertical stratification of the euphotic zone (Margalef, 1978; Malone, 1980 Kigrboe, 1993). Small cells also have a competitive advantage over large cells i nutrient-poor environments (Malone, 1980a; Chisholm, 1992; Kigrboe, 1993; Raven 1998; Marafion, 2009). Thus, as the upper ocean warms and becomes more stratified, i is likely that the small phytoplankton species will account for an increasingly larg fraction of NPP (Moran et al., 2010) resulting in increases in energy flow throug microbial food webs and decreases in fish stocks and organic carbon export to the dee sea (see section 6.1.1 and references therein). +This trend may be exacerbated by increases in temperature that are likely to stimulat plankton metabolism, enhancing both NPP and microbial respiration. Recent studie (Montoya and Raffaelli, 2010; Sarmento et al., 2010; Behrenfeld, 2011; Taucher an Oschlies, 2011; Taucher et al., 2012) suggest that predicted climate-driven increases i the temperature of the upper ocean will stimulate the NPP of smalle picophytoplankton cells (equivalent spherical diameter < 2um), despite predicte decreases in nutrient inputs to the euphotic zone from the deep sea in permanentl stratified regions of the ocean (e.g., the oligotrophic, subtropical central gyres). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +However, if this does occur, it will not result in an increase in fishery production or i the ocean’s uptake of atmospheric CO2, because increases in picophytoplankton NP will be accompanied by equivalent increases in the respiratory release of CO. b bacterioplankton and other heterotrophic microbial consumers in the upper ocea (Sarmento et al., 2010; Behrenfeld, 2011). +5.2.2 Regional impacts on NPP +Regional trends in phytoplankton NPP are less controversial. The area of low NPP in th subtropical central gyres increased by 1-4 per cent yr’ from 1998 through 200 (Polovina et al., 2008; Vantrepotte and Mélin, 2009), a trend that is likely to continu through this century (Polovina et al., 2011). Decreasing NPP has been attributed t climate-driven (ocean warming) increases in vertical stratification and associate decreases in nutrient fluxes from deep water to the euphotic zone in the permanentl stratified subtropical gyres (Rost et al., 2008; Jang et al., 2011; Polovina et al., 2011 Capotondi et al., 2012; Moore et al., 2013). In the North Atlantic, upper ocean warmin and increases in stratification have been accompanied by decreasing NPP in water south of ~50°N, whereas warming and increases in stratification to the north have bee accompanied by increasing NPP (Richardson and Shoeman, 2004; Bode et al., 2011) These divergent responses to stratification reflect increases in the availability of sunligh in nutrient-rich, well-mixed subpolar waters and increases in nutrient limitation i nutrient-poor, permanently stratified”* subtropical waters (Richardson and Shoeman 2004; Steinacher et al., 2010; Bode et al., 2011; Capotondi et al., 2012). +Polar ecosystems are particularly sensitive to climate change (Smith et al., 2001 Anisimov et al., 2007; Bode et al., 2011; Doney et al., 2012; Engel et al., 2013), and th impacts of shrinking ice cover on NPP are expected to be especially significant in th Arctic Ocean (Wang and Overland, 2009). Loss of Arctic sea ice has accelerated in recen years (with a record low in 2012),”° a trend that is correlated with an increase in annua NPP by an average of 27.5 Tg C yr’ since 2003, with an overall increase of 20 per cen from 1998 to 2010 (Arrigo et al., 2008; Arrigo and van Dijken, 2011; Brown and Arrigo 2012). Of this increase, 30 per cent has been attributed to a decrease in the spatia extent of summer ice and 70 per cent to a longer growing season (the spring bloom i occurring earlier). The change in NPP is not spatially homogeneous. Positive trends ar most pronounced in seasonally ice-free regions, including the eastern Barents shelf Siberian shelves (Kara and east Siberian seas), western Mackenzie shelf, and the Berin Strait. NPP is expected to continue increasing during this century due to continued sea ice retreat and the associated increase in available sunlight. However, this trend may b short-lived if nitrate supplies from deep water are insufficient (Tremblay and Gagnon 2009). Neglecting the latter, Arrigo and van Dijken (2011) project a > 60 per cen increase in NPP for a summer ice-free Arctic using a linear extrapolation of the historical +“The permanent or main thermocline extends from ~50° N to ~50° S. North Atlantic Deep Water an Antarctic Bottom Water formation take place at higher latitudes 2s http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews//. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +trend. Should these trends continue, additional loss of ice during Arctic spring coul boost NPP more than three-fold above 1998-2002 levels and alter marine ecosyste structure and the degree of pelagic-benthic coupling. However, predictions of futur trends in Arctic NPP are uncertain, given the possibility of nitrate limitatio (Vancoppenolle et al., 2013). Reducing uncertainty for both nitrate fields and rates o biogeochemical processes in the sea-ice zone should improve the skill of projecte changes in NPP needed to anticipate the impact of climate change on Arctic food web and the carbon cycle. +The coastal marine ecosystem of the West Antarctic Peninsula supports massive spring summer phytoplankton blooms upon which the production of Antarctic krill depends NPP associated with these blooms is correlated with the spatial and temporal extent o ice cover during the previous winter. Air temperatures over the West Antarcti Peninsula have warmed by 7°C since the 1970s, resulting in a 40 per cent decline i winter sea-ice cover and a decrease in phytoplankton NPP (Flores et al., 2012; Ducklo et al., 2013; Henley, 2013). Continued declines in the extent of winter sea-ice cover i likely to drive decadal-scale reductions in NPP and the production of krill, reducing th food supply for their predators (marine mammals, seabirds and people). +5.2.3 Distribution and abundance of toxic phytoplankton species +The socioeconomic impacts of toxic dinoflagellate species are increasing globally (Va Dolah, 2000; Glibert et al., 2005; Hoagland and Scatasta, 2006; Babin et al., 2008 UNESCO, 2012), and their distribution and abundance are sensitive indicators of th impacts of anthropogenic nutrient inputs and climate-driven increases in wate temperature and vertical stratification on ecosystem services (see section 6.3.2). +Alexandrium tamarense represents a group of species that cause paralytic shellfis poisoning (PSP) (Alexandrium catenella, A. fundyense, Pyrodinium bahamense an Gymnodinium catenatum) globally (Boesch et al., 1997). Since the 1970s, PSP episode have spread from coastal waters of Europe, North America and Japan to coastal water of South America, South Africa, Australia, the Pacific Islands, India, all of Asia and th Mediterranean (Lilly et al., 2007). Climate-driven shifts in the geographic ranges o Ceratium furca and Dinophysis spp. in the NE Atlantic have also occurred (Edwards et al. 2006), and the abundance of dinoflagellates in the North Sea have been positivel correlated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and sea surface temperatur (Edwards et al., 2001). +5.2.4 Distribution and abundance of indicator zooplankton species +The distribution and abundance of calanoid copepods are also sensitive indicators o climate-driven increases in upper ocean temperature and basin-scale oscillations (Hay et al., 2005; Burkill and Reid, 2010; Edwards et al., 2010) including poleward shifts i species distributions (Beaugrand et al., 2002; Beaugrand et al., 2003; Cheung et al. 2010; Chust et al., 2014), decreases in size, and higher growth rates (e.g., Beaugrand e al., 2002; Richardson, 2008; Mackas and Beaugrand, 2010). There have also bee phenological changes, with the seasonal peak in abundance advancing to earlier in the +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +year for some species and being delayed for others (Edwards and Richardson, 2004 section 6.3.2). In the North Pacific, there is a strong correlation between sea-surfac temperature in the spring and the latitude at which subtropical species reach thei seasonal peak in abundance.”° Water temperature also influences the annual cycle o Neocalanus plumchrus biomass in the Northeast Pacific, where decadal-scale variation include a shift to an earlier occurrence of the seasonal biomass peak, as well as decrease in the duration of the bloom under warm ocean conditions (Mackas et al. 2007; Batten and Mackas, 2009). +The frequency and magnitude of gelatinous zooplankton blooms may be importan indicators of the status and performance of marine ecosystems (Hay, 2006; Graham e al., 2014). Both predators (medusa and ctenophores) and herbivores (tunicates) ca affect the fate of NPP (Pitt et al., 2009; Lebrato and Jones, 2011). Predators disrup metazoan food webs by consuming copepods and small fish (Richardson et al., 2009) Tunicates reduce the transfer of NPP to upper trophic levels and to the deep sea as thei gelatinous remains are degraded via microbial food webs (Lebrato and Jones, 2011). +Although, there is no evidence for an increase in the frequency and magnitude o gelatinous zooplankton on a global scale (Condon et al., 2012), decadal scale increase have been reported in several coastal marine ecosystems (Brodeur et al., 2002; Kideys 2002; Lynam et al., 2006; Uye, 2008; Licandro et al., 2010). A rigorous analysis of multi decadal (using a 1950 baseline) abundance data for 45 Large Marine Ecosystems, Brot et al., 2012 found that 28 (62 per cent) exhibited increasing trends while 3 (7 per cent exhibited decreasing trends. Thus, while increases of jellyfish populations may not b globally universal, they are both numerous and widespread. The most likely causes o these trends include ocean warming, overfishing, coastal eutrophication, habita modification, aquaculture, and introductions of non-indigenous gelatinous specie (Brotz et al., 2012; Purcell, 2012). While direct evidence is lacking for most of thes pressures, jellyfish tend to be most abundant in warm waters with low forage fis populations, and it is likely that ocean warming will provide a rising baseline o abundance leading to increases in the magnitude of jellyfish blooms and associate impacts on ecosystem services (Graham et al., 2014). +5.3 Ocean acidification +The oceans are becoming more acidic due to increases in uptake of atmospheric C (Calderia and Wickett, 2003; Calderia and Wickett, 2005; Doney et al., 2009; Beardall e al., 2009), and most of the upper ocean is projected to be undersaturated with respec to aragonite within 4-7 decades (Orr et al., 2005) with undersaturation expected t occur earliest at high latitudes (> 40°) and in upwelling systems where the aragonit saturation horizon is expected to shoal most rapidly (Feely et al., 2009, Gruber et al. 2009). These chemical changes in turn affect marine plankton via several mechanisms +6 http://www.pices.int/publications/pices_press/volume16/v16_n2/pp_19-21_CPR_f.pdf. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +including the following: (1) decreases in the degree of aragonite saturation makes i harder for calcifying organisms (e.g., coccolithophores, foraminifera, and pteropods) t precipitate their mineral structures; (2) decreases in pH alters the bioavailability o essential algal nutrients such as iron and zinc; and (3) increases in CO, decrease th energy requirements for photosynthetic organisms to synthesize biomass. Suc biological effects are likely to perturb marine biogeochemical cycles including carbo export to the deep sea via the biological pump which may have a positive feedback o the buildup of CO in the upper ocean and atmosphere. However, assessments of th impacts of ocean acidification on NPP and nutrient cycling remain controversial and ar a subject of much research (cf., Delille et al., 2005; Doney et al., 2009; Shi et al., 2009 Shi et al.,2010; Shi et al., 2012; Moy et al., 2009; Kristy et al., 2010). For example increases in CO2 may stimulate Nz and carbon fixation by colonial cyanobacteria diazotrophs (Barcelos e Ramos et al., 2007). In addition, as the upper ocean warms, th geographic range of diazotrophs will expand. These effects may combine to enhance N fixation by as much as 35-65 per cent by the end of this century (Hutchins et al., 2009) It is noteworthy interesting that projected increases in N2 fixation are about the sam magnitude as increases in denitrification projected by Oschlies et al., (2008). Althoug both of these estimates have large uncertainties, if input and output fluxes accelerate a about the same rate, the ocean’s global inventory of N, would not change, whereas NP could increase (Sarmento et al., 2010; Behrenfeld, 2011). +In regard to macrophytes, photosynthetic rates of calcifying macroalgae do not appea to be stimulated by elevated CO, conditions, i.e., the majority of studies to date hav shown a decrease or no change in photosynthetic rates under elevated CO, condition (Hofmann and Bischof, 2014). On the other hand, there is clear evidence that ocea acidification (higher pCO2) stimulates seagrass NPP resulting in increases in above- an below-ground biomass suggesting that the capacity of seagrasses to sequester carbo may be significantly increased (Garrard and Beaumont, 2014). +5.4 Sea-level rise, coastal development and macrophyte NPP +Sea levels have increased globally since the 1970s, mainly as a result of global mean sea level rise due in part to anthropogenic warming causing ocean thermal expansion an glacier melting (Chapter 4 of this Assessment). Sea-level rise will not be unifor globally. Regional differences in sea-level trends will be related to changes in prevailin winds, ocean circulation, gravitational pull of polar ice sheets, and subsidence, so tha sea-level rise will exceed the global mean in some regions and will actually fall i others.” +To date, the global decline in macrophyte habitats has been primarily due to coasta development, artificially hardened shorelines, aquaculture operations, dredging an eutrophication. This will change with sea-level rise (Short and Neckles, 1999; Nicholls +27 http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends//. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +and Cazenave, 2010). Macrophyte habitats are projected to be negatively affected b sea-level rise and subsidence, especially where distributions are constrained on thei landward side by geomorphology and human activities along the shoreline (Pernetta 1993; Short and Neckles, 1999; Orth et al., 2006; Alongi, 2008; Gilman et al., 2008 Silliman et al., 2009; Waycott et al., 2009; Donato et al., 2011). Together, sea-level rise subsidence, coastal development and aquaculture operations are destroying mangrov forests, tidal marshes and seagrass beds at an alarming rate. The combination of sea level rise and the loss of these coastal habitats will decrease the capacity of coasta ecosystems to provide services, including climate regulation (carbon sequestration) protection against coastal flooding and erosion, and the capacity to support biodiversit and living marine resources. +5.5 Regions of special interes 5.5.1. Coastal river plumes +Increases in land-based anthropogenic inputs of N and P to coastal waters is drivin increases in annual phytoplankton NPP in estuaries and coastal marine ecosystems nea population centres and areas of industrial agriculture in large river basins (sections 6.2. and 6.2.2). This may lead to further increases in the spatial extent and/or number o coastal ecosystems experiencing eutrophication and oxygen-depleted dead zone associated with the coastal plumes of major river-coastal systems, including the Yangtz (E. China Sea), Mekong (S. China Sea), Niger (Gulf of Guinea), Nile (Mediterranean Sea) Parana (Atlantic Ocean), Mississippi (Gulf of Mexico), and Rhine (North Sea) (UNESCO 2012). +5.5.2 Polar waters and subtropical gyres +Ocean warming appears to be driving opposing trends in phytoplankton NPP in pola waters (interannual increases in NPP) and subtropical gyres (interannual decreases i NPP) and a global expansion of oxygen minimum zones associated with upwellin systems. Regions of special interest include the Arctic Ocean, coastal waters of th western Antarctic Peninsula, permanently stratified subtropical gyres of the Nort Pacific and North Atlantic, and major coastal upwelling centers (Cariaco Basin an California, Humboldt, Canary, Benguela and Somali Currents). +5.5.3 Subpolar waters +Early expressions of the impacts of ocean acidification on upper ocean plankton ar most likely to occur at high latitudes. Pteropods and foraminifera (dominated b Globigerina bulloides) are most abundant at high latitude (> 40°N) in surface waters of the North Atlantic (Barnard et al., 2004; Fraile et al., 2008 BednarSek et al., 2012), whereas the coccolithophore EF. huxleyi is most abundant in the +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +“Great Southern Coccolithophore Belt” of the Southern Ocean” and at high latitudes i the NE Atlantic (Barnard et al., 2004; Balch et al., 2011; Sadeghi et al., 2012). If th abundance of these functional groups declines in these regions, likely impacts will be t reduce the capacity of the oceans to take up CO2, export carbon to the deep sea, an support fisheries (Cooley et al., 2009). +6. Information needs +As shown above, anthropogenic nutrient-loading of coastal waters and climate-chang pressures on marine ecosystems (ocean warming and acidification, sea-level rise) ar driving changes in NPP and nutrient cycles that are affecting the provision of ecosyste services and, therefore, sustainable development. However, although changes i macrophyte NPP and their impacts are relatively well documented (and must continu to be), a consensus on the magnitude of changes and even the direction of change i phytoplankton NPP and upper ocean nutrient cycles has yet to be reached. +Documenting spatial patterns and temporal trends in NPP and nutrient cycles (and thei causes and socioeconomic consequences) will rely heavily on the accuracy an frequency with which changes in NPP and nutrient cycling can be detected over a broa range of scales (cf. deYoung et al., 2004; UNESCO, 2012; Mathis and Feeley, 2013) Given the importance of marine NPP and the species diversity of primary producers t sustaining ecosystem services, rapid detection of changes in time-space patterns o marine NPP and in the diversity of primary producers that contribute to NPP is a important dimension of the Regular Process” for global reporting and assessment o the state of the marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects. +Data requirements for the Regular Process have been used to help guide th development of the Global Ocean Observing System and an implementation strategy fo its coastal module (UNESCO, 2012; Malone et al., 2014a; Malone et al., 2014b). Th essential variables required to compute key indicators of ecosystem health includ species richness, chlorophyll-a, dissolved N,, and dissolved BAP (UNESCO, 2012). Routin and sustained measurements of these variables over a range of temporal and spatia scales are required for rapid and timely detection of changes in NPP and nutrient cycle and the impacts of these changes on ecosystem services on regional (e.g., Large Marin Ecosystems) to global scales. Although satellite imagery, limited in situ measurement and numerical models are making it possible to detect interannual and decadal change in NPP on these scales, the same cannot be said for observations of species richness an nutrient distributions (UNESCO, 2012). +*8 The belt is centered around the sub-Antarctic front and has a spatial extent of 88 x 106 km? (~25 pe cent of the global ocean) *° http://www.un.org/Depts/los/global_reporting/global_reporting.htm. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +6.1 Net primary production +Sustained observations of chlorophyll, irradiance and temperature fields are require for model-based estimates of phytoplankton NPP (see section 6.1.2). An integrate approach using long term data streams from both remote sensing and frequent in sit observations is needed to capture the dynamics of marine phytoplankton NPP and t detect decadal trends. Remote sensing provides a cost-effective means to observ physical and biological variables synoptically in time and space with sufficient resolutio to elucidate linkages between climate-driven changes in the NPP of ecosystems and th dynamic relationship between phytoplankton NPP and the provision of ecosyste services (Platt et al., 2008; Forget et al., 2009). For details on requirements, advantage and limitations of satellite-based remote sensing of ocean colour, see IOCCG (1998) Sathyendranath (2000), and UNESCO (2006, 2012). +Two related activities, both contributions to the Global Ocean Observing System provide the core of an integrated observing system needed to provide data required t assess the state of the marine environment in terms of both time-space variations i phytoplankton NPP and the impacts of these variations on ecosystem services: th Chlorophyll Global Integrated Network (ChloroGIN)*° (Sathyendranath et al., 2010) an Societal Applications in Fisheries and Aquaculture using Remotely-Sensed Imager (SAFARI) (Forget et al., 2010). FARO (Fisheries Applications of Remotely Sensed Ocea Colour) has recently been initiated to coordinate the development of ChloroGIN an SAFARI for the provision of ocean-colour data and data products for use in fisherie research and ecosystem-based management of living marine resources.** Likewise, th GEO Biodiversity Observation Network, the Global Biodiversity Information Facilit (GBIF), and the Ocean Biogeographical Information System (UNESCO, 2012) provid data and information on the species richness of marine primary producers. +6.2 Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles +The N cycle is more dynamic* and less well understood than previously though (Codispoti et al., 2001; Capone and Knapp, 2007; Zehr and Kudela, 2011; Landolfi et al. 2013; Voss et al., 2013). Major impediments to detecting and understanding decada changes in the marine N cycle are: current uncertainties about the rate (undersampling); distribution and coupling of sources and sinks; sensitivity of N2 fixation denitrification, and anammox to anthropogenic inputs of N,; and changes in the marin environment associated with climate change (warming and increases in stratification o the upper ocean, ocean acidification, oxygen depletion, and sea-level rise). +°° http://www.chlorogin.org/. +3 http://www.faro-project.org/index.html. +2 Estimates of turnover times of N, have decreased from 10,000 years to 1,500 years (Codispoti et al. 2001). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Quantifying inputs of N and P to coastal ecosystems and the open ocean requires network of coordinated and sustained observations on local to global scales. Fo atmospheric deposition, monitoring should focus on regions that have intens deposition plumes downwind of major population centres in West Africa, East Asia Europe, India, North and South America (section 6.2.1 and Schulz et al., 2012). This is major goal of the SOLAS programme **. Shipboard time-series observations o biogeochemical variables that are being established globally** should provide depositio data for these plumes. For riverine inputs, rivers that are part of the Global Terrestria Network for River Discharge (GTN-R)*° and that represent a broad range of volum discharges and catchment-basin population densities are high priorities for monitorin land-based inputs and associated land-cover/land-use practices in their watershed (UNESCO, 2012). +All global ocean biogeochemistry models require oceanographic data on physical an chemical variables, including temperature, salinity, mixed-layer depth, and th concentration of macro-nutrients (N, P, Si) (Le Quéré et al., 2010). Over the last decade autonomous technologies for measuring essential physical variables (includin temperature, salinity and mixed-layer depth) have revolutionized our ability to observ the sea surface and the ocean’s interior. By integrating data from both remote sensin (satellite-based sensors and land-based HF radar) and in situ measurements (from ship of opportunity, research vessels and automated moorings, profiling floats, gliders surface drifters and large pelagic predators), observations of atmospheric and uppe ocean geophysics are now made continuously in four dimensions; data are transmitte to data assembly centers in near-real time via satellites, fiber-optic cables, and th internet; and predictions (nowcasts and forecasts) of atmospheric and upper ocea “weather” are made routinely using data assimilation techniques and couple atmospheric-hydrodynamic models (Hall et al., 2010). +Over the last decade, autonomous technologies have revolutionized our ability t measure nitrate, nitrite, ammonium and reactive phosphate in situ (Johnson and Coletti 2002; ACT, 2003; Sakamoto et al., 2004; Adornato et al., 2010). Efforts are als underway to expand sampling programmes such Repeat Hyrdrography (Hood 2009) Argo (Rudnick et al., 2004; Testor et al., 2010), and OceanSites** to incorporate in sit nutrient sensors. +33 http://www.solas-int.org/. +34 e.g., For example, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/sections-and programmes/ocean-sciences/biogeochemical-time-series/. +35 http://www.fao.org/gtos/gt-netRIV.html; http://gtn-r.bafg.de http://www.bafg.de/GRDC/EN/Home/homepage_node.html. +36 http://www.whoi.edu/virtual/oceansites/ +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +6.3 Plankton species diversity +Sustaining marine species richness” is the single most important indicator of th capacity of ecosystems to support services valued by society (Worm et al., 2006). biodiversity observation network (GEO BON)*® has been established to documen changes in species biodiversity, and the Ocean Biogeographic Information Syste (OBIS)*? documents the species diversity, distribution and abundance of life in th oceans. Both are contributions to GEOSS.”” A set of sentinel sites should be targeted fo sustained observations of species richness including Large Marine Ecosystems and th emerging network of marine protected areas that is nested within them (Malone et al. 2014a). As a group, these sites represent a broad range of species diversity, climate related changes in the marine environment, and anthropogenic nutrient inputs. Here w underscore the importance of rapid detection of changes in plankton diversity and earl warnings of impacts on marine ecosystem services. +References +Adornato, L., Cardenas-Valencia, A., Kaltenbacher, E., Byrne, R.H., Daly, K., and other (2010). In situ nutrient sensors for ocean observing systems. In Proceedings o OceanObs’09: Sustained Ocean Observations and Information for Society (Vol. 2) Venice, Italy, 21-25 September 2009. 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Calcium Carbonate Production and Contribution to Coastal Sediments +Contributors: Colin D. Woodroffe, Frank R. Hall, John W. Farrell an Peter T. Harris (Lead member) +1. Calcium carbonate production in coastal environments +Biological production of calcium carbonate in the oceans is an important process Although carbonate is produced in the open ocean (pelagic, see Chapter 5), thi chapter concentrates on production in coastal waters (neritic) because thi contributes sediment to the coast through skeletal breakdown producing sand an gravel deposits on beaches, across continental shelves, and within reefs. Marin organisms with hard body parts precipitate calcium carbonate as the minerals calcit or aragonite. Corals, molluscs, foraminifera, bryozoans, red algae (for example th algal rims that characterize reef crests on Indo-Pacific reefs) are particularl productive, as well as some species of green algae (especially Halimeda). Upo death, these calcareous organisms break down by physical, chemical, and biologica erosion processes through a series of discrete sediment sizes (Perry et al., 2011) Neritic carbonate production has been estimated to be approximately 2.5 Gt year (Milliman and Droxler, 1995; Heap et al., 2009). The greatest contributors are cora reefs that form complex structures covering a total area of more than 250,000 km (Spalding and Grenfell, 1997; Vecsei, 2004), but other organisms, such as oysters may also form smaller reef structures. +Global climate change will affect carbonate production and breakdown in the ocean which will have implications for coastal sediment budgets. Rising sea level wil displace many beaches landwards (Nicholls et al., 2007). Low-lying reef islands calle sand cays, formed over the past few millennia on the rim of atolls, are particularl vulnerable, together with the communities that live on them. Rising sea level ca also result in further reef growth and sediment production where there are health coral reefs (Buddemeier and Hopley, 1988). In areas where corals have already bee killed or damaged by human activities, however, reefs may not be able to keep pac with the rising sea level in which case wave energy will be able to propagate mor freely across the reef crest thereby exposing shorelines to higher levels of wav energy (Storlazzi et al., 2011; see also Chapter 43). +Reefs have experienced episodes of coral bleaching and mortality in recent year caused by unusually warm waters. Increased carbon dioxide concentrations are als causing ocean waters to become more acidic, which may affect the biologica production and supply of carbonate sand. Bleaching and acidification can reduc coral growth and limit the ability of reef-building corals and other organisms t produce calcium carbonate (Kroeker et al., 2010). In some cases, ocean acidificatio may lead to a reduced supply of carbonate sand to beaches, increasing the potentia for erosion (Hamylton, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations + +1.1 Global distribution of carbonate beaches +Beaches are accumulations of sediment on the shoreline. Carbonate organisms particularly shells that lived in the sand, together with dead shells reworked fro shallow marine or adjacent rocky shores, can contribute to beach sediments Dissolution and re-precipitation of carbonate can cement sediments formin beachrock, or shelly deposits called coquina. On many arid coasts and islands lackin river input of sediment to the coast, biological production of carbonate is th dominant source of sand and gravel. Over geological time (thousands of years) thi biological source of carbonate sediment may have formed beaches that ar composed entirely, or nearly entirely, of calcium carbonate. Where large river discharge sediment to the coast, or along coasts covered in deposits of glacial til deposited during the last ice age, beaches are dominated by sediment derived fro terrigenous (derived from continental rocks) sources. Carbonate sediment comprise a smaller proportion of these beach sediments (Pilkey et al., 2011). +Sand blown inland from carbonate beaches forms dunes and these may be extensiv and can become lithified into substantial deposits of carbonate eolianite (wind blown) deposits. Significant deposits of eolianite are found in the Mediterranean Africa, Australia, and some parts of the Caribbean (for example most of the islands o the Bahamas). The occurrence of carbonate eolianites is therefore a useful proxy fo mapping the occurrence of carbonate beaches (Brooke, 2001). +Carbonate beaches may be composed of shells produced by tropical to sub-pola species, so their occurrence is not limited by latitude, although carbonate productio on polar shelves has received little attention (Frank et al., 2014). For example Ritchie and Mather (1984) reported that over 50 beaches in Scotland are compose almost entirely of shelly carbonate sand. There is an increase in carbonate conten towards the south along the east coast of Florida (Houston and Dean, 2014) Carbonate beaches, comprising 60-80 per cent carbonate on average, extend fo over 6000 km along the temperate southern coast of Australia, derived fro organisms that lived in adjacent shallow-marine environments (James et al., 1999 Short, 2006). Calcareous biota have also contributed along much of the wester coast of Australia; carbonate contents average 50-70 per cent, backed by substantia eolianite cliffs composed of similar sediments along this arid coast (Short, 2010) Similar non-tropical carbonate production occurs off the northern coast of Ne Zealand (Nelson, 1988) and eastern Brazil (Carannante et al., 1988), as well a around the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of California, North-West Europe, Canada, Japa and around the northern South China Sea (James and Bone, 2011). +On large carbonate banks, biogenic carbonate is supplemented by precipitation o inorganic carbonate, including pellets and grapestone deposits (Scoffin, 1987). Bal (1967) identified marine sand belts, tidal bars, eolian ridges, and platform interio sand blankets comprising carbonate sand bodies present in Florida and the Bahamas This is also one of the locations where ooids (oolites) form through the concentri precipitation of carbonate on spherical grains. Inorganic precipitation in the Persia Gulf, including the shallow waters of the Trucial Coast, reflects higher wate temperature and salinity (Purser, 1973; Brewer and Dyrssen, 1985). +© 2016 United Nations + +1.2 Global distribution of atolls +The most significant social and economic impact of a possible reduction in carbonat sand production is the potential decrease in supply of sand to currently inhabited low-lying sand islands on remote reefs, particularly atolls. Atolls occur in the war waters of the tropics and subtropics. These low-lying and vulnerable landforms ow their origin to reef-building corals (see Chapter 43 which discusses warm-wate corals in contrast to cold-water corals dealt with in Chapter 42). The origin of atoll was explained by Charles Darwin as the result of subsidence (sinking) of a volcani island. Following an initial eruptive phase, volcanic islands are eroded by waves an by slumping, and gradually subside, as the underlying lithosphere cools an contracts. In tropical waters, fringing coral reefs grow around the volcanic peak. A the volcano subsides the reef grows vertically upwards until eventually the summi of the volcano becomes submerged and only the ring of coral reef (i.e., an atoll) i left behind. The gradual subsidence can be understood in the context of plat tectonics and mantle “hot spots”. Many oceanic volcanoes occur in linear chain (such as the Hawaiian Islands and Society Islands) with successive islands being olde along the chain and moving into deeper water as the plate cools and contract (Ramalho et al., 2013). +Most atolls are in the Pacific Ocean (in archipelagoes in the Tuamotu Islands Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, and the island groups of Kiribati, Tuvalu an Tokelau) and Indian Ocean (the Maldives, the Laccadive Islands, the Chago Archipelago and the Outer Islands of the Seychelles). The Atlantic Ocean has fewe atolls than either the Pacific or Indian Oceans, with several in the Caribbean (Vecsei 2003; 2004). The northernmost atoll in the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24' N, alon with other atolls of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands in the North Pacific Ocean The southernmost are the atoll-like Elizabeth (29°58' S) and Middleton (29°29' S Reefs in the Tasman Sea, South Pacific Ocean (Woodroffe et al., 2004). Th occurrence of seamounts (submarine volcanoes) is two times higher in the Pacifi than in the Atlantic or Indian Oceans, explaining the greater frequency of atolls. +Corals, which produce aragonite, are the principal reef-builders that shape an vertically raise the reef deposit, and there are secondary contributions from othe aragonitic organisms, particularly molluscs, as well as coralline algae, bryozoans an foraminifera which are predominantly made of calcite. Carbonate sand and gravel i derived from the breakdown of the reef. Bioerosion is an important process in reefs with bioeroders, such as algae, sponges, polychaete worms, crustaceans, se urchins, and boring molluscs (e.g., Lithophaga) reducing the strength of th framework and producing sediment that infiltrates and accumulates in the porou reef limestone (Perry et al., 2012). Erosion rates by sea urchins have been reporte to exceed 20 kg CaCO; m™” year™ in some reefs, and parrotfish may produce 9 k CaCO; m” year (Glynn, 1996). Over time, cementation lithifies the reef. Wherea the reef itself is the main feature produced by these calcifying reef organisms, loos carbonate sediment is also transported from its site of production. Transporte sediment can be deposited, building sand cays. Broken coral or larger boulder eroded from the reef by storms form coarser islands (termed motu in the Pacific) Sand and gravel can be carried across the reef and deposited together with fine mud filling in the lagoon (Purdy and Gischler, 2005). +© 2016 United Nations + +Carbonate production on reefs has been measured by at least three differen approaches; hydrochemical analysis of changes in alkalinity of water moving across section of reef, radiometric dating of accretion rates in reef cores, and census-base approaches that quantify relative contributions made by different biota (includin destruction by bioeroders). These approaches indicate relatively consistent rates o ~10 kg CaCO; m” year™ on flourishing reef fronts, ~4 kg CaCO3 m” year“ on ree crests, and <1 kg CaCO3 m” year” in lagoonal areas (Hopley et al., 2007; Montaggion and Braithwaite, 2009; Perry et al., 2012; Leon and Woodroffe, 2013). These rate have been described in greater detail in specific studies (Harney and Fletcher, 2003 Hart and Kench, 2007), and have been used to produce regional extrapolations o net production (Vecsei, 2001, 2004). +2. Changes known and foreseen —sea-level rise and ocean acidification. +Several climate change and oceanographic drivers threaten the integrity of fragil carbonate coastal ecosystems. Anticipated sea-level rise will have an impact on th majority of coasts around the world. In addition, carbonate production is likely to b affected by changes in other climate drivers, including warming and acidification Tropical and subtropical reefs would appear to be some of the worst affecte systems. However, it is also apparent that already many degraded systems can b attributed to impacts from social and economic drivers of change; pollution overfishing and coastal development have deteriorated reef systems and man severely eroded beaches can be attributed to poor coastal management practices. +2.1 Potential impacts of sea-level rise on beaches +Sea-level rise poses threats to many coasts. Between 1950 and 2010, global sea leve has risen at an average rate of 1.8 + 0.3 mm year’; approximately 10 cm o anthropogenic global sea-level rise is therefore inferred since 1950. Over the nex century, the mean projected sea-level rise for 2081-2100 is in the range 0.26-0.54 relative to 1986-2005, for the low-emission scenario (RCP 2.6). The rate of rise i anticipated to increase from ~3.1 mm year™ indicated by satellite altimetry to 7-1 mm year by the end of the century (Church et al., 2013). The rate experienced o any particular coast is likely to differ from the global mean trend as a result of loca and regional factors, such as rates of vertical land movement or subsidence. Beac systems can be expected to respond to this gradual change in sea level, and the low lying reef islands on atolls appear to be some of the most vulnerable coastal system (Nicholls et al., 2007). +Based on predictions from the Bruun Rule, a simple heuristic that uses slope of th foreshore and conservation of mass, sea-level rise will cause erosion and ne recession landwards for many beaches (Bruun, 1962). Although this approach ha been widely applied, it has been criticized as unrealistic for many reasons, includin that it does not adequately incorporate consideration of site-specific sediment +© 2016 United Nations + +budgets (Cooper and Pilkey, 2004). Few analyses consider the contribution o biogenic carbonate and none foreshadow the consequences of any reduction i supply of carbonate sand. This is partly because of time lags between production o carbonate and its incorporation into beach deposits, which is poorly constrained i process studies and which is subject to great variability between different coasta settings, ranging from years to centuries (Anderson et al., 2015). In view o uncertainties in rates of sediment supply and transport, probabilistic modeling o shoreline behavior may be a more effective way of simulating possible responses including potential accretion where sediment supply is sufficient (Cowell et al. 2006). +2.2 Potential impacts of sea-level rise on reef islands +Small reef islands on the rim of atolls appear to be some of the most vulnerable o coastal environments; they are threatened by exacerbated coastal erosion inundation of low-lying island interiors, and saline intrusion into freshwater lense upon which production of crops, such as taro, depends (Mimura, 1999). Sand cays on atolls as well as on other reefs, have accumulated incrementally over recen millennia because reefs attenuate wave energy sufficiently to create physicall favourable conditions for deposition of sand islands (Woodroffe et al., 2007), as wel as enabling growth of sediment-stabilizing seagrasses and mangrove ecosystem (Birkeland, 1996). Sand cays are particularly low-lying, rarely rising more than a fe metres above sea level; for example, <8 per cent of the land area of Tuvalu an Kiribati is above 3 m above mean sea level, and in the Maldives only around 1 pe cent, reaches this elevation (Woodroffe, 2008). This has led to dramatic warnings i popular media and inferences in the scientific literature that anthropogenic climat change may lead to reef islands on atolls submerging beneath the rising ocean, wit catastrophic social and economic implications for populations of these atoll nation (Barnett and Adger, 2003; Farbotko and Lazrus, 2012). +However, reef islands may be more resilient than implied in these dire warning (Webb and Kench, 2010). Unlike the majority of temperate beaches that have a finit volume of sediment available, biogenic production of carbonate sediments mean that there may be an ongoing supply of sediment to these islands. Although coral is major contributor, it is not necessarily the principal constituent of beaches; larg benthic foraminifera (particularly Calcarina, Amphistegina and Baculogypsina contribute more than 50 per cent of sediment volume on many islands on Pacifi atolls (Woodroffe and Morrison, 2001; Fujita et al., 2009). One survey of Pacific cora islands (Webb and Kench, 2010) reported that 86 per cent of islands had remaine stable or increased in area over recent decades, and only 14 per cent of island exhibited a net reduction in area; however, the greatest increases in area resulte from artificial reclamation (Biribo and Woodroffe, 2013). Further studies of shorelin changes on atoll reef islands using multi-temporal aerial photography and satellit imagery indicate accretion on some shorelines and erosion on others, but with th most pronounced changes associated with human occupation and impacts (Rankey 2011; Ford, 2012; Ford 2013; Hamylton and East, 2012; Yates et al., 2013). +© 2016 United Nations + +The impacts of future sea-level rise on individual atolls remain unclear (Donner 2012). Healthy reef systems may be capable of keeping pace with rates of sea-leve rise. There is evidence that reefs have coped with much more rapid rates of ris during postglacial melt of major ice sheets than are occurring now or anticipated i this century. Reefs have responded by keeping up, catching up, or in cases of ver rapid rise giving up, often to backstep and occupy more landward location (Neumann and Macintyre, 1985; Woodroffe and Webster, 2014). Geologica evidence suggests that healthy coral reefs have exhibited accretion rates in th Holocene of 3 to 9 mm year” (e.g., Perry and Smithers, 2011), comparable t projected rates of sea-level rise for the 21* century. However, reef growth is likely t lag behind sea-level rise in many cases resulting in larger waves occurring over th reef flat and affecting the shoreline (Storlazzi et al., 2011; Grady et al., 2013). It i unclear whether these larger waves, and the increased wave run-up that is likely, wil erode reef-island beaches, overtopping some and inundating island interiors, o whether they will more effectively move sediments shoreward and build ridge crest higher (Gourlay and Hacker, 1991; Smithers et al., 2007). Dickinson (2009) inferre that reef islands on atolls will ultimately be unable to survive because once sea leve rises above their solid reef-limestone foundations, which formed during the mid Holocene sea-level highstand 4,000 to 2,000 years ago, formerly stable reef island will be subject to erosion by waves. +2.3 Impact of climate change and ocean acidification on production +The impact of climate change on the rate of biogenic production of carbonat sediment is also little understood, but it seems likely to have negative consequences Although increased temperatures may lead to greater productivity in some cases, fo example by extending the latitudinal limit to coral-reef formation, ocean warmin has already been recognised to have caused widespread bleaching and death o corals (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg, 2004; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007) Ocean acidification will have further impacts, and may inhibit some organisms fro secreting carbonate shells; for example reduction in production of the Pacific oyste has been linked to acidification (Barton et al., 2012). Decreased seawater p increases the sensitivity of reef calcifiers to thermal stress and bleaching (Anthony e al., 2008). Based on the density of coral skeleton in >300 long-lived Porites coral from across the Great Barrier Reef, De’ath et al. (2009) inferred that a decline i calcification of ~14 per cent had occurred since 1990 manifested as a reduction i the extension rate at which coral grows, which they attributed to temperature stres and declining saturation state of seawater aragonite (which is related to a decreas in pH). However, this extent of the apparent decline has been questioned because o inclusion of many young corals (Ridd et al., 2013); it is not observed in coral collected more recently from inshore (D’Olivo et al., 2013). +There has been some debate about the role of carbonate sediments acting as chemical buffer against ocean acidification; in this scenario, dissolution o metastable carbonate mineral phases produces sufficient alkalinity to buffer pH an carbonate saturation state of shallow-water environments. However, it is apparen that dissolution rates are slow compared with shelf water-mass mixing processes such that carbonate dissolution has no discernable impact on pH in shallow waters +© 2016 United Nations + +that are connected to deep-water, oceanic environments (Andersson and Mckenzie 2012). The seawater chemistry within a reef system can be significantly differen from that in the open ocean, perhaps partially offsetting the more extreme effect (Andersson et al., 2013; Andersson and Gledhill, 2013). Corals have the ability t modulate pH at the site of calcification (Trotter et al. 2011; Venn et al. 2011; Falte et al., 2013). Internal pH in both tropical and temperate coral is generally 0.4 to 1. units higher than in the ambient seawater, whereas foraminifera exhibit no elevatio in internal pH (McCulloch et al., 2012). +Changes in the severity of storms will affect coral reefs; storms erode some islan shorelines, but also provide inputs of broken coral to extend other islands (Marago et al., 1973; Woodroffe, 2008). Alterations in ultra-violet radiation may also have a impact, as UV has been linked to coral bleaching. Furthermore, if reefs are not in healthy condition due to thermal stress (bleaching) coupled with acidification an other anthropogenic stresses (pollution, overfishing, etc.), then reef growth an carbonate production may not keep pace with sea-level rise. This could, in the long term, reduce carbonate sand supply to reef islands causing further erosion, althoug ongoing erosion of cemented reef substrate is also a source of sediment on reefs indicating that supply of carbonate sand to beaches is dependent upon severa interrelated environmental processes. Disruption of any one (or combination) of th controlling processes (carbonate production, reef growth, biological stabilization bioerosion, physical erosion and transport) may result in reduction of carbonat sand supply to beaches. +3. Economic and social implications of carbonate sand production. +More than 90 per cent of the population of atolls in the Maldives, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu, as well many in the Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos (which all hav populations of less than 100,000), live at an elevation <10 m above sea level an appear vulnerable to rising sea level, coastal erosion and inundation (McGranahan e al., 2007). The social disruption caused by relocating displaced people to differen islands or even to other countries is a problem of major concern to many countrie (Farbotko and Lazrus, 2012, see also Chapter 26). Beach aggregate mining is a small scale industry on many Pacific and Caribbean islands employing local people (McKenzie et al., 2006), but mining causes environmental damage when practised o an industrial scale (Charlier, 2002; Pilkey et al., 2011, see also Chapter 23). In th Caribbean, illegal beach mining is widespread but there is little information on wha proportion is carbonate (Cambers, 2009). Beach erosion reduces the potentia opportunities associated with tourism (see Chapter 27), and decreases habitat fo shorebirds and turtles (Fish et al., 2005; Mazaris et al., 2009). +Without coral reefs producing sand and gravel for beach nourishment and protectin the shoreline from currents, waves, and storms, erosion and loss of land are mor likely (see also Chapter 39). In Indonesia, Cesar (1996) estimated that the loss due t decreased coastal protection was between 820 United States dollars (for remot areas) and 1,000,000 dollars per kilometre of coastline (in areas of major touris infrastructure) as a consequence of coral destruction (based on lateral erosion rates +© 2016 United Nations + +of 0.2 m year™, and a 10 per cent discount rate [similar to an interest rate] over 25-year period). In the Maldives, mining of coral for construction has had sever impacts (Brown and Dunne, 1988), resulting in the need for an artificial substitut breakwater around Malé at a construction cost of around 12,000,000 dollar (Moberg and Folke, 1999). +4. Conclusions, Synthesis and Knowledge Gaps +There has been relatively little study of rates of carbonate production, and furthe research is needed on the supply of biogenic sand and gravel to coastal ecosystems Most beaches have some calcareous biogenic material within them; carbonate is a important component of the shoreline behind coral-reef systems, with reef island on atolls entirely composed of skeletal carbonate. +The sediment budgets of these systems need to be better understood; direc observations and monitoring of key variables, such as rates of calcification, would b very useful. Not only is little known about the variability in carbonate production i shallow-marine systems, but their response to changing climate and oceanographi drivers is also poorly understood. In the case of reef systems, bleaching as a result o elevated sea temperatures and reduced calcification as a consequence of ocea acidification seem likely to reduce coral cover and production of skeletal material Longer-term implications for the sustainability of reefs and supply of sediment t reef islands would appear to decrease resilience of these shorelines, althoug alternative interpretations suggest an increased supply of sediment, either becaus reef flats that are currently exposed at low tide and therefore devoid of coral, ma be re-colonized by coral under higher sea level, or because the disintegration of dea stands of coral may augment the supply of sediment. +Determining the trend in shoreline change, on beaches in temperate settings and o reef islands on atolls or other reef systems, requires monitoring of beach volumes a representative sites. This has rarely been undertaken over long enough time periods or with sufficient attention to other relevant environmental factors, to discern pattern or assign causes to inferred trends. Although climate and oceanographi drivers threaten such systems, the most drastic erosion appears to be the result o more direct anthropogenic stressors, such as beach mining, or the construction o infrastructure or coastal protection works that interrupt sediment pathways an disrupt natural patterns of erosion and deposition. +© 2016 United Nations + +References +Anderson, T.R., Fletcher, C.H., Barbee, M.M., Frazer, L.N., Romine, B.M., (2015) Doubling of coastal erosion under rising sea level by mid-century in Hawaii Natural Hazards, doi 10.1007/s11069-015-1698-6. +Andersson, A.J., Mackenzie, F.T., (2012). Revisiting four scientific debates in ocea acidification research. Biogeosciences 9: 893-905. +Andersson, A.J., Gledhill, D., (2013). 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Springer-Verlag. +Ramalho, R.S., Quartau, R., Trenhaile, A.S., Mitchell, N.C., Woodroffe, C.D., Avila, S.P (2013) Coastal evolution on volcanic oceanic islands: a complex interpla between volcanism, erosion, sedimentation, sea-level change and biogeni production. Earth-Science Reviews, 127: 140-170.Rankey, E.C., (2011). Natur and stability of atoll island shorelines: Gilbert Island +chain, Kiribati, equatorial Pacific. Sedimentology 58, 1831-1859. +Rankey, E.C. (2011) Nature and stability of atoll island shorelines: Gilbert Islan chain, Kiribati, equatorial Pacific. Sedimentology 58, 1831-1859. +Ridd, P.V., Teixeira da Silva, E., Stieglitz, T., (2013). Have coral calcification rate slowed in the last twenty years? Marine Geology 346, 392-399. +Ritchie, W., Mather, A.S., (1984). “The beaches of Scotland”. Commissioned by th Countryside Commission for Scotland 1984, Report No. 109 http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/publications/commissioned_reports/ReportNo109.pdf +Scoffin, T.P., An Introduction to Carbonate Sediments and Rocks. (1987). Chapman & Hall New York, 274 pp. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Short, A.D., (2006). Australian beach systems, nature and distribution. Journal of Coasta Research 22, 11-27. +Short, A.D., (2010). Sediment transport around Australia - sources, mechanisms rates and barrier forms. Journal of Coastal Research 26, 395-402. +Smithers, S.G., Harvey, N., Hopley, D. and Woodroffe, C.D., (2007). Vulnerability o geomorphological features in the Great Barrier Reef to climate change. I Johnson J.E., Marshall, P.A. (Editors) in Climate Change and the Great Barrie Reef. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and Australian Greenhous Office, Australia, pp. 667-716. +Spalding, M.D. and Grenfell, A.M., (1997). New estimates of global and regional cora reef areas. Coral Reefs 16, 225-230. +Storlazzi, C.D., Elias, E., Field, M.E. and Presto, M.K., (2011). Numerical modeling o the impact of sea-level rise on fringing coral reef hydrodynamics an sediment transport. Coral Reefs 30, 83-96. +Trotter, J., Montagna, P., McCulloch, M., Silenzi, S., Reynaud, S., Mortimer, G. Martin, S., Ferrier-Pages, C., Gattuso, J-P., Rodolfo-Metalpa, R., (2011) Quantifying the pH ’vital effect‘ in the temperate zooxanthellate cora Cladocora caespitosa: Validation of the boron seawater pH proxy. Earth an Planetary Science Letters, 303, 163-173. +Vecsei, A., (2001). Fore-reef carbonate production: development of a regiona census-based method and first estimates. Palaeogeograph Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 175, 185-200. +Vecsei, A., (2003). Systematic yet enigmatic depth distribution of the world's moder warm-water carbonate platforms: the ‘depth window’. Terra Nova 15, 170 175. +Vecsei, A., (2004). A new estimate of global reefal carbonate production including the fore reefs. Global and Planetary Change 43, 1-18. +Venn, A., Tambutté, E., Holcomb, M., Allemand, D., Tambutté, S., (2011). Live tissue imagin shows reef corals elevate pH under their calcifying tissue relative to seawater. PLo One 6, e20013. +Webb, A.P., Kench, P., (2010). The Dynamic Response of Reef Islands to Sea Level Rise Evidence from Multi-Decadal Analysis of Island Change in the Central Pacific. Globa and Planetary Change 72, 234-246 +Woodroffe, C.D., (2008). Reef-island topography and the vulnerability of atolls to sea-leve rise. Global and Planetary Change 62, 77-96. +Woodroffe, C.D., Morrison, R.J., (2001). Reef-island accretion and soil development Makin Island, Kiribati, central Pacific. Catena 44, 245-261. +Woodroffe, C.D., Kennedy, D.M., Jones, B.G., Phipps, C.V.G. (2004). Geomorphology an Late Quaternary development of Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs. Coral Reefs 23, 249 262. +Woodroffe, C.D., Samosorn, B., Hua, Q., Hart, D.E., (2007). Incremental accretion of a sandy +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +reef island over the past 3000 years indicated by component-specific radiocarbo dating, Geophysical Research Letters 34, LO3602, doi:10.1029/2006GL028875. +Woodroffe, C.D., Webster, J.M., (2014). Coral reefs and sea-level change. Marine Geolog doi 10.1016/j.margeo.2013.12.006. +Yates, M.L., Le Cozannet, G., Garcin, M., Salai, E., Walker, P., (2013). Multidecada atoll shoreline change on Manihi and Manuae, French Polynesia. Journal o Coastal Research 29 870-882. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_07.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_07.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_08.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_08.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..1e00c41e8bcc018bc3f40df30094180e15935549 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_08.txt @@ -0,0 +1,208 @@ +Chapter 8. Aesthetic, Cultural, Religious and Spiritual Ecosystem Services Derive from the Marine Environment +Contributor: Alan Simcock (Lead Member) +1. Introduction +At least since the ancestors of the Australian aboriginal people crossed what are no the Timor and Arafura Seas to reach Australia about 40,000 years ago (Lourandos 1997), the ocean has been part of the development of human society. It is no surprising that human interaction with the ocean over this long period profoundl influenced the development of culture. Within “culture” it is convenient to includ the other elements — aesthetic, religious and spiritual — that are regarded as aspect of the non-physical ecosystem services that humans derive from the environmen around them. This is not to decry the difference between all these aspects, bu rather to define a convenient umbrella term to encompass them all. On this basis this chapter looks at the present-day implications of the interactions betwee human culture and the ocean under the headings of cultural products, cultura practices and cultural influences. +2. Cultural products +No clear-cut distinction exists between objects which have a utilitarian valu (because they are put to a use) and objects which have a cultural value (becaus they are seen as beautiful or sacred or prized for some other non-utilitarian reason) The two categories can easily overlap. Furthermore, the value assigned to an objec may change: something produced primarily for the use to which it can be put ma become prized, either by the society that produces it or by some other society, fo other reasons (Hawkes, 1955). In looking at products from the ocean as cultura ecosystem services, the focus is upon objects valued for non-utilitarian reasons. Th value assigned to them will be affected by many factors: primarily their aesthetic o religious significance, their rarity and the difficulty of obtaining them from the ocean The example of large numbers of beads made from marine shells found in the buria mounds dating from the first half of the first millennium CE of the Mound People i lowa, United States of America, 1,650 kilometres from the sea, shows how exoti marine products can be given a cultural value (Alex, 2010). +Another good — albeit now purely historical — example is the purple dye derived fro marine shellfish of the family Muricidae, often known as Tyrian purple. In th Mediterranean area, this purple dye was very highly valued, and from an early dat (around 1800-1500 BCE) it was produced in semi-industrial fashion in Crete and late elsewhere. Its cost was high because large numbers of shellfish were required t produce small amounts of the dye. Because of this, its use became restricted to th elite. Under the Roman republic, the togas of members of the Senate were +© 2016 United Nation + +distinguished by a border of this colour, and under the Roman empire it became th mark of the emperors (Stieglitz, 1994). This usage has produced a whole cultura structure revolving around the colour purple and spreading out into a range o metaphors and ideas: for example, the concept of the “purple patch,” an elaborat passage in writing, first used by the Roman poet Horace (Horatius). +Goods derived from marine ecosystems that are given a cultural value because o their appearance and/or rarity include pearls, mother-of-pearl, coral an tortoiseshell. In the case of coral, as well as its long-standing uses as a semi-preciou item of jewellery and inlay on other items, a more recent use in aquariums ha developed. +2.1 Pearls and mother-of-pearl +Pearls and mother-of-pearl are a primary example of a marine product used fo cultural purposes. Many species of molluscs line their shells with nacre — a lustrou material consisting of platelets of aragonite (a form of calcium carbonate (se Chapter 7)) in a matrix of various organic substances (Nudelman et al., 2006). Th shells with this lining give mother-of-pearl. Pearls themselves are formed of layer of nacre secreted by various species of oyster and mussel around some foreign bod which has worked its way into the shell (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2007). +Archaeological evidence shows that pearls were already being used as jewellery i the 6" millennium BCE (Charpentier et al., 2012). By the time of the Romans, the could be described as “holding the first place among things of value” (Pliny). For th ancient world, the main source was the shellfish beds along the southern coast o the Persian Gulf, with Bahrain as the main centre. The pearl fishery in the Persia Gulf maintained itself as the major source of pearls throughout most of the first tw millennia CE, and by the 18" century was sufficiently profitable to support th founding of many of the present Gulf States. It developed further in the 19 century, and by the start of the 20" century the Persian Gulf pearl trade reached short-lived peak in value at about 160 million United States dollars a year, and wa the mainstay of the economies of the Gulf States (Carter, 2005). +During the 20" century, however, the Persian Gulf pearl trade declined steadily, du substantially to competition from the Japanese cultured pearl industry and genera economic conditions. With the emergence of the Gulf States as important oi producers, the economic significance of the pearl trade for the area declined. Th Kuwait pearl market closed in 2000, and with its closure the Persian Gulf pear fishery ceased to be of economic importance (Al-Shamlan, 2000). However, som pearling still continues as a tourist attraction and, with Japanese support, an attemp has been made to establish a cultivated pearl farm in Ras Al Kaimah (OBG, 2013) Other traditional areas for the harvesting of natural pearls include the Gulf of Cutc and the Gulf of Mannar in India, Halong Bay in Viet Nam and the Islas de las Perlas i Panama (CMFRI, 1991; Southgate, 2007). +The great transformation of the pearl industry came with the success of Japanes firms in applying the technique developed in Australia by an Englishman, Willia Saville-Kent. The technique required the insertion of a nucleus into the pearl oyster +© 2016 United Nation + +in order to provoke the formation of a pearl. Using the oyster species from th Persian Gulf, this meant that, instead of the three or four pearls that could be foun in a thousand wild oysters, a high percentage of the farmed oysters would delive pearls. The Japanese industry started in about 1916. By 1938, there were about 36 pearl farms in Japanese waters, producing more than 10 million pearls a year (1 tons). Production continued to increase after World War II and reached a peak o 230 tons in 1966, from 4,700 farms. Pollution and disease in the oyster, however rapidly caused the industry to contract. By 1977, only about 1,000 farms remained producing about 35 tons of pearls. Competition from Chinese cultured freshwate pearls and an oyster epidemic in 1996 reduced the Japanese industry to th production of less than 25 tons a year. Nevertheless, this industry was still wort about 130 million dollars a year. From the 1970s, other Indian Ocean and Pacifi Ocean areas were developing cultured pearl industries based on the traditional pear oyster species: in India and in Viet Nam in the traditional pearling regions, and i Australia, China, the Republic of Korea and Venezuela. Apart from China, wher production had reached 9-10 tons a year, these are relatively small; the largest i apparently in Viet Nam, which produces about 1 ton a year (Southgate, 2007). +At the same time, new forms of the industry developed, based on other oyste species. The two main branches are the “white South Sea” and “black South Sea pearl industries, based on Pinctada maxima and Pinctada margaritefera respectively. “Black” pearls are a range of colours from pale purple to true black Australia (from 1950) and Indonesia (from the 1970s) developed substantia industries for “white South Sea” pearls, earning around 100 million dollars a yea each. Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines have smalle industries. The black “South Sea” pearl industry is centred in French Polynesia particularly in the Gambier and Tuamotu archipelagos. The industry in Frenc Polynesia was worth 173 million dollars in 2007 (SPC, 2011). The Cook Islands building on a long-standing mother-of-pearl industry, started a cultured-pear industry in 1972, which grew to a value of 9 million dollars by 2000. However, i that year poor farm hygiene and consequent mass mortality of the oysters led to collapse to less than a quarter of that value by 2005. The trade has recovere somewhat since then, largely due to increased sales to tourists in the islands. Smal “black South Sea” pearl industries also exist in the Federated States of Micronesia Fiji, the Marshall Islands and Tonga. Small pearl industries based on the oyste species Pterea penguin and Pterea sterna exist in Australia, China, Japan, Mexico an Thailand (SPC, 2011; Southgate, 2007). +Reliable information on the cultured pearl industries is not easy to obtain: fo example, significant divergences exist between the statistics for the Pintad margaritifera industry in the FAO Fisheries Global Information System database an those reported by the South Pacific Secretariat in their newsletters (SPC, 2011). Th FAO itself noted the lack of global statistics on pearls (FAO, 2012). However, al sources suggest that the various industries suffered severe set-backs in 2009-201 from a combination of the global economic crisis and overproduction. It is also clea that, apart from local sales to tourists, the bulk of all production passes throug auctions in Hong Kong, China, and Japan. +© 2016 United Nation + +Mother-of-pearl is produced mainly from the shells of pearl oysters, but othe molluscs, such as abalone, may also be used. In the 19" century it was much used a a material for buttons and for decorating small metal objects and furniture. In man of these uses it has been superseded by plastics. It developed as an importan industry in the islands around the Sulu Sea and the Celebes Sea, but substantia industries also existed in western Australia (now overtaken by the cultured-pear industry), the Cook Islands and elsewhere (Southgate 2007). It remains important i the Philippines, which still produces several thousand tons a year (FAO, 2012). +2.2 Tortoiseshell +For several centuries, material from the shells of sea turtles was used both as decorative inlay on high-quality wooden furniture and for the manufacture of smal items such as combs, spectacle frames and so on. The lavish use of tortoiseshell wa a particular feature of the work of André Charles Boulle, cabinetmaker to successiv 18" century French kings. This established a pattern which was widely imitate (Penderel-Brodhurst, 1910). The shells of hawksbills turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in particular, were used for this purpose. The demand for the shells of hawksbil turtles produced an enormous and enduring effect on hawksbill populations aroun the world. Within the last 100 years, millions of hawksbills were killed for th tortoiseshell markets of Asia, Europe and the United States (NMFS, 2013). Th species has been included in the most threatened category of the IUCN’s Red Lis since the creation of the list in 1968, and since 1977 in the listing of all hawksbil populations on Appendix | of the Convention on International Trade in Endangere Species of Wild Fauna and Flora’ (CITES) (trade prohibited unless not detrimental t the survival of the species). Some production of objects with tortoiseshell continue (particularly in Japan), but on a very much reduced scale. +2.3 Coral (and reef fish) +The Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum), was used from a very early date fo decoration and as a protective charm. In the 1* century, Pliny the Elder records bot its use a charm to protect children and its scarcity as a result of its export to Indi (Pliny). As late as the second half of the 19" century, teething-rings were still bein made with coral (Denhams, 2014). It is now principally used for jewellery. Th Mediterranean red coral is still harvested. Similar genera/species from the wester Pacific near Japan, Hawaii, and some Pacific seamounts are also harvested. Th global harvest reached a short-lived peak at about 450 tons a year in 1986, as result of the exploitation of some recently discovered beds on the Empero Seamounts in the Pacific. It has fallen back to around 50 tons a year, primarily fro the Mediterranean and adjoining parts of the Atlantic (CITES, 2010). This trade in th hard coral stone is estimated to be worth around 200 million dollars a year (FT 2012), although another estimate places it at nearer 300 million dollars) (Tsounis 2010). Despite proposals in 2007 and 2010, these corals are not listed under th CITES. +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol.. 993, No. 14537. +© 2016 United Nation + +Other corals of cultural interest, on the other hand, have been listed under CITES The cultural use made of these genera and species is very different. The main use i inclusion in aquariums. Some experimental evidence exists that the ability to watc fish in aquariums has a soothing effect on humans (especially when suffering fro dementia) (for example, Edwards et al., 2002). For similar reasons, many homes offices, surgeries and hospitals have installed such aquariums. Suitable pieces o coral, either alive or dead, are seen as attractive parts of such aquarium scenes. Th demand for coral for this purpose is substantial. International trade in cora skeletons for decorative purposes began in the 1950s. Until 1977 the source wa largely the Philippines. In that year a national ban on export was introduced, and b 1993 the ban was fully effective. The main source then became Indonesia. Until th 1990s, the trade was mainly in dead corals for curios and aquarium decoration Developments in the technology of handling live coral led to a big increase in th trade in live coral. CITES lists 60 genera of hard corals in Appendix II; hence thei export is permitted only if the specimens have been legally acquired and export wil not be detrimental to the survival of the species or its role in the ecosystem. Fo coral rock, the trade averaged about 2,000 tons a year in the decade 2000-2010 although declining slightly towards the end of the decade. Fiji (with 60 per cent) an Indonesia (with 11 per cent) were the major suppliers over this decade. Othe countries supplying coral rock included Haiti, the Marshall Islands, Mozambique Tonga, Vanuatu and Viet Nam, although the last five introduced bans towards th end of this period. The major importers were the United States (78 per cent) an the European Union (12 per cent). For live coral, the picture was slightly different over the same decade, the number of pieces of live coral traded rose from som 700,000 to some 1,200,000. Of these, Indonesia supplied an average of about 70 pe cent, with other important suppliers including Fiji (10 per cent), Tonga (5 per cent) Australia (5 per cent) and the Solomon Islands (4 per cent). The United State accounted for an average of 61 per cent of the imports, and the European Unio took 31 per cent. For some species of coral, mariculture is possible, and by 201 pieces produced by mariculture accounted for 20 per cent of the trade (Wood et al. 2012). +An aquarium would not be complete without fish, and this need has produce another major global trade: in reef fish. Because few marine ornamental fish specie have been listed under CITES, a dearth of accurate information on the precise detail of the trade exists. The FAO noted the lack of global statistics on the catches of, an trade in, ornamental fish in its 2012 Report on the State of the World’s Fisheries an Aquaculture (FAO, 2012). The late Director of the trade association Ornamental Fis International, Dr. Ploeg, likewise lamented the lack of data (Ploeg, 2004). On estimate puts the scale of the trade in ornamental fish (freshwater and marine) at 1 billion dollars. In 2000 to 2004 an attempt was made to set up in UNEP/WCMC Global Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD), drawing not only on official trad records, but also on information supplied by trade associations. This provides som interesting, albeit now dated, information, but it has not been kept up-to-dat because of lack of funding. One of the most notable features was that the numbe of fish reported as imported was some 22 per cent more than the number reporte as exported (Wabnitz et al., 2003). The need for better information is a matter of +© 2016 United Nation + +on-going debate; the European Union has conducted a consultation exercise in 2008 2010 (EC, 2008). +The GMAD data suggested that some 3.5-4.3 million fish a year, from nearly 1,50 different species, were being traded worldwide. The main sources of fish (in order o size of exports) were the Philippines, Indonesia, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka Australia, Fiji, the Maldives and Palau. These countries accounted for 98 per cent o the recorded trade, with the Philippines and Indonesia together accounting fo nearly 70 per cent. The main destinations of the fish were the United States, th United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France and Germany, which accounted for 99 pe cent of the recorded trade; the United States accounted for nearly 70 per cent These figures probably do not include re-exports to other countries. It was estimate that the value of the trade in 2003 was 1 million to 300 million dollars (Wabnitz e al., 2003). +From the social perspective, the number of people depending on the trade i relatively small. A workshop organized by the Secretariat of the Pacific Communit in 2008 showed that some 1,472 people in 12 Pacific island countries and territorie depended on the trade in ornamental fish for their livelihoods (Kinch et al., 2010) GMAD reported an estimate of 7,000 collectors providing marine ornamental fish i the Philippines (Wabnitz et al., 2003). It also reported a much higher estimate o some 50,000 people in Sri Lanka being involved with the export of marin ornamentals, but this probably reflects the large, long-standing trade based on th aquaculture of ornamental freshwater fish. +2.4 Culinary and medicinal cultural products +Items of food, and specific ways of preparing dishes from them, can be ver distinctive features of cultures. Products derived from marine ecosystems often pla a significant role. One almost universal feature is salt. For millennia, salt was vital i much of the world for the preservation of meat and fish through the winter months Although nowadays salt is mainly obtained from rock-salt and brine deposits in th ground, salt is still widely prepared by the evaporation of seawater, especially i those coastal areas where the heat of the sun can be used to drive the evaporation Although statistics for the production of salt often do not differentiate between th sources for salt production, countries such as Brazil, India and Spain are recorded a producing many millions of tons of salt from the sea (BGS, 2014). +A further common preparation used in many forms of cooking is a sauce derive from fermenting or otherwise processing small fish and shellfish. Such sauces ar recorded as garum and liquamen among the Romans from as long ago as the 1 century (Pliny). They are also crucial ingredients in the cuisines of many east Asia countries — China, Republic of Korea, Thailand, Viet Nam — and other fish-base sauces are found in many western cuisines, for example, colatura de alici (anchov sauce) and Worcestershire sauce. +Cultural pressures can interact with the sustainable use of products derived fro marine ecosystem services. Just as the demand for tortoiseshell inlay and object was driven by desire to emulate the élite in both Asia and Europe, and affected the +© 2016 United Nation + +hawksbill turtle, other species of marine turtle were also affected by the status o turtle soup as a prestige dish. In Europe, soup made from green turtles (Cheloni mydas) became a prestige dish when the turtles were brought back by Europea trading ships passing through the tropics. It was served lavishly at formal dinners in the mid-19" century, a report of a routine large dinner refers to “four hundre tureens of turtle, each containing five pints” — that is, 1,136 litres in total (Thackeray 1869). Large amounts were also commercialized in tins. In spite of growin conservation concerns, it was still seen as appropriate for inclusion in the dinner t welcome the victorious General Eisenhower back to the United States in 1945 (WAA 1945). The dish has disappeared from menus since the green turtle was listed unde Appendix | to CITES in 1981, except in areas where turtles are farmed or wher freshwater species are used. +Another group of species where cultural forces create pressures for excessiv harvesting is the sharks (see also chapter 40). Shark’s fin soup is a prestige dish i much of eastern Asia, especially among Chinese-speaking communities. Prices fo shark’s fins are very high (hundreds of dollars per kilogramme). As shown in Figur 1, the trade in shark fins peaked in 2003-2004 and has subsequently levelled out a quantities 17-18 per cent lower (2008-2011). The statistics are subject to man qualifications, but trade in shark fins through Hong Kong, China (generally regarde as the largest trade centre in the world) rose by 10 per cent in 2011, but fell by 2 per cent in 2012. The FAO report from which the figure is drawn suggests that number of factors, including new regulations by China on government officials expenditures, consumer backlash against artificial shark fin products, increase regulation of finning (the practice of cutting fins of shark carcasses and discardin the rest), other trade bans and curbs, and a growing conservation awareness, ma have contributed to the downturn. At the same time, new figures suggest the shar fin markets in Japan, Malaysia and Thailand, though focused on small, low-value fins may be among the world’s largest (FAO, 2014a). +World trade in shark fins, 1976 to 2011 +Thousands of tonne USD million +Figure 1. Source: FAO, 2014a. +© 2016 United Nation + +Similar cultural pressures exist in relation to other aspects of marine ecosystems Traditional medicine in eastern Asia, for example, uses dried seahorses for a range o illnesses. Most dried seahorses (caught when they are about 12-16 cm in size) ar exported to China. The value in 2008 was 100-300 dollars per kilogramme depending on the size and species; the larger animals are the most valuable Production is said to be more than 20 million sea horses (70 tons) a year. Viet Na and China are the major producers; Viet Nam has developed its seahors aquaculture since 2006. This trade is seen as a significant pressure on th conservation status of several species of seahorse (FAO, 2014b). +Not all consequences of the cultural uses of the ocean’s ecosystem services i relation to food are necessarily negative. The Mediterranean diet, with it substantial component of fish and shellfish, was inscribed in 2013 on the UNESC Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (UNESCO, 2014). +3. Cultural practices +3.1 Cultural practices that enable use of the sea +Humans interact with the ocean in a large number of ways, and many of these lea to cultural practices which enrich human life in aesthetic, religious or spiritual ways as well as in purely practical matters. Such practices are beginning to be inscribed i the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity Those listed so far include a practice in Belgium of fishing for shrimp on horse-back twice a week, except in winter months, riders on strong Brabant horses walk breast deep in the surf, parallel to the coastline, pulling funnel-shaped nets held open b two wooden boards. A chain dragged over the sand creates vibrations, causing th shrimp to jump into the net. Shrimpers place the catch (which is later cooked an eaten) in baskets hanging at the horses’ sides. In approving the inscription, th Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultura Heritage (ICSICH) noted that it would promote awareness of the importance of small very local traditions, underline the close relations between humans, animals an nature, and promote respect for sustainable development and human creativit (UNESCO, 2014).c +Similarly, the Chinese tradition of building junks with separate water-tight bulkhead has been recognized as a cultural heritage that urgently needs protection. Th ICSICH noted that, despite the historical importance of this shipbuilding technology its continuity and viability are today at great risk because wooden ships are replace by steel-hulled vessels, and the timber for their construction is in increasingly shor supply; apprentices are reluctant to devote the time necessary to master the trad and craftspeople have not managed to find supplementary uses for their carpentr skills. Furthermore, the ICSICH noted that safeguarding measures designed t sustain the shipbuilding tradition are underway, including State financial assistanc to master builders, educational programmes to make it possible for them to transmi their traditional knowledge to young people, and the reconstruction of historical +© 2016 United Nation + +junks as a means to stimulate public awareness and provide employment (UNESCO 2014). +Another cultural tradition linked to the sea is that of the lenj boats in the Islami Republic of Iran. Lenj vessels are traditionally hand-built and are used by inhabitant of the northern coast of the Persian Gulf for sea journeys, trading, fishing and pear diving. The traditional knowledge surrounding lenjes includes oral literature performing arts and festivals, in addition to the sailing and navigation techniques terminology and weather forecasting that are closely associated with sailing, and th skills of wooden boat-building itself. This tradition is also under threat, and th Islamic Republic of Iran has proposed a wide range of measures to safeguard i (UNESCO, 2014). +Along the north-east Pacific coast, sea-going canoes were one of the three majo forms of monumental art among the Canadian First Nations and United States Nativ Americans, along with plank houses and totem poles. These canoes came t represent whole clans and communities and were a valuable trade item in the past especially for the Haida, Tlingit and Nuu-Chah-Nulth. Recently, there has been revival in the craft of making and sailing them, and they are capable of bringin prestige to communities (SFU, 2015). +Similar important navigational traditions survive in Melanesia, Micronesia an Polynesia. Using a combination of observations of stars, the shape of the waves, th interference patterns of sea swells, phosphorescence and wildlife, the Pacifi Islanders have been able to cross vast distances at sea and make landfall on smal islands. Although now largely being replaced by modern navigational aids, th Pacific navigational tradition shows how many aspects of the marine ecosystems ca be welded together to provide results that at first sight seem impossible. Since th 1970s the tradition has been undergoing a renaissance (Lewis, 1994). +Apart from the practical cultural practices linked to the sea that support navigation cultural practices in many parts of the world reflect the dangers of the ocean and th hope of seafarers to gain whatever supernatural help might be available. The fishin fleet is blessed throughout the Roman Catholic world, usually on 15 August, th Feast of the Assumption. This dates back to at least the 17" century in Liguria i Italy (Acta Sanctae Sedis, 1891). It spread generally around the Mediterranean, an was then taken by Italian, Portuguese and Spanish fishermen when they emigrated and has been adopted in many countries, even those without a Roman Catholi tradition. +In many places in China and in the cultural zone influenced by China, a comparabl festival is held on the festival of Mazu, also known (especially in Hong Kong, China as Tian Hou (Queen of Heaven). According to legend, she was a fisherman’ daughter from Fujian who intervened miraculously to save her father and/or he brothers and consequently became revered by fishermen, and was promoted by th Chinese Empire as part of their policy of unifying devotions. The main festival take place on the 23” day of the 3 lunar month (late April/early May). A tradition o visiting a local shrine before a fishing voyage also continues in some places (Liu 2003). +© 2016 United Nation + +Miura, on the approaches to Tokyo Bay in Japan, developed as a military port and harbour providing shelter to passing ships. Drawing on dances from other citie demonstrated to them by visiting sailors, the people of Miura began the tradition o Chakkirako to celebrate the New Year and bring fortune and a bountiful catch of fis in the months to come. By the mid-eighteenth century, the ceremony had taken it current form as a showcase for the talent of local girls. The dancers perform face-to face in two lines or in a circle, holding fans before their faces in some pieces an clapping thin bamboo sticks together in others, whose sound gives its name to th ceremony. Now included in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangibl Cultural Heritage of Humanity, the ceremony is intended to demonstrate cultura continuity (UNESCO, 2014). +A specific cultural practice that acknowledges the importance of sea trade is th “Marriage of the Sea” (Sposalizio del Mare) in Venice, Italy. This takes the form of boat procession from the centre of city to the open water, where the civic hea (originally the Doge, now the Sindaco) throws a wedding ring into the sea. In 1177 Venice had successfully established its independence from the Emperor an Patriarch in Constantinople (Istanbul), from the Pope in Rome and from the Hol Roman Emperor, by using its leverage to reconcile the two latter powers, and ha become the great entrepdt between the eastern and western Mediterranean. Pop Alexander II acknowledged this by giving the Doge a ring. Henceforth, annually o Ascension Day, the Doge would “wed” the sea to demonstrate Venice’s control o the Adriatic (Myers et al., 1971). Abolished when Napoleon dissolved the Venetia Republic, the ritual has been revived since 1965 as a tourist attraction (Veneziaunica 2015). +3.2 Cultural practices that react to the sea +A verse in the Hebrew psalms speaks of the people “that go down to the sea in ship and...see...the wonders of the deep” (Psalm 107(106)/23, 24). A similar sense o awe at the sea appears in the Quran (Sura 2:164). This sense of awe at the ocean i widespread throughout the world. In many places it leads to a special sense of plac with religious or spiritual connotations, which lead to special ways of behaving: i other words, to religious or spiritual ecosystem services from the ocean. reductionist approach can see no more in such ways of behaviour than bases fo prudential conduct: for example, fishing may be halted in some area at a specifi time of year, which coincides with the spawning of a particular fish population, thu promoting the fish stock recruitment. But such a reductionist approach is no necessary, and can undermine a genuine sense of religious or spiritual reaction t the sea. +The risk exists that such reductionist approaches will be seen as the natura interpretation of ritual or religious practices. In a survey of the environmenta history of the Pacific Islands, McNeill writes that “Lagoons and reefs probably felt th human touch even less [than the islands], although they made a large contributio to island sustenance...human cultural constraints often operated to preserve them Pacific islanders moderated their impact on many ecosystems through restraints an restrictions on resource use. In many societies taboos or other prohibitions limited +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +the exploitation of reefs, lagoons, and the sea. These taboos often had social o political purposes, but among their effects was a reduction in pressures on loca ecosystems. Decisions about when and where harvesting might take place wer made by men who had encyclopaedic knowledge of the local marine biota” (McNeill 1994). +This clearly sets out the external (“etic”) view of the system of taboos and beliefs i.e., the view that can be taken by an outside, dispassionate observer. It does no allow for the internal (“emic”) view as seen by someone who is born, brought up an educated within that system. It is important to understand this distinction and allo for the way in which the insider will have a different frame of reference from th outsider. +Good examples of the way in which such an insider’s religious or spiritual reaction can underpin a whole system of community feeling can be found among the Firs Nations of the Pacific seaboard of Canada. A member of the Huu-ay-aht First Nation a tribe within the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Group in this area, describes their traditiona approach to whaling as follows: +“Whaling within Nuu chah nulth society was the foundation of our economi structure. It provided valuable products to sell, trade and barter. In essence i was our national bank... Whaling [however, also] strengthened, maintaine and preserved our cultural practices, unwritten tribal laws, ceremonies principles and teachings. All of these elements were practiced throughout th preparations, the hunt and the following celebrations. Whaling strengthene and preserved our spirituality and is clearly illustrated through the disciplin that the Nuu chah nulth hereditary whaling chiefs exemplified in their month of bathing, praying and fasting in preparation for the hunt. The whal strengthened our relationships with other nations and communities. Peopl came from great distances and often resulted in intertribal alliances relationships and marriages. The whale strengthened the relationship between families because everyone was involved in the processing of th whale, the celebrations, the feasting, and the carving of the artefacts that ca still be seen today in many museums around the world. The whal strengthened the relationships between family members since everyon shared in the bounty of the whale. And the whale strengthened our peopl spiritually, psychologically and physically” (Happynook, 2001). +Because of the restrictions imposed to respond to the crises in the whale populatio caused by commercial whaling, the Nuu-chah-nulth are not permitted to undertak whaling, and the related peoples further south in Washington State, United States need to obtain special authorization (a request for which has been unde consideration since 2005), and feel that part of their cultural heritage has been take away from them. As the draft evaluation of the Makah request to resume whale hunting puts it, with no authorization this element of their culture would remain connection to the past without any present reinforcement. In effect, a cultura ecosystem service would be lost (NOAA, 2015). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +3.3 Cultural practices tied to a specific sea area +Not all interactions between communities with traditions based on their long standing uses of the ocean result in such clashes between opposing points of view In Brazil, for example, the concept has been introduced of the Marine Extractiv Reserve (Reserva Extrativista Marinha). These are defined areas of coast and coasta sea which aim to allow the long-standing inhabitants to continue to benefit from th resources of the reserve, applying their traditional knowledge and practices, whil protecting the area against non-traditional, new exploitation, and protecting th environment (Chamy, 2002). Six such reserves have been created, and a further 1 are in the process of designation and organization (IBAMA, 2014). +In Australia, before colonization, the coastal clans of indigenous peoples regarde their territories as including both land and sea. The ocean, or “saltwater country” was not additional to a clan estate on land: it was inseparable from it. As on land saltwater country contained evidence of the Dreamtime events by which al geographic features, animals, plants and people were created. It contained sacre sites, often related to these creation events, and it contained tracks, or Songlines along which mythological beings travelled during the Dreamtime. Mountains, rivers waterholes, animal and plant species, and other cultural resources came into bein as a result of events which took place during these Dreamtime journeys. The sea, lik the land, was integral to the identity of each clan, and clan members had a ki relationship to the important marine animals, plants, tides and currents. Many o these land features and heritage sites of cultural significance found withi landscapes today have associations marked by physical, historical, ceremonial religious and ritual manifestations located within the indigenous people’s cultura beliefs and customary law. The Commonwealth and State Governments in Australi are now developing ways in which the groups of indigenous people can take a ful part in managing the large marine reserves which have been, or are being, created in line with their traditional culture. The techniques being used must vary, becaus they must take account of other vested rights and Australia’s obligations unde international law (AIATSIS, 2006). +Madagascar provides an interesting example of the way in which traditional belief can influence decisions on sea use. On the west coast of the northern tip of th island, a well-established shrimp-fishing industry is largely, but not entirely undertaken by a local tribal group, the Antankarana. This group has a traditional se of beliefs, including in the existence of a set of spirits — the antandrano — wh represent ancestors drowned in the sea centuries ago in an attempt to escape a loca opposing tribal group, the Merina. These spirits are honoured by an annua ceremony focused on a particular rock in the sea in the shrimp fishery area. proposal was made to create a shrimp aquaculture farm, which would have severel reduced the scope of the shrimp fishery. The Antankarana leader successfull invoked against this proposal reports from local mediums participating in the annua ceremony that the antandrano spirits would oppose the aquaculture proposa (which might well have been under Merina control). Thus a religious ecosyste service from the sea was deployed to defend a provisioning ecosystem servic (Gezon, 1999). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +At a global level, specific marine sites were inscribed by UNESCO in the Worl Heritage List, and thus brought under certain commitments and controls t safeguard them. So far 42 marine or coastal sites have been designated on the basi of their natural interest: +(a) 22 “contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptiona natural beauty and aesthetic importance”; +(b) 12 are “outstanding examples representing major stages of earth' history, including the record of life, significant ongoing geologica processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic o physiographic features”; +(c) 14 are “outstanding examples representing significant ongoing ecologica and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plant and animals”; and +(d) 29 “contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-sit conservation of biological diversity, including those containin threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of vie of science or conservation”. +(Sites can qualify under more than one criterion.) +Fifteen are islands. Three have been declared to be in danger: the Belize barrier ree (the largest in the northern hemisphere), which is threatened by mangrove cuttin and excessive development (2009); the Florida Everglades in the United States which have suffered a 60 per cent reduction in water flow and are threatened b eutrophication (2010); and East Rennell in the Solomon Islands, which is threatene by logging (2013). In addition, four marine or coastal sites have been inscribed in th World Heritage List because of their mixed cultural and natural interest — the islan of St Kilda in the United Kingdom (for centuries a very remote inhabited settlement featuring some of the highest cliffs in Europe); the island of Ibiza in Spain ( combination of prehistoric archaeological sites, fortifications influential in fortres design and the interaction of marine and coastal ecosystems); the Rock Island Southern Lagoon (Ngerukewid Islands National Wildlife Preserve) in Palau ( combination of neolithic villages and the largest group of saltwater lakes in th world); and Papahanaumokuakea (a chain of low-lying islands and atolls with dee cosmological and traditional significance for living native Hawaiian culture, as a ancestral environment, as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinshi between people and the natural world, and as the place where it is believed that lif originates and where the spirits return after death) (UNESCO, 2014). +Other marine sites of cultural interest are those which offer the possibility o learning more about their past through underwater archaeology. Underwate archaeology draws on submerged sites, artefacts, human remains and landscapes t explain the origin and development of civilizations, and to help understand culture history and climate change. Three million shipwrecks and sunken ruins and cities like the remains of the Pharos of Alexandria, Egypt — one of the Seven Wonders o the Ancient World - and thousands of submerged prehistoric sites, including ports +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +and methods of marine exploitation, such as fish traps, are estimated to exis worldwide. Material here is often better preserved than on land because of th different environmental conditions. In addition, shipwrecks can throw importan light on ancient trade patterns; for example, the Uluburun shipwreck off th southern coast of Turkey, which illuminated the whole pattern of trade in the Middl East in the Bronze Age in the second millennium BCE (Aruz et al., 2008). Shipwreck can also yield valuable information about the sociocultural, historical, economic, an political contexts at various scales of reference (local, regional, global) between th date of the vessel's construction (e.g. hull design, rig, materials used, its purpose etc.) and its eventual demise in the sea (e.g. due to warfare, piracy/privateering intentional abandonment, natural weather events, etc.) (Gould, 1983). Man national administrations pursue policies to ensure that underwater archaeologica sites within their jurisdictions are properly treated. At the global level, the UNESC Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)* entere into force in 2009, and provides a framework for cooperation in this field and widely recognized set of practical rules for the treatment and research o underwater cultural heritage. Where such approaches are not applied, there ar risks that irreplaceable sources of knowledge about the past will be destroyed Bottom-trawling is a specific threat to underwater archaeological sites, wit implications for the coordination of fisheries and marine archaeological sit management. Questions also arise over archaeological sites outside nationa jurisdictions (mainly those of shipwrecks). +Cultural practices related to the sea, coastal sites of cultural interest (such as th UNESCO World Heritage Sites) and underwater archaeological sites form importan elements for ocean-related tourism, which is discussed in Chapter 27 (Tourism an recreation). In particular, shipwrecks provide attractions for divers. +Special problems arise over recent shipwrecks where close relatives of people wh died in the shipwreck are still living, particularly where the wreck occurred i wartime. Where the wrecks are in waters within national jurisdiction, many State have declared such sites to be protected, and (where appropriate) as war graves. A underwater exploration techniques improve, the possibility of exploring such wreck in water beyond national jurisdiction increases, and this gives rise to shar controversies. +Even without special remains or outstanding features, the ocean can provide a ecosystem service by giving onlookers a sense of place. The sense of openness an exposure to the elements that is given by the ocean can be very important to thos who live by the sea, or visit it as tourists (see also Chapter 27). Even where th landward view has been spoiled by development, the seaward view may still b important. This is well demonstrated by a recent legal case in England, seeking t quash an approval for an offshore wind-farm at Redcar. Redcar is a seaside tow with a large steel plant and much industrialization visible in its immediate hinterland The beach and its view to the south-east are, however, described as spectacular The court had to decide whether construction of the wind-farm about 1.5 kilometre offshore would introduce such a major new industrial element into the +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2562. No. 45694. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +seascape/landscape as to undermine efforts to regenerate the seaside part of th town. The court decided that the ministry was justified in its approval, but the cas underlines the importance of the aesthetic ecosystem service that the sea ca provide (Redcar, 2008). +As described in Chapter 27 (Tourism and recreation), over the past 200 years ther has been a growing cultural practice worldwide of taking recreation in coastal area and at sea. Some evidence is emerging of positive links between human health an the enjoyment of the coastal and marine environment (Depledge et al., 2009; Wyle et al., 2014; Sandifer et al., 2015). +4. Cultural influences +Art reflects the society in which it is produced, and is influenced by that society’ interests. The relationship between a society and the ocean is therefore likely to b reflected in its art. Much visual art therefore reflects the sense of place that i predominant in the society that generates it. The sense of place in societies that ar much concerned with the sea reflects the aesthetic ecosystem services provided b the sea, hence the visual arts are also likely to reflect the same service. Examples o the way in which this occurs are not difficult to find. The Dutch painting school o the 17" century developed the seascape — ships battling the elements at sea — just a the period when the Dutch merchant ships and Dutch naval vessels were th dominant forces on the local ocean. The French impressionists of the second half o the 19" century took to painting coastal and beach scenes in Normandy just at th period when the railways had enabled the Parisian élite — their most likely patrons to escape to the newly developed seaside resorts on the coast of the Englis Channel. Similarly, Hokusai’s The Great Wave at Kanagawa is focused on a distan view of Mount Fuji rather than on the ocean — not surprising given that it wa painted at a time when shipping in Japan was predominantly coastal. Today, th advances in cameras capable of operating under water, and the availability of easil managed breathing gear and protective clothing, result in the most stunning picture of submarine life. +This reflection of the aspects of the aesthetic ecosystem services from the ocea that preoccupy the society contemporaneously with the work of the artist can als be found in literature and music. CamGes’s great epic The Lusiads appears just at th time when Portugal was leading the world in navigation and exploration. In the sam period, Chinese literature saw the emergence of both fictional and non-fictiona works based on the seven voyages of Admiral Zheng He in the south-east Asian sea and the Indian Ocean. It is with the emergence in the 19" century of widesprea trading voyages by American and British ships that authors like Conrad, Kipling an Melville bring nautical novels into favour. Likewise, the impressionist seascapes i visual art are paralleled by impressionist music such as Debussy’s La mer. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +5. The ultimate ecosystem service for humans +Burial at sea has long been practiced as a matter of necessity during long voyages. I was specifically provided for in 1662 in the English Book of Common Prayer (BCP 1662). Both the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution b Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 and its Protocol’ (see chapter 24) which regulate the dumping of waste and other matter at sea, are careful to leav open the possibility of the burial of human remains at sea. Western European State regularly authorize a small number of such disposals every year (LC-LP, 2014). Th United States authorities have issued a general permit for burial at sea of huma remains, including cremated and non-cremated remains, under certain condition (USA-ECFR, 2015). In Japan, increasing prices for burial plots and concerns about th expanding use of land for cemeteries have led to a growing pattern of crematio followed by the scattering of the cremated remains, often at sea. The practic started in 1991, when the law on the disposal of corpses was relaxed, and ha become more popular following such funeral arrangements for a number o prominent people (Kawano, 2004). +6. Conclusions and identification of knowledge and capacity-building gaps +This chapter set out to review the ways in which ecosystem services from the se interrelate with human aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual desires and needs Five main conclusions emerge: +(a) Several goods produced by the ocean have been taken up as élite goods that is, goods that can be used for conspicuous consumption or t demonstrate status in some other way. When that happens, a high ris exists that the pressures generated to acquire such élite goods, whethe for display or consumption, will disrupt marine ecosystems, especiall when the demand comes from relatively well-off consumers and th supply is provided by relatively poor producers. The development of th market in shark’s fin is a good example of this (although signs exist tha that particular situation has stopped getting worse). +(b) Some producers could be helped by a better understanding of th techniques and precautions needed to avoid ruining the production. A well as better knowledge, they may also need improved skills, equipmen and/or machinery to implement that better understanding. Th production of cultured pearls in the Cook Islands is a good example. +(c) Some élite goods pass through a number of hands between the origina producer and the ultimate consumer. There appears to be a gap i capacity-building to safeguard producers and ensure more equitable +3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1046, No. 15749. +* 36 International Legal Materials 1 (1997). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +profit-sharing in the supply chain. The case of small producers o cultured pearls is an example. +(d) Very different perceptions of marine ecosystem services and ho humans relate to them can exist between different groups in society even when such groups are co-located. Understanding on all sides of th reasons for those differences is a prerequisite for effective managemen of the ecosystem services. +(e) Aspects of the marine environment that are valued as cultural assets o humanity need constant consideration; they cannot just be left to fen for themselves. Where technology or social change has overtake human skills that are still seen as valuable to preserve, conditions nee to be created in which people want to learn those skills and are able t deploy them. Where an area of coast or sea is seen as a cultural asset o humanity, the knowledge is needed of how it can be maintained in th condition which gives it that value. +References +Acta Sanctae Sedis (1891). 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Conclusions on Major Ecosystem Services +Other than Provisioning Services +Contributor: Patricio A. Bernal (Lead Member) +1. Introduction +The ecosystem services assessed in Part Ill are large-scale; some of them ar planetary in nature and provide human benefits through the normal functioning o the natural systems in the ocean, without human intervention. This makes the intrinsically difficult to value. However, some of these same ecosystem services i turn sustain provisioning services that generate human benefits through the activ intervention of humans. This is the case, for example, for the global ecosyste service provided by primary production by marine plants, which by synthesizin organic matter from CO and water, provide the base of nearly all food chains in th ocean (except the chemosynthetic ones), and provide the food for animal consumer that in turn sustain important provisioning ecosystem services from which human benefit, such as fisheries. +The services in Part Ill are not the only ones provided by the ocean. Many othe ecosystem services are directly or indirectly referred to in Parts IV to VI of thi Assessment. The provisioning ecosystem services related to food security ar addressed in Part IV, Assessment of Cross-Cutting Issues: Food Security And Foo Safety (Chapters 10 through 16); those related to coastal protection are referred t in Part VI, Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats, in Warm Wate Corals (Chapter 43), Mangroves (Chapter 48), and in Aquaculture (Chapter 12) Estuaries and Deltas (Chapter 44), Kelp Forests and Seagrass Meadows (Chapter 47 and Salt Marshes (Chapter 49); the maintenance of special habitats are addressed i Chapters on Open Ocean Deep-sea Biomass (Chapter 36F); Cold Water Coral (Chapter 42) and Warm Water Corals (Chapter 43), Hydrothermal Vents and Col Seeps (Chapter 45), High-Latitude Ice (46) and Seamounts and Other Submarin Geological Features Potentially Threatened by Disturbance (Chapter 51); th sequestration of carbon in coastal sediments, the so-called blue carbon, is addresse in Chapters on Mangroves (Chapter 48), Estuaries and Deltas (Chapter 44) and Sal Marshes (Chapter 49); the cycling of nutrients is covered in Estuaries and Delta (Chapter 44) and Salt Marshes (Chapter 49, but also Chapter 6). +Because of the very large scale of the services analysed in Part III, although they ar influenced by human activities, they cannot be easily managed, and in certain case they cannot be managed at all. The uptake of atmospheric CO2 (Chapter 5) and th role of the ocean in the hydrological cycle (Chapter 4) are two examples o regulatory ecosystem services that cannot be managed or valued easily. +2016 United Nation + +2. Accounting for the human benefits obtained from nature +Ecosystems can exist without humans in them, but humans cannot survive withou ecosystems. Throughout history, humanity has made use of nature for food, shelter protection and engaging in cultural activities. The intensity of humanity’s use o nature has changed with the evolution of society and reached high levels with th introduction of modern technologies and industrial systems. Today, at a planetar scale, including the deepest ocean, no natural or pristine systems are found withou people or unaffected by the impact of human activities; nor do social systems exis that can thrive without the support of nature. Social and ecological systems are trul interdependent and constantly co-evolving. +This fundamental connection between humans and nature has received differen levels of recognition with regard to how we deal with the benefits humans extrac from nature in economic terms. Extractive activities, e.g., of minerals, or of livin natural resources, such as fibre, timber and fish, raise the issues of irreplaceabilit and sustainability. The use of nature is multifaceted and, as a norm, a give ecosystem can provide many goods and several services at the same time. Fo example, a mangrove ecosystem provides wood fibre, fuel, and nursery habitat fo numerous species (provisioning services); it detoxifies and sequesters pollutant coming from upstream sources, stores carbon, traps sediment, and thus protect downstream coral reefs, and buffers shores from tsunamis and storms (regulatin services); it provides beautiful places to fish or snorkel (cultural services); and i recycles nutrients and fixes carbon (supporting services; Lubchenco and Petes 2010). When humans convert a natural ecosystem to another use, some ecosyste services may be lost and others services gained. Such a process gives rise to trade offs between natural services and between these and services not derived fro natural capital. For example, when mangroves are converted to shrimp ponds airports, shopping malls, agricultural lands, or residential areas, new services ar obtained: food production, space for commerce, transportation, and housing, bu the original natural services are lost (Lubchenco and Petes, 2010). +Therefore, human benefits can be derived from a series of different activities tha simultaneously affect the same ecosystem, but that are not necessarily connecte with their harvesting or production processes. Sustainability requires that users tak only a fraction of the resources, preserving in this way the natural capability of th ecosystem to regenerate the same resources, making them available for use b future generations. The appropriate spatial scale and the time sufficient to recove are part of the sustainability requirement. To extract anchovies (Engraulis spp.) o sardines (Sardinops spp.) that can regenerate their populations in three to eigh years has different implications than to extract orange roughy (Hoplostethu atlanticus) from the top of seamounts that needs 100 to 150 years or more t recover. +2016 United Nation + +3. The evolution of management tools +The increase in “the magnitude of human pressures on the natural system ha caused a transition from single-species or single-sector management to multi-sector ecosystem-based management across multiple geographic and temporal dimensions (...) Intensification of use of ecosystems increases interactions between sectors an production systems that in turn increase the number of mutual negative impacts (i.e. externalities)” (Chapter 3). +Because all these processes take place in an integrated socio-ecological system, w have seen an expansion of scope in the decision-making process, incorporating th simultaneous consideration of several uses or industries at the same time and th livelihoods and other social aspects connected with this ensemble of activities. Thes approaches enable the consideration of tradeoffs among different uses an beneficiaries, enlarging the range of policy options. Only recently have regulator instruments for better accounting for the indirect and cumulative impacts on natura systems of these multiple uses been incorporated into the management an regulation of human activities. Mobilized by a series of high-level World Conference addressing these issues, in Stockholm 1972, Rio de Janeiro 1992, Johannesburg 2002 and Rio de Janeiro 2012, the international community has acted to advance an implement this enlarged scope of decision-making across all societies. +Assigning value to the human benefits obtained from nature is more easily don when the goods and services obtained are traded, thereby becoming part o commerce. Prices in different markets are readily available and comparisons ar possible. It is not that simple, however, for certain types of benefits, for example when subsistence livelihoods that do not enter into trade are concerned, or othe intangible cultural, recreational, religious or spiritual benefits are involved. +However, the extraction of natural products and other human benefits from wil ecosystems can affect other processes inside the ecosystems that provide valuabl permanent services to humanity that are not part of commerce. Examples includ the production of organic matter and oxygen through primary production in th ocean, the protection of the coast by mangrove forests, the re-mineralization o decaying organic matter at the coastal fringes, and the absorption of heat and CO by the ocean that has delayed the impacts of global warming. Furthermore fluctuations in the provision of these natural services can have significant impacts o those natural products that are in commerce. +Climate patterns drive the magnitude and variability of the circulation and hea storage capacity of the surface layers of the ocean, as described in Chapters 4 and 5 The displacement of warm and cold water pools on the surface of the ocean feed into the dynamics of the atmosphere, generating enormous transient fluctuations i weather patterns, such as the El Nifio and La Nifia cycles, that cascade dow affecting the production of a series of goods and services, not only in the ocean, bu most notably also on land. For example, El Nifio adversely affects the availability an price of fishmeal and fish oil, also key components of the diet of carnivorous specie in aquaculture (see Chapter 12). +2016 United Nation + +4. Scientific understanding of ecosystem services +The fundamental connection between humans and nature has received uneve levels of recognition in how we deal in economic terms with the benefits human extract from nature. +Humans derive many benefits from all aspects of the natural world. Some of thes benefits are provided by nature without human intervention and some requir human inputs, often with substantial labour and economic investment. The feature and functions of nature which provide these services can be regarded as “natura capital”, and the way in which this natural capital is organized and how it functions i delivering benefits to humans, has led to these types of benefits being described a “ecosystem services”. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment characterize ecosystem services as: provisioning services (e.g., food, pharmaceutical compounds building material); regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, moderation o extreme events, waste treatment, erosion protection, maintaining populations o species); supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling, primary production); and cultura services (e.g., spiritual experience, recreation, information for cognitiv development, aesthetics). +The rent for land or the royalties on mineral extraction are examples of long established approaches adopted to account for uses of nature. They are based on one-to-one relationship between one activity or industry and one natural source o the goods or services. The effect of other industries on the same ecosystem is no considered; neither are the impacts on other members of the social system affecte by these industries. +To comprehensively account for human benefits and costs, “natural capital” needs t be considered alongside the assets that humans have themselves developed whether in the form of individual skills (“human capital”), the social structures the have created (“social capital”) or the physical assets that they have developed (“buil capital”). Managing the scale of the human efforts in using natural capital is crucial The ecosystem-services approach allows decision-making to be integrated acros land, sea and the atmosphere and enables an understanding of the potential an nature of trade-offs among services given different management actions. +The increasing magnitude of human pressures on the natural system has caused transition from an emphasis on single-species or single-sector management to multi sector, ecosystem-based management and hence to the explicit incorporation o human actions in socio-ecological systems management. +A number of variants of the ecosystem-services approach exist. Some emphasize th functional aspects of ecosystems from which people derive benefits. Others pu more emphasis on their utilitarian aspects and seek to apply mainstream economi accounting methods, assigning them monetary values obtained in the market o using non-market methodologies. Yet others emphasize human well-being an ethical values. Looking at ecosystem services requires consideration of a wide rang of scales, from the completely global (for example, the role of the oceans i distributing heat around the world; Chapter 5) to the very local (for example, the +2016 United Nation + +protection offered by coral reefs to low-lying islands; Chapter 42). +Most studies conducted on marine and coastal ecosystem services have bee focused locally and, in general, have not taken into account benefits generate further afield. An ecosystem-services approach can help with decision-making unde conditions of uncertainty, and can bring to light important synergies and trade-off between different uses of the ocean. However, attempting to assess the relationshi between the operation of ecosystem services and the interests of humans requires much broader management approach and an understanding that many aspects o the ocean have non-linear behaviour and responses. One difficulty is that to date n generally agreed classification of goods and services derived from natural capita exists that could facilitate the task. Another obstacle is that the range of factor involved at all levels might require the consideration of their interaction at th relevant scale, making their treatment very complex. +Some ecosystem services are more visible and easily understood than others. Ther is a risk that the less visible an ecosystem service is, the less it will be taken int account in decision-making. There is also a risk that ecosystem services that can b valued in monetary terms will be understood more easily than others, thus distortin decisions. Likewise, the time scales over which some ecosystem services will b affected by decisions will be much longer than others, which an approach wit traditionally used discount rates would completely dismiss. +4.1 Information gaps +Describing and mapping the full range of ecosystem services at different scale requires much data on the underlying functions and structure of the way in whic ecosystems operate. Although much work has been done, mostly on terrestria ecosystems, this assessment draws attention in its various chapters to the gaps i the information needed to understand the way in which individual ecosyste services operate in the ocean and along the coasts. In addition to these specific gaps a more general, overarching gap exists in understanding how all the individua ecosystem services fit together. +4.2 Capacity-building gaps +Many skills have yet to be developed that should integrate an understanding of th operation of ecosystems: knowledge is currently too fragmented between differen specialisms. +Even in cases where the appropriate skills exist, some parts of the world lac institutions with the status, resources and commitment to make the necessar inputs into decision-making that will affect a range of ecosystem services from th oceans. +The many institutions that already exist to study the ocean also require new o enhanced abilities and connections, but can be expected to work together. Som international networks already exist to facilitate this. More are needed. +2016 United Nation + +5. The ocean’s role in the hydrological cycle +Water is essential for life and the existence of water in a liquid state on the surfac of the earth is probably a critical reason why life is found on this planet and not o others. The presence of water on the surface of the earth is the combined result o the cosmic and geological history of the planet during its 4.5 billion years o existence. These processes, at human time-scales of thousands of years, can b considered as quasi-stable. +The ocean dominates the hydrological cycle. The great majority of the water on th surface of the planet, 97 per cent, is stored in the ocean. Only 2.5 per cent of th global balance of water is fresh water, of which approximately 69 per cent i permanent ice or snow and 30 per cent is ground water. The remainder 1 per cent i available in soil, lakes, rivers, swamps, etc. (Trenberth et al., 2007). +Water evaporates from the planet’s surface, is transported through the atmospher and falls as rain or snow. Rain is the largest source of fresh water entering the ocea (~530,000 km? yr“). At the ocean-atmosphere interface, 85 per cent of surfac evaporation and 77 per cent of surface rainfall occur (Trenberth et al., 2007; Schanz et al., 2010). The residence time of all water in the atmosphere is only seven days. I is fair to say that “all atmospheric water is on a short-term loan from the ocean”. +However, as with many other cycles, the water cycle is a dynamic system in a quas steady-state condition. This steady-state condition can be altered if the factor controlling the cycle change. The great glaciations, or ice ages, are processes i which, due to interplanetary and planetary changes, huge amounts of water pas from the liquid to the solid state, altering the availability of liquid water on th surface of the earth and dramatically changing the sea level. As a consequence of th change in sea level, the shape of world coastlines and the amount of emerged (o submerged) land is drastically changed. +Changes are occurring today at an unprecedentedly fast but still uncertain rate. warmer ocean expands and, being contained by rigid basins, the only surface tha can move is the free surface in contact with the atmosphere, raising sea level. +In addition, the melting of ice due to a warmer atmosphere and a warmer ocean i increasing the volume of the ocean and in the long run will dominate the amount o total change in sea level. +As the ocean warms, evaporation will increase, and global precipitation patterns wil change. The IPCC assess (AR 3, 2001; AR 4, 2007; and AR 5, 2013 and 2014) that th dynamic system of water on earth, driven by global warming, is changing sea level a a mean rate of 1.7 [1.5 to 1.9] mm yr“ between 1901 and 2010, increased to 3. [2.8 to 3.6] mm yr“ between 1993 and 2010 and, due to the changes in climate, wil also change the patterns of rain on land. +Warming affects the polar ice caps, and changes in their melting affect the salinity o the ocean. This in turn can affect the ocean circulation, especially the thermohalin vertical circulation, also known as the “conveyor belt” (Chapter 5) and the operatio of associated ecosystem services. +2016 United Nation + +Due to the concentration of human population and built infrastructure in the coasta zone, sea level rise will seriously affect the way in which humans operate. The effect of sea-level rise will vary widely between regions and areas, with some of the region most affected least able to manage a response. +Changes in water run-off will affect both land and sea. Salinity in the different part of the ocean has changed over time, but is now changing more rapidly. Gradients i salinity are becoming more marked. Because the distribution of marine biota i affected by the salinity of the water that they inhabit, changes in the distribution o salinity are likely to result in changes in distribution of the biota. +Changes in run-off from land are affecting the input of nutrients to the ocean. Thes changes will also affect marine ecosystems, due to increases in the acidity of th ocean. +The warming of the ocean is not uniform. It is modulated by oscillations such as E Nifio. These oscillations cause significant transient changes to the climate an ecosystems, both on land and at sea, and have serious economic effects. Th variations in ocean warming will affect the interaction with the atmosphere an affect the intensity and distribution of tropical storms. +5.1 Information gaps +The sheer scale of the changes that are happening to the ocean makes presen knowledge inadequate to understand all the implications. There are gaps i understanding sea-level rise, and interior temperature, salinity, nutrient and carbo distributions. Many of these gaps are being addressed as part of the world climat change agenda, but more detail about ocean conditions is needed for regional an local management decisions. The information gaps are particularly serious in som of the areas most seriously affected (e.g., the inter-tropical band). +5.2 Capacity-building gaps +Parts of the water cycle are still subject to uncertainties due to insufficient in sit measurements and observations. This is particularly true for surface water fluxes a the regional meso-scale. Because changes in the ocean's role on the hydrologica cycle will be pervasive, all parts of the world need to have access to, and the abilit to interpret, these changes. People and institutions with the necessary skills exist i many countries, but in many others they lack the status and resources to make th necessary input to decision-making. +6. Sea-Air Interaction +Most of the heat excess due to increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases i absorbed by the ocean. All ocean basins have warmed during recent decades, bu the increase in heat content is not uniform; the increase in heat content in the +2016 United Nation + +Atlantic during the last four decades exceeds that of the Pacific and Indian Ocean combined. +‘Recent’ warming (since the 1950s) is strongly evident in sea surface temperatures a all latitudes in all part of the ocean. Prominent structures that change over time an space, including the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), decadal variability pattern in the Pacific Ocean, and a hemispheric asymmetry in the Atlantic Ocean, have bee highlighted as contributors to the regional differences in surface warming rates which in turn affect atmospheric circulation. +The effects of these large-scale climate oscillations are often felt around the world leading to the rearrangement of wind and precipitation patterns, which in tur substantially affect regional weather, sometimes with devastating consequences. +Compared with estimates for the global ocean, coastal waters are warming faster during the last three decades, approximately 70 per cent of the world’s coastline ha experienced significant increases in sea surface temperature. Such coastal warmin can have many serious consequences for the ecological system, including specie relocation. +These changes are also affecting the salinity of the ocean: saline surface waters i the evaporation-dominated mid-latitudes have become more saline, while relativel fresh surface waters in rainfall-dominated tropical and polar regions have becom fresher. +Approximately 83 per cent of global CO, increase is currently generated from th burning of fossil fuels and industrial activity. Forests and grasslands that usuall absorb CO, from the atmosphere are being removed, causing even more CO) to b absorbed by the ocean. The ocean thus serves as an important sink of atmospheri CO2, effectively slowing down global climate change. However, this benefit come with a steep bio-ecological cost. When CO reacts with water, it forms carbonic acid leading to the ocean becoming more acid — referred to as “ocean acidification” Through various routes, this imposes an additional energy cost to calcifier organisms such as corals and shell-bearing plankton, although this is by no means the sol impact of ocean acidification (OA). +OA is not a simple phenomenon nor will it have a simple unidirectional effect o organisms. Calcification is an internal process that in the vast majority of cases doe not depend directly on seawater carbonate content, since most organism us bicarbonate, which is increasing under acidification scenarios, or CO2 originating i their internal metabolism. It has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in th field that some calcifiers can compensate and thrive in acidification conditions. +Without significant intervention to reduce CO2 emissions, by the end of this century average surface ocean pH is expected to be below 7.8, an unprecedented level i recent geological history. These changes will be recorded first at the ocean’s surface where the highest biodiversity and productivity occur. +The abundance and composition of species may be changed, due to OA, with th potential to affect ecosystem function at all trophic levels. Consequential changes i ocean chemistry could occur as well. Economic studies have shown that potentia losses at local and regional scales may be catastrophic for communities and national +2016 United Nation + +economies that depend on fisheries. +6.1 Information Gaps +Regular monitoring of relevant fluxes across the ocean-atmosphere interface need to be maintained, including the regular assessment of the accumulation of heat an CO> (changes in alkalinity) in the surface layers of the ocean. The state of knowledg regarding OA is only currently moving beyond the nascent stage. Therefore severa major information gaps are yet to be filled. Neither all areas of the globe nor al potentially affected animal and plant groups have yet been covered in terms o research. The full range of response and adaptation of organisms, although an activ field of research, is very seldom known. +Additional information is required around the effects of mean changes in OA versu changes in variability and extremes; as well as multi-generational effects an adaptive potential of different organisms (Riebesell and Gattuso, 2015; Sunday et al. 2014). The tolerance level by individual organisms to changes in pH must b understood in situ rather than exclusively in laboratory conditions, along with th possible consequential changes in competition by organisms for resources. Th effects of potential loss of keystone species within ecosystems are not yet clear neither are the chemical changes due to pH. +The future agenda of research in OA should include integrating knowledge o multiple stressors, competitive and trophic interactions, and adaptation throug evolution and moving from single-species to community assessments (Sunday et al. 2014). Future economic impacts of OA are being studied but much more needs to b done. Monitoring and management strategies for maintaining the marine econom will also be needed. In this regard, it has been suggested that future OA researc could focus on species related to ecosystem services in anticipation that these cas studies might be most useful for modellers and managers (Sunday et al. 2014). +6.2 Capacity-Building Gaps +OA was put in evidence only through long-term observational programme coordinated by the international research community. To monitor OA on a regula basis, these international efforts need to be continued and _ institutionall consolidated. OA adaptation is a demanding field of research that require significant infrastructure (i.e. mesocosm experimental facilities) and highly qualifie human resources. These are not readily available in all regions of the world. Furthe understanding of the scope of adaptation capabilities to OA by plants and animals the application of mitigation strategies, or the successful management of productiv systems cultivating organisms with calcareous exo-skeletons that are regularl exposed to corrosive waters sources, require the existence of these capabilities i place. +2016 United Nation + +7. Primary Production, Cycling of Nutrients, Surface Layer and Plankton +“Marine primary production” is the photosynthesis of plant life in the ocean t produce organic matter, using the energy from sunlight, and carbon dioxide an nutrients dissolved in seawater. Carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater is drawn fro the atmosphere. Oxygen is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis both on lan and in the ocean. Of the total annual oxygen production from photosynthesis o land and ocean, approximately half originates in marine plants. The plants involve in this process range from the microscopic phytoplankton to giant seaweeds. O land, the other 50 per cent of the world’s oxygen originates in the photosynthesi from all plants and forests. Present-day animals and bacteria rely on present-da oxygen production by plants on land and in the ocean as a critical ecosystem servic that keeps atmospheric oxygen from otherwise declining. +Marine primary production, as the primary source of organic matter in the ocean, i the basis of nearly all life in the oceans, playing an important role in the globa cycling of carbon. Phytoplankton absorbs about 50 billion tons of carbon a year, an large seaweeds and other marine plants (macrophytes) about 3 billion tons. At planetary level, this ecological function plays an important role in removing CO, one of the significant greenhouse gases — from the atmosphere. Total annua anthropogenic emissions of CO are estimated at 49.5 billion tons, one-third of whic is taken up by the ocean. This ecological service provided by the ocean has so fa prevented warming of the planet above 2° C. +Marine primary production also plays a major role in the cycling of nitrogen aroun the world. A moderate level of uncertainty exists about the extent to which th ocean is currently a net absorber or releaser of nitrogen. +Anthropogenic nutrient loading in coastal waters, ocean warming, ocea acidification, and sea-level rise are driving changes in the phenology (see below) an spatial pattern of phytoplankton and in net primary production as well as in nutrien cycles. These changes are threatening the provision of several ecosystem services a different scales (local, regional). +Changes in macrophyte net primary production and their impacts (losses of habita and of carbon sinks) are also well documented. +Changes in net primary production by phytoplankton or in the nutrient cycles in th upper levels of the world ocean have been the subject of recent debate. Som analyses suggested a diminishing trend in world primary production (Boyce et al. 2010). However, this result was challenged by Rykaczewski and Dunne (2011) an finally reviewed by the original authors (Boyce, et al., 2014). After recalibration o the datasets, despite an overall decline of chlorophyll concentration over 62 per cen of the global ocean with sufficient observations, they describe a more balance picture between regional increases and decreases of primary production, without a overall globally pervasive negative trend. The wider consequences of this long-ter trend are presently unresolved. +The efficient use of primary production to support animals at higher levels in th food web depends on a good relationship between the timing of bursts of primary +2016 United Nations +1 + +production and breeding periods of zooplankton and planktivorous fish. Th phenology of species, i.e., the timing of events in the life cycle of species, plays significant role here. Changes in the phenology of plankton species an planktivorous fish due to ocean warming is starting to produce significan mismatches and could produce many more, affecting the local level of production i the ocean. +Warming of the upper ocean and associated increases in vertical stratification ma lead to a major decrease in the proportion of primary production going t zooplankton and planktivorous fish, and an increase in the proportion o phytoplankton being broken down by microbes without first entering the highe levels of the food web. Such a trend would reduce the carrying capacity of th oceans for fisheries and the capacity of the oceans to mitigate the impacts o anthropogenic climate change. +Coastal eutrophication (see Chapter 20) is likely to lead to an increase in th numbers and area of dead zones and toxic phytoplankton blooms. Both can hav serious effects on the supply to humans of food from the sea. +Nanoparticles (microscopic fragments of plastic and other anthropogeni substances) pose a potential serious threat to plankton and the vast numbers o marine biota which depend on them. +Increases in nitrogen inputs to the ocean and in sea temperatures may have seriou impacts on the type (species, size) and amount of marine primary production although much debate still occurs about the scale of this phenomenon. Differen responses are likely to be found in different regions. This may be particularl significant in the Southern Ocean, where a major drop in primary production ha been forecast. +7.1 Information gaps +Completing a worldwide observing system for the biology and water quality of th ocean that could provide cost-effectively improved information to futur assessments under the Regular Process is seen as an important gap. Routine an sustained measurements across all parts of the ocean are needed on planktoni species diversity, chlorophyll a, dissolved nitrogen and dissolved biologically activ phosphorus. Due to their ability to enter into marine food chains, with a potentia impact on both marine organism and human health, plastic microparticles need t be systematically monitored. +Without this additional information, it will not be possible to understand or predic the changes that will occur due to the accumulated and combined effect of severa drivers. Some information can be derived from satellite remote sensing, but in sit observations at the surface and especially at sub-surface levels are irreplaceable given the fact that the ocean is essentially opaque to electromagnetic radiation, th medium par excellence of remote sensing. +2016 United Nations +1 + +7.2 Capacity-building gaps +The gathering of such information requires a worldwide network for data collection Both a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and a Global Biodiversity Observatio Network (GEO BON) are currently being developed to collect biological an ecologically relevant information that, if completed, would fill in some of th information gaps described above. The capacities to participate in these system need to be extended worldwide. It is also important to develop the skills to explai to decision-makers and the general public the importance of plankton and it significance for the ecosystem services provided by the ocean. +8. Ocean-sourced carbonate production +Many marine organisms secrete calcium carbonate to produce a hard skeleton These vary in size from the microscopic plankton, through corals, to large mollus shells. Carbonate production by corals is particularly important, because the reef that they form are fundamental to the existence of many islands and some entir States. +Sand beaches are also often formed by the fragmented shells of marine biota Beaches are dynamic structures, under constant change from the effects of th oceans; hence a constant supply of new sand of this kind is needed to sustain them. +Sea-level rise will particularly affect beaches, causing them to move inland. In th case of small islands, this may diminish the already limited inhabitable area. Suc changes may also be affected by the availability of new supplies of sand. Suc changes could be very serious for States or parts of States comprised of atolls. +The impact of climate change on the rate of biogenic production of carbonat sediment is also little understood, but it seems likely to have negative consequences Ocean warming has already led to the death (bleaching) of some coral reefs or part of them. +The acidification of the ocean may lead to significant changes in the biogeni production of calcium carbonate, with implications for the future of coral reefs an shell beaches. +8.1 Knowledge gaps +Long-term data are lacking on the formation and fate of reef islands and shel beaches. Information is particularly lacking on the links between the physica structures and the environmental circumstances that may affect changes in thes structures. +8.2 Capacity-building gaps +A gap often exists in the capacities of people living on atolls and in countrie depending heavily on tourism from shell beaches to understand the drivers that +2016 United Nations +1 + +shape the development of these structures. Without such capacities it is impossibl to bring the factors affecting the future of these structures into the making o decisions which can fundamentally affect them. +9. Aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services derived fro the marine environment +The development of human culture over the centuries has been influenced by th ocean, through transport of cultural aspects across the seas, the acquisition o cultural objects from the sea, the development of culture to manage huma activities at sea, and the interaction of cultural activities with the sea. +The ocean has been and continues to be the source of prized materials for cultura use, for example: pearls, mother-of-pearl, coral, and tortoise-shell. Some marin foodstuffs are also ingredients in culturally significant dishes. The high value given t many of these culturally significant objects can lead to their over-exploitation an the long-term damage of the ecosystems that supply them. The sea is an importan element in many sites of cultural significance. Forty-six marine and coastal sites ar included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. +Even where sites do not reach this high threshold of cultural significance, grea aesthetic and economic importance may be attached to preserving the seascape an coastal views. This concern should also be extended to the tangible cultural heritag of past human interaction with the sea and of past human activities in periods of lo sea levels. This can be particularly significant in making decisions about the locatio of new offshore installations. +The intangible cultural heritage of human interaction with the sea is also important Ten per cent of the items on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Nee of Urgent Safeguarding involve the ocean. Important cultural areas are derived fro the need of humans to operate on the ocean, leading to skills such as navigation hydrography, naval architecture, chronometry and many other techniques. +The need is increasingly being recognised to understand the knowledge system developed by many indigenous peoples to understand and manage their interaction with the marine environment. +9.1 Knowledge gaps +In the current fast-changing world, it is important to record much traditiona knowledge before it is lost. +9.2 Capacity-building gaps +For cultural goods derived from the sea, a gap exists in many parts of the world fo the skills needed to identify and implement potential opportunities to turn loca marine objects to good account. Means to support traditional cultural practices so +2016 United Nations +1 + +that they endure for future generations need to be provided, and anthropologica skills to record and interpret them are also important. +10. The ecosystem services concept and the United Nations and other system of environmental-economic accounting +As can be seen from the foregoing, there is a general need to bring togethe information about ecosystem services, in a way which allows judgments to be mad about trade-offs. In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment an Development (UNCED) called for the implementation of integrated environmental economic accounting in countries, to complement national accounts by accountin for environmental losses and gains. As a consequence, the United Nations Statistic Division (in charge of maintaining the framework as well as the world standards fo the System of National Accounts) led the development of the System o Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) under the auspices of the Unite Nations Committee of Experts on Environmental-Economic Accounting (UNCEEA) The SEEA Central Framework was adopted as an international standard by th United Nations Statistical Commission at its 43rd Session in 2012 and the SEE Experimental Ecosystem Accounting was endorsed by the same commission at it 44th session in 2013 (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seea.asp). Both th SEEA Central Framework and SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting use th accounting concepts, structures and principles of the System of National Account (SNA). +The SSEA provides a way of organizing information in both “physical terms” an “monetary terms” using consistent definitions, concepts and classifications. Physica measures and valuation of ecosystem services and ecosystem assets are discussed i the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting. Those ecosystem services an ecosystem assets are not typically traded on markets, as explained in Chapter 3, an are difficult to measure because observed prices cannot be used to measure thes assets and services as in standard economic accounting (Statistics Division of th United Nations, 2012). Although concepts and methods are still experimental, man United Nations Member States have engaged in ambitious programmes to appl these new concepts (Figure 1). +2016 United Nations +1 + +COUNTRIES IMPLEMENTING SEEA +Hi Existing programmes on SEEA — Coastline +|| Countries planning to start a programme on SEEA — International Boundary +| | NoprogrammesonSEEA 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 === Other Line of Separatio (no Tesponse +and the des at or. +Figure 1. Countries of the world implementing natural capital accounting programmes. The map i provided by the United Nations Statistics Division. +Simplified ecosystem capital accounts are currently being implemented in Europe b the European Environment Agency, in cooperation with Eurostat, as one of th responses to recurrent policy demands in Europe for accounting for ecosystems an biodiversity (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:TEEB). The Europea Union has developed the MAES programme, for Mapping and Assessment o Ecological Services in the 27 countries of the European Unio (http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/an-experimental-framework-for ecosystem). +The United Kingdom Government has recently completed a national ecosyste assessment (UK National Ecosystem Assessment, 2011) and, building on this report has made a commitment to include the value of natural capital and ecosystems full into the United Kingdom environmental accounts by 2020. +11. Conclusions +Long-established approaches adopted to account for uses of nature, like rent o royalties, are based on a one-to-one relationship between one activity or industr and one natural source of the goods or services. The effect of other industries on the +© 2016 United Nations +15 + +same natural source is not considered; neither are the impacts on other members o the social system affected by these industries. +Traditionally these invisible benefits and costs are mostly hidden in the “natura system”, and usually are not accounted for at all in economic terms. The emergenc and evolution of the concept of ecosystem services is an explicit attempt to bette capture and reflect these hidden or unaccounted benefits and costs, expanding th scope of policy options already available in integrated management approache through the consideration of the trade-offs among different uses and beneficiaries. +The ecosystem services approach has proven to be very useful in the management o multi-sector processes and is informing today many management and regulator processes around the world, especially on land. However, the methodologies an different approaches to assess and measure ecosystem services, or to assign the value, as presented in Chapter 3, are far from benefiting from a common set o standards and a consensual framework for their application. Furthermore, as state in Chapter 3, “On land, negative impacts can be partially managed or contained i space. However, in the ocean, due to its fluid nature, impacts may broadcast far fro their site of origin and are more difficult to contain and manage. For example, ther is only one Ocean when considering its role in climate change through the ecosyste service of “gas regulation”. +In Chapters 4 to 8, the ecosystems services analyzed are provided on different spatia and temporal scales. Most of those ecosystems are described only on large to ver large scales, many of them, indeed, at the planetary scale. In contrast, much of th work on valuing ecosystem services in the ocean has focused on smaller systems, fo example, on assessing and valuing the services provided by marine parks, marin reserves and marine protected areas, in order to enable local judgments (includin such elements as making local planning decisions or establishing fees to charge t visitors). Despite a significant amount of work on ecosystem-services valuation fo the ocean and coasts, as reported in Chapter 3, evidence of its broader application i decision-making at the larger scales is still very limited. +References +Boyce, D.G., Lewis, M. R. and Worm, B., (2010). Global phytoplankton decline ove the past century. Nature, 466: 591-596. +Boyce D.G., Dowd M, Lewis MR, Worm, B., (2014). Estimating global chlorophyl changes over the past century. Progress in Oceanography 122:163-173 +Lubchenco, J., Petes, L.E., (2010). The interconnected biosphere: science at th ocean's tipping points. Oceanography 23 (2), 115-129. +Riebesell, U. and Gattuso J.-P., (2015). Lessons learned from ocean acidificatio research. Nature Climate Change 5:12-14. +2016 United Nations +1 + +Rykaczewski, R.R. and Dunne, J.P. (2011). A measured look at ocean chlorophyl trends. Nature 472, E5-6. +Schanze, J. J., Schmitt, R. W. and Yu, L.L. (2010). The global oceanic freshwater cycle: +A state-of-the-art quantification. Journal of Marine Research 68, 569-595. +Sunday, J.M., P. Calosi, T. Reusch, S. Dupont, P. Munday, J. Stillman, (2014) Evolution in an acidifying ocean. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 29(2): 117 125. +Trenberth, K.E., Smith, L., Qian, T., Dai, A., and Fasullo, J. (2007). Estimates of th Global Water Budget and Its Annual Cycle Using Observational and Mode Data. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 8: 758 — 769. +United Nations Statistics Division (2012). The System of Environmental-Economi Accounting (SEEA) Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/eea_white_cover.pdf). +United Kingdom National Ecosystem Assessment (2011). The UK National Ecosyste Assessment: Synthesis of the Key Findings. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. +2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_09.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_09.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_10.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6376a952643783b0244c28b22c4528a137cd1d73 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +Part I Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats +One of the main services provided by the oceans is food for human consumption resulting in benefits for human health and nutrition, economic returns, an employment. These benefits can be enjoyed sustainably, but only if the intensity an nature of harvesting and culture are appropriately planned and managed, and access t the potential benefits is made available. +Part IV of the WOA reviews these issues under the headings of the Ocean as a source o food (Chapter 10), Capture fisheries (Chapter 11), Aquaculture (12), Fish stoc propagation (13), Specialized marine food sources (14), and Social and economic aspect of fisheries (15). Chapter 10 summarizes the contributions of seafood’ to huma nutrition and alleviation of hunger, discussing both patterns at regional and sub-regiona scales and their trends over time. Chapter 11 looks in more detail at capture fisheries presenting trends over time both globally and regionally in overall harvest levels an fishing gear used. It also looks at major species harvested at these scales, and th sustainability of use of the harvested species. It also looks at the ecosystem effects o fishing, considering the nature, levels, and, where information is available, trends, i effects on bycatch species, marine food webs, and habitats. Chapter 12 reviews th same types of information for aquaculture, considering overall production an production of key species at global and regional scales, and, with regard to ecosyste effects, considers issues such as introduction of alien species, local degradation an conversion of habitats, use of antibodies, genetic manipulations, and other simila factors in this form of production. Chapters 13 and 14 address focused issues o artificial propagation of fish and use of marine plants and species other than fish an invertebrates as food. Chapter 15 then assesses the magnitude of economic and socia benefits from fisheries and aquaculture. The assessment again looks at trends bot globally and regionally, and in addition at differences in the nature, scales, an distribution of social and economic benefits of large-scale and small-scale fisheries. Th role of trade, hunger, poverty, worker safety and related issues are all addressed, wit particular attention to the interactions of trade, hunger, and poverty alleviation in ho benefits may be taken and distributed. +The synthesis in Chapter 16 brings these aspects of the ocean as a source of foo together. It integrates the perspectives of the sustainability of harvested and culture stocks and the impacts on marine ecosystems from fishing and aquaculture, with th perspectives of economic benefits and social / livelihoods benefits. +* Both the terms “seafood” and “fish” are used to include a variety of marine sources of food, dependin on the source being consulted. In Part IV both terms are used generically to refer to all types of fis (including both bony and cartilaginous species) and invertebrates consumed as food. When information i presented on a subset of these taxa, the text is explicit about the intended group of species. +© 2016 United Nation + +Chapter 10. The Oceans as a Source of Food +Contributors: Beatrice Ferreira (Co-Lead member), Jake Rice (Lead member) Andy Rosenberg (Co-Lead member) +1. Introduction +One of the main services provided by the oceans to human societies is the provisionin service of food from capture fisheries and culturing operations. This includes fish invertebrates, plants, and for some cultures, marine mammals and seabirds for direc consumption or as feed for aquaculture or agriculture. These ocean-based sources o food have large-scale benefits for human health and nutrition, economic returns, an employment. +A major challenge around the globe is to obtain these benefits without compromisin the ability of the ocean to continue to provide such benefits for future generations, tha is, to manage human use of the ocean for sustainability. In effect, this means tha capture fisheries and aquaculture facilities must ensure that the supporting stocks ar not overharvested and the ecosystem impacts of the harvesting or aquaculture facilitie do not undermine the capacity of a given ocean area to continue to provide food an other benefits to society (see Chapter 3). Further, the social and economic goals of th fisheries and aquaculture should fully consider sustainable use in order to safeguar future benefits. +2. Dimensionality of the oceans as a source of food +Capture fisheries and aquaculture operate at many geographical scales, and vary in ho they use marine resources for food production. Here, “small-scale” refers to operation that are generally low capital investment but high labour activities, relatively lo production, and often family or community-based with a part of the catch bein consumed by the producers (Béné et al., 2007; Garcia et al., 2008). Large-scal operations require significantly more capital equipment and expenditure, are mor highly mechanized and their businesses are more vertically integrated, with generall global market access rather than focused on local consumption. These descriptions ar at the ends of a spectrum continuum of scales with enormous variation in between. +The geography of harvesting and food production from the sea is also important Williams (1996) documents that until the mid-1980s, developed countries dominate both harvesting and aquaculture, but thereafter developing countries became +© 2016 United Nation + +dominant, first in capture fisheries and later in mariculture. A general division of large scale fisheries and mariculture in the developed world and small-scale operations in th developing world was never absolute. Small-scale operations were present in all areas but highly mobile large-scale fisheries are increasingly operating around the glob (Beddington et al., 2007; World Bank/FAO, 2012), and large aquaculture facilities fo export products are increasing in the developing world (Beveridge et al., 2010; Hall e al., 2011). +3. Trends in capture fisheries and aquaculture +According to FAO statistics reported by member States, production of fish from captur fisheries and aquaculture for human consumption and industrial purposes has grown a an annual rate of 3.4 per cent for the past half century from about 20 to above 162 mm by 2013 (FAO, 2014a; FAO, 2015). Over the last two decades though, almost all of thi growth has come from increases in aquaculture production. Chapters 11 and 12 of thi Assessment describe the time course of capture fisheries and aquaculture developmen over the last several decades. +Globally aquaculture production has increased at approximately 8.6 per cent per yea since 1980, to reach an estimated 67 mmt in 2012, although the rate of growth ha slowed slightly in recent years. Of that total, however, more than 60 per cent is fro freshwater aquaculture. In addition nearly 24 million tons of aquatic plants (mostl seaweeds) were cultured on 2012. Total marine aquaculture production is growin slightly faster than freshwater aquaculture in all regions, but, like freshwate aquaculture, over 80 per cent of production is concentrated in a few countries particularly China, as well as some other east and south Asian countries (FAO, 2014a). +Some of the fish taken in capture fisheries are used as feed in aquaculture, fishmeal, fis oil and other non-human consumption uses. Thus the total harvest from captur fisheries and production from mariculture is not all available for human consumption This use of fish is debated with regard to the best use of production from captur fisheries (Naylor et al., 2009; Pikitch et al., 2012). The total amount of fish used fo purposes other than direct consumption has been declining slowly since the early 2000 from about 30 per cent to just over 20 per cent of total capture fishery harvest in 201 (FAO 2014a). Consequently, fish for human consumption has been increasing slightl faster than the human population, increasing the importance of fish in meeting foo security needs (HLPE, 2014). +Finally, fishing is also undertaken for recreational, cultural and spiritual reasons. Eve though fish taken for these purposes may be consumed, they are addressed in chapter 8 and 27, and will not be considered further here. +© 2016 United Nation + +4. Value of marine fisheries and mariculture +Fish harvested or cultured from the sea provide three classes of benefits to humanity food and nutrition, commerce and trade, and employment and livelihoods (see Chapte 15 for additional detail). All three classes of benefits are significant for the world. +4.1 Food and nutrition +According to FAO (2014a) estimates, fish and marine invertebrates provide 17 per cen of animal protein to the world population, and provide more than 20 per cent of th animal protein to over 3 million people, predominantly in parts of the world wher hunger is most widespread. Asia accounts for 2/3 of the total consumption of fish However, when population is taken into account, Oceania has the highest per capit consumption (approximately 25 kg per year), with North America, Europe, Sout America and Asia all consuming over 20 kg per capita, and Africa, Latin America and th Caribbean are around 10 kg per capita. Per capita consumption does not capture th full importance of the marine food sources to food security, however. Many of the 2 countries where these sources constitute more than a third of animal protein consume are in Africa and Asia. Of these, the United Nations has identified 18 as low-income food deficient economies (Karawazuka Béné, 2011, FAO, 2014b). Thus fish an invertebrates, usually from the ocean, are most important where food is needed most. +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 1. Total and per capita food fish supply by continent and economic grouping in 2011* +Total food supply Per capita food suppl (million tonnes live weight +equivalent) (kg/year World 132.2 18. World (excluding China) 86.3 15. Africa 11.0 10. North America 7.6 21. Latin America and the Caribbean 5.9 9. Asia 90.3 21. Europe 16.4 22. Oceania 0.9 25. Industrialized countries 26.4 27. Other developed countries 5.6 13. Least-developed countries 10.3 12. Other developing countries 89.9 18. LIFDCs* 21.2 8.6 +* Preliminary dat * Low-income food-deficit countries. +Source: FAO Information and Statistics Branch, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2015. +Not only are marine food sources important for overall food security, fish are rich i essential micronutrients, particularly when compared to micronutrients available whe meeting human protein needs from consumption of grains (WHO 1985). Compared t protein from livestock and poultry, fish protein is much richer in poly-unsaturated fatt acids and several vitamins and minerals (Roos et al., 2007, Bonhan et al., 2007) Correspondingly, direct health benefits relative to reducing risk of obesity, hear disease, and high blood pressure have been linked to diets rich in fish (Allison et al. 2013). +It should be noted, however, that there are also potential health risks from consumptio of seafood, particularly as fish at higher trophic levels may concentrate environmenta contaminants, and there are occasional outbreaks of toxins in shellfish. Substantia effort is invested in monitoring for these risks, and avoiding the conditions wher probability of toxin outbreaks may increase. More broadly, food safety is a ke worldwide challenge facing all food production and delivery sectors including all parts o the seafood industry from capture or culture to retail marketing. This challenge of +© 2016 United Nation + +course faces subsistence fisheries as well. In the food chain for fishery products, risk o problems needs to be assessed, managed and communicated to ensure problems ca be addressed. The goal of most food safety systems is to avoid risk and preven problems at the source. The risks come from contamination from toxins or pathogen and the severity of the risk also depends on individual health, consumption levels an susceptibility. There are international guidelines to address these risks but substantia resources are required in order to continue to build the capacity to implement an monitor safety protocols from the water to the consumer. +Because of the several limiting factors affecting wild fish catch today (see Chapter 11), i is forecasted that aquaculture production will supply all of the increase in fis consumption in the immediate future. Production is projected to rise to 100 million ton by 2030 (Hall et al., 2011) and to 140 million tons by 2050, if growth continues at th same rate. +Estimates by the World Resources Institute (Waite et al., 2014), assuming (a) the sam mix of fish species, (b) that all aquaculture will go to human consumption and (c) tha there will be a 10 per cent decrease in wild fish capture for food, indicate that th growth in aquaculture production cited above would boost fish protein supply to 20. million tons, or 8.7 million tons above 2006 levels. This increase would meet 17 per cen of the increase in global animal protein consumption required by 9.6 billion people fo 2050 (Waite et al. 2014). +4.2 Commerce and trade +The total value of world fish production from capture fisheries and marine an freshwater aquaculture was estimated to be 252 billion USD in 2012, with the “first sale” value of fish from capture fisheries at approximately 45 per cent of that value (FA 2014a). Consistent accounting for “value” has been elusive, providing alternative valu estimates that are as much as 15-20 per cent greater (e.g., Dyck and Sumalia, 2010) The different possible accounting schemes make it correspondingly difficult to estimat the growth rate of economic value of fisheries, but all approaches project the value t have increased consistently for decades and likely to continue to increase. This increas in economic value is attributable to several factors, including increased productio (primarily from aquaculture), an increasing proportion of catches directed to huma consumption, improvements in processing and transportation technologies that add t the product’s value, and changing consumer demand (Delgado et al 2003). Severa factors contribute to increasing consumer demand. The factors include increasin awareness of health benefits of eating fish, increasing economic consumer power i developed and developing economies, and market measures such a certification o sustainably harvested fish and aquaculture products (FAO 2014a). +Just as total per capita consumption of fish underestimates the importance of fish t food security in many food-deficit countries, the total economic value of fish sale underrepresents the value of fish sales to low-income parts of the world. There is a +© 2016 United Nation + +“cash crop” value to fish catches of even small-scale subsistence fishers. Most of thi “value” is not captured in the formal economic statistics of countries, and probabl varies locally and seasonally (Dey et al., 2005). However studies have shown that th selling or trading of even a portion of their catch represents as much as a third of th total income of subsistence fishers in some low income countries (Béné et al., 2009). +4.3 Employment and livelihoods +These differences between large-scale and small scale fishers are particularly importan in considering employment benefits from food from the ocean. Estimates of full-time o part-time jobs derived from fishing, vary widely, with numbers ranging from 58 millio to over 120 million jobs being available (BNP 2009, FAO 2014a). All sources agree tha over 90 per cent are employed in small-scale fisheries. This includes jobs in th processing and trading sectors, where opportunities for employment of women ar particularly important (BNP 2009). The value-chain jobs are considered to nearly tripl the employment benefits from fishing and mariculture, compared to direct employmen from harvesting (World Bank 2012). All sources report that more than 85 per cent o the employment opportunities are in Asia and a further 8 per cent in Africa, largely i income-deficit countries or areas. It is even harder to track direct and value-chai employment from small-scale aquaculture production and break out the portion that i derived from marine aquaculture (Beveridge et al., 2010), but recent estimates fo employment from aquaculture exceed 38 million persons (Phillips et al., 2013). +Of the 58.3 million people estimated to be employed in fisheries and aquaculture (4. per cent of total estimated economically active people), 84 per cent were in Asia and 1 per cent in Africa. Women are estimated to account for more than 15 per cent of peopl employed in the fisheries sector (FAO, 2014). +When full- or part-time participants in the full value-chain and support industries (boat building, gear construction, etc.) of fisheries and aquaculture and their dependents ar included, FAO estimated that between 660 and 820 million persons derive som economic and/or livelihood benefits (FAO 2012, Allison 2013). Direct employment i fishing is also growing over 2 per cent per year, generally faster than human populatio growth (Allison, 2013). However, there has been a shift from 87 per cent in captur fisheries and the rest in aquaculture (primarily freshwater) in 1990, to approximately 70:30 division in 2010, with slightly faster growth in employment in mariculture than i freshwater aquaculture (FAO, 2012). +Trade in fishery products further complicates efforts to evaluate trends in th contribution of the oceans to human well-being. Fish is one of the most heavily trade food commodities on the planet, with an estimated 38 per cent of fishery production b 2010, up from 25 per cent in 1976 (FAO, 2012). This represents about 10 per cent o international agricultural exports. The direct value of international exports was ove 136 billion USD in 2012, up 102 per cent in just 10 years (FAO, 2014a http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4136e.pdf); European Union (EU) countries alone imported +© 2016 United Nation + +more than 514 billion in fish products in 2013, although slightly over half of that wa from trade among EU Member States (http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4136e.pdf). Fish trad is truly global, with FAO recording fish and fishery products exported by 197 countries led by China, which contributes 14 per cent of the total exports. +Developing countries contribute over 60 per cent by volume and over 50 per cent b value of exports of fish and fish products. Although this trade generates significan revenues for developing countries, through sales, taxation, license fees, and paymen for access to fish by distant water fleets, there is a growing debate about the tru benefits to the inhabitants of these countries from these revenue sources (Bostock e al., 2004; World Bank 2012). The debate centres on whether poor fishers would benefi more from personal or community consumption of the fish than from sales of the fish t obtain cash or credit. The issue is complicated by the leasing of access rights for foreig vessels which may compete for resources with coastal small scale fishers. With small scale and large-scale fisheries each harvesting about half of the world’s fish, resolvin the relative importance of large-scale and small-scale fisheries to food security, in a increasingly globalized economy, is complex. Reviews found the issue to be polarized i the early 2000s (FAO 2003; Kurien, 2004), and there has been little convergence o views over the ensuing decade (HLPE, 2014). +5. Impacts of fisheries and mariculture, on marine ecosystems +Harvesting or culturing marine fish, invertebrates or plants necessarily has at least direc and immediate, and often indirect and longer-term impacts on marine ecosystems. Fo over a century fisheries experts have sought ways to evaluate the short-term and long term sustainability of varying levels of fish harvests (Smith 1994), and to manag fisheries to keep these harvests within sustainable bounds (Garcia et al., 2014) Assessing and managing the wider ecosystem impacts of fisheries and aquaculture i even more challenging (Garcia et al., 2014). These impacts may range from loss o habitat due to destructive fishing practices to impacts on the structure of marine foo webs by selectively harvesting some species that play a key role in the integrity of given ecosystem. The fact that these effects may be difficult to quantify in no wa diminishes their importance in sustaining the capacity of the oceans to provide food an other benefits to human society. Moreover, the scope of assessments of impact continues to expand, as life cycle analyses are introduced into fisheries (Avadi an Fréon, 2013). Results indicate that, for example, the carbon footprint of a kg of fish a market depends greatly on modes of capture and transport. However, the carbo footprint is often substantially lower than the footprint of a kg of poultry or livestoc (Mogensen et al., 2012). Other chapters in this Assessment, primarily in Part VI, conside a broad range of impacts on the ocean of human activities. Since food production fro the ocean is such an important benefit, particular care must be taken to ensure tha sustained capacity to produce food from fisheries and aquaculture is not diminished. +© 2016 United Nation + +6. Conclusions +This chapter sets the stage for assessing the role of the oceans as a source of food. Th chapters to follow will assess in depth the ways that food is taken from the sea. Eac chapter will consider the trends in yields, resources, economic benefits, employment and livelihoods, the interactions among the trends, and their main drivers, on global an regional scales as appropriate. They will also look at the main impacts of the variou food-related uses of the ocean on biodiversity — both species and habitats. Some o these interactions will also be considered, from the perspective of the affecte components of biodiversity, in Part VI of the World Ocean Assessment. Each chapte will also consider the main factors that affect the trends in benefits, resources used an impacts. Together a picture will emerge of the importance of the ocean as a source o food, and of fisheries and mariculture as sources of commerce, wealth, and livelihood for humankind, with a particular focus on the world’s coastal peoples. +References +Allison, E.H., Delaporte, A., and Hellebrandt de Silva, D. (2013). Integrating fisherie management and aquaculture development with food security and livelihoods fo the poor. Report submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation, School o International Development, University of East Anglia Norwich, 124 p. +Avadi, A., and Fréon, P. (2013) Life cycle assessment of fisheries: A review for fisherie scientists and managers. Fisheries Research 143: 21-38. +Beddington, J.R., Agnew, D.J., and Clark, C.W. (2007). Current problems in th management of marine fisheries. Science 316(5832): 1713-1716. +Béné, C., Macfadyen, G., and Allison, E. (2007). Increasing the contribution of small-scal fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security. FAO Fisheries Technical Pape No. 481. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 125 p. +Béné, C., Belal, E., Baba, M.O., Ovie, S., Raji, A., Malasha, I., Njaya, F., Na Andi, M. Russell, A., and Neiland, A. (2009). Power Struggle, Dispute and Alliance ove Local Resources: Analyzing ‘Democratic’ Decentralization of Natural Resource through the Lenses of Africa Inland Fisheries. World Development 37: 1935 1950. +Beveridge M., Phillips, M., Dugan, P., and Brummett, R. (2010). Barriers to Aquacultur Development as a Pathway to Poverty Alleviation and Food Security: Policy +© 2016 United Nation + +Coherence and the Roles and Responsibilities of Development Agencies. OEC Workshop, Paris, France, 12-16 April 2010. +BNP (2009). Big Number Program. Intermediate report. Rome: Food and Agricultur Organization and WorldFish Center. +Bonham, M.P., Duffy, E.M., Robson, P.J., Wallace, J.M., Myers, G.J., Davidson, P.W. Clarkson, T.W., Shamlaye, C.F., Strain, J., and Livingstone, M.B.E. (2009) Contribution of fish to intakes of micronutrients important for foeta development: a dietary survey of pregnant women in the Republic of Seychelles Public Health Nutrition 12(9):1312-1320. +Bostock, T., Greenhalgh, P., and Kleih, U. (2004). Policy Research: Implications o Liberalization of Fish Trade for Developing Countries. Synthesis report. Natura Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham, UK, 68 p. +Delgado, C., Wada, N., Rosegrant, M.W., Meijer, S., and Ahmed, M. (2003). Fish to 2020 Supply and Demand in Changing Global Markets. International Food Polic Research Institute. Washington, DC and WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia. +Dey, M.M., Mohammed, R.A., Paraguas, F.J., Somying, P., Bhatta, R., Ferdous, M.A., an Ahmed, M. (2005). Fish consumption and food security: a disaggregated analysi by types of fish and classes of consumers in selected Asian countries Aquaculture Economics and Management 9: 89-111. +Dyck, A.J., and Sumaila, U.R. (2010). Economic impact of ocean fish populations in th global fishery. Journal of Bioeconomics 12: 227-243. +FAO (2003). Report of the expert consultation on international fish trade and foo security. FAO Fisheries Report. No.708. Rome. +FAO (2012). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Rome. 209 pp FAO (2014a). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Rome. 239 pp. +FAO (2014b). Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDC) — List for 2014 http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/lifdc/en/. +Garcia S., Allison, E.H, Andrew, N., Béné, C., Bianchi, G., de Graaf, G., Kalikoski, D. Mahon, R., and Orensanz, L.. (2008). Towards integrated assessment and advic in small-scale fisheries: Principles and Processes. FAO Fisheries and Aquacultur Technical Paper No.515. Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unite Nations, Rome, 84 p. +Garcia, S.M., Rice, J., and Charles, A.T. (eds). (2014). Governance of Marine Fisheries an Biodiversity Conservation: Interaction and Co-evolution. Wiley Interscience London. 486 pp. +Hall, S.J., Delaporte A., Phillips M.J., Beveridge M., O’Keefe M. (2011). Blue Frontiers Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquaculture. The WorldFish Center Penang, Malaysia. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +HLPE, (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition. report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of th Committee on World Food Security, Rome. +Kawarazuka, N., and Béné, C. (2011). The potential role of small fish species in improvin micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries: building evidence. Publi Health Nutrition 14: 1927-1938. +Kawarazuka, N., and Béné C. (2010). Linking small-scale fisheries and aquaculture t household nutritional security: a review of the literature. Food Security 2: 343 357. +Kurien, J. (2004). Fish trade for the people: Toward Understanding the Relationshi between International Fish Trade and Food Security. Report of the Study on th impact of international trade in fishery products on food security, Food an Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the Royal Norwegian Ministr of Foreign Affairs. +Mogensen,L., Hermansen, J.E., Halberg, N., Dalgaard, R., Vis, R.C., and Smith, B.G (2012). Life Cycle Assessment Across the Food Supply Chain. In: Baldwin, C. editor. Sustainability in the Food Industry. Wiley, London. pp. 115-144. +Naylor, R.L., Hardy, R.W., Bureau, D.P., Chiu, A., Elliott, M., Farrell, A.P., Forster, I. Gatlin, D.M., Goldburg, R.J., Hua, K., and Nichols, P.D. (2009). Feedin aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proceedings of the National Academy o Sciences of the United States of America 106: 18040. +Phillips, M., Van, N.T., and Subasinghe, R. (2013). Aquaculture Big Numbers. Workin Paper. 12 June 2012. WorldFish and FAO. +Pikitch, E., Boersma, P.D., Boyd, |.L., Conover, D.O., Cury, P., Essington, T., Heppell, S.S. Houde, E.D., Mangel, M., Pauly, D., Plaganyi, E., Sainsbury, K., and Steneck, R.S (2012). Little Fish, Big Impact: Managing a Crucial Link in Ocean Food Webs. p 108. Lenfest Ocean Program. Washington, DC. +Roos, N., Wahab, M.A., Chamnan, C, and Thilsted, S.H. (2007). The role of fish in food based strategies to combat Vitamin A and mineral deficiencies in developin countries. Journal of Nutrition 137: 1106-1109. +Smith, T.D. (1994). Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishin 1855-1955. Cambridge Studies in Applied Ecology and Resource Management Cambridge, 384 pp. +WHO (1985). Energy and protein requirements. World Health Organization, Geneva. +Williams, M.J. (1996). The transition in the contribution of living aquatic resources t food security. International Food Policy Research Institute: Food Agriculture an the Environment Discussion Paper No. 13: 41pp. +Waite, R. et al. 2014. Improving Productivity and Environmental Performance o Aquaculture. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Working Paper, Installment 5 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future. Washington, DC World Resources Institute. Accessible at http://www.worldresourcesreport.org. +World Bank/FAO/WorldFish (2012). Hidden Harvest: The Global Contribution of Captur Fisheries. World Bank, Report No. 66469-GLB, Washington, DC. 69 pp. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_10.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_10.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_11.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_11.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..8c657f8b5bb73f35ea4b90c90b0416453bdb048a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_11.txt @@ -0,0 +1,262 @@ +Chapter 11. Capture Fisheries +Writing team: Fabio Hazin, Enrique Marschoff (Co-Lead member) Beatrice Padovani Ferreira (Co-Lead member), Jake Rice (Co-Lead member) Andrew Rosenberg (Co-Lead member) +1. Present status and trends of commercially exploited fish and shellfish stocks +Production of fish from capture fisheries (Figure 1) and aquaculture for huma consumption and industrial purposes has grown at the rate of 3.2 per cent for the pas half century from about 20 to nearly 160 million mt by 2012 (FAO 2014). +MARINE WATERS +Million tonnes +Figure 1. Evolution of world’s capture of marine species. From SOFIA (FAO 2014). +Globally, marine capture fisheries produced 82.6 million mt in 2011 and 79.7 million m in 2012. The relatively small year-to-year variations largely reflect changes in the catc of Peruvian anchoveta, which can vary from about 4 to 8 million tons per annum. +In 2011 and 2012, 18 countries accounted for more than 76 per cent of global marin harvests in marine capture fisheries (Table 1). Eleven of these countries are in Asia. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 1. Marine capture fisheries production per country. From SOFIA (FAO, 2014). +Marine capture fisheries: major producer countries +rit rad perrT tad peg rat) ral raid Piet ee or ai) eoeaed Lceracrerhiier fa 1 China Asia 12 212 188 13 536 409 13 869 604 13.6 2 2 Indonesia Asia 4275115 5 332 862 5 420 247 27.0 1 3 United States Americas 4912 627 5 131 087 5 107 559 40 0. of Americ 4 Peru Americas 6053 120 8211716 4807 923 -20.6 41 5 Russian Asial 3 090 798 4005 737 4068 850 31.6 1. Federation Europ 6 Japan Asia 4626 904 3741222 3611 384 -21.9 3. 7 India Asia 2954 796 3 250099 3 402 405 15.1 4 8 Chile Americas 3612 048 3 063 467 2572 881 28.8 -16. 9 Viet Nam Asia 1647 133 2 308 200 2.418 700 468 4 10 Myanmar Asia 1053 720 2 169820 2 332 790 121.4 7 11 Norway Europe 2 548 353 2 281 856 2 149 802 -15.6 5 12 Philippines Asia 2 033 325 2171327 2 127 046 46 2. 13 Republic Asia 1.649 061 1737 870 1660 165 07 4 of Kore 14 Thailand Asia 2651 223 1610418 1612073 39.2 0. 15 Malaysia Asia 1283 256 1373 105 1472 239 147 7. 16 Mexico Americas 1257 699 1452970 1 467 790 16.7 1. 17 Iceland Europe 1 986 314 1138274 1 449 452 -27.0 27. 18 Morocco Africa 916 988 949 881 1158 474 26.3 22. Total 18 major countries 58764668 63466320 60709384 3.3 4 World total 79674875 82609926 79705910 0.0 3. Share 18 major countries (percentage) 738 76.8 76.2 +In 2011-2012, the top ten species (by tonnage) in marine global landings were Peruvia anchoveta, Alaska pollock, skipjack tuna, various sardine species, Atlantic herring, chu mackerel, scads, yellowfin tuna, Japanese anchovy and largehead hairtail. In 2012, 2 species had landings over a half a million tons and this represented 38 per cent of th total global marine capture production. Many of these top species are small pelagi fishes (e.g. sardines, chub mackerels) and shellfish (squids and shrimp) whos abundance is highly sensitive to changing climatic conditions, resulting in significan interannual variability in production. +Tuna harvests in 2012 were a record high, exceeding more than seven million tons Sharks, rays and chimaera catches have been stable during the last decade at abou 760,000 tons annually. Shrimp production from marine capture fisheries reached record high in 2012 at 3.4 million tons; much of this catch was from the Northwest an Western Central Pacific, although catches also increased in the Indian Ocean and th Western Atlantic. Cephalopod catches exceeded 4 million tons in 2012. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.1 Regional Status +Significant growth in marine capture fisheries has occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean the eastern central Atlantic and the northwest, western central and eastern centra Pacific over the last decade, but landings in many other regions have declined. Thus even though overall landings have been quite stable, the global pattern is continuing t adjust to changing conditions and regional development of fishing capacity (Table 2). +Table 2. Fishing areas and captures (from SOFIA, FAO, 2014 Marine capture: major fishing areas +STE li i tals lala beabeahiaeiied Fra Fea ar Fo e oe) SE +21 Atlantic, Northwest 2293 460 2.002 323 1977710 =-13.8 -1 27 Atlantic, Northeast 10 271 103 8 048 436 8 103 189 21.1 0 31 Atlantic, Western Central 1770746 1472538 1 463 347 174 0. 34 Atlantic, Eastern Central 3549945 4303 664 4056 529 14.3 5 37 Mediterranean and Black Sea 1478694 1 436 743 1282090 -13.3 -10. 41 Atlantic, Southwest 1987 296 1763 319 1878 166 5.5 6 47 Atlantic, Southeast 1736 867 1263 140 1562 943 -10.0 23. 51 Indian Ocean, Western 4433 699 4206 888 4518 075 19 7 5s7 Indian Ocean, Eastern 5 333 553 7 128 047 7 395 588 387 3 61 Pacific, Northwest 19875552 21429083 21461956 8.0 0 67 Pacific, Northeast 2915275 2950 858 2915594 0.0 1. 71 Pacific, Western Central 10831454 11614143 12 078 487 115 4 7 Pacific, Eastern Central 1769 177 1923 433 1940 202 97 0 81 Pacific, Southwest 731027 581760 601 393 17.7 3 87 Pacific, Southeast 10554479 12287713 8291 844 21.4 325 +18, 48, Arctic and Antarctic areas 142 548 197 838 178 797 25.4 9.6 +58, 88 +World total 79674875 82609926 79705910 +An estimated 3.7 million fishing vessels operate in marine waters globally; 68 per cent o these operate from Asia and 16 per cent from Africa. Seventy per cent are motorized but in Africa only 36 per cent are motorized. Of the 58.3 million people estimated to b employed in fisheries and aquaculture (4.4 per cent of total estimated economicall active people), 84 per cent are in Asia and 10 per cent in Africa. Women are estimate to account for more than 15 per cent of people employed in the fisheries sector (FA 2014). +© 2016 United Nations + +2. Present status of small-scale artisanal or subsistence fishing +The FAO defines small-scale, artisanal fisheries as those that are household based, us relatively small amounts of capital and remain close to shore. Their catch is primarily fo local consumption. Around the world there is substantial variation as to which fisherie are considered small-scale and artisanal. The United Nations Conference on Sustainabl Development (Rio+20) emphasized the role of small-scale fisheries in poverty alleviatio and sustainable development. In some developing countries, including small islan States, small-scale fisheries provide more than 60 per cent of protein intake. Its additio to the diets of low-income populations (including pregnant and breastfeeding mother and young children) offers an important means for improving food security an nutrition. Small-scale fisheries make significant contributions to food security by makin fish available to poor populations, and are critical to maintain the livelihoods o vulnerable populations in developing countries. Their role in production and _ it contribution to food security and nutrition is often underestimated or ignored subsistence fishing is rarely included in national catch statistics (HLPE, 2014). Anyhow the key issues in artisanal fisheries are their access both to stocks and to markets (HLPE 2014). +Significant numbers of women work in small-scale fisheries and many indigenou peoples and their communities rely on these fisheries. The “Voluntary Guidelines on th Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context o National Food Security” (FAO 2012) are important in consideration of access issues FAO also notes the linkage to international human rights law, including the right to food Most of the people involved in small-scale fisheries live in developing countries, ear low incomes, depend on informal work, are exposed to the absence of work regulation and lack access to social protection schemes. Although the International Labou Organization adopted the Work in Fishing Convention, 2007 (No.188), progress toward ratification of the Convention has been slow. +FAO continues to encourage the establishment of fishers’ organizations an cooperatives as a means of empowerment for small-scale fishers in the managemen process to establish responsible fisheries policy. They have also highlighted the need t reduce post-harvest losses in small-scale fisheries as a means of improving production Two special sections discuss these issues in SOFIA. Besides the “Voluntary Guidelines o the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context o National Food Security’, FAO also adopted the “Voluntary Guidelines for Securin Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Povert Eradication” in June 2014. +© 2016 United Nations + +3. Impacts of capture fisheries on marine ecosystems +The effects of exploitation of marine wildlife were first perceived as a direct impac primarily on the exploited populations themselves. These concerns were recognized i the 19°" and early 20" centuries (e.g., Michelet, 1875; Garstang, 1900; Charcot, 1911 and began to receive policy attention in the Stockholm Fisheries Conference of 189 (Rozwadowski, 2002). In 1925, an attempt to globally manage “marine industries” an their impact on the ecosystems was presented before the League of Nations (Suarez 1927), but little action was taken. Only following WWII, with rapid increases in fishin technology, was substantial overfishing in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Gullan and Carroz, 1968) acknowledged. Establishment in 1946 of FAO, with a section fo fisheries, provided an initial forum for global discussions of the need for regulation o fisheries. +Capture fisheries affect marine ecosystems through a number of different mechanisms These have been summarized many times, for example by Jennings and Kaiser (1998 who categorized effects as: +(i) The effects of fishing on predator-prey relationships, which can lead to shift in community structure that do not revert to the original condition upon the cessatio of fishing pressure (known as alternative stable states); +(ii) Fishing can alter the population size and body-size composition of species leading to fauna composed of primarily small individual organisms (this can include th whole spectrum of organisms, from worms to whales); +(iii) Fishing can lead to genetic selection for different body and reproductiv traits and can extirpate distinct local stocks; +(iv) Fishing can affect populations of non-target species (e.g., cetaceans, birds reptiles and elasmobranch fishes) as a result of by-catches or ghost fishing; +(v) Fishing can reduce habitat complexity and perturb seabed (benthic communities. +Here these impacts are discussed first for the species and food webs being exploite directly, and then for the other ecosystem effects on by-catches and habitats of fishing Part VI of this Assessment provides additional detail regarding impacts on biodiversit and habitats. +3.1 Target species and communities +The removal of a substantial number of individuals of the target species affects th population structure of the target species, other species taken by the gear, and the foo web. The magnitude of these effects is highly variable and depends on the specie considered and the type and intensity of fishing. In general, policies and managemen measures were instituted first to manage the impact of fisheries on the target species, +© 2016 United Nations + +with ecosystem considerations being added to target species management primarily i the past two to three decades. +If the exploited fish stock can compensate through increased productivity because th remaining individuals grow faster and produce more larvae, with the increase i productivity extracted by the fishery, then fishing can be sustained. However, if the rat of exploitation is faster than the stock can compensate for by increasing growth an reproduction, then the removals will not be sustained and the stock will decline. At th level of the target species, sustainable exploitation rates will result in the tota population biomass being reduced roughly by half, compared to unexploited conditions. +The ability of a given population of fish to compensate for increased mortality due t fishing depends in large part on the biological characteristics of the population such a growth and maturation rates, natural mortality rates and lifespan, spawning pattern and reproduction dynamics. In general, slow growing long-lived species ca compensate for and therefore sustain lower exploitation rates (the proportion of th stock removed by fishing each year) than fast growing shorter lived species (Jennings e al. 1998). In addition, increased exploitation rates inherently truncate the ag composition of the population unless only certain ages are targeted. This truncatio results in both greater variability in population abundance through time (Hsieh et al 2006) and greater vulnerability to changing environmental conditions, including climat impacts. Very long-lived species with low rates of reproduction may not be able to trul compensate for increased mortality, and therefore any significant fishing pressure ma not be sustainable on such species. Of course there are many complicating factors, bu this general pattern is important for understanding sustainable exploitation of marin species. +The concept of “maximum sustainable yield” (MSY), adopted as the goal of man national and international regulatory bodies, is based on this inherent trade-of between increasing harvests and the decreasing ability of a population to compensat for removals. Using stock size and exploitation rates that would produce MSY, or othe management reference points, FAO has concluded that around 29 per cent of assesse stocks are presently overfished (biomass below the level that can produce MSY on continuing basis; Figure 2 below). That percentage may be declining in the more recen years, but has shown little overall trend since the early 1990s. FAO estimates that i overfished stocks were rebuilt, they would yield an additional 16.5 million mt of fis worth 32 billion United States dollars in the long term (Ye et al., 2013). However significant social and economic costs may be incurred during the transition, as man fisheries would need to reduce exploitation in the short term to allow this rebuilding. +© 2016 United Nations + +Global trends in the state of world marine fish stocks, 1974-2011 +Percentage of stocks assesse 10 9 8 70 +Overfished +6 50 Fully fishe 4 3 20 +Underfished +1 74 78 82 86 90 94 98 02 06 11 +ME At biologically unsustainable levels HE: «(Within biologically sustainable levels +Figure 2. State of world marine fish stocks (from SOFIA, FAO 2014) +Anyhow, for many ecological reasons, the MSY is an over-simplified reference point fo fisheries (Larkin, 1997; Pauly, 1994). For example, declines in productivity can result a fewer fish live to grow to a large size, because larger, older fish produc disproportionately more eggs of higher quality than younger, smaller individuals (Hixo et al. 2013). Long-term overfishing may even change the genetic pool of the specie concerned, because the larger and faster-growing specimens have a greater probabilit of being removed, thereby reducing overall productivity (Hard et al., 2008; Ricker 1981). Interactions between species may also mean that all stocks cannot be maintaine at or above the biomass that will produce MSY. Strategies for taking these interaction into account have been developed (Polovina 1984, Townsend et al. 2008, Fulton et al 2011; Farcas and Rossberg 2014, http://arxiv.org/abs/1412.0199), but are not yet i routine practice. +3.2 Ecosystem effects of fishing +The FAO Ecosystem approach to Fisheries (FAO 2003) has detailed guidelines describin an ecosystem approach to fisheries. The goal of such an approach is to conserve th structure, diversity and functioning of ecosystems while satisfying societal and huma needs for food and the social and economic benefits of fishing (FAO 2003). There ar ongoing efforts around the world to implement an ecosystem approach to fisheries tha encompasses the aspects considered below, among others. +© 2016 United Nations + +3.3 Ecosystem effects of fishing — food webs +Marine food webs are complex and exploiting commercially important species can hav a wide range of effects that propagate through the food web. These include a cascadin effect along trophic levels, affecting the whole food web (Casini et al., 2008; Sieben e al., 2011). The removal of top predators may result in changes in the abundance an composition of lower trophic levels. These changes might even reach other an apparently unrelated fisheries, as has been documented, for example, for sharks an scallops (Myers et al., 2007) and sea otters, kelp, and sea urchins (Szpak et al., 2013) Because of these complexities in both population and community responses t exploitation, it is now widely argued that target harvesting rates should be less tha MSY. No consensus exists on how much less, but as information about harvest amount and stock biology is more uncertain, it is agreed that exploitation should be reduce correspondingly (FAO, 1995). +The controversial concept of “balanced harvesting” refers to a strategy that consider the sustainability of the harvest at the level of the entire food web (see, for example Bundy, A., et al. 2005; Garcia et al., 2011; FAO 2014). Rather than harvesting a relativel small number of species at their single-species MSYs, balanced harvesting suggest there are benefits to be gained by exploiting all parts of the marine ecosystem in direc proportion to their respective productivities. It is argued that balanced harvesting give the highest possible yield for any level of perturbation of the food web, On the othe hand, the economics of the fishery may be adversely affected by requiring the harves of larger amounts of low-value but highly productive stocks. +3.4 Other ecosystem effects of fishing by-catches +Fisheries do not catch the target species alone. All species caught or damaged that ar not the target are known as by-catch; these include, inter alia, marine mammals seabirds, fish, kelp, sharks, mollusks, etc. Part of the by-catch might be used, consume or processed (incidental catch) but a significant amount is simply discarded (discards) a sea. Global discard levels are estimated to have declined since the early 1990s, but a 7.3 million tons are still high (Kelleher, 2005). +Fisheries differ greatly in their discard rates, with shrimp trawls producing by far th greatest discard ratios relative to landed catches of target species (Table 3). +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 3. Discards of fish in major fisheries by gear type. From Kelleher, 2005. +Weighted +2 Range of +Fishery Landings Discards' *Verage discard discard rates +(%) (% Shrimp trawl 1 126 267 1 865 064 62.3 0-9 Demersal finfish trawl 16 050 978 1704 107 9.6 0.5-8 Tuna and HMS longline 1 403 591 560 481 28.5 0-4 Midwater (pelagic) trawl 4 133 203 147 126 3.4 0-5 Tuna purse seine 2 673 378 144 152 5.1 0.4-1 Multigear and multispecies 6 023 146 85 436 1.4 na Mobile trap/pot 240 551 72 472 23.2 0-6 Dredge 165 660 65 373 28.3 9-6 Small pelagics purse seine 3 882 885 48 852 1.2 0-2 Demersal longline 581 560 47 257 7.5 0.5-5 Gillnet (surface/bottom/trammel)? 3 350 299 29 004 0.5 0-6 Handline 155211 3149 2.0 0- Tuna pole and line 818 505 3121 0.4 0- Hand collection 1 134 432 1671 0.1 0- Squid jig 960 432 1601 0.1 0-1 +‘The sum of the discards presented in this table is less than the global estimate, as a number of discard databas records could not be assigned to particular fisheries. +Very few time series have been found that document trends in by-catch levels fo marine fisheries in general, or even for particular fisheries or species groups over longe periods. Although both Alverson et al. (1994) and Kelleher (2005) provide globa estimates of discards in fisheries that differ by a factor of three, the latter source (wit the lower estimate) stresses that the methodological differences between the tw estimates were so large that two estimates should not be compared (a warnin confirmed in the Kelleher report by the authors of the earlier report). +When even rough trend information is available, it is for particular species of concern i particular fisheries, and is usually intended to document the effectiveness of mitigatio measures that have been implemented already. As an illustration, in the supplementa information to Anderson et al. (2011), which reports a global examination of longlin fisheries, of the 67 fisheries for which data could be found, two estimates of seabird by catches were available for only 17 of them. Of those, the more recent seabird by-catc estimates were at least 50 per cent lower than the earlier estimates in 15 of th fisheries, and reduced to 5 per cent or less of the earlier estimates in 10 of the fisheries Several reasons were given, depending on the fishery; they included reduction in effor and the use of a variety of technical and occasionally temporal and/or spatial mitigatio measures. These can be taken as illustrative of the potential effectiveness of mitigatio efforts, but should not be extrapolated to other longline fisheries. +The more typical case is reflected in FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (2009 and the report of a FAO Expert Consultation (FAO, 2010), which call for efforts t monitor by-catches and discards more consistently, in order to provide the data neede to document trends. Even the large initiative by the United States to document by catches in fisheries (National Marine Fisheries Service, 2011) considers the reporte estimates to be a starting point for gaining insight into trends in by-catch and discards. +© 2016 United Nations + +It documents the very great differences among fisheries within and among the Unite States fisheries management regions, but has neither tables nor figures depicting trend for any fishery. +By-catch rates may result in overfishing of species with less ability to cope with fishin pressures. The biological impact of by-catches varies greatly with the species bein taken, and depends on the same life-history characteristics that were presented abov for the target species of fisheries. By-catch mortality is a particular concern for smal cetaceans, sea turtles and some species of seabirds and sharks and rays. These issue are discussed in the corresponding chapters in Part VI on marine mammals (Chapter 37) seabirds (38), marine reptiles (39) and elasmobranchs (40). In general, long-lived an slow-growing species are the most affected (Hall et al., 2000). Thus, the benchmarks se for a given fishery also consider by-catch species. +The geographic distribution of discard rates is shown in Figure 3 (from Kelleher, 2005). +The numbers in bold are the FAO Statistical Areas and the tonnages are of by-catch. By catches are clearly a global issue, and can be addressed from local to global scales. Th review by Kelleher (2005) reports a very large number of cases where measures hav been implemented by States, by international organizations, or proactively by th fishing industry (especially when the industry is seeking independent certification fo sustainability), and by-catch and discard rates have decreased and in a few cases bee even eliminated. +A recent global review of practices by regional fisheries management organizations an arrangements (RFMO/As) for deep sea fisheries found that all RFMO/As have adopte some policies and measures to address by-catch issues in fisheries in their regulator areas. However, almost nowhere was full monitoring in place to documen effectiveness of these policies (UNEP/CBD/FAO, 2011). Nevertheless, extensiv evidence exists that by-catches can be mitigated by changes in fishing gear, times, an places, and the incremental cost is often, but not always, small. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Discard Rate over 35% +15% - 20 10% - 13% +8% -9.5 5% -7.8% p : . as or +18 00 tonnes 0 +Scale at the Equator +o 2500 k —— 80" +a0" Ey a" 100" 120" Tao" Teo" 180 W160" 40" Ta Too" 0" or a a Wo E20 a0 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. Distribution of discards by FAO statistical areas (numbers in bold are FAO statistical areas catches in tons). * Note: the high discard rate in FAO Area 81 is a data artefact. Source: Kelleher, 2005. +At the global level, calls for action on by-catch and discards have been raised at th United Nations General Assembly, including in UNGA resolutions on sustainabl fisheries and at the Committee on Fisheries. In response, FAO developed Internationa Guidelines on Bycatch Management and Reduction of Discards; these were accepted i 2011 (FAO, 2011). +3.5 Ecosystem effects of fishing — benthic and demersal habitats +Fishing gear impacts on the seafloor and other habitats depend on the gear design an use, as well as on the particular environmental features. For example, in benthi habitats, substrate type and the natural disturbance regime are particularly importan (Collie et al., 2000). Mobile bottom-contacting gear (including bottom trawls) also ca resuspend sediments, mobilizing contaminants and particles with unknown ecologica effects on both benthic and demersal habitats (Kaiser et al., 2001). +© 2016 United Nations 11 + +A very large literature exists on habitat impacts of fishing gear; experts disagree on bot the magnitude of the issue and the effectiveness of management measures and policie to address the impacts. In the late 2000s, several expert reviews were conducted b FAO and the Convention on Biological Diversity in cooperation with UNEP. Thes reports (FAO, 2007; 2009) provide a recent summary of the types of impacts tha various types of fishing gear can have on the seafloor. Most conclusions ar straightforward: +e All types of gear that contact the bottom may alter habitat features, with impact larger as the gear becomes heavier. +e Mobile bottom-contacting gear generally has a larger area of impact on the seabe than static gear, and consequently the impacts may be correspondingly larger. +e The nature of the impact depends on the features of the habitat. Structurall complex and fragile habitats are most vulnerable to impacts, with biogenic features such as corals and glass sponges, easily damaged and sometimes requiring centurie to recover. On the other hand, impacts of trawls on soft substrates, like mud an sand, may not be detectable after even a few days. +e The nature of the impacts also depends on the natural disturbance regime, wit high-energy (strong current and/or wave action) habitats often showing littl incremental impacts of fishing gear, whereas areas of very low natural disturbanc may be more severely affected by fishing gears. +e Impacts of fishing gears can occur at all scales of fishery operations; some of th most destructive practices, such as drive netting, dynamite and poisons, althoug uncommon, are used only in very small-scale fisheries (Kaiser 2001). +All gear might be lost or discarded at sea, in particular pieces of netting. These give ris to what is known as “ghost fishing”, that is fishing gear continuing to capture and Kil marine animals even after it is lost by fishermen. Assessment of their impacts at either global or local level is difficult, but the limited number of studies available on it incidence and prevalence indicate that ghost fishing can be a significant problem (Lais et al., 1999, Bilkovic et al. 2012). +Quantitative trend information on habitat impacts is generally not available. Man reports provide maps of how the geographical extent and intensity of bottom contacting fishing gear have changed over time (e.g. Figure 4 from Gilkinson et al., 2006 Greenstreet et al., 2006). These maps show large changes in the patterns of th pressure, and accompanying graphs show the percentage of area fished over a series o years. However, these are individual studies, and broad-scale monitoring of benthi communities is not available. Insights from individual studies need to be considere along with information on the substrate types in the areas being fished to know ho increases in effort may be increasing benthic impacts. Furthermore, the recover potential of the benthic biota has been studied in some specific geographies an circumstances but broadly applicable patterns are not yet clear (e.g., Steele et al. 2002 Claudet et al. 2008). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Area Scoure (%) +Ho 0 07 76t 141 52to 1 9 to 2. +2810 3 3.04 to +3.8 t 49410 6 645to 8.7 .73.10 11.7 7710 16.3 33 to 25.06 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Distribution of trawling effort in Atlantic Canadian waters in 1987 and 2000, based on data o bottom-trawl activity adjusted to total effort for <150 t. From Gilkinson et al., 2006. +Even without quantitative data on trends in benthic communities, however, marin areas closed to fishing have increased. Views differ on what level of protection i actually given to areas that are labelled as closed to fishing, but the trend in increasin area protection is not challenged (c.f. CBD, 2012; Spalding et al., 2013). Moreover, th size of the areas being closed to fishing that are not already affected by historical fishin is unknown, as is the recovery rate for such areas, and high-seas fisheries continue t expand into new areas, although probably at a slower rate as RFMO/As increase thei actions to implement United Nations General Assembly Resolution 61/105 (FAO, 2014) Hence the pressure on seafloor habitats and benthic communities from bottom contacting fishing gear may be decreasing slightly, but has been very high for decade on all continental shelves and in many offshore areas at depths of less than severa hundred meters (FAO, 2007). +4. Effects of pollution on seafood safety +Fish and particularly predatory fish are prone to be contaminated with toxic chemicals i the marine environment (e.g., organochlorines, mercury, cadmium, lead); these ar found mostly in their liver and lipids. Because many sources of marine contaminatio are land-based (Chapter 20), freshwater fish may contain higher concentrations o contaminants than marine species (Yamada et al., 2014). Furthermore, contamination o the organisms found there is highly variable at the regional and local levels. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Processing methods might significantly reduce the lead and cadmium contents of fis (Ganjavi et al., 2010) and presumably those of other contaminants, whos concentrations generally increase with size (age) of fish (Storelli et al., 2010). +Some species of fish might be toxic (venomous) on their own, such as species of th genus Siganus and Plotosus in Singapore, which are being culled to reduce thei presence on beaches (Kwik, 2012) and Takifugu rubripes (fugu), whose properties ar relatively well known, such that it is processed accordingly (Yongxiang et al., 2011) However, in extreme situations, human consumption of the remains of fugu processin resulted in severe episodes (Saiful Islam et al., 2011). +Fish, mussels, shrimp and other invertebrates might become toxic through thei consumption of harmful algae, whose blooms increased due to climate change pollution, the spreading of dead (hypoxic/anoxic) zones, and other causes. +Harmful algal blooms are often colloquially known as red tides. These blooms are mos common in coastal marine ecosystems but also the open ocean might be affected an are caused by blooms of microscopic algae (including cyanobacteria). Toxins produce by these organisms are accumulated by filtrators that become toxic for species at highe trophic levels, including man. Climate change and eutrophication are considered as par of a complex of environmental stressors resulting in harmful blooms (Anderson et al. 2012). The problem has prompted research to develop models to predict the behaviou of these blooms (Zhao and Ghedira, 2014). Since the 1970s, the phenomenon ha spread from the northern hemisphere temperate waters to the southern hemispher and has now been well documented at least in Argentina, Australia, Brunei Darussalam China, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Republic of Korea and Sout Africa, but the expansion might also be due to increased awareness of the phenomeno (Anderson et al., 2012) The impact of toxic algal blooms is mostly economic, bu episodes of severe illness, even with high mortality rates, might occur, which promp regulations closing the affected fisheries. +One of the best-known risks in this category is ciguatera, a well-known toxin ingested b human consumption of predatory fish in some regions of the world. The toxin come from a dinoflagellate and is passed along and concentrated up the food chain (Hamilto et al., 2010). Processed foods are usually safer from the standpoint of contamination Thus, processing results in added value to the raw food (Satyanarayana et al., 2012) However, inadequate harvest and postharvest handling and processing of the catche might result in contamination with pathogenic organisms (Boziaris et al., 2013). +The general trend expected is an increase in the frequency of harmful algal blooms, i the bioaccumulation of chemical contaminants and in the prevalence of common food borne pathogenic microorganisms (Marques et al., 2014), although the occurrence o catastrophic events seems to be diminishing. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +5. Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing +The FAO International Plan of Action for IUU fishing (FAO 2001) defines IUU fishing as: +- Illegal fishing refers to activities conducted by national or foreign vessels in water under the jurisdiction of a State, without the permission of that State, or i contravention of its laws and regulations; conducted by vessels flying the flag of State that are parties to a relevant regional fisheries management organization but operate i contravention of the conservation and management measures adopted by tha organization and by which the States are bound, or relevant provisions of the applicabl international law; or in violation of national laws or international obligations, includin those undertaken by cooperating States to a relevant regional fisheries managemen organization; +- Unreported fishing refers to fishing activities which have not been reported, or hav been misreported, to the relevant national authority, in contravention of national law and regulations; or undertaken in the area of competence of a relevant regiona fisheries management organization which have not been reported or have bee misreported, in contravention of the reporting procedures of that organization; +- Unregulated fishing refers to fishing activities in the area of application of a relevan regional fisheries management organization that are conducted by vessels withou nationality, or by those flying the flag of a State not party to that organization, or by fishing entity, in a manner that is not consistent with or contravenes the conservatio and management measures of that organization; or in areas or for fish stocks in relatio to which there are no applicable conservation or management measures and wher such fishing activities are conducted in a manner inconsistent with State responsibilitie for the conservation of living marine resources under international law. +Notwithstanding the definitions above, certain forms of unregulated fishing may no always be in violation of applicable international law, and may not require th application of measures envisaged under the International Plan of Action (IPOA). FA considers IUU fishing to be a major global threat to sustainable management of fisherie and to stable socio-economic conditions for many small-scale fishing communities. Thi illegal fishing not only undermines responsible fisheries management, but also typicall raises concerns about working conditions and safety. Illegal fishing also raises concern about connections to other criminal actions, such as drugs and human trafficking. IU fishing activity has escalated over the last two decades and is estimated to take 11-2 million mt of fish per annum with a value of 10-23 billion United States dollars. In othe words, IUU fishing is responsible for about the same amount of global harvest as woul be gained by ending overfishing and rebuilding fish stocks. It is an issue of equa concern on a global scale. +International efforts by RFMO/As, States and the European Union are aimed a eliminating IUU fishing. FAO notes that progress has been slow and suggested (FA 2014) that better information-sharing regarding fishing vessels engaged in illegal +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +activities, traceability of vessels and fishery products, and other additional measure might improve the situation. +6. Significant economic and/or social aspects of capture fisheries +Capture fisheries are a key source of nutrition and employment for millions of peopl around the world. FAO (2014) estimates that 800 million people are still malnourishe and small-scale fisheries in particular are an important component of efforts to alleviat both hunger and poverty. +Growth in production of fish for food (3.2 per cent per annum) has exceeded huma population growth (1.6 per annum) over the last half century. Recently the growth o aquaculture, which is among the fastest-growing food-producing sectors globally, ha formed a major part of meeting rising demand and now accounts for half of the fis produced for human consumption. By 2030 this figure will rise to two-thirds of fis production. +Per capita consumption of fish has risen from 9.9 kg per annum to 19.2 kg in 2012. I developing countries this rise is from 5.2 kg to 17.8 kg. In 2010, fish accounted for 16. per cent of the global population’s consumption of animal protein and 4.3 billion peopl obtained 15 per cent of their animal protein from fishery products. +Employment in the fisheries sector has also grown faster than the world population an faster than in agriculture. However, of the 58.3 million people employed in the fisher sector, 83 per cent were employed in capture fisheries in 1990. But employment i capture fisheries has decreased to 68 per cent of total fishery sector employment i 2012 according to FAO (2014) statistics. +7. The future status of fish and shellfish stocks over the next decade +World population growth, together with urbanization, increasing development, incom and living standards, all point to an increasing demand for seafood. Capture fisherie provide high-quality food that is high in protein, essential amino acids, and long-chai poly-unsaturated fatty acids, with many benefits for human health. The rate of increas in demand for fish was more than 2.5 per cent since 1950 and is likely to continu (HPLE, 2014). +Climate change is expected to have substantial and unexpected effects on the marin environment as detailed throughout this Assessment. Some of these impacts may no negatively impact fisheries and indeed may result in increased availability for captur fisheries in some areas. Nevertheless, there will certainly be an increase in uncertaint with regard to effects on stock productivities and distributions, habitat stability ecosystem interactions, and the configuration of ecosystems around the globe. Whether +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +these effects on the resources will be “mild” or “severe” will require prudent fisherie management that is precautionary enough to be prepared to assist fishers, thei communities and, in general, stakeholders in adapting to the social and economi consequences of climate change (Grafton, 2009). +Small-scale, artisanal fisheries are likely to be more vulnerable to the impacts of climat change and increasing uncertainty than large-scale fisheries (Roessig et al. 2004). Whil small-scale fisheries may be able to economically harvest a changing mix of species varying distribution patterns and productivity of stocks may have severe consequence for subsistence fishing. Further, the value of small-scale fisheries as providers not onl of food, but also of livelihoods and for poverty alleviation will be compromised by direc competition with large-scale operations with access to global markets (Alder an Sumaila, 2004). +The data clearly indicate that the amount of fish that can be extracted from historicall exploited wild stocks is unlikely to increase substantially. Some increase is possibl through the rebuilding of depleted stocks, a central goal of fisheries management Current trends diverge between well-assessed regions showing stabilization of fis biomass and other regions continuing to decline (Worm and Branch, 2012). +In Europe, North America and Oceania, major commercially exploited fish stocks ar currently stable, with the prospect that reduced exploitation rates should achiev rebuilding of the biomass in the long term. In the rest of the world, fish biomass is, o average, declining due to lower management capacity. Many fisheries may still b productive, but prospects are poor (Worm et al., 2009). +The growing demand for fish products cannot be met from sustainable capture fisherie in the next decade. On the other hand, the potential for sustainable exploitation of non traditional stocks is not well known. Particularly in light of the growth of th aquaculture sector with a need for fishmeal for feed, the pressure to exploit non traditional resources will increase even if the impacts on marine ecosystems are not wel understood. +8. Identify gaps in capacity to engage in capture fisheries and to assess th environmental, social and economic aspects of capture fisheries and the statu and trends of living marine resources +Rebuilding overfished stocks is a major challenge for capture fisheries management Another key challenge is making better, more sustainable use of existing marin resources while conserving the ecosystem upon which they depend. From a globa perspective this will require filling a number of gaps, both scientific and in managemen capacity (Worm et al., 2009): +- The transfer of fishing effort from developed to developing countries is a process tha has been accelerating since the 1960s. Almost all of the fish caught by foreign fleets is +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +consumed in industrialized countries and will have important implications for foo security (Alder and Sumaila, 2004) and biodiversity in the developing world. In man regions there is insufficient capacity to assess and manage marine resources in th context of this pressure; +- The increase in IUU fishing operations is a major challenge for management that wil require increased management capacity if it is to be controlled; +- Recovery of depleted stocks is still a poorly understood process, particularly fo demersal species. It is potentially constrained by the magnitude of the previous decline the loss of biodiversity, species’ life histories, species interactions, and other factors. I other words, the basic principle for recovery is straightforward — fishing pressure need to be reduced. But the specific application of plans to promote recovery of the stoc once fishing pressure is reduced requires significant scientific and managemen capacity; +- Addressing the challenges of spatial management of the ocean for fisheries conservation and many other purposes, and the overall competition for ocean space will depend upon greater scientific and management capacity in most regions. +The average performance of stock-assessed fisheries indicates that most are slowl approaching the fully fished status (sensu FAO). On the other hand, recent analyses o unassessed fish stocks indicate that they are mostly in poorer condition (Costello et al. 2012). The problem is severe because most of these stocks sustain small-scale fisherie critical for the food security in developing countries. Better information and th capacity to manage many of these stocks will be needed to improve the situation. +Debates among fisheries specialists have been more concerned about biologica sustainability and economic efficiencies than about reducing hunger and malnutritio and supporting livelihoods (HLPE, 2014). It is necessary to develop the tools fo managing small-scale fisheries efficiently, particularly in view of the competing long distance fleets. The fishing agreements allowing long-distance fleets to operate i developing countries had not yielded the expected results in terms of building th capacity to administer or sustainably fish their resources. IUU fishing becoming mor prominent has exacerbated the situation (Gagern and van den Bergh, 2013). It i necessary for developing countries to build the capacity to develop sustainabl industrial fisheries and to develop stock assessment capabilities for small-scale fisherie balancing food security and conservation objectives (Allison and Horemans, 2006). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +References +Alder, J., and Sumaila, U.R. (2004). Western Africa: A Fish Basket of Europe Past an Present. The Journal of Environment Development, June, 13 (2): 156-178. +Allison, E.H., Horemans, B. (2006). Putting the principles of the Sustainable Livelihood Approach into fisheries development policy and practice. Marine Policy, 30: 757 766. +Alverson, D.L., Freeberg, M.H., Murawski, S.A., and Pope, J.G. (1994). A globa assessment of fisheries bycatch and discards. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 339: 235 p. +Anderson, O.R.J., Small, C.J., Croxall, J.P., Dunn, E.K., Sullivan, B.J., Yates, O., Black, A (2011). Global seabird bycatch in longline fisheries. 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An Update. Rome, FAO FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 470 http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5936e/y5936e00.HTM +Kwik, J.T.B. (2012). Controlled Culling of Venomous Marine Fishes Along Sentosa Islan Beaches: A Case Study of Public Safety Management in the Marine Environmen of Singapore. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. Supplement No. 25: 93-99. +Laist, D.W., Coe, J.M., and O’Hara, K.J. (1999). Marine Debris Pollution. In: Twiss, Jr., J.R., +and Reeves, R.R. (eds.) Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals 342-366. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. +Larkin, P.A. (1997). An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 106(1): 1-11. +Marques, A., Rosa, R. (2014). Seafood Safety and Human Health Implications. In Goffredo, S., Dubinsky, Z. (eds.), The Mediterranean Sea: its history and presen challenges: 589-603. Springer Netherlands. +Michelet, J. (1875). La Mer. Paris, Michel Lévy Fréres: 428 pp. +Myers, R.A., Baum, J.K., Shepherd, T.D., Powers, S.P., and Peterson, C.H. (2007) Cascading Effects of the Loss of Apex Predatory Sharks from a Coastal Ocean Science 315: 1846-1850. +National Marine Fisheries Service (2011). U.S. National Bycatch Report, Karp, W.A. Desfosse, L.L., Brooke, S.G. (eds.) U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS F/SPO-117C, 508 p. +Pauly, D. (1994) On the sex of fish and the gender of scientists: A collection of essays i fisheries science, Chapman and Hall, London. +Polovina, J.J. (1984). Model of a coral reef ecosystem. Coral reefs 3.1: 1-11. +Ricker, W.E. (1981). Changes in the average size and age of Pacific salmon. Canadia Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38: 1636-1656. +Roessig, J.M., Woodley, C.M., Cech, J.J., Hansen, LJ. (2004). Effects of global climat change on marine and estuarine fishes and fisheries. Reviews in Fish Biology an Fisheries 14: 251-275. +Rozwadowski, H.M. (2002). The Sea Knows No Boundaries: A Century of Marine Scienc under ICES. ICES, University of Washington Press, Copenhagen, Seattle, London. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Saiful Islam, M., Luby, S.P., Rahman, M., Parveen, S., Homaira, N., Begum, N.H., Dawla Khan, A.K.M., Sultana, R., Akhter, S., and Gurley, E.S. (2011). Social Ecologica Analysis of an Outbreak of Pufferfish Egg Poisoning in a Coastal Area o Bangladesh. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 85 (3): 498-503. +Satyanarayana S.D.V., Pavan Kumar, P., Amit, S., Dattatreya, A., Aditya, G. (2012) Potential Impacts of Food and it's Processing on Global Sustainable Health Journal of Food Processing & Technology 3: 143. +Sieben, K., Rippen, A.D., and Eriksson, B.K. (2011). Cascading effects from predato removal depend on resource availability in a benthic food web. Marine Biolog 158:391-400. +Spalding, M.D., Meliane, I., Milam, A., Fitzgerald, C., and Hale, L.Z. (2013). Protectin Marine Spaces: global targets and changing approaches, Ocean Yearbook 27 213-248. +Steele, M.A., Malone, J.C., Findlay, A.M., Carr, M. and Forrester, G. (2002). A simpl method for estimating larval supply in reef fishes and a preliminary test o population limitation by larval delivery in the kelp bass Paralabrax clathratus Marine Ecology Progress Series 235:195-203. +Storelli, M.M., Barone, G., Cuttone, G., Giungato, D. (2010). Occurrence of toxic metal (Hg, Cd and Pb) in fresh and canned tuna: public health implications. Food an Chemical Toxicology (48), 11: 3167-3170. +Suarez, J.L. (1927). Rapport au Conseil de la Société des Nations. Exploitation de Richesses de la Mer. Publications de la Société des Nations V. Question Juridiques. V.1. 120: 125. +Szpak, P., & Orchard, T.J., Salomon, A.k., and Groécke, D.R. (2013). Regional ecologica variability and impact of the maritime fur trade on nearshore ecosystems i southern Haida Gwaii (British Columbia, Canada): evidence from stable isotop analysis of rockfish (Sebastes spp.) bone collagen. Archaeol Anthropol Sci DO 10.1007/s12520-013-0122-y. +Townsend, H.M., Link, J.S., Osgood, K.E., Gedamke, T., Watters, G.M., Polovina, J.J. Levin, P.S., Cyr, N., and Aydin, K.Y. (eds) (2008). Report of the National Ecosyste Modeling Workshop (NEMoW). NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-87. +UNEP/CBD/FAO (2011). Report of Joint Expert Meeting on Addressing Biodiversit Concerns in Sustainable Fisheries http://www.chbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/jem bcsf-01/official/jem-bcsf-01-sbstta-16-inf-13-en.pdf +Worm, B., Hilborn, R., Baum, J.K., Branch, T.A., Collie, J.S., Costello, C., Fogarty, M.J. Fulton, E.A., Hutchings, J.A., Jennings, S., Jensen, O.P., Lotze, H.K., Mace, P.M. McClanahan, T.R., Minto, C., Palumbi, S.R., Parma, A.M., Ricard, D., +Rosenberg, A.A., Watson, R., Zeller D. (2009). Rebuilding Global Fisheries. Scienc 325: 578-584. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Yamada, A., Bemrah, N., Veyrand, B., Pollono, C., Merlo, M., Desvignes, V., Sirot, V. Oseredczuk, M., Marchand, P., Cariou, R., Antignac, J.P., Le Bizec, B., an Leblanc, J.C. (2014). Perfluoroalkyl Acid Contamination and Polyunsaturate Fatty Acid Composition of French Freshwater and Marine Fishes. Journal o Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62 (30): 7593-7603. +Ye, Y., Cochrane, K., Bianchi, G., Willmann, R., Majkowski, J., Tandstad, M., Carocci, F (2013). Rebuilding global fisheries, the World Summit Goal, costs and benefits Fish and Fisheries, 14: 174-185. +Yongxiang, F., Rong, J., Ning, L., Weixing, Y. (2011). Study on a management system fo safely utilizing puffer fish resources. Chinese Journal of Food Hygiene: 2011- 03. +Zhao, J., Ghedira, H. (2014). Monitoring red tide with satellite imagery and numerica models: A case study in the Arabian Gulf. Marine Pollution Bulletin (79): 305- +313. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_11.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_11.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_12.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_12.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..65125622a0e662d1fbda37556d3d75083d881dd5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_12.txt @@ -0,0 +1,194 @@ +Chapter 12. Aquaculture +Writing team: Patricio Bernal (Group of Experts), Doris Oliva +1. Scale and distribution of aquaculture +Aquaculture is providing an increasing contribution to world food security. At a average annual growth rate of 6.2 per cent between 2000 and 2012 (9.5 per cen between 1990 and 2000), aquaculture is the world’s fastest growing animal foo producing sector (FAO, 2012; FAO 2014). In 2012, farmed food fish contributed record 66.6 million tons, equivalent to 42.2 per cent of the total 158 million tons o fish produced by capture fisheries and aquaculture combined (including non-foo uses, see Figure 1). Just 13.4 per cent of fish production came from aquaculture i 1990 and 25.7 per cent in 2000 (FAO, 2014). +In Asia, since 2008 farmed fish production has exceeded wild catch (freshwater an marine), reaching 54 per cent of total fish production in 2012; in Europe aquacultur production is 18 per cent of the total and in other continents is less than 15 per cent Nearly half (49 per cent) of all fish consumed globally by people in 2012 came fro aquaculture (FAO, 2014). +Production +7.9 Discard* (Marine capture) +1.9 Aquaculture, inland +24.7 Aquaculture, marine +80 NSS. SSS. 11.6 Capture, inland +Million tonne co +79.7 Capture, marine + 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2012 +Figure 1. World capture fisheries and aquaculture production between 1950 and 2012 (HLPE, 2014). +In 2012, world aquaculture production, for all cultivated species combined, was 90. million tons (live weight equivalent and 144.4 billion dollars in value). This include 44.2 million tons of finfish (87.5 billion dollars), 21.6 million tons of shellfis (crustacea and molluscs with 46.7 billion dollars in value) and 23.8 million tons o aquatic algae (mostly seaweeds, 6.4 billion dollars in value). Seaweeds and othe algae are harvested for use as food, in cosmetics and fertilizers, and are processed t extract thickening agents used as additives in the food and animal feed industries Finally 22,400 tons of non-food products are also farmed (with a value of 222. million dollars), such as pearls and seashells for ornamental and decorative use (FAO, 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +According to the latest (but incomplete) information for 2013, FAO estimates tha world food fish aquaculture production rose by 5.8 per cent to 70.5 million tons with production of farmed aquatic plants (including mostly seaweeds) bein estimated at 26.1 million tons. +2. Composition of world aquaculture production: inland aquaculture an mariculture +Although this Chapter is part of an assessment of food security and food safety fro the ocean, to understand the trends in the development of world aquaculture an its impact on food security it is relevant to compare inland aquaculture, conducted i freshwater and saline estuarine waters in inland areas, versus true mariculture conducted in the coastal areas of the world ocean. +Of the 66.6 million tons of farmed food fish’ produced in 2012, two-thirds (44. million tons) were finfish species: 38.6 million tons grown from inland aquacultur and 5.6 million tons from mariculture. Inland aquaculture of finfish now accounts fo 57.9 percent of all farmed food fish production globally. +Although finfish species grown from mariculture represent only 12.6 percent of th total farmed finfish production by volume, their value (23.5 billion United State dollars) represents 26.9 percent of the total value of all farmed finfish species. This i because mariculture includes a large proportion of carnivorous species, such a salmon, trouts and groupers, “cash-crops” higher in unit value and destined to mor affluent markets. +FAO (2014) concludes that freshwater fish farming makes the greatest direc contribution to food security, providing affordable protein food, particularly for poo people in developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Inland aquacultur also provides an important new source of livelihoods in less developed regions an can be an important contributor to poverty alleviation. +3. Main producers of aquaculture products +In 2013, China produced 43.5 million tons of food fish and 13.5 million tons o aquatic algae (FAO, 2014, p 18), making it by far the largest producer of aquacultur products in the world. Aquaculture production is still concentrated in few countrie of the world. Considering national total production, the top five countries (all in Asia China, India, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Bangladesh) account for 79.8 per cent of worl production while the top five countries in finfish mariculture (Norway, China, Chile Indonesia, and Philippines) account for 72.9 per cent of world production (Table 1 Figure 2). +"The generic term “farmed food fish” used here and by FAO, includes finfishes, crustaceans, molluscs amphibians, freshwater turtles and other aquatic animals (such as sea cucumbers, sea urchins, se squirts and edible jellyfish) produced for intended use as food for human consumption. +© 2016 United Nation + +4. Species cultivated +It is estimated that more than 600 aquatic species are cultured worldwide’ in variety of farming systems and facilities of varying technological sophistication, usin freshwater, brackish water and marine water (FAO, 2014). In 2006, the top 2 species being farmed accounted for over 90 percent of world production (FAO 2006a). Of the more than 200 species of fish and crustaceans currently estimated t be cultivated and fed on externally supplied feeds, just 9 species account for 62. percent of total global-fed species production, including grass car (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Nile tilapi (Oreochromis niloticus), catla (Catla catla), whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) crucian carp (Carassius carassius), Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar), pangasiid catfishe (striped/tra catfish [Pangasianodon hypophthalmus] and basa catfish [Pangasiu bocourti]), and rohu (Labeo rohita; Tacon et al., 2011). The farming of freshwate tilapias, including Nile tilapia and some other cichlid species, is the most widesprea type of aquaculture in the world. FAO has recorded farmed tilapia productio statistics for 135 countries and territories on all continents (FAO, 2014). In thi respect, aquaculture is no different from animal husbandry, in that global livestoc production is concentrated in a few species (Tacon et al. 2011).2 Among mollusc only 6 species account for the 64.5per cent of the aquaculture production (15. million tons in 2013) and all of them are bivalves: the cupped oyster (Crassostre spp), Japanese carpet shell (Ruditapes philippinarum), constricted Tagelu (Sinnovacula constricta), blood cocked Anadara granosa, Chilean mussel (Mytilu chilensis) and Pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas). +2 Up to 2012, the number of species registered in FAO statistics was 567, including finfishes (35 species, with 5 hybrids), molluscs (102), crustaceans (59), amphibians and reptiles (6), aquati invertebrates (9), and marine and freshwater algae (37). +3 on land, the top eight livestock species are pig, chicken, cattle, sheep, turkey, goat, duck and buffal (Tacon et al. 2011) +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 1. Farmed food fish production by 15 top producers and main groups of farmed species in 201 (FAO, 2014). +Finfish Crustaceans Molluscs Other Daa teTar 1 Pre ma Producer oa Ce ee Pyrat Beas) Deletes |] +[ecte China 23341134 1028399 3592588 12343169 803016 41 108 306 61. India 3812420 84164 299926 12.905 wa. 4209.415 6 Viet Nam 2091200 51000 513100 400000 30200 3085500 4 Indonesia 2097407 582077 387698 ae 477-3067 660 4 Bangladesh 1525672 63220 137174 oe 1726 066 2 Norway 85 1319033 7 2001 ve 1321119 2. Thailand 380986 19994 623660 205192 4045 «1233877 1 Chile 59527 758 587 we 253 307 w.-1077 421 1. Egypt 1016 629 oe 1109 oe w.-1017 738 1 Myanmar 822589 1868 58981 a. «1731 885 169 1 Philippines 310042 361722. —- 72822 46 308 7 790 894 1 Brazil 611343 TA ANS 20699 1005 707 461 Japan 33957 250 472 1596 3459141108 633 047 1. Republic of 14099 76 307 2838 373488 17672 484.404 0. United States 185598 21169 44.928 168 329 ce 420 024 0.6 +Top 15 subtotal 36302688 4618012 5810835 14171312 859254 61762101 92.7 +Rest of world 2296562 933893 635 983 999 426 5 288 4871 152 7. World 38599250 5551905 6446818 15170738 864542 66633253 100 +Note: The symbol “..." means the production data are not available or the production volume is regarded a negligibly low. +5. Aquaculture systems development +The cultivation of farmed food fish is the aquatic version of animal husbandry, wher full control of the life cycle enables the domestication of wild species, their growth i large-scale farming systems and the application of well-known and well-establishe techniques of animal artificial selection of desirable traits, such as resistance t diseases, fast growth and size. +For most farmed aquatic species, hatchery and nursery technologies have bee developed and well established, enabling the artificial control of the life cycle of th species. However wild seed is still used in many farming operations. For a fe species, such as eels (Anguilla spp.), farming still relies entirely on wild seed (FAO 2014). +Aquaculture can be based on traditional, low technology farming systems or o highly industrialized, capital-intensive processes. In between there is a whole rang of aquaculture systems with different efficiencies that can be adapted to loca socioeconomic contexts. +2016 United Nations + +Physically, inland aquaculture and coastal shrimp mariculture uses fixed ponds an raceways on land that put a premium on the use of land. Finfish mariculture an some farming of molluscs such as oysters and mussels tend to use floating net pens cages and other suspended systems in the water column of shallow coastal waters enabling these systems to be fixed by being anchored to the bottom. +Direct land use needs for fish and shrimp ponds can be substantial. Curren aquaculture production occupies a significant quantity of land, both in inland an coastal areas. Aquaculture land use efficiency, however, differs widely by productio system. While fish ponds use relatively high amounts of land (Costa-Pierce et al. 2012, cited in WRI, 2014), flow-through systems (raceways) use less land, whil cages and pens suspended in water bodies use very little (if any) land (WRI, 2014). +The handling of monocultures with high densities of individuals in confinemen replicates the risks typical to monocultures in land-based animal husbandry, such a the spread and proliferation of parasites, and the contagion of bacterial and vira infections producing mass mortalities, and the accumulation of waste products. If o land these risks can be partially contained, in mariculture, the use of semi-enclose systems open to the natural flow of seawater and sedimentation to the bottom propagate these risks to the surrounding environment affecting the health of th ecosystems in which aquaculture operations are implanted. +The introduction of these risks to the coastal zones puts a premium in th application of good management practices and effective regulations for zoning, sit selection and maximum loads per area. +In 1999 during the early development of shrimp culture, a White Spot Syndrom Virus (WSSV) epizootic quickly spread through nine Pacific coast countries in Lati America, costing billions of dollars (McClennen, 2004). Disease outbreaks in recen years have affected Chile’s Atlantic salmon production with losses of almost 5 percent to the virus of “infectious salmon anaemia” (ISA). Oyster cultures in Europ were attacked by herpes virus Os HV-1 or OsHV-1 wvar, and marine shrimp farmin in several countries in Asia, South America and Africa have experienced bacterial an viral infections, resulting in partial or sometimes total loss of production. In 2010 aquaculture in China suffered production losses of 1.7 million tons caused by natura disasters, diseases and pollution. Disease outbreaks virtually wiped out marin shrimp farming production in Mozambique in 2011 (FAO, 2010, 2012). +New diseases also appear. The early mortality syndrome (EMS) is an emergin disease of cultured shrimp caused by a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a marin micro-organism native in estuarine waters worldwide. Three species of culture shrimp are affected (Penaeus monodon, P. vannamei and P. chinensis). In Viet Nam about 39 000 hectares were affected in 2011. Malaysia estimated production losse of 0.1 billion dollars (2011). In Thailand, reports indicated annual output declines o 30-70 percent. The disease has been reported in China, Malaysia, Mexico, Thailan and Viet Nam (FAO, 2014). +It is apparent that intensive aquaculture systems are likely to create conditions tha expose them to disease outbreaks. When semi-enclosed systems are used, as i mariculture, pathogens in their resting or reproductive stages propagate directly to +© 2016 United Nation + +the environment, where they can persist for long periods of time as a potentia source of recurring outbreaks. +Optimization of industrial systems selects for few or a single preferred species. Thi is the case in the oyster culture with the widespread culture of Crassostrea gigas an in the shrimp industry by the dominance of Penaeus vanamei, the white shrimp a the preferred species. This can be also an additional source of risk, if evolvin pathogens develop resistance to antibiotics or other treatments used to control well known diseases. +6. Fed and non-fed aquaculture +Animal aquaculture production can be divided among those species that feed fro natural sources in the environment in which they are grown, and species that ar artificially fed. The output of naturally-fed aquaculture represents a net increase o world animal protein stock, while the contribution of fed aquaculture, consumin plant or animal protein and fat, depends on conversion rates controlled by th physiology of the species and the effectiveness of the farming system. +In 2012, global production of non-fed species from aquaculture was 20.5 millio tons, including 7.1 million tons of filter-feeding carps and 13.4 million tons o bivalves and other species. Accordingly, 46.09 million tons or 69.2 per cent of tota farmed food fish (FAO, 2014) was dependent upon the supply of external nutrien inputs provided in the form of (i) fresh feed items, (ii) farm-made feeds or (iii commercially manufactured feeds (Tacon et al., 2011). +The share of non-fed species in total farmed food fish production continued t decrease to 30.8 percent in 2012 compared with about 50 percent in 1982, reflectin stronger growth in the farming of fed species, especially of high value carnivore (FAO, 2014). +Million tonne 3 ——— Non-fed: silver & bighead car 30 Non-fed: bivalves ----- Fed: freshwater finfish ueer seers Fed: diadromous & marine finfish wer 25 Fed: crustaceans _oeo — Fed: molluscs ueor 20 < 15 —= a 10 = 5 as a 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 1 Figure 2. World aquaculture production, fed and non-fed between years 2000 and 2012 (FAO, 2014) +© 2016 United Nation + +In Europe, after much publicly and privately sponsored research, the technology t farm cod was fully developed and supported by large amounts of venture capital and industrial production of cod started. In the early 2000s this industria development suffered from the financial crisis of 2008, and further growth an development almost stopped. Although the participation of risk capital in th development of aquaculture might be an option in particular places an circumstances, it is far from being the preferred option. Development of aquacultur systems, supplying domestic and international markets, has a better chance t succeed if supported by a mix of long-term public support systems (credit, technica assistance) for small and rural producers coupled with entrepreneurial initiative well implanted in the markets. +Marine finfish aquaculture is rapidly growing in the Asia-Pacific region, where high value carnivorous fish species (e.g. groupers, barramundi, snappers and pompano are typically raised in small cages in inshore environments. In China thi development has led to experiments in offshore mariculture using larger an stronger cages. (FAO, 2014). +These examples show that at least to the present, decision-making for th development of mariculture, particularly finfish mariculture, tends to be dominate by economic growth and not by food security considerations. To balance this trend the intergovernmental High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security has recentl advocated the need to define specific policies to support current targets on foo security in view of the projected growth of human population (HLPE, 2014). +The potential for non-fed mariculture development is far from being fully explore particularly that of marine bivalves in Africa and in Latin America and in th Caribbean. Limited capacity in mollusc seed production is regarded as a constraint i some countries (FAO, 2014). +7. Aquafeed production +Total industrial compound aquafeed production increased, from 7.6 million tons i 1995 to 29.2 million tons in 2008 (last estimate available, Tacon et al., 2011). Thes are estimates because there is no comprehensive information on the globa production of farm-made aquafeeds (estimated by FAO at between 18.7 and 30. million tons in 2006) and/or on the use of low-value fish/trash fish as fresh feed. +Fishmeal is used as high-protein feed and fish oil as a feed additive in aquacultur (FAO, 2014). Fishmeal and fish oil are produced mainly from harvesting stocks o small, fastreproducing fish (e.g., anchovies, small sardines and menhaden) and fo which there is some, but limited, demand for human consumption. This use promoted in the 1950s by FAO as a means to add value to the massive harvesting o small pelagic fish, raises the question of the alternative use of this significant fis biomass for direct human consumption (HLPE 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +In 2012 about 35 per cent of world fishmeal production was obtained from fisherie by-products (frames, off-cuts and offal) from the industrial processing of both wil caught and farmed fish. Commercial operations harvesting myctophids’ for fishmea and oil are being piloted in some regions, though the ecological consequences o exploiting these previously untapped resources have not been evaluated. In 200 the largest producer of fishmeal was Peru (1.4 million tons) followed by China (1. million tons) and Chile (0.7 million tons). Other important producers were Thailand the United States of America, Japan, Denmark, Norway and Iceland (Tacon et al. 2011). +Estimates of total usage of terrestrial animal by-product meals and oils in compoun aquafeeds ranges between 0.15 and 0.30 million tons, or less than 1 percent of tota global production. +Patterns in the use of fishmeal and fish oil have changed in time due to the growt and evolution of the world aquaculture industry. On a global basis, in 2008 (the mos recent published estimate), the aquaculture sector consumed 60.8 percent of globa fishmeal production (3.72 million tons) and 73.8 percent of global fish oil productio (0.78 million ons, Tacon et al., 2011). In contrast, the poultry and pork industrie each used nearly 26 per cent and 22 per cent respectively of the available fishmeal i 2002 while aquaculture consumed only 46 percent of the global fishmeal supply an 81 percent of the global fish oil supply (Pike, 2005; Tacon et al., 2006) +Fish oil has become also a product for direct human consumption for health reasons Long-chain Omega-3 fatty acids, specifically EPA and DHA, have been shown to pla a critical role in human health: EPA in the health of the cardiovascular system an DHA in the proper functioning of the nervous system, most notably brain function. I 2010 fish oil for direct human consumption was estimated at 24 per cent of the tota world production, compared with 5 per cent in 1990. (Shepherd and Jackson, 2012). +The total use of fishmeal by the aquaculture sector is expected to decrease in th long term in favour of plant-based materials (Figure 3). It has gone down from 4.2 million tons in 2005 to 3.72 million tons in 2008 (or 12.8 percent of total aquafeed by weight), and is expected to decrease to 3.49 million tons by 2020 (at an estimate 4.9 per cent of total aquafeeds by weight) (Tacon et al., 2011). +These trends reflect that fishmeal is being used by industry as a strategic ingredien fed in stages of the growth cycle where its unique nutritional properties can give th best results or in places where price is less critical (Jackson, 2012). The mos commonly used alternative to fishmeal is that of soymeal. Time series of the price o both products show that use of fishmeal is being reduced in less critical areas such a grower feeds, but remains in the more critical and less price-sensitive areas o hatchery and brood-stock feeds. (Jackson and Shepherd, 2012) +4 Myctophids are small-size mesopelagic fish inhabiting between 200 and 1000 metres tha vertically migrate on a daily basis. Biomass of myctophids is estimated to be considerabl worldwide. +© 2016 United Nation + +2010 Total Production +(Million tons = Salmon 2 = Shrimp 4 * Catfish 3. "Tilapia 3 ™Carps (fed) 17.6 +1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 202 Note: Fishmeal use varies within and between countries; the figures presented are global means. Data represent observations between 1995-2008, and projections fo 2009-2020. +Source: Tacon and Metian (2008), Tacon et al. (2011). +Figure 3. The aquaculture industry has reduced the share of fishmeal in farmed fish diets (percent (FAO, 2014). +The use of fish oil by the aquaculture sector will probably increase in the long ru albeit slowly. It is estimated that total usage will increase by more than 16 percent from 782,000 tons (2.7 percent of total feeds by weight) in 2008 to the estimate 908.000 tons (1.3 percent of total feeds for that year) by 2020. It is forecast tha increased usage will shift from salmonids, to marine finfishes and crustacean because of the current absence of cost-effective alternative lipid sources that ar rich in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. (Tacon et al., 2011) +8. Economic and social significance +At the global level, the number of people engaged in fish farming has, since 1990 increased at higher annual rates than that of those engaged in capture fisheries. Th most recent estimates (FAO 2014, Table 2) indicate that about 18.9 million peopl were engaged in fish farming, 96 per cent concentrated primarily in Asia, followed b Africa (1.57 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (1.42 percent), Europe (0.5 per cent), North America (0.04 per cent) and Oceania (0.03 per cent). The 18,17 million fish farmers in 2012 represented 1.45 per cent percent of the 1.3 billio people economically active in the broad agriculture sector worldwide. (FAO, 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 2. FAO (2014) estimates that the total number of fish farmers in the world has grown from million in 1995 to close to 19 million today, representing an increasing source of livelihoods. Not al these jobs are permanent and year-around, since many are seasonal. +Bh) eielss) ede PLT) 2011 Pia e (eae en +Of which, fish farmer Africa 65 91 140 231 257 29 Asia 7 762 12211 14630 17915 18 373 1817 Europe 56 103 91 102 103 10 Latin America and the 155 214 239 248 265 26 Caribbea North America 6 6 10 9 9 Oceania 4 5 5 5 6 6 +World 8049 12 632 15115 18 512 19015 18 861 +Out of the 18.8 million of fish farmers in the world (Table 2), China alone employ 5.2 million, representing 27.6 per cent of the total, while Indonesia employs 3. million farmers, representing 17.7 per cent of the total. Employment at farm leve includes full-time, part-time and occasional jobs in hatcheries, nurseries, grow-ou production facilities, and labourers. Employment at other stages along aquacultur value-chains includes jobs in input supply, middle trade and domestic fis distribution, processing, exporting and vending (HLPE, 2014). More than 80 percen of global aquaculture production may be contributed by small- to medium-scale fis farmers, nearly 90 per cent of whom live in Asia (HLPE, 2014). Farmed fish ar expected to contribute to improved nutritional status of households directly throug self-consumption, and indirectly by selling farmed fish for cash to enhanc household purchasing power (HLPE, 2014) +The regional distribution of jobs in the aquaculture sector reflects widely disparat levels of productivity strongly linked to the degree of industrialization of th dominant culture systems in each region. In Asia, low technology is used in non-fe and inland-fed aquaculture, using extensive ponds, which is labour intensiv compared with mariculture in floating systems. In 2011, the annual averag production of fish farmers in Norway was 195 tons per person, compared with 5 tons in Chile, 25 tons in Turkey, 10 tons in Malaysia, about 7 tons in China, about tons in Thailand, and only about 1 ton in India and Indonesia (FAO, 2014). +Extrapolating from a ten-country case study representing just under 20 percent o the global aquaculture production, Phillips and Subasinghe (2014, persona communication, cited in HLPE, 2014) estimated that “total employment in globa aquaculture value chains could be close to 38 million full-time people.” +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Table 3. Per capita average outputs per fish farmer by region (in FAO, 2014). +Ledeere [Flas tolpke aloe telat +ied 2010 Pith hy +ere ato) +Aquaculture +Africa 44 4.6 5.6 5.4 5. Asia 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.0 3. Europe 19.8 23.5 24.9 26.0 27. Latin America and the Caribbean 3.9 6.3 78 9.0 9. North America 91.5 68.2 70.0 59.5 59. Oceania 23.1 29.5 33.8 30.4 32. World 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.5 +' Production excludes aquatic plants. +Fish is among the most traded food commodities worldwide. Fish can be produced i one country, processed in a second and consumed in a third. There were 129 billio dollars of exports of fish and fishery products in 2012 (FAO, 2014) +In the last two decades, in line with the impressive growth in aquacultur production, there has been a substantial increase in trade of many aquacultur products based on both low- and high-value species, with new markets opening u in developed and developing countries as well as economies in transition. +Aquaculture is contributing to a growing share of international trade in fisher commodities, with high-value species such as salmon, seabass, seabream, shrim and prawns, bivalves and other molluscs, but also relatively low-value species suc as tilapia, catfish (including Pangasius) and carps (FAO 2014). Pangasius is freshwater fish native to the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam, new to international trade However, with production of about 1.3 million tons, mainly in Viet Nam and all goin to international markets, this species is an important source of low-priced trade fish. The European Union and the United States of America are the main importer of Pangasius. (FAO, 2014) +9. Environmental impacts of aquaculture +Environmental effects from aquaculture include land use and special natural habitat destruction, pollution of water and sediments from wastes, the introduction of non native, competitive species to the natural environment through escapes from farms genetic effects on wild populations (of fish and shellfish) from escapes of farme animals or their gametes, and concerns about the use of wild forage fish fo aquaculture feeds. +9.1 Land use +WRI (2014) estimate that inland aquaculture ponds occupied between 12.7 millio ha and 14.0 million ha of land in 2010, and that brackish water or coastal ponds +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +occupied approximately 4.4 million ha—for a combined area of roughly 18 millio hectares, overwhelmingly in Asia. Many of these ponds were converted from ric paddies and other existing cropland rather than newly converted natural lands—bu even so, aquaculture adds to world land use demands. +In 2008, global land use efficiencies of inland and brackish water ponds averaged 2. tons of fish per hectare per year (t/ha/yr). Expanding aquaculture to 140 million ton by 2050 without increases in that average efficiency would imply an additional are of roughly 24 million ha directly for ponds—about the size of the United Kingdom (WRI, 2014) +9.2 Interaction with mangroves +Land conversion for aquaculture can lead to severe ecosystem degradation, as in th case of the proliferation of extensive low-yield shrimp farms that destroyed larg extensions of mangrove forests in Asia and Latin America (Lewis et al., 2002, cited i WRI, 2014). Since the 1990s, non-governmental organizations and policy-maker have focused on curbing the expansion of extensive, shrimp farms into mangrov forests in Asia and Latin America (FAO et al., 2006b) As a result, mangrove clearanc for shrimp farms has greatly decreased, thanks to mangrove protection policies i affected countries and the siting of new, more high-yield shrimp farms away fro mangrove areas. (Lewis et al., 2002). +9.3 Pollution of water and sediments +Wastes from mariculture generally include dissolved (inorganic) nutrients particulate (organic) wastes (feces, uneaten food and animal carcasses), an chemicals for maintaining infrastructure (anti-biofouling agents) and animal healt products (antiparasitics, disinfectants and antibiotics). These wastes impose a additional oxygen demand on the environment, usually creating anoxic condition under pens and cages. +Research in Norway has shown that benthic effects decline rapidly with increasin depth of water under salmon nets, but situating farms as close to shore as possibl may be a prerequisite for economic viability of the industry. Fallowing periods o several years have been found necessary in Norway to allow benthic recovery Research elsewhere indicates that benthic recovery may be quicker under som conditions (WHOI, 2007) +9.4 Impact of escapes +With the use of floating semi-enclosed systems, escapes are inevitable in maricultur and inland aquaculture. Catastrophic events (e.g., hurricanes or other storms) human error, seal and sea lion predation and vandalism will remain potential path for farmed fish to escape into the wild. Advancements in technology are likely t continue to reduce the frequency and severity of escape events but it is unlikely tha this ecological and economic threat will ever disappear entirely. There i considerable evidence of damage to the genetic integrity of wild fish population when escaped farmed fish can interbreed with local stocks. Furthermore, in semi enclosed systems, cultured organisms release viable gametes into the water. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Mariculture industry has undertaken a significant effort to produce and use variant of cultivated species that are infertile, diminishing the risk of gene-flow fro cultivated/domesticated species to their wild counterparts when escapes occur. +9.5 Non-native species. +Aquaculture has been a significant source of intentional and unintentiona introductions of non-native species into local ecosystems worldwide. The har caused by invasive species is well documented. +Intensive fish culture, particularly of non-native species, can be and has bee involved in the introduction and/or amplification of pathogens and disease in wil populations (Blazer and LaPatra, 2002, cited in WHOI, 2007). +Non-native oysters have been introduced in many regions to improve failing harvest of native varieties due to diseases or overexploitation. The eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica, was introduced to the West Coast of the United States in 1875 The Pacific or Japanese oyster Crassostrea gigas, native to the Pacific coast of Asia has been introduced in North and South America, Africa, Australia, Europe, and Ne Zealand and has also spread through accidental introductions either through larva in ballast water or on the hulls of ships (Helm, 2006). +9.6 Genetically modified organisms +Although the use of transgenic, or genetically modified organisms (GMOs), is no common practice in aquaculture (WHOI, 2007), nevertheless the potential use o GMOs would pose severe risks. The production and commercialization of aquati GMOs should be analyzed considering economic issues, environmental protection food safety and social and health well-being (Muir, et al., 1999; Le Curieux-Belfon et al., 2009). +9.7 Use of chemicals as pesticides and for antifouling +A wide variety of chemicals are currently used in aquaculture production. As th industry expands, it requires the use of more drugs, disinfectants and antifoulin compounds (biocides)° to eliminate the microorganisms in the aquaculture facilities Among the most common disinfectants are hydrogen peroxide and malachite green Pyrethroid insecticides and avermectins are used as anthelmintic agents (Romero e al., 2012). Organic booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to th organotin compounds found in antifouling products after restrictions were impose on the use of tributyltin (TBT). The replacement products are generally based o copper metal oxides and organic biocides. The biocides that are most commonl used in antifouling paints include chlorothalonil, dichlofluanid, DCOIT (4,5-dichloro 2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one, Sea-nine 211°), Diuron, Irgarol 1051, TCMS pyridine + Biocides are chemical substances that can deter or kill the microorganisms responsible for biofouling. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl pyridine), zinc pyrithione and Zineb. (Guardiol et al., 2012). The use of biocides is not as well-regulated as drug use in aquacultur because the information available on their effects on ecosystems is still limited. +9.8 Use of antibiotics +Antibiotic drugs used in aquaculture may have substantial environmental effects The use of antibiotics in aquaculture can be categorized as therapeutic, prophylacti or metaphylactic. Therapeutic use is the treatment of established infections Metaphylaxis are group-medication procedures, aimed at treating sick animals whil also medicating others in the group to prevent disease. Prophylaxis means th precautionary use of antimicrobials in either individuals or groups to prevent th development of infections (Romero et al., 2012). +In aquaculture, antibiotics at therapeutic levels are frequently administered for shor periods of time via the oral route to groups of fish that share tanks or cages. Fish d not effectively metabolize antibiotics and will pass them largely unused back into th environment in feces. 70 to 80 per cent of the antibiotics administered to fish a medicated pelleted feed are released into the aquatic environment via urinary an fecal excretion and/or as unused medicated food (Romero et al., 2012). For thi among other reasons, antibiotic use in net, pen or cage mariculture is a concer because it can contribute to the development of resistant strains of bacteria in th wild. The spread of antimicrobial resistance due to exposure to antimicrobial agent is well documented in both human and veterinary medicine. It is also wel documented that fish pathogens and other aquatic bacteria can develop resistanc as a result of antimicrobial exposure. Examples include Aeromonas salmonicida Aeromonas hydrophila, Edwardsiella tarda, Yersinia ruckeri, Photobacteriu damselae and Vibrio anguillarum. Research has shown that antibiotics excreted ten to degrade faster in sea-water, while they persist more in sediments. (Romero et al. 2012) +The public health hazards related to antimicrobial use in aquaculture are twofold the development and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and resistance gene and the presence of antimicrobial residues in aquaculture products and th environment (Romero et al., 2012). The high proportions of antibiotic-resistan bacteria that persist in sediments and farm environments may provide a threat t fish farms because they can act as sources of antibiotic-resistance genes for fis pathogens in the vicinity of the farms. Because resistant bacteria may transfer thei resistance elements to bacterial pathogens, the implementation of efficien strategies to contain and manage resistance-gene emergence and spread is critica for the development of sustainable aquaculture practices. +Industry faced with uncertainties created by the limited knowledge of infectiou diseases and their prevalence in a particular environment tends to abuse the use o antibiotics. Defoirdt et al. (2011, cited by Romero et al., 2012) estimated tha approximately 500-600 metric tons of antibiotics were used in shrimp far production in Thailand in 1994; he also emphasized the large variation betwee different countries, with antibiotic use ranging from 1 g per metric ton of productio in Norway to 700 g per metric ton in Viet Nam. In the aftermath of the ISA infectio in the salmon culture in Chile, SERNAPESCA, the Chilean National Fisheries and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Aquaculture Service, recently released data reporting unprecedentedly hig amounts of antibiotics used by the salmon industry.° Inefficiencies in the antibioti treatment of fish illnesses now may lead to significant economic losses in the futur (Romero et al., 2012). +Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in aquaculture also present a risk to public health The appearance of acquired resistance in fish pathogens and other aquatic bacteri means that such resistant bacteria can act as a reservoir of resistance genes fro which genes can be further disseminated and may ultimately end up in huma pathogens. Plasmid-borne resistance genes have been transferred by conjugatio from the fish pathogen A. salmonicida to Escherichia coli, a bacterium of huma origin, some strains of which are pathogenic for humans (Romero et al., 2012). +9.9 Diseases and parasites +Farming marine organisms in dense populations results in outbreaks of viral bacterial, fungi and parasite diseases. Diseases and parasites constitute a stron constraint on the culture of aquatic species and disease and parasite translocatio by host movements in different spatial scales is common. In molluscs the mai parasites are protozoans of the genus Bonamia, Perkinsus and Marteilia. Th pathogens Haplosporidium, bacteria (rickettsial and vibriosis) and herpes-type viru have a great impact on the rates of mortality. In shrimps the most relevant disease are viral (white spot disease, WPS, yellow head disease, YHD, taura syndrom disease, TSD) (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005). +The “Sea lice (Copepoda, Caligidae) have been the most widespread pathogeni marine parasite” in Salmon farming, affecting also other cultured fishes and wil species (Ernst et al., 2001; Costello, 2006). The global economic cost of sea lic control was estimated at over 480 million dollars in 2006 (Costello, 2009); however there are other impacts such as the decrease in conversion efficiency (Sinnott, 1998 and the depression of immune systems, which allow the outbreak of bacteria (vibriosis and furuncolosis) and viral diseases (infectious salmon anaemia virus, ISA infectious pancreatic necrosis, IPN and pancreas disease, PD) (Robertson, 2011). +References +Blazer, V.S., and LaPatra, S.E. (2002). Pathogens of cultured fishes: potential risks t wild fish populations. pp. 197-224. In Aquaculture and the Environment in th United States, Tomasso, J., ed. U.S. Aquaculture Society, A Chapter of th World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA. +6 According to SERNAPESCA, the industry used an estimated 450,700 kilos of antibiotics in 2013. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Bondad-Reantaso, M.G., Subasinghe, R. P., Arthur, J. R., Ogawa, K., Chinabut, S. Adlard, R., Tan, Z and Shariff, M., (2005). Disease and health management i Asian aquaculture. Veterinary Parasitology vol 132, pp. 249-272. +Costa-Pierce, B.A., Bartley, D.M., Hasan, M., Yusoff, F., Kaushik,S.J., Rana, K. Lemos, D., Bueno, P. and Yakupitiyage, A. (2012). Responsible use o resources for sustainable aquaculture, In Global Conference on Aquacultur 2010, Subasinghe, R., ed. Sept. 22-25, 2010, Phuket, Thailand. Rome: FAO Available from http://ecologicalaquaculture.org/Costa-PierceFAO(2011).pdf. +Costello, M.J. (2006). Ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish. Trends i Parasitology vol 22, No 10, pp 475-483 +Costello, M.J. (2009). The global economic cost of sea lice to the salmonid farmin industry. Journal of Fish Diseases, vol 32. pp 115-118. +Defoirdt, T., Sorgeloos, P., Bossier, P. (2011). Alternatives to antibiotics for th control of bacterial disease in aquaculture. Current opinion in microbiology vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 251-58. +Ernst, W., Jackman, P., Doe, K., Page, F., Julien, G., Mackay, K., Sutherland, T. (2001) Dispersion and toxicity to non-target aquatic organisms of pesticides used t treat sea lice on salmon in net pen enclosures. Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol 42, No. 6, pp. 433-44. +FAO (2006a). State of world aquaculture 2006. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No 500. Rome: FAO. 134 pp. +FAO, NACA, UNEP, WB, WWF (2006b). International Principles for Responsibl Shrimp Framing. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) Bangkok, Thailand. 20 pp. Available fro http://www.enaca.org/uploads/international-shrimp-principles-06.pdf. +FAO (2010). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. Rome: FAO. 197 pp FAO (2012). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. Rome: FAO. 209 pp FAO (2014). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2014. Rome: FAO. 223 pp. +Guardiola, F.A., Cuesta, A., Meseguer, J. and Esteban, M.A. (2012). Risks of Usin Antifouling Biocides in Aquaculture. /nternational Journal of Molecula Sciences 13(2): 1541-1560. +Helm, M.M. (2006). Crassostrea gigas. Cultured Aquatic Species Informatio Programme, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Rome: FAO Available fro http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Crassostrea_gigas/en. +HLPE (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition The High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of th Committee on World Food Security. Rome: FAO. +Jackson, A.J., and Shepherd, J. (2012). The future of fish meal and oil. In Secon International Conference on Seafood Technology on Sustainable, Innovativ and Healthy Seafood. Ryder, R., Ababouch, L., and Balaban, M. (eds). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +FAO/The University of Alaska, 10-13 May 2010, Anchorage, the United State of America. pp. 189-208. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings, No. 22 Rome: FAO. 238 pp. Available from +www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2534e/i2534e. pdf. +Jackson, A.J. (2012). Fishmeal and Fish Oil and its role in Sustainable Aquaculture International Aquafeed, September/October, pp.18 — 21. +Le Curieux-Belfond, O., Vandelac, L., Caron, J., Séralini, G.-E., (2009). Factors t consider before production and commercialization of aquatic geneticall modified organisms: the case of transgenic organisms: the case of transgeni salmon. Environmental Science & Policy, 12: 170-189. +Lewis, R. R., Phillips, M. J., Clough, B., Macintosh, D.J. (2002). Thematic Review o Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture. Washington, DC: Worl Bank, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, World Wildlife Fund and FAO. +McClennen, C. (2004). The Economic, Environmental and Technical Implications o the Development of Latin American Shrimp Farming. Master of Arts in La and Diplomacy Thesis, The Fletcher School. Available fro http://dl.tufts.edu/bookreader/tufts:UA015.012.D0.00040#page/1/mode/2 p. +Muir, W.M., and Howard, R.D. (1999). Possible ecological risks of transgeni organism release when transgenes affect mating success: Sexual selectio and the Trojan gene hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy o Sciences, USA, vol. 96, No. 24, pp. 13853-56. +Pike, I.H. (2005). Eco-efficiency in aquaculture: global catch of wild fish used i aquaculture. International Aquafeed, 8 (1): 38-40. +Robertson, B. (2011). Can we get the upper hand on viral diseases in aquaculture o Atlantic salmon? Aquaculture Research 2011, vol. 42, pp 125-131. +Romero, J., Feijoo, C.F., Navarrete, P. (2012). Antibiotics in Aquaculture — Use, Abus and Alternatives. In Health and Environment in Aquaculture, Carvalho, E.D. David, G.S., Silva, R.J., (eds.) InTech. Available fro http://www.intechopen.com/books/health-and-environment-in aquaculture/antibiotics-in-aquaculture-use-abuse-and-alternatives. +Shepherd, C.J., and Jackson, A.J. (2012). Global fishmeal and fish oil supply - inputs outputs, and markets. International Fishmeal & Fish Oil Organisation, Worl Fisheries Congress, Edimburgh. Available fro http://www.seafish.org/media/594329/wfc_shepherd_fishmealtrends.pdf. +Sinnot, R. (1998). Sea lice — watch out for the hidden costs. Fish Farmer, vol 21 No 3 pp 45-46. +Tacon, A.G.J.; Hasan, M.R.; Subasinghe, R.P. (2006). Use of fishery resources as fee inputs for aquaculture development: trends and policy implications. FA Fisheries Circular. No.1018. Rome, FAO. 99p. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Tacon, A. G. J., Hasan, M. R., Metian, M. (2011). Demand and supply of fee ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans -Trends and prospects. FA Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 564. Rome, FAO. +WHOI (2007). Sustainable Marine Aquaculture: Fulfilling the Promise; Managing th Risks. Marine Aquaculture Task Force, Marine Finfish Aquaculture Standard Project, 128 pp. +WRI (2014). Creating a SuStainable Food Future: A menu of solutions to sustainabl feed more than 9 billion people by 2050. World Resources Report 2013-14 Interim Findings. World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., USA, 144 pp. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_12.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_12.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_13.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_13.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..eaa055d87e46e270e8d0fb2f6f7a5c0fa14daee1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_13.txt @@ -0,0 +1,204 @@ +Chapter 13. Fish Stock Propagation +Contributors: Kai Lorenzen, Stephen Smith, Michael Banks, Chang Ik Zhang Zacharie Sohou, V. N. Sanjeevan, Andrew Rosenberg (Lead Member) +1. Definition +Fish stock propagation, more commonly known as fisheries enhancement, is a set o management approaches involving the use of aquaculture technologies to enhance o restore fisheries in natural ecosystems (Lorenzen, 2008). “Aquaculture technologies include culture under controlled conditions and subsequent release of aquati organisms, provision of artificial habitat, feeding, fertilization, and predator control ”Fisheries” refers to the harvesting of aquatic organisms as a common pool resource and "natural ecosystems” are ecosystems not primarily controlled by humans, whethe truly natural or modified by human activity. This places enhancements in a intermediate position between capture fisheries and aquaculture in terms of technica and management control (Anderson, 2002). +The present chapter focuses primarily on enhancements involving releases of culture organisms, the most common form of enhancements often described by terms such a ‘propagation’, ‘stock enhancement’, ‘sea ranching’ or ‘aquaculture-base enhancement’. +2. Enhancements in marine resource management +Enhancements are developed when fisheries management stakeholders or agencie take a proactive, interventionist approach towards achieving management objectives b employing aquaculture technologies instead of relying solely on the protection o natural resources and processes. Enhancement approaches may be used effectively o ineffectively in resource management. To understand how enhancement initiatives ca give rise to such different outcomes, it is important to consider not only the technica intervention but the management context in which the initiative has arisen, includin ecological and socioeconomic factors as well as the governance arrangement (Lorenzen, 2008). +2.1 Effective enhancements +Enhancement approaches may be employed towards different ends commonly referre to as sea ranching, stock enhancement and restocking (Bell et al. 2008). Sea ranchin entails releasing cultured organisms to maintain stocks that do not recruit naturally in +© 2016 United Nations + +the focal ecosystem. This may involve stocks that once recruited naturally but no longe do so due to loss of critical habitat, or it may involve creation of fisheries for desire “new” species for which the focal system provides a habitat suitable for adult stages bu not for spawning or for juveniles. Stock enhancement is the practice of releasin cultured organisms into natural stocks of the same species on a regular basis, with th aim of increasing abundance or harvest beyond the level supported by natura recruitment. Restocking entails temporary releases of cultured organisms into wil stocks that have been depleted by overfishing or extreme environmental events, wit the aim of accelerating recovery or enabling recovery of stocks “trapped” in a deplete or declining state. The use of enhancement approaches represents a spectrum fro strongly production/catch-oriented applications to strongly conservation/restoration oriented ones, and entails quite different management practices (Section 13.5; Table 2). +The technical intervention of enhancements interacts synergistically with governanc arrangements. Stakeholders or management agencies invest in enhancements whe they have incentives to do so, either because they stand to gain material benefits (e.g increase in harvests) or because engaging in enhancement activities increases th perceived legitimacy of management arrangements or agencies (for example stakeholders may be more supportive of a management agency that engages in fisherie enhancement activities than of one that only regulates fishing). Enhancements require reasonable level of governance control to emerge at all (they are unlikely to emerg under unregulated open access), and they tend to further strengthen governanc control when implemented (Anderson, 2002; Drummond, 2004; Lorenzen, 2008). B helping to strengthen and transform governance arrangements, enhancement initiative can sometimes generate fisheries management benefits beyond those directl attributable to the technical intervention. +Economic and social benefits of enhancements may arise from biological outcomes suc as increased catches or maintenance of fisheries and other ecosystem services in highl modified environments. Successful enhancements often have further, more derive benefits. Pinkerton (1994), for example, describes economic benefits of Alaska salmo enhancements that result from greater consistency and quality of harvests, as well a greater volume. Enhancements can make economic and social benefits fro aquaculture technologies available to stakeholders, such as traditional fishers who ma lack the assets, skills or interest to engage in conventional aquaculture. +In addition to direct management benefits, enhancements provide opportunities fo advancing basic knowledge of ecology, evolution and exploitation dynamics of marin resources (Lorenzen 2014). +2.2 Ineffective enhancements +Often, enhancements are initiated under conditions that are fundamentally unsuitabl for their effective use, or designed inappropriately. Such ineffective enhancements ca nonetheless persist for a considerable time and sometimes do considerable ecological +© 2016 United Nations + +and economic damage. Incentives for stakeholders or management agencies to engag in enhancement activities can exist even in the absence of evidence of their technica effectiveness, and once investments have been made and stakeholders have becom vested, it becomes increasingly difficult to discontinue such initiatives. These issue point to the need for constructive science and management engagement with th development of new, and the reform of existing, enhancements (Section 13.4). +2.3 Examples of enhancement efforts +The following examples illustrate the potential for well-managed enhancements t contribute to fisheries management goals and the interactions between the technica and governance dimensions of such initiatives. +Very large-scale enhancement efforts are undertaken in the Pacific Northwest of th United States of America (Naish et al., 2007). These efforts include enhancements t support commercial and recreational fisheries (Knapp et al., 2007), enhancement an restocking initiatives to meet tribal treaty obligations (Smith, 2014), and restoratio efforts for endangered populations (Kline and Flagg, 2014). Pacific Northwester habitats once hosted a tremendous biomass of salmon that comprised a significan component of food and nutrient webs linking ocean and freshwater biomes. Fo example, it is estimated that the Columbia River once hosted returns of 10-16 millio wild salmon (Johnson et al., 1997). Historical overharvest, irrigation withdrawals hydropower dams and other factors have reduced returns. Of the current returns o around 1 million, hatchery fish make up around 80 per cent (95 per cent of the coho 70 to 80 per cent of the spring and summer chinook, 50 per cent of the fall chinook, an 70 per cent of the steelhead) (NMFS, 2000)). In Oregon, Nicholas and Hankin (1989 estimated that 21 of 36 coastal stocks of spring and fall chinook salmon were almos entirely comprised of wild fish. In the remaining stocks, the percentage of hatchery fis in the runs ranged from 10 to 75 per cent. Oregon’s hatchery programme annuall releases 74 million salmonids: 60.4 million salmon, 6.4 million steelhead and 7.6 millio trout (ODFW, 1998). Such hatchery programmes can maintain fisheries when essentia habitats are degraded or inaccessible and help conserve or restore endangere populations, but they also pose ecological and genetic risks to wild populations. A majo scientific review of Columbia River hatchery programmes successfully used populatio modelling to identify hatchery operation and harvest policies that simultaneousl improve the conservation status of wild populations and provide moderate increases i harvest (Paquet et al., 2011). In Alaska, large-scale salmon enhancements are run b community-based Aquaculture Associations. Since the mid-1970s, Aquacultur Associations produce and release juvenile salmon and, in return, gain exclusive rights t a share of the harvest in the form of “cost-recovery fish”. The associations have sinc become engaged in many aspects of salmon fisheries management, effectively creatin a co-management system with the State of Alaska. +© 2016 United Nations + +The world’s largest marine invertebrate fisheries enhancement is the scallo enhancement operation run by fishing cooperatives in Hokkaido, Japan (Uki, 2006) Development of an effective spat collecting, on-growing and releasing technology in th mid-1960s created the opportunity to seed scallop grounds with high densities o juveniles. Fishing cooperatives adopted rotational seeding and harvesting of fishin grounds, combined with predator control, and increased regional production from a average of 40,000 tons to around 300,000 tons per year. The success of thi enhancement has been attributed to a combination of factors including suitable habitat the species’ biology (young optimal harvest age, low post-release dispersal), integratio of spat releasing with predator control and rotational harvesting, and devolution o management to a fishing cooperative with exclusive rights over the resource (Uki, 2006). +In New Zealand, the Japanese scallop enhancement technology was adapted to reviv the Southern Scallop Fishery in what became a restocking initiative combined with far reaching changes in governance. Adoption of aquaculture technology allowed th fishery to opt out of the fisheries management framework of the time and transition t an individual quota-based regime and rotational seeding and harvesting. Culture juveniles contributed strongly to initial recovery but natural recruitment becam dominant as the fishery was rebuilt (Drummond, 2004). More recently, low spa survival has led to a sharp reduction in catches and to the closure of some of the mai grounds (Williams et al. 2014). This decline in survival may be related due to changes i productivity due to increasing sedimentation in the area. +In the Republic of Korea, the National Fisheries Research and Development Institut (NFRDI) developed seed production technology to release healthy juveniles of rockfis and sea bream. Since 1998, seed production and fish release have successfully enhance fishery resources and increased the income of fishermen. In the early stages of see production, national facilities took the lead to develop techniques, but currently privat companies produce the seed. Between 1986 and 2012, 46 marine species includin abalone, various flatfish, sea bream and sea slugs were targets for production and 1,41 million juveniles of fish and shellfish species were stocked in the sea in the Republic o Korea. In the Republic of Korea, habitat restoration tools are also widely applie together with fish release in situations where habitat has been identified as the primar factor limiting production. These tools refer to the increase in available habitat and/o access to key habitat for at least some stages of the life history of a target species Although artificial habitats are currently popular in some areas and widely used scientific evaluation of the effectiveness of habitat restoration is incomplete. In th Republic of Korea, construction of artificial reefs is aimed at improving productivity o devastated fishing grounds by providing fish resources with habitats, and spawning an nursery grounds. Since 1971, about 3,000 fishing grounds have been augmented, wit artificial reefs covering a total area of 216 kha as of 2012. Fifty-five per cent of the are with artificial reefs is utilized as fishing grounds and the other 45 per cent is preserve as spawning and nursery grounds of fish resources. Enhanced fisheries are manage cooperatively with fishing communities and marine enhancement in the Republic of +© 2016 United Nations + +Korea is becoming integrated into a comprehensive ecosystem-based fisherie management approach (Zhang et al., 2009). +In India, efforts with regard to stock enhancement of Penaeid prawns along the Keral coast have not met with the desired success. This probably reflects heavy mortality o hatchery grown post larvae on their release to the sea, as they are neither acclimatize to the stress conditions of the sea nor have they acquired adequate predator avoidanc skills. An additional effort in India is intended to revive depleted marine snail specie along the coast of Tamil Nadu; Xancus pyrum (sacred chank), Babylonia spirata (whelk) Hemifusus pugilinus (spindle shells), Chicoreus ramosus (murex) and C. virgineus. Wil stocks of all of these species are heavily exploited for their meat (India exports 700 t 900 tons of frozen whelk meat every year), shells (used as a trumpet in temples and fo the manufacture of ornaments) and opercula (which have medicinal value and ar exported to Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan). About 10,000 juveniles and 0. million larvae of the above species were sea-ranched in the Gulf of Mannar in Octobe 2010. It is premature to comment on the success of this experiment, but regular survey of the-grow out site show only a few dead organisms. +2.4 Global extent of enhancements +Marine fisheries enhancement is a widespread activity. Between 1984 and 1997, 6 countries reported stocking over 30 billion individuals of over 180 species in marin environments (Born et al., 2004). The global contribution of enhancements to marin fish production is difficult to quantify exactly, but is unlikely to exceed one to tw million tons per year (around 1-2 per cent of global marine fisheries and aquacultur production) (Lorenzen 2014). This modest contribution to global production should no distract from the fact that considerable efforts and monetary investments are expende on enhancement initiatives, and that enhancements contribute substantially to severa high-value fisheries as well as to restoration efforts for various species of conservatio concern. +2.5 Developing or reforming enhancements +According to the reviewed assessments, enhancements are often initiated or promote by fisheries stakeholders, but require scientific and management engagement in orde to assess the potential of such initiatives, to develop effective enhancement system where the potential exists, and to discontinue initiatives that are likely to be ineffectiv or harmful. Constructive science and management engagement with enhancement may be guided by the widely used and recently updated “responsible approach (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Lorenzen et al., 2010). The updated responsible approac consists of 15 recommended actions, divided into three stages of development o reform (Table 1). A staged approach ensures that the basic potential of enhancements i assessed (Stage I) prior to investment in technology development and pilot studie (Stage II), which in turn precede operational-scale implementation(Stage III). Qualitative +© 2016 United Nations + +and quantitative modelling are crucial in Stage |, and experimental (adaptive management is central to assessing enhancement capacity and ecological impacts i later stages. This requires monitoring of temporal and spatial controls where fisherie are not enhanced and possibly not exploited (Caddy and Defeo 2003; Leleu et al., 2012 Costello, 2014). The most systematic and rigorous application of many idea summarized in the responsible approach can be found in the Hatchery Reform proces being applied to Pacific salmon hatchery programmes (Mobrand et al., 2005; Paquet e al., 2011). +3. Management considerations +3.1 The fisheries system and management context +Enhancements enter into existing fisheries systems and it is crucial to gain a broad based understanding of the system prior to defining management objectives an assessing possible courses of action. At a minimum the following should be considered the biology and status of the target fish stock (biological resource), the supportin habitat and ecosystem, the aquaculture operation, stakeholder characteristics (o fishers, aquaculture producers and resource managers), markets for inputs and outputs governance arrangements, and the linkages between these components. A framewor for enhancement-fisheries system analysis is outlined in Lorenzen (2008). +3.2 Stakeholder involvement +Stakeholder involvement is central to effective scientific and management engagemen with enhancement initiatives because stakeholders tend to have a large influence on th initiation and development of such _ initiatives. Only when stakeholders ar constructively involved in the assessment and decision-making process is th enhancement initiative likely to develop towards a beneficial conclusion (which may b an effective enhancement or the discontinuation of an ineffective or damagin initiative). Stakeholder involvement also makes the often considerable knowledge an experience of stakeholders accessible to the scientific and management process. +3.3 Identifying appropriate biological and technical system designs +Different enhancement strategies, such as sea ranching, stock enhancement an restocking, involve quite different management approaches and considerations (Utte and Epifanio, 2002; Naish et al., 2007 and Lorenzen et al., 2010; Lorenzen et al., 2012) Table (2) outlines the different practices involved with regards to aquaculture, stock an genetic management (based on Lorenzen et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations + +3.4 Stock dynamics and management +Quantitative assessment of stock dynamics and the potential of enhancement as well a alternative management options, such as harvest restrictions to contribute to stoc management objectives, is important at all stages of enhancement initiatives (Cadd and Defeo, 2003; Walters and Martell, 2004; Lorenzen, 2005). Different consideration apply to ranching, stock enhancement and restocking systems (Table 2). In ranchin systems where maintaining natural recruitment is not a management goal, stoc structure could be manipulated to maximize biomass production in food fisheries or t maximize abundance of ‘catchable’ size fish in put-and-take recreational fisheries. I stock enhancements where cultured fish are released into wild populations, it would b desirable to manage stocking and harvesting activities so as to limit negative impacts o naturally recruiting stock components which may arise from compensatory ecologica responses to stocking or from overfishing of the natural spawning stock (Hilborn an Eggers 2000; Lorenzen, 2005). Such effects may reduce or eliminate net benefits fro enhancement and pose conservation threats to wild stocks. Impacts of enhancement on wild stocks could be reduced by separating the cultured and wild populatio components as far as technically possible at the point of stocking, and throug differential harvesting and possibly induced sterility of cultured fish (Lorenzen, 2005 Naish et al., 2007; Mobrand et al., 2005). According to these authors, restocking is likel to be advantageous over natural recovery only for populations that have been deplete to a very low fraction of their carrying capacity and requires concomitant reductions i fishing effort (Lorenzen 2005). Fisheries models and assessment tools are now availabl to conduct such quantitative assessment at all stages in the development or reform o enhancements (Lorenzen, 2005; Michael et al. 2009). +3.5 Aquaculture production for enhancements +Rearing of marine organisms in culture facilities subjects them to domesticatio processes that have strong and almost always negative impacts on their capacity t survive, grow, and reproduce in the wild (Le Vay et al., 2007; Lorenzen et al., 2012). variety of measures, such as rearing in near-natural environments, environmenta enrichment, life-skills training and soft release strategies, can counteract suc domestication effects, but none are likely to be wholly effective (Olla et al., 1998; Brow and Day, 2002). Aquaculture production for release into natural ecosystems may benefi from culture practices that differ from those normally employed in facilities producin organisms for on-growing in aquaculture facilities and may also require different geneti management. +3.6 Genetic management +Genetic management is important for maximizing post-release fitness and enhancemen effectiveness, and for minimizing risks to the genetic integrity of wild stocks. Three mai sets of issues need to be considered: (1) potential disruption of neutral and adaptive +© 2016 United Nations + +spatial population structure due to translocation; (2) impacts of hatchery spawning an rearing on the genetic diversity of stocked fish and the enhanced, mixed stock; (3 impacts of hatchery rearing on the fitness of released fish and their naturally recruitin offspring; and (4) hybridization between stocked and wild species (Utter and Epifanio 2002; Tringali et al., 2007; Araki et al., 2008). Appropriate sourcing and management o brood stock, possibly combined with rearing practices that minimize domesticatio selection are key genetic management actions and it may also be necessary to limit th contribution of cultured fish to the naturally spawning population (Miller an Kapuscinski, 2003; Tringali et al., 2007; Baskett and Waples, 2013). Different geneti management approaches may apply in sea ranching systems or “separated” stoc enhancement programmes where direct genetic interactions between stocked and wil fish are absent and where, for example, selective breeding may be used to improve th post-release performance of hatchery fish (Table 2; Jonasson et al., 1997). +3.7 Pathogen interactions +Impacts on wild stocks from pathogen and parasite interactions that may cause diseas may occur via three mechanisms: (1) introduction of alien pathogens, (2) transfer o pathogens that have evolved increased virulence in culture, (3) changes in hos population density, age/size structure, or immune status that affect the dynamics o established pathogens. It is therefore important to implement an epidemiological, risk based approach to managing disease interactions that accounts for ecological an evolutionary dynamics of transmission and host population impacts (Bartley et al. 2006). +3.8 Governance +Enhancements require governance systems that are effective at restricting exploitatio and ensuring that those who invest in the resource through stocking can reap at least sufficient share of the benefits. Depending on the wider governance framework, suc arrangements can be based on individual or communal use rights (e.g., individual quota or territorial use rights) or on government regulation (and taxation to recoup costs). second important requirement of governance systems for enhanced fisheries i coordination of the fisheries and aquaculture components in terms of stock, genetic an health management. +3.9 Impacts on marine ecosystems +Potential impacts of enhancements on marine ecosystems differ between types o enhancement system. Impacts on non-target species are of the most concern i ranching systems where organisms that do not recruit naturally in the receivin ecosystem may be released in high numbers and harvested intensively. Specie introduced outside their native range pose particular risks (many have minimal impacts, +© 2016 United Nations + +but a small proportion become invasive and inflict massive ecological and economi damage). In stock enhancement systems, ecological and genetic impacts on the wil stock component tend to be of the most concern. Restocking initiatives will hav broadly positive impacts on marine ecosystems as long as good stock and geneti management approaches are in place. Although potential impacts of marin enhancement activities are well understood, empirical evidence for such impacts i limited except for the large-scale salmon enhancements in the Pacific Northwest an the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America (Naish et al., 2007; Crawford, 2001). Thi paucity of information likely reflects the limited scale of marine enhancements to date. +3.10 Interactions with other sectors +Aquaculture technologies enable enhancements in the first place and availability o cultured organisms from the commercial aquaculture sector can greatly reduce th barriers for fisheries stakeholders to engage in enhancements. Interactions wit fisheries may occur in terms of access conflicts or impacts on wild target or non-targe species and such interactions may increase as marine enhancements become mor common. Market interactions between products from enhancements and fro aquaculture and capture fisheries can be significant where enhancements account fo substantial market share as in the case of salmon (Knapp et al., 2007). However, th market share of enhancements is small for most species and products, so tha enhancements are more often impacted through the market by developments in th aquaculture and capture fisheries sectors than vice versa. +3.11. Technical and economic performance +As discussed previously, the technical and economic performance of marin enhancements is highly variable. Reviews by Hilborn (1998) and Arnason (2001 concluded that only a small proportion of documented enhancements are demonstrabl economically successful, but for many information is insufficient to assess economi viability, and some are demonstrably unsuccessful. Further assessments an comparative analyses are urgently required. +4. International agreements and guidelines +There are currently no international agreements pertaining directly to fisherie enhancements. Some FAO instruments, including the FAO Technical Guidelines fo Responsible Fisheries, deal with issues associated with fisheries enhancements (e.g. FAO, 2008). In addition, eco-labelling of products from enhanced fisheries has bee considered at the Expert Consultation on the Development of Guidelines for th Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Inland Capture Fisheries held in 201 (FAO, 2010). The FAO Committee on Fisheries adopted these Guidelines in 2011 (FAO, +© 2016 United Nations + +2011). The ICES Code of Practice on the Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organism (ICES, 2005) is widely accepted and applies to introductions carried out for the purpos of fisheries enhancements. +5. Future trends +Enhancements are likely to become more widespread as burgeoning demand fo seafood and increasingly severe human impacts on the coastal oceans create greate demand for proactive management, aquaculture technologies become available for a ever-increasing number of marine species, and governance arrangements for man fisheries move towards rights-based systems that provide strong incentives fo investment in resources (Lorenzen et al., 2013). Greater scientific and managemen attention to enhancements is required to aid the development of potentially effectiv initiatives and to avoid widespread investment in ineffective or damagin enhancements (Lorenzen, 2014). +6. State of scientific knowledge, application and recommendations +Rapid progress has been made in the scientific understanding of marine enhancement over the past 20 years (Leber, 2013). Unfortunately, the scientific knowledge and tool now available to aid the development or reform of enhancements are not widel applied (Lorenzen 2014). Reasons may include that mainstream fisheries an aquaculture scientists are often unaware of developments in this interdisciplinary are or not adequately trained to conduct the necessary assessments. Research provider and management agencies need to build capacity for engaging with enhancemen initiatives using current science. Improved reporting on enhancement initiatives an outcomes at national and international level is also important. Currently, harvests fro enhanced fisheries tend to be lumped into either capture fisheries or aquacultur production figures in national and international statistics (Born et al., 2004; Klinger e al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Table 1. Elements of the updated “responsible approach” to fisheries enhancement (Lorenzen et al. 2010). +Stage I: Initial appraisal and goal settin (1) Understand the role of enhancement within the fishery system +(2) Engage stakeholders and develop a rigorous and accountable decision-makin process +(3) Quantitatively assess contributions of enhancement to fisheries management goal (4) Prioritize and select target species and stocks for enhancement +(5) Assess economic and social benefits and costs of enhancement +Stage Il: Research and technology development including pilot studies +(6) Define enhancement system designs suitable for the fishery and managemen objectives +(7) Design appropriate aquaculture systems +(8) Use genetic resource management to avoid deleterious genetic effect (9) Use disease and health management +(10) Ensure that released hatchery fish can be identified +(11) Use an empirical process for defining optimal release strategies +Stage Ill: Operational implementation and adaptive managemen (12) Devise effective governance arrangements +(13) Define a stock management plan with clear goals, measures of success and decisio rules +(14) Assess and manage ecological impacts +(15) Use adaptive management +© 2016 United Nations 11 + +Table 2. Design criteria for biological-technical components of marine enhancement fisheries system serving different objectives (adapted from Lorenzen et al., 2012). +Sea ranching +Stock enhancement +Re-stocking +Aim o enhancement +Wil populatio status +Aquacultur management +Geneti management +Populatio management +Increase fisherie catch +Absent o insignificant +Production oriented +Partia domestication +Conditioning fo release +Possibly induce sterility +Maintain geneti diversity +Selection for hig return +Stocking an harvesting t create desire populatio structure +© 2016 United Nations +Increase fisheries catc while conserving o increasing naturall recruiting stock +Numerically large +Possibly depleted relativ to carrying capacity +Integrated programmes as for re-stockin Separated programmes: +as for sea ranching +Integrated programmes as for re-stockin Separated programmes as for sea ranching; +also selection to promot separation +Integrated programmes: +restricted stocking an harvesting to increas catch while conservin naturally recruiting stock +Separated programmes as for sea ranching; +also measures to promot separation +Rebuild depleted wil stock to highe abundance +Numerically large o small +Depleted relative t carrying capacit Conservation-oriented +Minimize domestication +Conditioning for release +Preserve all wil population geneti characteristics +High stocking densit over short period temporarily restricte harvesting o moratorium +1 + +References +Anderson, J.L. 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Marine fisheries enhancement: Coming of age in the ne millennium. In: Christou, P., Savin, R., Costa-Pierce, B.A., Misztal, |., and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Whitelaw, C.B.A., editors. Sustainable Food Production. New York, NY: Springe Science. pp. 1139-1157. +Leleu, K., Remy-Zephir, B., Grace, R., and Costello, M.J. (2012). Mapping habitat chang after 30 years in a marine reserve shows how fishing can alter ecosyste structure. Biological Conservation 155: 193-201. +Le Vay, L., Carvalho, G.R., Quinitio, E.T., Lebata, J.H., Ut, V.N., and Fushimi, H. (2007) Quality of hatchery-reared juveniles for marine fisheries stock enhancement Aquaculture 268: 169-180. +Lorenzen, K. (2005). Population dynamics and potential of fisheries stock enhancement practical theory for assessment and policy analysis. Philosophical Transactions o the Royal Society B 360: 171-189. +Lorenzen, K. (2008). Understanding and managing enhancement fisheries systems Reviews in Fisheries Science 16: 10-23. +Lorenzen, K. (2014) Understanding and managing enhancements: why fisherie scientists should care. Journal of Fish Biology 85: 1807-1829. +Lorenzen, K., Leber, K.M., and Blankenship, H.L. (2010). Responsible approach to marin stock enhancement: an update. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18: 189-210. +Lorenzen, K., Beveridge, M.C.M., and Mangel, M. (2012). Cultured fish: integrativ biology and management of domestication and interactions with wild fish Biological Reviews 87: 639-660. +Lorenzen, K., Agnalt, A.L. Blankenship, H.L. Hines, A.H., Leber, L.M., Loneragan, N.R., an Taylor, M.D. (2013). Evolving context and maturing science: aquaculture-base enhancement and restoration enter the marine fisheries management toolbox Reviews in Fisheries Science 21: 213-221. +Michael, J.H., Appleby, A., and Barr, J. (2009). Use of the AHA model in Pacific salmo recovery, hatchery, and fishery planning. American Fisheries Society Symposiu 71: 455-464. +Miller, L.M., Kapuscinski, A.R. (2003). Genetic guidelines for hatchery supplementatio programmes. In: Hallerman, E.M., editor. Population Genetics: Principles an Applications for Fisheries Scientists. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society pp. 329-355. +Mobrand, L.E., Barr, J., Blankenship, L., Campton, D.E., Evelyn, T.T., Flagg, T.A. Mahnken, C.V.W, Seeb, L.W., Seidel, P.R., and Smoker, W.W. (2005). Hatcher reform in Washington State: principles and emerging issues. Fisheries 30: 11-23. +Naish, K.A., Taylor, J.E., Levin, P.S., Quinn, T.P., Winton, J.R., Huppert, D., and Hilborn, R (2007). An evaluation of the effects of conservation and fishery enhancement +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +hatcheries on wild populations of salmon. Advances in Marine Biology 53: 61 194. +Nicholas, J.W. and Hankins, D.G. (1989) Chinook salmon populations in Oregon coasta river basins: description of life histories and assessment of recent trends in ru strengths. Corvallis: Oregon State University Extension Service. 359 pp. +NMFS 2000. Viable Salmonid Populations and the Recovery of Evolutionarily Significan Units. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS NWFSC-42. Seattle: Northwest Fisheries Center. +ODFW (1998). Fish Propagation Annual Report for 1997. Salem, OR: Oregon Departmen of Fish and Wildlife. +Olla, B.L., Davis, M.W., and Ryer, C.H. (1998). Understanding how the hatcher environment represses or promotes the development of behavioral surviva skills. Bulletin of Marine Science 62: 531-550. +Paquet, P.J., Flagg, T., Appleby, A., Barr, J., Blankenship, L., Campton, D., Delarm, M. Evelyn, T., Fast, D., Gislason, J. Kline, P., Maynard, D., Mobrand, L., Nandor, G. Seidel, P., and Smith, S. (2011). Hatcheries, conservation, and sustainabl fisheries—achieving multiple goals: results of the Hatchery Scientific Revie Group's Columbia River basin review. Fisheries 36: 547-561. +Pinkerton, E. (1994). Economic and management benefits from the coordination o capture and culture fisheries: the case of Prince William Sound pink salmon North American Journal of Fisheries Management 14: 262-277. +Smith, C. (2014). Hatcheries and harvest: meeting treaty obligations through artificia propagation. Fisheries 39: 541-542. +Tringali, M.D., Bert, T.M., Cross, F., Dodrill, J.W., Gregg, L.M., Halstead, W.G., Krause R.A., Leber, K.M., Mesner, K., Porak, W., Roberts, D., Stout, R., and Yeager, D (2007). Genetic Policy for the Release of Finfishes in Florida. Florida Fish an Wildlife Research Institute Publication Number IHR-2007-001. St. Petersburg Florida Fish and Wildlife Research Institute. +Uki, N. (2006). Stock enhancement of the Japanese scallop Patinopecten yessoensis i Hokkaido. Fisheries Research 80: 62-66. +Utter, F., and Epifanio, J. (2002). Marine aquaculture: Genetic potentials and pitfalls Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 12: 59-77. +Walters, C.J., and Martell, $.J.D. (2004). Fisheries Ecology and Management. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. 399 pp. +Williams, J.R., Hartill, B., Bian, R. and Williams, C.L. (2014). Review of the Souther scallop fishery (SCA 7). New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report 2014/07, 71 +Pp. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Zhang, C.I., Kim, S., Gunderson, D., Marasco, R., Lee, J.B., Park, H.W., and Lee, J.H (2009). An ecosystem-based fisheries assessment approach for Korean fisheries Fisheries Research 100: 26-41. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_13.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_13.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_14.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_14.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e12a36437f48f7bf42ba7a951a70c79036ba894e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_14.txt @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +Chapter 14. Seaweeds +Contributors: John West and Hilconida P. Calumpong (Co-lead member), Georg Marti (Lead member) +1. Introduction +Seaweeds are a group of photosynthetic non-flowering plant-like organisms (calle macroalgae) that live in the sea. They belong to three major groups based on thei dominant pigmentation: red (Rhodophyta), brown (Phaeophyta) and gree (Chlorophyta). Seaweeds were traditionally and are currently still used as food in China Japan and the Republic of Korea. About 33 genera of seaweeds, mostly red and brown are harvested and farmed commercially (McHugh, 2003), although close to 500 specie in about 100 genera are collected and utilized locally (Mouritsen, 2013). Currentl about 80 per cent of total seaweed production is for direct human consumption, eate dried or fresh for its nutritional value or for flavouring (see Kilinc et al., 2013 for comprehensive listing of nutrients and compounds) in the form of sushi, salad, soup dessert and condiments, and the remaining 20 per cent is used as a source of th phycocolloids extracted for use in the food, industrial, cosmetic, and medical industr (Browdy et al., 2012, Critchly et al., 2006, Lahaye, 2001, McHugh, 2003, Mouritsen 2013, Ohno and Critchley, 1993), as well as for animal feed additive, fertilizer, wate purifier, and probiotics in aquaculture (Abreu et al., 2011, Chopin, 2012, Chopin et al. 2001, Chopin et al., 2012, Fleurence et al., 2012, Kim et al., (2014), Neori et al., 2004 Pereira and Yarish, 2008, 2010, Rose et al., 2010). Carrageenan and agar are extracte from red seaweeds, and alginates and fucoidan are extracted from brown seaweeds generally from kelp species. Recently, the kelp species Saccharina lattisima wa considered for bioethanol production (Adams et al., 2009). +2. Production +World production of seaweeds comes from two sources: harvesting from wild stock and from aquaculture (including land-based culture, mariculture and farming) Production from harvesting of wild stocks has been stable at over 1 million tons (we weight) in the last 10 years (2003 to 2012) according to FAO (2014) statistics (see Figur 1). Top producers in 2012 were Chile (436,035 tons representing 39 per cent of tota world production), China (257,640 tons or 23 per cent), Norway (140,336 or 13 pe cent), Japan (98,514 or 9 per cent), France (41,229 tons or 4 per cent), Ireland (29,50 tons or 2.73 per cent), Iceland (18,079 tons or 2 per cent), South Africa (14,509 tons or per cent) and Canada (13,833 tons or 1 per cent). Contributing less than 1 per cent eac were 24 other countries. Chile has consistently been the number one top produce © 2016 United Nations + +since 2003, except in 2007 when China exceeded Chile’s production by 1 per cent Norway and Japan have maintained their position as third and fourth top producers respectively, since 2003. +Three countries posted only one year’s production in 10 years (Namibia in 2003 wit 408 tons, Samoa in 2004 with 478 tons, Senegal in 2012 with 1,028 tons. India posted ton of production in 2004 to 2008, except in 2005 when it posted 2 tons of production). +World Seaweed Harvest from Wild Stocks by Country/Territory (Dat from FAO 2014) +140 1200 Hi _ z 100 80 Z > 60 x » 40 x 8 & 20 w C e 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 201 m Australia m Canada m Chile m@ China, incl. Taiwa @ Others m Estonia m Fiji m Franc mlceland m Indonesia mlreland mltal mJapan m Korea Rep m Madagascar m Mexic m= Morocco m New Zealand m Norway m Peru +Figure 1. World seaweed production from wild stocks in 2003-2012 by country/territory in tons we weight. Data from FAO, 2014. Four countries with production in 10 years of less than 1000 tons or wit only one production within 10 years are lumped under Others (see text) tp://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en. +© 2016 United Nations + +The bulk of seaweeds produced worldwide come from aquaculture. The FAO (2014 reported that the production of aquatic seaweeds from mariculture, reached 24. million tons in 2012, valued at about $6 billion United States dollars. The red, brow and green seaweeds constitute about 88 per cent (21 million tons). About 96 per cen (23.8 million tons) of the total production were produced from aquaculture (see Figur 14.2). Data from FAO showed a steady increase of about 8 per cent per year over th last 10 years (range of 4-12 per cent), specifically for red seaweeds (Figure 3) with th brown seaweeds showing stable production. The cultured seaweeds are mainly thos that produce carrageenan (Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma spp. - 8.3 million tons) followed by the alginate-producing brown seaweeds (kelps - 5.7 million tons). China i the consistent top supplier, although showing a decreasing trend, with 50 per cent o the world production over a 10-year period (2003-2012). The Philippines ranked secon in 2003 to 2006, producing 9-10 per cent, after which it was overtaken by Indonesia. Th Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and Japan produce between 2-5 per cent of the annual total, and 31 other countries produced less than per cent of the annual total, except for Malaysia, which showed an increasin production equivalent to 1.09-1.39 per cent of the annual global quantity during 2010 t 2012. +© 2016 United Nations + +25000 +20000 +15000 +10000 +5000 +Tonnes wet weight +World Seaweed Production From Aquaculture in 2003-2012 b Country/Territory (Data from FAO, 1914) +2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 +China i Indonesia @ Philippines +@ Korea, Republic of @ Korea, Dem. People's Rep Japan +@ Malaysia VietNam @ Zanzibar +Solomon Islands § Kiribati ™ Tanzania, United Rep. o ™ Denmark @ India = Chile +™ Taiwan POC = South Africa @ Russian Federatio Timor-Leste @ Madagascar @ Brazil +MFiji, Republic of & Myanmar ™@ France +| Tonga ™ Peru | Namibia +Figure 2. World seaweed production from aquaculture in 2003-2012 by country/territory in tons we weight. Data from FAO 2014. http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en. +© 2016 United Nations + +World Seaweed Production and Value from Aquaculture 2003-201 by Species Group (Data from FAO, 2014) +14000 400 @ 1300 & 12000 350 2 11000 300 = 10000 c = 9000 2500 = 8000 5 ‘37000 2000 = y 2 6000 2 5000 150 % 4000 vu +1000 e 3000 = 2000 500 +100 0 0 +2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 +Mam BROWN SEAWEEDS tonnes mall RED SEAWEEDS tonne mmm GREEN SEAWEEDS tonnes ———= BROWN SEAWEEDS US $ +———GREEN SEAWEEDS US$ === RED SEAWEEDS US $ +Figure 3. World aquaculture production from 2003-2012 by species groups in tons wet weight and tota value in United States dollars per group. (Unidentified aquatic plants excluded.) Green algae production i minimal, as shown in this graph. Data from FAO 2014. +3. Social and economic impacts and challenges +Harvests from wild populations are affected by overexploitation and climatic changes In Northern Ireland, for example, which is listed as one of the top 10 producers of wil stocks globally (FAO, 2014), McLaughlin et al., (2006) described in detail the advers impacts of seaweed harvesting at small, artisanal and commercial scales on areas o conservation importance, protected and priority habitats and species, includin disturbance of birds and wildlife, disruption of food webs, damage to substrata, habita destruction, localized biodiversity changes, and changes in particle-size distribution i sediments. Direct effects on the seaweed population include mortalities due t increased growth rate and cover of other algae which are not harvested, such a filamentous green algae and the brown seaweed, Fucus vesiculosus, which outcompet the desired species, and die-back due to increased predation. In several areas o Norway, the kelp Saccharina lattisima has been reported by Moy and Christie (2012) t have suffered dieback by 40-80 per cent due to sea urchin predation. +The brown seaweed kelps are most affected by rising water temperature, becaus sexual reproduction (gamete formation) in most kelps will not occur above 20°C (Dayto 1985, Dayton et al., 1999). Already along the European coasts and especially in Brittany © 2016 United Nations + +France, the brown kelp, Laminaria digitata, which is heavily harvested for commercia uses, is reported to be on the verge of local extinction. The already reduce reproductive potential of the kelp due to dwindling population and harvesting-induce ecosystem changes may be exacerbated by climate-caused increase in sea temperatur (Brodie et al., 2014, Raybaud et al., 2013). Two other kelp species, Laminari ochroleuca, a warm-temperate perennial, and Saccorhiza polyschides, a wide-rangin cool- to warm-temperate annual, have somewhat higher temperature tolerances fo sexual reproduction than other kelps (Pereira et al., 2011); however, Saccorhiz outcompetes L. ochroleuca in shared habitats. Brittany is the northern limit of L ochroleuca’s range. Since 1940, L. ochroleuca has been found on the coasts of souther England, which is apparently indicative of a slow northward extension of warme waters. Anticipated increasing ocean temperatures in the future in the boreal regio may result in L. ochroleuca possibly replacing L. hyperborea (Brodie et al., 2014). On th other hand, the kelp Ecklonia maxima is extending eastward on the tip of South Afric because of a northward intrusion by cooler inshore water (Bolton et al., 2012); thi could greatly benefit the whole ecosystem and provide more food for the abalon industry there. All this is quite a contrast from southward intrusion patterns by war water on the east and west coasts of Australia, causing extensive retreat of kelps an fucoids (another group of brown algae) southward from their previous northern-mos limits (Wernberg et al., 2011, Millar, 2007). +Seaweed farming and culture are seriously affected by diseases. Ice-ice disease ha impacted the farming of the kappa-carrageenan-producing Kappaphycus alvarezii commercially called “cottonii”. Another species, Eucheuma denticulatum, commerciall called “spinosum,” is ice-ice-resistant, but contains iota-carrageenan which fetches much lower price on the world market (Valderrama, 2012). This problem may be a resul of the low genetic variation in K. alvarezii, all of whose cultured stocks around the worl have a similar mitochondrial haplotype, which is not the case for £. denticulatu (Halling et al., 2013; Zuccarello et al., 2006). Significant diseases affecting cultivate kelps (e.g., Saccharina japonica) include green-rot, white-rot, blister disease, which ma be environmentally induced, and malformation disease of summer sporelings an swollen stipe or “frond twist disease" which are caused by bacteria (Brinkhaus et al. 1987, Tseng, 1986). Parasites such as Pythium, an oomycete fungus, causes “red rot” o “red wasting” disease in the red seaweed Pyropia commonly used in making sushi (Hur et al., 2014). However, based on case studies from six countries, Valderrama (2012 reported that the socioeconomic impacts of seaweed farming have been positive. H attributed this mainly to small-scale, family operations resulting in the generation o substantial employment as compared to other forms of aquaculture. He added tha seaweed farming is often undertaken in remote areas where coastal communities fac fewer economic alternatives and where many of these communities have traditionall relied on coastal fisheries which are currently being affected by overexploitation Valderrama stated that the impact of seaweed farming in these cases goes beyond it immediate economic benefits to communities as it also reduces the incentives fo overfishing. However, one challenge faced by farmers in these remote areas is low +© 2016 United Nations + +profits due to high shipping costs. This disadvantage is exacerbated by the dependenc of farmers on processors for the procurement of their farming materials and their lac of farm-management skills. In addition, food safety issues can sometimes affec markets and prices. This is because seaweeds are efficient nutrient extractors (Kim e al., 2014) and may accumulate compounds that pose harm to human health (Mouritse 2013; see also Chapter 10). +4. Information and Knowledge Gaps +Despite the long history of utilization, it is reported that kelp-dominated habitats alon much of the NE Atlantic coastline have been chronically understudied over recen decades in comparison with other regions such as Australasia and North America. Fo example, McLaughlin et al. (2006) noted that information on the distribution an biomass of commercial seaweeds in Northern Ireland is lacking. Smale and Wernber (2013) highlight the changing structure of kelp forests in the North- East Atlantic i response to climate- and non-climate-related stressors, which will have majo implications for the structure and functioning of coastal ecosystems. This paucity o field-based research is impeding ability to conserve and manage this importan resource. +References +Abreu, M.H., Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Buschmann, A.H., Sousa-Pinto, I. (2011). IMTA wit Gracilaria vermiculophylla: productivity and nutrient removal performance of th seaweed in a Land-based pilot scale system. Aquaculture 312 (1-4): 77-87. +Adams, J., Gallagher, J., Donnison, |. (2009). Fermentation study on Saccharina lattisim for bioethanol production considering variable pre-treatments. Journal o Applied Phycology 21: 569-574. +Bolton, J., Anderson, R., Smit, A., Rothman, M. (2012). South African kelp movin eastwards: the discovery of Ecklonia maxima (Osbeck) Papenfuss at De Hoo Nature Reserve on the South Coast of South Africa, African Journal of Marin Science 34: 147-151. +Brinkhuis, B.H., Levine, H.G.,Schlenk, C.G., Tobin, S. (1987). Laminaria cultivation in th far-east and North America. In: Seaweed Cultivation for Renewable Resources (Bird, K.T. Benson, P.H., eds.). Developments in Aquaculture and Fisherie Science 16: 107-146. +© 2016 United Nations + +Brodie, J., Williamson, C.J., Smale, D.A., Kamenos, N.A., Mieszkowska, N., Santos, R. Cunliffe, M., Steinke, M., Yesson, C., Anderson, K.M., Asnaghi, V., Brownlee, C. Burdett, H.L., Burrows, M.T., Collins, S., Donohue, P.J.C., Harvey, B., Noisette, F. Nunes, J., Ragazzola, F., Raven, J.A., Foggo, A., Schmidt, D.N., Suggett, D. Teichberg, M., Jason M. Hall-Spencer, J.M. (2014). The future of the northeas Atlantic benthic flora in a high CO2 World. Ecology and Evolution 1-12 doi:10.1002/ece3.1105. +Browdy, C.L., Hulata, G., Liu, Z., Allan, G.L., Sommerville, C., Passos de Andrade, T. Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Shpigel, M., Chopin, T., Robinson, S., Avnimelech, Y. Lovatelli, A. (2012). Novel and emerging technologies: can they contribute t improving aquaculture Sustainability? In Subasinghe, R.P., Arthur, J.R., Bartley D.M., De Silva, S.S., Halwart, M., Hishamunda, N., Mohan, C.V., Sorgeloos, P (eds.), Farming the Waters for People and Food. Proceedings of the Globa Conference on Aquaculture 2010, Phuket, Thailand. 22-25 September 2010. pp 149-191. FAO, Rome and NACA, Bangkok. +Chopin, T. (2012). Aquaculture, Integrated Multi-Trophic (IMTA). In: Meyers, R.A. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, Dordrecht, Th Netherlands. pp. 542-64. +Chopin, T., Buschmann, A. H., Halling, C., Troell, M., Kautsky, N., Neori, A., Kraemer, G.P. Zertuche-Gonzales, J.A., Yarish, C., Neefus, C. (2001). Integrating seaweeds int marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. Journal of Phycolog 37: 975-986. +Chopin, T., Cooper, J. A. ,Reid, G., Cross, S., Moore, C. (2012). Open-water integrate multi-trophic aquaculture: environmental biomitigation and economi diversification of fed aquaculture by extractive aquaculture. Reviews i Aquaculture 4: 209-220. +Critchley, A.T., Ohno, M,. Largo, D.B. (2006). World Seaweed Resources: A Authoritative Reference System. DVD-ROM. Wokingham, UK: ETI Informatio Services. +Dayton, P.K. (1985). Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology an Systematics 16: 215-245. +Dayton, P.K., Tegner, M.J., Edwards, P.B., Riser, K.L. (1999). Temporal and spatial scale of kelp demography: the role of oceanography and climate. Ecologica Monographs 69: 219-250. +FAO. (2014). Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. Aquaculture production 1950-201 (FishstatJ). In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online or CD-ROM] Rome. Updated 2014 http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en. +Fleurence, J., Morangais, M., Dumay, J., Decottignies, P., Turpin, V., Munier, M. Garcia Bueno, N., Jaouen, P. (2012). What are the prospects for using seaweed i © 2016 United Nations + +human nutrition and for marine animals raised through aquaculture? Trends i Food Science & Technology 27:57-61. +Halling, C., Wikstrém, S.A., Lillieskéld-Sj66, G., Mork, E., Lundsgr, E., Zuccarello, G.C (2013). Introduction of Asian strains and low genetic variation in farme seaweeds: indications for new management practices. Journal of Applie Phycology 25:89—95, doi: 10.1007/s10811-012-9842-0. +Hurd, C.L., Harrison, P.J., Bischof, K., Lobban, C.S. (2014). Seaweed Ecology an Physiology, (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. +Kiling, B. Cirik, S., Turan, G., Tekogul, H., Koru, E. (2013). Seaweeds for Food an Industrial Applications. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53172. In: Food Industr http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41694/InTech Seaweeds_for_food_and_industrial_applications.pdf +Kim, J.K., Kraemer, G.P., Yarish, C. (2014). Field scale evaluation of seaweed aquacultur as a nutrient bioextraction strategy in Long Island Sound and the Bronx Rive Estuary. Aquaculture 433: 148-156. +Lahaye, M. (2001). Chemistry and physico-chemistry of phycocolloids, Cahiers d Biologie Marine. 42: 137-157. +McHugh, D.J. (2003). A Guide to the Seaweed Industry. FAO Fisheries Technical Pape 441. +McLaughlin, E., Kelly, J., Birkett, D., Maggs, C., Dring, M. (2006). Assessment of th Effects of Commercial Seaweed Harvesting on Intertidal and Subtidal Ecology i Northern Ireland. Environment and Heritage Service Research and Developmen Series. No. 06/26. +Millar, A.J.K. (2007). The Flindersian and Peronian Provinces. In: McCarthy, P. Orchard, A., (eds.), Algae of Australia. An Introduction. CSIRO Publishing Melbourne, pp. 554-559. +Mouritsen, O.G. (2013). Seaweeds Edible, Available & Sustainable. The University o Chicago Press, Chicago & London, 287 pp. +Moy, F., Christie, H. (2012). Large-scale shift from sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) t ephemeral algae along the south and west coast of Norway. Marine Biolog Research 8: 309-321. +Neori, A., Chopin, T., Troell, M., Buschmann, A.H., Kraemer, G. Halling, C., Shpigel, M. Yarish, C. (2004). Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the ar emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern aquaculture. Aquaculture 231: 361 391. +Ohno, M., Critchley, A., (eds.). (1993). Seaweed Cultivation and Marine Ranching. JICA Yokosuka, Japan, i-xvii, 431, i-xii pp. +© 2016 United Nations + +Pereira, T., Engelen, A., Pearson, G., Serrdo, E., Destombe, C., Valero, M. (2011) Temperature effects on the microscopic haploid stage development of Laminari ochroleuca and Sacchoriza polyschides, kelps with contrasting life histories Cahiers de Biologie Marine 52: 395-403. +Pereira, R., Yarish, C. (2008). Mass production of Marine Macroalgae. In: Jorgensen, S.E. Fath, B.D., (eds.), Ecological Engineering. Vol. [3] of Encyclopedia of Ecology, vols. pp. 2236-2247. Elsevier: Oxford. +Pereira, R., Yarish, C. (2010). The role of Porphyra in sustainable culture systems Physiology and Applications. In: Israel, A., Einav, R., (eds.), Role of Seaweeds in Globally Changing Environment. Springer Publishers, pp. 339-354. +Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Critchley, A. (2012). Seaweed Aquaculture for Human Foods i Land Based and IMTA Systems. In: Meyers, R. (eds.), Encyclopedia o Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer Science, N.Y. pp. 9109-9128. +Raybaud,V., Beaugrand, G., Goberville, E., Delebecq, G., Destombe, C. Valero, M. Davoult, D., Morin, P., Gevaert, F. (2013). Decline in Kelp in West Europe an Climate. PLoS ONE 8(6): e66044. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066044. +Rose, J.M., Tedesco, M., Wikfors, G.H., Yarish, C. (2010). International Workshop o Bioextractive Technologies for Nutrient Remediation Summary Report. U Department of Commerce, Northeast Fisheries Science Center Referenc Document 10-19; Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Wate Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1026, or online a http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/publications/12 p. +Smale, D.A., Wernberg, T. (2013). Extreme climatic event drives range contraction of habitat-forming species. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280: 20122829. +Tseng, C.K. (1986). Laminaria mariculture in China. In: Doty, M.S., Caddy, J.F. Santelices, B. (eds.), Case studies of seven commercial seaweed resources. FA Fisheries Technical Papers, (281): 311 p. +Valderrama, D. (2012). Social and economic dimensions of seaweed farming: a globa review. IIFET Tanzania Proceedings https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/handle/1957/33886 +Wernberg, T., Russell, B., Thomsen, M., Gurgel, F., Bradshaw, C., Poloczanska, E. Connell, S. (2011). Seaweed communities in retreat from Ocean Warming Current Biology 21: 1828-1832. +Zuccarello G.C., Critchley, A.T., Smith, J., Sieber, V., Lhonneur, G.B. (2006). Systematic and genetic variation in commercial Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (Solieriaceae Rhodophyta). Journal of Applied Phycology (2006) 18: 643-651doi 10.1007/s10811-006-9066-2. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_14.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_14.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_15.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_15.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5ce1cfbdda0db587401b2ffa06dd7b8493658f69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_15.txt @@ -0,0 +1,200 @@ +Chapter 15. Social and Economic Aspects of Sea-Based Food and Fisheries +Contributors: Ratana Chuenpagdee, Patrick McConney, and Gordon Munro; +Beatrice Ferreira, Enrique Marschoff, Jake Rice, Andrew Rosenberg (Group of experts 1. Introduction +Fish are one of the most internationally traded foods, and the value of global fish trad exceeds the value of international trade of all other animal proteins combined (Worl Bank, 2011). In 2012, international trade represented 37 per cent of the total fis production in value, with a total export value of 129 billion United States dollars, o which 70 billion dollars constituted developing countries’ exports (FAO, 2014). Estimate indicate that small-scale fisheries contribute about half of global fish catches (FAO 2014; HLPE, 2014). When considering catches destined for direct human consumption the share contributed by the subsector increases, as small-scale fisheries generally mak broader direct and indirect contributions to food security through affordable fish an employment to populations in developing countries. +This chapter, in addressing the economic and social aspects of marine fisheries examines both macro and micro issues. The macro issues considered are some aspect of the economics of marine capture fishery. Among the micro issues explored are loca to regional socioeconomic effects, competition for space between various ocea activities and user groups, the relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture and gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture. +The contribution of small-scale fisheries has been increasingly recognized as a majo factor for food security and livelihoods at household and community levels, particularl for poor communities around the world. Information on small-scale fisheries is often no captured in national statistics as a result of difficulties due to many factors, includin their socioeconomic complexity and the highly dynamic nature of their operatio (Chuenpagdee, 2011). Numerous initiatives around the world reflect their importance including those led by FAO in the development of the Voluntary Guidelines for Securin Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries.* +2. Marine Capture Fisheries Social and Economic Value +The global marine capture fisheries harvest expanded rapidly from the early 1950s, an is currently estimated to be about 80 million tons per annum (see Chapter 11 and FAO, +* The Guidelines have recently been adopted at the 31" Session of the Committee on Fisheries, June 2014 The final text is available at www.fao.org. +© 2016 United Nations + +2014). This harvest is estimated to have a first value (gross) in the order of 80 billion U dollars (World Bank and FAO, 2009). Although it is difficult to produce accurat employment statistics, capture fisheries provide, direct and indirect employment, for a least 120 million persons worldwide (ibid.). +Global and regional fishery catch statistics in most cases do not distinguish betwee large scale and small-scale fisheries, so the small-scale sector is often poorly covered i official statistics and chronically under-evaluated in general. The Big Numbers Projec (BNP)? carried out case studies in populous developing countries and the results fro these case studies, together with other available information, formed the basis for first disaggregated review of the fisheries sector as a whole (WorldFish Center, 2008) Tentative estimates were calculated for developing countries at 28-30 million MT/yea for marine fisheries. This represents half of the catch in those countries, of which 90-9 per cent is destined for domestic human consumption. Those figures highlight th importance of small-scale fisheries for food security in developing countries. +Small-scale fisheries employ more than 90 per cent of the world’s capture fishers an fish workers, about half of whom are women. In addition to employment as full- or part time fishers and fish workers, seasonal or occasional fishing and related activitie provide vital supplements to the livelihoods of millions. These activities may be recurrent sideline activity or become especially important in times of difficulty. Man small-scale fishers and fish workers are self-employed and engaged in directly providin food for their household and communities as well as working in commercial fishing processing and marketing (FAO, 2014). +The quality of such employment is increasingly seen as an important social an economic aspect of fisheries as attested to by the attention to decent work in the FA Voluntary Guidelines on Securing Small-Scale Fisheries (SSF Guidelines) that draws fro several international instruments concerning, gender, child labour, workers’ rights an the like. Much of this labour is linked directly, through short value chains, to providin critical income along with food and nutrition security, especially in rural coasta communities. +Over time, there has been a shift in the relative scale and geography of captur fisheries. In the 1950s, capture fisheries were largely undertaken by developed fishin States in the northern hemisphere. Since then, developing countries increased thei share of the total. Consider Figure 1, which presents geo-referenced distributions o decadal averages of annual landed values of the world’s fisheries and highlights th southward and offshore expansion of the fishing grounds over time (Swartz et al., 2013) Although the two hemispheres do not reflect developed vs. developing fishing State precisely, the figures are, nonetheless, indicative. In the 1950s, the Souther hemisphere accounted for no more than 8 per cent of landed values. By the last decade, +* This is a joint activity of FAO and the WorldFish Center and funded through the World Bank’s PROFISH Partnership. +© 2016 United Nations + +the Southern hemisphere’s share had risen to 20 per cent of the total. This change likel resulted from a combination of factors including transfer of fishing effort from north t south, overall increases in fisheries in the south and improvement in reporting systems Nevertheless, the relative contribution to global landings from the two hemispheres ha changed. +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Spatial distribution of average annual landed values (2005 United States dollars per squar kilometre per year) by decade (from Swartz et al 2013; with permission of Springer). +In terms of volume, the shift seen in Figure 1 is even more striking; as shown in Figure 2 the top ten capture fisheries producers include seven developing countries®. +Indeed, net exports of fish and fishery products from developing countries have grow significantly in recent decades, rising from 3.7 billion dollars in 1980 to 18.3 billion +© 2016 United Nations + +dollars in 2000, 27.7 billion dollars in 2010, and reaching 35.1 billion dollars in 2012. Fo Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs) net export revenues amounted to 4. billion dollars in 2010, compared with 2.0 billion dollars in 1990 (HLPE, 2014). The shar of exports from developing countries is close to 50 per cent (value) and 60 per cent (i volume of live weight equivalent) of global fish exports (FAO, 2012). +Marine and inland capture fisheries: top ten producer countries in 2008 +Chin Per Indonesia +United States of Americ Japan +India +Chile +Russian Federation +Philippines +Myanmar +0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 +Million tonnes +Figure 2. From FAO, 2010. +This also reflects the impacts of globalization of fish markets, which have grown at a accelerating rate in the last decades. This has been viewed either as positive or negative depending on the value systems used (Taylor et al., 2007). Although fish trad contributes to food security through the generation of revenues, adverse effects b international trade on the environment, small-scale fisheries culture, livelihoods an special needs related to food security are a matter of concern. Articulation with globa demand may provide incentives to overexploit or waste resources, endanger the lives o fisherfolk, change cultural traditions and more — much of which can be unintended shark finning, spiny lobster dive fisheries, and sea cucumber fisheries are examples Small-scale fisheries stakeholders cannot often adapt to, and benefit equitably from opportunities of global market trends (FAO, 2014-consultation). Also, there have bee evidences that when global figures are considered, although there is quantit equivalence in trade, a quality exchange also takes place, with developing countries +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +exporting high-quality seafood in exchange for lower quality seafood (Asche et al. 2015). +Regarding the trends in world marine capture fisheries, production has levelled off a the capacity of the ocean to produce ongoing harvest is approached (FAO, 2014- SOFIA) Overall production might be increased however, if overfished stocks are rebuilt an fisheries and ecosystems are used more sustainably. This requires overall reductions i exploitation rates, achievable through a range of context dependent management tool (Worm et al., 2009). +As noted in Chapter 11, global fisheries agreements and the FAO generally utilize th concept of Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) as a reference point for gauging whether fishery resource is fully exploited, overexploited, and less than fully exploited. Accordin to this reference point, FAO classifies the status of marine capture fishery resource (Table 1). +Table 1. Status of World Marine Capture Fishery Resources 2011. Source: FAO, 2014, p.7. +Status Percentag Less than fully exploited 1 Fully exploited 6 Overexploited 29 +In the beginning of the 1950s, fully exploited and overexploited fishery resource combined accounted for less than 5 per cent of the total. Over 95 per cent fell into th less than fully exploited category (FAO, 1997, p. 7). +Over the following 25 years, the percentage of overexploited marine capture fish stock rose to 10 per cent of the total. The percentage of these overexploited stocks the increased alarmingly from 10 to 26 per cent between the mid-1970s and the end of th 1980s. That percentage has continued to increase, but at a much slower pace (FAO 2014). +The FAO states that: +“{...] the declining global marine catch over the last few years together with th increased percentage of overexploited fish stocks [...] convey the strong messag that the state of world marine fisheries is worsening [...] which leads to negativ social and economic consequences” (FAO, 2012, p.12). +Further, these analyses of individual stocks do not fully account for the broader ecosystem-level effects of fisheries exploitation that may be hindering futur productivity in various ways, such as loss of habitat, or impacts on food webs an ecological functions needed to continue to produce desirable fish for harvest. There are +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +two inter-related general considerations regarding management of these ecosystem level effects: 1) the potential impacts of fisheries themselves on the ecosystems, i order to maintain overall ecosystem function including productivity, usually referred t as ecosystem-based fishery management (FAO, 2003); 2) the interaction of fisherie with other sectors of human activity and consideration of the cumulative impact of al sectors on marine ecosystems, usually referred to as ecosystem-based managemen (McLeod and Leslie, 2009). +The discussion here and in Chapter 11 on full exploitation and overexploitation o capture fishery resources was essentially cast in biological terms. When examined i economic terms, the situation portrayed in Table 1 implies a loss in the potential o economic returns accruing to society from capture fisheries compared to the situatio where all fisheries were managed to maximize economic benefits. The maximu economic yield (MEY), when adopted as a reference point, is more conservative an reached at lower fishing effort levels than the MSY, the latter argued to be used as a upper limit rather than a management target (Worm et al., 2009; Froese and Proelf 2010). +Translated into monetary terms, the figures in Table 1 have been estimated in som analyses to cost to the world economy in the order of 50 billion dollars per year in los resource rent (World Bank and FAO, 2009). This implies that, the economic return fro marine capture fisheries could be improved compared to the current situation. If othe incentives such as subsidies of the fisheries sector are taken into account, there ar some estimates that this global economic return amounts to minus 5 -12 billion dollar per year (World Bank and FAO, 2009; Munro, 2010; Sumaila et al., 2012). Som estimates of world fishery subsidies are in the order of 25-30 billion dollars per yea (Sumaila, et al., 2010). Other estimates are of lower levels of subsidies (Cox an Schmidt, 2002). The differences may be largely due to definitional issues with regard t what is considered to be a subsidy in the different analyses. +This is not to say that all world capture fisheries are yielding negative economic returns Clearly several capture fisheries are yielding positive, and in some cases large positive net economic returns. From a global perspective, however, the positive returns fro these fisheries are more than offset by those yielding negative net economic returns. N clear divide between developed and developing fishing States is observed. (Sumaila e al., 2012, p.3). +From an economic standpoint, the extent of the capture fishery’s resource depletio shown in Table 1, which was due to the rapid expansion of the world capture fishin industry over several decades, involved the running down of world’s stock of th capture fishery’s natural capital. +Rebuilding capture fishery resources requires reducing harvests below the net growt rates of the fish stock. As the resources grow, potential resource rent can be expecte to emerge, which must go unrealized in all or in part, if the resource investment is t continue — hence the cost. Using a 50-year time horizon, Sumaila et al. (2012) estimat that after 12 years of resource investment, the net economic returns from the +© 2016 United Nations + +investment would begin to outweigh the costs. Over the 50-year period, the return would far outweigh the costs* (Sumaila, et al., 2012). Economic and_ technica considerations that arise in rebuilding fisheries were explored in additional detail in a Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development workshop (OECD, 2012). +3. Issues in Regulation of Marine Capture Fisheries +It has now long been recognized that the inherent difficulties in regulating marin capture fishery resources are a problem of scope and management objectives in th decision-making process, and are often framed as the well-known “Tragedy of th Commons” (Hardin, 1968). When access is open to all for exploitation, incentives ar created that promote inefficiencies, including: (1) loss of economic “rent” because o the “race to fish”, (2) high transaction and enforcement costs incurred to reduc overuse and (3) low productivity, because no one has an incentive to work hard in orde to increase their private returns (Ostrom, 2000). All of these factors reduce the ne economic return from fisheries. The management of common property requires minimum set of rules, defining access conditions and conservation measures to ensur sustainability and economic returns. +Where social, economic, and governance circumstances allow effective management o entry into a fishery and effort by those allowed to participate, substantial progress ca be made at improving both the ecological and economic performance of a fishery, bu often at the cost of few people receiving employment. On the west coast of Canada, fo example, a move to Individual Transferrable Quotas in a complex, multispecies fisher for rockfish (Sebastes spp) resulted in improved stock status for the entire complex, an particularly reduced catches of the stocks most in need of reduced fishing mortality while improving economic returns to the fishery. However, the fleet size an employment dropped by nearly half from the period before the programme wa introduced (Rice, 2003; Branch, 2006; Branch and Hilborn, 2008). +In the context of fisheries, management efforts also need to take into consideratio how the legitimacy of rules and regulations may be perceived differently when applie to large- vs. small-scale. The majority of the world’s fisheries comprise small-scale multi-species, multi-gear, commercial fishing vessels, operating in all bodies of wate (inland, brackish and marine), both near urban centres and in remote areas. Thei operation involves family members, in pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest parts o the fish chain. Women and children often participate in the fisheries. Small-scal fisheries catches are landed relatively close to where fishing occurs and are distribute through various channels. A certain portion is generally sold to local markets or t intermediaries by family members and some remains for household consumption. Thes characteristics of the fisheries imply that they require different managemen approaches than large-scale, industrialized fisheries. As at least half of the world’s fish +© 2016 United Nations + +catches derive from small-scale fisheries, success in fisheries management needs to b demonstrated, not only where large-scale fisheries dominate, but also in the small-scal sector, with its high potential to address global food security. +Community-based resource management has been shown to be effective in establishin fishery rules (Berkes, 2005). Cinner and Aswani (2007), however, found that customar management was effective in smaller, remote communities with high levels of equality but it is susceptible to economic pressures and by fishermen who do not practic customary fishing traditions. +4. Impacts of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing +There are additional economic and social considerations related to IUU fishing (see als Chapter 11). It is a complex phenomenon involving vessel owners, vessels, crew, fla State authorities and logistics. Often IUU vessels are related, through ownership, t authorized vessels obtaining cover to sell their catches. +Marine Resources Assessment Group (2005) states that the most obvious impact of IU fishing is direct loss of the value of the catches that could be taken by the coastal State i the IUU fishing was not occurring. This is mostly from vessels operating without licence and licensed vessels misreporting catches (quantity, species, fishing area, etc.) an illegal trans-shipment of catches. Secondary economic impacts from the loss of fish t IUU vessels may include reduced revenue from seafood exports and reduce employment in the harvest and postharvest sectors. Reduced fishing port activity has ripple or multiplier effect across economies, adversely affecting labour an transportation as well as the manufacturing sector. +IUU fishing may also increase poverty and reduce food security and food sovereignty Conflict between authorized, compliant vessels and IUU vessels is common in som fisheries and can become violent with threats to both life and livelihoods on a larg scale. Armed resistance to surveillance and enforcement is increasing in some location with the potential to undermine all monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) a resources are allocated to address what may be seen as a threat to national securit rather than fisheries management. It can be noted that conflicts and IUU fishin generally occur between vessels of any size. There may also be gender and socio cultural effects, depending upon the composition of the harvest and post-harvest labou forces. +© 2016 United Nations + +5. Space-use conflicts: industrial capture fisheries vs. artisanal capture fisheries aquaculture vs. artisanal capture fisheries +Due to recent improvements in technology and affordability, vessel monitoring system (VMS) are increasingly available for both large- and small-scale fishing vessels, and thu can provide geo-referenced data that accurately describe fishing areas on geographi scales applicable to MSP. Combined with validated logbook data, rich time-series dat are potentially available from intensely fished and monitored sea areas in develope countries. The data situation is slowly improving in developing countries. Land tenur systems that extend to parcels of seabed and water for aquaculture also provide clea boundaries. Superimposed on these spaces are increasingly sophisticated layers o information on the interactions among fisheries, and between aquaculture an fisheries. Although not all fisheries conflicts concern spatial use, or can be manage through MSP, many are potential candidates for spatial conflict management. +Sources of conflict between large and small-scale fisheries are a well-reported concer (FAO, 2014). Spatial components of conflict concern: +— Sea tenure and territorial use rights +— Fishery resource allocations by site +— Fishing gear and method interactions +— Ecosystem (species) interactions +— |UU fishing (several aspects) +— Port access and market transactions +— Management jurisdiction and governanc Sources of conflict between fisheries and aquaculture with spatial components concern: +— Sea tenure and territorial use rights +— Natural resource allocations by site +— Fishing interactions with infrastructure +— Ecosystem (species) interactions +— Area access and market transactions +— Management jurisdiction and governance +The lists are quite similar, although the specific nature of the conflicts varies greatl between the lists and site-specific situations. The next section looks more closely a fisheries-aquaculture conflicts (see also Chapter 12). +Cataudella et al. (2005) note that the FAO (1995) Code of Conduct for Responsibl Fisheries (CCRF) defines the global framework in which marine aquaculture and capture +© 2016 United Nations + +fisheries are to be considered as interactive parts of the same system. The assessmen of such interactions is crucial for implementing the CCRF, especially in areas where th use of the coastal zone results in conflicts between many resource users competing fo space (e.g. fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, shipping, energy). The CCRF treat aquaculture as an important part of the fisheries system to be responsibly develope and managed for sustainability (FAO, 1999), but in the nearly two decades that hav intervened, this has proven to be challenging. +The relationships between marine aquaculture and capture fisheries can be complex operating at multiple levels of governance and crossing several spatial and tempora scales, affecting different points along value chains, as well as ecosystems or target an culture species in a variety of ways. Cataudella et al. (2005) categorize the conflic interactions as old and new, somewhat based arbitrarily on the currency of the topic. +Old interactions are issues generated by the — Allocation of public financial resource — Likelihood of disease spreading and new outbreak — Environmental pollutio — Employment threats and opportunitie — Introduction of exotic or invasive specie — Need for stocking programme — Ownership of resources and of confined environment — Use of wild seed to supply aquacultur — Use of fishery products to supply the fish-feed farming industry New interactions are issues concerning the — Stocking and restocking model — Genetic origin of cultured organism — Biodiversity conservation and valu — Genetic improvement through breeding programmes and genetic engineerin — Development of aquaculture in sensitive environment — Direct impact of farmed products on markets and price — Growing role of aquaculture in meeting the demand for fishery product — Product quality and labellin — Feasibility of capture fisheries and aquaculture within a sustainable system The above interactions are most in need of conflict management through legislation and +policy related to planning for integrated coastal zone management and marine spatial +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +planning. However, considerable guidance is available on appropriate approaches tha include conflict management (e.g. Ehler and Douvere, 2009) as well as enabling polic (e.g. EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive). +Marine spatial planning (MSP) is the public process of analyzing and allocating th spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achiev ecological, economic, and social objectives that are usually specified through a politica process (Ehler and Douvere, 2006). It is linked to ecosystem-based management (EBM (see McLeod and Leslie, 2009), the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) (see FAO 2003), marine protected areas (MPAs) (FAO report on MPAs and Fisheries, 2011) an similar endeavours that have the potential to assist in managing conflicts throug participation among diverse stakeholders (Ehler and Douvere, 2009). Managing spac use conflicts between large- and small-scale fisheries and with other sectors is a increasingly important issue in many parts of the world. +6. Gender in fisheries +On a global level, fisheries are often perceived as male-dominated, laden with culturall stereotypical images of fishermen. The term “fishing industry”, for example, conjures a image that focuses attention on harvest and men’s work more than the term “seafoo industry” which is more equitable (Aslin et al., 2000). The involvement of women is no reflected by the increasing use of gender-neutral terms such as “fisher” and “fisherfolk” and more international discussion of gender (Williams et al., 2005). Yet recent globa investigation has shown that if post-harvest (e.g., fish processing and trade) an ancillary activities (e.g., fishing inputs and financing) are taken into account, then th gendered image is quite different. Overall, women may be in the majority in fisheries, o nearly so (FAO et al., 2008). This does not take into account the growing number o women engaged worldwide in fisheries policy, planning, management, science education, civil society advocacy and other activities related to fisheries that wer previously more male-dominated. +The post-harvest situation is particularly inequitable. Women outnumber men in fis processing and trading across the world, but their informal sector activities are ofte not recorded, and they are invisible in national labour and economic statistics. Thus th socioeconomic contribution of women to fisheries is underestimated at national an global levels. Only a few countries in the developing world collect and use gender disaggregated statistical data and other information data for fisheries policy an planning (Weeratunge and Snyder, 2009). Without comparative data for women an men, it is difficult in most places to determine the disparity between female and mal socioeconomic activities and well-being. This scarcity of gender-disaggregated fisherie data constrains gender-sensitive policies and mainstreaming, with little action taken t address the disadvantageous position of women (Sharma, 2003). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +It is widely accepted in the developing world that women strongly influence the social economic and cultural aspects of fishing households and the industry as a whole. Ther are increasing numbers of women in technical, scientific and managerial fisheries job around the world, but this varies markedly by region. In some societies where me engage in the most conspicuous fisheries-related socioeconomic and political activities the women are labelled “fisher wives”, but the implied subordination is misleadin (Weeratunge and Snyder, 2009). In Ghana, “fisher wives” or “fish mammies” suppor the entire small-scale fishing industry as they invest in fishing boats and gear, an provide loans to husbands and other fishers while running small socioeconomic empire without formal political power (Walker, 2001). Although addressing gender-inequity i critical, interventions need to be carefully designed. ‘Women in development’ project have contributed to reducing the real power that women held, for example, b introducing poorly designed credit and fish marketing schemes that exacerbat unsustainable fishing for short-term monetary gain or loan servicing. +Small-scale fisheries in developed and developing countries have striking similarities. I both, gender issues are often overlooked or misunderstood because of an analytica focus that looks at the fisheries sector in isolation from the broader society, and i concerned primarily with narrow ecological and economic factors such as maintainin fish stocks to ensure a viable long-term harvest. Interventions have been directed mor at men harvesting at sea, rather than at women engaged in postharvest on shore, or a the interconnections between harvest and postharvest (Weeratunge and Snyder, 2009) Although this narrow, male sectoral perspective is changing as the EAF becomes mor widely adopted (FAO 2003), gender is not yet mainstreamed into this approach despit advances in incorporating other social, cultural and institutional dimensions (De Youn et al, 2008). EAF is just one facet of the changing face of fisheries governance. Gende issues are more appropriately considered in the wider context of fisheries governanc than fisheries management. +Gender remains a key governance issue in both developed and developing countries. It many interconnected dimensions relate to vulnerabilities, assets, opportunities capabilities, coping strategies, outcomes, food security, empowerment and more. Wit new attention to sustainable development goals based on blue and green economies gender in fisheries should feature more prominently. State and civil society agencie realize that well-being will not be improved and poverty will not be reduced if gender i not adequately addressed. Gender mainstreaming should be an integral part o fisheries, but this is not occurring, because gender research to support fisheries policy i insufficient. As the links between gender in fisheries and poverty, climate, health an other major developmental issues become apparent (Bene and Merten, 2008; Bennett 2005; FAO, 2006; Neis et al., 2005), more attention will need to be paid to gender i fisheries in the context of the development post-2015 agenda. +Certain issues, particularly at the micro level, demand additional research. The state o small-scale fisheries throughout the world, and gender issues in fisheries are particularl prominent. A further issue that has been seriously under-researched is that of th relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +7. Climate change and small-scale fisheries +Pollution, environmental degradation, climate change impacts and natural and human induced disasters pose serious challenges to fisheries sustainability. Because of th heavy reliance on fisheries for food security, employment and livelihoods, these factor become additional threats facing small-scale fishing communities (FAO, 2011-2015). +Expected impacts of climate change include increase in the severity and intensity o natural disasters and changes in the local distribution and abundance of harvested fis and shellfish populations (Barange et al., 2014), with consequences on the post-harves and trade (FAO, 2011-2015; HPLE, 2014). Impacts of climate change are predicted to b more severe where the relative importance of fisheries to national economies and diet is higher and there is limited societal capacity to adapt to potential impacts an opportunities (Allison et al., 2009). The severity of threats increases due to combine effects of climate change and ecosystem degradation and overfishing, highlighting th importance of appropriate co-management measures (HPLE, 2014). +A comprehensive understanding of how communities respond to these threats an other global change, in their environmental, social and political contexts, is require (Bundy et al., 2015). These issues are also treated in the Summary (under Impacts of th Climate Changes). +8. Specific additional issues raised in regional workshops for the World Ocea Assessment +Fisheries management requires time-consuming and dedicated human resources an failure to meet or prioritize these efforts is a widespread problem, leading to poo fisheries management. During the regional workshops for this World Ocean Assessmen it became apparent that lack of data, including difficulties in maintaining data collectio and conducting stock assessments, as well as obtaining fishery-independent data, wa an issue for all developing countries. Problems with databases and data integration due to different methods of data collection and lack of long time-series, were raised i all regions. Lack of data on the small-scale, as well as recreational fisheries, was problem in developed and developing States. In particular, catches from subsistenc fishing are often missing from national catch statistics, leaving a gap in the ecological social and economic aspects of fisheries. Ecosystem-based management is seldo applied due to the lack of practical examples and applications, and difficulties i assessing ecosystem impacts. +Fish is one of the most internationally-traded foods. This has an impact on th infrastructure needed to commercialize the product, especially given the fact that fish i a perishable commodity. The difficulties to adapt to international-market requirements - +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +including means to abide by regulations - and the lack of fish preserving and processin facilities was a recurring issue, especially in developing countries that are near, or trad often with, developed countries. +Contamination of fish products as well as the effects on catches caused by pollution an habitat degradation were raised at the workshops. Developing countries reporte difficulties in assessing those risks and monitoring those impacts. The main focus of fis certification has been eco-labelling that addresses environmental sustainabilit issues. With limited exceptions, certification concerns predominantly develope countries and large-scale fisheries. Fish certification is progressively moving to includ social responsibility and labour considerations, but it is unclear whether food securit and nutrition considerations can or will be included in future. +9. Conclusion +Fisheries around the world are deeply embedded in the issues of food and economi security, livelihoods for large numbers of people, gender equity and poverty alleviation Both large and small-scale fishery operations provide essential economic and socia benefits to society. Small-scale fisheries, in particular, constitute half of the world’s tota catches and involve more than 90 per cent of total fishing population (in harvest an post-harvest activities). The significant contribution to food security, livelihoods an local economic development means that small-scale fisheries can no longer b overlooked. Instead, management and governance of fisheries needs to incorporate ke features distinguishing small-scale fisheries from their large-scale counterpart. Thi implies changes in information systems, fisheries assessment, monitoring an surveillance, and research and development. Importantly, issues related to fishin rights, tenure and access to resources, health and safety, gender and social justice among others, deserve special attention in policy and decision-making. Finally, it i worth noting that small-scale fisheries governance would have different priorities focusing for instance on stakeholder participation and subsidiarity principles. Tensio and conflicts between different scales of operations, and with other marine activities will continue to challenge policy-makers in many areas. They can be overcome however, with an attempt to create policy coherence through a holistic and integrate approach to fisheries governance. During the regional workshops the need to improv the capacity of States to more effectively manage these critical resources, and i particular in regions where sustainability of fisheries needs to be improved, wa recognized. The need to build capacity is also essential to address issues of equity an broader sustainable development efforts. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +References +Allison, E.H., Perry, A. L., Badjeck, M.-C., Adger, W. N., Brown, K., Conway, D., Halls, A.S. Pilling, G.M., Reynolds, J.D., Andrew, N.L., and Dulvy, N.K. (2009). Vulnerability o national economies to the impacts of climate change on fisheries. Blackwel Publishing Ltd, FISH and FISHERIES. Available fro http://www.uba.ar/cambioclimatico/download/Allison%20et%20al%202009. pdf Accessed on: 14 July, 2015. +Asche, F., Bellemare, M.F., Roheim, C., Smith, M.D., & Tveteras, S. (2015). Fair Enough Food Security and the International Trade of Seafood. World Development, 67 151-160. +Aslin, H.J., Webb, T. and Fisher, M. 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Accessed on: 6 August, 2014. +Munro, G., Van Houtte, A., and Willmann, R. (2004). The Conservation and Managemen of Shared Fish Stocks: Legal and Economic Aspects. FAO Fisheries Technica Paper No. 465, Rome. +Munro, G., and Sumaila, U.R. (2011). On the Curbing of Illegal, Unreported an Unregulated (IUU)) Fishing. In: Tubiana, L., Jacquet, P., and Pachauri, R., editors A Planet for Life 2011 — Oceans. IDDRI, Paris. +Munro, G., Sumaila, U.R., and Turris, B. (2012). Catch Shares, the Theory of Cooperativ Games and the Spirit of Elinor Ostrom: A Research Agenda. I/FET 201 Conference Proceedings. Available at https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/33889/Paper% Ofor%20Dar%20es%20Salaam.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed on: 6 August, 2014. +Munro, G., Turris, B., Kronbak, L., Lindroos, M., and Sumaila, U.R. (2013). Catch Shar Schemes, the Theory of Dynamic Coalition Games and the Groundfish Trawl +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Fishery of British Columbia. Paper presented to the North American Associatio of Fisheries Economists Conference, 2013. +Neis, B., Binkley, M., Gerrard, S. and M. Maneschy (eds.). 2005. Changing Tides: Gender Fisheries and Globalisation. Halifax: Fernwood +OECD (2012). Rebuilding Fisheries: The Way Forward. OECD, Paris. +Ostrom, E. (2000). Private and common property rights. In Brouckaert, B., an De Geest, G., editors. Encylopedia of Law and Economics, Vol.II: The History an Methodology of Law and Economics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar: pp. 332 379. +Rice, J. (2003) The British Columbia rockfish trawl fishery. In Report and documentatio of the International Workshop on Factors of Unsustainability an Overexploitation in Fisheries, Mauritius, 3—7 February 2003. Edited by J. Swa and D. Gréboval. FAO, Rome, Italy. +Sharma, C. (2003). The Impact of Fisheries Development and Globalization Processes o Women of Fishing Communities in the Asian Region. APRN Journal 8:1-12. ICSF Chennai. +Sumaila, U.R. (2013). Game Theory and Fisheries: Essays on the Tragedy of Free For Al Fishing. London, Routledge. +Sumaila, U.R., Marsden, D., Watson, R., and Pauly, D. (2007). Global Ex-vessel Fish Pric Database: Construction and Applications. Journal of Bioeconomics 9: 39-51. +Sumaila, U.R., Teh, L., Watson, R., and Munro, R. (2010). A Bottom-up Re-estimation o Global Fisheries Subsidies. Journal of Bioeconomics 12: 201-225. +Sumaila, U.R., Cheung, W., Dyck, A., Gueye, K., Huang, L., Lam, V., Pauly, D. Srinivasan, T., Swartz, W., Watson, R., and Zeller, D. (2012). Benefits o Rebuilding Global Marine Fisheries Outweigh Costs. PLoS ONE 7: e40542 DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0040542. +Swartz, W., Sumaila, U.R., and Watson, R. (2013). Global Ex-vessel Price Databas Revisited: A New Approach for Estimating “Missing” Prices. Environmental an Resource Economics 56: 467-480. DOI: 10.1007/s10640-012-9611-1. +Taylor, W., Schechter, M.G., and Wolfson, L.G. (2007). Globalization: Effects on Fisherie Resources. Cambridge University Press. +Walker, B.L.E. (2001). Sisterhood and Seine-nets: Engendering Development an Conservation in Ghana’s Marine Fishery. Professional Geographer 53: 160-177. +Weeratunge, N., and Snyder., K. (2009). Gleaner, Fisher, Trader, Processor Understanding Gendered Employment in the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector Paper presented at the FAO-IFAD-ILO Workshop on Gaps, Trends and Curren Research in Gender Dimensions of Agricultural and Rural Employment Differentiated Pathways out of Poverty, Rome, 31 March - 2 April 2009. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Williams, M.J., Nandeesha, M.C., and Choo, P.S. (2005). Changing Traditions: First Globa Look at the Gender Dimensions of Fisheries. NAGA, Worldfish Center Newsletter vol. 28, No. 1 & 2 (January and June). +World Bank (2005). Hamilton, K., Ruta, G., Bolt, K., Markandya, A., Pedroso-Galinato, S. Silva, P., Ordoubadi, M.S., Lange, G., and Tajibaeva, L. Where Is the Wealth o Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21" Century. World Bank, Washington. +World Bank (2011). The Global Program on Fisheries: Strategic Vision for Fisheries an Aquaculture. World Bank, Washington. +World Bank and FAO (2009). Kelleher, K., Willmann, R., and Arnason, R., eds. The Sunke Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform. World Bank and FAO Washington. +WorldFish Center (2008). "Small-scale capture fisheries: a global overview wit emphasis on developing countries: a preliminary report of the Big Number Project." The WorldFish Center Working Papers. +Worm, B., Hilborn, R., Baum, J. K., Branch, T. A., Collie, J. S., Costello, C., Fogerty, M.J. Fulton, E.A., Hutchings, J.A., Jennings, S., Jensen, O.P., Lotze, H.K., Mace, P.M. McClanahan, T.R. Minto, C., Palumbi, $.R., Parma, A.M., Ricard, D. Rosenberg, A.A., Watson, R., Zeller, D. (2009). Rebuilding globa fisheries. Science, 325(5940), 578-585 +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_15.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_15.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_16.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_16.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c2c82bab1ae80275d1c0156297df5adc837d613c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_16.txt @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +Chapter 16. Synthesis of Part IV: Food Security and Safety +Group of Experts: Andrew A. Rosenberg +Fish products, including finfish, invertebrates and seaweeds, are a major component o food security around the world. In addition to providing a source of high-quality protei and critical long chain omega-3 fatty acids with well-known nutritional benefits in man countries, fish and fishery products are the major source of animal protein for significant fraction of the global population, and in particular in countries where hunge is widespread. Even in the most developed countries, consumption of fish is increasin both per capita and in absolute terms, with implications for both global food securit and trade. +Fisheries and aquaculture are a major employer and source of livelihoods in coasta States. Significant economic and social benefits result, including providing a key sourc of both subsistence food and much-needed cash for many of the world’s poores peoples. As a mainstay of many coastal communities, fisheries and aquaculture play a important role in the social fabric of many areas. +Small-scale fisheries, particularly those that provide subsistence in many poo communities, are often a key source of employment, cash, and food in coastal areas Many such coastal fisheries are under threat due to over-exploitation, conflict wit larger fishing operations, and loss of productivity in coastal ecosystems due to a variet of other impacts. These include habitat loss, pollution and climate change, as well a loss of access to space as coastal economies and uses of the sea diversify. +Globally, world capture fisheries are near the ocean’s productive capacity with catche in the order of 80 million metric tons. Only a few means to increase yields are available More effectively addressing sustainability concerns including ending overfishing eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, rebuilding deplete resources, reducing broader ecosystem impacts of fisheries, and adverse impacts o them from pollution, are important aspects of improving fishery yields and thereby foo security. For example, ending overfishing and rebuilding depleted resources may resul in an increase of as much as 20 per cent in potential yield, if the transitional costs o rebuilding depleted stocks can be addressed. +In 2012, more than one-quarter of fish stocks worldwide were classified by FAO a overfished. Although these stocks clearly will benefit from rebuilding once overfishin has ended, other stocks may still be classed as fully fished despite being on th borderline of overfishing; these stocks could yield more if effective governanc mechanisms were in place. +Current estimates of the number of overfished stocks do not take into account broade effects of fishing on marine ecosystems and their productivity. These impacts, includin by-catch, habitat modification, and food web effects, are important elements in the +© 2016 United Nations + +sustainability of the ocean’s capacity to continue to produce food and must be carefull managed. These very real threats endanger some of the most vulnerable population and marine habitats around the world and need to be directly addressed to improv food security and answer other social needs. +Fish stock propagation may provide a tool to help rebuild depleted fishery resources i some instances. Propagation programs must be carefully designed and maintained i order to really benefit resource sustainability. +Fishing effort is subsidized by many mechanisms around the world and many of thes subsidies undermine the net economic benefits to States. Subsidies that encourag over-capacity and overfishing result in losses for States and these losses are often born by communities dependent upon fishery resources for livelihoods and food security. +Aquaculture production, including seaweed culture, is increasing more rapidly than an other source of food production in the world and is expected to continue to increase Aquaculture, not including the culture of seaweeds, now provides half of the fis products covered in the global statistics. +Aquaculture and capture fisheries are co-dependent in some ways, as feed for culture fish is in part provided from capture fisheries. They are also competitors for space i coastal areas, for markets, and potentially for other resources (labour, governmenta support and attention, etc.). Significant progress has been made in replacing fee sources from capture fisheries with agricultural production (e.g., soybeans), althoug more work is certainly needed. +Aquaculture itself poses some environmental challenges, including potential pollution competition with wild fishery resources, potential contamination of gene pools, diseas problems, and loss of habitat (e.g., from the construction of shrimp ponds). Examples o these challenges, and measures that can mitigate them, have been observed worldwid and need to be directly addressed by management action. +In both capture fisheries and aquaculture, gender and other equity issues arise. significant number of women are employed in both types of activities, either directly o in related activities along the value chain. Women are particularly prominent in produc processing, but often their labour is not equitably compensated, and working condition do not meet basic standards. Poor communities are often subject to poorer marke access, unsafe conditions for labour, and other inequitable practices that need to b remedied. +The ongoing impacts of a changing climate, including ocean acidification, pose grea challenges for fisheries and aquaculture. Climate change is already resulting in shifts i the distribution and productivity of fishery resources and marine ecosystems mor generally. This impacts fishing businesses and communities, yields and food security Changes in availability and yields for individual resources may be positive or negativ but in any case result in greater uncertainty for fishers, communities, businesses an fishery governance frameworks. +© 2016 United Nations + +There are major capacity-building needs with regard to food security and food safety. +— The complexity of the issues concerning food provisioning from the sea requires multidisciplinary approach to research. While the fields of fishery and aquacultur science are well developed, there are critical needs for research on small-scal subsistence uses of the marine environment as well as recreational, cultural an spiritual aspects of marine resources. In addition, greater understanding must b developed of the structure, function and dynamics of marine ecosystems and of the +economic and social aspects of human society that depend upon these resources. +— It is necessary to improve understanding of the role of fisheries and aquaculture i commerce, employment and the support livelihoods. Therefore advanced capacit building is necessary for appropriate skills to be able to use advanced technologies +to create wealth from capture fisheries and aquaculture in a sustainable way. +1. Capture fisheries +— Efforts have been made to create awareness to reduce post-harvest losses especially in small-scale fisheries, as a means of increasing production. However little is known about what new methods are being implemented and to what exten they impact on production. There is a gap in capacities needed to develop, deploy and evaluate approaches to reduce waste and post-harvest losses and ensure that +new technology is transferred to those that need it most. +— Efforts have been made to reduce by-catch and other broader ecosystem impacts o fishing and to increase awareness of these problems. For example, globally it is stil poorly known whether by-catch excluder devices have been successfully adopted i terms of the relative ratio of the target catch landed and the by-catch either lande or discarded. It is necessary to build capacity to monitor and ensure compliance +with measures such as these that are intended to reduce ecosystem level impacts. +— If ecosystem-based approaches to management are to be implemented, integratin fisheries governance with governance of other marine sectors, greater scientific and +technical capacity will be needed to inform the process. +— If further depletion of fishery stocks due to overfishing, climate impacts or othe pressures is to be avoided, trends in fishing effort, landings, geographical scope species composition and other key attributes must be ascertained and consistentl monitored, and data must be made broadly available. It is necessary to buil enough capacity with appropriate technological and scientific skills and th necessary equipment to provide adequate information and data to facilitate regional +and global management. +— Technical capacity to monitor and control seafood safety is urgently needed Methodologies must be shared and deployed and greater training in procedures that +safeguard seafood supplies is necessary. +© 2016 United Nation + +— Certain issues, particularly at the micro level, demand additional research an therefore need capacity-building to address them. The state of small-scale fisherie throughout the world, and gender issues in fisheries, are particularly prominent an are poorly studied. A further issue that has been seriously under-researched is th relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture. +2. Aquaculture +— Much better data and analysis of the trends, character and factors influencin aquaculture production are needed. In principle these data should be mor accessible than capture fisheries data but in practice this is not the case Understanding this rapidly growing sector is vital to the understanding of foo security patterns and needs. +— Disease and product safety are a key challenge for aquaculture. Greater scientifi and technical capacity is needed to address these challenges in many countries an data and scientific information must be shared in order to exchange lessons learned. +— Aquaculture technology crosses the spectrum from relatively simple small-scal operations to larger-scale enterprises. It includes breeding, feeding, health an safety aspects. Sharing both technology and approaches to improve efficiency an sustainability is an important aspect of improving food security and safety. +3. Fish stock propagation +- For propagation efforts to be successful, capacity must be developed that wil promote efficient and effective approaches and comprehensive monitoring of thes efforts. These must be well designed experiments that rely on lessons learned fro other efforts around the globe. +- Proposed propagation efforts will benefit from a comprehensive, integrated ecosystem-based fisheries-management approach. Capacity is needed in terms o individuals, infrastructure and institutions to deliver effective stock propagation. +4. Seaweeds as a resource +- Seaweed aquaculture is seriously affected by disease, as with other forms o intensive aquaculture. Research on seaweed diseases and new techniques fo combating the diseases are needed along with the technical capacity to deploy ne methods. +- Undertaking and building capacity for biochemical research on seaweed extract from various species will enable them to be harnessed for their wide variety o nutrient, medicinal and food values. +© 2016 United Nations + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_16.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_16.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_17.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_17.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9d0e2476864b978162b49a2cef00f2732be11316 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_17.txt @@ -0,0 +1,576 @@ +Chapter 17. Shipping +Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member) and Osman Keh Kamara (Co-Lea member) +1. Introduction +For at least the past 4,000 years, shipping has been fundamental to the developmen of civilization. On the sea or by inland waterways, it has provided the dominant wa of moving large quantities of goods, and it continues to do so over long distances From at least as early as 2000 BCE, the spice routes through the Indian Ocean and it adjacent seas provided not merely for the first long-distance trading, but also for th transport of ideas and beliefs. From 1000 BCE to the 13" century CE, the Polynesia voyages across the Pacific completed human settlement of the globe. From the 15 century, the development of trade routes across and between the Atlantic an Pacific Oceans transformed the world. The introduction of the steamship in th early 19" century produced an increase of several orders of magnitude in th amount of world trade, and started the process of globalization. The demands of th shipping trade generated modern business methods from insurance to internationa finance, led to advances in mechanical and civil engineering, and created ne sciences to meet the needs of navigation. +The last half-century has seen developments as significant as anything before in th history of shipping. Between 1970 and 2012, seaborne carriage of oil and gas nearl doubled +(98 per cent), that of general cargo quadrupled (411 per cent), and that of grain an minerals nearly quintupled (495 per cent) (UNCTAD, 2013). Conventionally, aroun 90 per cent of international trade by volume is said to be carried by sea (IMO, 2012) but one study suggests that the true figure in 2006 was more likely around 75 pe cent in terms of tons carried and 59 per cent by value (Mandryk, 2009). Not only ha the quantity of cargo increased, the average length of voyages has also increased between 2000 and 2013 the estimated amount of international seaborne shipment measured in ton miles increased by 65 per cent from 30,648 to 50,506 billion to miles, while the total amount of international cargo rose by only about 50 per cen (UNCTAD, 2013). This growth in the average length of voyages has been largely i the carriage of coal, grain and ores. +© 2016 United Nation + +12 000 +10000 8 00 6 00 400 200 074 1980 | 1985 | 1990 | 1995 | 2000 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 201 Container 102 | 152 | 234 | 371 | 598 | 969 | 1076] 1193] 1249] 1127| 1275| 1421 | 1480] 157 Other dry cargo| 1123| 819 | 1031| 1125] 1928| 2009| 2112| 2141| 2173 | 2004] 2027| 2084] 2184| 230 Five major bulks} 608 | 900 | 988 | 1105| 1295/ 1709| 1814| 1953| 2065| 2085 | 2335{ 2486 | 2665| 278 1B Oil and gas 1871 | 1459] 1755| 2050} 2163] 2422| 2698 | 2747| 2742| 2642| 2772] 2794| 2836] 2904 +Figure 1. International Seaborne Trade: selected years 1980 — 2013. Millions of tons loaded. The “Fiv Major Bulks” are iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite/alumina and phosphate rock. “Other Dry Cargo includes agricultural produce, metals, and forest products). Source: UNCTAD, 2013. +2. Nature and Magnitude of World Shipping Movements +2.1. Cargo traffic +Global shipping movements naturally mirror the world economy. The moder period up to 2008 therefore generally showed a steady increase. The economic crisi of 2008, not surprisingly, produced a drop in activity, but this was less than the dro in the world’s Gross Domestic Product, largely because of the continuing demand i eastern Asia for bulk movement of iron ore and coal (UNCTAD, 2013). Figure shows the way in which world cargo movements are increasing. Figure 2 shows th distribution of total shipping movements around the world. The different mai trades have substantially different distributions and patterns of sailings: th container routes are concentrated in the East/West belt around the southern part o the northern hemisphere and are very regular in their sailings, while both the fiv main bulk dry cargoes (iron ore, coal, grain, bauxite/alumina and phosphate rock and the oil and gas trade are focused on the sources of these cargoes. Their sailing are also affected by changes in the market prices for these commodities. Th carriage of bulk dry cargoes and oil and gas tends to have a higher proportion o return journeys in ballast. The mineral cargoes, in particular, have strong emphase on routes from Africa, South America, Australia and Indonesia to eastern Asia (Kaluz et al., 2010). Significant changes in maritime traffic routes could result fro developments in extracting hydrocarbons from the earth: the growth of the shal gas industry of the United States of America, for example, is leading to major falls i United States imports, and growth of United States exports, with consequen changes in trade routes (EIA, 2014a). +© 2016 United Nation + +7 7 er 2 —— ¢ 4 % % 1 3 4 4 % 2 2 ue ay “i ye ey % ey yb %,, 2 +e % o ay “ap +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations Figure 2. Global Network of Ship Movements (data 2012). Data derived from daily Automatic +Identification System (AIS) messages recorded for each 0.22 X 0.22 grid square. The coloured scal shows the number of messages recorded over the year for the grid squares. Source: IMO, 20140. +For a long time there was an imbalance in cargo movements between developed an developing countries: cargo volumes loaded in the ports of developing countries fa exceeded the volumes of goods unloaded. This reflected the difference in volume o exports from developing countries (dominated by raw materials) and their import (substantially finished goods). As Figure 3 shows, over the past four decades steady change has occurred: loadings and unloadings in the ports of developin countries reached near parity in 2012, driven by the fast-growing import demand i developing regions, fuelled by their industrialization and rapidly rising consume demand. +© 2016 United Nation + +Figure 3. Cargoes loaded and unloaded in the ports of developing countries 1970 — 2012. Percentag share in tonnage of global loadings and unloadings. Source: UNCTAD, 2013. +General cargo transport has been transformed by the introduction of containe shipping. Before 1957, when the first container shipment was made from Housto to New York in the United States, general cargo had to be loaded and unloade package by package, with relatively long times needed to turn ships around, and hig labour costs. The introduction of standardized containers (the Twenty-foo Equivalent Unit (TEU) and the Forty-foot Equivalent Unit (FEU)) enabled ships an ports to be constructed so that compatibility was not an issue. (Ninety per cent o current shipments are of FEU, but the TEU is widely used for statistical purposes (Levinson, 2007). The convenience of being able to handle practically all forms o general cargo in this way is a major factor in producing the massive expansion o long-distance maritime transport. For a long time, growth in the volume o container traffic was three to four times the growth in world GDP (the average wa 3.4 times over the period 1990-2005). A variety of factors now seem to be changin and some analysts suggest that the multiplier has fallen to only 1.5 times in 2012 and may continue at this level. This would imply that in future the global shippin industry would grow more slowly (UNCTAD, 2013). Table 1 shows how trade level and the consequent distribution of container movements between parts of th world vary widely. +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 1. Container movements on the 10 most heavily trafficked routes 2006. +Route Number of TEU Movements ('000 Far East to Far East 21,75 Far East to North America 13,76 Far East to North-West Europe 8,95 North America to Far East 3,95 Far East to Mediterranean 3,75 North-West Europe to Far East 3,57 Far East to the Persian Gulf and Indian Subcontinent 3,32 North-West Europe to North America 3,19 Latin America to North America 2,79 North-West Europe to North-West Europe 2,518 +Source: Adapted from Mandryk, 2009. +Increases in the size of cargo vessels, and consequent efficiency gains, have been major factor in enabling unit freight costs for containers, for oil and gas and for bul traffic to be contained, thus encouraging growth in trade. It seems likely that th trend of increases in the size of vessels will continue. This trend is, however constrained by the limitations on the size of vessels that ports can handle and b navigational choke-points. At present, three main choke-points constrain the size o vessels. These are the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal and the Straits of Malacca. Th approximate maximum dimensions of vessels that can navigate these three passage are shown in Table 2. Vessels larger than these dimensions must seek alternativ routes: around Cape Horn, around the Cape of Good Hope and around or throug the Indonesian archipelago, respectively. These alternative routes add significantl to the costs of some of the main shipping routes, but may be offset by economies o scale in using larger vessels. Work is in progress to provide a new set of locks on th Panama Canal, which are expected to open in 2016, enabling ships within the “Ne Panamax” classification to pass through the canal (ACP, 2014). This is expected t result in significant changes in patterns of shipping between the Atlantic and Pacific Proposals exist for a further canal through Nicaragua, which might (if completed have even larger effects. Work has already started on expanding the Suez Canal Subject to such changes and the emergence of alternative routes, the scope fo efficiency savings from increasing the size of ships, and thus for containing costs, i likely to diminish, as the limits at the choke-points restrict further growth in the siz of vessels. +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 2. Choke-points in international shipping: maximum sizes of vessels. +Classification | Length Beam | Draft | Air-draft Approximate | Approximat (overhead | dead-weight | Twenty-foo clearance | tonnage* Unit (TEU above containe water) capacity +Malaccamax 333-400 59 25 | Unlimited” 300,000 15,000 — +metres | metres | metres 18,000 +Panamax 294.13 32.31 12.04 57.91 65,000 — 5,000 +metres | metres | metres metres 85,000 +New 366 49 15.2 57.91 120,000 13,000 +Panamax metres | metres | metres metres +Suezmax Unlimited 50 20.1 | 68 metres 120,000 — 14,500 +metres | metres 200,000 +Largest 415 65 35 320,000 — +current metres | metres | metres 500,000 +crude-oil +tankers +Largest 400 59 16 184,600 19,100 +current metres | metres | metres +container +ships +Source: STH 2014. +The other source of potential increases in the deployment of larger vessels is th effects of climate change. As a result of the warming of the Arctic, it is becomin possible (at least in summer) to navigate between the Pacific and the Atlanti through both the North-West Passage (through the Canadian Arctic archipelago) an the Northern Sea Route (NSR - along the Arctic coast of the Russian Federation) These possibilities are currently only open to ice-class vessels. The extent to whic larger vessels can be deployed depends on the routes that are feasible: Arcti shipping routes, especially the NSR, are subject to significant draft and bea restrictions (Humpert et al., 2012). Increases in the frequency and severity o northern hemisphere blizzards and Arctic cyclones may also limit the use thes routes (Wassman, 2011). The Nordic Orion (75,600 dead-weight tons (dwt)) becam the first commercial vessel to pass through the North-West Passage in October 201 (G&M, 2014). The NSR has been used for Russian internal traffic since the 1930s Some international transit traffic took place (with the aid of icebreakers) in the early +* Dead-weight tonnage (DWT) is a measure of how much weight a ship can safely carry. It is th aggregate of the weights of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast water, provisions, passengers, and crew ? There are now proposals for a bridge across the Malacca Strait, which would introduce a limit. +© 2016 United Nations + +1990s and the number of ships using the transit passage rose from four in 2010 to 7 in 2013 (Liu, 2010 and Economist, 2014). The route between Shanghai an Rotterdam via the NSR is approximately 4,600 km (about 40 per cent) shorter tha the route via the Suez Canal, and would take 18-20 days compared to 28-30 days vi the Suez Canal (Verny and Grigentin, 2009). Some estimates suggest that, in th longer term, up to 20 per cent - 25 per cent of global shipping movements could b affected by possible Arctic routes, which could offer up to 35 per cent savings i movement time and, hence, costs (Laulajainen, 2009). Others are more pessimistic but can see some possibilities (Liu et al., 2010). The International Maritim Organization (IMO) has developed a new International Code for Ships Operating i Polar Waters (the Polar Code), covering both Arctic and Antarctic waters. The Cod has been made mandatory under the International Convention on the Safety of Lif at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fro Ships (MARPOL) through the adoption of relevant amendments to thos Conventions, respectively in November 2014 and May 2015. The expected date o entry into force for the Code is 1 January 2017. Nevertheless, the requirements i the Code will need support through infrastructure such as improved charts an emergency response plans and waste-reception and other facilities capable o dealing with activities on a much larger scale than at present exists (COMNAP 2005 TRB 2012). +As well as the global, long-haul traffic, sea transport also carries much freight o shorter routes. Comparable statistics on this are difficult to find. Within Europe, study for the European Commission in 1999 showed that 43 per cent of the tota freight ton-miles within Europe (including both international and national traffic were carried on short-sea journeys — an amount about the same as the ton-miles o road haulage. This high proportion was due to the fact that the average movemen length by sea was much greater: the average sea movement was nearly 14 time that of the average road movement. Efforts are being made to increase the amoun of freight carried on short-sea movements, in order to reduce both the pressure o roads and air pollution emissions (EC, 1999). Similar motives underlie the “America’ Marine Highway Program”, under which the United States is investing to increas the amount of short-sea freight movements along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts an from the Gulf of Mexico to the east coast (MARAD, 2014). Elsewhere containerization is leading to rapid growth in short-sea coastal freight movements for example, in Brazil, the volume of containers carried in coastwise traffic has grow between 1999 and 2008 from 20,000 TEU to 630,000 TEU (+3,050 per cent) (Dias 2009). To a large extent, the scale of coastwise freight transport reflects the need t distribute more locally the large number of containers arriving in global movement in very large ships. Roll-on/roll-off ferries also play an important role in the mor local movement of containers and other cargo, often combined with passenge traffic. +One specialised form of maritime transport that attracts concern in some quarters i the transport of radioactive materials. A wide range of materials need to b transported, from supplies for nuclear medicine to the components in the nuclea fuel cycle. Since 1961 the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has publishe advisory regulations on the safe transport of radioactive material, which are +© 2016 United Nation + +generally adopted. Particular concern has been expressed about the shipment o used nuclear fuel for recycling. Since 1971, some 7,000 civil shipments of ove 80,000 tons of used nuclear fuel have been reported, mostly to the reprocessin plants at Cap la Hague (France) and Sellafield (United Kingdom of Great Britain an Northern Ireland). These include 160 shipments (totalling 7,140 tons) from Japan t Europe (WNA, 2014). A 2011 survey of the transport of radioactive material i northern Europe confirmed that there had been no maritime transport accident involving a release of radioactive materials (KIMO, 2011), and none have bee reported since then (European Union, 2013). +2.2 Passenger traffic +Since the advent of large aircraft, maritime passenger traffic has effectively bee confined to short-sea ferries and cruise ships. Every State with inhabited offshor islands too far offshore for the strait to be bridged has ferry services. State consisting of, or containing, archipelagos rely heavily on ferries for interna passenger transport. International passenger ferries are particularly important i the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and the Caribbean, where several States face eac other across relatively short sea-crossings. Roll-on/roll-off ferries (where passenge vehicles and their passengers can make the journey together) have substantiall aided the growth of short-sea passenger transport. Roll-on/roll-off ferries are als important for local freight movements, especially in Europe. Growth in passenge transport by ferries is governed mainly by improvements in the facilities and genera economic growth in the countries concerned. Over the past decade, for example the traffic on Greek passenger ferries has stagnated in the light of the Gree economic crisis, while traffic on passenger ferries in Indonesia and the Philippine has continued to grow substantially. Total ferry passengers worldwide in 2008 an its regional components are shown in Table 3. +Table 3. World ferry traffic volume and distribution 2008. +Passengers | Cars | Buses | Freigh vehicles +World traffic volumes (millions of 2,052 | 252 | 677 3 journeys Percentages of world total in eac regio America and Caribbean 14.6 | 29.7 | 11.9 2. Baltic 10.9 | 33.7 | 38.6 24. Mediterranean 21.2 | 14.3 | 14.9 26. North Sea 4.4| 7.5 | 32.4 31. Pacific 1.5] 0.4] <0.1 1.5 +© 2016 United Nations + +Red Sea and Persian Gulf 3.7) 0.5] 0.9 0.2 +South-East Asia 43.7 | 13.9 | 1.3 12.9 +Source: Adapted from Wergeland, 2012. +2.3 Cruise ships +The other major sector of passenger maritime transport is cruise ships. Althoug maritime tourist travel can be traced back to 1837, and a substantial busines developed, especially in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19°" century (P&O, 2014), th modern cruise ship industry emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a means o employing ocean-going passenger liners at a time when mass long-distanc passenger air-travel was emerging and coming to dominate the long-distanc passenger market. When the market demand became clear, specialized cruise ship began to be built, with less emphasis on speed than passenger liners, and more o space for entertainment and relaxation. The market has grown steadily and rapidl since then: the estimated numbers were 3,774,000 journeys in 1990 and 21,556,00 journeys in 2013 (Figure 4). The total turnover of the cruise market was estimated a 37.1 billion United States dollars (CMW, 2014). Growth has slowed somewhat sinc 2008, but has continued. +Global Passenger Growth [iy america [Bj zuore Ra ROW | rotar +2 2u Bea. 2098 o 20 - 02 aa 15.9 16.6 an sae +1 10 +5 +° +2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2013 (F) 2014 (est) +Figure 4. Growth in numbers of passenger cruise journeys 2007 — 2014. +(millions of journeys). Note: ROW is “Rest of the World” Source: CLIA, 2014. +Over half the market demand in 2013 was from the United States (51.7 per cent) The remaining demand is reported as 26.6 per cent from Europe, 3.6 per cent fro Australia and New Zealand, 3.4 per cent from Brazil, 3.4 per cent from Canada an 11.3 per cent from the rest of the world. The main target areas in terms o itineraries and ship deployment for cruises in 2013 are reported as: the Caribbea (34 per cent), the Mediterranean (22 per cent), the rest of Europe (11 per cent), +© 2016 United Nations + +Australia (5 per cent), Alaska (5 per cent), South America (4 per cent), Asia (3 pe cent) and other areas (16 per cent) (CLIA, 2014). +There appears to be a trend towards larger vessels. In the Baltic Sea, the Helsink Commission has calculated that the average number of passengers on the cruis ships calling at Baltic ports rose between 2006 and 2012 by 49 per cent, from 1,09 to 1,635 (HELCOM, 2014a). +2.4 The world fleet of ships +The size of the world’s fleet of ships has been increasing rapidly in the period fro 2000 — 2013 (Figure 5). The persistence of a high rate of growth after the economi crisis of 2008 is accounted for by the lead time between the ordering and delivery o vessels: 2012 was the first year since 2001 in which the tonnage of ships delivere fell below the tonnage delivered in the previous year (UNCTAD, 2013). +4.80 ca [ 440 1200 | [o a) ee a 80 600 [a 400 20 o 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005, 2010 201 Gi Other 31 45 49 58 75 49 92 16 1 Container bh 20 26 44 64 98 169 20 | General cargo) 116 106 103 104 101 92 108 8 1 Dry bulk 186 232 235 262 276 321 457 68 i Oil tanker 339 261 246 268 282 336 450 491 +Figure 5. Total size of the world fleet of ships 1980 — 2013. Source: UNCTAD, 2013. Note: Figure 5 includes all propelled seagoing merchant vessels of 100 GT and above, excluding inland waterwa vessels, fishing vessels, military vessels, yachts, and offshore fixed and mobile platforms and barge (with the exception of floating production storage and offloading units (FPSOs) and drillships). +The age profile of the world fleet has also been changing: by January 2013, 20 pe cent of all seagoing merchant ships were less than five years old, representing 40 pe cent of the world’s deadweight tonnage. At that point, the average age (per ship) i January 2013 was 9.9 years for dry-bulk carriers, 10.8 years for container ships, 16. years for oil tankers, and highest for general-cargo ships (25 years) and th miscellaneous ships (22.6 years). The average ages of oil tankers and dry bul carriers are lower because of the rapid increases in their numbers. The figure for oi tankers also reflects the phasing out of single-hulled oil tankers (UNCTAD, 2013). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The practice of registering ships in flag States other than that of the owner’ nationality has grown, particularly under what are called “open registries”, whic (among other things) may not impose requirements on the nationality of officers o other crew. The proportion of vessels over 1,000 gross tonnage’ flying a fla different from that of their owner’s nationality has increased steadily from less tha 41.5 per cent in 1988 to 73 per cent in 2013. In 2013, more than half the tonnage o the world’s ships was registered with four registries — Panama (21.52 per cent) Liberia (12.16 per cent), the Marshall Islands (8.60 per cent) and Hong Kong, Chin (7.97 per cent) (UNCTAD, 2013) (Figure 6). Because of the attractions of “ope registries”, a number of States have created international shipping registers. Thes usually have less stringent requirements on the nationality of crew, but may not b open to ships trading solely within national waters. +G@ Panama +B Liberia +O Marshall Island O Hong Kong (China @ Singapore +@ Greece +@ Bahamas +O Malta +@ China +@ Cyprus +Olsle of Man +@ United Kingdo @ Rest of World +Figure 6. Share of the World’s Gross Tonnage by Registry 2013. (12 Registries with the largest gros tonnage on the register and the total gross tonnage of all other Registries). Source: compiled fro UNCTAD, 2013). +The pattern of ownership of vessels varies widely between the registries. Fo example, among the 12 largest registries, some have negligible proportions owne or controlled by nationals. For others (China and Greece), the tonnage i predominantly controlled by nationals. Yet others have substantial, but no predominant, proportions controlled by nationals. This variable pattern is also foun among all the other registries. Figure 7 shows the estimated spread of ownershi and/or control for ships of over 1,000 gross tonnage between the 12 largest ship owning States and the rest of the world. Owners from five countries (China, +3 “Gross tonnage” is a measure of “the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship (International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969) and is calculated from th volume of the ship multiplied by a reduction factor which increases with the size of the ship. +© 2016 United Nation + +Germany, Greece, Japan, and the Republic of Korea) together account for 53 per cen of the world tonnage. Among the top 35 ship-owning countries and territories, 17 are i Asia, 14 in Europe, and 4in the Americas (UNCTAD, 2013). +Greece +B Japan +O China +O Germany +B Republic of Kore B Singapore +B United States +O United Kingdo m Norway +B Taiwan Province of Chin DO Denmark +DB Bermuda +B Rest of the World +Figure 7. Spread of the control/ownership of vessels of over 1,000 gross tonnage between the 1 largest fleets and the rest of the world 2013. Source: compiled from UNCTAD, 2013. +2.5 Ship safety +Whether ships are carrying passengers or cargo, the main aim is that the ship shoul reach port safely at the end of the voyage. In the 1960s, concern about the number of collisions of ships, the damage that they could inflict on the environment, the risk to the lives of those on board and the economic effects of losses led to th development of various recommendations on methods of navigation in areas wit high levels of shipping activity. In 1971, the IMO Assembly adopted the principle o compulsory measures for ships’ routing under the SOLAS Convention, of which th scheme in the Dover Straits was the first (IMO, 2014c). +The IMO has now established some 152 ships’ routing measures around the world These include Traffic Separation Schemes (which require ships going in opposit directions to stay in designated lanes), Inshore Traffic Zones (designated area landward of a traffic separation scheme for coastal traffic), Deep-Water Route (routes which have been accurately surveyed for clearance of sea-bottom an submerged objects), and Areas To Be Avoided (areas in which either navigation i particularly hazardous or it is exceptionally important to avoid casualties and whic should be avoided by all ships, or by certain classes of ships). In addition, a numbe of Governments and port authorities have established similar schemes, particularl in the approaches to major ports (UKHO, 2014). The importance of ships’ routin measures can be seen from the straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean A 2004 study showed that the majority of the accidents in the period 1953 to 199 were collisions between two or more ships; after the introduction of a traffi separation scheme in 1994, the majority of the accidents were groundings o strandings (Akten, 2004). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +In addition to the ships’ routing measures adopted by IMO, the IMO has designated on the proposal of coastal States, Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) in thei exclusive economic zones, where associated measures to protect the environmen can be approved. Fourteen such areas have so far been designated. Eight establis Areas to be Avoided (ATBA), six impose mandatory reporting requirements on som or all ships (MSR), four include Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS), two impose a ba on any ship anchoring in a specified area, and one imposes a mandatory deep-wate route (DWR). In addition, two recommend the use of pilotage and two recommen the use of an established two-way route. Three of the areas (the Great Barrier Reef Malpelo Island and the Paracas National Reserve) are linked to areas designated a World Heritage Sites (see Chapter 8 — Cultural Ecosystem Services from the Ocean) The 14 areas, the States proposing them, and the additional protective measure adopted are (in the order of their designation): +(a) Great Barrier Reef (Australia, 1990) (for measures see (h) below) (b) Sabana-Camagiiey Archipelago (Cuba, 1997, ATBA) (c) Malpelo Island (Colombia, 2002 — ATBA); +(d) Marine area around the Florida Keys (United States, 2002 — ATBA mandatory no-anchoring areas); +(e) Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, 2002 — DWR) (f) | Paracas National Reserve (Peru, 2003 — ATBA); +(g) Western European Waters (Belgium, France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain an the United Kingdom — MSR); +(h) Extension of the Great Barrier Reef PSSA to include the Torres Strai (Australia and Papua New Guinea, 2003 — MSR, two-way route recommended pilotage); +(i) | Canary Islands (Spain, 2004 — ATBA, TSS, MSR, recommended routes) (j) | Galapagos Archipelago (ATBA, MSR, recommended routes); +(k) Baltic Sea (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Polan and Sweden, 2004 — TSS, DWR, ATBA, MSR); +(Il) | Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (USA, 2007 — ATBA MSR for all USA ships and all other ships over 300 gross tonnage recommended reporting for other ships); +(m) Strait of Bonifacio (France and Italy, 2011 — MSR, recommendation o navigation); +(n) Saba Bank (Caribbean Netherlands, 2012 — ATBA, mandatory no anchoring area) (IMO, 2014d). +Work continues to improve the safety of navigation, including through on-goin improvements to charts, electronic aids to navigation and other navigation services Such improvements have played a significant part in achieving the reductions i shipping casualties described in this chapter (IMO, 2014e). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The combined effect of all these measures has been to achieve a steady reduction i the number of ships lost at sea, with environmental, social and economic benefits less pollution of the sea, fewer lives lost and less disruption of trade. Over the lon term, in 1912, the casualty rate was about 1 in 100 ships from a fleet of about 33,00 ships; in 2009, the casualty rate was about 1 in 670 ships from a fleet of abou 100,000 (Allianz, 2012). The following graph (Figure 8) shows how the number o ships lost has decreased over the past decade to 2013. (However, more recently casualties to ships carrying refugees may affect the picture). +5 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 +Figure 8. Number of ships over 1,000 gross tonnage lost 2002 — 2013. Source: Allianz, 2014 (based o Lloyd’s List Intelligence Casualty Statistics). +As for the locations of these events, they are naturally concentrated on the mai shipping lanes. As Table 4 shows, 30 per cent of the losses between 2002 and 201 were in the waters off eastern Asia. +Table 4. Shipping losses over 1,000 gross tonnage by sea area +SEA AREA 2002 - | 201 201 South-East Asian Seas (the waters off southern China, Viet Nam and 296 18 +the eastern coasts of the Malaysian peninsula and Thailand, th coasts of Brunei Darussalam and Sarawak (Malaysia) and aroun Indonesia and the Philippines and Singapore) +Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea 215 1 North-West Pacific (the waters off northern China, Japan, the 207 Korean peninsula and the Pacific coast of the Russian Federation) +The North Sea, the English Channel, other waters around the Britain 135 and Ireland, and the Bay of Biscay +The Persian Gulf and its approaches 96 South-West Atlantic 82 Western Mediterranean 73 Wider Caribbean 51 Western Indian Ocean 51 3 +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +SEA AREA 2002 - | 201 2013 +Bay of Bengal 50 3 +Eastern seaboard of the United States 45 0 +Other parts of the world 372 18 +Total Losses worldwide 1,673 94 +Adapted from Allianz, 2014 (based on Lloyd’s List Intelligence Casualty Statistics). +In the late 1990s a series of disasters involving ships not covered by the IM Conventions and their requirements prompted IMO to undertake action as part o their Integrated Technical Cooperation Programme to help States in various region to develop codes to improve the standard of shipping in those regions. By 1999 States in Asia, the Caribbean and the Pacific agreed codes for non-Convention ships which many States have incorporated into their legislation. Draft regulations hav been developed for Africa, and the IMO has been assisting some States to use thes as a basis for improving the safety of ships operating in their waters. Much work stil remains to be done, because the infrastructure and skilled personnel needed t implement the regulations are often not available (Williams, 2001). Even wher regional codes have been adopted, they do not apply to vessels under 15 — 2 metres (depending on the region). Concern therefore remains in many parts of th world (especially Africa) about improving the safety of small vessels — for example, 2012 study showed that 70 per cent of the shipping incidents between 1998 an 2011 reported in South Africa involved small ships or fishing vessels (Mearns et al. 2012). +3. Socioeconomic aspects of shipping +3.1 Profitability of the world fleet +The profitability of ferries and the carriage of cargoes within a State (“cabotage”) wil depend very heavily on local circumstances. Many States subsidize ferries t offshore islands from general taxation in order to remove the disadvantages whic those living on such islands would otherwise suffer. Restrictions on which ships ma carry out cabotage (which can be restricted to ships flying the national flag of th State within which the carriage takes place) can significantly affect the profitability o routes. States may also intervene to make cabotage more profitable in order t encourage cargo traffic to use sea routes rather than land routes, in order to reduc pressure on roads or the need to build or improve them. +The profitability of international traffic, particularly on intercontinental routes, is, o the other hand, very much a matter of the global shipping market. Long-distanc cargo capacity is largely traded on a global market, which is focused on certain citie with well-established local shipbroking networks. Among these are Amsterdam, th Netherlands; Athens (Piraeus), Greece; Copenhagen, Denmark; Hong Kong, China; +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +London, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; New York, Unite States; Oslo, Norway; Shanghai, China; and Tokyo, Japan. This market covers bot ships operated principally by those who own them, and ships whose owner generally expect to charter them out to other firms to operate. Ships can easil switch between these categories, depending on the levels of supply and demand i the market. Since the level of activity in global shipping is closely linked to the leve of global trade within the four main markets of oil and gas, the main bulk cargoes containers and general cargo, the levels of supply and demand of shipping in th market will likewise fluctuate. Extended periods of growth in global trade encourag ship-owners to invest in new capacity — even more so if growth causes demand t outstrip supply significantly, as happened at some periods over the past tw decades. 2001 to 2012 saw the longest sustained growth in the size of the worl fleet in history, with record deliveries of new vessels year after year. Additions t capacity will also be caused by investment in new vessels which can operate mor efficiently, usually because they are larger. The entry into service of such improve vessels will cause other vessels to be cascaded down the markets. Mismatche between increases in capacity and growth in global trade will lead to overcapacit and falls in freight rates and consequent drops in profitability. Likewise, if globa demand drops because of economic recessions, the long lead-time for new shippin means that capacity will continue to grow from deliveries of vessels ordered at time of growth, thus enhancing the effects of falls in demand (UNCTAD, 2013). +The drop in global trade from the 2008 global recession led to serious drops i freight rates, especially for container ships. For container ships, recovery in trade i 2011 did not immediately lead to better freight rates, in view of the large increase in new capacity. Measures such as slowing voyages (which both saves fuel and use more capacity) and transferring capacity from east-west routes (where trad remained low) to north-south routes (where trade was growing) meant that in 201 container freight rates recovered. For tankers carrying oil, gas and chemicals, th position has been similarly poor, with rates over 2009 — 2013 roughly half those o the peak of early 2008. For bulk carriage of coal, grain and minerals, rates over th same period have been only 10 per cent - 30 per cent of the peak 2008 rates. I 2012, a survey revealed that 21 carriers of the top 30 that publish financial result reported an overall operating loss of 239 million dollars in 2012, with only seve carriers turning in positive results (UNCTAD, 2013). +Overall, the pattern has been one of bigger ships offered by fewer companies Although, in general, the level of service for cargo carriage by regular sailings, a shown by the UNCTAD Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, has improved over the pas decade, the result of concentrating cargo in bigger vessels owned by bigge companies has been to reduce the level of competition. In 2004, 22 countries wer served by three or fewer carriers: in 2013, 31 countries were facing this situatio (UNCTAD, 2013). In 2013, three of the largest container shipping lines propose collaboration in the scheduling of sailings and allocation of cargo to sailings, whil retaining separate sales and pricing systems. These proposals were not accepted b all States and have now been dropped. However, in 2014, the shipping companie involved in those proposals and other companies formed two alliances. Some in the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +shipping industry believe that further arrangements may be proposed (SCD, 2014 Lloyds List, 2014). +In recent years, passenger cruise ships have suffered some bad publicity, with th loss of the Costa Concordia and a number of other adverse events. However, all th major cruise lines have been reporting profits. Across the industry, profits pe passenger were reported to grow by nearly 18 per cent between 2011 and 2013 from 157 dollars to 185 dollars (Statista, 2014). +4. Seafarers +4.1 Numbers of seafarers +Worldwide, there are just over 1.25 million seafarers. Only about 2 per cent of thes are women, mainly in the ferry and cruise-ship sectors (ITF, 2014). Their origins ar shown in Table 5. +Table 5. Broad Geographical Origins of Seafarers 2010. +Origin Officers per cent Ratings per cen Africa / 50,000 8 112,000 1 Latin +America +Eastern 127,000 20 109,000 1 Europe +Far East 184,000 30 275,000 3 Indian Sub- 80,000 13 108,000 1 Continent +OECD 184,000 29 143,000 1 Countries +Total - All 624,000 100 747,000 10 National +Groups +Source: BIMCO/ISF, 2010. +Although there are many uncertainties, a recent survey by the Baltic Internationa Maritime Council Organization and the International Shipping Federation indicate that the industry will most probably face a continuing shortage of qualified cre (and particularly of officers) when shipping markets recover. There is also a hig wastage rate of qualified crew leaving the industry, and this contributes to potentia shortages (BIMCO/ISF, 2010). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +4.2. Conditions of work for seafarers +Because ships and those who work on them are operating in a world market, and ar frequently (and, in international shipping, usually) not operating within the Stat under whose flag they fall, international action to regulate the pay and conditions o seafarers has been a major concern of the International Labour Organization (ILO since its foundation in 1919. In 2006, the ILO adopted the Maritime Labou Convention (MLC) as the “fourth pillar” of international maritime law (alongsid SOLAS, the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification an Watchkeeping for Seafarers, as amended (STCW), and MARPOL). The MLC embodie “all up-to-date standards of existing international maritime labour Conventions an Recommendations, as well as the fundamental principles to be found in othe international labour Conventions”. The MLC entered into force on 20 August 201 and, by June 2014, had been ratified by 61 States representing 80 per cent of globa shipping tonnage (ILO, 2014). +The MLC continues and restates a unique system for setting recommended minimu wages for seafarers from all countries. A Subcommittee of the ILO Joint Maritim Commission (with representation of Governments, seafarers and ship-owners) ha agreed on an increase in the minimum monthly basic wage figure for able seafarer to 592 dollars (7,104 dollars a year) from 1 January 2015 and to 614 dollars (7,36 dollars a year) from 1 January 2016 (ILO 2014) +The pay of officers is determined by the market. However, there are noticeabl differences between pay rates, depending on the national origin of the officer concerned. A global survey in 2012 showed the following pattern of salaries (Tabl 6). +Table 6. Pay of ships’ officers in United States dollars a year +ORIGIN JOB TYPE +Master Chief Chief Second +Mariner Engineer Officer Enginee Asia 111,422 102,740 74,319 72,99 Eastern Europe 109,627 104,448 74,653 81,12 Western Europe 138,320 104,628 90,273 81,871 +Source: compiled from Faststream, 2012 +Because seafarers can find themselves in foreign ports without many of the suppor services available to land-based workers, the rights under the MLC on such issues a enforcing arrears of pay are very important. In addition, a survey based on 3,48 cases presented to the Legal Committee of the IMO strongly suggested that th rights of seafarers, as set out in the IMO/ILO “Guidelines on fair treatment of +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +seafarers in the event of a maritime accident”, are often subject to violation. Amon the views expressed were that the survey showed a need to keep up pressure fo better implementation of the Guidelines, and that seafarers were more exposed t criminal proceedings than many other workers (UNCTAD, 2013). +4.3 Safety of seafarers +There are difficulties in obtaining a clear picture of the deaths and injuries suffere by seafarers. In this context, it seems necessary also to consider deaths and injurie suffered by those working at sea in the fishing industry, since these have simila causes. In 1999, a study looking at 19 major shipping administrations over th period 1990 — 1994 concluded that casualties arising from disasters involvin merchant vessels were grossly underreported, and in addition failed to addres mortality from all other causes of death at sea (Nielsen, 1999). In 2013, when th Secretary-General of IMO launched the Accident Zero Campaign, he noted that th available statistics are neither accurate nor comprehensive, and suggested that ther is a need for an official global statistical base (Sekimizu, 2013). The statistics quote by the IMO Secretary-General showed the following pattern of deaths (Table 7) a far as they could be ascertained: +Table 7. Pattern of Deaths of Seafarers 2008 - 2012 +Year | Deaths of seafarer 2008 1,94 2009 2,39 2010 1,50 2011 1,09 2012 1,051 +Source: Sekimizu, 2013. +Of these, about 10 per cent were in the fishing sector, 40 per cent in domesti shipping and 50 per cent in other categories, including international shipping Statistics on serious injuries to seafarers are even less easily established. +Over the past three decades, acts of piracy and armed robbery have re-emerged a serious risks to seafarers. Much attention has been focused on such attacks o shipping in waters off eastern Africa, but reports show that the problem is mor widespread. In the last three years, action against attacks off eastern Africa appear to have had some success, but attacks elsewhere are also of concern - especially i the South China Sea area, the location of over half the incidents reported in 2013 The statistics cover reports of alleged piracy (outside the territorial sea) and arme robbery at sea in the territorial sea and port areas (Figure 9). Of the 132 attack reported in 2013 in the South China Sea area, 70 per cent allegedly occurred while +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +the ship was in port. Worldwide, 17 per cent of the attacks were reported to involv actual violence against the crew (IMO, 2014a). +—? Malacca Strai 250 —m- Indian Ocea ~*~ East Afric > West Afric —*— Latin America and the Caribbea —@®- Mediterranean Se —+— North Atlanti —— South China Se ———~ Arabian Se Others +Regional +=Total +$ 8 8 8 & &$ & 8 8 8 § $§ 8 2 § Q a a a Q Q a a S S S S S 2 = = = = = = = = a a a a a a a +Figure 9. Reports of Alleged Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery Committed or Attempted 1984 — 2013 Source: IMO, 2014a. +4.4 Safety of Passengers +There are several aspects to the safety of passengers on board passenger ships. Th aspect on which most attention has been focused by the international community since at least the Titanic disaster in1912, is protection against incidents involvin ships on international voyages. Although (as with deaths and injuries to seafarers there are problems in establishing the relevant statistics for deaths of, and injurie to, passengers, there seems to be little doubt that the number of incidents involvin passenger ships on international voyages, and the consequent harm to passengers, i small and has fallen steadily: 13 passenger vessels were lost in 2002 as compared t six in 2013 (Allianz, 2014). A second aspect of passenger safety is that of passenge ferries on domestic voyages. Although, again, statistics are limited, the IM Secretary-General has drawn attention to the fact that in the 2% years from Januar 2012 to June 2014, 2,932 lives were lost in domestic passenger ship accident around the world. The third main aspect of passenger safety is the accidents an other events of a kind that have nothing to do with the failure of vessels: these cove not only medical emergencies, but also crimes committed by crew or othe passengers, and people falling overboard. The size of modern cruise ships (with u to about 5,000 passengers and 2,500 crew) means that this kind of event is as likel to happen on a ship as in a small town. However, investigation and follow-up are matter for the flag State of the vessel. Statistics on these aspects of passenger safet are not consistently collected. However, because of the large proportion of cruis trips that start in its territory or involve its citizens, the United States since 2010 ha required reporting these incidents to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for, +© 2016 United Nations +600 +TOTAL +2 + +among others, cruises starting or ending in its ports. The reports show 130 report of alleged serious crimes in 2011 — 2012 (Rockefeller, 2013). +5. Links to other industries +5.1 Shipbuilding +The steady growth in the numbers and size of vessels of all kinds resulted in recor levels of ships being on order in 2008: the dead-weight tonnage (dwt) on order gre by between 50 per cent (general cargo) and 1000 per cent (bulk carriers) to a total o around 600 million dwt. The economic crisis of 2008 resulted in a rapid decline i new orders, and as a consequence many shipyards are thought likely to have t reduce employment. Over the decade from 2002 to 2012, there have been majo changes in the location of shipbuilding: in 2012, China (41 per cent), Republic o Korea (33 per cent) and Japan (18 per cent) produced about 92 per cent of all ne dwt tonnage; six years earlier in 2006, China had been producing only about 15 pe cent, about the same as the European shipyards taken together. The Philippines als has a growing shipbuilding industry: 3 per cent of global dwt completed in 2012 Eastern Asia has thus become dominant in the global shipbuilding market (UNCTAD 2013). +5.2 Ship-breaking +The ship-breaking industry has likewise become more concentrated. In 2012, 70 pe cent of all gross tonnage reported as sold for demolition was sold to ship-breakin yards in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan; 22 per cent was sold to ship-breaking yard in China and 3 per cent to yards in Turkey, leaving only 5 per cent being sold to th rest of the world (UNCTAD, 2013). The ship-breaking industry has given rise t concerns about both the impact on the workers employed and the effects on th marine environment (see Chapter 20). An ILO expert group described it as ver hazardous for the workers and presenting many threats to the environment, wit major difficulties in enforcing regulations (ILO, 2003). The Hong Kong Internationa Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships was adopte in 2009. To enter into force, this requires ratification by 15 States representing 4 per cent of the gross tonnage of the world fleet and the combined maximum annua ship recycling volume of these States constituting not less than 3 per cent of th gross tonnage of their combined fleet. However, at the end of 2014, only thre States representing 1.98 per cent of world tonnage had ratified it (IMO, 2014b) From the start of 2015, the IMO will implement, in coordination with th Government of Bangladesh, a project aimed at enhancing the standards of health safety and environmental compliance of ship recycling in Bangladesh. +5.3. Bunkers +Ships need to burn fuel to move, and there is therefore a substantial world-wid industry delivering ships’ bunkers (as ships’ fuel is named). Estimates of total +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +worldwide fuel consumption by ships vary: calculations in the IMO Greenhouse Ga study based on a bottom-up approach using data on ship movements fro Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) show a total consumption of about 32 million tons per year in 2011, compared with a figure of 254 million tons a yea based on top-down data on sales of bunkers (IMO 20140). This compares with a estimate by the United States Energy Information Agency of around 164 million ton a year (EIA, 2014b). In 2010, this represented about 1.5 per cent of the world’s tota primary energy supply (OECD, 2014). Most of the bunkers are residual fuel oil — tha is, the fuel oil that remains after lighter fractions have been removed for other uses As a consequence, it often has high sulphur content and presents other problem (such as the need to heat it before it can be pumped to the engines). Restriction are being introduced on bunkers, in order to combat air pollution from ships (se below). Much of the delivery of bunkers takes place in the larger ports, especiall those situated near navigational choke-points. Singapore is the world’s leading por for the supply of ships’ bunkers (MPA, 2014). +5.4 Marine insurance +Alongside the maritime transport industry, a major industry has grown up to insur ships and their cargoes while they are in transit. This is an important component o maritime transport, since cargo owners, ship owners, crew and the rest of the worl (including the marine environment) can easily be damaged by ship accidents. means of ensuring compensation is essential. Many States require a valid insuranc certificate as a precondition of entry to their ports: for example, this is requirement in all European Economic Area States (EC, 2009) The annual premiu income worldwide of the marine insurance industry was estimated at 28,930 millio United States dollars (excluding the offshore energy industries, whose insurance i often included in marine insurance figures, because it is provided by the same firms) The premiums on cargoes and freight costs represented 18,139 million dollars (62. per cent) of this business, the ships themselves 8,563 million dollars (29.6 per cent) and 2,228 million dollars (7.7 per cent) the cost of insurance against causing damag to the marine environment. In addition to the commercial insurance of ships cargoes, freight costs and environmental risks, many ships are entered int Protection and Indemnity Clubs (P & | Clubs). These are non-profit associations o ship owners, which cover their members against other risks not covered by th marine insurance policy. These clubs are financed by calls on members. In 2013, th total of calls from P & | Clubs was estimated at 3,630 million dollars (Seltmann 2014). +An important element of these insurance arrangements is the inspection of ships b independent surveyors. These inspections are organized by Classification Societies which also lay down construction standards for ships that are consistent with th legal requirements of the States with which the Classification Society works Registration by a Flag State, as well as obtaining insurance, is normally conditional o a Classification Society issuing a certificate that the ship meets the standards lai down for its class. There are over 100 Classification Societies in the various parts o the world. The major Classification Societies formed, in 1961, the Internationa Association of Classification Societies (IACS), which currently consists of 12 member +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +societies and has adopted common approaches to the task of classification throug the development of unified rules, requirements and interpretations— for example the Common Structural Rules for Tankers and Bulk Carriers 2006 (IACS, 2014). +6. Pathways by which shipping impacts on the marine environment and th nature of those impacts +Shipping’s impacts on the marine environment can be divided into the catastrophi and the chronic. Catastrophic impacts on the marine environment result fro disasters involving the ship, and may lead to its total loss: for example, collisions fires, foundering and wrecks. Chronic impacts are those that result from the day-to day operation of ships, without calling into question the ship’s integrity or continue functioning (Donaldson, 1994). Both are important, and both are addressed by ver similar methods, including by ensuring the safe construction of vessels and their saf operation through construction standards, safe navigation methods, and the prope training and deployment of the crew. +Figure 2 highlights the way in which major shipping routes pass through certai choke-points: among the more significant are the Malacca and Singapore Straits, th Strait of Hormuz, the Bab al Mandab at the entrance to the Red Sea, the Suez Canal the straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Sound and the Belts a the entrance to the Baltic Sea, the English Channel and the Straits of Dover, and th Panama Canal. Concerns about chronic effects are therefore greatest in these areas because it is there that those effects are most concentrated. +Catastrophic events produce the most serious impacts on the marine environment as well as being very serious from the point of view of the crew and any passenger and in their economic impact. As explained above, the combined effect of effort under a number of international conventions has been to reduce steadily th number of ship losses and other catastrophic events. +6.1 Combined impacts of catastrophic events and chronic inputs to the ocean fro ships +For most of the major threats to the ocean from shipping, MARPOL provides th technical specifications for preventing and reducing the threats. It was adopted i 1973, adapted in 1978 to facilitate its entry into force, and entered into force for th provisions relating to oil and noxious liquids in bulk in 1983. Since then, it ha developed over time (as explained below), both by strengthening the requirement and by bringing into force regulations relating to additional fields. Othe international conventions also address threats to the marine environment arisin from ships (see also below). +Effective implementation and enforcement of the requirements of thes international conventions are crucial. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +6.2. Oil +Oil spills from shipping have a wide range of impacts. Catastrophic discharges o large amounts of hydrocarbons will produce large oil slicks with consequentiall massive impacts. Smaller slicks will have lesser impacts, but may be equally seriou if they are repeated frequently. The impacts range from covering seabirds with oi (which can lead to death), through killing and tainting fish and shellfish and makin the stock of fish farms unusable to covering beaches and rocky shores with oil (whic can adversely affect tourism). In specific cases, problems can be caused fo industries that rely on an intake of seawater (such as marine salt production desalinization plants and coastal power stations) and coastal installations (such a marinas, ports and harbours) (ITOPF, 2014a). In summarising general experienc with oil spills, the study on the environmental impact of the spill of 85,000 tons o crude oil in the 1993 Braer catastrophe (Ritchie et al., 1994) drew attention to thre important features of major oil spills: +(a) There is an initial, very serious impact, usually with extensive mortality o seabirds, marine mammals, fish and benthic biota and coastal pollution; +(b) In many circumstances, however, marine ecosystems will recove relatively quickly from oil spills: crude oil loses most of its toxicity withi a few days of being spilled at sea, mortality of marine biota decline rapidly thereafter, sub-lethal effects are of limited long-term significanc and marine ecosystems recover well where there are nearby sources o replacement biota; +(c) Nevertheless, the local circumstances of an oil spill will be ver significant. The impact on seabirds, marine mammals and sessile biot will obviously be worse if the spill occurs in areas where they are presen in large numbers at the season when the spill occurs — the location o breeding and nursery areas and migration routes and other regula concentrations being particularly important. +The ambient temperature is one of the local circumstances that are most significan for the duration of the impact and the timing of recovery. In warmer areas, th bacteria that break down hydrocarbons are more active, and the effects wil disappear more quickly. In spite of the size (about 1 million tons) of the discharge (not including the airborne deposits from the burning of a further 67 million tons) the effect on the coasts of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia of the discharges from oil well during the Gulf War in 1991 was largely disappearing within 18 months. Thes coasts had largely recovered within five years. However, oil appears to hav persisted in salt marshes and at lower depths in the lower sediments as a result o their anaerobic condition (Readman et al., 1992; Jones et al., 1994; Otsuki et al. 1998; Barth, 2001). In colder areas, on the other hand, bacterial activity is muc lower, and the effects of oil spills persist much longer. The impact of the Exxo Valdez disaster, in which 35,000 tons of oil were spilt in 1989, was still measurabl 20 years later (EVOSTC, 2010). +Local circumstances will also determine the appropriate response to an oil spill. I relatively calm water, it is often appropriate to contain an oil spill with floatin booms and use skimmers to retrieve as much oil as possible. With such equipment, +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +it is possible to recover a large proportion of the spill — two-thirds of the 934 ton spilt from the Fu Shan Hai in the Baltic in 2003 were recovered (HELCOM, 2010). Th other major approach is the use of chemical dispersants. Opinion is divided on th appropriateness of using them: some States regard them as appropriate in man cases, depending on the meteorological circumstances, the local environment an the nature of the oil spill; other States regard them as unacceptable (for examples see the different opinions in BONN, 2014). +The problem of pollution from oil was the starting point of MARPOL, and the rules t prevent it are in its Annex |. The Annex covers the construction of oil tankers, thei operation, what discharges of oily water are permitted, the equipment that must b used and the record-keeping required about any discharges. These requirement have been strengthened over time. In particular, it requires the phasing out o single-hulled oil tankers by, at the latest, 2015. +MARPOL Annex | not only prohibits any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixture from any ships in the waters around Antarctica, but also provides for the designatio of Special Areas, in which more stringent limits on the discharge of oily water apply As a counterpart to the designation of Special Areas, coastal States in a Special Are must be parties to MARPOL and must provide appropriate reception facilities for oil waste (see also Chapter 18 - Ports). An important feature of Special Areas is that th maximum permitted level of oil in water discharged is 15 parts per million. In number of States, the legal system considers that any visible slick on the sea surfac must have been caused by a discharge above this level (for examples, see NSN 2012). Special Areas have been designated, and are in force, in the Mediterranea Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the “Gulfs Area”*, the Antarctic Area (south o 602S), North-West European Waters and Southern South African waters. Thre further areas have been designated, but are not yet in force because the coasta States have not all notified IMO that adequate reception facilities are in place: th Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Oman area of the Arabian Sea (IMO, 2014f). +In some parts of the world, special measures have been introduced to reduce oi pollution. Aerial surveillance, supplemented and guided more recently by the use o satellite surveillance, has been used in North-West Europe. Coupled with a effective programme of prosecutions of owners and masters of ships observe unlawfully discharging oil, this has led to decreases over the last two decades in th numbers of oil spills, both in absolute terms and in terms of numbers of oil spill observed per hour flown (BONN, 2013; HELCOM, 2014). In the Mediterranean, pilo projects of this kind have been undertaken (REMPEC, 2014). Canada also has set u similar surveillance programmes, using both aerial and satellite surveillance (Canada 2011). +Over the past forty years, there have been substantial reductions in the scale o marine environmental problems from oil pollution. As Figure 10 shows, after th amount of oil transported by sea started to recover from the effects of the 197 price increases, the amount transported (measured in ton/miles) has steadily +* The “Gulfs Area” is the sea area between the Arabian Peninsula and the Asian mainland. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +increased. At the same time, the number of recorded spills of more than 7 tons ha steadily decreased. Forty-six per cent of the spills between 7 and 700 tons betwee 1970 and 2013 occurred as a result of collision or grounding and 26 per cent as result of hull or equipment failure or fire or explosion. For spills of over 700 tons i that period, 63 per cent were the result of collision or grounding and 28 per cent o hull or equipment failure or fire or explosion. In both cases the remaining cause were unidentified (ITOPF, 2014a, UNCTAD, 2012). +Billion Tonne-Miles No. of spills > 7 tonne 12,000 14 12 10,00 10 8,00 8 6,00 6 4,00 4 2,00 2 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 201 —Seabome oil trade (Billion Tonne-Miles) —No. of spills >7 tonne [Source: Fearnresearch 1970-1989, Lloyds List intelligence 1990-2012] Qa > +Figure 10. Seaborne oil trade and number of tanker spills of more than 7 tons 1970 - 2012. Source ITOPF, 2014b. +As Figure 11 shows, a similar decrease is observed in the amount of oil involved i these oil +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +spills 700 gap + j Gememe i 60 ABT SUMME 260,000 Tonne 500 ‘CASTILLO DE BELLVER 252,000 Tonnes 400 s0 eae (mea (mea 20 HEBE! SPIRI 11,000 Tonne 10 ot LA sl I L [in So 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 +Figure 11. Quantities of oil in spills of more than 7 tons in the years 1970 — 2013. (with notes of th major recent oil spills and their sizes). Source: ITOPF, 2014b. +Nevertheless, a significant problem remains, especially near major shipping routes. study has shown that even low levels of oil fouling in Magellanic penguins appear t be sufficient to interfere with reproduction (Fowler et al., 1995). One way in whic the extent of the remaining problem can be seen is from observations on shoreline of the proportion of the dead seabirds found there which have been contaminate by oil. Diving seabirds are very sensitive to oil pollution: once such a bird is pollute with oil, it is likely to die from hypothermia and/or inability to forage. In th MARPOL North-Western Europe Special Area, the proportion of common guillemot (Uria aalge) stranded near the major shipping routes in the southern North Sea wa about 40 per cent in 2010, compared with about 4 per cent around the Orkne Islands (OSPAR, 2010). Similar reports have been made about the oiling of seabird in other areas with high levels of shipping: in the MARPOL Southern South Afric Waters Special Area, studies note that, on the basis of the proportion of th population that has been affected, the African penguin is considered to hav suffered more from oiling than any other seabird species globally (Wolfaardt, 2009 Garcia-Borboroglu et al., 2013). In the Straits of Malacca, there is a serious proble with illegal discharges of oil: during the five-year period from 2000 to 2005, ther were 144 cases of oil spills into the sea; of this number, 108 cases were due to illega discharges from ships (BOBLME, Malaysia, 2011). In the waters around south eastern South America, used both by coastwise local shipping and large vessel travelling between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, a study showed that betwee 1980 and 1994 some 22,000 adult and some 20,000 juvenile Magellanic penguins +© 2016 United Nation + +(Spheniscus magellanicus) were being killed each year by oil from discharges fro ships passing through the foraging areas for their colonies on the coast (Grandini 1994). Happily, the solution adopted in 1997 of requiring coastal shipping to follo routes further out to sea may have reduced this problem: over the years 2001 2007, the number of oiled penguins observed annually was around 100 (Argentina 1998; Boersma, 2008). However, other reports are less optimistic (see Chapter 36B) Further north, on the Atlantic coast of Canada, there are also reports of substantia numbers of seabirds being killed by oil. A conservative estimate is put at 300,00 birds a year, with appreciable effects on the populations of species commonl suffering this fate (Canada, 2011). +Effective response to oil spills requires a good deal of organization and equipment The international framework for this is provided by the 1990 Internationa Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPR Convention). This entered into force in 1995, and 107 States are now parties. Th IMO plays an important role in coordination and in providing training (IMO, 20148) Coastal States have to bear the capital cost of establishing adequate respons capability, but may be able to recover operational costs if and when that capacity i deployed to deal with an oil spill. Developing countries can have difficulties i mobilising the resources for investment in the necessary facilities (Moller et al. 2003). +Major oil spills can cause serious economic damage to a wide range of people an enterprises. After the 1967 Torrey Canyon disaster, many States sought to make i easier for those suffering economic damage to obtain reparation. The 196 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage and the 197 International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund fo Compensation for Oil Pollution aimed to achieve this. These Conventions wer revised in 1992 and the revisions came into force in 1996. By July 2014, 115 State were parties to both the 1992 Conventions, and 24 States have become parties to supplementary protocol providing for additional compensation if the damag exceeds the limits of the 1992 Convention. The economic effect of the Convention is basically to transfer the economic consequences of an oil spill from the coasta State to the States in which undertakings receive cargoes of oil. This is done eithe through the insurance costs which the cargo carriers have to incur and include in th costs of the voyages or (to the extent that the damage exceeds the amount insure and the coastal State participates in the funds) through the contributions paid to th funds by those that receive oil cargoes and are located in the States parties. +6.3 Hazardous and noxious substances and other cargoes capable of causing harm +Oil is not the only ship’s cargo capable of causing damage. Much depends on th quantities involved — large quantities of nearly any cargo can have an advers impact, at least on the local environment. SOLAS and MARPOL require precaution against damage from a range of other cargoes, including through requirin compliance with the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code, th International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, the International Code for the Safe +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Carriage of Grain in Bulk and the International Code for the Construction an Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk. +Data on marine pollution incidents involving hazardous and noxious substances ar scarce (FSI, 2012). A 2010 study looking at 312 reported incidents of this kin between 1965 and 2009, mainly in the North Atlantic, concluded that reports ha become much more frequent since about 2000, with the advent of the internet. I found that about 33 per cent of the cases involved bad weather or structura damage, 30 per cent collision or grounding, 11 per cent fire or explosion and only per cent failures in loading or unloading. Only about half the cases involve discharges into the sea. The three most common substances involved were iron ore sulphuric acid and caustic soda (Cedre, 2010). +The increased use of containers means that a substantial amount of hazardous o noxious substances is being carried in containers. In 2010 a group of containe owners set up a voluntary system to report incidents involving containers, such a fires and spillages, with a view to analysing the data to see if any patterns emerge which could be useful for risk reduction. The Container Notification Informatio System now covers about 60 per cent of all container slot capacity. Data on th number of incidents have not yet been published, but some preliminary conclusion have been announced: nearly 50 per cent of incidents involved containers where th contents had been mis-declared; 75 per cent of incidents involved hazardous o noxious cargos; no particular global pattern of loading ports emerged from th incidents, but incidents appeared to be higher with containers packed in June, Jul and August (CINS, 2014). +Containers lost overboard are another source of potential pollution from hazardou and noxious substances. Some estimates have suggested that the numbers of suc containers could be in the thousands annually. However, the World Shippin Council, based on a survey to which 70 per cent of the global container shippin capacity responded, estimated in 2011 that about 350 containers are lost overboar each year, excluding mass losses of 50 or more containers as a result of a major shi disaster. If those mass losses are included, the number of containers lost rises t about 650 a year out of about 100 million carried annually (WSC, 2011). On th other hand, it must be remembered that even one container lost overboard ca have a lasting and widespread effect on the marine environment: a containe holding 28,800 plastic yellow ducks, red beavers, blue turtles and green frogs wa lost in 1992 in the middle of the Pacific. The toys have been washed up not only al around the Pacific, but also as far away as the Hebrides in the United Kingdom i 2003 (Ebbesmeyer, 2009). +Following on from the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Cooperation (OPRC), a protocol dealing with preparedness an response to incidents involving hazardous and noxious substances was adopted i 2000. This follows the same model as the OPRC Convention. It came into force i 2007, but so far only 33 States have become parties. Efforts to set up a international agreement to deal with compensation for liability and damage fro hazardous and noxious ships’ cargoes were started as long ago as 1984. convention was agreed in 1996 but, despite further efforts, no scheme is yet in force +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +to provide international support where a hazardous or noxious cargo cause economic damage. +6.4 Sewage +The problems from the discharge of sewage (in the narrow sense of human an animal urine and faecal waste) from ships are the same as those for simila discharges from land, which are discussed in Chapter 20. Basically, the problems ar the introduction of nutrients into the sea, and the introduction of waterborn pathogens. Away from land, the oceans are capable of assimilating and dealing wit raw sewage through natural bacterial action. Therefore, the regulations in Annex I to MARPOL prohibit the discharge of sewage into the sea within a specified distanc of the nearest land, unless ships have in operation an approved sewage treatmen plant. (IMO, 2014)). +In summary, discharge of sewage into the sea outside a Special Area is permitted: +(a) When a ship has in operation an approved sewage treatment plant to meet th relevant operational requirements (these are broadly similar to the performance o an effective secondary sewage-treatment plant on land); +(b) When a ship is discharging comminuted and disinfected sewage using a approved system at a distance of more than three nautical miles from the neares land; +(c) When a ship is discharging sewage which is not comminuted or disinfected at distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land (MARPOL Annex IV a in force from 2005). +Because of the problems of eutrophication described in Chapter 20, th amendments to MARPOL Annex IV by IMO in 2011 introduces the Baltic Sea as special area under Annex IV and adds new discharge requirements for passenge ships while in a special area. In effect, when adequate reception facilities are i place, passenger ships capable of carrying more than 12 passengers may onl discharge sewage if nitrogen and phosphorus have been removed to specifie standards. (MEPC, 2012). +“Grey water” (that is, waste water from baths, showers, sinks, laundries an kitchens) is not covered by MARPOL Annex IV. Some States (for example, the Unite States in respect of Alaska) have introduced controls over the discharge of sewag and grey water from larger passenger ships putting into their ports because the loca conditions (in Alaska, particularly the water temperature) make the breakdown o any contaminants it may contain quite slow (EPA, 2014a). Furthermore, som States, particularly small island developing States, have difficulties in managin sewage discharged ashore from cruise ships and from the large numbers of suc ships visiting their ports. These challenges for small island developing States ar discussed further in Chapter 25. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +6.5 Garbage +There is no doubt that a substantial part of the marine debris considered in Chapte 25 originates from ships. The damage to the environment from this marine debris i described in that chapter. This debris is constituted by waste from the norma operations of the ship that is thrown overboard. All the serious (and not entirel understood) consequences of marine debris described in that chapter therefor apply to this chronic form of discharge from ships. Because of the large numbers o passengers that they carry, cruise ships generate a high proportion of the garbag generated at sea — in 1995, the United States National Research Council estimate that cruise ships produced 24 per cent of the solid waste generated on board ships although they represented only 1 per cent of the world fleet (NRC, 1995). Becaus of the scale of the challenge, most large cruise ships now incinerate on board eac day a high proportion of the waste that they generate (75 to 85 per cent of garbag is generally incinerated on board on large ships (EPA, 2008)). +Annex V to MARPOL seeks to eliminate and reduce the amount of garbage bein discharged into the sea from ships. Although the Annex is not a compulsory part o the requirements of MARPOL, 15 States, with combined merchant fleets constitutin no less than 50% of the gross tonnage of the world’s merchant shipping becam parties to enable its entry into force on 31 December 1988. Experience showed tha the requirements in the original version of Annex V were not adequately preventin ships’ garbage from polluting the sea. United Nations General Assembly resolutio 60/30 invited IMO to review the Annex. This was done and a revised version entere into force in 2013. Alongside this, IMO adopted guidelines to promote effectiv implementation. The revised Annex V prohibits generally the discharge of al garbage into the sea, with exceptions related to food waste, cargo residues, cleanin agents and additives and animal carcasses. It also provides for Special Areas wher the exceptions are much more restricted. The Special Areas comprise th Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the "Gulfs" area®, th North Sea, the Antarctic area (south of 602S) and the Wider Caribbean Regio (including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea) (IMO, 2014h). +Providing adequate waste reception facilities in ports and ensuring that thos facilities are used is important. The provision of waste-reception facilities in ports i considered in Chapter 18. However, it should be noted here that small islan developing States face major problems in establishing adequate port waste reception facilities (Corbin, 2011). The greatest effort to promote use of waste reception facilities has been in Europe, by requiring ships to deliver garbage on shor before leaving port, and removing any economic incentive to avoid doing so. Unde this approach, with a few exceptions, all ships are required to deliver their garbag to the port waste-reception facility before leaving port, and the cost of such facilitie is to be recovered from ships using the ports, with all ships (again with som exceptions) contributing substantially towards the cost of those facilities, whether or +° The sea area between the Arabian Peninsula and the mainland of Asia. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +not they made use of them (European Union, 2000). This substantially removes an economic advantage from not using them. This has resulted in a significant (abou 50 per cent) increase between 2005 and 2008 in the amount of garbage delivered o shore in European Union ports (EMSA, 2010). +As the OECD pointed out in its 2002 report: “Illegal discharge of wastes at sea ofte takes place away from shorelines and under cover of night. These two factors mak it difficult for port and coastal States to detect acts of pollution, and/or positivel identify the polluting vessel” (OECD, 2002). As said in Chapter 25, more informatio is needed. +6.6 Air pollution +Since the replacement of sail by steam and then diesel, ships have been makin emissions to the air. By the early 1990s it was becoming apparent that, in som parts of the world, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur oxides (SOx) fro ships were becoming a serious element in air pollution for coastal States with heav shipping traffic in their coastal waters (OSPAR, 2000). Even short-term exposure t NOx produces adverse respiratory effects, including airway inflammation, in health people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. It also reduce resistance to respiratory infections (Knelson et al., 1977; Lee, 1980; EPA, 2014b) Airborne NOx is also a substantial source of nitrogen inputs into coastal waters, an can thus contribute to excessive levels of nutrients (OSPAR, 2010: see also Chapte 20). Exposure to SOx likewise weakens resistance to respiratory infections, and i linked to higher rates of mortality in humans. It is also a contributor (with land-base emissions) to acid rain, which can harm forests and fresh waters (Greaver et al. 2012). SOx emissions from ships have been worsening for decades, as a result of th increasing restrictions on the levels of sulphur in hydrocarbon fuels used on land: a restrictions have reduced the extent to which fuel oils with higher sulphur conten can be used on land, so such fuel oils have become more attractive for use at sea because there were no restrictions and the reduced demand on land lowered th price. NOx and SOx, together with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), can also reac in sunlight to produce smog, which affects many major cities: for coastal cities emissions from ships can contribute to this problem (EPA, 2014c). In addition shipping was seen as a further source of chlorofluorocarbons and other substance which were contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer, and thus increasin ultraviolet radiation on the earth’s surface (GESAMP, 2001). Estimates in 1997 o total global NOx emissions from shipping suggested that they were equivalent to 4 per cent of such emissions in North America and 74 per cent of those in Europea OECD countries, and that total global SOx emissions from shipping were equivalen to 35 per cent of such emissions in North America and 53 per cent of such emission in European OECD countries. The global emissions of both NOx and SOx wer concentrated in the northern hemisphere (Corbett et al., 1997) — see Figure 12 fo SOx. Emissions from shipping have therefore been seen as a significant contributor source of air pollution in many parts of the world. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 12. Estimated annual emissions of SOx from ships 1997. Source: Corbett et al., 1997. +In 1997 a new annex to MARPOL (Annex VI) was adopted to limit the main ai pollutants contained in ships’ exhausts, including NOx and SOx. It also prohibit deliberate emissions of ozone-depleting substances and regulates shipboar incineration and emissions of VOCs from tankers. Following its entry into force i 2005, it was revised in 2008 to reduce progressively up to 2020 (or, in the light of review, 2025) global emissions of NOx, SOx and particulate matter, and to introduc emission control areas (ECAs) to reduce emissions of those air pollutants further i designated sea areas (IMO, 2014n). These requirements can be achieved either b using bunkers with lower sulphur content (which may have higher prices) or b installing exhaust scrubbers. Some shipping companies have announced fue surcharges to meet extra costs which they attribute to the new requirement (Container Management, 2014). +6.7 Anti-fouling treatments +Ships have always been at risk of marine organisms (such as barnacles) taking u residence on their hulls. This increases the resistance of the hull in its passag through water, and thus slows its speed and increases the fuel requirement. Wit fuel being around half the operating cost of a vessel, this can be a significant extr cost. Historically, the response involved taking the ship out of water and scrapin the hull. Because of the inconvenience and cost of this, various treatment developed, mostly involving the application copper sheeting or copper-based paints In the 1960s, organic compounds of tin were developed, which were shown to b very effective when applied as paints to ships’ hulls, with the tin compounds leachin into the water. The most effective was tributyl tin (TBT) (Santillo et al., 2001). By th late 1970s they were commonly used on commercial and recreational craft fro developed countries. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, oyster (Crassostrea gigas harvests in Arcachon Bay, France, failed. Subsequent research identified that TB was the cause. At the same time, research in the United Kingdom showed that TB was an endocrine disruptor in a marine whelk species (Nucella lapillus) causing +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +masculinisation (imposex) in females and widespread population decline. Bans o TBT on boats less than 25 metres long first started in the 1980s. In 1990, the IM recommended that Governments should eliminate the use of antifouling paint containing TBT. This resolution was intended as a temporary restriction until the IM could implement a more far-reaching measure. The International Convention on th Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships was adopted in 2001. Thi prohibited the use of organotin compounds as biocides in anti-fouling paints. Thi Convention came into force in 2008, and has been ratified by 69 States, representin 84.41 per cent of the gross tonnage of the world’s merchant fleet (IMO, 2014)) There are the typical enforcement problems with this Convention. There is also legacy problem in that dry docks and port berths may have deposits of old anti fouling paint in the sediments on their bottoms. As and when this sediment has t be removed, disposal into the sea will be a problem, since it may remobilise the TB remains. +6.8 Wrecks +The seabed is littered with the remains of shipwrecks, some dating as far back as th second millennium BCE. The main impact on the marine environment comes fro more recent wrecks, since the introduction of fuel oil as the source of the motiv force. Such more recent wrecks will usually contain bunkers, which will eventuall leak, and become a new source of oil pollution of the sea. Likewise, cargoes ma present dangers of pollution from oil or hazardous substances. There are a numbe of other problems: first, and depending on its location, a wreck may constitute hazard to navigation. Secondly, substantial costs are likely to be involved in th location, marking and removal of hazardous wrecks. The Nairobi Internationa Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, 2007, aims to resolve these and relate issues. It sets out rules on how to determine whether a wreck presents a hazard makes the owner of the ship liable for costs of removal and marking (subject to th rules on limits for liability for marine damage) and requires compulsory insurance t cover such costs for ships registered in, or other ships entering or leaving, State parties to the Convention. The Convention will enter into force in 2015. So far ther are 12 contracting States, representing 13.84 per cent of the gross tonnage of th world’s merchant fleet (Bray et al, 2007; IMO, 2014). +6.9 Invasive species +Invasive non-native species are a major and growing cause of biodiversity loss. The can cause health problems, damage infrastructure and facilities, disrupt captur fisheries and aquaculture and destroy habitats and ecosystems. In some cases, th transport by shipping is clear. For example, in 1991 and 1992, the bacterium tha causes cholera (Vibrio cholerae) was found in ballast water from five cargo ships i ports in the United States along the Gulf of Mexico (McCarthy, 1994). In other cases it can be inferred. There are two main ways in which ocean shipping transport invasive species: as attachments to hulls, and in ballast water that has been taken u and discharged by ballasting operations during the stages of a voyage. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +So far, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has identifie 84 non-native invasive marine species which have appeared in marine habitat outside their natural distribution (GISD, 2014). A separate review (Molnar et al 2008), using a wide range of reports (not all peer-reviewed), identified 329 marin invasive species, with at least one species documented in 194 marine eco-region (84 per cent of the 232 marine eco-regions worldwide used in the review). The mai groups of species listed were crustaceans (59 species), molluscs (54), algae (46), fis (38), annelids (worms) (31), plants (19), and cnidarians (sea-anemones, jellyfish, etc (17). The review found 205 species with detailed shipping pathway information. O these, 39 per cent are thought to have been, or likely to have been, transported onl by fouling of ships’ hulls, 31 per cent in ballast water, and 31 per cent by one o other of these routes. Some regional reviews have also identified high numbers o non-native species: for example, 120 in the Baltic Sea and over 300 in th Mediterranean (Zaiko et al., 2011). +Another review of reports of cases of invasive species (Williams et al, 2008) foun several estimates of economic damage in the range of millions of US dollars to th localities where the invasive species had been studied. Figure 13 shows a summar of the scale of transfers between origins and destinations (Nelleman, 2008). +Invasive marine specie pathways and origins +KR From NWAAtlantic +my From NE Atlantic +mw From Asia +Major areas wit invasive marine species +©) e O 150 - 25 oO < 150 +Number of invasiv alien species +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 13. Major pathways and origins of invasive species infestations in the marine environment Source: Nelleman et al, 2008. +The scale of these problems led to international efforts to address the pathway through ships’ ballast water and biofouling. In 1991 the IMO Marine Environmen Protection Committee (MEPC) adopted guidelines for preventing the introduction o unwanted organisms and pathogens from ships’ ballast water and sedimen discharges. In 1993, the IMO Assembly followed this up by asking the MEPC t review the guidelines with a view to developing an international convention and, in +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +1997 invited States to use the guidelines to address this problem. More tha fourteen years of negotiations were needed to develop the 2004 Internationa Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediment (the BWM Convention). The Convention will require all ships to implement a Ballas Water and Sediments Management Plan. All ships will have to carry a Ballast Wate Record Book and will be required to carry out ballast water management procedure to a given standard. States parties can take additional measures subject to specifie criteria and guidelines. The MEPC completed the work of developing the guideline in 2008. The basic requirements of the BWM Convention are the ballast wate exchange standard and the ballast water performance standard. Ships performin ballast water exchange must do so with an efficiency of 95 per cent volumetri exchange of ballast water. Ships using a ballast water management system mus meet a performance standard based on agreed numbers of organisms per unit o volume. The BWM Convention requires acceptance by 30 States representing 35 pe cent of the gross tonnage of the world merchant fleet before it can enter into force By November 2014, 43 States representing 32.54 per cent of the tonnage of th world merchant fleet had accepted it. It therefore seems likely to enter into forc fairly soon (IMO, 2014j, IMO, 2014k). +The Guidelines for the control and management of ships’ biofouling to minimize th transfer of invasive aquatic species (Biofouling Guidelines) were adopted in Jul 2011. The Biofouling Guidelines are intended to provide a globally consisten approach to the management of aquatic organisms on ships’ hulls, and represent decisive step towards reducing the transfer of invasive aquatic species by ships. I addition, biofouling management can improve a ship’s hydrodynamic performanc and, therefore, be an effective tool in enhancing energy efficiency and reducing ai emissions. In October 2012, the IMO supplemented the Biofouling Guidelines wit Guidance for minimizing the transfer of invasive aquatic species as biofouling (hul fouling) for recreational craft, less than 24 metres in length. +6.10 Noise +The marine environment is subject to a wide array of human-made noise fro activities such as commercial shipping, oil and gas exploration and the use of variou types of sonar. This human activity is an important component of oceani background noise and can dominate in coastal waters and shallow seas. Long-ter measurements of ocean ambient sound indicate that low frequency anthropogeni noise has been increased, primarily due to commercial shipping, both as a result o increases in the amount of shipping and as a result of developments in vessel desig (particularly of propellers), which have not prioritised noise reduction. Shippin noise is centred in the 20 to 200 Hz frequency band. Noise at these low frequencie propagates efficiently in the sea, and can therefore affect marine biota over lon distances. Baleen whales use the same frequency band for some of thei communication signals. A variety of other marine animals are known to be affecte by anthropogenic noise in the ocean. Negative impacts for least 55 marine specie (cetaceans, fish, marine turtles and invertebrates) have been reported in scientifi studies. The effects can range from mild behavioural responses to complet avoidance of the affected area. A 1993 study concluded that “low-frequency noise +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +levels increased by more than 10 dB in many parts of the world between 1950 an 1975,” corresponding to about 0.55 dB per year. A 2002 study indicated an increas of approximately 10 dB over 33 years (about 0.3 dB per year). Subsequen measurements up to 2007 confirmed this but suggest that, in some places at least the subsequent rate of increase has slowed or stopped. It is generally agreed tha anthropogenic noise can be an important stressor for marine life and is widel regarded as a global issue that needs addressing (NRC, 2003, Tyack 2008, Andrew e al., 2011, UNEP 2012). +6.11 Enforcement +The effectiveness of the internationally agreed rules to protect the marin environment from the adverse effects of shipping depends to a large extent on th extent of enforcement. There are important economic aspects to the ways in whic this enforcement is carried out. The United Nations Convention on the Law of th Sea (UNCLOS) gives flag States, coastal States and port States a range of powers t enforce internationally agreed rules and standards. For port-State control, ports ar often competing with their neighbours. This makes it economically important for th port-States to be certain that their enforcement actions are not disadvantaging th competitive positions of their ports. Port-State inspection is, therefore, carried ou in many regions in accordance with memorandums of understanding between th States of the region. Memorandums of understanding (MoU) have been set u covering most ocean regions: Europe and the north Atlantic (Paris MoU — 27 States) Asia and the Pacific (Tokyo MoU — 19 States and territories); Latin America (Acuerd de Vifia del Mar — 15 States); Caribbean (Caribbean MoU — 14 States and territories) West and Central Africa (Abuja MoU — 14 States); the Black Sea region (Black Se MoU - 6 States); the Mediterranean (Mediterranean MoU — 10 States); the India Ocean (Indian Ocean MoU — 17 States); and the Riyadh MoU (part of the Persian Gul — 6 States). These port-State inspection organizations publish details of the results o their inspections, which can have economic significance for ship operators, sinc cargo consignors tend not to want to use shipping lines which have a poo performance. +Attention to the implementation of international rules and standards demand qualified inspectors to undertake the various controls. Most port-State contro inspectors have qualified through service on board ships. A demand for mor inspectors may well be in competition for the same pool of staff, which (as note above) may be itself inadequate for the primary task of crewing ships if the stead growth in shipping activity continues. +7. Significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t shipping (including information gaps and capacity-building gaps) +This section summarises the most significant elements from the foregoing sections. +© 2016 United Nation + +Shipping is a vital component of the world economy. As the world economy ha become increasingly globalized, the role of shipping has become more important The economic crisis of 2008 produced some reductions in the levels of shipping, bu those have recovered and growth has resumed, though not at quite the previou rate. Shipping has provided means for many States rich in primary resources t export those resources, and for many States that are developing their economies t export their products. Gradually, the balance of the tonnage of goods loaded i developed and in developing countries is becoming more equal. Increasing huma wealth will therefore continue to be a driver in increasing the scale of shipping tha is needed. +The pressures that shipping imposes on the environment are significant an widespread. In total they represent a significant contribution to the cumulativ pressures that humans are imposing on the rest of the marine environment, and tha is affecting the harvest from the sea and the maintenance of biodiversity. Th pressures are particularly concentrated at certain choke points where shippin routes crowd through narrow sea-passages, e.g., straits or canals. Those pressure are also diverse — some result from shipping disasters, and some are chronic (oi discharges, loss of containers, garbage, sewage, air pollution, noise, anti-foulin treatments of hulls, transport of invasive species). Over the past 40 years, globa rules and standards have been developed to regulate most of these. Steps are no being taken to make the enforcement of these rules and standards more unifor throughout the world. +However, there is still a significant number of States and territories that have no been able to become parties to the various international conventions an agreements that embody these rules and standards. These States and territorie need to build the capacities which will enable them to commit themselves t implementing these rules and standards. The necessary skilled staff and facilities wil also be needed to implement those rules and standards. Although the IMO an other international organizations have programmes to support such capacity building, there are still gaps. +There are signs that, at least in some regions, the implementation of these globa rules and standards and other local measures is helping to improve the status of th marine environment. The overall number of ships lost at sea has continued t decrease, and in some areas oil discharges seem to have declined. But there is continuing growth in shipping. Unless the everyday pressures generated by shippin can be steadily reduced, the continuing growth in shipping will lead to increase pressure on the ocean. Even if all ships can meet the standards of the best increased numbers and tonnage of shipping will eventually increase the pressures o the environment. +However, in many parts of the world, coastal States do not have adequate plans t respond to maritime casualties. Such plans often require substantial investment i plant and equipment and the training of personnel. The resources for suc investment are sometimes lacking. +From the social aspect of shipping, it is noteworthy that Africa and South Americ are underrepresented in the labour force. The divergence between the genders is +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +even more noteworthy, with only an estimated 2 per cent of the maritime labou force being female. It is also noteworthy that there are significant differences in th levels of pay of ships’ officers depending on their national origin. +Current reports suggest that there is an adequate labour force to provide the crew of the current levels of shipping. If (as is expected) the amount of world shippin continues to grow, crew shortages may develop. Skilled staff will also be needed t enforce the internationally agreed rules and standards, and this demand may b competing with those for ships’ crews. +The entry into force of the 2006 Maritime Labour Convention in 2013 was a majo step forward in ensuring the provision of decent working and living conditions fo seafarers. Capacities will need to be built for its enforcement. +There is a gap in the information available on deaths of, and injuries to, seafarers This information is essential for ensuring that they have decent working condition and for reducing the numbers of seafarers’ deaths and injuries. Likewise, th information available on the deaths of, and injuries to, passengers does not appea to be adequate to support policy development in this field, although suc information as is available does not suggest that this is a major problem. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +References +ACP (2014). Autoridad del Canal de Panama https://www.pancanal.com/eng/pr/press-releases/2014/06/25/pr514.htm (accessed 4 July 2014). +Akten, Nekmettin (2004). Analysis of Shipping Casualties in the Bosphorus, Journa of Navigation, vol. 57, issue 03. +Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty (2012). SE with Cardiff University, Safety an Shipping 1912 to 2012 http://www.agcs.allianz.com/assets/PDFs/Reports/AGCS_safety_and_shipping report.pdf (accessed 22 July 2014). +Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty (2014) SE, Safety and Shipping Review http://www.agcs.allianz.com/insights/white-papers-and-case-studies/shipping review-2014/ (accessed 22 July 2014). +Andrew, R.K., Howe, B.M., and Mercer, J.A. (2011). 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Assessing th Global Threat of Invasive Species to Marine Biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecolog and the Environment, Vol. 6, 9. +MPA (Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore) (2014) Bunkering http://www.mpa.gov.sg/sites/port_and_shipping/port/bunkering/bunkering.p ge (accessed 20 October 2014). +Nelleman, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. (Eds) (2008). In Dead Water — Merging of climat change with pollution, over-harvest, and infestations in the world’s fishin grounds. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Norway. +Nielsen, D., and Roberts S. (1999). Fatalities among the world’s merchant seafarer (1990-1994). Marine Policy, Volume 23, 1. +NRC (USA National Research Council (1995)). Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans Controlling Garbage and Plastic Wastes at Sea. National Academy Press: +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Washington, DC, 1995. +NRC (USA National Research Council - Committee on Potential Impacts of Ambien Noise in the Ocean on Marine Mammals (2003)). Ocean Noise and Marin Mammals. National Academies Press. Washington (DC) USA. +NSN (North Sea Network) (2012). North Sea Manual on Maritime Oil Pollutio Offences. London, (ISBN 978-1-906840-45-7). +OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) (2003). Cos Savings Stemming from Non-Compliance with International Environmenta Regulations in the Maritime Sector http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=DST /DOT/MTC(2002)8/FINAL&docLanguage=En (accessed 7 June 2014). +OSPAR (OSPAR Commission) (2000). Quality Status Report on the North-Eas Atlantic. London, 2000 (ISBN 0 946956 52 9). +OSPAR (OSPAR Commission) (2010). Quality Status Report 2010, London (ISBN 978 1-907390-38-8). +Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y., and Reynolds, R.M. (eds) (1998). Offshor Environment of the ROPME Sea Area after the War-Related Oil Spill — Results o the 1993-94 Umitaka-Maru Cruises, Tokyo 1998 (ISBN 4-88704-123-3). +P&O (2014). 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Address of the Secretary-General of the International Maritim Organization at the Opening of the Fifty-Sixth Session of the Sub-Committee o Fire Protection, 7 January 201 http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/SecretaryGeneral/Secretary GeneralsSpeechesToMeetings/Pages/FP-56-opening.aspx (accessed 31 Ma 2014). +Sekimizu, K. (2014). Address of the Secretary-General of the International Maritim Organization at the Opening of the Ninety-Third Session of the Maritime Safet Committee, 14 May 2014 http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/SecretaryGeneral/Secretary GeneralsSpeechesToMeetings/Pages/MSC93opening.aspx (accessed 30 Jun 2014). +Seltmann, A. (2014). Global Marine Insurance Report 2014. International Union fo Marine Insuranc http://www.iumi.com/images/gillian/HKfromHH/20140922_1200_Seltmann_A trid_FactsFigures_corr.pdf (accessed 23 May 2014). +Statista Inc. 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United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Liability an Compensation for Ship-Source Oil Pollution: An Overview of the Internationa Legal Framework for Oil Pollution Damage from Tankers - Studies in Transpor Law and Policy - 2012 No. 1, New York and Geneva. +UNCTAD (2013). Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Trade an Development (UNCTAD), Review of Maritime Transport 2013, New York an Geneva (ISBN 978-92-1-112872-7) http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/rmt2013_en.pdf +UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2012). Convention on Biological +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Diversity, Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice Scientific Synthesis on the Impacts of Underwater Noise on Marine and Coasta Biodiversity and Habitats (SBSTTA document 16/INF/12). +USMA (USA Maritime Administration) (2014). Marine Highway Fact sheet http://www.marad.dot.gov/documents/AMH_Fact_Sheet_V11.pdf (accessed 7 +July). +Verny J. and Grigentin, C. (2009). Container shipping on the Northern Sea Route International Journal of Production Economics, 122. +Wergeland, T. (2012). Ferry Passenger Markets. In The Blackwell Companion t Maritime Economics (Wayne K. Talley, ed.) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444345667.ch9/summar (accessed 2 July 2014). +Williams, |. and Hoppe, H. (2001). Safety Regulations for Non-Convention Vessels The IMO Approach http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=18002&filename=Saf ty.pdf (accessed 20 June 2014). +Williams, S.L. and Grosholz, E.D. (2008). The Invasive Species Challenge in Estuarin and Coastal Environments: Marrying Management and Science, Estuaries an Coasts, Vol. 31 (1). +WNA (World Nuclear Association) (2014). Transport of Radioactive Materials http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Transport/Transport-of Radioactive-Materials/ (accessed 1 July 2014). +WNA (World Nuclear Association) (2014). Transport of Nuclear Fuels http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Transport/Transport-of Radioactive-Materials/ (accessed 7 July 2014). +Wolfaardt, A.C. et al. (2009). Review of the rescue, rehabilitation and restoration o oiled seabirds in South Africa, especially African penguins Spheniscus demersu and Cape gannets Morus capensis, 1983-2005, African Journal of Marin Science, Volume 31, Issue 1. +WSC (World Shipping Council). (2011). Containers Lost at Sea http://www.worldshipping.org/industry issues/safety/Containers_Overboard__Final.pdf (accessed 31 May 2014). +Zaiko, A., M. Lehtiniemi, A. NarScius, and S. Olenin (2011). Assessment of bioinvasio impacts on a regional scale: a comparative approach. Biological Invasions Volume 13, Issue 8, 1739-1765. +© 2016 United Nations 5 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_17.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_17.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_18.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_18.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..66c83eece3d9c46d7785df0f99dba925d4addade --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_18.txt @@ -0,0 +1,129 @@ +Chapter 18. Ports +Group of Experts: Alan Simcock (Lead member) +1. Introduction +Ports are the nodes of the world’s maritime transport system. Every voyage of a shi must begin and end at a port. Their size and distribution will therefore both reflec and contribute to the pattern of maritime transport described in Chapter 1 (Shipping). Since the maritime transport system is part of a much larger globa transport system, including road, rail, river and canal transport and the interchange between all the modes, the factors that determine the location and growth (an decline) of ports are manifold, and go well beyond an assessment of the marin environment. These non-marine factors (such as land and river transpor connections, location of population and industry and size of domestic markets) wil determine, to a large extent, the development of ports and, therefore, the way i which they affect the marine environment. Nodes, however, can becom bottlenecks, restricting the free flow of trade. Before the economic crisis of 2008 there were fears that port capacity could limit the development of world trad (UNCTAD, 2008). That problem has receded with the widespread economic slow down, but could easily re-appear. This would lead to increased pressure for ne port developments. +Just as containerization has transformed general cargo shipping from the mid-20 century onwards, so it has also transformed the nature of the ports that containe ships use. In the past, ports relied on large numbers of relatively unskille dockworkers to do the physical work of loading and unloading general cargo, ofte on a basis of casual labour, with no security of regular work. Containerization an parallel improvements in the handling of bulk cargoes have transformed thi situation. Ports now require smaller numbers of much more skilled workers, an even more investment in handling equipment. +2. Scale and magnitude of port activity +Ports can be classified in several different ways. Some ports are dedicated to single function (such as the handling of oil). Others are general, handling a variety o trades. Some are private, used for the traffic of one trader (or a small number o traders). Others are general, open to shipping in general. Some are designed fo bulk traffic, both dry and liquid. Others are for general cargo, which today usuall implies containers. And some ports are a mix of these various categories. (Thi chapter does not deal with marinas and other harbours for recreational vessels those are covered in Chapter 27 (Tourism and recreation)). +© 2016 United Nations + +Dry bulk traffic covers the five major bulk trades (iron ore, coal, grain bauxite/alumina and phosphate rock), together amounting to 2,786 million tons i 2013, and the minor bulk trades (soymeal, oilseed/meal, rice, fertilizers, metals minerals, steel andforest products), together amounting to 2,300 million tons in 2013 The main tanker bulk traffic (crude oil, petroleum products, and liquefied natural gas amounted to 2,904 million tons. There is also a much smaller market in bulk tanke carriage of chemicals (UNCTAD, 2013). +The location of ports for handling bulk traffic is usually determined by the location o their sources of supply and demand. A new oil field may well demand the creatio of a completely new port, as happened with the creation of Sullom Voe in th Shetland Islands in the United Kingdom in the 1970s at the beginning of th exploitation of North Sea oil and gas (Zetland, 1974). A large iron and steel work may be linked to the creation of new port facilities to receive imports of iron ore, a is happening at Zhanjiang in China (Baosteel, 2008). As a result of geographical o historical factors, some ports for bulk traffic can have awkward conjunctions in thei location. For example, in Australia, the coal mines in Queensland need more por outlets, but the likely locations for ports are near the Great Barrier Reef, which give rise to difficult decisions (Saturday Paper, 2014). In the United Kingdom, the Milfor Haven oil terminal grew up gradually over many years in the safe natural harbour o Milford Haven. It is currently the United Kingdom’s largest oil port, with throughput of hydrocarbons in bulk of 40 million tons a year. However, the Unite Kingdom’s first marine nature reserve, Skomer Island, is near the mouth of th harbour (Donaldson, 1994; DfT, 2014). +The containerization of general cargo, the consequent reduction of trans-shipmen costs and the use of ever larger ships has changed the nature of the demand fo general cargo ports over the past half century. Instead of relatively small ship moving directly from the origin to the destination of the cargo, thus minimising th then expensive trans-shipment costs, there is now a hierarchy of ports, with cargoe passing through entrepdts where they are trans-shipped. Rotterdam, in th Netherlands, is a good example of such an entrepdt, with many other North Se ports receiving the trans-shipped goods. (Haralambides, 2002). The proportion o worldwide total container movements that involve trans-shipment is graduall increasing (25 per cent in 2000: 28 per cent in 2012 (Notteboom et al., 2014)). Th nature of this hierarchy shows that there is a major equatorial shipping route linkin major ports, with supporting north-south and transoceanic routes. The “trans shipment markets” identified are the zones within which ports are competing wit each other for the long-haul business, which will be trans-shipped for delivery to it final destination by ship, road or rail (Rodrigue, 2010, figure 13). Containerize general cargo amounted to 1.6 billion tons in 2012 — an estimated 52 per cent o global seaborne trade in terms of value (UNCTAD, 2013). The imbalances i containerized exports and imports, the liberalization of trade regulation and transi facilitation are resulting in a growth of containerization of trades previously handle as bulk. Since more containerized imports arrive in some ports than there ar exports from those ports to fill the containers, the shipping costs for the return o onward journey using the surplus containers are low. This acts as a form of subsid on the use of such containers, and thus attracts business from the bulk trades. For +© 2016 United Nations + +example, between 2008, when grain trading was deregulated in Australia, and 2013 the country’s containerized wheat export shipments increased tenfold (UNCTAD 2013). +The world’s busiest container port is Shanghai in China, with 33.62 million TE movements in 2013. Table 1 sets out the numbers of container movements for eac of the further five container ports with the heaviest traffic. Outside these areas there are of course other very large and busy ports — for example (with millions o TEU movements in 2013): Los Angeles, California, USA (7.87), Long Beach, California USA (6.73) and New York/New Jersey, USA (5.47). In total, the world’s 50 busies container ports in 2013 were spread as follows: +(a) Twenty-four in the west Pacific (ten in China; three in Japan; two each i Indonesia and Malaysia; and one each in Hong Kong, China, th Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan Province of China Thailand and Viet Nam); +(b) Four in the eastern Pacific (two in the United States of America and on each in Canada and Panama); +(c) Seven in the Indian Ocean (two in the United Arab Emirates and one eac in India, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka and South Africa); +(d) Eleven in the eastern Atlantic and adjacent seas (two each in German and Spain and one each in Belgium, Egypt, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands Turkey and the United Kingdom); and +(e) Four in the western Atlantic (two in the United States and one each i Brazil and Panama) (WSC, 2014). +Table 1. The world’s busiest container ports in the five major transhipment markets — 2013. +PorT COUNTRY TEU MOVEMENT 2013 +(MILLIONS) +World’s busiest container port +Shanghai China 33.62 +North-East Asia +Busan Republic of Korea 17.6 Qingdao China 15.5 Tianjin China 13.0 Dalian China 10.8 Keihin ports (Kawasaki, Tokyo, Yokohama) Japan 8.3 Central East Asia +Hong Kong China 22.3 Ningbo-Zhoushan China 17.33 +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Port CouNTRY TEU MOVEMENT 201 (MILLIONS Guangzhou China 15.3 Kaohsiung Taiwan Province of 9.9 Chin Xiamen (formerly known as Amoy) China 8.0 South-East Asi Singapore Singapore 32.6 Port Kelang Malaysia 10.3 Tanjung Pelepas Malaysia 7.6 Tanjung Priok Indonesia 6.5 Laem Chang Thailand 6.0 Middle East and Indian Sub-Continen Jebel Ali, Dubai United Arab Emirates 13.6 Jeddah Saudi Arabia 4.5 Colombo Sri Lanka 4.3 Jawaharlal Nehru Port (near Mumbai) India 4.1 Sharjah United Arab Emirates 4.1 Mediterranea Algeciras Bay Spain 4.5 Valencia Spain 4.3 Ambarli (near Istanbul) Turkey 3.3 Port Said Egypt 3.1 Marsaxlokk Malta 2.7 North-West Europ Rotterdam Netherlands 11.6 Hamburg Germany 9.3 Antwerp Belgium 8.5 Bremen and Bremerhaven Germany 5.8 Felixstowe United Kingdom 3.7 South-East USA and Central Americ Colon Panama 3.3 Balboa Panama 3.1 Georgia Ports (Savannah, Brunswick) United States 3.03 +© 2016 United Nations + +Port COUNTRY TEU MOVEMENT 201 (MILLIONS Hampton Roads (Newport News, Norfolk, United States 2.2 Virginia Beach) Houston* United States 1.47 +* Not among the world’s 50 busiest container ports. +Source: WSC, 2014: http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world container-ports. +3. Socioeconomic aspects of ports +The arrival of containerization of general cargo and the increased mechanization o the handling of bulk cargoes has transformed employment in the dock industry. I has reduced the amount of human physical effort, increased the amount of wor done by machinery and reduced substantially the risks of death and injury t dockworkers. As a result, it has also decreased substantially the number o dockworkers required. Negotiations over the change have therefore often bee difficult, particularly in the early years of the introduction of containerization. Th change has now spread worldwide, and few ports still rely on the handling of genera cargo parcel by parcel. However, statistics at global level on the effects of th change are not available (ILO, 2002). +The economic effects on port operations have been no less thoroughgoing. Thre main strands of change have been noticeable: +(a) As the economics of ship operation have created pressures for eve larger ships, both for bulk carriage of cargoes and for containers (se Chapter 17 — Shipping), so pressures have developed on ports to creat the facilities to handle these larger ships. These pressures have require ports to invest in deeper-water facilities, bigger cranes and navigationa improvements in order to accommodate the larger ships. These have al required substantial investment; +(b) The general liberalization of the terms of world trade and consequen growth in shipping have led to ports being placed more and more i competition with each other. Coupled with the development o hierarchies among ports in container traffic, where large ships are use for long voyages between hubs, and the containers are then re distributed in smaller ships on shorter voyages, this has led to the nee for ports to work together to offer shipping lines and (through them shippers a comprehensive service. At the same time, in many parts o the world there has been a substantial transfer of the operation of port (and, in some cases, the ownership of the land and equipment of th ports) from the public sector to the private sector. The combined effec of these various trends has been the creation of large commercial +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +groupings of ports around the world. Some of these groupings hav sprung from a successful operator of a specific port: the Port o Singapore Authority is the leading example of this type of development with interests in 25 terminals around the world. Others have sprun from major shipping lines: APM Terminals is controlled by the majo Danish maritime shipping enterprise A P Mgller Mzersk, and has interest in 71 ports around the world. Another starting point for assembling chain of ports has been sovereign wealth funds: for example, Dubai Port World has interests in more than 65 terminals around the world. Th final major type of port grouping is represented by Hutchison Por Holdings, part of the Hutchison Whampoa group, which developed fro a dock-operating company in Hong Kong; it has interests in 52 ports These four groups alone therefore have major interests in over 200 port worldwide. There are a number of smaller similar chains, largely with regional focus: these include SSA Marine in North America and Eurogat in Europe (privately-owned companies), Hanjin and Evergreen (linked t ocean carriers) and Ports America (owned by financial holdin companies) (Rodrigue, 2010). In many countries, however, ports remai under the control of government agencies or chambers of commerce, o are independent public agencies; +(c) The larger sizes of ships have intensified the pressures to handle them i port in the shortest possible time. Ship owners want their capital to b earning money on voyages as much as possible, and therefore dislike th ships being tied up in port — or, even more, waiting at sea until they ca get into a port berth. This, coupled with the more stringen requirements arising from growing trade volumes, global value chains increasingly time-sensitive trade and lean supply chains, has led t increased competition between ports, intensified the pressure on port to service ships and handle their cargo the shortest possible time an produced an intense focus on the efficiency of ports. +One important aspect of the economics of port operation is security against thef and disruption. In 2002, the International Maritime Organization adopted a ne chapter in the International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) an promulgated the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code to improv ship and port security. This is supported by the joint IMO/International Labou Organization code of practice on security in ports. These instruments provide consistent baseline worldwide, by clarifying the desirable division of responsibilitie for issues such as access control, cargo and ship stores control, and facilit monitoring to prevent unauthorized persons and materials from gaining access t the port. The ISPS Code came into force in 2004. Gaps still remain in some areas t implement these arrangements (IMO, 2015). +3.1 Efficiency +In 2012, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD published a study on port efficiency that it had commissioned (Merk and Dang, +© 2016 United Nations + +2012). This study sought to compare the efficiency of ports around the world, in th different fields of containers, grain, iron ore and oil, looking at proxies for the input of each type of port to the handling of cargoes and the throughput achieved measured in terms of the dead-weight tonnage (dwt) passing through the port. Fo container ports, the study concluded that, with the exception of Rotterdam in th Netherlands, the most efficient ports were mostly located in Asia. |The mos efficient container ports were not necessarily the largest ports. Among most efficien ports are some of the largest global container ports (for example, Hong Kong, China Singapore; and Shenzhen and Shanghai in China) (handling from 20 to 60 million dw per port per month), but also medium to small size ports. For bulk oil ports, i concluded that, with the exception of Galveston, Texas, in the United States an (again) Rotterdam in the Netherlands, the most efficient oil ports are mostly locate in the ROPME/RECOFI area’, but not all ports in that region are operating efficiently In this case, size does matter: the most efficient terminals are largely those with th largest throughput. In the case of bulk coal ports, the study concluded that a grou of coal ports in Australia and China were clearly more efficient than nearly all th rest of the sample, although Velsen/IJmuiden in the Netherlands, Banjamarsin i India and Puerto Bolivar in Colombia were equally good. In the case of iron-ore an grain ports, the study concluded that, in both cases, larger ports were more efficient It also concluded that, for grain ports, the least efficient terminals tend to be foun in developed OECD countries. It should be noted, however, that the methodology o the study inevitably tends to rate a port as less efficient if, for historical reasons, it past investment has provided more facilities than is required for current levels o traffic. +It is instructive to compare the results of this study with the ranking published by th World Bank of the quality of the infrastructure of ports in different countries. This i based on a questionnaire to members of the World Economic Forum, which ha been running for some 30 years. Recent rounds of the survey have included aroun 13,000 respondents from around 130 countries. Although subjective, the view expressed are likely to influence trade and investment decisions. The classificatio runs from 7 (efficient by international standards) to 1 (extremely underdeveloped) In 2012, the best-regarded ports were those in the Netherlands and Singapore, bot being ranked at 6.8. Table 2 shows the countries whose ports are regarded as bein in categories 6 and 5. +, Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Members: Bahrain Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates Regional Commission for Fisheries (RECOFI) Members: Bahrain, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kuwait Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 2. Quality of Port Infrastructure +Category6: Bahrain, Belgium, Finland VY, Germany VY, Hong Kong, China V, Iceland, Netherlands*\ Panama‘, Singapore, United Arab Emirates‘\. +Category5: Australia7\, Barbados, Canada‘, Chile V, Cyprus VY, Denmark YW, Estonia, France VY, Ireland, +Jamaica V, Japan, Lithuania, Malaysia, Maltat’, Namibia, New Zealand, Norway V, Oman’ Portugal, Qatar‘4s, Republic of Korea”, Saudi Arabia‘, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spaints, Suriname’S Sweden, United Kingdom’, United States of Americav. +Those countries marked “fs had a higher ranking, and those marked WV a lower ranking, in 2012 than in 2009. +Source: World Bank, 2012. +The message from both these sources is that well-equipped and well-managed port can be found in all parts of the world — as can less well-equipped and less well managed ports. Given the importance of port effectiveness for world trade improving capacities both in the planning and construction of ports and in thei management could have beneficial effects. The facilities for the provision o accurate and timely navigational information to ships using ports is an importan element of the equipment for the efficiency and effectiveness of ports, particularl in view of the adverse impacts on the marine environment from ships’ casualties. +3.2. Charging +Charges for the use of ports raise some important issues. First, there is how t charge for services rendered. The normal recommendation of economists is tha charges should only be levied if a service is delivered: economic theory argue against cross-subsidization between services. In the case of ports, however, there i a strong argument that ships’ operators should not normally be able to opt out o paying for port waste-reception facilities. If they can opt out, they have an economi incentive not to pay for the disposal of their waste and to retain it on board unti they can throw it into the sea, thereby aggravating the problem of marine debris The European Union has adopted legislation requiring its ports generally to apply th rule of no separate charge for waste-reception facilities (EU, 2000). Whatever for a charge takes, it is important that the money is applied towards th environmentally sustainable disposal of the waste (see Chapter 17). +Secondly, there is the question of how far the port operator should be expected t cover the costs of providing the port. This applies both landward and seaward. I the landward direction, it is important that ports have adequate road, rail or inland waterway connections to the port’s hinterland. Otherwise, any efficiency gains i the port are cancelled out by the inefficiencies of transport into the hinterland. Thi can be very important for the economic viability of the port, since competitors ma be able to offer a better deal overall. There is then the question of how far the cost of such adequate connections should be financed from the port charges rather tha from government revenues or charges on the users of the connections. Decisions o this can only be taken for each port in the light of the policies of its possibl competitors. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +A parallel situation arises in the seaward direction, where there is often a need fo dredging to maintain the access channels. In some countries, port operators hav pressed governments to fund all or part of the costs of deepening and widenin navigation channels, since they find themselves faced with competition fro neighbouring ports which have natural deep-water harbours. +3.3 Landlocked countries +Because of the large proportion of international trade that is transported by sea (se Chapter 17 — Shipping), landlocked countries have particular difficulties from thei lack of seaports. The 31 landlocked developing countries (LLDCs), 16 of which ar among the least-developed countries (LDCs), face serious challenges to their growt and development, derived in substantial part from their problems in accessin maritime transport. In general, LLDCs face a 45 per cent higher ratio of freigh charges to total value of exports and imports than the average of the developin countries through which their exports and imports must transit (LLDCs, 2011). Thi is a further aspect of capacity-building gaps to improve the efficiency of ports in th transit countries. +4. Impacts on the marine environment from port operations +The direct impacts on the marine ecosystem from ports take three main forms: first the concentration of shipping, secondly, the demand for coastal space and, thirdly the need for deep water. Chapter 26 (Land/sea interaction) considers other impact that result from the transformations caused to the shoreline by the creation of port and harbours. +4.1. Concentration of shipping +The concentration of shipping is generally an inevitable result of a successful port Where a port takes part in a general market for port services, the more successfu the port is, the greater are the size and number of the ships that it will serve. Thi means that discharges and emissions from the ships will be higher and have a mor concentrated effect on the marine environment around the port. Even if eac individual ship maintains the best practicable level of control over its impact increasing levels of shipping to and from a port will result in increasing overal impacts, unless the best practicable means of control can be improved. Chapter 1 (Shipping) discusses the impacts from ships, particularly chronic oil discharges garbage, sewage, anti-fouling treatments, air pollution and noise. All these can b controlled, but that control is more in the hands of the ships’ masters and owner than in the hands of the port authority. Port authorities and governments can however, influence these aspects through their charging policies and thei enforcement of international standards. Because many ports have competition fro their neighbours, effective action is likely to require agreement at a regional level. +© 2016 United Nations + +For this reason, the regional memorandums of understanding on port-state contro have an important role in managing the impact of ports on the marine environment Other effects, such as the turbidity caused by ships’ propellers disturbing sediments are more site-specific, and can to some extent be controlled by port navigation rules Nevertheless, such turbidity (and the subsequent re-settlement of sediment) ca have adverse impacts on sensitive habitats, such as corals and sea-grass beds (Jones 2011). +In all these cases, port authorities and port operators have some important roles t play in managing the impacts of ships. Adequate waste-reception (and especially fo cruise ships) sewage-reception facilities are important for preventing marine debri and eutrophication problems. Likewise, adequate land-based electricity supplie (“cold ironing”) for ships that need to run equipment while in port (especiall refrigerator ships) are essential to reduce air pollution, since otherwise they mus run the ships’ generators while they are in port. +The IMO has set up a system whereby ships’ operators can report inadequacies i port reception facilities. This can be found a https://gisis.imo.org/Public/PRF/ReportedCases.aspx. It enables ships to report th problems that they have encountered and port authorities to offer (if they wish explanations for such shortcomings and information on steps that are being taken t resolve them. Since the beginning of 2005, 279 inadequacies have been reported States have responded in only 76 cases (although there are several where the por State had not been notified). +4.2 Coastal space +The demand for coastal space in ports is tied up with the growth in container traffic Space is needed next to the berths for the containers to be off-loaded. In step wit the development of container traffic, there has therefore been a substantial growt in the land needed for container ports. Rodrigue (2010, in figure 3) shows th current scale of coastal space occupied by container ports. These are particularl demanding of coastal space because they have to have level space to hold th containers until they can be forwarded into the hinterland: bulk cargoes ar normally transferred directly to less space-demanding storage. +Further growth in port throughput will inevitably result in further demand fo container storage space at ports. This demand is rarely going to be able to be me from land that is not part of the coast, because around most ports this land i already committed to other forms of development (such as housing or industry which are also essential for the growth of the port. As discussed in Chapter 2 (Land/sea physical interaction), this demand has therefore often been met by lan reclamation — often from mangroves or salt marshes (for the pressures on which se Chapters 48 (Mangroves) and 49 (Salt marshes). These pressures are likely t continue. There is therefore a need for further investigation on how ports ca handle increasing numbers of containers without increasing their demands fo coastal space. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +4.3 Deep water +The third pressure generated by ports is for deep water access channels. Thi normally means that dredging is used to deepen and widen the channels throug sedimentary deposits, although in some cases it can involve blasting a channe through rock or (in rare cases) through coral reefs. Lack of available dredging service may constrain what can be done to provide deep-water access, and thus affect port’s competitiveness. Dredging can also affect the hydrodynamics of an estuar with consequences for adjacent beaches and seabed stability over broad area (Pattiaratchi and Harris, 2002). Where dredging is used on areas not previousl dredged, the impact on the bottom-dwelling flora and fauna may have to b balanced against the advantages of the improved access for ships. Where blasting i the only method available for providing the necessary deep-water access, th judgement is even more difficult, because it may mean the destruction o ecosystems based on a rocky or coral reef substrate. The quantities of material to b lifted by dredging can be immense (see Chapter 24 — Disposal of solid waste) an difficult judgements may have to be made about where the disposal should tak place (Brodie, 2014). Where the dredging has to be done in the estuary of a rive with a history of heavy industrial development, even more difficult judgements ma have to be made about whether the dredged material should be re-introduced to th sea at all, given the risk of remobilising hazardous substances that have bee sequestered in the sediments (see again Chapter 24 — Disposal of solid waste). Th effects of elevated turbidity from dredging operations can have negative impacts o seagrasses (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006) and other benthic communities (Newell e al., 1998). +5. Integrating environmental, social and economic aspects +Port development is a special case of the issues raised by integrated coastal-zon management. Economically, it is always of high importance for the coastal Stat (and for the landlocked States that depend on transit through the coastal State). Th pressures from ports will grow in step with the growth in international trad between coastal States, except to the extent that it is possible to improve th performance of ships and port installations. Port development also focuses togethe a large bundle of difficult trade-offs: increased benefits from trade, increase impacts from shipping, increased demand for coastal space and increased deman for creating or maintaining access channels. The growth in port throughput wil therefore nearly always be accompanied by increased pressures on th environment. Social effects will be less pressing, because the changes needed as result of the changeover to containerization are now largely in the past, and th social adjustments have been made. They will, however, need to be taken int consideration for those ports that have not yet joined the global consensus o containerization. A careful review of the different interests will therefore always b essential if port development is to be sustainable. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +6. Information and capacity-building gaps +6.1 Knowledge gaps +Since ports constitute a significant economic sector, much information is availabl about them and their operations. What seems to be lacking is systemati information bringing together worldwide the operational aspects of ports and thei impacts on the local marine environment, and their contribution to economi activity. +6.2 Capacity-building +Since the operation of a port can significantly affect both the successful operation o ships and the economic performance of the countries it serves, some ports nee capacity-building in the operational skills needed for successful port operation. Thi is particularly important for ports that are serving as transit ports for landlocke countries, since the landlocked countries rely on the quality of port management i the transit country or countries, and are not in a position to insist on improvements. +It is important to develop (and then maintain) the capacities of port States both t implement the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code and relate instruments and to carry out port-State inspections of ships, so as to enforce th internationally agreed standards for ships. Capacities to provide ships with good real-time information on local navigational issues are also important. +Since the delivery to shore of garbage from ships in general is an important elemen of combating marine debris problems, ports which do not have adequate and easil used port waste-reception facilities need to have their capacities in this fiel improved. The same applies to sewage-reception facilities for cruise ships in relatio to eutrophication problems. +Where ports which need dredging to maintain or improve navigation adjoin bays rivers or estuaries with a history of industrial discharges, there is a need for them t have the capacity to examine the dredged material to decide whether it can safel be re-deposited in the sea. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +References +Baosteel (2008). Baostee! Bought Shares of Zhanjiang Port Group http://www. baosteel.com/group_en/contents/2863/38876.html (accessed 1 June 2014). +Brodie, J. (2014). Dredging the Great Barrier Reef: Use and misuse of science Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 142. +DfT (United Kingdom Department for Transport) (2014). UK Port Freight Statistic 2013 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ ile/347745/port-freight-statistics-2013.pdf (accessed 20 October 2014). +Donaldson of Lymington, Lord (1994). Cleaner Seas, Safer Ships: Report of Lor Donaldson's Inquiry into the Prevention of Pollution from Merchant Shipping Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London (ISBN 978-0101256025). +Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis Ill, R.R.R. (2006). Environmental impacts of dredging o seagrasses: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52. +EU (European Union) (2000). Directive on port reception facilities (Directiv 2000/59/EC). +Haralambides, H.E. (2002). Competition, Excess Capacity, and the Pricing of Por Infrastructure, International Journal of Maritime Economics, Vol. 4 (4). +ILO (International Labour Organization) (2002). General Survey of the report concerning the Dock Work Convention (No. 137) and Recommendation (No 145), 1973. (ISBN 92-2-112420-7). +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2015). The International Ship and Por Facility Security Code (ISPS Code (http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Security/Instruments/Pages/ISPSCode.asp accessed 20 April 2015). +Jones, R.J. (2011). Environmental Effects of the Cruise Tourism Boom: Sedimen Resuspension from Cruise Ships and the Possible Effects of Increased Turbidit and Sediment Deposition on Corals (Bermuda). Bulletin of Marine Science Volume 87, Number 3, 2011. +LLDCs (Group of Landlocked developing Countries) (2011). Position Paper on th draft outcome document for UNCTAD XIII, Geneva (UNCTAD Documen TD/450). +Merk, O., Dang, T.T. (2012). Efficiency of World Ports in Container and Bulk Cargo +(oil, coal, ores and grain), OECD Regional Development Working Papers 2012/09, OECD Publishing, Paris. +Newell, R.C., Seiderer, L.J., Hitchcock, D.R., (1998). The impact of dredging works i coastal waters: a review of the sensitivity to disturbance and subsequen recovery of biological resources on the sea bed. Oceanography and Marin Biology Annual Review 36. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Notteboom, T., Parola, F. and Satta, G. (2014). Progress Report on EU Researc Project: Synthesis of the information regarding the container transshipmen volumes (http://www.portopia.eu/wp content/uploads/2015/01/Transshipment.pdf accessed on 20 April 2015). +Pattiaratchi, C.B., Harris, P.T. (2002). Hydrodynamic and sand transport controls o en echelon sandbank formation: an example from Moreton Bay, easter Australia. Journal of Marine Research 53. +Rodrigue, J. (2010). Maritime Transportation: Drivers for the Shipping and Por Industries, in International Transport Forum 2010 “Transport and Innovation Unleashing the Potential” http://www. internationaltransportforum.org/Proceedings/Genoa2010/Rodrig e.pdf (accessed 29 November 2013). +Saturday Paper (2014). Great Barrier Reef dredging goes to federal court, 29 March http://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/environment/2014/03/29/great barrier-reef-dredging-goes-federal-court/1396011600 (accessed 3 Decembe 2014). +UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2008). Outcom of the meeting “Globalization of port logistics: opportunities and challenges fo developing countries” (UNCTAD document TD/419). +UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2013). Review o Maritime Transport, Geneva (ISBN 978-92-1-112872-7). +World Bank (2012). Quality of Port Infrastructure http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IQ.WEF.PORT.XQ (accessed 14 Januar 2014). +WSC (World Shipping Council) (2014). Top 50 World Container Ports http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world container-ports (accessed 20 October 2014). +Zetland (1974). Zetland County Council Act (1974 c. viii). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_18.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_18.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_19.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_19.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..eccbd40f63c18b549446300cc31c4fdc97754e9e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_19.txt @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +Chapter 19. Submarine Cables and Pipelines +Group of Experts: Alan Simcock (Lead member) +1. Submarine communications cables +1.1 Introduction to submarine communications cables +In the last 25 years, submarine cables have become a dominant element in th world’s economy. It is not too much to say that, without them, it is hard to see ho the present world economy could function. The Internet is essential to nearly al forms of international trade: 95 per cent of intercontinental, and a large proportio of other international, internet traffic travels by means of submarine cables. This i particularly significant in the financial sphere: for example, the SWIFT (Society fo Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication) system was_ transmittin financial data between 208 countries via submarine cables in 2010. As long ago a 2004, up to 7.4 trillion United States dollars were transferred or traded on a dail basis by cables (Rauscher, 2010). The last segment of international internet traffi that depended mainly on satellite communications was along the East coast o Africa: that was transferred to submarine cable with the opening of three submarin cables along the East coast of Africa in 2009-2012 (Terabit, 2014). Submarine cable have advantages over satellite links in reliability, signal speed, capacity and cost: th average unit cost per Mb/s capacity based on 2008 prices was 740,000 dollars fo satellite transmission, but only 14,500 dollars for submarine cable transmissio (Detecon, 2013). +Submarine telegraph traffic by cable began between England and France in 1850 1851. The first long-term successful transatlantic cable was laid betwee Newfoundland, Canada, and Ireland in 1866. The early cables consisted of coppe wire insulated by gutta percha, and protected by an armoured outer casing. Th crucial development that enabled the modern systems was the development o fibre-optic cables: glass fibres conveying signals by light rather than electric current The first submarine fibre-optic cable was laid in 1986 between England and Belgium the first transatlantic fibre-optic cable was laid in 1988 between France, the Unite Kingdom and the United States. It was just at that time that the Internet wa beginning to take shape, and the development of the global fibre-optic network an the Internet proceeded hand in hand. The modern Internet would not have bee possible without the vastly greater communications possibilities offered by fibre optic cables (Carter et al., 2009). Over the 25 years from 1988 to 2013, an average o 2,250 million dollars a year was invested in laying 50,000 kilometres of cable a year However, this includes a great burst in the development of the global fibre-opti network that took place in 2000-2002, in conjunction with the massive interest i investment in companies based on the Internet: the so-called dot-com bubble. A the peak, in 2001, 12,000 million dollars were invested in submarine cables in on year. After the dot-com bubble burst in 2002, the cable-laying industry contracte severely, but by 2008 had recovered to what has since been a steady growth +© 2016 United Nations + +(Terabit, 2014). Figures 1 and 2 show diagrammatically the transatlantic an transpacific submarine communications cables that exist. More detaile diagrammatic maps showing submarine cables in the Caribbean, the Mediterranean North-West Europe, South and East Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa can be found here http://submarine-cable-map-2014.telegeography.com/. +Two Arctic submarine communications cables are reported to be planned, linkin Tokyo and London: one will go around the north of the Eurasian continent, th other around the north of the American continent through the North-West passage both would service Arctic communities en route. In 2012, both were planned to b in service by 2016. The link by the American route is said to be under constructio but is not now expected to be complete until 2016. The link around the Eurasia route is reported to be stalled (Hecht, 2012; Arctic Fibre, 2014; Telegeography, 2013 APM, 2015). +Deployed international bandwidth (in other words, the total capacity of the world’ international cables) increased at a compound annual growth rate of 57 per cen between 2007 and 2011. It reached 67 Terabits per second (Tbps) in 2011, whic was six times the bandwidth in use in 2007 (11.1 Tbps). It has increased steadil since then and was estimated to be increasing to about 145 Tbps in 2014 (Detecon 2013). Submarine cable bandwidth is somewhat lower, as shown in Table 1. Th investment necessary to support this steady stream of investment is provide through consortia. The precise balance of the different interests varies from case t case, but the major players are nearly always national telecommunication Operators, internet service providers and private-sector equity investors Governments are rarely involved, except through government-owne national telecommunications operators (Terabit, 2014; Detecon, 2013). +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 1. Activated Capacity on Major Undersea Routes (Tbps), 2007-2013 +South Asia Middle East Inter continental +Australia & Ne Zealand Intercon tinental +Global Transoce anic Bandwidth +(Tbps) +Source: Terabit, 2014. +CAGR 2007-2013 +1.2 Magnitude of the impact of submarine cables on the marine environment +In 2007, the total route length of submarine fibre-optic cables was about 1 millio route kilometres (Carter et al., 2009). This has now extended to about 1.3 millio route kilometres, given the extensions reported in the 2014 Submarine Cable Repor (Terabit, 2014). Although these are great lengths, the breadth of the impact on th marine environment is much, much less: the diameter of the fibre-optic cables o the abyssal plain is about 17-20 millimetres — that is, the width of a typical garde hose. On the continental shelf, the width of the cable has to be greater — about 28 50 millimetres — to allow for the extra armour to protect it from impacts an abrasion in these more dynamic waters and the greater threats from shipping and +bottom trawling (Carter et al., 2009). +© 2016 United Nation + +The cable is normally buried in the seabed if the water depth is less than 1,000-1,50 metres and the seabed is not rocky or composed of highly mobile sand. This is t protect the cable against other users of the sea, such as bottom trawling. Know areas where mineral extraction or other uses are likely to disturb the seabed ar avoided. In greater water depths, the cable is normally simply laid on the seabe (Carter et al., 2009). Where a cable is buried, this is normally done by a ploug towed by the cable ship that cuts a furrow into which the cable is fed. In a soft t firm sedimentary seabed, the furrow will usually be about 300 millimetres wide an completely covered over after the plough has passed. On other substrates, th furrow may not completely refill. The plough is supported on skids, and the tota width of the strip disturbed may be between two and eight metres, depending o the type of plough used. Various techniques have been used to minimis disturbance in specially sensitive areas: on the Frisian coast in Germany, a speciall designed vibrating plough was used to bury a cable through salt marshes (recover was monitored and the salt-marsh vegetation was re-established in one to two year and fully recovered within five years); in Australia, cables crossing seagrass bed were placed in narrow slit trenches (400 millimetres wide), which were late replanted with seagrass removed from the route prior to installation; in the Puge Sound in Washington State in the USA, cables were installed in conduits drilled unde a seagrass bed. Mangroves are reported to have recovered within two to seve months, and physical disturbance of sandy coasts subject to high-energy wave an tide action is reported to be removed within days or weeks. Where burial has no been possible, it has sometimes been necessary to impose exclusion zones and t monitor such zones (as between the North and South Islands of New Zealand (Carte et al., 2009)). +Further disturbance will occur if a cable failure occurs. Areas of cable failure ar likely to have already been disturbed by the activity that caused the cable failure Normally, the cable will have to be brought to the surface for repair. This will involv the use of a grapnel dragged across the seabed, unless a remotely operated robo submarine can be used. Reburial of the cable may involve agitating the sediment i which it has been buried. This disturbance will mobilise the sediment over a strip u to 5 metres wide. Fibre-optic cables have a design life of 20-25 years, after whic the cable will need to be lifted and replaced, with a recurrence of the disturbance although there is also the possibility of leaving them in place for use for purposes o scientific research (Carter et al., 2009; Burnett et al., 2014). +Evaluating the impact on marine animals and plants of this disturbance is not easy since the area affected, though long, is narrow. In general, the verdict is that th seabed around a buried cable will have returned to its normal situation within a most four years. In waters over 1,000-1,500 metres deep (where burial is unusual) no significant disturbance of the marine environment has been noted, although an repairs will disturb the plants and animals that may grow on the cable. Such growt is common on exposed cables in shallow calm water, but is limited in water depth greater than 2000 metres, where biodiversity and macrofaunal abundance are muc reduced (Carter et al., 2009). Some noise disturbance may be caused by the proces of laying cables, but this is not significantly more than would be caused by ordinar shipping (OSPAR, 2008). +© 2016 United Nations + +1.3 Threats to communications cables from the marine environment +Soon after transoceanic communications cables were laid, problems wer experienced from impacts of the marine environment on the cables: specifically submarine earthquakes and landslides breaking the cables (Milne, 1897). However around 70 per cent of all cable failures are associated with external impacts cause by fishing and shipping in water depths of less than 200 metres (Carter et al., 2009). +Nevertheless, the risks of damage through catastrophic geological events (includin those triggered by storms) are real, and some aspects of such risks are probabl growing (see the discussion of the effects of climate change on storms in Chapter 5) The most recent major events have been near the Taiwan Province of China. On 2 December 2006, an earthquake occurred at the south end of the island. Thi triggered multiple submarine landslides. The landslides and subsequent turbidit currents travelled over 330 kilometres and caused 19 breaks in seven cable systems Damage was located in water depths to 4,000 metres. The cable repair work involved 11 repair vessels and took 49 days. The result was a major disruption o services in the whole region: the internet connections for China, Japan, Philippines Singapore and Viet Nam were seriously impaired. Banking, airline bookings, emai and other services were either stopped or delayed and financial markets and genera commerce were disrupted (Detecon, 2013; Carter et al., 2014). +Three years later, Typhoon Morakot hit the island of Taiwan Province of China, on August 2009. Three metres of rain fell on the central mountains, causing muc erosion. The sediment carried into sea caused several submarine landslides whic broke a number of cables. The level of disruption was shorter and less serious tha in 2006. This case is particularly significant, however, because it was the result of a extreme weather event. Given the consensus that climate change is causing th poleward migration of storms, areas that have previously been spared this kind o event are more likely in future to suffer from such storms. This is likely to increas the chances of submarine landslides, since an instability will be introduced into area where it has not previously been generated (Carter et al., 2012). +The seas off East Asia present a combination of a very dense network of submarin communications cables (see the diagrammatic map in http://submarine-cable-map 2014.telegeography.com/) and an area of unstable geology. The scale of disruptio that might be caused, either by a geological incident or by a vessel, can be envisage by considering the Straits of Malacca. Fourteen of the 37 main submarine cables i the Western Pacific run through this narrow strait. These cables represent virtuall the entire data connection between Asia, India, the Middle East and Europe. I addition, it is one of the busiest shipping routes worldwide. This drastically increase the likelihood of disruptions by anchors and other manmade hazards. Suc disruptions unfortunately do happen regularly (Detecon, 2013). This, and th situation on the Isthmus of Suez, is one of the main attractions in a submarine cabl route from the Pacific to the Atlantic around the north of either the American or th Eurasian continent. There is further a risk from deliberate human interference, bu statistically this is a rare event (Burnett et al., 2014). +The International Cable Protection Committee Ltd. (ICPC) is a non-profit organization +© 2016 United Nations + +that facilitates the exchange of technical, legal and environmental informatio concerning submarine cable installation, maintenance and protection. It has ove 150 members representing telecommunication and power companies, governmen agencies and scientific organizations from more than 50 countries, and encourage cooperation with other users of the seabed. It is thus the main forum in which issue about the protection of these submarine cable connections, vital to globa commerce, are being discussed. +1.4 Information and capacity-building gaps +A large body of knowledge already exists about the construction and operation o submarine communication cables, including how to survey environmentall acceptable routes and allow for the submarine geology. Coastal States need acces to these skills to decide on safe locations and to take account of areas of potentia geological change and disruption, or (at least) to negotiate successfully wit commercial undertakings planning to install cables. +As with many other uses of the marine environment that involve uses of the seabe within their jurisdictions that may prevent or limit other legitimate uses of the sea States need to have the capacities, in taking decisions on submarine cables, fo resolving the conflicting demands of these uses with the other parties involved. +2. Submarine power cables +2.1 The nature and magnitude of submarine power cables +The number and extent of submarine cables carrying power rather tha communications are much less significant, both in terms of their impact on th marine environment and in their importance to the world economy. They ar essentially of only local interest. +Most of the world’s submarine power cables are found in the waters around Europe The cables fall into one of two classes, depending on whether the electricity i carried as direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). The choice depends o several factors, including the length of the submarine cable and the transmissio capacity needed: DC cables are preferred for longer distances and highe transmission capacities. DC cables can be either monopolar (when the curren returns through the sea water) or bipolar (when the cable has two components wit opposite polarities). Because monopolar DC cables tend to produce electrolysis they are now rarely used for major projects. +© 2016 United Nations + +United States +Ay Gulf o pe Mexico +Brazil +Sout Atlanti Ocean +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Diagrammatic map of transatlantic submarine cables. Source: Telegeography, 2014. +© 2016 United Nations + +Last updated on November 9, 2014 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Diagrammatic map of transpacific submarine cables. Source: Telegeography, 2014. +The AC cables include those between the mainland of Germany and its island o Heligoland, between Italy and its island of Sicily, between Spain and Morocco between Sweden and the Danish island of Bornholm and, outside Europe, betwee the islands of Cebu, Negros and Panay in the Philippines. The DC cables includ cables linking the Danish islands of Lolland, Falster and Zealand to Germany Denmark to Norway, Denmark to Sweden, Estonia to Finland, Finland to Sweden France to the United Kingdom, Germany to Sweden, the Italian mainland to its islan of Sardinia and to the French island of Corsica, the Netherlands to Norway (at 58 kilometres, this is the longest submarine power cable in the world), the Netherland to the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland to Scotland in the United Kingdom of Grea Britain and Northern Ireland and the mainland of Sweden to its island of Gotland Outside Europe, there are DC cables linking the mainland of Australia to its island o Tasmania, the mainland of Canada to its Vancouver Island, Honshu to Shikoku i Japan, the North Island to the South Island in New Zealand and Leyte to Luzon in th Philippines.’ As can be seen, all these cables (with the exception of th Netherlands/Norway cable) cross fairly narrow stretches of water. They play locally important part in managing electricity supply, enabling surpluses in on country or area to be transferred to another, or to enable an island to benefit fro the economies of scale in power generation through a link to power stations serving +1 This list has been compiled from a variety of sources. +© 2016 United Nations + +a much bigger area. The links between Denmark, Norway and Sweden play a important role in the common power policy of those three States. +2.2 Environmental impacts of submarine power cables +The disturbance of the marine environment caused by the installation of a powe cable will usually be larger than that for a communications cable, simply because th cable will be larger, in order to carry the current. However, neither the physica disturbance nor the associated noise is likely to have more than a temporary effect. +The other two aspects that have given rise to concern are heat and electromagneti fields. There are few empirical studies of heat emitted from submarine powe cables. AC cables are theoretically likely to emit more heat than DC cables Calculations for the cable from the Australian mainland through the Bass Strait t Tasmania suggested that the external surface temperature of the cable would reac about 30°C-35°C. The seabed surface temperature directly overlying the cable wa expected to rise by a few degrees Celsius at a burial depth of 1.2 metres. Reading taken at a Danish wind farm in 2005 showed that, for a 132 kV cable, the highes temperature recorded closest to the cable between March and September wa 17.7°C. German authorities have set a precautionary standard for new cables suc that the cables should not raise the temperature at a depth of 20 cm in the seabe by more than 22C. This can be achieved by burying the cables at an appropriat depth (OSPAR, 2008). +Concerns have been raised about the effects of the electromagnetic fields generate by the electric current flowing along submarine power cables, since some fish an marine mammals have been shown to be sensitive to either electric fields o magnetic fields. The World Health Organization, however, concluded in 2005 tha “none of the studies performed to date to assess the impact of undersea cables o migratory fish (e.g. salmon and eels) and [on] all the relatively immobile faun inhabiting the sea floor (e.g. molluscs), have found any substantial behavioural o biological impact” (WHO, 2005). A literature survey in 2006 reached a simila conclusion (Acres, 2006), and nothing had emerged by the 2010 European Unio report on the implementation of the EU Marine Strategy Directive to cast doubt o those conclusions (Tasker et al., 2010). +2.3 Knowledge and capacity-building gaps +As with communications cables, coastal States need to have access to the skills t locate submarine power cables in a safe and environmentally acceptable way, and t evaluate the economic and social benefits of introducing such links. +3. Submarine Pipelines +3.1 The nature and magnitude of submarine pipelines +Submarine pipelines are used for transporting three main substances: gas, oil and +© 2016 United Nations + +water. Submarine gas and oil pipelines fall into three groups: intra-field pipelines which are used to bring the oil or gas from well-heads to a point within the operatin field for collection, processing and onward transport; export pipelines, whic transport the gas and oil to land; and transport pipelines, which have no necessar connection with the operating field, but transport gas or oil between two places o land. The last category is often included with the export pipelines. The intra-fiel and export pipelines are discussed in Chapter 21 as part of the processes o extracting the oil and gas. This section is concerned only with the transpor pipelines. In general, what is said about submarine pipelines in Chapter 21 applies t gas and oil transport pipelines. +Submarine transport pipelines are used mainly for the transport of gas and ar located predominantly around the Mediterranean and the Baltic and North Seas Many have been created since 2000. In the Mediterranean, the earliest gas pipelin was the Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline, built in 1983 to link Algeria and the Italia mainland, via Sicily. This was followed in 1996 by the Maghreb-Europe Pipeline t link Morocco and Spain across the Strait of Gibraltar. Subsequent Mediterranea pipelines are: the Greenstream Pipeline, built in 2004 between Libya and Sicily, th interconnector built in 2007 between Greece and Turkey, the link completed in 200 between Arish in Egypt and Ashkelon in Israel (which has been out of service sinc 2012), and the Medgaz Pipeline built in 2011 between Algeria and Spain. Furthe north, a link was built between Scotland and Northern Ireland in the United Kingdo in 1996. An interconnector was built between Belgium and the United Kingdom i 1998. The Balgazand/Bacton Line (BBL) connected the Netherlands and the Unite Kingdom in 2006. Finally, the Nord Stream Pipeline was completed in 2011 and 201 through the Baltic, between Vyborg in the Russian Federation and Kiel in Germany This is the longest gas transport pipeline in the world (1,222 kilometres in length) Issues about its environmental impact bulked large in the negotiations leading to it construction, and particular problems were encountered over munitions dumped i the Baltic at the end of the Second World War (see Chapter 24 (Solid wast disposal)).2 There are also a number of gas pipelines linking Norwegian ga production to its export markets. The Norwegian upstream gas transportatio system has been developed from the 1970s, and continues to develop, to cater fo the transportation of natural gas produced on the Norwegian continental shelf Norwegian domestic consumption of natural gas is limited. Almost all the ga produced is exported (101,000 million standard cubic metres) to European ga markets through landing terminals in Belgium, France, Germany and the Unite Kingdom. The pipeline network in 2014 forms a 7,980-kilometre integrate transportation system, transporting gas from nearly 60 offshore fields and thre large gas processing plans on the Norwegian mainland, to European gas markets The latest main addition to the system is the Langeled Pipeline, opened in 2007 which goes from the onshore processing plant in Norway for the Ormen Lange ga field to the United Kingdom, via a riser platform at the Sleipner field. +Outside Western Europe and the Mediterranean, there is a gas pipeline linking th Russian Federation and Turkey across the South-Eastern corner of the Black Sea, and +? This list has been compiled from a variety of sources. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +one linking the island of Sakhalin to the mainland of the Russian Federation in th North-West Pacific. Oil transport pipelines exist between Indonesia and Singapor across the Strait of Malacca, and in China, linking the island of Hainan to Hong Kong. Generally, these submarine transport pipelines have been built and financed by oi and gas operators (including national oil and gas companies), sometimes i consortiums with national gas distribution undertakings. +3.2 Environmental impacts of oil and gas pipelines +The environmental impacts of intra-field and export submarine pipelines ar discussed in Chapter 21 (Offshore hydrocarbon industries). The impacts of oil an gas submarine transport pipelines are essentially the same. +3.3 Submarine water pipelines +Because of the high cost and maintenance difficulties, submarine pipelines are onl used to supply small islands close to continents or larger islands where the natura water supplies of the islands are insufficient for their needs. The supply of water t Singapore from Malaysia is the only significant international example (PUB, 2014) Domestic examples include: China (where Xiamen Island receives some of its wate from the mainland through 2.3 kilometres of submarine pipelines), Fiji (wher several small islands with tourism resorts are supplied through submarine pipelines) Malaysia (where Penang receives some of its water supply from the Malaysia mainland through 3.5 kilometres of submarine pipelines), the Seychelles (where fiv small islands are supplied through submarine pipelines of up to 5 kilometres i length) and, most significantly, in Hong Kong, China (where water is supplied t some of the islands, including the densely populated Hong Kong Island, from th Chinese mainland, through 1.3 kilometres of submarine pipelines) (UNESCO, 1991). +3.4 Knowledge and capacity-building gaps +For oil and gas transport pipelines, the requirements are likely to arise from th overall planning of the exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves and the provision of ga services. The comments in Chapter 21 on this subject are therefore relevant. +For submarine water pipelines, the essential questions will be linked to the plannin and implementation of freshwater supply services. Questions of access t information and the necessary skills need to be addressed in that context. As wit the laying of submarine communication cables, in taking decisions on submarin water pipelines within their jurisdictions, States need to have the capacities fo resolving the conflicting demands of these uses. +3 woe . : This information has also been compiled from a variety of sources. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +References +Acres, H. (2006). Literature Review: Potential electromagnetic field (EMF) effects o aquatic fauna associated with submerged electrical cables. Supplement t the Environmental Assessment Certificate (EAC) Application for th Vancouver Island Transmission Reinforcement (VITR) Project. Prepared for B Hydro Environment & Sustainability Engineering, Victoria BC. +Arctic Fibre (2014). www.arcticfibre.com (accessed 10 November 2014). +APM (Alaska Public Media). (2015). “Arctic Fiber Project Delayed Into 2016 (http://www.alaskapublic.org/2014/12/23/arctic-fiber-project-delayed-into 2016/ accessed 10 June 2015). +Burnett, D.R., Beckman, R.C. and Davenport, T.M. (eds.), (2014). Submarine Cables The Handbook of Law and Policy, Nijhoff, Leiden (Netherlands) and Bosto (USA) (ISBN 978-90-04-26032-0). +Carter, L., Burnett, D. Drew, S. Marle, G. Hagadorn, L. Bartlett-McNeil, D., and Irvine N. (2009). Submarine Cables and the Oceans — Connecting the World. UNEP WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31. ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC, Cambridg (England. +Carter, L., Milliman, J.D., Talling, P.J., Gavey, R., and Wynn, R.B. (2012). Near synchronous and delayed initiation of long run-out submarine sediment flow from a record-breaking river flood, offshore Taiwan, Geophysical Researc Letters, Volume 39, 12, doi:10.1029/2012GL051172. +Carter, L., Gavey, R. Talling, P.J. and Liu, J.T. (2014). Insights into submarin geohazards from breaks in subsea telecommunication cables. Oceanograph 27(2). +Detecon (2013). Detecon Asia-Pacific Ltd, Economic Impact of Submarine Cabl Disruptions, prepared for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Policy Suppor Unit (Document APEC#213-SE-01.2). +Hecht, J. (2012). Fibre optics to connect Japan to the UK — via the Arctic, Ne Scientist, 2856. +Milne, J. (1897). Sub-Oceanic Changes: Section III, The Geographical Journal, Vol 10(3). +OSPAR (2008). OSPAR Commission, Background Document on potential problem associated with power cables other than those for oil and gas activities London. +PUB (Singapore Public Utilities Board) (2014). The Singapore Water Story Water From Vulnerability to Strength http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/Pages/singaporewaterstory.aspx (accessed 2 October 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Rauscher, K. F. (2010). ROGUCCI — Reliability of Global Undersea Cabl Communications Infrastructure — Report. IEEE Communications Society, Ne York, USA. +Tasker, M.L., Amundin, M., Andre, M., Hawkins, A., Lang, W., Merck, T. Scholik-Schlomer, A., Teilmann, J., Thomsen, F., Werner, S. and Zakharia, M (2010). Marine Strategy Framework Directive Task Group 11 Report Underwater noise and other forms of energy, Luxembourg. +Telegeography (2013). Is dormant Polarnet project back on the agenda Telegeography (https://www.telegeography.com/products/commsupdate/articles/2013/01 28/is-dormant-polarnet-project-back-on-the-agenda/ accessed 10 Octobe 2014). +Telegeography (2014). Submarine Cable Map 2014. Telegeograph (http://submarine-cable-map-2014.telegeography.com/ accessed 3 September 2014). +Terabit (2014). Terabit Ltd/Submarine Telecoms Forum Inc, Submarine Cable Industry Report, Issue 3 (http://www.terabitconsulting.com/downloads/2014-submarine-cable market-industry-report.pdf accessed 20 August 2014). +UNESCO (1991). United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization Hydrology and Water Resources of Small Islands, A Practical Guide. Studie and Reports on Hydrology No. 49, UNESCO, Paris. +WHO (2005). World Health Organization, Electromagnetic Fields and Public Health Effects of EMF on the Environment, (http://www.who.int/peh emf/publications/facts/envimpactemf_infosheet.pdf accessed on 2 November 2014). Geneva. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_19.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_19.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f5967928877713e85b32b53b5e05d2cc0ae7786c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1001 @@ +Chapter 20. Coastal, Riverine and Atmospheric Inputs from Land +Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member and Convenor), Benjamin Halpern Ramalingam Kirubagaran, Md. M. Maruf Hossain, Marcos Polette, Emma Smith Juying Wang (Co-lead member). +Commentators: Arsonina Bera, Mark Costello, Robert Duce, Ralf Ebinghaus Jim Kelley, Thomas Malone, Jacquis Rasoanaina. +Some material originally prepared for Chapter 36F (Open Ocean Deep Sea) an Chapter 51 (Seamounts and other submarine features potentially threatened b disturbance) has been incorporated into parts of this Chapter. The contributors t those chapters were Jeroen Ingels, Malcolm R. Clark, Michael Vecchione Jose Angel A. Perez, Lisa A. Levin, Imants G. Priede, Tracey Sutton, Ashley A. Rowden Craig R. Smith, Moriaki Yasuhara, Andrew K. Sweetman, Thomas Soltwedel Ricardo Santos, Bhavani E. Narayanaswamy, Henry A. Ruhl, Katsunori Fujikura Linda Amaral Zettler, Daniel O. B. Jones, Andrew R. Gates, Paul Snelgrove, J. Anthon Koslow, Peter Auster, Odd Aksel Bergstad, J. Murray Roberts, Alex Rogers Michael Vecchione. +1. Introduction +The movement of materials from land to sea is an inevitable part of the hydrologica cycle and of all geological processes. Nevertheless, human activities have bot concentrated and increased these flows as a result of the creation of large huma settlements, the development of industrial processes and the intensification o agriculture. Until the 1960s, many took the view that the oceans were capable o assimilating everything that humans wanted to discharge into the oceans. In th 1960s, this view came to be seen as out-dated (UNESCO, 1968). Following the 197 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, many steps were taken t address issues of marine pollution. During the preparations for the United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (“the first Earth Summit”), held in Ri de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, there was general agreement that, in spite of what ha been done, a major initiative was needed to address the problems of land-base inputs to the oceans. As a result, Agenda 21 (the non-binding action plan from th 1992 Earth Summit) invited the United Nations Environment Programme (“UNEP”) t convene an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine environmen from land-based activities (Agenda 21, 1992). In October 1995, the Globa Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Base Activities (GPA) was adopted in Washington, DC. First among the priorities of thi Programme was improving the management of waste-water: this concerned not onl waste-water containing human wastes, but also waste-water from industria processes. In addition, a wide range of other source categories also creating +© 2016 United Nations + +problems for the marine environment was identified (UNEP, 1995). The Programm reflected the experience of over twenty years’ work by governments, bot individually and through regional seas organizations, to address these problems Subsequent intergovernmental reviews of the implementation of the GPA show tha progress is being made in many parts of the world, but only slowly. +In evaluating the impacts of contamination on the marine environment, there ar significant difficulties in comparing the situations in different areas. For man aspects of contamination, evaluating the levels of contamination requires chemica analysis of the amounts of the contaminants in samples of water, biota and/o sediments. Unless there is careful control of the sampling methods and analytica techniques in all the cases to be compared, it is difficult to achieve scientifically an statistically valid comparisons. Lack of clear and practical comparisons create problems in setting priorities. For example, a fairly recent review of availabl evidence in the Wider Caribbean concluded that, among the 30 pollution studie examined, analyses varied in terms of sampling schemes, parameters and analytica techniques, and data were presented in ways which made comparison all bu impossible — whether data were in terms of dry weight or wet weight, wha sediment fraction was analyzed, and whether data were presented in absolute term or as a percentage of lipids (Fernandez et al., 2007). Such differences mak meaningful comparisons of the available data very difficult. For this reason, thi chapter does not attempt to give detailed figures on concentrations o contaminants. The Global Environment Facility is supporting the Transboundar Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP), to enable priorities between different area to be established. +The main issues relating to inputs to the oceans and seas from land-based source can be categorized for the purposes of this chapter under the headings of: hazardou substances (including the effects of desalinization plants), endocrine disruptors, oil nutrients and waterborne pathogens, and radioactive substances. +In all cases, consideration has to be given to the variety of means by which th movement of the substances from land to water takes place. The main distinction i between waterborne and airborne inputs. Waterborne inputs can either be direc (through a pipeline from the source directly into the sea, by run-off from lan directly into the sea or by seepage of groundwater directly into the sea) or riverin (through runoff or leaching from land to a watercourse or by a direct discharge into watercourse, and the subsequent flow from such watercourses into the sea) Waterborne inputs are much more readily measured, and for that reason have so fa attracted more attention. There is increasing evidence that airborne inputs ar more significant than has hitherto been thought, not only for heavy metals and othe hazardous substances but also for nitrogen (GESAMP, 2009; Duce et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations + +2. Hazardous Substances +2.1 Which substances are hazardous? +A wide range of substances can adversely affect marine ecosystems and people. Th adverse effects can range from straightforward fatal poisoning to inducing cancers weakening immune systems so that diseases develop more easily, reducin reproductive performance and inducing mutations in offspring. A first requiremen for controlling the input of hazardous substances into the marine environment whether from point or diffuse sources or through the atmosphere is therefore t establish what substances show sufficient grounds for concern that regulatory actio is needed. Lists of substances identified as hazardous can never be closed: ne substances are constantly being developed, and new uses are likewise constantl being found for a wide range of elements and compounds. +International effort to define substances hazardous to the marine environmen began in relation to dumping of waste at sea (see Chapter 24). In this context, th Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships an Aircraft of 15 February 1972 (Oslo Convention) and the Convention on th Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter of 1 November 1972 (London Convention) established the first internationally agree lists of substances whose introduction into the marine environment should b controlled. In both Conventions, a ban on dumping was agreed for similar “blac lists”. These included, among other items, substances such as toxic organohaloge compounds, agreed carcinogenic substances and mercury and cadmium and thei compounds. Controls were agreed on dumping for similar “grey lists’, whic included, among other items, arsenic, lead, copper and zinc and their compounds organosilicon compounds, cyanides, fluorides and pesticides not in the “black list (Oslo Convention 1972; IMO, 1972). When attention was thereafter given to dealin with discharges and emissions from land, these “black” and “grey” lists wer adapted and used by many national and international authorities concerned with th marine environment for the initial work in the field of regulation of land-base inputs of hazardous substances. +Over the past 40 years, regulatory authorities have added further categories to b controlled. In 1976 the United States Environment Protection Agency produced a lis of “toxic pollutants” and an explanatory list of “priority pollutants” (EPA, 1976; EPA 2003). An important contribution to the more general debate on the approach t control of hazardous substances was made in 1993, when the Great Lake Commission proposed the virtual elimination of discharges of substances which ar toxic and persistent (JC, 1993). The most extensive exercise that has focuse specifically on the marine environment was undertaken from 1998 by the OSPA Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlanti to implement its long-term strategy of eliminating discharges, emissions and losse of hazardous substances which could reach and affect the marine environment. Fo this purpose, “hazardous substances” were defined as substances that are toxic persistent and liable to bioaccumulate (bioaccumulation occurs when a substanc taken in by an organism is not excreted, but builds up in the organism), or which give +© 2016 United Nations + +rise to an equivalent level of concern (OSPAR, 1998). This required a definition o thresholds of toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulativity. These agreed levels wer applied to the more than 11,000 substances listed in the Nordic Substance Database with experimental data. The resulting list of substances of possibl concern was then analysed in 2001-2004 to see which substances were only found a intermediates in closed systems, or were not being produced or used, and wer therefore unlikely to affect marine ecosystems. After these had been discounted the resulting list of chemicals for priority action was used to see what action wa needed to meet the cessation target (OSPAR, 2010). The European Union, throug its Regulation, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH Regulation (EU, 2006), is addressing all “persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic” (PBT and “very persistent and very bioaccumulative” (vPvB) substances that are i substantial (more than 1 ton/year) use in its area, or proposed to be introduced China has developed its Catalogue of Toxic Chemicals Prohibited or Strictl Controlled (China, 2014). Other organizations, such as the Arctic Monitoring an Assessment Programme, have developed similar lists (Macdonald et al., 1996). +Although there is substantial overlap between the various lists of substances wher action is considered to be needed to protect the marine environment, there ar variations. These result from differences in evaluation of the level of risk. Differen methods of evaluation, and different choices of cut-off levels for toxicity, persistenc and bioaccumulativity can lead to differing views. Different judgements are made o the extent to which precautions by users can sufficiently guard against the risks t the environment. Different views are taken on the reasonable practicability of th use of acceptable substitutes: what is regarded in some jurisdictions as acceptabl (because, for example, its use can be managed acceptably) is regarded in others a unacceptable. Sometimes (as with chlordane) international action can help chang what is regarded as reasonably practical. The result is that there is no single agree list of hazardous substances that are of concern: substances that are regarded a acceptable in one area are banned in another. +Table 1 shows the principal substances which the range of authorities mentioned i the previous paragraph have regarded as hazardous to the marine environment, an on which action is being taken in all or some parts of the world to control inputs o them to the sea from land. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 1. Background information on substances classified by the authorities mentioned in the text as +presenting hazardous characteristics and therefore justifying action. +SUBSTANCES +SOURCES AND MAIN UsEs* +PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +t = Persistent Organic Pollutan (POP) under the Stockhol Convention on Persistent Organi Pollutants 2001; ++? = Substance unde consideration for listing as a POP under the Stockholm Convention +* = diffuse sources, where th pathways will be mainly from leachin (especially from land-fill wast disposal), emissions to air and/o runoff +Heavy metals +Cadmium Large combustion plants; electro- World production of cadmium is fairly stabl plating; incinerators; paints*; (around 20,000 tons/year) between 2001 an batteries* 20117 +Copper Mining; electric wiring and World production of copper increased 15% to +machinery*; pesticides* +16.2 million tons/year during 2001-2011? +Lead and organic lead compounds +Roofing*; fuel for internal combustio engines*; paint*; PVC stabilizer* +The phasing out of lead in vehicle fuel ha significantly reduced inputs of lead to the seas Emissions in Europe have decreased by 92 during 1990-2003, with similar decreases in Nort America®. World production of lead has, however risen 53% to 4.75 million tons/year during 2001 20117. Over half of this is in Australia and China. +Mercury and organic mercur compounds +Large combustion plants; electrolysi chlor-alkali plants; primitive gold refining* +World production of mercury is relatively stable fluctuating between 1,120 and 2,280 tons/yea during 2001-2011’. A substantial stock-pile is however, emerging as mercury-cell chlor-alkal plants change technology. A global Conventio was adopted at Minamata, Japan, in 2013 t control trade in, and the use of, and plant discharging or emitting it. The Convention is no yet in force. +Zinc +Large combustion plants; surface treatment of sheet metal*; cosmetics* +World production of zinc has risen by 38 % to 12. million tons during 2001-2011, over half i Australia, China and Peru. +Organohalogens +Brominated diphenyls (BDPs (hexa-BDPTt) and BDP ether (BDEs)(tetra-BDEt, penta-BDEt hexa-BDEt, hepta-BDE and deca BDEs) +Fire retardants in automobiles; plastic and textiles* +World production is about 40,000 tons/year. Al BDEs are now controlled in a number of countries Production and use of hexa-BDP and tetra-, penta , hexa- and hepta-BDEs are to be eliminated unde the Stockholm Convention‘. +Hexabromobiphenylt, +Fire retardant* +No current production or use is known. +Hexabromocyclododecane +Fire retardant in plastic foam* +At its peak in the 1970s, production was about +1 http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/tabid/673/Default.aspx and associated risk assessments together with the relevant OSPAR Background Paper (http://www.ospar.org/content/content.asp?menu=00200304000000_000000_000000 * British Geological Survey, World Minerals Statistics Archive +(http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/wms.cfc?method=searchWMS +3 United Nations Environment Programme, Final review of scientific information on lead, Nairobi, 2010 * Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2256, No. 40214. +© 2016 United Nations + +SUBSTANCES +SOURCES AND MAIN Uses" +PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +(HBCDD) t? +6,000 tons /year. No production is now reported. +Hexachlorobutadienet? +Fumigant*; transformer, hydraulic o heat transfer liquid*; viticultur pesticide* +Production and use have ceased in Europe. +Perfluorooctanyl sulphonic aci and its salts (PFOS)t an perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluorid (POSF-F)+ +Electronic components*; fire-fightin foams*; insecticide*; stain repellen for carpets*; fat repellent in food packaging +Production and use to be eliminated unde Stockholm Convention, subject to specifi exemptions. +Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)t +Heat exchange fluids*; electri transformers and capacitors*; pain additives*; carbonless copy paper* plastics* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. Such a prohibition has +been in force since about 1990 in many States, bu residues often remain. +Polychlorinated dibenzodioxin (PCDDs)t and polychlorinate dibenzofurans (PCDFs)t +Incomplete combustion of materia containing organic substances and +chlorine; emissions from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plants. +Emissions to be minimised under the Stockhol Convention +Polychlorinated naphthalenest? +Wood preservatives*, additives t paints and engine oils*, cabl insulation*; in capacitors* +Short chained chlorinated +Lubricants in metal working; leather +SCCPs are produced in Brazil, China, India, Japan, +paraffins (SCCPs)t? treatment; production of rubber and Russia, Slovakia and the United States. Use i plastics Europe and North America has dropped by abou 75% since peaks in the 1990s Vinyl chloride Mainly used in the production of +polyvinylchloride (PVC); +Pesticides/biocides +Aldrint, Dieldrint, Endrint (Aldri rapidly converts to Dieldrin) +Insecticides*. Endrin also used i rodent control*. +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention, subject to som transitional exemptions. +Atrazine and Simazine +Herbicide (used extensively in maiz and sugarcane agriculture to contro weeds)* +Production and use have been phased out in som countries (where it has largely been replaced b less persistent herbicides. Still produced and use in some other countries, where controls on us are seen as sufficient to keep it out of the wate environment. +© 2016 United Nations + +SUBSTANCES +SOURCES AND MAIN Uses" +PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +Chlordanet +Insecticide, particularly for termites +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. The Global Environmen Facility in 2006 provided USD 14 million for programme to enable China to achieve this. +Chlordeconet +Insecticide, particularly used in banan culture +No current production or use is known. +Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan (DDT)t +Originally use widely as a broad spectrum insecticide, now almos exclusively for controlling insec disease-vectors* +Production and use controlled under th Stockholm Convention. 18 Convention Partie have registered to continue to use DDT fo disease-vector control, of which 5 reported no us in their last report. One Party (the Gambia reported use, but had not registered. +Dicofol +Pesticide, especially for mites o tomatoes and melons* +Some countries have phased out the use o dicofol. It is still used in Brazil, China, India an Israel. Produced by chemically modifying DDT. +Endosulfant +Pesticide* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention, subject to specifi exemptions. +Heptachlor +Insecticide, especially for soil insect and termites* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. +Hexachlorobenzene Fungicide* Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention Lindane (y-hexachlorocyclohexane | Insecticide* Production and use to be eliminated under the +(HCH)t, including a-HCHt and B HCH? isomers (produced in larg quantities as by-products to y HCH) +Stockholm Convention, subject to exception fo use against head-lice and scabies. Production an use have largely already ceased, but stockpiles o a- and B-HCH exist. +Methoxychlor +Insecticide for use on both animals an plants* +Phased out in the European Union and the Unite States. Information is lacking on production an use elsewhere. +Mirext +Insecticide, particularly for termites* fire retardant* +Production and use to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. The Global Environmen Facility in 2006 provided US$14 million for programme to enable China to achieve this. +Pentachlorophenol (PCP) and it salts and esterst? +General pesticide, now widel restricted to use as a fungicide an wood preservative* +PCP is being considered under the Stockhol Convention because it transforms int pentachloroanisole (PCA) which is seen as problem. PCP has been phased out in th European Union. +Pentachlorobenzenet +Used to make PCBs less viscous*; i dyestuff carriers*; as a fungicide*; as flame retardant* +No current intentional production or use is known probably still produced as a by-product i imperfect incineration. +Toxaphenet +Insecticide, particularly used for cotto and soya-bean culture* +Production and use is to be eliminated under th Stockholm Convention. +Aromatics +Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) +Incinerators; large combustion plants Sdderberg-process aluminium smelting plants; coke plants; imperfec combustion of wood and fossil fuels +Reductions in PAH emissions are being achieve by tighter regulation of vehicles, combustio plants and incinerators, technology changes i aluminium-smelting plants and (in some areas) +© 2016 United Nations + +SUBSTANCES SOURCES AND MAIN Uses" PRODUCTION AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS +treatments (including creosote)* processes. +Particularly important are: +(a) Heavy metals: All heavy metals occur naturally and, because of natural +weathering processes and the immunity of natural elements to destruction are found at measurable levels even in waters generally regarded generally a pristine. Some heavy metals (such as cadmium, mercury and lead) are alway highly toxic. Others (especially copper and zinc) are essential trace elements i diet or intake for many biota. Some heavy metals, especially copper an arsenic, have been used extensively in the past for plant protection purposes resulting in widespread additional dispersal and higher concentrations in som areas. In excessive amounts, however, even these can interfere with th absorption of other essential trace elements and, at high levels, become toxic At lower levels, they also appear capable of affecting the immune systems o biota (Coles et al., 1995; Kakuschka et al., 2007) or their reproductive succes (Leland et al., 1978); +(b) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): \n contrast, POPs are man-made. They +are organic compounds (that is, compounds involving carbon, most ofte combined with hydrogen and/or with chlorine, bromine or other halogens that resist degradation in the environment through chemical, biological o other processes. Many were developed as biocides (insecticides, herbicides etc.) since about 1910-1930. Others are used in manufacturing processes or i electrical appliances. From the 1960s, concerns developed about their effect on immune systems and reproductive success, and about their carcinogeni effects. As a consequence of the call in the GPA in 1995, subsequentl endorsed by the UNEP Governing Council, the Stockholm Convention o Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted on 22 May 2001° and now provide a global mechanism for controlling the production and use of POPs. Initially agreement was reached in 2004 that production and use of 12 POPs should b banned or strictly controlled. Since then a further 10 POPs have been brough under the Convention’s controls; +(c) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): PAHs are complex compounds of +hydrogen and carbon (and, in some cases, other elements such as nitrogen oxygen or sulphur). They occur naturally, and are also typically created b imperfect combustion processes. Many, but not all, are carcinogenic and/o affect reproductive success; +(including vehicles)*; coal-tar surface elimination of the use of some surface-treatment +It is important to note that the category of hazardous substances is not closed. Ne substances are constantly being developed, and new uses are constantly being found +for a wide range of elements and compounds. +The questions whether these +substances and elements are toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative and whether +° 2256 United Nations Treaty Series 119. +© 2016 United Nation + +their uses present risks to the marine environment need to be kept under continua review. Substances where such questions arise are sometimes referred to a “contaminants of emerging concern” (see, for example, Yuan et al., 2013). +Knowledge of the extent of the presence of hazardous substances in the marin environment is patchy. Some issues, such as the presence in the marin environment of contamination from heavy metals and lindane, have been studie for over 30 years in some areas and, to a lesser extent, have also been studied quit widely around the world. Other issues have only been looked at more recently, an a number have only been examined from the point of view of laboratory tests o substances on marine biota, without monitoring for the presence of the substance in the sea itself or its biota and sediments. +Some hazardous substances reach the marine environment in inflows of water others are airborne. Waterborne contaminants tend to be found mainly near th inflows, and thus concentrated in estuarial and coastal waters, particularly wher they are adsorbed onto particles in the water and settle as sediments. Airborn contaminants are carried much further out to sea, and therefore are found mor generally. For some hazardous substances, sampling around the world’s continent has shown that they are present in all continents (for example, dioxins and furan (which are most often airborne) have been found in butter samples from al continents, though to a lesser extent in the southern hemisphere (Weiss et al. 2005). Where hazardous substances have been spread worldwide largely by ai transport, it can be assumed that they have also reached the ocean. It is known tha some POPs have been concentrated on the higher latitudes of northern hemispher land-masses by a process of volatilization from land and redeposition — sometime described a “multi-hop” process, as compared with “one-hop” contaminants that ar carried in one step to their final destination. +3. Point Sources +The most obvious threats to the marine environment from hazardous substance come from point sources. Such point sources can be either discharges into river which ultimately reach the sea, or direct discharges through pipelines into the sea There can be cases (usually volcanic eruptions) in which natural processes result i the introduction of naturally occurring hazardous substances into the ocean However, many point sources are large industrial plants which provide concentrated source from which the hazardous substances pass into the marin environment. Waste-water treatment plants can also be regarded as point sources since they can concentrate hazardous substances from a substantial area and funne them to a single discharge point. Historically, it was the impact of such poin sources on inland waters that first gave rise to concern. In England, effectiv legislation was introduced as early as 1875 (Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Ac 1875). Similar legislation followed in other industrialized countries. Because of th then current belief in the almost infinite absorptive capacity of the sea, genera measures on discharges and emissions reaching and affecting the sea were not +© 2016 United Nations + +adopted until the 1970s. Initially the measures were “end of the pipe” methods o removing contaminants from discharges and emissions. Gradually, the emphasis ha moved more to “clean technology”, where the contaminants are not used in, or no generated by, the process. Among the most significant point sources in respect o hazardous substances are the following: +(a) Large combustion plants: Since fossil fuels naturally contain other minerals such as heavy metals, their combustion releases those elements. Since th gases from combustion are released to the air, large combustion plants are significant source for airborne transport of contaminants to the ocean. Man large combustion plants do not have sufficient scrubbers to clean the flu gases. Such plants are particularly significant for emissions of mercury: al forms of coal-burning account for 24 per cent of the total global estimate annual anthropogenic releases of 1,960 tons (estimate range: 304 to 678 tons (UNEP, 2013a based on a 2010 inventory). This estimate differs in absolut amount and relative proportion of the total emissions from an earlier one i 2008 based on a 2005 inventory: in 2008 all forms of coal-burning wer estimated to be in the range of 1,230 to 2,890 tons, and to constitute th largest sector emitting mercury; the change is due to revised estimates o emissions from domestic heating (revised downwards from 2008 to 2013), an emissions from artisanal gold refining (revised upwards from 2008 to 2013 and thus estimated in 2013 to be the largest mercury-emitting sector). If th 2005 inventory figures are compared with the 2010 inventory figures and th same methodology used is considered, and the estimates employ the sam 2010 methodology, the emissions in 2010 from coal combustion in powe generation and industrial uses combined are the same as, or perhaps slightl higher than, in 2005. The fact that emissions from this sector are not higher even though new coal-fired power plants are being built, rests on th improving combustion efficiency and emissions controls in most parts o the world (UNEP, 2008; UNEP, 2013a). Emissions of mercury from larg combustion plants should eventually be controlled by the actions require under the Minamata Convention on Mercury of 10 October 2013 (Minamat Convention). Coal-fired power stations are also significant sources of cadmium zinc and PAHs. Cement production is another form of large combustion plan which can emit heavy metals both from the fuel and from the raw materials: i 2013, mercury emissions from this sector were estimated on the basis of th 2010 inventory at 173 tons (estimate range 65.5 — 646 tons) (EU BREF, 2013 UNEP, 2013a). +Between 2001 and 2012, the proportion of the total amount of electricit generated by coal-fired power stations declined or remained stable in much o the world (Africa, Europe and Central Asia, North and South America, Sout Asia). It can therefore be expected that emissions of mercury from such powe stations reaching the ocean will stabilise or decline. The proportion, however grew steadily in East Asia — from 51 per cent to 63 per cent (although China’ proportion of coal-derived electricity remained stable at around 80 per cent) Unless even greater efforts are made to control emissions of hazardou substances from coal-fired power stations, the levels of contaminants reaching +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +the ocean from this source in that part of the world are likely to increas (World Bank, 2014). +The pattern of development in cement production is different from that o coal-fired power generation: except in Europe, there has been significan growth over the past decade: 33 per cent in the Americas, 66 per cent i Oceania, over 200 per cent in Africa and over 250 per cent in Asia. Thi increase in production appears to have been accompanied by marke improvements in the quality of control of emissions: for one of the mos significant, mercury, the UNEP 2013 estimate of mercury emissions from thi sector was lower than the 2008 estimate (173 tons as against 189 tons) (UNEP 2008; UNEP, 2013a). +Index 2001 = 100 +2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 +—Africa —BeAmerica Asia = 36-CIS) «Europe —®-Oceania +Figure 1 World Cement Production 2001-12. Source: European Cement Association, 2014. +(b) Chemical industries: Chemical industries can give rise to a wide range o contaminant emissions and discharges: the products themselves may presen problems — as can be seen from the list of substances in Table 1 — and othe hazardous substances can be released either in the production process or a part of the waste stream. Where efforts have been focused on combatin pollutant discharges and emissions, chemical plants have usually been high o the list of targets. For traditional technologies, the focus has to be o removing pollutants from the waste streams and preventing leaks during th process. Increasingly, however, the focus is on new technologies which do no present the same pollution problems as the traditional technologies (fo example, the membrane process in chlor-alkali production and the “no chlorine” processes in paper and pulp production). +The world of chemical production is, moreover, changing fast. Measuring th overall situation is not easy, because of the wide range of products that com under the umbrella of the chemical industries. One measure that can be use to indicate the scale of change in the chemical industries, however, is the valu of the goods produced. In real terms, the statistics of such product values wil show changes in the level of activity of the chemical industries in differen countries. Such statistics will, of course, hide changes in chemical industrie where bulk production of basic chemicals is replaced by production of +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +specialist chemicals of higher intrinsic value. Nevertheless, they can give a overall view of the way in which the world’s chemical industries are changin (see Appendix to this chapter): +(i) Between 2003 and 2012, the value of the total world output of chemical rose by 12 per cent in real terms; +(ii) In 2003, 60 per cent by value of the world output of chemicals was i North America and Europe. By 2012, this had dropped to 40 per cent; +(iii) In contrast, the proportion by value of world chemical production in Asi and the Pacific rose from 29 per cent to 49 per cent, in spite of a reductio of 24 per cent in the value of Japanese chemical products. The value o Chinese chemical products in real terms rose by 293 per cent between 200 and 2012 (to 29 per cent of total world production), that of Singapore by 7 per cent, that of India by 56 per cent, and that of the Republic of Korea by +32 per cent 201 200 North America. +Asia-Pacific 2 North Americ @ Europ OLatin America. +Africa and Middl Russia +3% @ Africa and Middle East +B Asia-Pacifi Russia. Europ 1% 34 Latin Amaia 1% 2% +Figure 2 World Chemical Production by value in 2003 and 2012. Source: Appendix to this chapter. +There has therefore been a significant change in the potential for the impac of chemical industries on the marine environment, with a change of focus fro the Atlantic Ocean basin to the Pacific Ocean basin. +Certain types of chemical plants merit specific mention: chlor-alkali plants polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plants and titanium-dioxide plants. +(c) Chlor-alkali plants: Chlorine and caustic soda are basic requirements fo many chemical industries. Since 1892, they have been produced b electrolysis of brine. The (original) mercury-cell process uses a layer o mercury as the cathode, which is constantly withdrawn and reacted wit water. The resulting water discharges, unless purified, have a high mercur content. This original process is increasingly being replaced, initially by th diaphragm process (which used an asbestos diaphragm) and now by th membrane process, neither of which use mercury. One hundred mercury-cel process plants still exist in 44 countries. Existing plans will result in thi number diminishing to 55 plants in 25 countries by 2020 (UNEP, 2013b). +(d) Polyvinyl chloride plants: PVC plants use various processes to convert viny chloride monomer into the plastic PVC which has manifold uses throughou the world. Global production in 2009 was around 30 million tons, representin a growth of 50 per cent since 1995. The world’s production capacity is +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +significantly higher (around 48 million tons/year), but the economic recessio reduced use of this capacity (Deloitte, 2011). Production levels are expected t recover quickly and to continue to grow. Capacity in China has grow particularly rapidly, from about 375,000 tons in 2001 to nearly 16,000,000 ton in 2008. +The adverse environmental impact from PVC plants consists mainly of th emission of dioxins and furans and the risks from the emission of vinyl chlorid monomer (VCM), a known carcinogen. Although the immediate threats are t the vicinity of the plants, there is evidence that all these emissions can reac the marine environment (OSPAR, 2000). +In China, there is an additional problem in that the large majority of PVC plant in that country develop the PVC by an acetylene-based process starting fro coal, in contrast to plants in the rest of the world which mainly use a ethylene-based process starting from oil. The production of the acetylen from coal requires a catalyst, which is currently mercury chloride (althoug research is in hand to develop a mercury-free alternative). About 574-80 tons/year of mercury are used (2009 figures), of which about 368-514 tons ar lost in waste (China, 2010). It is not clear how much of this reaches the sea. +140 1200 |— 1000 | = Cepacity 300 "Seoaaae ena = mOutput 60 400 i wi 200 =" +o | +2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 | +Figure 3. China: PVC production capacity and output (in 10,000 tons). Source: Chlor-Alkali Industr Association in China, 2010. +(e) Titanium dioxide (TiO) plants: TiO is used as a very white pigment, mainl in paint, plastics and paper. Different production processes are used for th two main mineral sources (ilmenite and rutile), but both produce larg amounts of acid waste. In Europe in the 1970s, much of this was disposed o into the sea, either by pipeline or dumping. This gave rise to concern abou effects on fish (Vethaak et al., 1991). Improved waste management methods mainly through recycling the acid or its use in other products, have now largel removed these problems in Europe. Estimated production of TiO, is about 1. million tons/year each in Europe and the United States, and about 2.3 millio tons/year in China, where production is growing rapidly (USGS, 2013). +(f) Mining: Mining is a significant part of the economy in a number of States and everywhere is a basic source of supply to manufacturing industry. In 2010 eight States were responsible for over 70 per cent by value of global +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +production from mining: Australia (15.6 per cent), China (15.0 per cent), Brazi (10.2 per cent), Chile (6.8 per cent), the Russian Federation (6.2 per cent) South Africa (5.9 per cent), India (5.6 per cent) and the United States (5.0 pe cent). Mining formed over a tenth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Papu New Guinea (33.4 per cent), Zambia (23.8 per cent), Chile (14.7 per cent) Ghana (12.7 per cent) and Peru (12.0 per cent) (ICMM, 2012). +From the point of view of the aquatic environment, the main concern abou mining is the disposal of waste. Large amounts of pulverized rock mixed wit water (“tailings”) are produced, which have to be stored or disposed of. Excep that some mines remove cyanide (used in extracting metals), tailings are no treated before disposal. They therefore contain a large range of potentiall hazardous substances. They can also cause problems through siltation an smothering of biota, particularly in the sea. Concerns about the consequen problems for the sea go back 600 years in south-west England (Worth, 1953) Tailings are most often stored on land behind dams. Catastrophic collapses o tailings dams can release toxic materials into watercourses and thence to th sea. Twenty-six tailing-dam failures in 15 countries have been noted betwee 2000 and 2014 (WISE, 2014). Not all of these will have affected the sea, bu the 1996 event at Marinduque, in the Philippines, clearly had effects on th marine environment, making the sea much more acid, with elevated heavy metal levels, as well as smothering a substantial area of the seabed (USGS 2000). In some cases, tailings are also disposed of directly into rivers and int the sea. In 2012, there were 12 mines (1 in Indonesia, 5 in Norway, 4 in Papua New Guinea, 1 in Turkey and 1 in the United Kingdom) practising disposa direct into the sea (IMO, 2012). In all cases the aim was to have a pipelin taking the waste well below the bulk of marine life in the water column However, the tailings smother a large area of seabed, and are capabl (depending on the local geology) of introducing substantial amounts of heav metals into the marine environment. +(e) Smelting: The smelting of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous, can result i the emission of heavy metals to the atmosphere, which may then be deposite in coastal catchments and transported to the sea by watercourses, o deposited direct onto the sea by wet or dry deposition. For example, aroun 70 per cent of the emissions of lead to the atmosphere in Australia in 2003/0 were from non-ferrous metal processing (though not generally adversel affecting the marine environment). Ferrous-metal production also leads t emissions of lead to air: in Europe in 2000, it was estimated that lead emission from iron and steel production was about half as much again as that from non ferrous metal production. There is no recent estimate of the amount of globa emissions of lead to air, but in 1983 it was estimated at 87,000-113,000 ton (this will have reduced substantially since with the reduction in use of leade petrol/gasoline) (UNEP, 2010). When properly managed, metal smelting ca have very limited adverse effects on the marine environment. However production of many metals is increasing rapidly (see, for example, the figure in Table 1 for heavy metals). Likewise, the production of iron and steel is als increasing rapidly: pig-iron production increased by 85 per cent between 2001 +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +and 2011 to 1,158 million tons/year (BGS, 2012). In particular, pig-iro production in China over the same period rose by over 300 per cent, so that i is now over half the annual world production. Even if the levels of emission per ton of production are kept steady at the present level, the total load wil increase in proportion. +Aluminium presents a special case. The primary form of production is b electrolysis. The Sdderberg process became the predominant method. Th carbon anode used in this process is consumed at a rate of about 0.5 ton fo every ton of aluminium produced (ALCOA, 2014). Much of this carbon used t be emitted as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Over time, bette controls on PAH emission have been introduced, and more importantly, th Sdderberg-process aluminium-smelting plants are being phased out — onl about 7 per cent of global aluminium production is now by that process. Fro 2005 to 2010, world primary aluminium production increased by almost 30 pe cent to 41.6 million tons (over one-third of which is in China, which has n Soderberg plants), but PAH emissions to air were reduced by 50 per cent pe ton of aluminium produced (IAI, 2013); +(f) Paper industry: Paper mills can give rise to a variety of environmenta concerns. In relation to hazardous substances, the problems arise mainly fro bleaching the pulp, a process needed for the production of most paper. Durin the period before the 1970s-1980s, the pulp and paper industry was the sourc of inputs giving rise to concern: polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDDs an PCDFs) were detected in effluents of pulp mills, resulting from the long established use of chlorine in bleaching. It has proved possible to reduce thi problem substantially by a mix of measures: principally by replacing elementa chlorine with chlorine dioxide and other oxygen-containing substances and b introducing closed systems and recycling the bleach-plant effluent. Ne processes have also been introduced: the Elemental-Chlorine-Free (ECF) an the Totally-Chlorine-Free (TCF) processes, which avoid the by-products of th chlorine bleaching process (EU BREF, 2001). +The paper industry has seen substantial growth in the period 2001-2012 worldwide production has increased by 23 per cent to just over 400 millio tons. This growth has not been uniform: production in Canada and the Unite States has declined, while production levels in Africa, Europe, Oceania and th Russian Federation have remained more or less stable. The growth has been i Asia and Latin America, where production has increased over this period by 7 per cent and 34 per cent, respectively; production in China alone has grown b nearly 220 per cent to 103 million tons in 2012 (see Table 1 in Appendix to thi chapter). Even if levels of contaminants per ton of production are kept a previous levels, growth on this scale will substantially increase the total load o contaminants finding its way to the sea. There is evidence (Zhuang, 2005) tha the expansion of Chinese paper-making capacity has been accompanied b improved environmental management, but data to show the total effect d not seem to have been collated. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(g) Incinerators: Increasingly, significant amounts of domestic and municipa waste consist of plastics containing chlorine. Much of this waste is disposed o through incineration. Where this happens in uncontrolled open-air burning there is a substantial risk of the formation of dioxins and furans: almost an combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine can yield som polychlorinated dioxins/furans under the wrong conditions (Altwicker et al. 1990). Even where the incineration takes place in purpose-built incinerators, risk of such formation remains, especially where controls do not ensure tha appropriate temperatures are reached during combustion or where devices t scrub or filter the flue gases are not installed or not properly maintained an Operated. The same problem arises where incineration is used to dispose o wastes from industries that produce waste containing hazardous substances: i incineration is not properly done, both the hazardous substances in the wast and other newly created hazardous substances may be emitted. +(h) Fertilizer production: The production of phosphate fertilizer produce substantial amounts of waste from the rock that has to be processed. Heav metals, especially cadmium, are found in this waste, and reach the sea eithe from direct discharges or, in some cases, by leaching from land-based wast storage. Total world fertilizer production has risen by 23 per cent betwee 2002 and 2011, rising even more in South America (89 per cent) and East Asi (78 per cent). Production in Africa represents a fifth of the total worl production, and concern has been raised about the impacts of some of th discharges (Gnandi et al., 2006). +(i) Desalination: Desalination is very important in some parts of the world wher fresh water is in short supply (see chapter 28). Desalination plants requir massive intakes from the sea (capacity in the north and central Red Sea, fo example, is over 1,750 megalitres® a day (PERSGA, 2006), and in the Persia Gulf, it is over 10,900 megalitres a day (Sale et al., 2011)) and produc substantial discharges. The potential contaminants are found in discharges o heated, concentrated brine and of chemicals added to improve performanc and to prevent corrosion (chlorine, copper and antiscalants). The effects of th brine discharge are mostly local (within tens of metres of the discharge), an are quickly diluted and dispersed, but in extreme cases they can be traced fo several kilometres (Roberts et al., 2010). They are particularly significant i areas with high tidal ranges where the discharge is above the high-tide mark where they can affect biota in the inter-tidal zone. Chlorine concentrations i discharges in the Red Sea average 0.25 ppm (standard swimming-poo chlorination is 1.0-3.0 ppm), and so local biocidal effects are possible. Coppe concentrations in the discharges of a typical desalination plant are around 1 ppb, significantly above generally accepted criteria for satisfactory water quality. In Red Sea desalination plants, about 9 tons of antiscalants a day ar used and discharged. They have a relatively low toxicity and are dilute rapidly, and are therefore judged unlikely to pose a significant threat, but there +A megalitre is equivalent to one million litres or one thousand cubic metres. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +is limited information on them. In general, the conclusion of a review o articles studying these problems was that discharge site selection is th primary factor that determines the extent of ecological impacts of desalinatio plants (Roberts et al., 2010). Overall, the Regional Organization for th Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA determined in 2006 that desalination was not a threat to the Red Sea (PERSGA 2006). No overall assessment of effects in the Persian Gulf appears to hav been made (Sale et al., 2011). +4. Diffuse Sources +There are manifold diffuse sources of hazardous substances that can reach an affect the ocean. The main pathways are through surface water runoff i watercourses (both from liquid discharges and from leaching), groundwate discharges, and wet and dry deposition of emissions to the atmosphere. The mos significant processes are waste disposal, routine combustion processes, abrasion use of biocides and accidents. All of these affect both land and sea, and there i nothing special about the methods to control these processes for the purpose o protecting the marine environment. It is, however, necessary to ensure that marin aspects of the impact of all hazardous substances are specifically considered i decision-making on control measures, because the effects of some hazardou substances are significantly greater (or different) than in freshwater or lan environments. Other compounds released from diffuse sources that have bee suggested for consideration include pharmaceuticals (both human and veterinary and cosmetic ingredients (such as musk xylene). Evaluation of such substances ha not yet shown general agreement that there are significant problems which nee action, although some regulatory bodies are keeping some of these substance under observation. +4.1 Waste disposal +Adverse effects on the marine environment from waste disposal can arise from wide range of processes. Leaching from land-fills into which waste has bee deposited is probably the major source. This can be significant for brominated flam retardants (PBDEs and related substances (see entry in Table 1)). Industrial liqui waste will often enter into municipal waste water treatment systems — these can b regarded as point sources, but at the same time they usually collect waste wate from a large area. The waste entering municipal waste water treatment systems als includes runoff from accidents involving the spilling of hazardous substances. A larg number of hazardous substances will form part of materials in waste streams Among the heavy metals, lead and cadmium are particularly significant given thei widespread use in batteries: 80 per cent of all lead used in OECD countries is used i batteries (ILZG, 2014). Although there is a strong economic interest in recycling suc lead (and lead is the most recycled non-ferrous metal), there is a substantial risk tha it will eventually leach to the ocean from badly managed waste streams. The same +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +applies to other heavy metals (such as cadmium) which are also used in batterie and electronic equipment. +Plastics containing chlorine compounds (such as PVC) form a significant part of wast streams in most countries. These therefore also present problems for the marin environment if disposal is not properly managed, because inadequately controlle combustion can result in the release of hazardous substances to the marin environment. +The Global Alliance on Health and Pollution (which includes, among others, UNEP UNDP, UNIDO and the World Bank) has developed an international register of ove 2,000 sites in middle- and low-income countries (as defined by the World Bank where pollution problems are occurring (http://www.pollutionproject.org/about tsip/). A large number of these sites are in the immediate coastal zone. Althoug this exercise has been focused on implications for human health, the extent to whic the problems at these sites consist of uncontrolled releases of hazardous substance gives an indication of the extent to which badly managed waste-disposal sites an other sites with toxic deposits can present a problem for the ocean. In mor developed countries, there are also problems from sites with toxic deposits, bu remediation efforts appear to have been implemented in many of these case (Ericson et al., 2013). +4.2 Use of Pesticides +The purpose of pesticides is that they are spread into the environment in order t control the pest against which they are aimed. If the pesticides are applie improperly, if surplus pesticides are not adequately disposed of, or if the chemical involved have a sufficiently high degree of persistence before they degrade, they wil eventually reach the marine environment. As shown above, action has been take to remove from use many of the pesticides that give rise to most concern about thei impact on the marine environment because of their toxicity, persistence an bioaccumulativity. However, even where such pesticides have been removed fro the market, stocks often remain, and residues from past use persist in the soil an watercourse sediments that can make their way to the sea. In some cases, th judgement has been made that controls on the use of the pesticide will be sufficien to guard against harm to the oceans (see above on atrazine). In all these cases therefore, there is a strong case for continued monitoring to check that bans ar working and that usage conditions are being observed. +4.3 Routine combustion processes +Some hazardous substances, especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), ca be created by relatively common combustion processes, such as wood-burnin stoves (Oanh et al., 1999). Uncontrolled burning of waste, such as rubber tyres, i another such source. Such emissions can be limited by better design of stoves an by better management of waste disposal. However, effective control of all suc sources is unlikely to be practicable. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +4.4 Abrasion +Some hazardous substances are used in products such as vehicle tyres and paint where eventual abrasion is likely to free them into the environment, as the tyres ar worn down or the paint peels off. Significant progress was made in reducing thi kind of contaminant with the replacement of white lead paint by paint based o titanium dioxide (Waters, 2011). Substitution of this kind is the most effective wa of resolving this kind of problem. +4.5 Small-scale gold-mining +A traditional, but crude, refining process for recovering gold from ore uses mercur to create an amalgam with the gold and subsequently vaporizes the mercury to leav high-quality gold. The vaporized mercury becomes an airborne contaminant, an can reach and affect the ocean. Artisanal gold-mining has been estimated t account for about 25 per cent of global gold production (Donkor et al., 2006). Th predominant refining process in artisanal gold-mining is the mercury-amalga process. It is judged to be the sector with the largest source of mercury emissions t the air (UNEP, 2008). The Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013) requires State bound by the Convention which have artisanal and small-scale gold mining to reduc and, where possible eliminate the use and environmental releases of mercury fro such mining and processing. +4.6 Accidents +Wherever hazardous substances are produced, stored or transported, there is scop for accidental releases. There is no effective global source for statistics of accident involving hazardous substances (ILO, 2007). In several countries, systems have bee established to provide for the location, design and inspection of premises wher hazardous substances are produced or stored and of vehicles carrying them, and fo response to, and investigation of, significant accidents that do occur (for example the European Union Seveso Directive (EU, 1996)). +5. Regional View of the Impact of Hazardous Substances on the Ocean +The lack of data makes it impossible to develop a general assessment of the relativ impacts of hazardous substances on the ocean in the different parts of the world. I some areas, regional or national efforts have produced time-series of observation that enable trends to be established. But even here, the need to work through number of institutions often means that clear comparisons between the absolut situation in different areas is not possible: different measuring techniques may b used; significantly different ranges of varieties of chemicals may be observed; and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +there is often an absence of any ring-testing to validate the accuracy of differen institutions. +5.1 Open ocean generally +Observations of the presence of heavy metals and other hazardous substances in th open ocean’ are very limited, including areas around islands and archipelagos in th open ocean. Few specific studies of pollution in the open ocean have bee conducted. What information is available is concentrated on the north Atlantic. Th Indian Ocean and the southern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans have hardl been assessed. +For hazardous substances, the most significant route for impacts on the open ocea is transport through the atmosphere: hazardous substances can be carried either a aerosols (that is, microscopically fine particles of solids or liquids suspended in th air) or as gases (particularly in the case of mercury). The substances can remai suspended for long periods, and thus travel long distances. However, availabl evidence does not show that heavy metals in the open ocean are at levels causin adverse effects on humans or biota — with the exception of mercury. The load o mercury in the atmosphere has approximately tripled in the last two centuries. Thi has led to a probable doubling of inputs to the ocean. However, evidence also exist that, in some open-ocean areas such as near Bermuda, levels of mercury in the se have decreased from the early 1970s to 2000. Nevertheless, there is good evidenc that some fish concentrate mercury in their flesh to levels which give rise to risks fo humans who eat a lot of such fish. Mercury concentrations in midwater fishes ar several-fold higher than in epipelagic fishes at the same trophic level. Mercury level in deep-sea fishes, such as morids and grenadiers, are substantially higher than i shelf-dwelling fishes, such as cod; notably long-lived fishes on seamounts, such a orange roughy and black cardinalfish, have mercury levels near or at the level normally regarded as permissible for human consumption (0.5 ppm). Huma activities have also led to higher levels of airborne inputs of lead and cadmium, bu in these cases there is no evidence yet of toxic effects ((Monteiro et al., 1996 Koslow, 2007; GESAMP, 2009). +For persistent organic pollutants (POPs), there is no doubt about their ability to b carried long distances through the atmosphere — this was one of the major reason for the concerns that led to the Stockholm Convention. Although the effects o deposition of POPs on land have been extensively studied, information specificall on the levels of deposition of these substances in the open ocean and their possibl effects is very limited (GESAMP, 2009). Estimates suggest that concentration o POPs may be an order of magnitude higher in deep-sea than in near-surface dwelling fishes, and the deep sea has been referred to as their ultimate global sin (Froescheis et al., 2000; Mormede and Davies, 2003). +’ As explained in Chapter 1, “open ocean” in this Assessment refers to the water column o deep-water areas that are beyond (that is, seawards of) the geomorphic continental shelf. I is the pelagic zone that lies in deep water (generally >200 m water depth). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +5.2 Arctic Ocean +In the Arctic, downward trends are reported in concentrations of the POP controlled by the Stockholm Convention. Levels in marine mammals, some seabird and polar bears are still high enough to cause adverse effects on their immun systems and reproductive success, but this is not the case for fish. Of the heav metals, lead concentrations in biota were assessed as low in 1997 and since the they have been found to be decreasing. Mercury has been found at relatively hig levels in whales, but the presence of selenium is also high enough to neutralize an detrimental effects. Parts of northern Canada have substantial natural levels o cadmium. The runoff from these deposits is reflected in the marine biota. Loca pollution from heavy metals and some POPs is found around some mines, especiall on the Kola Peninsula (Russian Federation) and some military installations, such a the Distant Early Warning System stations in northern Canada. In addition, on report suggests that 12 million drums of unknown, but potentially polluting contents have been left in the Russian Federation: remediation is under way (AMAP 1997; AMAP, 2009). Nevertheless, atmospheric transport and transport by ocea currents of pollutants are still significant issues for the Arctic (Stemmler et al., 2010 Ma et al., 2015). +5.3. Atlantic Ocean and Adjoining Sea 5.3.1 North-East Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, Celtic Seas +The North-East Atlantic is one of the most thoroughly assessed areas of the ocean two comprehensive assessments were carried out in 2000 and 2010 (OSPAR, 2010) It is also an area where major efforts have been made since 1975 to reduce inputs o hazardous substances. Assessments are made of each of the contaminants studied rather than attempting to combine them in a single indicator. +Statistically robust results show major reductions in the amounts of heavy metal being introduced into the marine environment in this area (Green et al., 2003). Thi is also demonstrated from monitoring by the OSPAR Commission (see Table 2). +Table 2 Percentage change in inputs of some heavy metals into North Sea and Celtic Sea 1990-2006. +Area Cadmium - | Cadmium - Lead - Lead — Mercury — | Mercury riverine direct riverine direct riverine direc input discharges inputs discharges inputs discharge North -20% -75% -50% -80% -75% -70 Se Celtic -60% -95% | No trend -90% -85% -95 Seas +Source: OSPAR, 2010 +© 2016 United Nations 21 + +A large part of these reductions was achieved in the 1990s: progress since 1998 ha been slower. Concentrations in some areas, such as around the industrial estuarie of the Rhine (the Netherlands), the Seine (France) and the Tyne, Tees and Thame (United Kingdom), as well as in certain industrialized estuaries in Norway (Inne Sg@rfjord) and Spain (Ria de Pontevedra) and the inner German Bight, are still at level giving rise to risk of pollution effects. High concentrations of cadmium found in fis and shellfish around Iceland seem to be linked to volcanic activity, such as th eruption of the Eyjafjellajokull volcano in Iceland in 2010 (OSPAR, 2010). +Trends in concentrations of PAHs in fish and shellfish are predominantly downward especially in the Celtic Sea but, in many estuaries and urbanized and industrialize locations, they are still at levels which pose pollution risks. In many locations i coastal waters, concentrations of at least one polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB congener pose a risk of causing pollution effects. Similar concern has arisen over th exposure to perfluorinated compounds, particularly perfluorinated octanoi sulfonate (PFOS). Over 25 years after being banned, PCBs are thought to be possibl causing adverse biological impacts in some areas: the Faroese authorities (Denmark have initiated a risk management process for the human consumption of pilot-whal meat (a traditional food source in the Faroe Islands) because of the presence o POPs. +Observations show that concentrations in fish and shellfish of the pesticide lindan (which has been banned since the early 1980s) are decreasing generally. However concentrations in some localities are still of concern. These probably represent pas use on nearby land. The more recent cessation of the use of other pesticides classe as hazardous substances is seen as likely to achieve similar results. +5.3.2 Baltic Sea +The Baltic Sea is an enclosed water-body with very limited water exchange with th North Sea and the North-East Atlantic. Periodically major inflows occur, bringing i substantial amounts of new water with high salinity from the North Sea. Thes inflows were fairly frequent until about 1980, but thereafter became infrequent occurring in 1993, 1997, 2003, 2011 and 2014. The large quantity of freshwater fro the Baltic catchments, together with the limited exchange with the North Sea, allow the build-up of hazardous substances in the basins of the Baltic Sea. Like the North East Atlantic, the Baltic has a long-standing practice of assessment of the state of th marine environment. The Helsinki Commission has developed a multimetri indicator-based assessment tool. This has been used to integrate the status o contamination by individual chemicals and biological effects at specific sites or area into a single status value termed the “Contamination Ratio” (CR). This CR is the rati of the current status (the measurement of the concentration of a substance o biological effect) and a threshold level or quality criterion for that particula substance or biological effect. The CRs of all substances or indicators are groupe under four different ecological objectives (contaminant concentrations in th environment generally, contaminant concentrations in fish, biological effects o wildlife and levels of radioactivity) and integrated to yield a status classificatio (“high”, “good”, “moderate”, “poor” or “bad”) for each ecological objective. Th ecological objective receiving the lowest status classification serves as the overall +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +classification of the assessed site or area, giving the classification of the “hazardou substances status” of that site or area. The criteria used are not all uniform, but ma include nationally set criteria. Therefore the results are not strictly comparabl between assessment units. The overall picture is shown in the adjacent map, base on assessments at 144 sites, where “high” indicates good conditions and “bad” ba conditions of the marine environment with respect to hazardous substance (HELCOM, 2010a; HELCOM, 2010b). +CHAS High +Ba HELCOM 2010 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Baltic Sea: Combined Hazardous Substances Contamination Index. Source: HELCOM, 2010a. +Overall, there has been a steady and substantial improvement in the quality of th Baltic in respect of hazardous substances over the past two decades. This is du partly to the focus of the Baltic States in tackling the hotspots of pollution that wer identified, and partly to the closure during this period of a number of the mor polluting plants in countries in economic transition, as a result of economi circumstances. In the countries in economic transition, the former large installation have been superseded by a larger number of small and medium-sized enterprises which makes the task of adequate regulation more difficult. There is, nevertheless much further progress to be made before the goals set by the Helsinki Commissio are reached. +5.3.3 Mediterranean Sea +The Barcelona Commission has carried out assessments of many aspects of the stat of the Mediterranean over the last four decades. Nevertheless, there are major gaps +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +in the data available for assessment: much more is known about contaminants in th sea off the northern coasts of the Mediterranean than about those off the souther and eastern coasts. Major sources of discharges and emissions of heavy metals ar seen as the cement industry, electricity generation, metal mining and smelting, an fertilizer production. Many waste-water treatment plants are also seen as problem. Based upon the available information, high concentrations of heavy metal (especially lead and/or mercury) in sediments and shellfish (blue mussel (Mytilu galloprovincialis)) are found around Barcelona, Cartagena and Malaga (Spain) Marseilles/Fos and Toulon (France), the Gulf of Genoa, the Po delta, the Gulf o Trieste and around Naples (Italy), the coast of Croatia, Vlora Bay (Albania), aroun Athens, Thessaloniki and Kavala (Greece), around Izmir (Turkey) (though subsequen Turkish Government tests have found nothing that would require action to b taken), Haifa Bay (Israel), the Nile delta (Egypt) and the coastal lagoons of Bizert and Tunis (Tunisia). Insufficient data were available for robust trend analysis, bu the limited analysis possible showed a general pattern of stable to declining trends although in some places there were slightly increasing trends (UNEP, 2012). +In the past, high levels of POPs have been measured in top predators in th Mediterranean. More recently, a study of data from 1971-2005 has concluded tha the contamination of sediments by POPs is mainly associated with major urba areas, the mouths of major rivers, major ports and coastal lagoons, and that ther has been a general decline in such concentrations. A 2011 study identified the area of the mouth of the River Ebro and Barcelona (Spain), the mouth of the Rhéne an Marseilles (France), the coast from Nice (France) to Livorno (Italy), the area aroun Genoa (Italy), the coast of Croatia and the port of Piraeus (Greece) as showin elevated levels of PCBs. Most of these locations, together with the Bay of Naples the coast of the Marche and the Gulf of Trieste (Italy), the area around Durres an Vloa Bay (Albania), the Ambracian, Saronic and Thermaic Gulfs (Greece), the are around Izmir (Turkey), the Bay of Tunis (Tunisia) and the Bay of Algiers (Algeria) als showed moderate to high levels of chlorinated pesticides. Again, data wer insufficient for trend analysis (UNEP, 2012). Turkish authorities have subsequentl indicated that there have been no findings which would have required measures t be taken. +5.3.4 Black Sea +Contamination by pesticides and heavy metals has not been judged to be a basin wide problem by the Black Sea Commission. Elevated concentrations of heavy metal in bottom sediments and biota near river mouths, hot-spots and ports ar decreasing. Pesticides are mostly introduced through rivers and streams dischargin from agricultural areas. However, as a result of economic change, the use of thes substances has decreased considerably and no longer presents a major hazard except where their use was very intensive in the past. Elevated concentrations o HCH (mainly lindane) have been found along the coastal areas influenced by th Danube River: some sites near the Danube Delta were found to be among th highest levels of HCH recorded globally. In 2002, evidence was found of DDT and it breakdown products, probably from inappropriate storage of expired pesticide (Black Sea Commission, 2008; Heileman et al., 2008c). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +5.3.5 North-West Atlantic +As in the Arctic, the problems of airborne transport of POPs found in the Arctic ar also of concern in Labrador and Newfoundland. The main influence further south i Canada is the outflow of the St Lawrence River, which drains a large part of th heavily populated interior of Canada and the United States. The work derived fro the efforts of the Canada/United States International Joint Commission (on share water bodies) has done much to reduce the hazardous-substance content of thi outflow. Similarly much has been done in Canada to address the problems posed b coastal industries, especially paper and pulp mills. As a result, hazardous substance are not seen as a priority for the Canadian Atlantic (Janowicz et al., 2006) Nevertheless, some problems remain, particularly in the Saguenay Fjord, wher mercury and other metals were found in beluga whales at levels sufficient to caus concern. Cultured and wild scallops have been found to contain cadmium above th levels acceptable for human consumption, although its main source seems to be o natural origin (Dufour et al., 2007). +In the United States, the National Coastal Condition Reports (NCCR) (of which th latest NCCR IV was completed at the end of 2012, though based on data from 2003 2006 (EPA, 2012)) have been prepared regularly since 2000. They consider indices o water quality, sediment quality, benthic quality, coastal habitats and fish-tissu contaminants. They examine the coastal waters (estuaries and embayments) an also look at some of the waters further offshore. The sediment-quality index and th fish-tissue contaminants are the most relevant to the question of contamination b hazardous substances, although the benthic index (which looks at the structure o the benthos and the extent to which it is affected by pollution) can also b illuminating. The sediment-quality index is based on measurements of toxicity amounts of contaminants (heavy metals, PAHs and PCBs) and total organic carbo content in samples taken from a range of stations, which number thousands acros the country. The fish-tissue contaminants index is based on samples of fish fo human consumption of species appropriate to the region. The indices for th sampling stations within a region are used to classify the region as “good”, “fair” o “poor”, according to the proportions of sampling stations within different bands o the indices. +The United States divides its Atlantic coast into two regions: the North-East regio (Maine to Virginia, including Chesapeake Bay), and the South-East region (Nort Carolina to Florida). The North-East region is the most heavily populated part of th United States, and the overall condition of its coastal waters is judged to be “fair” The positions on the sediment-quality index (overall “fair’) and the fish-tissu contaminant index (overall “fair to poor”) are shown in the pie charts below. Th problem zones for both sediments and fish-tissue contaminants are principally i Great Bay (New Hampshire)’” "8, Narragansett Bay (Rhode Island), Long Islan Sound, the New York/New Jersey harbour area °°” "8, the Upper Delaware Estuar and the western tributaries of Chesapeake Bay. The impaired ratings for the larg majority of these sites were due to the presence of PCBs. Advice was also issued a various dates during 2006 against eating fish caught along about 84 per cent of th length of the coast of the North-East region — mainly because of the presence of +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +PCBs. Those marked °°’ also showed, above the thresholds, moderate to high level of DDT and those marked "® showed moderate levels of mercury. The NCCR als considered whether trends could be detected over the period from 2001 to 2006 No overall statistically valid trends were noted, but a significant reduction wa observed in the areas judged as “poor” on the element of the presence o contaminants from Narrangassett Bay to the Delaware River. +USA North East Region: Sediment Quality Index +Goo Fai @ Poo OMissing +USA North East Region: Fish Tissue Contaminant Index +Goo Fair +1m Poor +Figure 5. United States North-East Region Sediment and Fish-Tissue Contaminants Indices. Source EPA, 2012. +In Chesapeake Bay, where a combination of problems of toxic contaminants an eutrophication resulted in 2009 in a special programme involving the Federa Government and the five States, the most recent report shows that for PCBs an mercury, many locations in the catchment have an impaired ecological status, largel stemming from concentrations in sediments and in fish tissue (where huma consumption often has to be discouraged). A limited number of locations hav severe problems from dioxins/furans, PAHs, some chlorinated pesticides (aldrin chlordane, dieldrin, DDT/DDE, heptachlor epoxide, mirex), and some metal (aluminium, chromium, iron, lead, manganese, zinc). For other products (atrazine some pharmaceuticals, some household and cosmetic products, some brominate flame retardants and biogenic hormones), it was not possible to assess where sever impacts were occurring, but it is known that that the substances have potential fo adverse, sub-lethal ecological effects (EPA et al., 2012). +The NCCR also looked at the condition of the Mid-Atlantic Bight: that is, the sea between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras out to the edge of the continental shelf. Non of the contaminants for which tests are made for the sediment-quality index or th fish-tissue contaminants index was found in excess of their corresponding Effect Range Medium (ERM) values (values probably causing harmful effects). Only thre chemicals (arsenic, nickel, and total DDT) exceeded their corresponding Effects +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Range Low (ERL) values (values possibly causing harmful effects), and these lower threshold exceedances occurred at only a few sites. This implies that, on the sam basis as for waters closer to the shore, this sea area should be regarded as in “good” condition. +The overall condition of the South-East region (North Carolina to Florida) was judge to be fair. The sediment-quality index was judged to be “fair to poor” and the fish tissue contaminants index was rated “good”. No statistically significant trends wer observed for the period 2001-2006. Conditions in the bight between Cape Hattera and the south of Florida were also examined. Three metals (arsenic, cadmium, an silver) were found at concentrations between ERL and ERM values at 9 of the 5 offshore sampling sites, but no sites had more than one ERM value exceeded Nevertheless, advice was in force in the whole area against eating king mackere (Scomberomorus cavalla), because of mercury contamination. +A separate study — the National Mussel Watch — looked over a 20-year period (198 — 2005) at levels of contamination by hazardous substances in mussels and oyster along the coast. For the Atlantic coast, this has shown in general no significan trends in contamination by heavy metals, but some locations show a decreasin trend. It has shown no significant trend in cadmium contamination in Chesapeak Bay, in spite of major efforts at reduction, and has shown significant increasin trends in mercury and lead at a few locations in the zones where problems wer identified by the NCCR. Nevertheless, it has shown significant decreasing trends i contamination by POPs all along the Atlantic coast of the United States (Kimbroug et al., 2009; Mussel Watch, 2011). +5.3.6 Wider Caribbean +Information on hazardous substances in the Wider Caribbean (that is, the Gulf o Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic immediately east of the Leeward an Windward Islands) is mixed: for the United States and its dependencies, the sam type of information is available as for the Atlantic coast; elsewhere, there is n systematic record. +The overall condition of the United States Gulf coast is judged to be “fair”. Th sediment-quality index was judged to be “fair to poor” and the fish-tissu contaminants index was rated “good”. The areas rated “poor” on the sediment quality index lay mainly around the Florida Keys, the coasts of Alabama an Mississippi, Galveston (Texas) and the Texas coast south of Corpus Christi. N statistically significant trends were observed for the period 2001-2006, but substantial reduction in areas failing the test for the presence of contaminants wa found. Nevertheless, in 2006 advice was in force along the whole of the Unite States Gulf Coast against the eating of king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) because of mercury contamination (EPA, 2012). The Mussel Watch has likewis shown some locations with decreasing trends in heavy-metal contamination and general decreasing trend in contamination by POPs (Mussel Watch, 2011). +There is no recent, comprehensive compilation and analysis of inputs of hazardou substances to the remainder of the Wider Caribbean (Fernandez et al., 2007) although specific areas are known where problems of this kind are found (Cartagena +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Bay, Colombia; Puerto Limon, Costa Rica; Havana Bay, Cuba; Kingston Harbour Jamaica; and some locations in Puerto Rico). These largely result from the discharg of untreated waste-water from local industries. Mining also presents significan problems, particularly mining of bauxite in Guyana, Jamaica and Suriname and (to lesser extent) in the Dominican Republic and Haiti (GEF, 1998; EPA, 2012). Heav and increasing usage of agricultural pesticides is reported from the mainlan countries of Central America, and from Jamaica and Cuba (UNEP-UCR/CEP, 2010). I addition, chlordecone (an agricultural pesticide, the use of which was prohibite from 1993) gave rise to concern in fish and seafood from Martinique in 200 (Bocquenéa and Franco, 2005). The presence of the same chemical in seafood wa still preventing it being marketed in 2013 (Le Monde, 2013). +5.3.7 North Atlantic open ocean +The OSPAR Quality Status Report 2000 (OSPAR, 2000) examined the situation in th open ocean of the Atlantic (beyond the 200-m isobath) east of 422W longitude. Thi showed limited information about the state of the marine environment in this area No later comprehensive survey has been made. The conclusions on contaminatio by hazardous substances were that: +(a) Airborne inputs of hazardous substances from land were very significant probably equal to the effects of waterborne inputs reaching the dee Atlantic; +(b)Anthropogenic inputs to the North Atlantic were higher than those to othe deep ocean areas, representing up to 25 per cent of the total estimate global deposition rates for a range of substances; +(c) Nevertheless, the level of concern for the area about contamination b hazardous substances was rated as low. +5.3.8 South-East Atlantic +The coastal waters of the South-East Atlantic are dominated by three currents: fro north to south, the Canaries Current, the Guinea Current and the Benguela Current These three areas have been adopted for the tasks of addressing the problems of th marine environment. Little detailed information is available about land-base sources of pollution in these areas. What is clear is that the main problems are “ho spots” in the proximity of the principal coastal cities: Abidjan (Cdte d’lvoire), Accr (Ghana), Cape Town (South Africa), Casablanca and Rabat (Morocco), Daka (Senegal), Douala (Cameroon), Lagos and Port Harcourt (Nigeria), Luanda (Angola and Walvis Bay (Namibia). Most of the industries operating in the region are locate in or around these coastal areas and discharge untreated effluents directly int sewers, canals, streams and rivers that end up in the ocean. Outside the immediat areas of discharge, however, the effects are limited by the strong marine curren (Heileman, 2008b). +Nevertheless, some specific problems are more than local. Mercury emissions fro artisanal gold-mining in West Africa are a general problem. This gold production i an important part of the national economies of several States in the area, bu significant levels of mercury have been found in many West African rivers, and +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +therefore present risks to the marine environment (Donkor et al., 2006). Othe mining activities also present significant threats. For example, phosphate mining a Hahatoé-Kpogamé in Togo results in discharges of tailings and other waste with hig levels of cadmium and lead being found in fish and crustaceans (Gnandi et al., 2006). +Samples from the Korle (Accra, Ghana), Ebrié (Abidjan, Céte d’Ilvoire) and Lago (Nigeria) lagoons, show heavy metals in the sediments up to three (Cd), six (Hg) an eight (Pb) times more than those from uncontaminated areas, and in shellfish at o above WHO standards for Cu, Pb and Zn (GCLMEP, 2003). +5.3.9 South-West Atlantic +Although there are studies of several locations along the coast of Brazil, there doe not appear to be a comprehensive study of the levels of heavy metals or POPs fo the coastal sea of Brazil as a whole. It is clear that there are many untreated direc and riverine discharges from coastal cities which produce significant local effects Sao Paulo, with a population of over 11 million and a concentration of petrochemica and fertilizer industries, and Rio de Janeiro, with over 6 million inhabitants, are th most significant, but there are other examples, such as Rio Grande. The Rive Amazon also has a major effect on the northern part of the area. The diffuse source contributing to this effect include agricultural pesticides and mercury from small scale gold mining (Heileman, 2008a, Heileman, 2008c; Heileman and Gasalla, 2008 Niencheski et al., 2006). +The situation is much the same further south: there are hot-spots associated wit major coastal cities, but no overall survey. The River Plate is a major influence, sinc it drains areas with a high concentration of potentially polluting industries, and i assessed as highly polluted. Apart from that, the most serious area is around Bahi Blanca, where the general level of contamination has been assessed as moderat (Marchovecchio, 2009). However, the San Matias Gulf has also been identified a having relatively high levels of cadmium and lead (Heileman, 2008e). +5.3.10 South Atlantic open ocean +Very limited information is available on levels of contaminants in the central Sout Atlantic. Nevertheless, samples of skipjack tuna, tested for brominated flam retardants as a marker for widely dispersed POPs, show levels that are lower than i the open ocean of the Pacific (Ueno et al., 2004). +5.4 Indian Ocean +No comprehensive studies or time series of the incidence of hazardous substances i the Indian Ocean exist, although there are a number of local, one-off studies. +5.4.1 Western Indian Ocean +In general, the areas of both the Agulhas Current (the waters off the coasts o eastern South Africa and Mozambique and around the Comoros, Madagascar Mauritius, Réunion (France) and the Seychelles) and the Somali Current (the water off the coasts of the Federal Republic of Somalia, Kenya and the United Republic o Tanzania) are not heavily polluted with heavy metals or POPs (Heileman et al., +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +2008b). Nevertheless, some top predators (yellowfin tuna) are reported to sho high concentrations of HCB and lindane by comparison with the same specie elsewhere, although levels of PCBs and DDTs are not so high. The residues of PCBs DDTs, lindane and HCB were higher than those measured in 1999 (Machado Torre et al., 2009). +However, relatively severe localized problems are found near major cities an industrialized areas in all the countries. The main industries that contribute toward chemical contamination in this region include: manufacturing, textiles, tanneries paper and pulp mills, breweries, chemical, cement, and sugar and fertilizer factories Coastal solid-waste dumps add to the problems. The intensive use of agro chemicals, such as DDT, aldrin and toxaphene, has been common throughout th region. Inappropriate utilization, storage and dumping of agrochemicals are growing concern. Direct discharge of wastes from fertilizer factories is a sever problem in the region (Heileman et al., 2008a)._ Mozambique has instituted a lega and institutional framework for the management and treatment of municipal an industrial waste, including the development of sanitation infrastructure (landfills industrial and wastewater treatment plants. +5.4.2 Red Sea, including the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Aden +Slow water turnover makes the Red Sea particularly vulnerable to pollution build-up Pollution is severe in localized areas around industrial zones and facilities, includin especially the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba and near the port of Aden. The installation include phosphate mines, desalination plants, chemical industrial installations and oi production and transportation facilities. In 2003, elevated levels of some heav metals were found near Suez, in the Sharm al Maya Bay in Egypt (PERSGA, 2006 EEAA, 2003). +5.4.3 Persian Gulf +Major manufacturing industries operate in the coastal States of the Persian Gulf based largely on the raw materials from oil and gas extraction, producing fertilizers chemicals, petrochemicals, minerals and plastics. The demand for fresh food ha also led to intensive agriculture and the use of pesticides. All these activities hav resulted in waste-water and runoff taking heavy metals and other hazardou substances into the semi-enclosed sea of this area (Sale et al., 2011). +5.4.4 Arabian Sea and waters west of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka +Overall, pollution from hazardous substances in the northern Arabian Sea has bee assessed as severe in several coastal hotspots, but in general it has been evaluate as moderate. The major issues in these hotspots are heavy metals from industria installations. Other hotspots are found at the mouths of some major rivers (fo example, the Tigris, Euphrates, Karun, Hileh and Mand rivers). Other hotspot involving PAHs have been recorded in coastal areas receiving effluents from highl industrialized zones. In waters off Pakistan, chlorinated pesticides are mor prominent. Since persistent organic pesticides are not to be marketed in the State bordering the Arabian Sea, these findings likely result from the remains of histori use (Heileman et al., 2008a). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Along the coasts of India the picture is mixed. High concentrations have been noted for example, off the Maharashtra coast. Near Mumbai, sample fish have also bee shown to have concentrations of lead, cadmium and mercury above levels that ar generally regarded as fit for human consumption (Heileman et al., 2008a; Deshpand et al., 2009). Around the Alang-Sosiya ship-breaking yards in Gujarat, India (whic employ 40,000 people), on the basis of samples taken in 2001, particularly hig levels, above approved limits of heavy metals in sediments, have been reporte (Janil et al., 2011). On the other hand, along the Gujarat coast, the concentrations o mercury in sediments have decreased to below the limits of detection, reflecting th decrease in its concentrations in land-based effluents. Along the Maharashtra coast mercury levels in sediments have declined and are currently about 0.1ug/g. Alon the Karnataka coast, observations have been made off Mangalore and Karwar. A both locations, concentrations of mercury in sediments have shown decreasin trends. Along the Kerala coast, concentrations of mercury were low at all samplin locations, and exhibited declining trends (NIOT, 2014). +In Sri Lanka, most industrial plants are concentrated near Colombo. They lack waste water treatment capacity, and textile and metal-finishing plants are dischargin significant quantities of some heavy metals. The Lunawa coastal lagoon has bee ruined by such discharges (BOBLME, Sri Lanka, 2011). +5.4.5 Waters east of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka (Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea Malacca Strait) +The dominant influence in the north of this area is the River Ganges, the second largest hydrological system on the planet. The Bay of Bengal Large Marin Ecosystem Project (BOBLME) has organized recent surveys of marine pollution in al the coastal States. These show that much information is available, but there are n time series or sufficient metadata for comparisons. +In the waters off India, along most of the coast, concentrations of mercury i sediments have declined: off Tamil Nadu, concentrations were observed at <0. ug/g; off Andhra Pradesh, there has been a substantial decline to a similar level; an the coast off Orissa exhibited a decline to concentrations of 0.1-0.2 yg/g. I contrast, off West Bengal mercury content of sediments showed a marginall increasing trend both in-shore and near-shore: recent values of up to 0.3 ug/ suggest continued release of industrial waste containing mercury (NIOT, 2014). Hot spots for heavy-metal pollution are found in the Ganges estuary (the Hooghly River Diamond Harbour, Sagar Island and Haldia). Further south, hot-spots have bee reported at Bhitarkarnik, Visakhapatnam, Ennore, Cuddalore, and Tuticorin. At al these places, pollution from heavy metals results from direct industrial discharge and the inputs of rivers carrying industrial discharges. Pollution from POPs stem mainly from pesticide-manufacturing plants and ineffective storage of withdraw pesticides, as well as the leaching of pesticides and past uses of PCBs. Recen surveys indicate significant levels of DDT, PCBs and dieldrin in both near-shore an off-shore fish in the Bay of Bengal (BOBLME, India, 2011). +For Bangladesh, the picture is very similar. In addition, heavy metal pollution i particularly noticeable near the Sitakunado ship-breaking area of Chittagong Reports from 2004 suggest that banned organo-chlorine pesticides are being sold on +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +the black market and that some are being used in fish-processing plants (BOBLME Bangladesh, 2011). +In the waters off Myanmar, significant levels of heavy metals have been reported i fish samples, but at levels below those at which human consumption is not advised Organochlorine pesticides are not regarded as a problem because of lack o availability for use (BOBLME Myanmar, 2011). +In the Andaman Sea off Thailand, levels in sediments of lead and cadmium wer reported in 2009 that were well above levels regarded elsewhere as likely to caus harm, and in 2007 levels of mercury in sample fish were reported that were abov Thai and many other national standards for human consumption (BOBLME, Thailand 2011). +On the western coast of peninsular Malaysia, levels of contamination of hazardou substances observed in 2009 and 2010 were in general within national standards which are consistent with generally recognized standards. Exceptions were off th coast of Perak, where significant numbers of samples showed lead and cadmiu levels in excess of these standards. This is attributed to major historic minin activities in that State (BOBLME, Malaysia, 2011). +5.4.6 Waters north and west of Australia +In general, the waters north and west of Australia are in very good condition. Th large-scale mining in the catchments has not generally caused problems wit hazardous substances because of the low rainfall and consequent absence of majo watercourses. There are some localized problems around the Gulf of Carpentaria such as Darwin Harbour and Melville Bay (Nhulunbuy, Northern Territory), where localized, biologically dead area has been created by mining wastes (SE201 Committee, 2011). +5.4.7 Indian Ocean open ocean +As with other open-ocean areas, information on levels of contamination fro hazardous substances is limited. Studies in 1996 around the Chagos Archipelag (over 500 km from the nearest continental land) showed that only some PCBs an lindane were above the limits of detection, and then only just. The conclusion therefore were that atmospheric transport was the main source, and that the are was amongst the least affected coastal areas (Everaarts et al., 1999). Air samplin around the Chagos Archipelago has also concluded that the atmosphere over th Indian Ocean in 2006 was substantially less contaminated from atmospheric POP than it was according to the available data from the 1970s and 1990s (Wurl et al. 2006). Samples of skipjack tuna from the mid-Indian Ocean were studied as a way o examining the distribution of airborne contaminants. They showed (like all tun studied from around the world) detectable levels of brominated diphenyl ethers, bu at lower levels than in the north Pacific (Ueno et al., 2004; Tanabe et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +5.5 Pacific Ocea 5.5.1 North-East Pacifi - Waters west of Canada and the mainland of the United States +The United States applies the general principles of the National Coastal Conditio Report to its Pacific coasts, although the sheer scale of the Alaskan coast make some aspects inappropriate. For Alaska, the results show an overwhelmingly goo condition: as with the Alaskan Arctic coast, there are some local natural sources o heavy metals, but the presence of other hazardous substances is mainly from long range transport through the seas or the atmosphere (EPA, 2012). +In Canada, the situation is much the same for the northern and central coast o British Columbia, where population density and levels of industrial development ar low. Further south, however, some hot-spots with severe adverse effects from hig concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals have been found, fo example, in the Port Moody arm of the strait separating Vancouver Island from th mainland (Belan, 2004). +For the area of the Alaska current as a whole, samples of biota obtained durin 2003-08 have generally not detected concentrations of PCBs, pesticides or mercur at levels of concern (PICES, 2009). +The waters off the western coasts of the contiguous United States are also assesse as being “good”, with 86-89 per cent of the sampling stations being put in this clas on the individual indices. The areas where the sampling stations fail to achiev “good” status are mainly around San Francisco, Los Angeles and San Diego i California (EPA, 2012). Nonetheless, the Mussel Watch shows significant decreasin trends of levels of heavy metals and other hazardous substances at sampling station all along the Pacific coast of the contiguous United States, except for Puget Sound where increases in the levels of lead contamination have been found (Mussel Watch 2011). +- Waters west of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua an Costa Rica +From the point of view of contamination by hazardous substances, the waters wes of the countries of Central America are affected mainly by the discharges from local relatively small-scale industries and agricultural runoff. The overwhelming majorit of industrial effluent is discharged to the sea without treatment, and usage o pesticides is one of the highest in Latin America (Heileman, 2008e). +5.5.2. East Asian Coastal Seas - General +At the regional level, no information is regularly collected on inputs of hazardou substances and their effects. Levels of heavy metal contamination in the East Asia coastal seas are, however, known to have been rising over the last two decades largely due to untreated municipal waste-water and industrial effluents. The ris was rapid in some areas, particularly in coastal waters of China, over the twent years to 2000. For most of the area, there is no general evidence that this has +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +ceased. In the Gulf of Thailand, lead and cadmium have been found at high level near the mouths of all major rivers. In some areas, the levels of heavy metals in fis and shellfish have made them unsuitable for human consumption. Depth profile of sediment samples suggest in many cases that these inputs of heavy metals ar linked to recent rapid growth of electronics, ship-painting and chemical industries. +Persistent organic pollutants are measurably present in most coastal areas of th East Asian Seas at levels higher than many other parts of the world, but studies hav shown decreasing levels of those which had previously been banned. Endosulfa has been found in most coastal sediments, especially off Malaysia, suggesting recen use. Both DDT and PCBs are found at levels above limits generally recognised a tolerable, but in some areas (for example, the Macau estuary in China), studies hav shown that such levels peaked as much as twenty years ago (UNEP/COBSEA, 2010). +5.5.3 Coastal waters of China +At the national level, the Chinese authorities have been carrying out systemati monitoring of the coastal waters and coastal sediments as part of their nationa environmental monitoring programme. For water quality, their system uses a assessment classification based on a range of parameters covering not onl hazardous substances but also problems caused by non-hazardous waste elements As far as hazardous substances are concerned, levels are reported as satisfyin national standards. The combined assessment is shown below in the section o nutrients. In addition, the Chinese authorities study sediment quality in relation t hazardous substances. Decreases in concentrations have been observed generall since 1997. However, in 2010 areas around 36 coastal pollutant discharge outfall did not meet the sediment quality requirements, mainly because of the levels o copper and cadmium, and some of the area showed a worsening (China, 2012). I Hong Kong, China, waters, monitoring focused specifically on hazardous substance has been undertaken to evaluate the effects of the stringent measures to comba pollution from these substances. These monitoring programmes have demonstrate a steady decline between 1991 and 2012 of, in total, about 30 per cent in the level of heavy metals in sediments at the west end of Hong Kong Island. Even there however, levels in enclosed bays used as typhoon shelters can be much higher Sediments around Hong Kong, China, show a slight decline in levels of PCBs (Hon Kong, China, 2013). Other evidence (from sea-bird feathers) shows that there ar high levels of mercury in the South China Sea (Watanuki et al., 2013). +5.5.4 Yellow Sea and waters between Japan and the Korean Peninsula +The absence of data, and (even where they are available) their incompleteness an lack of consistency, make any assessment of the impact of hazardous substances o the Yellow Sea as a whole very difficult. There seems to be little doubt, however that inputs of hazardous substances are at levels which give rise to concern, largel because of the discharges of untreated industrial waste-water (NOWPAP, 2007) Where detailed information is available about specific areas, however, there is goo evidence of improvement: in the waters around Japan, for example, levels of PC concentrations in both fish and shellfish have decreased by over 75 per cen between 1979 and 2005. Nevertheless, concentrations in both fish and sediment remain at levels sufficient to cause concern, particularly in enclosed sea areas +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +surrounded by big cities (Japan MOE, 2009). Local sources of pollution, mainly fro mining, are also significant along the northern coast of the Russian Asia-Pacifi Region (Kachur et al., 2000). +5.5.5 North-West Pacific (Kuroshio and Oyashio Currents) +The areas east of the Japanese main island and the islands north and south of it ar significantly less affected by industrial, mining and agricultural activities than th seas along the coast of the Asian mainland, except close to the Japanese mai islands. In enclosed sea areas surrounded by big cities on the Japanese main island there are levels of contamination from POPs much (up to five times) higher than o the western coast. This is particularly the case in Ise Bay and Tokyo Bay (I. Belkin e al., 2008; Heileman and Belkin, 2008; Japan MOE, 2009). +5.5.6 North Pacific open ocean +Apart from some major island ports, such as Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (which show evidence of PCB contamination (EPA, 2012)), contamination from heavy metals an other hazardous substances is not a major concern in the central north Pacific However, mercury concentrations in the North-East Pacific increased between 200 and 2006 and modelling suggests an average increase of 3 per cent per yea between 1995 and 2006 (Sunderland et al., 2009). Samples of skipjack tuna from th western part of the central north Pacific, studied to assess airborne transport o contaminants, showed higher levels of brominated diphenyl ethers than sample from the central Indian Ocean and off Brazil. The suggestion is made that this migh be the result of atmospheric transport from locations in south-east Asia where wast goods containing these fire retardants were being dismantled (Ueno et al., 2004). +5.5.7 South-East Pacific (Waters west of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile) +Little new information on the situation in this area as a whole is available since th survey conducted in 2000 by the Permanent Commission of the South Pacific (CPPS 2000). In respect of discharges of hazardous substances, this survey showed a majo problem with mining waste, particularly in the south of Peru and the north of Chile The mining industry in these countries is mainly in the coastal areas. A substantia number of mines disposed of their waste directly into the sea, and others indirectl through rivers: none of these wastes were treated. The areas said to be highl polluted were at the mouth of the River Rimac (into which a number of mine discharged) and between Pisco and Ite in Peru, and around Chajfiaral in Chile. In th north of Chile, as well, there were beaches which had been used in the past for th disposal of mine waste, and from which heavy metals (especially copper) wer leaching into the sea. In addition, a heavy load of agricultural pesticides was though to be present: nearly 5,000 tons of active ingredient were thought to be use annually in the 1990s, resulting in what was judged to be serious pollution in th coastal areas of the province of Chiriqui in Panama, in the extreme south o Colombia, around Guayaquil in Ecuador, around Pisco in Peru, and in regions V (Rancagua), VII (Talca), VIIl Concepcidn), X (Puerto Montt) and XI (Cohaique) in Chile. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +5.5.8 South Pacific open ocean +Even less is known about the contamination of the open ocean by hazardou substances in the South Pacific than in the other open-ocean areas. The islan States of the area have neither major industrial sites, nor major mines. A wide rang of pesticides has been used for local agriculture, although the most hazardous are n longer used. A result of this use, however, is that residues have been found in th soil, as well as stocks of persistent organo-chlorine pesticides and contaminated site where the pesticides were stored (Samoa, for example, has three such sites). Ther were also a number of electrical devices containing PCBs (the Federated States o Micronesia had 13.5 tons). With Australian and GEF assistance, programmes are i place to dispose of stocks and remediate contaminated sites. The States have however, recorded their concern about lack of capacity to prevent the accidenta creation of dioxins and furans from imperfect incineration (Samoa, 2004; FSM 2004). +5.5.9 Waters east of Australia and around New Zealand +The waters to the east of Australia are renowned for the Great Barrier Reef — th world’s largest coral reef system. Although the catchments draining into this part o the sea are not heavily industrialized, they contain intensive agriculture, especiall for sugar cane. The pesticides (and other runoff) from these catchments are judge likely to cause environmental harm, particularly to the central and southern parts o the Great Barrier Reef. Models of the mean annual loads of a range of commo pesticides (ametryn, atrazine, diuron, hexazinone, tebuthiuron and simazine) sho that inputs are in the range of 16-17 tons of active ingredient. The total pesticid load to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon is likely to be considerably larger, given tha another 28 pesticides have been detected in the rivers (Lewis et al., 2009; RWQPP 2013). +Further south, the coast of the south-eastern part of Australia is the most heavil populated area in the country: nearly one-third of the total population is in centra New South Wales. Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) is locally contaminated with heav metals, especially lead and zinc, and a large proportion of the estuary ha sedimentary metals at concentrations where some adverse biological effects can b expected. Most of the contamination is a legacy of past poor industrial practice, bu some evidence exists for continuing entry of contaminants, probably from leachin (Birch, 2000). Further south, in the State of Victoria, the Government acknowledge that data on the condition of marine and coastal ecosystems are not gathered in comprehensive manner, making assessment of the condition of coastal and marin systems difficult. Estuarine and bay systems, such as Port Phillip Bay (Melbourne) Western Port and the Gippsland Lakes, have impaired water quality, partly fro industrial and agricultural sources (Victoria, 2013). +In New Zealand, a study was made of dioxins, furans, PCBs, organochlorin pesticides, estuarine sediments and shellfish. The catchments covered ranged fro highly urbanized to areas relatively remote from anthropogenic influences. Th results showed that concentrations of these substances in New Zealand estuaries ar low, and in most cases markedly lower than concentrations reported for estuaries i other countries, although concentrations in some estuaries are approaching those +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +reported elsewhere for urbanized estuaries (NZMOE, 1999). Examination o sediment cores from Tamaki Creek, near Auckland (New Zealand’s largest city) ha shown a four-fold increase in levels of heavy metals since the European settlemen of the area, with most of the increase in the last 50 years. Tamaki Estuary i classified as a polluted area (Abrahim et al., 2008). The estuaries around Aucklan and near other large urban areas seem likely to be subject to the same pressures. +5.6 Southern Ocean +Levels of contamination by heavy metals and other hazardous substances are low Long-distance transport through marine currents and the atmosphere means tha measurable levels of contamination are found, but not at levels that give rise t concern. Some of the research stations have accumulated waste contaminated wit heavy metals and other hazardous substances. Australia has removed a quantit from the Thala Valley base (Australian Government, 2011). Recently, brominate flame retardants are reported to have escaped from McMurdo Sound base (NGN 2014). +6. Endocrine Disruptors +As discussed above, hazardous substances are usually defined in relation to th qualities of being toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate. Toxicity is usuall defined in relation to being fatal when ingested, to causing cancers (carcinogens), t causing birth defects (teratogens) or to causing mutations (mutagens). Many of th substances regarded as hazardous substances within these accepted definition were also shown to affect endocrine systems and thus to interfere with th reproductive success of individuals and populations, and were therefore describe as “endocrine disruptors”. +In the 1990s, a consensus emerged that certain substances outside the accepte definitions of hazardous substances could also disrupt endocrine systems, and thu affect the ability of individuals and populations to reproduce successfully. In th marine context, the issue was highlighted by the discovery that tributyl tin, whic had been adopted widely as a component in anti-fouling treatments for ships’ hulls had a severe effect at very low concentrations on molluscs: initially, the effects wer observed at concentrations so low that they could not be detected by the the available methods of chemical analysis. The effects were referred to as “imposex” and took the form of females developing male sexual characteristics and thu becoming infertile. In some harbours, whole populations of molluscs disappeared Where such substances were not within the accepted definitions of hazardou substances, new initiatives were needed. The question of “endocrine disruptors” fo those concerned with the marine environment therefore became more focused o substances which are not within the accepted definitions of hazardous substances but which may nonetheless have serious effects on the health of the marin environment (OSPAR, 2003). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +The case of tributyl tin is discussed further in Chapter 17 (Shipping). Systems hav been developed, principally by the Organization for Economic Cooperation an Development (OECD), to test substances to see whether they have the potential t disrupt endocrine systems (OECD, 2012). +In the application of these testing procedures, some substances not otherwis identified as hazardous substances have been identified that are, or may be, o particular concern to the marine environment. These include: +(a) Nony! phenyl ethoxylates: These are used as emulsifiers, dispersive agents surfactants and/or wetting agents. These degrade quickly to nonyl phenyl and short-chained nonyl phenyl ethoxylates, which are toxic to aquati organisms and are thought to have endocrine-disrupting properties. The mai users are the industrial, institutional and domestic cleaning sectors (30 pe cent of use in Europe; other significant sectors in Europe are emulsio polymerisation (12 per cent), textiles (10 per cent), chemical synthesis (9 pe cent) and leather (8 per cent)). Estimated use in Western Europe in 1997 wa 76,600 tons. Action has been taken within the European Union and i proposed in the United States (OSPAR, 2009; EPA, 2010); +(b) Estrogenic contaminants: There is some evidence that human-derive steroids, such as estradiol and ethinyl estradiol (the active ingredient of th contraceptive pill) can affect aquatic biota. In fresh water, intersex condition induced in male fish (trout) in rivers in England were attributed to ethiny estradiol from sewage (Desbrow et al., 1998; Routledge et al., 1998; Tyler an Jobling, 2008). In contrast, androgenic effects have been found in female fis in rivers carrying pulp and paper mill effluents (mosquito fish) and feedlo effluent (fathead minnows) (Orlando et al., 2004). Whether such substance persist enough to continue to cause such effects after a lapse of time, and ho the substances might operate in more dynamic or more dilute environment (such as the sea) is not clear; +(c) Phthalates: Phthalates are a class of chemicals most commonly used to mak rigid plastics (especially PVC) soft and pliable. They can leach from PV products, particularly when they enter waste streams. Phthalates can affec reproduction and development in a wide range of wildlife species Reproductive and developmental disturbances include changes in the numbe of offspring and/or reduced hatching success and disruption of larva development. They generally do not persist in the environment over the lon term, but there is evidence that environmental concentrations are above level that give rise to concern in some aquatic environments. (Engler, 2012 Oehlmann et al., 2009). +7. Oil +The United States National Research Council has carried out two major studies, i 1985 and 2003, on the amounts of oil that enter the marine environment, both for +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +United States waters and for the world as a whole (NRC, 2003). The studie concluded that the global estimates of hydrocarbons from land-based sources wer particularly uncertain. The 2003 study placed the best estimate of runoff from lan globally at 140,000 tons/year, but recognized that this could be as much as 5 millio tons, or as little as 6,800 tons. This compares with its estimate of: +(a)The amounts of oil spilled (on average) in the process of extractin hydrocarbons from the seabed. Here the best estimate was 38,000 tons within a range of 20,000 tons to 62,000 tons; +(b)The amounts of oil seeping naturally into the sea from submarine seeps, suc as those off south California. Here the best estimate was 600,000 tons/year within a range of 200,000 tons to 2 million tons; +(c) The total amount of hydrocarbons entering the sea from all sources. Here th best estimate was 1.3 million tons/year, within a range of 470,000 tons to 8. million tons. +Land runoff is therefore a significant component of the impact of hydrocarbons o the sea. As discussed in chapter 17 (Shipping), however, the significance for th marine environment depends crucially on the location: warm, sunny zones will resul in much more rapid breakdown of the hydrocarbons by bacteria into harmles substances. Likewise, in areas with high levels of natural seepage of hydrocarbons oleophilic bacteria will often be abundant and thus the breakdown of anthropogeni inputs will be quicker than in areas with little or no natural seepage. Moreover within the land-based sources, much of the runoff is the result of relatively larg numbers of relatively small accidents and mishaps, which are difficult to prevent Mitigation, in the form of well designed drainage systems, accident-respons systems and public education, has to be the main response. +Oil refineries, however, can represent significant point-sources of hydrocarbo discharges that can reach and affect the sea. No global information seems to b available on losses and discharges from oil refineries. In some areas the impact o the marine environment is serious. In the Persian Gulf, heavy (>200 ug/g contamination of sediments in the central offshore basin is reported, and attribute to industrial effluents from onshore industries (Elshorbagy, 2005). Efforts in Europ and North America have shown, however, that it is possible to reduce this impac substantially. In Europe, CONCAWE (the oil companies’ environmental organization reports that, under pressure from regulators, the oil companies have diminishe substantially the amounts of oil discharged in process water from refineries i relation to throughput: +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Table 3. Levels of oil content of aqueous discharges from European oil refineries. +Year | Throughput | Oil content of water Year | Throughput | Oil content of wate (million tons discharges per ton (million tons discharges per to of throughput (g per of throughput (g pe per year) per year ton of throughput) ton of throughput 1981 440 24.0 1997 627 1.8 1984 422 12.1 2000 524 1.4 1987 449 10.3 2005 670 1.5 1990 511 6.54 2008 748 1.3 1993 557 3.62 2010 605 1.30 +Source: Baldoni-Andrey et al., 2012. +8. Nutrients and Waterborne Pathogens +8.1 General +The second main aspect of land-based inputs that cause marine pollution involve the input of organic matter and nutrients. Organic matter and nutrients are not i themselves harmful, but can cause pollution problems when the inputs ar excessive. There are a number of sources from which they enter the ocean. One o these is sewage, in the narrow sense of the waterborne disposal of human faece and urine. Given the origin of sewage in this narrow sense, inputs of huma pathogens are unavoidably bound up with sewage inputs. It is convenient therefor to consider issues of waterborne pathogens alongside nutrients. +8.2 The effects of organic matter +Sewage, in the narrow sense described above, contains high levels of organic matter both particulate and dissolved. In a broader sense, the terms “sewage” an “municipal waste water” are used to describe the mix of waterborne disposal o human waste and discharges from artisanal and industrial undertakings when thes are processed together. Organic matter also enters riverine discharges from natura sources, from direct or riverine inputs of industry and from aquaculture. Man artisanal or industrial discharges also contain high levels of organic matter, bot particulate and dissolved. All this particulate and dissolved organic matter tend either to be oxidised or broken down by bacteria. Both processes require oxygen The need for oxygen for chemical oxidisation is the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) The oxygen needed by the bacteria is the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). Whe the COD and BOD in a body of water exceed the oxygen available, the body of wate can become hypoxic or anoxic, with a reduced ability to support aquatic lif (Metcalfe & Eddy, 2004). +© 2016 United Nations 40 + +8.3 The effects of nutrients +Several nutrients are significant for the marine environment: mainly compounds o nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon and iron. In much of the ocean, primary production i limited by the availability of nitrogen. The inputs of nitrogen compounds ar therefore of greatest significance. However, other aspects of nutrient input are als important: changes in the balance between available nitrogen and phosphorus ca be the cause of blooms of various species of algae. Some species of algae produc toxins which can lead to amnesic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisonin and paralytic shellfish poisoning (which can have death rates of 10 per cent-20 pe cent) (GESAMP, 2001). +Anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus into estuarial and coasta ecosystems have more than doubled in the last century. These inputs are mad through both the waterborne routes described above, but also significantly throug airborne inputs, particularly in the forms of oxidized nitrogen, ammonia (especiall from livestock), and water-soluble organic nitrogen. The importance of this airborn route for problems of the marine environment can be seen from the statistics for th North Sea and the Celtic Sea in the North-East Atlantic. In 2005 the total amounts o nitrogen estimated to be discharged in liquid discharges (riverine and direct) int these areas was 1,205 kilotons. These discharges came from 11 of the 15 States i the North-East Atlantic catchments. If we look at the airborne emissions of nitroge from these 15 States, we find that these are estimated at 4,600 kilotons — 47 pe cent from agriculture, 28 per cent from transport (including shipping), 21 per cen from combustion, and 3 per cent from other sources (OSPAR, 2010). These 4,60 kilotons of emissions are from a larger area (the total area of 15 States rather tha the catchments in those States that discharge into the North-East Atlantic). Som will therefore be carried to sea areas other than the North Sea and the Celtic Sea and some are already included in the 1,205 kilotons of riverine and direct inputs since they will fall on land in the catchments of the North Sea and Celtic Sea Nevertheless, it is clear that consideration of managing excessive inputs of nutrient must take into account the nutrients that reach the sea through the atmospheri transport of nutrients. +Atmospheric transport of nutrients is also important for the range over which th nutrients can be carried. As an example, the adjacent map shows the spread o nitrogen inputs to the North-East Atlantic from North-Western Europe in 2006: th inputs reach well into the open ocean (the area marked V on the map). +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Total nitroge depositio (mg/m’ >100 500-100 200-50 100-20 50-10 20-5 10-2 <10 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 6. Atmospheric Transport of Nitrogen to the North-East Atlantic from North-West Europe Source: EMEP model in OSPAR, 2010. +At the global level, the scale of the problem can be grasped from studies aimed a showing the implications of the secular trends in airborne inputs of nitrogen to th world ocean. Drawing on work by Galloway and others (Galloway et al., 1995) an Ducklow (Ducklow, 1996), Duce and others have demonstrated the increases in th inputs of total atmospheric reactive nitrogen (N,) over the last 140 years (Figure 7) This brings out the significance of urbanization and industrialization and o intensified agriculture. +N, 186 (mg N m*? year") +Mo-14 +Mi 15-42 +@ 43-7 71-140 +BB 141-21 Gi 211 - 28 281 - 42 @ 421 - 56 561 - 70 (0701 - 84 841 - 1,12 @ 1,121 - 1.40 B 1,401 - 2,10 WB 2,101 - 2.80 WB 2,801 - 3,500 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +N, 200 (mg N m* year") +mo-14 +@ 15-4 43-7 71-140 +GB 141-21 Gi 211 - 28 281 - 42 D 421 - 560 +( 561 - 70 (701 - 84 B® 841 - 1,12 G 1,121 - 1,40 BB 1,401 - 2,10 BB 2,101 - 2,80 GB 2,801 - 3,500 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 7. Airborne Reactive Nitrogen Inputs 1860 and 2000. Source: Duce et al., 2008. Tota atmospheric reactive nitrogen (N,) deposition to the ocean in mg per square metre per year in 186 and 2000. Both organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen are included. +Inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus to the ocean provide nutrients to marine plants especially to phytoplankton. Increased inputs stimulate growth (unless there is som countervailing factor, such as turbidity to reduce the availability of the light neede for photosynthesis). Excessive net phytoplankton production in coastal and shel ecosystems can lead to an accumulation of phytoplankton biomass and t eutrophication problems. Among other phenomena, excessive net production o phytoplankton can result in marées vertes (“green tides”) and red tides, when larg areas of sea are infested with algae. Eventually, primary production will tail off a nutrients are exhausted and again growth is limited. The masses of alga (phytoplankton) will decay under the action of bacteria. This process will use up th oxygen dissolved in the seawater, and the resulting hypoxic (where oxygen is belo 2 mg per litre) or anoxic (absence of oxygen) conditions will result in the death of th animals on the seabed and of fish that cannot leave the area. In the worst cases these conditions will lead to “dead zones” (Diaz et al., 2008), loss of sea grass bed (Orth et al., 2006)), and increases in the occurrence of toxic phytoplankton bloom (Heisler et al., 2008). These dead zones reduce the amount of habitat available t aerobic animals upon which fisheries depend. The number of low-oxygen zones i coastal waters has increased exponentially to over 400 systems since the 1960s an has reached an area of about 245,000 km? worldwide (Figure 8; Rabalais et al., 2001 Diaz et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Te ees) CU BT nr c e ea m 10-20 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 8. Global Map of Dead and Hypoxic Zones. Source http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/inline/2008-08-15_bigMap.jpg. +The occurrence of stratification, where different layers in the sea do not mix, can b significant for problems from nutrients, since concentrations of nutrients may b much higher in one layer as a result of the water inputs having a different density Since stratification is often seasonal, problems from nutrients can often also b seasonal. Significant seasonal meteorological changes (such as the monsoons, rain seasons or changes in insolation (the amount of sunlight)) can also create seasona problems from nutrients through changes in runoff and primary production. +At the same time, even high levels of nutrients in discharges to the seas do no necessarily create problems: in estuaries and coastal lagoons, depending on loca circumstances, bacterial action can result in a net conversion of nitrates from lan runoff into nitrogen gas released to the air, thus reducing the load to the sea. Also the turbidity of coastal water, resulting from tidal disturbance of sediments and/o coastal erosion and other causes, can limit the depth to which sunlight can penetrat and thus inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of phytoplankton. The precis consequences of heavy loads of nutrients in discharges to the sea will therefor often depend on local circumstances, including the rate at which semi-enclose areas are flushed by tides and currents. +In certain circumstances, anoxic zones occur naturally (Helly and Levin, 2004). In th Black Sea, the large inflows of fresh water from rivers such as the Danube, Don an Dnieper result in a high degree of stratification, with little mixing between the layers The result is that a large part of the central deep water of the Black Sea (estimated a about 90 per cent of its volume) is naturally anoxic (Heileman et al., 2008c) Likewise, where narrow continental shelves and currents flowing from the ope ocean against the continental slopes are found, nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water ca be brought up into coastal waters, and produce hypoxic or even anoxic conditions Examples of this are found on the western coasts of America immediately north and +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +south of the equator, the western coast of sub-Saharan Africa, and the western coas of the Indian sub-continent (Chan et al., 2008). +8.4 Sources of nutrient 8.4.1 Municipal waste-water +Urban settlements have, of course, always produced waste-water, but a stee change in the quantities and their effect on the environment occurred from th middle of the 19” century, with the introduction of waterborne methods o disposing of human excrement and their connection to collective drains. Until then the main system of disposal had been cess-pits and the collection of "night soil" i carts and its disposal on land for use as agricultural fertilizer. The first majo changeover came in England in 1848, when legislation made the use of sewers fo disposal of human excrement compulsory as a measure against cholera. Within te years, some of the problems that the new approach could cause were shown by th Great Thames Stink of 1858, which, among other things, made the newly buil Houses of Parliament almost unusable: the decomposition of the waterborn excrement produced intolerable levels of stinking gas. Sewage treatment for waste water discharges to inland waters was adopted as the solution, and sewag treatment processes gradually improved in effectiveness and spread to more an more parts of the world. +The idea that treatment of waste-water discharges direct to the sea was als essential took much longer to be accepted: as late as 1990, some large towns i Western Europe still discharged major parts of their municipal waste-wate untreated direct to the sea. The belief that the ocean had an almost unlimite absorptive capacity of the ocean was difficult to eradicate. However, the problem resulting from municipal waste-water discharges to relatively enclosed bays an harbours were acknowledged early - in the United Kingdom, the problems of th semi-enclosed Belfast Lough were one of the reasons for the investigations of th 1896 Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, which established ground-breakin standards for sewage treatment, in terms of suspended solids and BOD per uni volume of discharge. However, it took the recognition of the significance of th problems from nutrients in relatively open sea areas such as Chesapeake Bay or th German Bight in the 1980s to create more general acceptance that action wa needed, and to draw attention more generally to the issue of nutrient inputs to th sea. +The main routes of nutrient input are through rivers and direct discharges throug pipelines of waste-water from sewage-collection systems and factories. When th Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment (GPA was adopted in 1995, there was general agreement that the most important nee for protecting the marine environment and improving human well-being wa improved management of sewage, especially that from large conurbations. Wher sewage treatment is applied to sewage discharges, three levels of treatment ar typically recognized: primary (removal of solids and floating oil and grease) secondary (breaking-down of biological substances by microbes or protozoa) and +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +tertiary (disinfection and removal of nutrients). It is not always essential fo discharges from sewage-collection systems to be treated before discharge. In som circumstances, very long discharge pipelines can take untreated sewage sufficientl far out to sea, and into sufficiently dynamically active waters, that the nutrients an microbes in the sewage are adequately dispersed and assimilated and problems o eutrophication avoided. For this to be the case, the pipelines must take the sewag well beyond immediate coastal waters and strong currents must be present t provide the dispersal. Even then, in most cases, at least primary treatment of th sewage is preferable. Progress has been made in many parts of the world but overall, untreated sewage inputs remain a major threat to the marine environment. +Increasingly, in addition, inputs of water across the coastline through undergroun aquifers are being recognized as a significant pollution route, although statistica estimates of the amounts of water, nutrients and contaminants through this rout are rarely available. +8.4.2 Food and related industries +The preparation of human food inevitably results in the generation of organic waste milling grain produces chaff; brewing and distilling produce the spent malt or othe grain used; wine-making leaves the pressed grapes; fish preparation leaves guts heads and tails, and so on. Some of these wastes are liquid or semi-liquid and can b discharged to the sea. Others can conveniently be disposed of into the se (especially the waste from fish-processing), directly or through a watercourse. A explained in chapter 12, aquaculture is also a source of nutrients to the marin environment. All these elements will create BOD or COD, and will release nutrient as they are decomposed or oxidized. +8.4.3 Land runoff +The world has been able to produce more and more food from land, through combination of improvements in strains of crops, agricultural techniques an pesticides, increased use of fertilizers, as well as bringing new areas into cultivation The scale of this increase in agricultural production can be seen from FAO statistic on cereal production: an increase of over 25 per cent in the tonnage of cereal produced worldwide between 2002 and 2012. This increase in overall tonnage i also reflected in increased yield per hectare: over the period 2002 to 2012, yield increased by over 7 per cent in southern Asia, by over 9 per cent in eastern an south-eastern Asia, by over 18 per cent in Africa and by over 20 per cent in wester Asia. +The substantial increases in total crops and in yield, while essential to feed th world’s growing population, carry with them some environmental problems for th marine environment. As discussed above, some of the pesticides used on land hav had impacts on the marine environment as a result of runoff. Likewise, th increased use of fertilizers has resulted in increased runoff of nutrients to the seas These nutrients, intended to promote photosynthesis in land plants, also encourag primary production in the seas, and result in eutrophication problems. The runof not only takes the obvious form of surface water entering the sea through rivers an watercourses, it can also enter the sea through groundwater seepage through +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +aquifers. Estimates suggest that direct subterranean/submarine discharges of fres water to the oceans around the world deliver up to 12 per cent of total surfac water runoff, with the most accepted values between 5 per cent and 10 per cen (Basterretxea et al., 2010). +The use of nitrogen-based fertilizers has grown enormously in recent decades. Thi growth continues, as Table 4 shows: world consumption has increased by 42 pe cent between 2002 and 2012, including more than doubling in Latin America southern Asia, eastern Asia and Oceania. +Table 4. World Nitrogen Fertilizer Consumption +Million tons +2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 201 Europe and Centra Asia 5,330 5,090 5,743 5,798 5,705 6,699 6,902 6,711 6,559 6,997 7,17 North America 2,736 2,620 2,715 3,150 2,763 3,151 2,884 2,466 2,685 2,868 2,95 Latin America 691 722 865 880 1,043 1,253 1,106 1,091 1,277, 1,455 1,45 Africa 800 920 1,112 1,160 1,022 990 $1,013 1,017 1,054 1,067 1,14 West Asia 409 462 547 533 441 440 456 595 550 455 41 South Asia 99 96 137 164 141 138 167 197 210 232 23 East Asia 908 1,199 1,275 1,315 1,391 1,490 1,671 1,428 1,692 1,737 1,96 Oceania 161 372 378 462 389 422 468 531 544 556 679 +11,29 11,77. 12,77. + 13,47. 12,90 14,58 14,66 14,04 14,57 15,37 16,0 World 5 9 5 3 1 3 5 5 8 4 0 +Source: FAOSTAT. +Increased use of agricultural fertilizers does not necessarily result in increase nutrient inputs to the seas: good agricultural practices can help avoid this. Adjustin amounts of fertilizer applied to likely take-up by crops, applying fertilizers at the tim of year when take-up by crops will be greatest, ploughing so that the furrows do no promote runoff, and leaving buffer zones along watercourses can all help reduce th leaching of nutrients to the watercourses and the seas. +The type of crop cultivated can also be very significant. Legumes, such as soy beans, naturally fix nitrogen from the air into soil, from where it can then run off The vast increases in soya bean cultivation in some tropical countries (such as Brazil can increase nitrogen fluxes in the same way as the use of nitrogen fertilizers (Filos et al., 2006). +Intensive raising of livestock is another major source of nutrients: both solid an liquid wastes are involved, as well as gaseous emissions of ammonia and methane all of which can find their way to the seas through runoff from the land or depositio from the air. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +8.4.4 Other sources of nutrients +The processing of many food products by food and drink industries for consumptio also frequently results in waste-water containing nutrients in various forms. Thes waste-water streams are a further factor affecting nutrient inputs to the seas. +The combustion of petrol/gasoline and other liquid fuels also produces nitroge compounds, which can be carried through the air to the seas. Vehicles powered b internal-combustion engines are obvious sources of such compounds (especially o ammonia). Near major shipping routes, the contribution from ships can also b significant. In north-western Europe, for example, over 25 per cent of nitroge emissions to the atmosphere are from these sources (OSPAR, 2010). +8.5 Waterborne pathogens +Untreated municipal waste-water inevitably contains infectious microbes fro humans. If these microbes reach the seas, they can infect humans both when the immerse themselves in sea water (sea-bathing) and through the consumption of fis and shellfish (especially the latter, since shellfish filter large quantities of seawater i the course of obtaining their food). Similar contamination also arises from anima excrement. In bathing waters, the probability of respiratory and intestinal disease and infections rises for bathers rises in an almost direct relationship with the sewag pollution in the water. GESAMP and the World Health Organization estimated i 1999 that bathing in polluted seas causes some 250 million cases a year o gastroenteritis and upper respiratory disease. The same study estimated that eatin contaminated shellfish is responsible for the loss every year of 3,500,000-7,000,00 disability-adjusted life-years (a standard measure of time lost due to prematur death and time spent disabled by disease), putting it in the same bracket as stomac cancer, intestinal nematodes and upper respiratory tract infections (GESAMP, 2001). +9. Regional view of impacts of Nutrients and Waterborne Pathogens +The foregoing review of the sources of oxygen demand (both COD and BOD) nutrients and waterborne pathogens and the ways in which they can affect th ocean sets out the general mechanisms. It is necessary then to see to what exten the various parts of the ocean have in fact been affected. Because this kind o problem is confined to coastal waters (since distribution and dilution remove th detrimental effects), it is not necessary to examine the open ocean area. +9.1. Arctic Ocean +No problems are reported from elevated levels of nutrients in the Arctic Ocea because there are no major concentrations of population or agriculture. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +9.2. Atlantic Ocean and Adjacent Sea 9.2.1 North-East Atlantic, North Sea and Celtic Seas +Serious problems from eutrophication became apparent in the North Sea in th 1980s, as dead zones appeared, particularly in the German Bight. As a result, th coastal States committed themselves to a 50 per cent reduction in inputs of nitroge and phosphorus compounds by 1995. The 1998 OSPAR Eutrophication Strateg extended the goals of combating eutrophication to the whole of the North-Eas Atlantic. In 1991, the European Union adopted legislation requiring improve treatment of urban waste-water and reduction in inputs of nitrates from agriculture Assessing the impacts of anthropogenic nutrient inputs (especially inputs fro diffuse sources) is complicated by the delivery of nutrient-rich water from the dee Atlantic. Most North Sea countries achieved the target reduction in phosphoru inputs by 1995, and some countries have now reduced phosphorus inputs to 15 pe cent or less of their 1985 level. Although the target for 50 per cent reductions i nitrogen inputs between 1985 and 1995 was not achieved (and still has not bee achieved, except in Denmark), the resulting major programmes have achieve substantial reductions in inputs. Germany and the Netherlands have almost achieve the 50 per cent reduction. Even after these reductions, eutrophication proble areas, with enhanced levels of nutrients, are still found along the coasts of Belgium Demark, Germany and the Netherlands, while a number of estuaries and fjords i Ireland, Norway, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom also show such levels an are therefore regarded as eutrophication problem areas. In France, the estuaries o the Loire and Seine and much of the coast of Brittany (where beaches covered i sea-lettuce create serious health impacts on both locals and tourists) are stil eutrophication problem areas. Mass mortality of benthic and pelagic animals has however, been limited to a few estuaries and fjords in Denmark, the Netherlands Norway and Sweden (OSPAR, 2010). +Since 1976, the European Union has had programmes to reduce the inputs o waterborne pathogens to the waters of its member States. This has required majo investment in sewage treatment and the management of storm-water runoff. Th results have been a steady improvement in water quality, both for bathing and fo shell-fish production. By 2012 (which was a very wet summer in Europe) wit consequential high levels of storm runoff), only 1.7 per cent of the monitored coasta bathing sites failed to meet the European Union’s mandatory standards. Most o these were in the North Sea (EEA, 2013). +9.2.2 Baltic Sea +The Baltic Sea is sensitive to eutrophication because of the strong halocline, th limited water exchange with the North Sea and the consequent long residence tim of water in it. High nutrient loads and a long residence time mean that nutrient discharged to the sea will remain in the basin for a long time. In addition, th stratification of the water masses increases the vulnerability of the Baltic Sea t eutrophication, because it hinders or prevents ventilation and oxygenation of th bottom waters and sediments. Furthermore, absence, or low levels, of oxygen +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +worsen the situation by affecting nutrient transformation processes by bacteria such as nitrification and denitrification and the capacity of sediments to bin phosphorus, and lead to release of significant quantities of it. +As a result, most of the Baltic is regarded as suffering from problems o eutrophication. Only the Gulf of Bothnia (the northernmost part of the water between Finland and Sweden) is generally free of these problems, although eve here, there are small coastal sites with pronounced eutrophication problems. Th worst affected areas are the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, the Baltic Proper (th area between Sweden and Estonia and Latvia), the area east of the island o Bornholm, the Belts and the Kattegat. Smaller sites on the coasts of Sweden and th Gdansk Bight are also classified as suffering eutrophication (HELCOM, 2010a). I general, the anoxic and hypoxic areas of the Baltic Sea are regarded as one of th largest areas of dead zones in the world. +9.2.3 Mediterranean Sea +Eutrophication is assessed as being a localized problem in the Mediterranean basin The main causes, as elsewhere, are inadequately treated sewage and runoff an emissions from animal husbandry and high usage levels of agricultural fertilizers. 3 per cent of coastal towns with a population of more than 2,000 have no sewag treatment at all, and a further 12 per cent have only primary treatment. Thes towns are concentrated on the southern shore of the western Mediterranean, i coastal Sicily, on the eastern coast of the Adriatic and in the Aegean and the north eastern corner of the Levantine basin. Fertilizer usage reaches over 200 kg pe hectare of arable land in Croatia, Egypt, Israel and Slovenia, and is over 100 kg pe hectare in France, Greece, Italy and Spain. Since the eastern Mediterranean i naturally oligotrophic, locally enhanced levels of nutrient input can produce marke results. The main hypoxic area is along the delta of the River Nile (Egypt) and ther are areas at high risk of hypoxia at the mouth of the River Po (Italy) and the Rive Rhone (France). Medium risks of hypoxia have been reported at the mouth of th River Ebro (Spain) and in the Gulf of Gabés (Tunisia), the Gulf of Sidra (Libya), som bays and estuaries around the Aegean Sea and the Gulf of Iskenderun (Turkey) although Turkish authorities indicated that risks of hypoxia have not been confirme in the latter area (UNEP, 2012). +9.2.4 Black Sea +As noted above, the Black Sea has historically had an anoxic zone in deep water below 200 m. However, a major hypoxic (and, at times, anoxic) zone developed i the shallower north-western shelf from the 1950s. The inputs of nutrients by 199 were estimated at approximately 80 per cent from agriculture and 15 per cent fro municipal waste-water (most large towns having at least secondary sewag treatment). Between 1960 and 1990 the nutrient input into the catchments of th Rivers Danube, Dnipro and Don increased approximately 10-fold. The resultin anoxic or hypoxic zones at their peak in 1983-1990 extended to between 18,000 an 40,000 square kilometres, with consequential effects on fisheries and benthi biodiversity. +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +Three causes reduced the massive agricultural inputs: the economic problems o Eastern Europe from 1990 onwards, the adoption of stringent standards for nitrat emissions by the European Union (which required changes in the practices of State in the upper Danube basin) and the preparation for the entry of some States in th lower Danube basin into the European Union (which required the adoption of thos standards). The very substantial reductions in the nutrient inputs meant that th worst effects of the hypoxia had disappeared by 1995, although the effects o changes in benthic biodiversity are still being felt (Borysova et al., 2005; Diaz et al. 2008). +9.2.5 North-West Atlantic +Nitrogen releases to air and water are low in most of Canada, but southern area where rapid development is taking place show signs of emerging problems. A present, there is little sign of estuarine eutrophication on the Atlantic coast o Canada, but hypoxic conditions have been found in the lower St Lawrence estuar areas since the mid-1980s. These are at depths below 275 m. About a third of th problem is attributed to land-based inputs. The other two-thirds seem to be th result of changed oceanic circulation, resulting in larger amounts of Atlantic wate from south of the Gulf Stream entering the estuary. This water has lower oxyge levels and a higher temperature (resulting in more bacteriological activity an consequent consumption of oxygen) than the previously dominant Labrador Curren water (Schindler et al., 2006; DFO-MPO, 2013). +The United States National Coastal Condition Report (NCCR) uses a measure of wate quality relevant to the occurrence of eutrophication based on a combination o levels of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen and the degree of water clarity. Cut-off point (varying between regions) are used to classify these indicators into good, fair an poor categories, and an algorithm gives an overall value in the light of thes classifications (EPA, 2012). The United States has also carried out a Nationa Estuarine Eutrophication Assessment (NEEA), looking at 141 estuaries in th contiguous 48 states. An update was published in 2007. Although full conclusion could be reached on only 64 of the estuaries, 29 showed moderately high to hig eutrophic conditions (NEEA, 2007). +For the North-East Region (Maine to Virginia, including Chesapeake Bay), there is marked gradient from north to south: the overall evaluation is that the region ha fair water quality, but this ranges from very good quality in the open estuaries of th north, to poor in many of the southern estuaries, which have poor levels of wate exchange and drain densely populated catchments. Particular problem areas ar Great Bay (New Hampshire), Narragansett Bay (Rhode Island), Long Island Soun (between Connecticut and Long Island, New York), New York/New Jersey (NY/NJ harbour, the Delaware Estuary, and the western tributaries of Chesapeake Bay. Hig levels of enteric bacteria resulted in advice for short periods in the mid-2000s agains bathing at about 17 per cent of the beaches monitored. Further out to sea, the wate quality in the Mid-Atlantic Bight was generally rated as “good” (EPA, 2012). Th NEEA showed a similar division between the estuaries in the northern and souther parts of this region, with the former being generally good and the latter generally +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +showing the worst conditions nationally. It also noted a worsening between 199 and 2004 in the status of 8 of the 22 estuaries assessed in the southern part (NEEA 2007). +Chesapeake Bay presents a complex of problems, in part because of its larg catchment basin with extensive industrial agriculture and a large and rapidly growin population, and in part because of the long residence time of water in the estuarin system (measured in months) (Kemp et al., 2005). Efforts to address the problem began in 1983 with the Environmental Protection Agency’s Chesapeake Ba Program. By the mid-1990s, this seemed to be bearing fruit, but by 2005 it was clea that it was not reaching its goals (GAO, 2005). New efforts began in 2009, focuse on a range of measures to address the multiple causes of the problems, includin measures to achieve by 2025 a specified total maximum daily load from all source of nitrogen and phosphorus (Chesapeake Bay Program, 2014). +For the South-East Region (North Carolina to Florida), the overall rating was that th water quality was “fair”, with only 22 per cent of the sampling points rated “good and 13 per cent “poor”. The main problem areas were the large estuaries o Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds (North Carolina) and the major ports of Charlesto (South Carolina) and Savannah (Georgia). Away from the immediate coast, th South Atlantic Bight was regarded as having overwhelmingly “good” water qualit (EPA, 2012). This picture is generally consistent with the NEEA, but that assessmen was unable to classify the Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, while judging th Charleston and Savannah port areas as presenting lesser problems (NEEA, 2007). +9.2.6 Wider Caribbean +The water quality of the waters of the Gulf Coast of the United States along th immediate shoreline is judged by the National Coastal Condition Report to be “fair” with 30 per cent of the sampling stations “good” and 10 per cent “poor” (and 7 pe cent not evaluated because of lack of data) (EPA, 2012). This picture was consisten with that presented by the NEEA (NEEA, 2007). +However, a little further out into the shelf waters, there is a major eutrophicatio problem area. Since 2000 this dead zone has fluctuated annually in size from abou 8,500 sq km to about 21,750 sq km (NOAA, 2013). This is regarded as the second largest dead zone in the world. The reasons for the fluctuation are not full understood, but are largely connected with the levels of flow in the Mississippi River This drains about 3.1 million sq km (about 40 per cent of the contiguous Unite States), with a very high level of arable and livestock agriculture and correspondingly high level of nitrogen and phosphorus runoff. The first problem were noted by shrimp fishermen in the 1950s. Studies of the sediments show tha algal growth (and hence eutrophication problems) in the area of the dead zon increased significantly in the second half of the 20" century. The dead zone has ha a significant effect on the shrimp fishery (Turner et al., 2008; Rabalais et al., 2001 Diaz et al., 2008). +In other parts of the wider Caribbean, significant progress has been made i addressing the problems of sewage and other nutrient discharges. In 2010, th Caribbean Environment Programme conducted a comprehensive survey of the +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +problems. In spite of some uncertainties, this showed major progress in Colombi and Venezuela in reducing inputs from municipal waste-water since an earlier surve in 1994: total nitrogen inputs had reduced by more than 80 per cent, and als substantial reductions in organic matter (BOD). Elsewhere, smaller reductions ha been achieved in mainland States, but large increases were found in the islan States. Much more general progress had been made in reducing organic matte (BOD) and nutrients from industrial sites in coastal areas: reductions of 50 per cent 90 per cent in the former in all parts, and 90 per cent or more in the latte everywhere except in the United States and Mexico (UNEP-UCR/CEP, 2010). +Nevertheless, there are major issues with sewage, both in terms of health an eutrophication. The Caribbean relies heavily on the tourist industry for its economi well-being. Clean bathing waters and coral reefs are two important supports for tha tourist industry. Eutrophication leads to excessive algal growth which can smothe and kill corals — especially if the herbivore fish (such as groupers) have been reduce by over-fishing. Untreated sewage harms the health of both local populations an visiting tourists. Both effects have serious implications for the tourist industry. +9.2.7 South-East Atlantic +Detailed studies and analysis conducted in the Guinea Current region, and mor generally in West and Central Africa, show that sewage constitutes the main sourc of pollution in that area from land-based activities. A similar situation applied in th regions of the Benguela Current (where harmful algal blooms also appear to be o the increase) and the Canaries Current (where the waters off the cities of Dakar i Senegal and Casablanca and Rabat in Morocco appear to be specially affected). Al the countries assessed reflect high urban, domestic loads, sometimes from industria origin, which create problems from BOD, suspended sediments, nutrients, bacteri and pathogens. For example, the mean annual amount of oxygen required to mee BOD for the entire West and Central Africa region, including the countries adjoinin the Guinea Current, has been estimated to be 288,961 tons for BOD from municipa sewage and 47,269 tons for BOD from industrial discharges: a total of 336,230 ton (For comparison, the mean annual amount of oxygen required to meet BOD for th River Rhine at the border between Germany and the Netherlands is about 60,00 tons.). Again, the rapid growth of urban populations is far beyond the capacity o relevant authorities and municipalities to provide adequate basic services of sewag and waste-water-treatment facilities (GCLMEP, 2003; Heileman, 2008b). +9.2.8 South-West Atlantic +The waters off the northern coasts of Brazil have naturally relatively low levels o nutrients. During most of the year, therefore, there are no problems fro eutrophication. However, during the rainy season, runoff from land brings sudde increases in the levels of nutrients, and consequently algal blooms then occur (d Lacerda et al., 2002). Estuaries, bays and lagoons close to the larger conurbation tend to show eutrophication from sewage and other nutrient inputs, often enhance by the effects of limited water circulation (Costa, 2007). +Further south, in the heavily populated areas of south-eastern Brazil, high levels o nutrients and consequent eutrophication problems are common. Guanabara Bay +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +(on which the city of Rio de Janeiro (population 6.3 million) is located) is the mos heavily affected area, with very high nutrient levels and high levels of microbia pollution (de Lacerda et al., 2002). In the south of Brazil, in the State of Sant Catarina, in urban estuaries, the dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) was generall three times greater than in non-urban ones (Pagliosa et al., 2006). +In Brazil, the majority of households and industries generally do not have access t sewerage. The national average of those with connections to a sewer in 2008 wa 44 per cent, ranging from 1.7 per cent in the State of Para in the north, to 82 pe cent in the State of Sdo Paulo in the south. Supply of piped water was much mor common than sewerage connections, and sewerage connections were mor common than sewage treatment: only 28 per cent of the volume of water supplie passed into the sewer system and only 68 per cent of the sewage was treated, only little over half of that treated receiving secondary or higher treatment. Thi situation in 2008, however, represented a big improvement (for example, a increase of 40 per cent of households connected) on that at the time of the previou survey in 2000. Brazil currently has a major programme of investment (equivalent t 4.2 billion United States dollars) for the improvement of sanitation. So it i reasonable to hope that the situation will improve (IBGA, 2008; PAC2, 2014). Furthe south again, Uruguay and Argentina, which contain the large conurbations o Montevideo and Buenos Aires, have serious microbial pollution in some localize areas of their coastal waters, where pathogens have been detected which in som cases have exceeded international recommended levels for recreational water. Toxi red tides are becoming more frequent and of longer duration (Heileman, 2008e). +9.3. Indian Ocea 9.3.1 Western Indian Ocean +Throughout this area, there is a tendency for high nutrient levels to encourag ecosystem change, leading to dominance by algal communities. On the coasts of th Agulhas Current, the growing coastal populations and increasing tourism, for whic sewage treatment facilities are inadequate, result in the increasing discharge of ra sewage directly into rivers or the sea, leading to eutrophication in localized areas Untreated effluents from fish processing plants and abattoirs are also frequentl discharged into the sea, causing varying degrees of localized pollution. +On the coasts of the States bordering the Somali current, most of the coasta municipalities do not have the capacity to handle the vast quantities of sewage an solid wastes generated daily. Raw sewage containing organic materials, nutrients suspended solids, parasitic worms and benign and pathogenic bacteria and viruses i discharged into coastal areas. High microbial levels are observed in areas nea sewage outfalls (Heileman and Scott, 2008). +In the Comoros, there is no sewerage, drainage or waste-water treatment. In Kenya microbial water quality studies have been completed in a number of locations an microbial pollution levels near urban centres, such as Mombasa, were several order of magnitude higher than in coastal waters in rural areas. In Mozambique, faeca coliform counts in the channel adjacent to the Infulene River in Maputo were found +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +to be worryingly high. In Madagascar, similar high counts of bacteria from huma excrement have been measured in coastal waters. Microbial pollution is an ongoin problem in several Mascarene coastal areas. Periodic draining of waste-water pond on fish farms adds to nutrient discharges. At present, in Mauritius, 73 per cent o households use cesspits or septic tanks whilst 2 per cent use pit latrines; so most o the effluents are discharged directly to the sea or are carried to the sea by runof and rivers with higher potential for microbial pollution, particularly after heavy rains Agricultural practices in Mauritius (both intensive agriculture and small-scale marke gardening, and livestock rearing) also pose a serious threat to coastal ecosystem and give rise to algal blooms and red tides (ASCLME/SWIOFP, 2012). +9.3.2 Red Sea, including the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez +Although its effects are usually limited to a small area around urban areas and larg tourist developments, sewage is a major source of coastal contamination throughou the Red Sea and the Gulfs of Aden, Aqaba and Suez. Because of rapid populatio growth and inadequate treatment and disposal facilities, poorly treated or untreate sewage is dumped in coastal areas. Inputs of sewage also results in eutrophication o the coastal waters around some population centres, major ports and tourist facilitie (Gerges, 2002). +9.3.3 Persian Gulf +The shortage of freshwater resources and the availability of financial resource resulted in an extensive investment in sewage treatment in the Gulf States on th southern shore of the Persian Gulf, in order to permit re-use of the treated water fo irrigation and other purposes. The treatment applied is generally secondary o tertiary. This re-use also reduces the demand for water from desalinization. Henc there has not been the same pressure from discharge of nutrients as in other part of the world from urban growth and consequent increases in urban waste-water. A long ago as 1999, 252 million cubic metres of water were being produced annually i this way (Alsharhan et al., 2001). The latest FAO figures show that this has risen t 551 million cubic metres/year. Elsewhere in the area, coastal water quality at th lraq-Kuwait border has declined as a result of increased agricultural pollution due t the draining and subsequent loss of the filtering role of the Mesopotamia marshlands (Heileman et al., 2008b). On the northern shore, moreover, some cities such as Bushehr, are discharging treated sewage effluent, which is giving rise t enhanced levels of nutrients, although it is not clear that this results i eutrophication problems (Rabbaniha et al., 2013). +9.3.4 Arabian Sea, including waters west of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka +This area is affected by natural nutrient enrichment, at the time of the south western monsoon, as deep-level nutrient-rich water is brought up onto the narro continental shelf (Naqvi et al., 2009). +In the north of the area, sewage, fertilizers and other effluents have resulted i eutrophication in coastal areas such as Karachi. Fish kills in some localities, such a off the Karachi coast and Gawadar Bay, have been attributed to harmful algal bloom caused by the growing pollution (Heileman et al.,2008b). +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +Further south, the Indian Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimates that th 644 cities and towns of over 50,000 population across the country (coastal an inland) discharge 5,500 megalitres a day of sewage, of which only 522 megalitres day — less than a tenth — receives any treatment before discharge. Of this, the 12 cities and towns of populations of over 50,000 in the coastal area generate abou 6,835 megalitres a day of waste-water, out of which only 1,492 megalitres (22 pe cent) receive any treatment. The rest is discharged without any kind of treatment t the coastal waters. This represents an increase of about 150 per cent over the level of discharge twenty years ago, although the rate of increase has recently slowe (CPCB, 2014). There have also been large increases in the amounts of artificia fertilizers used. However, it is argued that much of this usage is in relative dry area from which there is little runoff (NIOT, 2014). Considering the west coast of Indi separately, the state of Maharashtra, in the middle, accounts for the majority of th 3,220 megalitres discharged daily into the Arabian Sea (CPCB, 2014). In spite of thi heavy nutrient load, which produces some hypoxic zones, few eutrophicatio problems (such as harmful algal blooms) are reported, probably because of the ver dynamic tidal action which produces rapid dispersal. The algal mass, measured a chlorophyll-a, is lower in this area than in the Bay of Bengal (BOBLME, India 2011). +Given the statistics on sewage, it is not surprising that high levels of pathogeni bacteria are reported all along the coast (except in the Karwar (Karnataka) region) with increasing levels on the coasts of Goa, the rest of Karnataka and Kerala. Thes increasing trends in levels of nutrients and waterborne pathogens point to th significant influence of sewage inputs (NIOT, 2014). +9.3.5 Waters east of India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka (Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea Malacca Strait) +In the waters to the east of the Indian subcontinent, hypoxic areas regularly occu along the coast, although severe eutrophication problems appear to be rare. Thes hypoxic areas are partly a natural situation brought about by enhancement o nutrient levels by the monsoon winds bringing nutrient-rich water to the surfac (Vinayachandran, 2003), and partly by high levels of nutrient input from the land The major inputs are from West Bengal in India (which provides well over 50 pe cent of the inputs from the Indian coast) and from Bangladesh. The Indian input o sewage is around 2,330 megalitres/day into the Bay of Bengal, 80 per cent of whic has had no treatment (CPCB, 2014). The hypoxic areas are also associated wit frequent harmful algal blooms, for which seven hotspots have been identifie (Gopalpur (Orissa), Visakhapatnam and Coringa (Andra Pradesh) and Ennore Kalpakkam, Porto Nova, and the Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)) (BOBLEME, Indi 2011; Satpathy et al., 2013; NIOT, 2014). High levels of pathogenic bacteria ar found all along the Indian coast of the Bay of Bengal (NIOT, 2014). +In Bangladesh, sewage collection and treatment exists only for one-third of Dacc (the capital), although investment is taking place to extend this and develop sewerage system for the port city of Chittagong. Human wastes from most of th 150 million population are therefore liable, eventually, to find their way into the Ba of Bengal. Increasing amounts of artificial fertilizers are being used — imports rose b 2.3 times between 2003 and 2006 — but no data are available for inputs to the sea. +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +Harmful algal blooms are frequent, and have been linked to mass mortalities i shrimp farms. Information is lacking on illnesses linked to food from the sea, but i thought to be increasing in parallel to increasing marine pollution (BOBLME Bangladesh, 2011). +In Myanmar, there seems to be no evidence of hypoxic zones linked to majo population centres. Generally, seawater samples showed acceptable levels o nutrients and dissolved oxygen, although samples from the mouth of the Yango (Rangoon) river showed increased levels of suspended solids and COD (BOBLME Myanmar, 2011). +On the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand, little provision is made for sewage treatmen of the human wastes from the massive tourist industry. In particular, at Patong (th main town of the tourist island of Phuket), sewage discharges are leading to elevate nutrient levels and algal blooms in December-February of most years. However, th Thai authorities have established a comprehensive marine water-quality monitorin system, which shows that around 90 per cent of the sampling stations on this coas are “fair” or better. The only station with badly deteriorated water quality is at th mouth of the Ranong River, on the border with Myanmar. A major algal bloom an fish kill took place on this coast in 2007, but it seems likely that this was due t unusual upwelling of nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean (BOBLME, Thailand 2011). +Malaysia also has a long-standing marine water-quality monitoring system. On th basis of this Malaysia more recently developed a marine water-quality index. Thi brings together parameters for suspended solids, oxygen demand and microbes together with those for heavy metals. For the coasts facing the Andaman Sea an the Straits of Malacca, this index shows that in 2012, of the 62 coastal monitorin stations in this area, 3 per cent were rated “excellent”, 10 per cent “good”, 79 pe cent “moderate” and 8 per cent “poor”. Three of the five “poor” monitoring station were near the port of Malacca and the other two were beaches apparently badl affected by oil pollution. Similar results were reported for estuarine and islan monitoring stations (BOBLME, Malaysia, 2011). +9.3.6 Waters west of Australia +In general, the waters around Australia have naturally low levels of nutrients, sinc they are not affected by any marine current that can bring water with a high nutrien content to the coastal waters, and since much of the coast has limited land runof because of the low rainfall. Blooms of toxic and nuisance algae, however, continu to be a problem in a number of the estuaries and in inshore waters along th western coast, with adverse impacts that include major events of fish mortality When they occur, algal blooms in this region can cover large areas. In Wester Australia, major nutrient and algal bloom problems have a long history in the Peel Harvey Estuary, caused principally by nutrient pollution from upstream agricultura lands. Major works were undertaken to improve flushing of the estuary, but the seem to have brought only temporary relief (SE2011 Committee, 2011). +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +9.4 Pacific Ocea 9.4.1 Waters west of Canada and the mainland of the United States +The low population density and the small areas that are devoted to arable an livestock farming of Alaska as compared with the rest of the United States mean tha problems of enhanced nutrient and microbiological inputs do not exist. The handfu of sampling sites classified as “fair” rather than “good” from the point of view o water quality by the National Coast Condition Report are thought probably to be th result of so-far-unidentified natural factors rather than of human impact (EPA, 2012). +The west coast of Canada also does not show any problems of eutrophication o microbiological disease. However, there appear to be risks that such problems ma develop near the border with the United States, where the main population centre and agriculture are found. This is the possible result of expanding huma populations and intensifying agriculture in the lower Fraser Valley and Puget Soun (Schindler et al., 2006). +9.4.2 Waters west of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua an Costa Rica +In the coastal waters of these countries, waste-water discharges and agricultur runoff are the main sources of anthropogenic nutrient enrichment. Very little urba waste-water is treated: for example, in El Salvador, less than 3 per cent is treate (Romero Deras, 2013). Fertilizer consumption increased from 76 kilogrammes pe hectare to about 131 kilogrammes per hectare between 1990 and 2001, and ha continued to rise. Deforestation and associated increases in erosion and runoff als contribute to enhanced nutrient runoff. Eutrophication problems have been note in the Gulf of Nicoya (Costa Rica), Jiquilisco Bay (El Salvador) and Corinto and E Realejo (Nicaragua). Harmful algal blooms associated with eutrophication have als been observed (Heileman, 2008d). +9.4.3 East Asian Coastal Seas — General +Both municipal waste-water and agricultural runoff present problems for the Eas Asian Seas. No consistent assessment is possible across the area as a whole, but it i clear that both these major sources are causing problems, particularly in the area near the major conurbations. In the Philippines, Manila Harbour is a clear example o this. In Thailand, the national marine water-quality index shows that the mai problem areas are in the inner Gulf of Thailand, around the mouths of the Cha Phraya, Thachin, Mae Klong, and Bangpakong Rivers. In Malaysia, the overwhelmin majority of sampling stations on the east coast of the peninsula and in Sarawak Sabah and Labuan were put into the “moderate” quality classification. The bes areas are in the north of Sabah. Harmful algal blooms have become much mor frequent in recent years in all parts of the region (UNEP/COBSEA 2009). +9.4.4 Coastal waters of China +The Chinese authorities have developed a water-quality assessment system whic looks at the parameters related to (a) oxygen and nutrients (dissolved oxygen, COD pH, inorganic nitrogen and phosphates), (b) heavy metals and (c) oil. Microbiologica parameters are also monitored. Norms have been established for each of four +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +categories (Category I: Clean water, Category II: Relatively clean water, Category III Slightly polluted water, Category IV: Medium polluted water). Water that is wors than Category IV is classed as “Heavily polluted water”. Classifying waters, works o the “one out, all out” principle: if the samples from an area fail to meet the leve specified for a category for any one of the parameters, then the area is demoted to lower category. In practice, the determinant parameter for all areas is th parameter for inorganic nitrogen, except for Liaodong Bay (the north-eastern gulf o the Bohai Sea), where the determinant parameter is inorganic phosphate. Figure shows the results in 2014 for studies in major bays along the coast of China: man are heavily polluted (the absence of indications seaward of the lines enclosing th bays, of course, does not mean that the water there is clean; merely that the dat for such areas is not included in this map). The total area of waters that could not b classified as Category | (clean water) increased steeply, at about 20,000 squar kilometres/year, from 1990 to 2000. Since then, the amount of water that i classified as other than clean has remained more stable, although the areas withi the different categories below Category | have fluctuated. In particular, the tota area classified as heavily polluted water (worse than Category IV) has remained mor or less stable over the decade from 2000 to 2009. The fluctuations have, however been different in the different areas. In the Bohai Sea, although the area of clea water has increased, the other areas have deteriorated in status. It should b remembered that about 10 per cent of the planet’s population live in th catchments of the Bohai Sea. In the Yellow Sea, the area in category Il and wors increased by about 40 per cent between 2003 and 2004, but by 2009 had recovere its pre-2003 level. In the East China Sea, the area in Category | (clean water increased until 2005, but after that point remained constant. In the South China Sea the area of water in Categories Il and worse increased by about 75 per cent fro 2000 to 2004, but then fell back again in 2005; it then worsened again by 2009 to level worse than in 2004. These figures show that the extent of marine pollutio measured in this way is probably significantly related to changing levels of runof from land, since it is the levels of nutrients that are determinative (Wang et al. 2011). +Harmful algal blooms in Chinese coastal waters increased massively in number an extent since the 1990s, affecting areas up to 30,000 square kilometres (Wang et al. 2011). Since 2006, the areas affected by “red tides” have decreased, now being les than 20,000 square kilometres. The areas affected by “green tides” have, however increased since 2008 (China, 2012). +© 2016 United Nations 5 + +fe . a Liaodong Bay\~* = ~Pulandian Bay’| +Legen Area of Category |) Area of Category I [EBB area of Category 11 HEB aves of Category 1V +HEB area of Worse tha ] Category IV +a +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 9. Water Quality in 2014 in Major Bays along the Coast of China. Source: China NMEMC, 2015. +9.4.5 Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, and the NOWPAP region +Assessment of relative inputs of nutrients to the Yellow Sea from China and th Korean Peninsula is not possible because comparable data are lacking. The sam applies to discharges into the parts of the NOWPAP region®. From the pattern of +8 The NOWPAP (Northwest Pacific Action Plan) was established by China, Japan, the Republic of Kore and the Russian Federation in 1994 as an integral part of the Regional Seas Programme of the Unite Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). As stated in the Northwest Pacific Action Plan, it covers th "marine environment and coastal zones of the following States: [Democratic People's Republic o Korea]; Japan; People's Republic of China; Republic of Korea; and Russian Federation from abou 121°E to 143°E longitude and from approximately 52°N to 33°N latitude, without prejudice to th sovereign right of any State". +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +harmful algal blooms, however, it is clear that real problems exist here. Harmfu algal blooms have been observed along all the coasts, particularly concentrated i the Bohai Sea, on the south of the Korean Peninsula and on the north-west of th island of Kyushu (Japan). Harmful algal blooms off the Chinese coast are usuall judged to be much larger than those off the Korean Peninsula and Japan. This ma be due to the means of observation: China uses aircraft more than the Republic o Korea and Japan, which rely on ships. In Russian Federation waters, the blooms ar confined to Peter the Great Bay, and appear to be the result of the size of the loca urban population: no serious harm is attributed to them (NOWPAP, 2007). A UNDP GEF Strategic Action Programme has committed China and the Republic of Korea t reduce nutrient discharges to the Yellow Sea by 10 per cent every 5 years up unti 2020 (UNDP, 2011). +9.4.6 North-West Pacific (Kuroshio and Oyashio Currents) +Japan has a long history of sewage collection and treatment. The sewage fro about 85 per cent of the population is treated: about 60 per cent by sewerag networks and about 25 per cent by small local plants. Nutrient removal durin sewage treatment is, however, much less common (JSWA, 2014). On the easter coasts of Japan, there are problems of high levels of nutrients, but these appear t be confined to the more enclosed waters near major conurbations, such as Toky Bay and Osaka Bay (Japan MOE, 2009). +9.4.7 South-East Pacific Ocean +As with hazardous substances, the information available on a consistent basis i relatively old. What it showed is that major conurbations lack effective sewag treatment works: the Tumaco estuary in Colombia, the Gulf of Guayaquil (especiall the inner area, where oxygen levels were so low that fish were absent) in Ecuador areas near Ferrol, Callao and Ilo-Ite in Peru, and the bays of San Vicente, Valparais and Concepcién in Chile showed high levels of nutrients, and consequen eutrophication problems (CPPS, 2000). In spite of substantial programmes o investment in sewage collection and treatment (Peru has increased the proportio of the population served from 9 per cent to 37 per cent between 1985 to 2010) problems remain. Likewise, high levels of fertilizer use add to the problems. +Darwin was one of the first to record red tides (algal blooms) in this area, but the remained rare until the 1980s. Since then, they have become frequent (several year) along the whole length of the coast from Colombia to Chile (ISP, 2010). +9.4.8 South-West Pacific +The east coast of Australia suffers from enhanced levels of nutrient runoff. Thes are particularly serious for the Great Barrier Reef. Compared to pre-Europea conditions (before 1850), modelled mean annual river loads to the Great Barrie Reef lagoon have increased 3.2 to 5.5-fold for total suspended solids, 2.0 to 5.7-fol for total nitrogen and 2.5 to 8.9-fold for total phosphorus. However, the effects var widely depending on the level of agriculture in the catchment. Almost no change i loading for most pollutants has been observed in the rivers capable of affecting th northern Great Barrier Reef, but there have been much greater changes in river capable of affecting the central and southern Great Barrier Reef. Given the +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +sensitivity of the corals of the Great Barrier Reef, the risk of adverse effects is high Recent work suggests that a substantial part of the decline in hard coral is due to th high nutrient levels in the southern areas (Bell et al., 2014). +Further south, more than half the estuaries in New South Wales are subject t double the natural levels of sediment and nutrient inputs, and around one-third o these estuaries have been cleared of more than 50 per cent of their natural marin vegetation. These and other pressures are directly linked to the poor water qualit found in a high proportion of New South Wales estuaries: only 11 per cent of th estuaries have been found to comply more than 90 per cent of the time with th guidelines for chlorophyll-a. © Many of the estuaries are under pressure fro excessive inputs of sediments and nutrients, and altered freshwater inputs an hydrological regimes (SE2011 Committee, 2011). +In New Zealand, significant eutrophication problems generally only occur in shallo estuaries and bays with restricted circulation. Guidelines for nutrient discharge hav been adopted to deal with these problems (ESNZ, 2014). However, delivery o suspended sediment to the sea around New Zealand is 1.7 percent of the world tota delivery, when the New Zealand land area is only 0.2% of the global land area (Hick et al., 2011). +10. Inputs of Radioactive Substances +The waters, biota and sediments of the ocean all contain radioactivity. Some of thi is entirely natural, representing the dispersion of naturally radioactive isotope throughout the earth and the effects of cosmic radiation. Some, however, is th product of relatively recent human activities: the use of atomic bombs during Worl War Il, the testing of further nuclear weapons, discharges and emissions fro nuclear power plants and nuclear reprocessing plants, dumping of radioactive waste accidents involving nuclear material and other less significant activities. Som human activities that concentrate naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM have a longer history. +In considering radioactivity in the marine environment, it is essential to distinguis between: +(a)The occurrence of ionizing radiation, emitted through the decay o radionuclides, with the level of activity measured in becquerels (one becquere being the activity of a quantity of radioactive material in which one nuclid decays every second); and +(b)The impact of such radiation on living organisms, where the energy deposite in the tissues of the organism (the absorbed dose) is measured in grays, an the sum of the effects of that dose on the different parts of the body (th effective dose) is measured, for humans, in sieverts. The biological effects o the absorbed dose vary according to the nature of the radiation (a-radiatio can have a much more significant effect than B- or y-radiation) and the part o the body affected. When the radioactive substance is incorporated into the +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +body (for example, by being eaten), its effects integrated over a period of 5 years (70 years for children) are estimated through the committed effectiv dose, expressed in sieverts. +Naturally occurring radioactivity in the oceans +The natural background radioactivity in the ocean varies considerably. A stud conducted under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) i 1995 examined the variations between the FAO major fishing areas. This looked a the distribution of polonium-210 (7"°Po), based on the view that, on a global scale this isotope was radiologically the most important representative of naturall occurring radioactive material. The study concluded that insufficient evidence wa then available to estimate the levels of polonium radioactivity in seawater in th different areas of the world. However, data for levels of polonium radioactivity i fish (shown in Figure 10), crustacea and molluscs for those areas for which data wer available showed variations by factors of 58, 250 and 71, respectively, between th highest and lowest levels (MARDOS, 1995). +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +210, +Figure 10. Concentrations of “Po in fish for FAO major fishing areas. Becquerels per kilogramme o wet weight. Source: IAEA, MARDOS, 1995. +10.1 Anthropogenic radioactivity in the oceans +Anthropogenic releases of radionuclides into the ocean have had a measurabl effect on the levels of radioactivity in the oceans and its distribution. The distribution +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +in space and time can be quite complex, but is always related to four genera processes: the type and location of the input, radioactive decay, biogeochemistr and oceanic processes, such as transport by ocean currents and sedimentation. Th complex interaction of these processes over time means that all parts of the ocea are affected by anthropogenic releases of radionuclides, but that the distribution i quite varied. The 1995 IAEA study, using caesium-137 (**’Cs) as typical o anthropogenic radionuclides, estimated that radioactivity levels of *°’Cs in seawate and fish vary by factors of around 40-60 between the Southern Ocean (the lowest and the North-East Atlantic (the highest) (MARDOS, 1995). Although the ocea contains most of the anthropogenic radionuclides released into the environment the radiological impact of this contamination is low. Radiation doses from naturall occurring radionuclides in the marine environment (for example, 7*°Po), are o average two orders of magnitude higher (WOMARS, 2005). +Becquerels per cubic metre +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 11. Concentrations of +37Cs in seawater for FAO major fishing areas. Source: MARDOS, 1995. +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 12. Concentrations of *37Cs in fish for FAO major fishing areas. Becquerels per kilogramme o net weight. Source: MARDOS, 1995. +10.1.1 Testing of nuclear weapons +Much of the anthropogenic radioactivity in the ocean derives from global fall-ou from the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons between 1945 and 1963. Most o this global fall-out resulted from the input of radioactive material from th explosions into the stratosphere. There was also additional local fall-out fro material which did not reach the stratosphere. The United Nations Scientifi Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) estimates that this globa fall-out totalled around 2,500 million terabecquerels (TBq) (UNSCEAR, 2008). Usin sr and *2’Cs as indicators, an IAEA study estimated that about 64 per cent of thi fell on the oceans, of which 1 per cent fell on the Arctic Ocean, 26 per cent on th North Atlantic Ocean, 7 per cent on the South Atlantic Ocean, 14 per cent on th Indian Ocean, 35 per cent on the North Pacific Ocean and 17 per cent on the Sout Pacific Ocean. The IAEA study further estimated that the inventory of radioactivit from this source in the oceans had decreased (through natural decay) by 2000 t about 13,850,000 TBq. Much of this reduction was, of course, the result of the deca of short-lived isotopes (WOMARS, 2005). There have been no atmospheric tests o nuclear weapons since 1980, and so this major source of anthropogenic radioactivit appears to be purely historic. +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +10.1.2 Nuclear reprocessing +Overall, the second largest source of anthropogenic inputs of radioactive materia into the ocean has been nuclear re-processing plants. In this sector, the majo sources are the plants at Cap de la Hague (France: current capacity 1,700 tons/yea of waste reprocessed) and Sellafield (United Kingdom: current capacity 2,10 tons/year). When the plants at these sites started work in the 1970s, relatively hig levels of radioactive materials were discharged to the sea, reaching a peak in 1975 o 5,230 TBq of *°’Cs and 466 TBq of °’Sr from Sellafield. Over the period 1970 — 1983 discharges from Cap de la Hague were much lower, representing about 2 per cen and 16 per cent respectively, of the levels of *?’Cs and °°Sr discharges from Sellafield In both cases, steps were taken to reduce discharge levels drastically, and ne technology was developed and installed. The result was that aggregate annua discharges (other than tritium) from the two sites were reduced, by 2000, to aroun 98.2 TBq (0.2 TBq of a-emitting substances and 98 TBq of B-emitting substance other than tritium). Since then efforts at reductions have continued: by 2011 discharges were down to 18.2 TBq (0.1 TBq of a-emitting substances and 18.1 TBq o B-emitting substances other than tritium). This represents a reduction of 99.7 pe cent from the peak of annual discharges (WOMARS, 2005; OSPAR, 2013; NEA, 2013) Although some States remain concerned at these discharges, the major impact i now only historic. It has been announced that one of the Sellafield plants (th Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP)) will close in 2018, when the currentl programmed reprocessing has been completed, although this programme i currently reported to be behind schedule (NDA, 2014). +During the implementation of these reductions, some European States raise concerns about discharges of technetium-99 (°°Tc) from a new plant at Sellafield Technetium has chemical properties close to those of manganese, which is naturall concentrated by many crustacea, especially lobsters. The “Tc discharges from th new plant at Sellafield were initially high: just over 180 TBq in 1994. This wa substantially due to treating a backlog accumulated while the new plant was built but “Tc discharges were still at around 40 TBaq/year in 2003. In response t continued pressure from these European States, the United Kingdom has no implemented a chemical process to remove much of the Tc from the discharg stream, and levels are now below 5TBq/year (OSPAR, 2010). +Other civilian reprocessing plants on much smaller scales were operational i Belgium, Germany and Italy, but have been closed since 1991 or earlier. China has small nuclear reprocessing plant (capacity 50 tons/year) in operation in the inlan province of Gansu. A larger plant (capacity 800 tons/year) is reported to be planne to start operation in the same province in 2017, and plans for a further plant exist India has small reprocessing plants at coastal sites at Trombay (near Mumbai capacity 60 tons/year), Tarapur (in Maharashtra: capacity 100 tons/year) an Kalpakkam (in Tamil Nadu: capacity 100 tons/year). A further plant (capacity 10 tons/year) was opened in 2011 at Tarapur, and further capacity is being built a Kalpakkam. Japan has a pilot reprocessing plant at Tokai on the coast north of Toky (capacity 40 tons/year) and is in the process of opening a large plant (capacity 80 tons/year) at Rokkasho (on the coast at the northern end of Honshu). No data on +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +discharges from any of these plants seem to be available. The Russian Federatio has operated the Mayak reprocessing plant (capacity 400 tons/year) near Ozyersk i the Ural Mountains since 1971. The nearby Lake Karachay has been used for th discharge of large quantities of radioactive waste. The IAEA 2005 study noted tha this lake represents a potential source for future contamination of the Ob Rive system, and thus of the Arctic Ocean. New reprocessing facilities are also unde construction at Zhelenogorsk, near the border with the Ukraine. Apart from the ris from Lake Karachay, there is no evidence to suggest that these other civilia reprocessing plants have led, or might lead, to significant contamination of th ocean (NEA, 2013; WNA, 2013; WOMARS, 2005). +10.1.3 Nuclear accidents +There have been two nuclear accidents that reached level 7 (the highest level) on th IAEA’s International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale: Chernobyl and Fukushima These have resulted in substantial amounts of radioactive material reaching th ocean. +10.2. Chernobyl +On 26 April 1986, the Number Four reactor at the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl Ukraine, went out of control during a test at low power, leading to an explosion an fire that demolished the reactor building and released large amounts of radioactiv material into the atmosphere. Around 100,000 TBq of **’Cs were released to th atmosphere. Although most of this activity was deposited on land, a significant par went to the sea, particularly the Baltic Sea. The total input of *°”Cs from Chernoby to the Baltic Sea has been estimated at 4,700 TBq, including post-Chernobyl rive discharges of *3’Cs to the Baltic Sea estimated at 300 TBa. Inputs from Chernobyl t the Black Sea have been estimated at 2,000-3000 TBq *2’Cs. The North Sea and th Mediterranean Sea also received inputs of radioactive material, and continue to d so through outflows from the Baltic Sea and Black Sea, respectively. +Because of the Chernobyl input, the Baltic Sea has the highest concentrations o 137Cs of any sea region. Average concentrations of **’Cs in fish from the Baltic Sea i 1990 were similar to those in the Irish Sea (which were affected by the Sellafiel discharges), about 4 times higher than in the Black Sea, and about 30 times highe than in the Mediterranean Sea. However, radiation doses to humans in the Balti Sea area from marine pathways (including those from *°”Cs in fish) during 1999-200 have not exceeded an annual value of 0.02 mSv, and the dose for a person eating 9 kilogrammes a year of fish was estimated at 0.014 mSv over the period 2007 — 201 — both well below the limit of 1 mSv per year for the general public set in the IAE Basic Safety Standards. HELCOM assessments in 2009 and 2013 concluded tha concentrations of radioactive substances in the Baltic Sea are not expected to caus harmful effects to wildlife in the foreseeable future (WOMARS, 2005; HELCOM 2009; HELCOM, 2013). Likewise, a 2006 IAEA report concluded that radioactivit concentrations in marine fish resulting from the inputs from the Chernobyl disaste to the marine environment are not of concern (IAEA, 2006). +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +10.3 Fukushima +On 11 March 2011, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake occurred near Honshu, Japan creating a devastating tsunami that left a trail of death and destruction in its wake The earthquake and the subsequent tsunami, which flooded over 500 squar kilometres of land, resulted in the loss of more than 20,000 lives and destroye property, infrastructure and natural resources. They also led to the worst civi nuclear disaster since Chernobyl. Three of the six nuclear reactors at Fukushim Daiichi nuclear power station suffered severe core damage. This resulted in th release, over a prolonged period, of very large amounts of radioactive material int the environment. UNSCEAR concluded that the information available to it implie atmospheric releases of iodine-131 (**"I) and caesium-137 (*?’Cs) in the ranges o 100,000-500,000 TBq and 6,000-20,000 TBaq, respectively. (721 and *°’Cs are two o the most significant radionuclides from the point of view of exposures of people an the environment). Winds transported a large portion of the atmospheric release onto the Pacific Ocean. In addition, liquids containing radioactivity were discharge directly into the surrounding sea. The direct discharges amounted to around 10 pe cent (for 871) and 50 per cent (for *2’Cs) of the corresponding atmospheri discharges. Low-level releases into the ocean were still ongoing in May 2013. Th estimated releases are about 10 per cent (**"I) and 20 per cent (*°’Cs) of th corresponding estimated atmospheric releases from the Chernobyl acciden (UNSCEAR, 2013), but because of the sea-side site and the effects of the winds, th Fukushima event was the largest-ever accidental release of radioactive material t the ocean, being slightly more than the amount reaching the sea from th intrinsically much larger Chernobyl event (Japan, 2011; Pacchioli, 2013). +UNSCEAR further concluded that exposures of marine biota to radioactivity followin the accident were, in general, too low for acute effects to be observed, though ther may have been some exceptions because of local variability. Effects on biota in th marine environment would have been confined to areas close to where the highl radioactive water was released into the ocean (UNSCEAR, 2013). +Within a few weeks of the disaster, traces of °4Cs were found over 1,900 km across +the Pacific from Fukushima. By August 2011, bluefin tuna caught off California wer found to contain *“Cs which could only have come from Fukushima. **Cs has a half life of only two years, and so material from pre-Fukushima sources (such as weapon testing) would have decayed long before. Further sampling suggested that th strong Kurushio current acted as a barrier preventing significant amounts o radioactive material moving south in the Pacific, and confining it to around th latitude of Fukushima (Pacchioli, 2013; Fisher et al., 2013). +In December 2013, the IAEA confirmed that a comprehensive Sea Area Monitorin Plan had been established, noting that radionuclide concentrations remain withi the WHO guidelines for drinking water and that the public is safe. The IAE assessment also addressed monitoring of food products, adding that the join FAO/IAEA Division concluded that measures taken to monitor and rapidly respond t any issues regarding radionuclide contamination in the food system are appropriat and that the public food supply (including food from the sea) is safe (IAEA, 2013a IAEA, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 6 + +10.4 Other nuclear accidents +The 2005 IAEA study reviewed the full range of accidents involving radioactiv material resulting in inputs to the ocean, but did not consider that the amounts wer significant, beyond noting that the six sunken nuclear submarines which remain i the ocean with their reactors may be considered as potential sources of radioactiv contamination of the ocean, and that nuclear-powered satellites burning up in th atmosphere on re-entry can affect radioactivity in the ocean (a 1964 incident ove the southern hemisphere resulted in a measurable increase in the ratio betwee 385uy and 7°°74°py between the northern and southern hemispheres (WOMARS 2005). +10.4.1 Nuclear power plants +There were 434 commercial nuclear power reactors in 30 countries in operation a the end of 2013. The plants containing them have a total capacity of over 370,00 megawatts (MW). A little over 300,000 MW of this capacity is in OECD countries About 72 more reactors are under construction. These plants produce over 11 pe cent of the world's electricity: from nearly 75 per cent of the national supply i France to 1.5 per cent in the Islamic Republic of Iran (see Table 5). Other State which do not have nuclear power plants, such as Denmark and Italy, impor substantial amounts of their electricity from neighbouring States which rel substantially on nuclear power (IAEA, 2013b). Electricity generated from nuclea power is therefore a significant source of energy. +Table 5. Proportion of electricity generated from nuclear power 2013. +STATE PER CENT OF STATE PER CENT OF STATE PER CENT O ELECTRICITY FROM ELECTRICITY FROM ELECTRICITY FRO NUCLEAR POWER NUCLEAR POWER NUCLEAR POWE France 73.3 | Bulgaria 30.7 | South Africa 5. Belgium 52.1 | Armenia 29.2 | Mexico 4. Slovakia 51.7 | Korea, 27.6 | Argentina 4 Republic o Hungary 50.7 | United 19.4 | Pakistan 4 States o Americ Ukraine 43.6 | United 18.3 | India 3. Kingdo Sweden 42.7 | Russia 17.5 | Brazil 2. Switzerland 36.4 | Romania 19.8 | Netherlands 2. Czech 35.9 | Spain 19.7 | China 2. Republi Slovenia 33.6 | Canada 16.0 | Japan 1. Finland 33.3 | Germany 15.4 | Iran, Islamic 1. Republic o Source: IAEA PRIS Database, IAEA, 2013b. +© 2016 United Nations 69 + +Emissions and discharges are inevitable from the operation of these plants. For th purposes of the World Ocean Assessment, the crucial question is the extent of th impact of these emissions and discharges on the marine environment. The 200 IAEA survey of sources of anthropogenic inputs of radioactive materials to the ocea commented that routine discharges from nuclear power plants contribute orders o magnitude less to the radioactive contamination of the world ocean than nuclear weapons testing, nuclear reprocessing plants and nuclear accidents (WOMARS 2005). The supporting material for the 2008 UNSCEAR report to the United Nation General Assembly gives a figure of approximately 1.3 TBq as the worldwid aggregate level of radioactivity from radionuclides other than tritium released fro nuclear power plants in liquid effluents in 2002 (UNSCEAR, 2008). Data from som plants is not included but, as can be seen from comparison with the figures quote above for other sources, this is consistent with the WOMARS conclusion. The 200 UNSCEAR report further comments that radiation doses from nuclear power reactor decrease over time because of lower discharge levels. This is consistent with th observations recorded by the OSPAR Commission, which noted a statisticall significant reduction of 38 per cent in total B-activity (other than tritium) fro nuclear industries discharging into the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR, 2010). At th same time, aggregate discharges from nuclear power plants are likely to increas somewhat as the nuclear power stations under construction and planned come o stream. +Discharges of tritium are, however, rather different. The production of tritium b nuclear power plants is normally related to the level of electricity generated. N accepted abatement technology exists, and the amount of radioactivity in discharge can be many times that from other radionuclides. However, tritium is a natura product produced by cosmic rays. This source accounts for a significant amount o the radionuclide found in the sea. It also has a very low dose coefficient an therefore exhibits a very low radiotoxicity to humans and inherently lo radiotoxicity to biota (OSPAR, 2007). +10.4.2 Human activities concentrating naturally occurring radioactive materia (NORM) +A wide range of materials used in an even wider range of human activities contai natural radioactivity. The effects of the human activities can be to concentrate thi naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) from these materials, usually in th form of waste. Recent studies by the OSPAR Commission (summarized in OSPAR 2010) conclude that the major source of NORM reaching the North-East Atlantic i the offshore oil and gas industry, where produced water (water coming from th reservoir with the oil and gas) and the scale that it deposits in pipelines (which has t be cleared periodically) contains low levels of radionuclides (mainly *”°Pb, **°Po, an 226/228R a) _ Although the proportion of total-a activity is higher than for discharge from the nuclear industries, the overall concentrations are not so far thought to b significant, although work to assess the levels is continuing. Apart from phosphat rock processing (see below), other anthropogenic sources of NORM in the marin environment are not thought to be significant. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +One form of NORM reaching the marine environment that has been thought to b significant in some States is the *“°Po found in phosphogypsum, a by-product of th treatment of rock containing phosphate to produce phosphate fertilizers. In man cases, this phosphogypsum has been discharged directly into the sea as slurry. A Workington, England, in the area affected by the Whitehaven phosphate-processin plant releases, it was found that molluscs were concentrating this “°Po to an exten that those who consumed substantial quantities of the molluscs might be ingestin 2109 at potentially dangerous levels. The closure of the plant in 1992 resolved th problem. Similar problems were also found at a plant at Rotterdam in th Netherlands, which was also closed. For these and other reasons, this method o disposing of phosphogypsum has been phased out in most countries. It continues i Lebanon, Morocco (where it is under review) and South Africa (IAEA, 2013c). +10.5 Impact of radioactivity in the marine environment +Two issues need to be differentiated: the impact of radioactivity from the marin environment on humans, and the impact of such radioactivity on marine biota. +As far as concerns the radiation impact on humans through food from the marin environment, the IAEA MARDOS study in 1995 reported on the exposure of human to *°7Cs and 7*°Po, as the anthropogenic and natural radionuclides, respectively, o most radiological significance. This study concluded that, worldwide, the mea individual committed effective doses in 1990 were: +Table 6. Estimated mean individual committed effective doses in 1990 from *°’Cs and *"°Po +Radionuclide Food Mean individual effective dose Uncertainty factor as source commitment worldwide result of limited data +(microsieverts) +BCs Fish 0.03 uSv 0.5 +(anthropogenic) +BCs Shellfish 0.002 Sv 0.5 +(anthropogenic) +219B9 (natural) Fish 1.9 - 2.3 uSv 5 +2°Bo (natural) Shellfish 2.8 —7.2 uSv 5 +Source, MARDOS, 1995 +In another way of considering the data, the study identified the critical group o humans (the group most at risk) as those eating seafood from the North-Eas Atlantic, the FAO major fishing area with the highest levels of radioactivity. Taking a the definition of the critical group those consuming 100 kg of fish and 10 kg o shellfish per year (a daily consumption of about 300 g (about 10% oz) of seafood) the total individual committed effective doses were estimated for 1990 at 3.1 uS from *°’Cs and 160 Sv from 7*°Po. There is no reason to consider that current level would be significantly higher. All these figures must be considered in relation to the +© 2016 United Nations 71 + +IAEA’s recommended annual limit for exposure of the general public to radiation o 1mSv (1,000 Sv). +For a long time, the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP — th international body of experts that agrees standards of radiation protection considered that the precautions necessary to protect humans will be adequate t protect other species: “The Commission believes that...if man is adequatel protected, then other living things are also likely to be sufficiently protected” (ICRP 1977). In the 1990s, this approach was questioned, particularly for habitats wher humans do not go — which covers much of the marine environment. It was no suggested that there were any obvious cases where the approach was failing t protect non-human species, but rather that it was desirable to adopt an approac which would explicitly demonstrate the proper protection of the whol environment. The ICRP debated this extensively from 2000 and in 2005 set up a ne standing committee to consider the radiological protection of the environment. Thi debate resulted in the inclusion of an approach for developing a framework t demonstrate radiological protection of the environment, as part of the general 200 revision of the ICRP recommendations (ICRP, 2007). The ICRP considered that thi approach needed to be based on a sound scientific system similar to that develope for human protection, and that this could best be achieved by the creation of a set o Reference Animals and Plants. Descriptions of 12 “reference animals and plants have been developed, of which three — a flatfish, a crab and a seaweed — ar relevant to the marine environment. These are generic biological descriptions of th types of animal and plant, accompanied by consideration of their vulnerability t radiation and the relationship between environmental levels of radionuclides an the corresponding levels in such animals and plants. Most recently, in 2014, the ICR has published guidance on the application of their recommendations to differen exposure situations with respect to the animals and plants living in different types o natural environments. Central to this approach is the “Derived Consideratio Reference Level” (DCRL): a band of dose rates within which there is some chance of deleterious effect from ionizing radiation occurring to individuals of that type o Reference Animal or Plant. The recommended DCRLs are shown in Figure 13 (ICRP 2009; ICRP, 2014). This work is being taken forward through the IAEA Internationa Plan of Activities on the Radiation Protection of the Environment. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Cra ‘Ee fi Grass Trout Frog Flatish © Seawee | ao 7 | +Duck | +jeer Rat Pine tee +0.001 +Figure 13. Derived Consideration Reference Levels for Reference Animals and Plants. In milligray (mGy)/day. Source: IPRC, 2014. +11. Significant environmental, economic and social aspects of land-based Input and related information and capacity-building gaps +The world needs to feed, clothe, house and keep happy its 7% billion people. Th agricultural and industrial developments of the past two centuries have substantiall enabled this to be done and, to a significant extent, have assisted in improvin human well-being. But these achievements have been obtained at a price: thes agricultural and industrial developments have seriously degraded important parts o the planet, including much of the marine environment. Land-based inputs to th ocean have contributed substantially to this degradation of the marine environment. +The GPA highlighted the need for action to deal with sewage. Although much ha been done to implement national plans adopted under the GPA, particularly in Sout America, this chapter shows that lack of sewage systems and waste-water treatmen plants is still a major threat to the ocean. This is particularly the case in respect o very large urban settlements. The lack of proper management of waste-water an human wastes leads to excessive inputs of both nutrients and hazardous substances which damage the marine environment. It also causes problems for human health both directly and through bacteriological contamination of food from the sea. +From the point of view of industrial development, many of the earlier industria processes brought with them serious environmental damage, especially whe concentrations of industry led to intense levels of waste inputs to the sea, beyond it carrying capacity. New technologies and processes have largely been develope which have the ability to avoid these problems, but there can be gaps in the capacit to apply these newer processes, often because of the costs involved. +This is particularly significant because of the major transfer in the growth o industrial production demonstrated in this chapter. In the past, industria production has been dominated by the countries around the North Atlantic basi and its adjacent seas, together with Japan. Over the past 15 years, the rapid growth +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +of industries along the rest of the western Pacific Rim and around the Indian Ocea has changed this. Rapidly growing proportions of the world’s industrial production and the associated waste discharges — are focused on the South Atlantic, the India Ocean and the western Pacific. +The survey in this chapter shows that some major information gaps need to be fille before this process of industrial growth can be managed in a way that can avoi reproducing, in the new areas of growth, the many problems that have bee discovered in the areas that have been industrialized longer. For long stretches o the coastal zones, information is lacking on what is happening with heavy metals an other hazardous substances. Information is also lacking on the extent to whic developing industries are able to apply the newer, cleaner technologies. Moreover information is very scarce on how problems in the coastal zones are affecting th open ocean. +The agricultural revolution of the last part of the 20" century, which has largel enabled the world to feed its rapidly growing population, has also brought with i problems for the oceans, in the form of enhanced runoff of both agricultura nutrients and pesticides, as well as the airborne and waterborne inputs of nutrient from wastes from agricultural stock. In the case of fertilizers, there is a rapid growt in their use in parts of the world where only limited use has occurred in the past This has the potential to lead to increased nutrient runoff to the ocean, if th increased use of fertilizers is not managed well. There are therefore problems i educating farmers, promoting good husbandry that causes less nutrient runoff an monitoring what is happening to agricultural runoff alongside sewage discharges. I the case of pesticides, the issues are analogous to those of industrial development Newer pesticides are less polluting than older ones, but gaps remain in the capacit to ensure that these less-polluting pesticides are used, in terms of educatin farmers, enabling them to afford the newer pesticides, supervising the distributio systems, and monitoring what is happening in the oceans. +The growth of dead zones, resulting from excessive nutrient runoff and th consequent eutrophication problems, is serious in terms of all three of environment economics and society. The dead zones drive fish away and kill the benthic animals Where the dead zone is seasonal, such regeneration as happens is usually at a lowe trophic level, and the ecosystems are therefore degraded. This affects the maritim economy seriously, both for fishers and (where tourism has some dependence o the attractiveness of the ecosystem (for example, where there are coral reefs)) fo the tourist industry. Social consequences are then easy to see, both through th direct economic effects on the fishing and tourist industries and in depriving th local human populations of the benefits of an attractive environment. +In respect of heavy metals and hazardous substances, frameworks have emerged a the international level for addressing some of these problems. In particular, th Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the Minamat Convention on Mercury provide agreed international frameworks for the States tha are party to them to address the issues that they cover. Implementing them however, will require many capacities and, as the organizations involved with these +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Conventions have noted, there are important gaps in those capacities around th world. +In the case of radioactive discharges into the ocean, the survey shows that, in th past, there have been human activities that have given rise to concern, but tha reactions to these concerns have largely removed the underlying problems, althoug there is a continuing need to monitor what is happening to radioactivity in th ocean. What remains is the concern voiced in the GPA that public reaction t concerns about marine radioactivity could result in rejection of fish as a food source with consequent harm to countries that have a large fisheries sector and damage t the world’s ability to use the important food resources provided by the marin environment. +Underlying all these issues is the major information gap in the information needed t see what is happening around the world to the ocean as a result of land-base inputs. This chapter has noted a range of differing systems for assessing the state o the ocean in respect of both hazardous substances and eutrophication. Thes systems usually differ for good reasons: conditions vary widely around the world There is a lack, however, of methods to compare explicitly the information that eac assessment system produces. This does not imply a need for a single global syste of monitoring: as has been said, good reasons for the differences often exist. But a important gap in information results from the lack of any means of comparing th answers given by the different assessment systems. Comparison betwee monitoring systems also presupposes good quality-assurance of monitoring data. +An even more important gap in information is the absence of any form of regular systematic assessment of the impact of land-based inputs in many parts of th world. In some parts of the world, such as the Caribbean, many one-off independent examinations of several aspects of the marine environment have bee undertaken, but they are not in forms which enable them to be assembled into wider, continuous assessment. Given the potential significance of transboundar effects from land-based inputs, this is a very serious information gap. In at leas some parts of the world where this is the case, universities and marine researc institutes have the capacity to carry out the monitoring and analysis that is needed what is lacking is more the capacity to organize these existing capacities to fill th wider information gap. +In summary, therefore, important changes are under way in the location around th world of industrial activity and agriculture, which have the potential to cause seriou problems if past errors are reproduced. Worrying gaps exist in the capacitie needed: to provide sewerage systems and waste-water treatment plants, t implement international conventions regulating which substances can be put int the sea from the land, and to monitor what is happening in the marine environmen as aresult. Finally, overall, major gaps remain in knowledge about land-based input and what knowledge about them is available in different parts of the world. +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +References +Abrahim, G.M.S. and Parker, R.J. 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China’s Pulp and Paper Industry: A Review Georgia Tech, http://www.cpbis.gatech.edu/files/papers/CPBIS-FR-08 03%20Zhuang_Ding_Li%20FinalReport-China_Pulp_and_Paper_Industry.pdf +© 2016 United Nations 9 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_20.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_21.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_21.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d6abdfb2eec61b4c590c3e3bba0e4af31829489b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_21.txt @@ -0,0 +1,416 @@ +Chapter 21. Offshore Hydrocarbon Industries +Contributors: Peter Harris (Lead member and Convenor of Writing Team) Babajide Alo, Arsonina Bera, Marita Bradshaw, Bernard Coakley, +Bjorn Einar Grosvik, Nuno Lourenco, Julian Renya Moreno, Mark Shrimpton Alan Simcock (Co-Lead member), Asha Singh +Commentators: Ana Paula Falcao, Nathan Young, Jim Kelley +1. Scale and significance of the offshore hydrocarbon industries and thei social and economic benefits. +1.1 Location of offshore exploration and production activities +Offshore oil and gas exploration and development is focused in specific geographi areas where important oil fields have been discovered. Notable offshore fields ar found in: the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 1); the North Sea (Fig. 2); California (in the Sant Barbara basin); the Campos and Santos Basins off the coast of Brazil; Nova Scotia an Newfoundland in Atlantic Canada; West Africa, mainly west of Nigeria and Angola the Gulf of Thailand; off Sakhalin Island on the Russian Pacific coast; in th ROPME/RECOFI area‘ and on the Australia’s North-West Shelf. +1.2 Production +According to the United States of America National Research Council (2003) in snapshot of the global offshore oil and gas industry, there were (in 2003) more tha 6,500 offshore oil and gas installations worldwide in 53 countries, 4,000 of whic were in the United States Gulf of Mexico, 950 in Asia, 700 in the Middle East and 40 in Europe. These numbers are constantly changing as the industry expands an contracts in different places in response to numerous factors involved in the globa energy market. An indicator of this volatility is that by 2014 there were only 2,41 rigs in the United States Gulf of Mexico, for example. +Global crude oil production is currently 84 million barrels per day (BPD; CI Factbook, 2012 figures) of which about 33 per cent is from the offshore (Fig. 3). Dat compiled by Infield (2014) indicate that onshore crude production plateaued a around 65 million BPD as early as the 1990s and growth in offshore production ha accounted for most of the increased global productivity since then. Production fro deep water? (>100 m water depth and as deep as 2,900 m at Shell Oil’s “Stones” field +* Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Members: Bahrain Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates Regional Commission for Fisheries (RECOFI) Members: Bahrain, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates. +2 Although Infield (2014) uses 500 ft (152 m) as the divide between shallow and deep water, there i no agreed definition of “deep water”. The geomorphic continental shelf break is typically around 100 +© 2016 United Nation + +in the Gulf of Mexico) platforms accounted for about 1 per cent of production i 2000 but this figure had increased to 7 per cent by 2010 and is anticipated to reac 11 per cent of total global production by 2015 (Infield, 2014; Fig. 3). +Over 1,000 offshore oilfields are forecast to be developed between 2011 and 2015 about 80 per cent of which will be in shallow water depths (<100 m). Capita spending on shallow water platforms and pipelines is forecast to grow from a estimated 50 billion United States dollars in 2011 to nearly 60 billion United State dollars by 2015, whereas spending on deep water infrastructure is forecast to ris from 45 billion dollars in 2011 to nearly 80 billion dollars by 2015 (Infield, 2014). +Offshore natural gas production is geographically dispersed: key areas include th North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Qatar, Wes Africa and South America. The geographic areas of major investment are (in order o decreasing numbers of projects): the North Sea; Southeast Asian seas; the Gulf o Mexico; Eastern Indian Ocean; and Gulf of Guinea. +In 2001, the United States received 23 per cent of its domestic natural gas from th Gulf of Mexico but by 2013 federal waters of the Gulf of Mexico provided only 5 pe cent of United States production (EIA, 2014). The reason is the fracking (hydrauli fracturing) revolution combined with horizontal drilling into tight (i.e. lo permeability) geological formations, which has led to a significant increase in th United States’ production of onshore shale gas and shale oil such that domesti production will meet US requirements in the short to medium term (until the mi 2020s). Fracking is also employed in some offshore locations (e.g. off souther California). +The southernmost offshore petroleum facilities in production in the world are in ga fields located 70 km offshore Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. These fields are currentl producing 15 million cubic metres of gas per day. The offshore platforms ar designed to resist the roughest sea conditions and wind speeds of up to 180 km/hr The northernmost facilities in production are the Prirazlomnoye oil fields, located of the coast of Russia in the Pechora Sea (adjacent to the Barents Sea). The field i estimated to hold 72 million tons of recoverable oil and production is expected t reach six million tons annually. In 2014, some 300,000 tons will be shipped out fro waters that are ice-covered for 7-8 months a year (Barents Observer, 2014). +1.3 Exploration +Oil and gas explorers rely on seismic reflection surveys to produce images of th stratigraphy and structure of subsurface rocks. They use this information t determine the location and size of oil and gas reservoirs. Globally, there were abou 142 specialized seismic vessels in operation in 2013 (Offshore Magazine, 2013) an each year the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management? gives permits for about 20 3-D +to 200 m in depth (it is around 120 m deep in the Gulf of Mexico between Texas and Florida; Harris e al., 2014), so any rig in water deeper than this is located on the continental slope (deep water) 3 On October 1, 2011, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcemen (BOEMRE), formerly the Minerals Management Service (MMS), was replaced by the Bureau of Ocean +© 2016 United Nation + +seismic surveys in the United States Gulf of Mexico. Every seismic vessel tows seismic source comprising a number of compressed air-guns, and an array o hydrophones in a “streamer” to capture the sound waves reflected fro sedimentary layers below. Multi-streamer marine seismic surveys can image th subsurface in 3 dimensions (3-D seismic), acquired by a vessel equipped wit between 8 and 16 streamers towed 50 to 100m apart, each 3 to 8 km long. Seismi reflection surveys are not restricted to the exploration phase but may be periodicall repeated during the production phase of an offshore field. Once in production, som oil fields are re-surveyed to assess how well the reservoir is drained over time (4- seismic). +Exploratory drilling is carried out mainly by jack-up rigs, semi-submersibles, o drillships. A jack-up rig consists of a buoyant hull fitted with extendable legs that resting on the sea floor, are capable of raising its hull over the surface of the sea There are about 540 jack-up rigs currently in operation globally, normally limited t shallow water (<100 m) drilling. +In order to explore in deep water, either drillships or semi-submersible vessels (als referred to as Mobile Offshore Drilling Units, or MODUs) are used. These vessel must maintain their position over the well to within a percent or so of water depth requiring either dynamic position capability (using powerful propeller “thrusters”) o anchoring to the seabed. The world fleet of offshore drilling ships currentl comprises about 80 vessels of various sizes and capabilities. Semi-submersibl vessels are built with ballasted pontoons with tall legs that support a platform. Onc on location the pontoons are partly flooded so that they sink below the ocea surface and wave action, while holding the platform at a safe height above th waves. When oil fields were first developed in deep water offshore locations, drillin semi-submersibles were converted for use as combined drilling and productio platforms. As the oil industry has progressed into deeper water, purpose-buil production semi-submersible platforms were designed. There are currently abou 40 semi-submersible, deep-water exploration vessels in operation globally (Offshor Magazine, 2013). +1.4 Social aspects of the offshore oil and gas industry +Over 200,000 people work on offshore rigs and platforms globally, although th exact number is difficult to estimate’. In 2011 there were 23,758 core offshor workers spending over 100 nights a year offshore on the United Kingdom’s North +Energy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) as par of a major reorganization (http://www.boemre.gov). +* The estimate of over 200,000 offshore workers was derived by adding the number for the North Se (about 24,000) to the number in the Gulf of Mexico (about 121,000) and multiplying by 1.5 to accoun for the remainder of the global workforce. It does not include shore-based staff. Another way t estimate the numbers working offshore is to use the average crew numbers (from www.oilpro.com as follows: (A) 540 jack-up exploration rigs (crew = 55 per rig) total of ~30,000; plus (B) 142 seismi vessels (crew = 80 per vessel) total of ~11,000; plus (C) 80 drill ships (crew = 80 per ship) total o ~6,500. For each crew at sea there is another crew ashore (on leave) so multiply by 2, making ove 100,000 personnel in total (oilpro.com), not including shore-based workers or the crews of fixe production platforms. +© 2016 United Nation + +Sea oil rigs. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, there wer 120,676 people employed in the Gulf of Mexico oil and gas industry in 2009 earnin 15.6 billion United States dollars (average income of 129,000 dollars pa). Salaries o offshore oil and gas industry workers have a broad range (Hays, 2013). In Nigeria expatriate workers are the highest paid in Africa with an average annual salary o 140,800 dollars whereas local workers in Nigeria’s oil and gas sector have an averag salary of 55,100 dollars (43 times higher than the average annual income in Nigeria which is 1,280 dollars (World Bank, 2010)). Local oil and gas sector workers hav average salaries ranging from 31,100 dollars in Sudan to 163,600 dollars in Australi (Hays, 2013). The average salaries paid to foreign workers are generally higher tha local remuneration rates, ranging from 59,800 dollars in Sudan to 171,000 dollars i Australia (Hays, 2013). +Most offshore oil workers spend extended periods, often one or more weeks, a their workplace — usually a production platform or a MODU. They then leave to liv at home onshore for a non-work period that is also commonly one or more weeks The offshore accommodations, recreational facilities and food are provided by thei employer, which also provides transportation between the workplace and som onshore “pick-up point”, commonly a heliport. This work system is variously calle “fly-in”, “fly-in/fly-out”, ”FIFO” or “long-distance commute” employment (Shrimpto and Storey, 2001). +Like other employment systems, this work pattern offers advantages an disadvantages for offshore workers, their families and the communities and region in which they live. However, it is important to note that there are importan limitations to the understanding of offshore employment effects; for example, th research to date has focused on developed countries (mostly Australia, Canada Norway, United Kingdom and of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Unite States), large operations and companies, fixed work schedules and married mal workers. +This work system has implications for various interrelated work and family life issues the most important of which are Health and Safety and Family Life: +Health and Safety: This includes issues relating to working in a hazardou environment, the remoteness of the operations, the hazardous and stressful natur of the commute, the use of extended shifts and rotations and in some instances th possible risk of abduction by pirates or militants. +Family Life: Offshore commute work presents challenges to famil relationships, but these must be assessed in the context of an understanding of th range of advantages and disadvantages that the system can present. As identified b workers and their family members, these are: +e income from offshore work; +e secondary and family employment e separation of work and family life e access to services and facilities; +e independence and decision-making; +© 2016 United Nation + +e inappropriate worker behaviour e family separation; an e isolation from and within the community. +However, these advantages and disadvantages are not always experienced in th same ways and to the same degree, with the main factors underlying such variation being differences in the availability of alternative employment, the wor environment and workers' experience of it, the regularity and security o employment, family members' experience and expectations of family life, an workers' and spouses' perceptions of the effects on the family. +Various responses and interventions may be appropriate in addressing family lif challenges, including those that improve the compatibility of the work organizatio and family life, improve the compatibility of the work culture and home life, improv self-selection during hiring, help newhires and their families get used to a new wor pattern, and provide counselling or other support to employees and famil members. +Overall, while research has shown that commute operations have somewhat highe proportions of separated and divorced workers than do conventional ones, it is no clear that this is a direct consequence of the work system, because these workplace seem to attract separated and divorced employees. +Piracy and abductions: (Kashubsky, 2011) compiled a database of 60 know attacks against maritime and petroleum infrastructure between 1975 and 2010. Ou of these incidents, 41 have occurred since 2004, the majority of which have take place in Nigeria (Kashubsky, 2011). The majority of incidents involved violenc (whether actual use of violence or threat of violence), but 15 of 60 incidents (25 pe cent) were non-violent. +Since 2006 there have been about 200 abductions in the Niger Delta of foreig workers from offshore platforms, survey vessels and pipe-laying barges. Suc abductions are carried out by militant groups, especially the Movement for th Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), whose stated goals are to localize contro of Nigeria's oil and to secure reparations from the federal government for pollutio caused by the oil industry. +1.5 Communities wholly or mostly dependent upon the offshore hydrocarbo industries +Offshore petroleum activity has had significant, and sometimes dramatic, effects o infrastructure development, education and training, and research and developmen (Stantec, 2012), primarily focused on such major centres of activity as Aberdee (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Stavanger (Norway) Houston (United States), New Orleans (United States) and St John’s (Canada) Industry activity has also increased the entrepreneurship and competitiveness o local individuals and companies at the local level, and generated population growth commonly reversing previous demographic trends. +© 2016 United Nation + +Aberdeen is a good example of the way in which these effects can affect a port city It receives many benefits from the petroleum industry but there are als “displacement and deterrence effects” on traditional industries (Harris et al., 1988) Displacement sees existing activity being crowded out by new activity, whil deterrence sees new activity preventing other activity by making a regio unattractive for it. The offshore petroleum industry generated upward pressure o wages and increased the price of housing and office space, although industria property shortages were avoided due to an increase in warehouse and factory space The high housing prices deterred outside workers from entering the region fo employment. +As a result of these forces, several industries had local growth rates below thei national averages, while ones that were already declining saw that declin accelerate. The industries that declined faster than average in the 1970s included fishing, food and drink, clothing and footwear, building materials, and timber an furniture. Harris et al. (1988) conclude that “for every 100 jobs created by the oi industry in Aberdeen, at least eight jobs have been lost in traditional industries. B 1981, displaced and deterred employment amounted to more than 3,000 jobs. O this, only about 25 percent has been absorbed by the oil sector.” +This decline of other industries resulted in a higher dependence on the oil industry Newlands (2000) estimates that, in 1985, 40 percent of Aberdeen’s workforce relie upon oil. He also notes that, in the 1960s, “most businesses in Aberdeen were locall owned and controlled with only a few examples of external ownership [but] a surve conducted in 1984 suggested that the figure had fallen to as low as 11 percent”. +By contrast with the potential negative impacts on traditional sectors of th economy, there may also be benefits for them. Harris et al. (1988), note that “bette communications... benefit individuals as well as firms. Indeed, they are just on example of the improvement in the range and quality of services available to peopl in Aberdeen which has taken place in recent years. There has been a marke increase in the number, variety, and quality of shops and restaurants. There ar more entertainment spots such as wine bars, discos and nightclubs. Thes developments cannot be attributed wholly to the establishment of the oil industry i Aberdeen, but oil developments have undoubtedly influenced the extent and pac of change”. However, such benefits are concentrated in and around major centres o offshore petroleum activity. +Such changes have had significant positive consequences for tourism in Aberdeen Stavanger, St. John’s and other activity centres. Various studies have shown th industry making a major contribution to tourism through improved air links meetings, conferences, trade shows, corporate hospitality and the persona expenditures of petroleum industry personnel. Newlands (2000) notes that ne hotels opened, and others expanded, in Aberdeen in the 1970s. This increased th number of hotel rooms by 27 percent between 1970 and 1975 and by 58 percen between 1975 and 1980. The number of restaurants rose from 17 to 36. A simila expansion and “cosmopolitanization” of the hospitality, accommodations and henc tourism sectors has been seen in St. John’s (Shrimpton 2002). +© 2016 United Nation + +Generally speaking, management strategies have limited the negative biophysica environmental and other effects of offshore petroleum activity on Norway, th Shetland Islands, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador, which continue t experience rapid growth in tourism, including eco-tourism and adventure tourism. +Harris et al. (1988) also note that: “the maintenance or improvement of service applies also to the public sector. There are better hospital facilities and a larger an more comprehensive educational system than would have been the case had oi developments not reversed the trend of economic decline and emigration fro Aberdeen”. +Given the nature of the offshore employment system (Section 1.4) it has a numbe of effects on the communities and regions where the workers live (Shrimpton an Storey, 2001), including those on: +e Residential Patterns: The commute system can give workers and thei families considerable flexibility as to where they live. Depending largely o the schedule, transportation systems and employee preferences, they ma live close to, or distant from, the workplace. +e Expenditures: Offshore work wage rates are often high, they are commonl combined with long hours of work and considerable amounts of overtime and workers generally have few expenses or spending opportunities at th workplace. As a result, these workers generally also have high disposabl incomes. Their expenditure patterns, including payment of taxes, ar largely dependent on where they live, and can make a significan contribution to the economy of those communities and regions. +e Non-Commute Employment: Some offshore employees have secondary pai work while in their home communities. This can involve the use of oi industry work skills and/or involvement in traditional local farming o fishing activity. In the latter case, offshore oil labour and incomes can hel sustain the local primary sector. +¢ Community Life and Social and Recreational Services: Offshore work remove some citizens from communities on a part-time basis, affecting their abilit to participate in formal and informal social events and networks, includin local service groups, sports teams and elected government. +1.6 Description of economic benefits to States +Daily global offshore oil production is currently about 28 million barrels (Fig. 3) which is worth between 1.4 billion dollars and 2.8 billion dollars per day (assumin 50 dollars and 100 dollars per barrel). Oil and gas production from the Unite Kingdom continental shelf (for example) has contributed 271 billion United Kingdo pounds (2008 money) in tax revenues over the last forty years. In 2008, tax rates o United Kingdom continental shelf production ranged from 50 —- 75 per cent depending on the field. The industry paid 12.9 billion pounds in corporate taxes i 2008-9, the largest since the mid-1980s, because of high oil and gas prices. Thi represented 28 per cent of total corporation tax paid in the UK. In addition to +© 2016 United Nation + +production taxes, the supply chain contributes another 5-6 billion pounds per year i corporation and payroll taxes (UK National Archives, 2013). +In Australia, from 1999 to 2013, the offshore petroleum industry has contribute over 21.9 billion Australian dollars in petroleum resource rent tax in addition t corporate taxes (data.gov.au, 2014). +The offshore oil and gas industry accounts for about 1.5 per cent of United State GDP, 3.5 per cent of the United Kingdom’s GDP, 12 per cent of Malaysia’s GDP, 2 per cent of Norway’s GDP and 35 per cent of Nigeria’s GDP (OPEC, 2013; EIA, 2014) In Norway, crude oil, natural gas and pipeline transport services accounted for abou 100 billion dollars in 2010, nearly half of the value of Norway’s total exports and 1 times higher than the export value of fish (Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 2012) In Nigeria crude oil export was valued at around 94 billion dollars pa and account for about 70 per cent of total exports revenue (OPEC, 2013 figures). Thus the overal value of the offshore oil and gas industry accounts for a significant part of GDP bu varies dramatically among countries in terms of its overall importance. +Offshore petroleum activity can have a range of other impacts, some of the negative, on the local economy. Some early literature described negative effects o the local economy. For example, Galenson (1986) argues that Norway’ performance in curbing inflation was less than it might have been without oi revenues, and that they allowed the government to pursue policies that harme manufacturing: “Oil money was used to preserve the existing pattern of industry The restructuring necessary to meet changing market demands was slowed, if no stopped. New initiatives were not encouraged”. Mallakh et al. (1984) and Noren (1980) argue that one of problems was that Norwegian government polic prevented labour from moving to more productive firms and sectors. It was not onl prevented from moving to and from manufacturing, but from less to mor productive uses within manufacturing. +However, petroleum taxes and royalties can help address the challenges posed b the fact that the sector is cyclical and involves a non-renewable resource, meanin that the state’s revenue from it can be highly volatile. In 1990, Norway established government pension fund to transfer capital from the state's petroleum revenue The fund was designed to be invested for the long term, but in a way that made i possible to draw on when required. Its purpose is to support the government's long term management of the petroleum revenues. The fund gives the government roo for manoeuvring in fiscal policy should oil prices drop or the mainland econom contract. This facilitates economic stability and predictability. The fund also serves a a tool to manage the financial challenges of an ageing population and an expecte drop in petroleum revenues. +There is growing interest, globally, nationally and locally, in creating sustainabl economic development. Notwithstanding the fact that the offshore petroleu industry activity involves large technologically-complex projects and the exploitatio of a non-renewable resource, the evidence from Canada, Norway, the Unite Kingdom, and other States indicates that it has been the engine for significant an sustainable (over many decades) economic development in a number of jurisdiction on both sides of the Atlantic. This is partly because it can make a major contribution +© 2016 United Nation + +to output, income, employment and government finances. Such activity has ofte also had a transformative effect, by helping to enhance the productive capacity o the economy through stimulating growth in the quantity and quality of factor input to the production process, thereby contributing to sustainable long-term economi development. +1.7 Emerging technologies and potential for future developments +An example of an emerging technology relevant to offshore oil and gas facilities i the design of structures that could be deployed on the seafloor (rather tha floating). Equipment that can be fixed directly to the sea floor, where it is relativel protected from ice and violent weather, could be used for subsea produced wate removal and re-injection or disposal, single-phase and multi-phase boosting of wel fluids, sand and solid separation, gas/liquid separation and boosting, and ga treatment and compression (Sorenson, 2013). Re-injection of produced gas, wate and waste increases pressure within the reservoir that has been depleted b production. Also, re-injection helps to decrease unwanted waste, such as flarin (because the gas that would have been flared is re-injected), by using the separate components to boost recovery. +Disadvantages of robotic (unmanned) seafloor mounted facilities include difficultie in monitoring their operation and implementing any necessary repairs. The 201 Deepwater Horizon (DWH) underwater spill in the Gulf of Mexico took months t bring under control, partly because of the challenges imposed by the water depth o the structure. The added complications that would arise in an Arctic setting, wher repairs may have to be undertaken in winter months beneath floating sea ice, ar factors that any such operations would need to address. +Another new technology is Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG) production wher the processing of gas from offshore fields takes place at sea. The world’s first FLN vessel, Shell’s Prelude, is currently under construction in the Republic of Korea fo deployment on Australia’s North-West Shelf. The LNG plant will be located on a larg vessel that will be moored above the gas field — several hundred kilometres from th coast. The successful deployment of FLNG may allow for the production of gas fro smaller or more remote offshore fields (Geoscience Australia and BREE, 2012). +A potential future development in the offshore energy sector is the possibility o mining methane gas hydrates from seabed deposits. Methane clathrate, also calle methane hydrate, is composed of methane trapped within the crystal structure o water, forming a solid similar to ice, found in seabed sediments in water depths o greater than 300 to 500 m (Ruppel, 2011). When brought to the earth's surface, on cubic metre of gas hydrate releases 164 cubic metres of natural gas. Methane tha forms hydrate can be both biogenic, created by biological activity in sediments, an thermogenic, created by geological processes deeper within the earth. conservative estimate (Boswell & Collett 2011) for the global gas hydrate inventor is “1,800 gigatons of carbon. While global estimates vary considerably, the energ content of methane occurring in hydrate form is immense, possibly exceeding th combined energy content of all other known fossil fuels. However, methan production from hydrate has not been documented beyond small-scale field +© 2016 United Nation + +experiments and its contribution to global gas supply has probably been delayed b several decades by the increasing development of onshore gas resources from shale coal seams and other unconventional deposits (Geoscience Australia and BREE 2012). +2. Environmental impacts from exploration, including seismic surveys offshore facility development and decommissioning +2.1 Environmental impacts +Environmental impacts arise throughout petroleum exploration-drilling-productio development operations as well as in the decommissioning of facilities once the oi field is no longer economic, although the nature and degree of impact varies (Swa et al., 1994). Seismic surveys, oil and gas production, transportation an decommissioning all have associated environmental impacts; these are describe briefly below. +The risks of impact from oil spills are greatest during transport, from pipeline ruptur and vessel loss or spillage, when large volumes of oil can be released suddenly. It i important to realize that accidental (anthropogenic) spills occur against background of continuous leakage from the seafloor. Crude oil is a naturally occurring substance. An amount of oil approximately equal to that spille accidentally by humans enters the oceans each year through natural seepag (Kvenvolden and Cooper, 2003; National Research Council, 2003). Natural seepage i a gradual, ongoing process and ecosystems have evolved that use it as a food source Spills are ecologically damaging because they result in unnatural concentrations o oil at a particular site that are incompatible with local marine life. +Also it should be noted that accidental oil spills account for only a small percentag of the total volume of oil that enters the oceans due to humans. Most oil enters th ocean mixed with sewage and urban stormwater runoff (GESAMP, 2007) but suc diffuse sources do not have the same dramatic impact on ecosystems as a spil because the oil is delivered continuously in low concentrations over a broad area The long-term effects of low-level oil pollution from diffuse sources are unknow (GESAMP, 2007). +2.2 Drilling and production activities +Drilling activities are carried out from ships or fixed platforms during exploration an to extract oil once it has been found. Direct damage to the seafloor is caused by th anchors used to hold the rig in place as well as by the impact of the wel emplacement itself. Drilling requires the use of lubricant (drilling mud) and th disposal of drill cuttings onto the seabed at the drill site. Drilling mud and some o the drill-cuttings contain crude oil residues, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs and heavy metals that can be toxic. The environmental impacts of drilling ma include smothering the seabed by blanketing it with dense drilling mud and cutting and toxicity effects (Swan et al., 1994). The initial impact is generally confined to the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +immediate surrounds, typically within 150 m of the drill site. However, Olsgard an Gray (1995) reported that barium, total hydrocarbons, zinc, copper, cadmium an lead contamination sourced from production platforms on the Norwegian shelf ha spread considerably after a period of 6 to 9 years, so that evidence of contaminatio was found 2 to 6 km away from the platforms. This led to a ban in the North Sea o discharging oil-based muds or cuttings contaminated with them from 1993. The ba gradually decreased the affected zone around drilling installations from several k to approximately 500 m (Bakke et al., 2013). +During the production of oil and gas, water from the hydrocarbon reservoir is als brought to the surface. This is known as “produced water” (PW), is a by-product o oil production and it is either disposed of into the ocean or may be re-injected int the well to promote oil recovery (Swan et al., 1994). Produced water can als include sea-water injected into the well to promote recovery. Compared wit ambient seawater, PW may contain elevated concentrations of heavy metals (e.g arsenic, mercury, barium, copper, lead and zinc), radium isotopes, as well a hydrocarbons. The proportion of oil/water varies between locations but generall the proportion of water increases over time as the oil deposit is depleted (i.e. olde wells discharge more PW than new wells). The proportion of water produced pe barrel of oil typically ranges from around 3:1 to 7:1 although the relative amount o PW increases over time, such that in extreme cases the fluid pumped from a wel might be 98 per cent water and only 2 per cent oil (Holdway and Heggie, 2000). A the production platform, most of the PW is separated from the oil, treated (typicall to around 30 mg/L hydrocarbon) and disposed of into the ocean. Because th increase in the absolute amount of PW discharged leads to an increase in th absolute amount of oil discharged, unless the proportion of oil in the PW discharge is decreased, regulatory measures have been adopted in some areas, such as th North Sea, which have resulted in reductions between 2001 and 2006 of around 3 per cent in the amount of oil discharged in PW (OSPAR Decision 2001/1; OSPA 2010). +PW forms a buoyant plume because it is typically 40° to 80°C warmer (and therefor less dense) than ambient seawater and thus it will be dispersed by wind and current away from the production platform. Mixing and dilution with seawater results i toxic effects of PW being generally confined to within 1 km of production platforms although PW plumes may be detected in surface waters for distances exceeding 1 km from the point source (Jones and Hayward, 2003). Cases of coral discolouratio (coral bleaching) have been attributed to dilute (~12 per cent) PW concentration (ITOPF, 2007). Hence, the situation of production platforms in relation to prevailin winds and currents and to the proximity of sensitive habitats is a consideration fo offshore petroleum development. +There are additional environmental consequences of the emplacement of rigs an floating platforms into the marine environment, which include effects on migrator birds and artificial habitat. Electric lights used on the rigs have been shown t interfere with the natural migration pathways of some species of birds, causing the to accidently collide with platform structures. Although the actual numbers of bird killed due to having collided with platforms is unknown, modelling has shown tha the numbers could be significant (OSPAR, 2012b). Any seafloor disturbing activities +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +such as anchor placement and retrieval, drilling, construction and decommissionin activities, and jetting into the seafloor for pipeline trenches has the potential t disturb or cause permanent and irreversible damage to natural and cultura resources. Underwater cultural heritage such as shipwrecks and submerge prehistoric sites are especially vulnerable to seafloor disturbing activities as thes resources are finite and each site is unique. Natural resources such as coral reefs fish habitat, and deepwater chemosynthetic communities can also be impacted b these activities. In order to reduce the risk of damage in United States waters, th United States Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) requires the operato to conduct high-resolution geophysical surveys to identify potential resources befor the operator can receive their permit and commence seafloor disturbing activities. +Once in place, the legs (jacket) of an offshore platform become habitat for som species of fish and sessile marine biota and can create a local area of elevate biomass and biodiversity. This is because access to the immediate area around th platform is restricted for reasons of safety such that the platform creates a zone tha acts as a de facto marine reserve. In addition, the steel structure provides a har substrate for colonization that would otherwise not be present, thus artificiall increasing the local biodiversity (Page et al., 1999; Shaw et al., 2001; Whomersle and Picken, 2003). +Over the lifespan of a platform, shell debris derived from molluscs that colonize th platform legs accumulates at the base of the platform. The shell accumulation i draped over drill cuttings (described above) forming a characteristic, mound-shape deposit. The shell drape provides a new habitat that has different properties fro the surrounding seabed and thus offers habitat to different species. Disturbance o the shell drape will expose the (potentially toxic) drill cuttings that are a factor fo consideration for rig decommissioning. +Because of the biological colonization of MODUs, the relocation of the vesse between drilling locations has been identified as a vector for the introduction of non native species (Paula and Creed, 2005; Sammarco et al., 2010). +2.3 Seismic surveys and their impact on marine mammals and other ocean life +Marine acoustic survey equipment is used by the oil and gas industry as well as b the military, marine industries and academic researchers to map the seafloor, stud the sediments beneath the seafloor and image the water column. Depending on th purpose, sonars differ in frequency, source level and beam pattern. Sonar signal diminish as they propagate, affecting different parts of the water column wit different biological consequences. Towed, low frequency systems (such as seismi air guns) are omni-directional, radiating sound in all directions. Hull-mounte systems are higher frequency (kHz or greater) and utilize beam forming to obtai higher resolution images at lower source levels. +Airguns employed to acquire seismic reflection data are far more powerful (225 t 255 decibels re 1 micro-Pascal peak; Richardson et al., 1995) than equipment use for marine research or normal ship navigation. Airguns used in seismic reflectio surveys emit sound at a frequency of typically ~100 Hz which overlaps with the range +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +of marine mammals’ hearing and is therefore most likely to affect marine mammal and other marine life (McCauley et al., 2000; O’Brien et al., 2002; NRC, 2003; Boebe et al., 2005; Nowacek et al., 2007; 2013; CBD, 2014). +Cetaceans have been observed avoiding powerful, low frequency sound sources. study by McCauley et al (2000) has shown that migrating humpback whales wil leave a minimum 3 km gap between themselves and an operating seismic vessel with resting humpback whale pods (groups) containing cows exhibiting increase sensitivity and leaving an increased gap of 7-12 km. Conversely, the study found tha male humpback whales were attracted to a single operating airgun as they wer believed to have confused the low-frequency sound with that of whale breachin behaviour. In addition to whales, sea turtles, fish and squid all showed alarm an avoidance behaviour in the presence of an approaching seismic source. While ther has not been any documented direct linkage between seismic surveys and th beaching of marine mammals, Gordon et al., (2004) noted that concerns over th stranding of beaked whales in two separate incidents was sufficient for United State courts to agree to a restraining order on seismic operations by the RV Mauric Ewing. Nowacek et al. (2007) noted that displacement (relocation to an un impacted area) is a common response of mammals, which may cause harm if th impacted site is an important feeding ground (see also Cerchio et al., 2014). Lucke e al (2009) found that harbour porpoises consistently showed aversive behavioura reactions at received sound pressure levels above a certain threshold level produce using a seismic airgun. +The historical record of cetaceans stranding themselves prior to the industrial ag includes the English Crown holding rights on stranded cetaceans from at least 1324 when they were known as “fishes royal” since the Crown had first claim on the (Fraser, 1977). Thus cetacean stranding occurs under natural environmenta conditions. Additional evidence in support of this conclusion is the occurrence o marine mammal strandings within the geological record (Pyenson et al., 2014). +It is not known whether there has been any increase in whale strandings that can b attributed directly to seismic surveys. Nowacek et al. (2007; 2013) conclude tha major data deficiencies are: the lack of studies linking animal responses to receive acoustic level data; gaps in species representation; and poor understanding o habituation, sensitization and tolerance. In the case of marine animals other tha cetaceans, there is some evidence for short-term displacement of seals and fish b seismic surveys, but there is little literature available (Thompson et al., 2013; se also Chapter 37). +2.4 Pipeline construction, main causes of leaks and decommissioning +In order to bring oil and gas ashore to refineries and transport systems, pipelines ar laid across the seabed, in places forming complex networks (Fig. 2).° Before pipeline can be laid, the proposed route is surveyed using acoustic seabed mappin technology and underwater cameras to identify any obstacles such as natura bedrock formations, boulders, seabed valleys or migrating sand dunes as well as +° The following summary of pipeline construction is based primarily on Palmer and King (2004). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +shipwrecks, other cables and pipelines and dumped ammunition. The pipe is the laid along the surveyed route using either a specialised pipe-laying vessel or else pull/tow system where the pipeline is built onshore and then towed by ship to it desired location. The first process usually involves one pipe-laying vessel supporte by barges that supply the ship with pipe sections plus other support ships tha monitor the seabed. Pipe sections are welded together on board, the joints teste (by ultrasound) and the pipe coated with an anticorrosion application. +The diameter of the pipe varies between 0.15 to 1.4 m, but is ~0.3 m in most cases A distinction is made between a flowline and a pipeline. Flowlines are intrafiel pipelines used to connect subsea wellheads, manifolds and the platform within particular development field. Pipelines (export pipelines, also called trunk lines) ar used to bring the resource to shore. +Problems that affect the stability and integrity of submarine pipelines are: (1 expansion/contraction of the steel pipe causing lateral or upheaval buckling; (2 erosion of the seabed around the pipeline by storms, waves and currents leavin unsupported spans of pipeline vulnerable to fracture; and (3) corrosion. Solutions t the expansion/contraction problem are: adding expansion joints; burial; anchoring applying a concrete or rock cover; or laying the pipe in an “S”- shaped configuratio (S-lay). Problems of seabed erosion can be overcome by burial (Xu et al., 2009; Yan et al., 2012). Burial of the pipeline is also required in areas where vessels migh anchor, where bottom fishing activities occur or where the pipeline crosses th shoreline. However, burial is more expensive than simply laying the pipeline alon the seabed, so it is not used unless necessary (or a legal requirement). +Pipelines are maintained and inspected using a “pig,” a tool that can be inserted i one end of the pipeline and pushed by the fluid to the other end. The most basic pig are used to clean the inside of the pipes; highly-complex “smart pigs” can inspect th condition and thickness of the pipeline and detect points of corrosion or fracturing Smart pigs are used more in the North Sea than in the Gulf of Mexico because th majority of existing Gulf of Mexico lines were not originally designed or built t accommodate smart tool pigs (MSL, 2000). +Pipelines are monitored for leakage by analog and computer-assisted system (Stafford and Williams, 1996). The mass balance approach simply measures th amount of oil going in the pipeline and the amount coming out. Real-time transien modelling compares actual measured data with a computer model. If the results ar outside normal operating limits, an alarm alerts the operator to take appropriat action. Other methods of monitoring pipelines include chemical and radioactiv tracers, acoustic emission, neural networks, fibre-optic sensors and pressure poin analysis (Stafford and Williams, 1996). +Woodson (1990) compiled a database of 1,047 submarine pipeline failures reporte in the Gulf of Mexico between 1967 and 1990. The results indicate that a pipelin failure occurred in the Gulf of Mexico on average once every 5 days over the perio of data collection. The source of failure was reported in 916 incidents in which th main causes were attributed as follows: 50 per cent (456 out of 916 incidents) due t internal or external pipeline corrosion; 12 per cent (106 incidents) due to storms an hurricanes; 14 per cent (124 incidents) due to damage from ship’s anchors and +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +fishing gear; 10 per cent (94 incidents) due to material failure of valves, gaskets o other joints; and 15 per cent (136 incidents) due to other or unknown causes Pipelines over 10 years in age had a greater number of failures due to corrosion tha younger pipelines; there was a trend of an increasing rate of failure due to corrosio in the last 5 years of the database (1986-1990), presumably attributable to the agin of the pipeline network. Pipelines damaged by storms (in which pipes are excavate by waves and currents exposing an unsupported span that is liable to fracture) wer not buried in 40 out of 52 cases (Woodson, 1990). +In its review of offshore pipeline safety, the United States Marine Board Committe on the Safety of Marine Pipelines (Marine Board, 1994) cited the work of Woodso (1990) and noted that during the 1990s, transmission and production pipelin leakage and accidents accounted for about 98 per cent of accidental releases b offshore production activities. However, although corrosion is the most commonl cited cause of pipeline failure, corrosion-related ruptures do not result in significan release of oil into the environment. Rather, damage caused by a few major incident involving ship’s anchors caused pipe leakage that is attributed to 95 per cent of th 250,000 barrels that leaked from pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico from 1967 to 199 (Marine Board, 1994). +The National Research Council (NRC) (1997) noted that, in the United States Gulf o Mexico “no agency coordinates the collection of information and the available dat on offshore pipeline failures are correspondingly “incomplete”. Data on pipelin failures from state waters are collected by states (when collected) and may not b readily accessible. This is in spite of the fact that pipelines in state waters ar commonly the oldest and most exposed to collision with ships (Marine Board, 1994) Since 2006, data on offshore pipelines (outside of state waters) has been th responsibility of the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE). +In Europe, a pipeline data base complied by PARLOC (2001) includes records fro 1971 to 2000 during which time there were 542 pipeline incidents including 9 pipeline leaks into the environment plus 92 leaks of pipeline fittings. The cause o failure of pipeline fittings is not recorded (PARLOC, 2001); for pipelines the databas shows that corrosion is the major cause of failure (51 per cent) followed by maritim actions such as anchoring (23 per cent), material failure and other or unknow causes (26 per cent). +Less than 2 per cent of the North Sea pipeline inventory has been decommissione as of 2013 (Oil and Gas UK, 2013). Of North Sea pipelines that have bee decommissioned, 80 per cent are less than 16 inches (40.64 cm) in diameter. Half o the larger diameter pipelines (16 inches (40.64 cm) or greater) decommissioned t date were removed (i.e. 10 per cent of decommissioned pipelines were removed) Cleaning and purging is carried out following cessation of production, pipelin system depressurisation and removal of bulk hydrocarbons. Cleaning involve chemical cleaning to detach hydrocarbon residue from the pipe wall and bi directional magnetic, disc and brush cleaning to remove ferrous and other loos debris using a specialist pig (Oil and Gas UK, 2013; see also Chapter 20). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The Gulf of Mexico offshore oil and gas has been operating since 1936 (Owen, 1975 and more of the pipeline infrastructure has been retired than in other parts of th world. Rach (2013) reported, based on data from the United States Bureau of Safet and Environmental Enforcement, that the inventory of Gulf of Mexico pipelines (a of mid-2013) includes 24,126 miles (38,827 km) that are in active use, 2,409 mile (3,877 km) proposed for installation, 12,628 miles (20,323 km) that have bee abandoned, 2,264 miles (3,643 km) proposed to be abandoned and 2,425 mile (3,902 km) of pipeline that are out of service. Thus 42 per cent of existing (66,69 km) pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico are either abandoned, proposed to b abandoned or are no longer in service. +Apart from leakage of oil, other environmental and economic consequences o abandoned pipelines are their impacts on fishing (inhibiting bottom-trawling), othe pipe and cable-laying activities and creating artificial habitats. +2.5 Rig decommissioning, dismantling and disposal, “Rigs to Reefs” programme +In its assessment of environmental governance in 27 developing countries, th World Bank (2010) found that governments lack a policy and process fo decommissioning and abandonment and do not routinely assess, determine, o assign the future liability costs of decommissioning and abandonment. Only abou 50 per cent of countries have an established process for managing th decommissioning and abandonment of oil and gas projects. Disposal of man-mad structures (including platforms) at sea and abandonment or toppling on site of man made structures falls under the scope of the Convention on the Prevention o Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 (1972 Londo Dumping Convention) (LDC) and the1996 London Protocol (LP). These treaties ar global agreements and provide relevant dumping management policies, provisions and assessment guidelines (London Convention and Protocol/UNEP, 2009). Th 1989 International Maritime Organization (IMO) guidelines provide for the remova of offshore installations in order to leave 55 metres of clear water over any remain left in place (IMO, 1989). +In the United States, the BSEE has jurisdiction over decommissioning of wells an structures, pipelines, and the so-called “Rigs-to-Reefs” program. The Rigs-to-Reef programme is the practice of converting decommissioned offshore oil and gas rig into artificial reefs, which has occurred mostly in the Gulf of Mexico. However, les than 10 per cent of rigs decommissioned in the Gulf of Mexico have so far bee converted to reefs; 90 per cent are removed (The Economist, 2014; BSEE data) Apart from a few platforms converted to reefs in Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia opposition to the practice has meant that none have been allowed off California o in the North Sea to date (Day, 2008; Macreadie et al., 2011, 2012; Jorgensen, 2012) In the North Sea, 122 decommissioned installations were brought ashore betwee 1999 and 2010, and four large concrete installations and the footings of one larg steel installation have been left in place (OSPAR 2010). One estimated cost o removing the existing North Sea production platforms, in the United Kingdom secto alone, was over 14 billion dollars (Prince, 2004). About 60 rigs are nearing the end o their working life in Australia (Macreadie et al., 2011). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The BSEE has granted permits for about 420 platforms to be converted to artificia reefs in the Gulf of Mexico. There are three methods for converting a non-producin platform into an artificial reef: (1) partially remove the platform; (2) topple th platform in place; or (3) tow-and-place the platform to one of about 28 site designated as an artificial reef area. Partial removal typically relies on non-explosiv means to cut the platform below the sea surface, leaving the legs in their vertica position. Toppling in place uses non-explosive or explosive severance to cut th platform from its legs and lay the platform legs on their side (the platform itself i removed). The tow-and-place method entails removing the platform and detachin the structure from the seafloor before towing it to a designated artificial reef are for disposal. +In the United States Gulf of Mexico there were about 2,996 production platforms a of March 2013, of which 813 (27 per cent) are no longer producing. In 2010, th United States Government issued notices to companies requiring them to se permanent plugs in nearly 3,500 nonproducing wells and dismantle about 65 unused oil and gas production platforms (Rach, 2013). | Decommissioning mean ending operations and returning the lease or pipeline right-of-way to a conditio that meets the requirements of regulations of BSEE and other agencies that hav jurisdiction over decommissioning activities. The regulations apply to an installation, other than a pipeline, that is permanently or temporarily attached to th seabed. Very few deep sea (>200 m depth) oil and gas fields have as yet bee depleted, hence decommissioning of infrastructure has not yet become an issu (Macreadie et al., 2011). +Regulations for the decommissioning of a platform vary between countries. Th United States requires plugging the well(s) supported by the platform and severin the well casings 15 feet (5 m) below the seabed; cleaning and removing al production and pipeline risers supported by the platform; removing the platfor from its foundation by severing all bottom-founded components at least 15 feet ( m) below the seabed; disposing of the platform onshore or placing the platform a an artificial reef site; and cleaning the platform site to ensure that no debris o potential obstructions remain. Over the lifespan of a platform a mound of debri accumulates beneath the platform that may contain toxic chemicals; removal of suc mounds is also a requirement for decommissioning. +In the North Sea, OSPAR Decision 98/3 requires the topsides of all decommissione installations to be removed to shore and all sub-structures or jackets weighing les than 10,000 tons to be completely removed. The regulations stipulate that, wher there may be practical difficulty in removing installations (i.e. the footings of larg steel platforms weighing over 10,000 tons, the concrete gravity based platform sub structures, or concrete anchor bases and other structures with significant damage o deterioration, which would prevent removal), a decision may be taken to leave part of the structure on the seabed, on a case-by-case basis. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +3. Offshore installation disasters and their impacts, including longer-ter effects. +3.1 Impacts of offshore installation disasters +Impacts of offshore oil and gas installation disasters include loss of human life, los of revenue and environmental impacts. Offshore disasters have resulted in loss o life on several occasions in the history of the offshore oil and gas industry. In Marc 1980, the “flotel” (floating hotel) platform Alexander L. Kielland capsized in a stor in the North Sea with the loss of 123 lives. In February 1982, the Ocean Range semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling unit sank on the Grand Banks o Newfoundland; none of the 84 crew members survived. In July 1988, 167 peopl died when Occidental Petroleum's Piper Alpha offshore production platfor exploded in the United Kingdom sector of the North Sea after a gas leak. In 200 Petrobras-36 in Brazil exploded and sank five days later killing 11 people. In Apri 2010, the Deepwater Horizon platform exploded, killing 11 people. The Kolskay floating oil rig capsized and sank in the Sea of Okhotsk in December 2011, killing 5 crew members. In December, 2013, a rig owned by Saudi Arabia's state-ru petroleum company, Aramco, sank in the ROPME/RECOFI area, killing three cre members. Such disasters have resulted in the imposition of new regulations o industry (Turner, 2013); for example, the Piper Alpha disaster resulted in the Unite Kingdom Government passing the 1992 Offshore Installations (Safety Case Regulations. However, there have been subsequent disasters around the world an the industry, as a whole, has continued to make the changes needed to improve it safety record (Harris, 2013). +From 2001 to 2010, the United States Minerals Management Service reported 6 offshore deaths, 1,349 injuries, and 858 fires and explosions on offshore rigs in th Gulf of Mexico. During 2003-2010, the United States oil and gas extraction industr (onshore and offshore, combined) had a collective fatality rate seven times highe than that for all United States workers (27.1 versus 3.8 deaths per 100,000 workers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Catastrophic events attrac intense media attention but do not account for the majority of work-relate fatalities during offshore operations. A report by Baker et al. (2011) found tha helicopter crashes were the most frequent fatal event in this industry. +Economic impacts stemming from offshore oil and gas installation disasters includ the direct loss of income for the period that the facility remains offline, the costs t repair the facility, the costs to other industries (e.g. fishing and tourism) affected b the disaster and other compensation. As a result of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill BP established a Trust Fund of 20 billion dollars for natural resource damages, stat and local response costs and individual compensation. Other industry-wid consequences may follow such disasters. For example, exploration drilling in th Gulf of Mexico was slow to recover from the moratorium that followed th Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. By 2012 36 rigs were back working off Louisian and 4 off Texas, compared with 21 and 2, respectively, in late 2010. On 3 June, 2008 a high-pressure 12 inch export sales gas pipeline (SGL), critically weakened by region of external corrosion, ruptured and exploded on the beach of Varanus Island +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +off the coast of Western Australia. There was approximately 60 million Australia dollars in damage to the plant. Plant closure led to up to 3 billion dollars of losses t the West Australian economy, which lost 30 per cent of its gas supply for tw months. +A blowout of the Montara wellhead platform on 21 August 2009, on Australia’ remote North-West Shelf, leaked an estimated 30,000 barrels of crude plus a unknown quantity of gas until 3 November 2009 (total of 74 days), when the lea was finally stopped. The rig later caught fire but all 69 workers on the rig were safel evacuated with no injuries or fatalities. The company spent about 5.3 millio Australian dollars on clean-up, about 300 million dollars in lost revenue and repai bills and was fined 510,000 dollars in August 2012 by the Australian Governmen (ABC News, 2012); the well finally went into production in June, 2013. However fishermen and seaweed farmers in Indonesia are seeking compensation with suppor from the Australian Lawyers Alliance (ALA), claiming that environmental damag caused by the spill has cost them more than 1.5 billion dollars per year in los earnings (ALA, 2014). +In 1980, within the ROPME/RECOFI area, the Hasbah Platform Well 6 blew out for days, spilling 100,000 barrels of oil and costing the lives of 19 men. However, th worst disaster in the region occurred during the 1991 war between Iraq and Kuwait when there were 22 incidents that spilled amounts of oil variously estimated a between 2 and 11 million barrels into the ROPME/RECOFI area (Khordagui and Al Ajmi, 1993; Elshorbagy, 2005). The coast of Saudi Arabia was the most heavil impacted by the spill. Initial assessments of the environmental damage caused b the spilled oil were optimistic of rapid recovery (e.g. Fowler et al., 1993), but mor recent studies have documented lingering effects of oil trapped in intertida sediments and salt marshes over broad spatial scales (Michel et al., 2005; Barth 2007). As of 2011, the Government of Saudi Arabia had invested 180 million Unite States dollars and the United Nations had spent U45 million dollars in rehabilitatin impacted areas. +Natural disasters also take a toll on offshore oil and gas facilities. In August 2005 Hurricane Katrina affected 19 per cent of United States oil production by destroyin 113 offshore oil and gas platforms, damaging 457 oil and gas pipelines, and spillin an unquantified amount of oil (http://www.bsee.gov/Hurricanes/2005/katrina/). +Environmental consequences of offshore oil and gas installation disasters ar perhaps the most widely publicized aspect of such events. In the 2010 Deepwate Horizon (DWH) Gulf of Mexico oil spill, it is estimated that around 4.9 million barrel (about 670,000 tons, assuming a specific gravity of 0.88) was discharged into the se before the well was capped, approximately 16 times more oil than was spilled by th Exxon Valdez in 1989 (about 37,000 tons of crude oil; Crone and Tolstoy, 2010; Oi Spill Commission, 2011). The impact of this huge volume of oil on deep wate habitats in the Gulf of Mexico is unknown at the time of this writing (April, 2014) Prior to the DWH incident, the total volume of oil spilled in the Gulf of Mexic between 1964 and 2009 is estimated to be 517,847 barrels (Mufson, 2010). +Numerous smaller-sized spills have also occurred in recent years. Examples include North Sea spill of 200 tons in August 2011 that occurred at Shell’s platform Gannet +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Alpha; in 2012 Chevron suspended activities after two oil leaks (of around 5,00 barrels) occurred in a space of four months off the Brazilian coast; in March 2012 th platform Elgin-Franklin, operated by the Total group in the North Sea, was evacuate after an uncontrollable gas leak of an estimated 300 million cubic feet over a 45 da period (Beall and Ferreti, 2012). +The number of accidents reflects the massive scale of the offshore drilling an production enterprise. For every accident there are environmental consequences Before the Deepwater Horizon accident, such major incidents were anticipated t occur with such extreme rarity that they were not considered relevant. On explanation could be that risk assessments are performed for single wells and not fo whole areas (or on an industry-wide basis). However, a study of accidental oil spill based on global historical data has shown that the DWH accident was not an outlier but an accident that can happen every 17 years with an uncertainty interval from to 91 years (5-95 per cent). When the DWH accident was excluded from the dat set, the resulting frequency was 23 years with an uncertainty interval from 10 to 17 years (Eckle et al., 2012). +Accidents that occur in coastal waters have the most severe environmental impact Most oil floats on the sea surface where it can be readily delivered to the shoreline where the concentrated consequences are evident. The coast is also a habitat for diversity of species of birds, mammals, invertebrates and marine plants. For thi reason spills that impact the coast, such as the Exxon Valdez spill that occurred i Alaska in 1989, have the greatest impact on the ecosystem (Shaw, 1992). The spee of ecosystem recovery is generally slower for colder and deeper habitats than it i for warmer and shallower habitats (Harris, 2014). However, every ecosystem i different and recovery times are difficult to estimate. For example, oil spilled in th Niger Delta over the last 50 years has penetrated up to 5 m into the soil profile an caused groundwater contamination in 8 out of 15 sites investigated that could tak up to 30 years to clean up (UNEP, 2011). +3.2 Impact of oil spills on the marine ecosystem +The impacts of oil spills range from the immediate effects of oiling to longer ter consequences of habitats being modified by the presence of oil and tar balls. Trace of hydrocarbons can remain in coastal sediments for many years after an oil spil (Hester and Mendelssohn, 2000). For example, for some of the rocky shores wher oil stranded after the Exxon Valdez spill in 1989, oil is still found subsurface, onl slightly weathered (Irvine et al., 2014). Similarly, oil from the 1991 Gulf War is stil apparent in intertidal sediments and in salt marshes along the coast of Saudi Arabi (Michel et al., 2005; Barth, 2007). +There is no clear relationship between the amount of oil spilled in the marin environment and the likely impact on wildlife. A smaller spill at a particular season o the year and in a sensitive environment may prove much more harmful than a large spill at another time of the year in another or even the same environment. Eve small spills can have very large effects. Species that use the sea surface are mos vulnerable (birds and mammals) and the eggs and larvae of many other species ca be damaged by oil (Alford et al., 2014). +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Some species may exhibit reduced abundance due to spills (SAnchez et al., 2006 although direct causal evidence is not always available (Carls et al., 2002). Som opportunistic species are able to take advantage of the changed habitat condition and the attendant reduced abundance of impacted species, giving rise to a short term increase in local biodiversity (Edgar et al., 2003; Yamamoto et al., 2003); this i an example of why biodiversity statistics alone are not a reliable indicator o environmental health. Recovery time for sites varies as a function of the type of oi spilled, the biological assemblage impacted, substrate type, climate, wave/curren regime and coastal geomorphology and ranges from years to decades depending o these and other factors (Ritchie, 1993; Jewett et al., 1999; French-McCay, 2004). +There are a number of pathways for oil to reach the oceans, namely e Land-based sources (urban runoff, coastal refineries) ¢ Oil transporting and shipping (operational discharges, tanker accidents) ¢ Offshore oil and gas facilities (operational discharges, accidents, blow-outs) e¢ Atmospheric fallout e Natural seeps. +Figures published by National Research Council (2003) range from an average o 470,000 tons to a possible 8.4 million tons per year for the sum of all of thes sources. It is generally agreed that the largest single source is the land-based (urba runoff, coastal refineries) input, although there is little agreement on the absolut values for any source terms. +When oil enters the sea, it reacts according to physical, chemical and biologica processes that change the properties of the oil and consequently, its behaviour Factors include: +- The quantity and duration of the discharge/spill; +- The time of the year at which it occurs; +- The temperature of the air and the receiving water body; +- The weather and sea (e.g. waves and currents) conditions; +- The species composition in the area affected; +- The properties of the shoreline (rocky, sandy, mud flats, mangroves, etc.) - The presence and abundance of oil-degrading micro-organisms; +- The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water. +Different types of oil have different physical properties, which affect the wa the oil will react in the environment (Table 2). +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Table 2. Oil classification for four groups having different physical properties according to th International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited (ITOPF; http://www.itopf.com/marine- +spills/fate/models/) Group Density Example Group | < 0.8 Gasoline, Kerosen Group II 0.8 - 0.85 Gas Oil, Abu Dhabi Crud Group III 0.85 - 0.95 Arabian Light Crude, North Sea Crude Oil Group IV >0.95 Heavy Fuel, Venezuelan Crude Oils +Oil, when spilled at sea, will normally break up and be dissipated or scattered int the marine environment over time. This dissipation is a result of a number o chemical and physical processes that change the compounds that make up oil whe it is spilled. The key natural processes are evaporation, dispersion, dissolution oxidation, emulsification, biodegradation and sedimentation. The addition o chemical dispersants (also surfactants) can accelerate this process of natura dispersion. +Lighter components of the oil will evaporate to the atmosphere. The amount o evaporation and the speed at which it occurs depend upon the volatility of the oil Evaporation of oil with a large percentage of light and volatile compounds occur more quickly than one with a larger amount of heavier compounds. +Waves, currents and turbulence at the sea surface can cause all or part of a slick t break-up into fragments and droplets of varying sizes. These become mixed into th upper levels of the water column. +Water soluble compounds in oil may dissolve into the surrounding water. Thi depends on the composition and state of the oil, and occurs most quickly when th oil is finely dispersed in the water column. Components that are most soluble in se water are the light aromatic hydrocarbons compounds, such as benzene an toluene. However, these compounds are also those first to be los through evaporation, a process which is 10-100 times faster than dissolution. +Oils react chemically with oxygen either breaking down into soluble products o forming persistent compounds called tars. This process is promoted by sunligh although it is very slow even in strong sunlight such that thin films of oil break dow at no more than 0.1 per cent per day. The formation of tarsis caused by th oxidation of thick layers of high viscosity oils or emulsions. This process forms a outer protective coating of heavy compounds that results in the increase persistence of the oil as a whole. Tar balls, which are often found on shorelines an have a solid outer crust surrounding a softer, less weathered interior, are a typica example of this process. +Emulsification occurs when two liquids combine, one suspended in the other Emulsification of crude oils refers to the process whereby sea water droplet become suspended in the oil. Oils with an asphaltene content greater than 0.5 pe cent tend to form stable emulsions which may persist for many months after the +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +initial spill has occurred. Emulsions may separate into oil and water again if heate by sunlight under calm conditions or when stranded on shorelines. +Sea water contains a range of micro-organisms or microbes that can partially o completely degrade oil to water soluble compounds and eventually to carbo dioxide and water. Many types of microbe exist and each tends to degrade particular group of compounds in crude oil (Hazen et al., 2010). +Sinking usually occurs due to the adhesion of particles of sediment or organic matte to the oil, in which case the oil accumulates in the seabed sediments. In th ROPME/RECOFI area for example, Elshorbagy (2005) reported that oil-contaminate seabed sediments occur, particularly in coastal areas. The highest levels o hydrocarbons were 1600 yg I” found near Bahrain compared with background level of 10 to 15 yg I’. Oil washed ashore at Pensacola Beach, Florida, from the DWH spil resulted in weathered oil petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in beach sand ranging from 3.1 to 4,500 mg kg” (Kostka et al., 2011). +4. Significant environmental aspects in relation to offshore hydrocarbo installations. +Drilling operations may require the use of many chemicals. In the OSPAR region chemicals are categorised in four colour classes depending on degradability, octanol water coefficient and toxicity. The green category means it “shall pose little or n risk to the environment”. Chemicals in the black category should be prohibited an chemicals in the red category should be substituted. Chemicals in the yello category have characteristics between the red and the green class and ar considered to be environmentally acceptable. +Other operational discharges are drill cuttings and small spills of oil and chemical connected to exploration, production or transport. +For the offshore industry in the North East Atlantic, OSPAR has agreed on severa decisions and recommendations to reduce discharges of oil and chemicals. Thes include Recommendation 2001/1: Management of PW and 15 per cent reductio target for oil discharged with PW, in addition to agreements on decisions an recommendations for use of chemicals offshore, decommissioning an environmental management (OSPAR, 2010). +OSPAR reports discharges, spills and emissions from oil and gas installations Between 2001 and 2007 an average of between 400 and 450 million m? yr* PW wer discharged (OSPAR 2009). For 2010 a sum of 361 million m? PW was discharged i this area. The main contributing countries were Denmark (25 million m*), Norwa (131 million m3) and United Kingdom (196 million m?; OSPAR, 2010). The number account for the whole OSPAR region, but the main region of activities is the Nort Sea. Oil content in PW was reported as dissolved and dispersed oil, and annua average oil content was reported to be 12 and 13 mg/l, respectively. Annual averag oil content in dissolved and dispersed oil was 4,227 tons and 4,746 tons respectively, giving a total of 8,972 tons in 2010. Annual quantity of injected PW was +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +81 million m?(OSPAR, 2012a). Yearly discharge of approximately 400 million m? P has been relatively constant since 2001 (OSPAR, 2010). +Most of the concern regarding negative effects on ecosystems due to operationa discharges from offshore oil and gas activities has been directed to the oil fraction o PW discharges, and less towards the added chemicals. This is due to the content o polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and alkylated phenols from the oil fraction PAHs have received focus because they can be metabolically activated in fish an bound to DNA as DNA adducts. PAHs are also shown to damage early developmenta stages of fish creating several effects at low doses, including effects on hear development (Incardona et al., 2004; Brette et al., 2014). Alkylated phenols hav received focus because some of these compounds have hormone-mimicking effect (Heemken et al, 2001). +Norway monitors the levels of contaminants in sediments, deployed fish and mussel and in wild caught fish, in addition to effect studies in fish and mussels. Monitorin of sediments shows very small areas with increased total hydrocarbon content o disturbed fauna. Mussels and fish deployed in cages for 6 weeks around differen platforms did not show effects in distances further than 1 km (Brooks et al., 2011) No increased levels of contaminants were found in fillets of wild caught fish although in some cases wild caught fish had increased levels of PAH metabolites i bile. The most surprising findings have been levels of DNA adducts in haddock live from the North Sea, at levels giving rise to environmental concern in 2002 (Balk e al., 2011) and in 2011 (Gr@svik et al., 2012) because the levels were above th environmental assessment criteria (EAC) for DNA adduct in haddock liver (ICES 2011). +5. Gaps in capacity to engage in offshore hydrocarbon industries and to asses the environmental, social and economic aspects. +The hydrocarbon industry is an extremely technical endeavour and it has evolve over a period covering more than 70 years. The offshore industry must deal with th fact that the hydrocarbon resource lies hidden, often several kilometres beneath th seafloor. Therefore, the industry employs highly skilled specialists and advance technologies to image and sample the seafloor to find the hidden hydrocarbons. I general, oil and gas resource development requires the deployment of considerabl technology to access, control, and transport the hydrocarbons. +In many parts of the world, massive oil revenues have not overcome high levels o poverty. Indeed, in some cases, they have led to significant social problems. Man oil and gas companies do not publish information what royalties, taxes and fees the pay country by country, and there is thus often a lack of transparency about thes transactions. (FESS, 2006; Ross, 2008). +Only 80 out of the known 974 sedimentary basins on earth contain exploitabl hydrocarbons (Li, 2011). Therefore, huge risks and uncertainty are inherentl associated with hydrocarbon exploration activities. Many “dry” exploration wells ar drilled for every winner (for example, see BSEE web site). The industry invests +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +expertise, money and time to reduce risk and uncertainty so that the maximu amount of hydrocarbons is found with minimum effort and investment. +Exploration and production companies are international and operate wit sophisticated technologies to make discoveries, across international boundarie wherever hydrocarbons may be found. Individual fields may cross internationa boundaries, further complicating their development and adding risk to investors; th Timor Gap, an area of disputed seafloor located on the border between Australi and Timor-Leste is a good example (Nevins, 2004). +In the initial stages of their development, many oil-endowed countries lacked th highly specialized knowledge or the substantial funds required to successfully fin and produce offshore hydrocarbons. So, offshore hydrocarbon exploration became primarily private-sector activity worldwide, dominated by international oi companies with the relevant skills, experience and finances needed to take o significant risk. +Over the past few decades there has been a significant shift in ownership of th offshore oil and gas global enterprise. In the 1970s, 85 per cent of all offshore oi reserves were owned by seven international oil companies (IOCs). By 2012, 18 o the top 25 oil and gas producers were National Oil Companies (NOCs), controlling 7 per cent of oil production and holding 90 per cent of the world's oil reserve (Wagner and Johnson, 2012). NOCs have competed with IOCs developing ne technologies and productive resource capacity to potentially overtake the larges IOCs in size and scope. NOC’s like Brazil's Petrobras, Malaysia's Petronas an Norway's Statoil have specialized in deepwater drilling technologies, onc monopolized by the IOCs (Wagner and Johnson, 2012). This is an example o technology transfer that has benefitted developing countries by allowing them t participate in (if not dominate) the offshore oil and gas industry. +Assessing the environmental impact of offshore oil and gas development i developing countries has not progressed at the same pace as the capacity to develo and exploit the resource. In its assessment of environmental governance in 27 oil producing developing countries, the World Bank (2010) found there was a “lack of sufficiently organized administrative structure that enables efficient regulator compliance and enforcement. Additionally, the human and financial resource needed for effective environmental governance are generally lacking.” A case stud from Trinidad and Tobago published by Chandool (2011) illustrates the key issues paucity of accessible data, lack of public participation, lack of post-approva enforcement and lack of quality control in environmental impact assessment (EIA practice. +In Malaysia, companies are required to complete an EIA that is prepared by registered consultant (Mustafa, 2011). The industry was found to have breached it license to operate in 28 cases that went to court in 2009, with fines totalling Ringgi Malaysia (RM) 250,000 (about 76,000 dollars or an average fine of 2,700 dollars) Given the overall value of the industry (Petronas alone had a net worth in 2012 o over 157 billion dollars and had nearly 40,000 employees), there is a prima facie lac of proportion between the potential damage from the offences and the deterren level of such fines. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +More broadly, there are gaps in monitoring the offshore oil and gas industry by th responsible government departments. It has already been mentioned abov (Section 2.4) that the collection of information on offshore pipeline failures is no coordinated in the Gulf of Mexico between state and federal jurisdictions (NRC 1997). The data that are collected by government departments charged wit monitoring the offshore oil and gas industry are often incomplete or not strategic For example, PARLOC (2001) notes that whilst corrosion has been identified as on of the major causes of leaking pipes in the North Sea, corrosion protection data ar not currently recorded in the pipeline database, so it is not possible to derive failur rates for specific types of corrosion prevention. The lack of coordination betwee different agencies having a share of responsibility in managing the offshore oil an gas sector was identified as a key issue by the Australian Government’s Montar Commission of Inquiry Report (2010), whose conclusion was: “A single, independen regulatory body should be created, looking after safety as a primary objective, wel integrity and environmental approvals. Industry policy and resource developmen and promotion activities should reside in government departments and not with th regulatory agency. The regulatory agency should be empowered (if that is necessary to pass relevant petroleum information to government departments to assist the to perform the policy roles.”® Thus, there is a gap in the capability of the responsibl government departments to collect and share relevant information among differen departments and authorities. +Another gap is with respect to the capacity for local communities to engage with th offshore oil and gas industry in decision-making. As has been already noted abov for Trinidad and Tobago, lack of public participation in environmental impac assessments is a clear capacity gap (Chandool, 2011). The Australian company Santos, engaged with local communities in Indonesia’s Jawa Timur Province, wh were concerned with the impact of offshore oil activities on their coastal habitat (Anggraeni, 2013). Although the community expressed concerns over Santos’ ai quality risk management and employment opportunities for local people, a dialogu was established allowing for a more satisfactory outcome for the local communit (Anggraeni, 2013). +8 Partly in response to this conclusion, the Australian Government established, on 1 January 2012 the National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority (NOPSEMA http://www.nopsema.gov.au), to be the national regulator for health and safety, well integrity an environmental management for offshore oil and gas operations. +© 2016 United Nation + +Figures +——~ Active (25,711 mi. ——— Out of Service (18,293 mi. ~~ Proposed (1,087 mi.) +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Map of offshore oil and gas pipelines in the United States section of the Gulf of Mexico (fro NOAA). http://stateofthecoast.noaa.gov/energy/gulfenergy.html. +(© New cncreres cl cand om bat 7‘ poe 2000 Inet yet 8 presen) +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations Figure 2. Offshore oil and gas fields under exploitation, new discoveries not yet in production and +pipelines in the North Sea in 2009. Figure taken from OSPAR, 2010 (http://qsr2010.ospar.org/en/chO7_01.html). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Onshore ™ Shallow Water ™ Deep Water +83 _ — —— l Le a | +Million barrels per da yw B 6 6 6 6 + ° +Sources: infield Systems, BP Statistical Review 2014 +Figure 3. Global crude oil production, comparing onshore, shallow offshore (<100 m water depth and offshore deep (>100 m water depth) production (from Infield, 2014). +Whereas onshore production has remained stable at around 50-60 million barrel per day since the early 1970s, offshore production has grown steadily over the las four decades. Deep water production has accounted for nearly all growth sinc about 2005. +References +ABC News (2012) Indonesian fishermen want Montara oil spill investigated, Felicit James and Matt Brann, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07 15/indonesian-fishermen-want-montara-oil-spill-investigation/5598650. +ALA, (2014). 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Study of Scour aroun Submarine Pipeline with a Rubber Plate or Rigid Spoiler in Wave Conditions Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering 138, 484-490. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_21.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_21.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_22.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_22.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..534c2e0e2e7b0226d35ad089bc1adbe83ab80946 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_22.txt @@ -0,0 +1,178 @@ +Chapter 22. Other Marine-Based Energy Industries +Contributors: Amardeep Dhanju and Lars Golmen, Peyman Eghtesadi Araghi (Co Lead member), Peter Harris (Co-Lead member) +1. Marine Renewable Energy Resources: Background +This chapter concerns ocean processes that are viable sources of renewable energ in various forms, such as offshore wind, waves, tides, ocean currents, marin biomass, and energy from ocean thermal differences among different layers (Appiot et al., 2014). Most of these energy forms are maintained by the incoming heat fro the sun, so they represent indirect solar energy. Tidal energy is an exception, drive by the varying gravitational forces that the moon and sun exert on both the eart and its oceans (Butikov 2002). Marine renewable energy offers the potential to mee the increasing global energy demand, while reducing long-term carbon emissions Although some marine renewable energy resources are still in a conceptual stage other sources have been operational with varying degrees of technical an commercial success. The following section briefly discusses various forms of marin renewable energy sources that are currently in operation or in a demonstratio phase. +1.1 Offshore Wind Power: Background +Offshore wind power relates to the installation of wind turbines in large wate bodies. On average, winds blow faster and more uniformly at sea than on land, and faster and steadier wind means less wear on the turbine components and mor electricity generated per turbine (Musial et al., 2006). The potential energy produce from wind is proportional to roughly the cube of the wind speed. As a result, marginal increase in wind speed results in a significantly larger amount of energ generation. For instance, a turbine at a site with an average wind speed of 25 km/ would provide roughly 50 per cent more electricity than the same turbine at a sit with average wind speeds of 22 km/h. +Offshore wind power is also the most developed form of marine renewable energy i terms of technology development, policy frameworks, and installed capacity Turbine design and other project elements for offshore wind have benefite significantly from research on and experience with land-based wind energy project and offshore oil and gas development (Steen and Hansen, 2014). It is already a viabl source of renewable energy in many regions and is attracting global attentio because of its large-scale resource potential, also often close to major electrical loa centers in coastal areas. In light of these factors, offshore wind energy appears t have the greatest immediate potential for energy production, grid integration, an climate change mitigation. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.2 Ocean Wave Energy: Background +As the wind flows over the ocean, air-sea interface processes transfer some of th wind energy to the water, forming waves which store this energy as potential energ and kinetic energy (Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climat Change, 2011). The immense power of waves can be observed at the coast, wher this energy can have considerable impacts on coastal landscapes, shorelin topography, and infrastructure. Efforts are now underway to tap this resource fo electric generation using wave energy conversion (WEC) devices. WECs transfor mechanical energy from the surface motion of ocean waves or from velocit fluctuations below the surface into electrical current. +1.3 Tidal Power: Background +Tides are regular and predictable changes in the height of the ocean, driven b gravitational and rotational forces between the Earth, Moon, and Sun, combine with centrifugal and inertial forces. Many coastal areas experience roughly two hig tides and two low tides per day (called “semi-diurnal” tides); however in som locations there is only one tidal cycle per day (these are “diurnal” tides Specia Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change, 2011). Tidal power can b harnessed either through a barrage or through submerged tidal turbines in straits o sounds. Tidal barrages involve the use of a dam across an inlet. Sluice gates on th barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to empty throug the turbine system on the outgoing tide (U.S. EIA, 2013). +Energy extraction using tidal barrages is derived from the potential energy create when elevation differences develop between two water bodies separated by a da or barrage, which is analogous to the way a turbine operates in a hydroelectric plan on a dammed river. Conversely, submerged tidal turbines that operate without barrage only rely on the kinetic energy of the freely moving water. Because water i about 800 times denser than air and is more corrosive, tidal turbines must be muc sturdier than wind turbines (U.S. EIA, 2013). +1.4 Ocean Current Energy: Background +Ocean currents are the continuous flow of ocean waters in certain directions, drive or controlled by wind flows, salinity, temperature gradients, gravity, and the Earth’ rotation or coriolis; (U.S DOE, 2013). Although surface ocean currents are generall wind driven, most deep ocean currents are a result of thermohaline circulation — process driven by density differences in water due to temperature (thermo) an salinity (haline) in different parts of the ocean. Currents driven by thermohalin circulation move much slower than surface currents (NOAA, 2007). Many large an powerful ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream off the east coast of the Unite States and the Kuroshio Current off the east coast of Japan, represent an enormou source of untapped energy that can be harnessed through large underwate turbines. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Background +The OTEC system produces electricity from the natural thermal gradient of the ocea between the surface and subsurface ocean waters in tropical and subtropica regions. Heat stored in warm surface water is used to create vapor to drive a turbin and generator, and cold, deep water pumped to the surface recondenses the vapo (Avery and Wu, 1994). The OTEC heat engine is usually configured to operate as thermodynamic Rankine vapor cycle in which a low-boiling-point working fluid (suc as ammonia) is evaporated by heat transfer from the surface seawater and produce electricity by expanding through a turbine connected to a generator. The vapo exiting the turbine is condensed with the cold deep water. This is the Closed-Cycl process. The Open-Cycle process uses expendable water/seawater as the drivin fluid, under low (<0.1 Atmosphere) pressure. After the flash evaporation of the fluid fresh, potable water may be collected on the condensers, while new seawater i being evaporated upstream. Additional freshwater may be collected in a secon exchanger utilizing the remaining Delta-T after the first stage. Thus, the Open-Cycl process generates both electricity and potable water. +The OTEC systems have been demonstrated to work successfully, but no large-scal plant has been built yet. A benefit of OTEC is that it produces constant base-loa electricity, in contrast to other forms of ocean energy sources that fluctuat according to varying winds and currents. +1.6 Osmotic Power: Background +Salinity gradient energy is an often-overlooked potential source of renewable energ from the ocean. The mixing of freshwater and seawater that occurs where rivers an streams flow into the salty ocean releases large amounts of energy. Various concept on how to make use of this salinity gradient have existed for over twenty years. On such concept is Pressure-Retarded Osmosis (PRO), in which seawater is pumped int a pressure chamber where the pressure is less than the osmotic pressure differenc between fresh river water (low salinity water) and seawater (higher salinity water) Freshwater then flows through a semi-permeable membrane and increases th volume (or pressure) within the chamber; a turbine is spun as the pressure i relieved. Early technologies were not considered to be promising, primarily becaus they relied on expensive membranes. Membrane technologies have advanced, bu they remain the main technical barrier to economical osmotic energy productio (Appiott et al., 2014). Also, water on both sides must be low in particulates and othe solids, eliminating many rivers from being a potential freshwater source. +1.7. Marine Biomass Energy: Background +Some researchers are looking towards marine biomass, including seaweeds an marine algae as a viable source of biofuel. Interest in marine biomass is driven bot by the potential productivity of microalgae, which is tenfold greater than that o agricultural crops, and because, unlike first-generation biofuels, microalgae do no require arable land or freshwater, nor do they compete with food production (NERC 2014). Marine ecosystems are highly productive because they cycle energy and +© 2016 United Nations + +nutrients much more rapidly and efficiently than terrestrial ecosystems. Marin algae are photosynthetic aquatic plants that use light as the energy source an seawater as a growth medium. Algae can be harvested and processed into biofuels including biodiesel and bioethanol. +Biodiesel is a non-toxic and biodegradable fuel that is being used in existing diese engines without requiring significant modification. Bioethanol can also be used a fuel when mixed with gasoline. Algae grown for biofuels can also provide a sink fo carbon dioxide, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation (replacing fossi CO, with biogenic CO2 emissions). Algae are an economical choice for biodiese production because of their wide availability and low cost. Despite these advantages however, offshore production of algae is still developing and most algae productio takes place onshore. +2. Resource Assessment and Installed Capacity (Global and Regional Scales) +2.1 Offshore Wind Capacity +An assessment of the world’s exploitable offshore wind resources has placed th estimates around 22 TWa’ (Arent et al., 2012) which is approximately nine time greater than the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 2010 estimate of average globa electricity generation (IEA, 2012). According to a report by the United State National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), offshore wind resource potential fo contiguous United States and Hawaii for annual average wind speeds greater tha 7.0 m/sec and at 90 m above the surface is 4,150 GWa (Schwartz et al., 2010) Similarly, a report by the European Environmental Agency (EEA) calculated th technical offshore wind power potential, based on the forecasted costs o developing and running wind power projects in 2020 at 2,850 GWa (EEA, 2009). Thi figure does not account for spatial use conflicts in developing the wind resourc offshore. +As of 2012, large-scale commercial offshore wind projects and demonstration-scal or pilot projects are already operational in the Belgium, China, Denmark, Finland Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Republic of Korea Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Unite States of America (EWEA, 2008; RenewableUK, 2010; 4C Offshore, 2013; WWEA 2014). Currently, the North Sea region is considered to be the global leader i offshore wind, both in installed and planned capacity and in technical capability. B the end of 2013, the offshore wind industry has achieved a cumulative globa installed capacity of 7,357 MW (WWEA, 2014). Offshore wind turbines can be eithe bottom-mounted or floating. Currently, most offshore wind projects are bottom mounted; floating wind turbines are still in the demonstration phase. Moreover most installations are near the shore in relatively shallow waters due to the higher +* TWa: The average number of terawatt-hours, not terawatts, over a specified time period. Fo example, over the course of one year, an average terawatt is equal to 8,760 terawatt-hours, or 2 hours x 365 days x 1 terawatt. +© 2016 United Nations + +cost of transmission cabling further offshore, and due to the technical and economi challenges of installing turbines in deeper waters. +Figure 1. Photo credit: Principle Power. The WindFloat Prototype (WF1) floating wind turbine deployed by Principle Power in 2011, 5km off the coast of Agucadoura, Portugal. The WF1 is outfitte with a Vestas v80 2.0 MW offshore wind turbine. As of December 2015, the system has produced i excess of 16 GWh of renewable energy delivered to the local grid. +2.2 Wave Energy Capacity +The global exploitable wave energy resource is estimated at around 3,700 GW (M@grk et al., 2010), which is large enough to meet the average global electri generation (IEA, 2012). Wave energy can be harnessed using either floating or fixe conversion devices. Floating devices convert the wave energy by coupling it to hydraulic system as the device is lifted up and down by the movements of the waves Fixed devices generally use the oscillating water column generated by the wave t push air (or water) through a turbine. Other types of wave energy technology, suc as overtopping devices and attenuators, are also undergoing testing an demonstration. +The world’s first grid-connected wave energy device, a 500 kW unit in Scotlan (United Kingdom) called the Islay Limpet, has been operating successfully since 200 (UKDTI, 2004). The Agugadoura Wave Farm, the world’s first utility-scale wav energy project, was launched off the coast of Portugal in September 2008. Thi installation, developed by PelamisWave Power, utilized three 750 kW devices with total capacity of 2.25 MW (RenewableUK, 2010). The project operated for tw months before technical problems forced the developers to abandon it. +© 2016 United Nations + +Figure 2. Waves4power OWC plant in operation offshore Sweden (Reprinted with permission fro Waves4power AB). +2.3 Tidal Energy Capacity +The global tidal energy resource is estimated to be 3,000 GWa by the World Offshor Renewable Energy Report 2004-2008 (UK DTI, 2004), however, less than 3 per cen of this energy is located in areas suitable for power generation. Tidal energy i feasible only where strong tidal flows are amplified by factors such as funneling i estuaries, making it highly site-specific (UK DTI, 2004). Traditionally, tidal energy ha been harnessed using large barrages in areas of high tidal ranges. Many countries such as Canada, China, France, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation and the Unite Kingdom have sites with large tidal ranges that are viable for tidal energy captur facilities. The Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in the Republic of Korea, which ha been operational since August 2011, is the world’s largest tidal power barrage with capacity of 254 MW, surpassing the 240 MW Rance Tidal Power Station in France which has been generating power since 1967. Numerous projects have also bee proposed in other areas, including in the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom (Hall 2012). +As part of its technology development initiative, the United States Department o Energy (US DOE) has funded research into several new types of technology, includin a turbine under development by Verdant Power Inc. Verdant Power was the firs company in the United States of America to be granted a license for a commercia tidal energy project, and looks to build upon an earlier demonstration project in Ne York’s East River with an installation of up to 30 turbines along the strait tha connects Long Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean in the New York harbour. +© 2016 United Nations + +2.4 Ocean Current Energy Capacity +There are no commercial grid-connected turbines currently operating, although number of prototypes and demonstration units are under development. In 2014 the United States Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) issued a lease t Florida Atlantic University (FAU) for testing ocean current turbines. FAU’s Southeas National Marine Renewable Energy Center (SNMREC) plans to deploy experimenta demonstration devices in areas located 10 to 12 nautical miles offshore Florid (Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 2014). +2.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Capacity +OTEC technologies have been tested as early as the 1930s. However, OTEC has bee limited to small-scale pilot projects, and has yet to encourage much investment an commercial development (US DOE, 2008). Research initiatives in the France, India Japan and United States of America and elsewhere are currently examining an testing different types of OTEC technologies (Lockheed Martin Corporation, 2012). modern-type, but very small OTEC plant was constructed in Hawaii, United States, i 1979 (Kullenberg et al., 2008), and similar demonstration projects have bee proposed by other nations (IOES, 2015). Most experience is derived from land-base plants. For floating installations, reference material is mostly derived from desig studies, but with successful demonstrations in Hawaii (MiniOTEC, OTEC-1) an Okinawa, Japan (OTEC Okinawa, 2014). +2.6 Osmotic Power Capacity +The world’s first complete prototype osmotic power plant was launched in Norwa in 2009 by Statkraft. This plant is located in Tofte, southwest of Oslo. According t the company’s assessment, osmotic-power technologies remain several years awa from commercial viability (Kho, 2010). Statkraft recently (2014) decided to shelv development plans. +2.7 Marine Biomass Energy Capacity +Research into algae production has largely been guided down three tracks: open an covered ponds, photobioreactors, and fermenters; the first two are the most widel pursued. Siting algae farms in ocean areas has also been investigated (Lane, 2010). I the United States, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) i investigating the feasibility of growing algae in floating photobioreactors on th outer (geomorphic) continental shelf or in the open ocean. The Offshore Membran Enclosures for Growing Algae (OMEGA) system would use freshwater algae an wastewater in the photobioreactors to produce biofuel while also cleanin wastewater, creating oxygen, and providing a sink for carbon dioxide (NASA, 2012) As the technology is developed further and States with favourable growin conditions begin to look towards marine renewable energy, this option may becom commercially viable in the future. +© 2016 United Nations + +3. Environmental Benefits and Impacts from Offshore Renewable Energ Development +Marine renewable energy installation and generation invariably has environmenta impacts, both positive and negative. These impacts depend on the installation siz and footprint, location, and the use of specific technology. A major positive impact o ocean renewable energy is the provision of low-carbon electricity. Analysis suggest that the carbon intensity of offshore wind and marine hydrokinetic resources, suc as wave and tidal power, is more than an order of magnitude lower than fossil fue generation. In a life cycle analysis, greenhouse gas emissions from wave energ projects average between 13-50 gCO2eq/kWh?, tidal current projects emi approximately 15 gCO,eq/kWh, and offshore wind projects between 4- gCO2eq/kWh (Raventos et al., 2010); these are to be compared with emissions close to 800-1000 gCO2eq/kWh for coal power plants and 400-600 gCO2eq/kWh fo natural gas power plants (POST, 2006 and 2011). +Other environmental benefits include no emissions of toxic air or water pollutant (such as NO, [Nitrogen dioxide], SO, [sulfur dioxide], mercury, particulate matter and thermal pollution from cooling water discharge) and minimal land-us disturbance with the exception of land-use changes related to assembly, equipmen loading/offloading and cable landfalls along the coast. In addition, there ar potential biodiversity benefits from the installation of offshore turbines or marin energy conversion devices. Offshore renewable energy (ORE) structures increase th amount of hard substrate for colonization and provide marine organisms wit artificial reefs. Such structures also create increased heterogeneity in the area: this i important for maintaining species diversity and density (Langhamer, 2012) Investigations have found greater fish abundance in the vicinity of offshore turbine compared to the surrounding areas (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006). One negative impac is that invasive species can find new habitats in these artificial reefs and possibl adversely influence the native habitats and associated environment (Langhamer 2012). +The broader environmental impacts from marine renewable energy can b understood in the context of an ecological risk assessment framework developed b the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This approach provides conceptual model for developing a systematic view of possible ecological effect (McMurray, 2008). The terminology needed for this model requires definin stressors and receptors. Stressors are features of the environment that may chang due to installation, operation, or decommissioning of the facilities, and receptors ar ecosystem elements with a potential for some form of response to the stressor(s (Boehlert and Gill, 2010). Stressors can be considered in terms of different stages o development (survey, construction, operation, and decommissioning) as well as th duration, frequency, and intensity of the disturbance. Project size and scale are also +2 gCO2eq/kWh : grams of CO, equivalent per kilowatt hour of generation. +© 2016 United Nations + +determining factors in the magnitude of stressors and receptors. Within thi framework, we discuss various ecological impacts in the following sections. +Potential negative impacts on flora and fauna including marine mammals, birds, an benthic organisms, as well as impacts on the larger ecosystem may occur fro offshore renewable energy (OREI) development. Some of these impacts are limite to the construction phase, while other impacts span operation and decommissionin phases (Linley et. al., 2009). Potential impacts include habitat loss or degradation a various stages of a project life cycle; injurious noise and displacement of marin mammals from pile driving of wind and tidal-stream generators. Tide powe turbines may also induce local seabed scouring and/or changes to the curren regime, with unintended consequences for biota. Turbine construction may induc mortality due to physical collision with the ORE! structures; effects of operationa noise; and electromagnetic field (EMF) impacts from submerged cables (U.S Department of Interior, 2011). +Noise created during pile-driving operations involves sound pressure levels that ar high enough to impair hearing in marine mammals and disrupt their behaviour at considerable distance from the construction site (Thomsen et. al., 2006). During pil driving for the Horns Rev II offshore wind project in Denmark, a negative effect wa detected out to a distance of 17.8 km (Brandt et. al, 2011). Although it has bee observed that marine mammals temporarily abandon the construction area, the tend to return once pile driving operations cease. Acoustic impact on marin mammals is a major concern and an important topic of assessment and mitigatio strategies in many States. More information is required almost everywhere t understand impacts on and responses by marine organisms to such stresses. +Fixed and moving parts of Ocean Renewable Energy (ORE) devices can lead to fata strikes or collisions with birds and aquatic fauna. Blades used in marine turbines such as those in ocean current or tidal energy devices, are relatively slow-movin and therefore not considered to pose a significant threat to wildlife (Scott an Downie, 2003). However the speed of the tip of some horizontal axis rotors could b an issue for cetaceans, fish, or diving strike birds (Boehlert and Gill, 2010). Operatio of the SeaGen tidal energy device in Strangford Lough, United Kingdom, considere the presence of seals and porpoises and the potential threat of blade strikes; t minimize strike risk, the turbine was shut down when the presence of seals wa observed within 30 meters (Copping et al., 2013). Similarly, investigation of long tailed geese and ducks in and around the Nysted offshore wind project in Denmar suggests that flocks employ an avoidance strategy. Research suggests that th percentage of flocks entering the wind project area decreased significantly from pre construction to initial operation. Overall, less than 1 per cent of ducks and gees migrated close enough to be at any risk of collision (Desholm and Kahlert, 2005). Thi avoidance strategy or adjustment of flight paths, a form of receptor, has also bee observed in other projects, such as Horns Rev (NERI, 2006). It is important t highlight that the additional distances travelled by migratory birds to avoid thes wind farms were relatively trivial (around 500 m) compared to their total migrator trajectory of 1,400 km. However, construction of further utility-scale projects coul have a cumulative impact on the population, especially when considered i combination with other human actions (Masden et. al., 2009). +© 2016 United Nations + +Submerged cables carrying electricity from ORE devices to onshore substations emi low-frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF). Marine and avian species ar sensitive and responsive to naturally occurring magnetic fields; these are commonl used for direction-finding using the Earth’s geomagnetic field. Anthropogeni sources of EMFs are an overlay to naturally occurring sources, and as these source become increasingly common, there are potential impacts on marine organisms Industry standards for the design of submarine cables require shielding, whic restricts directly emitted electric fields, but cannot shield the magnetic fiel component of EMFs (Boehlert and Gill, 2010). Moreover, an alternating current (AC magnetic field has a rotational component that induces an additional electric field i the surrounding environment. There is evidence that EMF’s from wind farms ca cause disturbance to air traffic control radar systems (De la Vega et al., 2013). +Magnetic fields are strongest over the cables, decreasing rapidly with vertical an horizontal distance from the cables. In projects where the electric current i delivered along two sets of cables that were separated by at least several meters the magnetic field appeared as a bimodal peak (Normandeau et al., 2011). Studie suggest that behavioural effects of EMF on species occur, although the impacts var significantly among species. +Thermal aspects of electricity-transmission cables should also be considered. Whe electric energy is transported, a certain amount is lost as heat, leading to a increased temperature in the cable surface and subsequent warming of th surrounding marine environment (Merck and Wasserthal, 2009). Temperatur changes can affect benthic organisms, although data on measureable impacts ar sparse. Increased temperatures can also attract marine organisms, exposing them t a higher amount of EMF radiation. +In addition, there are other potential impacts such as chemical effects from potentia spills or leaching of anti-fouling paints from ocean renewable energy device (Boehlert and Gill, 2010), or impacts on benthic creatures and certain fish specie which have not yet been fully investigated and assessed. Many such effects ar localized, depend on marine and avian biodiversity in a region and can b understood only through comprehensive site-specific environmental impac assessment. Substantial work is proceeding to gather and disseminate availabl information and data on ecological impacts of ocean energy devices. Th International Energy Agency-Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy System (OES) Annex IV? is maintaining the Tethys database, an important reference for bot developers and policy makers (http://tethys.pnnl.gov/). +4. Socioeconomic Benefits and Impacts from Offshore Renewable Energ Deployment +3 Annex IV. Assessment of Environmental Effects and Monitoring Efforts for Ocean Wave, Tidal an Current Energy Systems, Tethys.pnnl.gov. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Socioeconomic impacts cover a range of issues, including access to the ocean, visua impacts amenity, impact on coastal and offshore cultural heritage sites, and othe uses of the ocean, including recreational tourism and fisheries, related to offshor renewable energy sites. In many regions, these issues have been examined withi the context of comprehensive marine spatial planning. Marine spatial plannin provides an understanding of the extent to which certain activities take place in a area identified for offshore renewable energy development and provides a baselin assessment of critical ecological and cultural sites. +Sociological surveys of coastal residents, ocean users and other stakeholders hav been widely used to assess perceived and experienced impacts from offshor renewable energy facilities. Survey results from two operational offshore win projects in Denmark, Hons Rev and Nysted, indicate a generally positive attitud among coastal residents (Ladenburg et al, 2006). Relative open access to the project for marine resource extraction could be a reason for high levels of public approval o the projects. Also, the visual impact of the installations may not have affected thos people who were surveyed, since wind farms have caused a loss of amenity in othe areas (see below). Both the projects provide access to sailing and fishing within thei waters. The Nysted offshore wind project provides access for fishing with net an line, Horns Rev allows only line fishing, and bottom-trawling fishing is prohibited i both projects. Fishing can be further restricted as setting of lobster traps may b limited near cables and turbines. Wave, tidal power, and ocean current energ sources have not yet been commercially deployed at a large enough scale to enabl an assessment of potential socio-economic impacts. +The effect of impaired visual amenity from ORE deployment can affect propert prices, result in loss of recreational value, and reduce demand for tourism in coasta areas. It can also affect historic and culturally significant resources. These impact are expected to be more prominent for an offshore wind project than for a wave tidal, or ocean current installation, as the latter will be underwater and of smalle scale, for similar capacity. Research in the United Kingdom, England and Wales which have extensive offshore wind capacity, concludes that offshore wind project have a measureable impact on property prices. The impact is more pronounced i areas which are closest to the wind projects. On the other hand, a small increase i housing value is also seen in areas where wind projects are not visible, indicating potential economic benefit to landowners near non-visible wind project operation due to an increased rental rate (Gibbons, 2014). This latest assessment is consisten with earlier published studies, which strongly suggest that, given a choice consumers prefer offshore wind projects sited away from the coast and, in som cases, completely out of sight (Ladenburg and Lutzeyer, 2012). +Utility-scale offshore renewable energy projects can use significant ocean space an impose restrictions for navigational purposes. A large project, if placed along a existing navigational route, can increase the distance that ships and boats would b required to travel. The extent of transit through offshore renewable energy project depends on safety issues and ease of access. In Denmark, transit through offshor wind energy projects is possible via certain routes; in Germany, navigation is allowe as close as 500 meters (Albrecht et al., 2013). The International Association o Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities has promulgated +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +recommendations on how to mark different types of offshore renewable energ installations so that they are conspicuous under different meteorological conditions This, along with proper charting of installations and associated cables, can limi navigational risks (Detweiler, 2011). +Planning, construction, and maintenance of offshore renewable energy operation have the potential to create direct and indirect employment in various sector including manufacturing, construction, operation, and maintenance. In 2013 offshore wind represented 3.6 per cent of the United Kingdom’s electricity supply contributed close to 1 billion United Kingdom pounds to the economy and supporte 20,000 jobs, including 5,000 direct jobs (Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult, 2014) As the industry continues to grow, it has the potential to add thousands of new jobs not just in the United Kingdom, but around Europe and other parts of the world tha form a critical link to the supply chain. In Europe, offshore wind energy and ocea energy create 7-9 job-years/MW‘ during construction and installation. In addition offshore wind projects can generate up to 11 job-years/MW in manufacturing, an 0.2 jobs/MW for operation and maintenance during the operational years of project. These figures are comparable to those for conventional sources like coal although offshore wind and other marine renewable sources have no job-creatio potential related to fuel extraction, processing, and transportation for the life of project (Energy [rJevolution, 2012). +Above and beyond the employment generation factor, offshore renewable energ also offers other intrinsic economic and electrical system integration benefits. Fo instance, many offshore renewable energy projects are sited, or proposed, close t densely populated coastal areas. Proximity to major electrical load centres ca significantly reduce the cost of transmission and offset transmission congestion Moreover, ocean renewable sources, particularly offshore wind power, offers th additional value proposition of load coincidence in many regions (Bailey and Wilson 2014). +5. Offshore Renewable Energy Assessment Capacity Gaps +A capacity gap is a lack of information that, if available, would or could identif whether environmental effects [of a project] will have substantial negative impact (McMurray, 2012). In many regions, sufficient knowledge exists in the near-shor and offshore waters to provide an initial baseline assessment, although it is ofte insufficient to provide a site-specific impact assessment. Significant capacity gap exit in assessing environmental, social, and economic impacts from deployin devices in the marine environment. Most forms of ocean renewable energies hav still not reached commercial scale, although some are at a high Technologica Readiness Level (TRL). +* Job-years per MW denote the total amount of labour needed to manufacture equipment o construct a power plant that will deliver a peak output of one megawatt of power (The Energy Polic Institute, 2013). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Certain marine environments and species present additional challenges i addressing capacity gaps. For instance, it is technically difficult to obtain informatio on benthic biota, as compared to species in the pelagic zone. Due to the lack of high quality benthic information, resource managers and developers are often require to conduct time-consuming and resource-extensive surveys before siting decision can be finalized. In the pelagic zone, marine migratory species pose additiona challenges for site characterization. Further site-specific research is required t understand migratory species such as whales to ensure that project siting ha minimal impact on migratory routes or traditional foraging grounds. Similarly impacts on avian species in the offshore environment, particularly migratory bir species and bats, have not been fully understood and require further research an assessment. +In the absence of operational utility-scale projects, it is often difficult to determin the socioeconomic impacts of an emerging renewable energy technology. One wa to address such capacity gaps is to make long-term monitoring an integral part of th construction and operation phase, though if long-term monitoring regimes are to costly developers may be dissuaded from pursuing commercial projects. Studies an surveys assessing impacts before and during the operation of a project can provid valuable information on impacts, and can suggest substantive mitigation measure to address those impacts. +The knowledge and capacity gaps should be addressed within a comprehensiv framework that considers all ecological resources and human uses in an area. Thi framework, also referred to as marine spatial planning, provides a process fo analysing and allocating spatial and temporal distribution of human activities i marine areas to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives that are usuall specified through a political process (UNESCO, 2014). States are increasingly usin marine spatial planning as the tool for identifying and siting offshore renewabl energy projects. More importantly, the collaborative processes at the heart o marine spatial planning foster relationships and linkages among ocean uses stakeholders and resources managers to enhance the quality of scientifi information and traditional knowledge available. This collaboration and informatio exchange can lead to better-informed siting decisions and can minimize social an environmental impacts. +6. Conclusion +Offshore renewable energy is an immense resource awaiting efficient usage Technological progress to harness the resource is steadily increasing around th world. When fully developed and implemented, ocean renewable energy ca enhance the diversity of low-carbon energy options and provide viable alternative to fossil fuel sources. For developing countries and new growing economies installing renewable energy systems represents a viable path towards a low-carbo future. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +To achieve a commercial break-through such that ocean renewable energy become cost-competitive, many governments have funded Research and Development (R&D projects and provided financial support for technological developments an demonstrations within this sector. Traditional commercial funding sources are ofte insufficient to achieve this goal in the long-term, so innovative strategies ar required. In addition, higher education courses on ocean renewable energies mus be promoted, and research to understand and mitigate potential environmental an socio-economic impacts of these new technologies must be conducted. Given it immense potential, offshore renewable energy is well positioned to be part of carbon-constrained energy future. +References +AC Offshore (2013). Global Offshore Wind Farms Database. 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Retrieved fro http://www.oceanor.no/related/59149/paper_OMAW_2010_20473 _final.p f. +Musial, W., Butterfield, S. and Ram, B. (2006). Energy from Offshore Wind Conference paper presented at Offshore Technology Conference, Houston TX, May 1-4, 2006. Retrieved fro http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39450.pdf. +National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (2012). OMEGA: Offshor Membrane Enclosure for Growing Algae. National Aeronautics and Spac Administration (NASA), 17 April 2012. Web. 30 August 2012. Retrieved fro http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/OMEGA/index.html. +National Environmental Research Institute (NERI) (2006). Final result of bird studie at the offshore wind farms at Nysted and Horns Rev, Denmark. Retrieve from http://www. vattenfall.dk/da/file/69662-Horns-Rev--Nysted birds_7842547.pdf. +National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2007). Welcome t currents. Retrieved fro http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/lessons/currents tutorial.pdf. +National Environment Research Council (NERC) (2014). Algal bioenergy specia interest group. Retrieved fro http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/programmes/algal/background.asp?cookie onsent=A. +Normandeau, Exponent, Tricas, T. and Gill, A. (2011). Effects of EMFs from Underse Power Cables on Elasmobranchs and Other Marine Species. U.S. Dept. of th Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, an Enforcement, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA. OCS Study BOEMRE 2011-09 Retrieved from http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFlmages/ESPIS/4/5115.pdf. +Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult (2014). Generation energy and prosperity Economic impact study of the offshore renewable energy industry in the UK Retrieved fro https://ore.catapult.org.uk/documents/2157989/0/ORE+CatapulttUK+econ mictimpact+report/2c49a781-ffle-462f-a0c7-b25eb9478b0f eversion=1.0. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +OTEC Okinawa (2014). Retrieved from http://otecokinawa.com/en/. +Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) (October 2006). Carbo footprint of electricity generation. (Report Number 268). Retrieved fro http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/postpn268.pdf +Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) (June 2011). Carbon footprin of electricity generation. (Report number 383). Retrieved fro http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/postpn_383-carbon-footprint electricity-generation.pdf +Raventos, A., Simas, T., Moura, A., Harrison, G., Thomson, C. and Dhedin, J. (2010) Life cycle assessment for marine renewables. (Deliverable D6.4.2). Retrieve from http://mhk.pnl.gov/wiki/images/e/eb/EquiMar_D6.4.2.pdf +RenewableUK (2010). Marine Renewable Energy. RenewableUK, London. Retrieve from http://www.bwea.com/marine/resource.html. +Schwartz, M., Heimiller, D., Haymes, S., and Musial, W. (2010). Assessment o offshore wind energy resources for the United States. National Renewabl Energy Laboratory (Technical Report NREL/TP-500-45889). Retrieved fro http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/12/f5/45889.pdf +Scott, W. and Downie, A.J. (2003). A review of possible marine renewable energ development projects and their natural heritage impacts from a Scottis perspective. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report FO2AA414. +SRREN (2011). Special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Chang Mitigation). Retrieved from http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report +Steen, M., and Hansen, G.H. (2014). Same sea, different ponds: Cross-sectiona knowledge spillovers in the North Sea. European Planning Studies, 22 (10) 2030-2049. doi: 10.1080/09654313.2013.814622. +The Energy Policy Institute (March 2013). Employment estimates in the energ sector: Concepts, methods, and results. Retrieved fro http://epi.boisestate.edu/media/16370/employment%20estimates%20in%2 the%20energy%20sector;%20concepts%20methods%20and%20results.pdf. +Thomsen, F., Ludemann, K., Kafemann, R. and Piper, W. (2006). Effects of offshor wind farm noise on marine mammals and fish. A report funded by COWRI Ltd. Retrieved from http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~ling/2A_EU3.pdf. +UK Department of Trade and Industry (UK DTI) (2004). The World Offshor Renewable +Energy Report 2004-2008. UK Department of Trade and Industry, London. Retrieve fro http://www. ppaenergy.co.uk/Insights/d,czoxMToiMzU20DY2ZGYyZDliOw== html. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2014) Marine Spatial Planning. Retrieved from http://www.unesco-ioc marinesp.be/marine_spatial_planning_msp. +U.S. Department of Interior (U.S. DOI) (2011). Effects of EMFs from undersea powe cables on Elasmobranchs and other marine species. OCS Study BOEMR 2011-09. Retrieved fro http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFlmages/ESPIS/4/5115.pdf. +U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE) (2008). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversio (Updated 30 Dec 2008). U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC Available at http://www.energysavers.gov/renewable_energy/ocean/index.cfm/mytopi %50010?print. +U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE) (2012). Turbines off NYC East River will provid power to 9,500 residents. Retrieved from http://energy.gov/articles/turbines nyc-east-river-will-provide-power-9500-residents. +U.S Department of Energy (DOE) (2013). Assessment of energy production potentia from ocean currents along the United States coastline. 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[CES Journal of Marine Science, 63: 775-784 doi:10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.02.001. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_22.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_22.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_23.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_23.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f400e0271afadf770b1fd9d47fb5997d02964129 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_23.txt @@ -0,0 +1,508 @@ +Chapter 23. Offshore Mining Industries +Contributors: Elaine Baker (Lead member and Convenor of Writing Team) Francoise Gaill, Aristomenis P. Karageorgis, Geoffroy Lamarche Bhavani Narayanaswamy, Joanna Parr, Clodette Raharimananirina, Ricardo Santos Rahul Sharma, Joshua Tuhumwire (Co-Lead member) +Consultors: James Kelley, Nadine Le Bris, Eddy Rasolomanana, Alex Rogers Mark Shrimpton +1. Introduction +Marine mining has occurred for many years, with most commercial venture focusing on aggregates, diamonds, tin, magnesium, salt, sulphur, gold, and heav minerals. Activities have generally been confined to the shallow near shore (les than 50 m water depth), but the industry is evolving and mining in deeper wate looks set to proceed, with phosphate, massive sulphide deposits, manganes nodules and cobalt-rich crusts regarded as potential future prospects. +Seabed mining is a relatively small industry with only a fraction of the know deposits of marine minerals (Figure 1) currently being exploited. In comparison terrestrial mining is a major industry in many countries (estimated to be worth i excess of 700 billion United States dollars per year, PWC, 2013). Pressure on land based resources may spur marine mining, especially deep seabed mining. However global concerns about the impacts of deep seabed mining have been escalating an may influence the development of the industry (Roche and Bice, 2013). +The exploitation of marine mineral resources is regulated on a number of levels global, regional and national. At the global level, the most important applicabl instrument is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). It i complemented by other global and regional instruments. At the national level legislation governing the main marine extractive industries (i.e. aggregate mining may be extremely complex and governed in part by national or subnationa authorities (Radzevicius et al., 2010). As regards national legislation to regulat deep-sea mining, terrestrial mining legislation often applies to the continental shel or EEZ, rather than specific deep-sea mining legislation (EU, 2014). However man Pacific Islands States, that are gearing up for deep seabed mining have mad significant efforts to adopt concise and comprehensive domestic laws (SPC, 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +> +ic CF Ofer = Tees.” F5e4 ms +ms ce ATLANTIC OCEA us +w oP . Red\ y —— +‘a> L M Sze a lg pura? Tmze Sum. +u 5 x INDIAN OCEA a: onnnets +PACIFIC | OCEA EQUATOR +Coretta? +PLATE BOUND (GEOTHERMAL PO Divergent +~~ Convergent +Transform faults not shown +ARIE Pa TENTIAL) +~A ws +As SILVER ©» LIME MUD, SAND, SHELLS Hs. MERCURY mw NICKEL SILICEOUS SAND, UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSIT A BAUXITE ¢r CHROMITE POTASH sm PHOSPHORITE er © UNDEVELOPE so Ti +av GOLD cu COPPER ™ MONAZITE Pt PLATINUM © DEVELOPE THORIUM +82 BARITE © DIAMONDS Ms MASSIVE nee RARE EARTH CONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS. +SULFIDES ELEMENTS IUMENITE, RUTILE 1D _UNDEVELOPE “4 MAGNESIUM «SALT URANIU FRESH WATE ZIRCON +© COAL Fe IRON, MAGNETIT co COBALT-RICH @ GEMS +fe, FERROMANG- MANGANES " ANESE CRUST NODULES +@ DEVELOPE s SULFUR +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Global distribution of known marine mineral resources (from Rona, 2008). +2. Scale and significance of seabed mining +2.1 Sand and gravel extraction +Aggregates are currently the most mined materials in the marine environment an demand for them is growing (Bide and Mankelow, 2014). Due to the low value of th product, most marine aggregate extractions are carried out at short distances fro landing ports close to the consumer base and at water depths of less than 50 (UNEP, 2014). +In Europe, offshore sand and gravel mining is an established industry in Denmark France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom of Great Britain an Northern Ireland (Earney, 2005). Marine aggregates are also mined in the tida channels of the Yellow River China, the west coast of the Republic of Korea, tida channels between the islands south of Singapore and in a range of settings in th waters surrounding Hong Kong, China (James et al 1999). In many of the Pacifi Islands States, aggregates for building are in short supply and the mining o terrestrial sources, principally beaches, has been associated with major increases i coastal vulnerability (e.g. impacts of beach mining in Kiribati and the Marshall Island are well documented (Webb 2005, McKenzie et al 2006). Therefore, marine source of aggregates are considered as a preferred source. The Secretariat of the Pacifi Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), now part of the Secretariat of th Pacific Community, has been involved in assisting Pacific Island States in the +© 2016 United Nations + +planning, development and management of sand and gravel resources, (SOPAC 2007). +Although globally the majority of the demand for aggregates is met by aggregate extracted from land-based sources, the marine-based industry is expanding (JNCC 2014). However, no figures are available on the global scale of marine aggregat mining. +2.1.1 Case Study: North-East Atlantic +The Working Group on the Effects of Extraction of Marine Sediments (WGEXT) of th International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has provided yearl statistics since 1986 on marine aggregate production (ICES 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 2011, 2012, 2013; Sutton and Boyd, 2009; Velegrakis et al., 2010). Since 1995, a average of 56 million m® y* has been extracted from the seabed of the North-Eas Atlantic (Figure 2). Five countries account for 93 per cent of the total marin aggregate extraction (Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the Unite Kingdom; OSPAR, 2009). The Netherlands is the largest producer (average 27. million m? y*). There are thirteen landing ports and 17 specialist wharves in Europ (Belgium, France and the Netherlands; Highley et al., 2007). +Total Aggregate Extraction +56 +Millions Cubic Metre ro g +1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 #2005 2006 2007 +Figure 2. Total marine aggregate extraction in the OSPAR maritime area (in million m’). Data from ICES, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 (OSPAR 2009). +The United Kingdom, one of the largest producers of marine aggregates in th region, currently extracts approximately 20 million tons of marine aggregate (san and gravel) per year from offshore sites (Figure 3). Production meets around 20 pe cent of the demand in England and Wales (Crown Estate, 2013). Around 85 per cen of the mined aggregate is used for concrete, with the remainder used for beac nourishment and reclamation. In 2010, the area of seabed dredged was 105.4 km’, +© 2016 United Nation + +although 90 per cent of dredging effort was confined to just 37.63 km’. Betwee 1998 and 2007, aggregate extraction produced a dredge footprint of 620 km (BMAPA, 2014). In 2012, 23 dredging vessels were operating (BMAPA, 2014) an aggregates were landed at 68 wharves in 45 ports in England and Wales. Wharve are mainly located in specific regions where a shortfall in land-derived supplies exist and/or there are economic advantages because of river access and proximity to th market (Highley et al., 2007). +oe +UK and Continental Aggregat Dredging Areas +Ml UK Dredging Areas +Xl Continental Dredging Areas + OUNOALK + SF +\ +oust HARLINGEN +wewic ° +BELGIUM +FRANCE + HONFLEUR +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. Map of the coastline showing the location of aggregate license areas in the United Kingdo and the adjacent coast of continental Europe (Newell and Woodcock, 2013). +The European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD: 2008/56/EC requires that its Member States take measures to achieve or maintain Goo Environmental Status (GES) by 2020. The Descriptor 6 of the MSFD, referred to a “Sea-floor integrity”, is closely linked to marine aggregate extraction from th seabed — seafloor integrity is defined as a level that ensures that the structure an functions of the ecosystems are safeguarded and benthic ecosystems, in particular are not adversely affected (Rice et al., 2010). Descriptor 6 requires immediat actions from Member States to develop suitable pressure indicators (calculated fro several parameters such as the species diversity, the number of species and th proportion of different types of species in benthic invertebrate samples) and launc continuous monitoring schemes to contribute to GES achievement. +© 2016 United Nation + +2.1.2 Case Study: Pacific Islands - Kiribati +The adverse effects of sand mining on the beaches (above the high water mark) o South Tarawa, the main island of Kiribati, were recognized in the 1980s. Removal o the beach sand changes the shape of the beach, increasing erosion and the island’ vulnerability to flooding from storm surges and rising sea level. As a consequence o ongoing beach mining, the EU-funded Environmentally Safe Aggregate Project fo Tarawa (ESAT) was started in 2008. A purpose-built dredge vessel, the “M Tekimarawa” was commissioned and a State-owned dredging company wa developed to provide marine aggregates for urban construction. The mined materia is processed by local people at a processing facility, used on the island for buildin material and also sold to other islands. The resource area in Tarawa Lagoon (Figur 4), which is currently being mined for coarse sand and gravel, is expected to provid aggregates for 50 to 70 years. ESAT also has a license to excavate access channels o the intertidal reef flats in Beito and Bonriki. This provides fine intertidal silt suitabl for road base. +The introduction of marine mining in Tarawa Lagoon has not stopped illegal beac mining. Reviews have found that controlling beach mining by communities i difficult, and that trying to regulate this practice in the absence of a suitabl alternative source of revenue is next to impossible (Babinard et al., 2014). +The shoreline and beach profile in South Tarawa has been severely altered, with th almost complete removal of the high protective berm. Mining has now moved on t other untouched beaches. It is estimated that natural recovery of damaged area will take decades (SOPAC, 2013). +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Tarawa Atoll. ESAT resource area in yellow (50-70 year supply). The dot is larger than th absolute maximum surface area that could be mined in any given year (SOPAC, 2013, Figure courtes Dr. Arthur Webb). +© 2016 United Nation + +2.2 Placer mining +Placer deposits include minerals that have been concentrated by physical processes such as waves, wind and currents. Globally, diamonds dominate this sector, bu placer deposits also contain valuable minerals. Harben and Bates (1990) identify th most economically important of these minerals (and their associated elements) as cassiterite (tin), ilmenite (titanium), rutile (titanium), zircon (zirconium), chromit (chromium), monazite (thorium), magnetite (iron), gold and diamonds. About 75 pe cent of the world’s tin, 11 per cent of gold, and 13 per cent of platinum are extracte from placers (Daesslé and Fischer, 2013). +Table 1. Principal marine placer mining activities (from Murton, 2000) +Placer Minerals Mined locations +Rutile and ilmenite South-east and south-west Australi Eastern South Africa +South India +Mozambique +Senegal +Brazil +Florida +Titanium-rich magnetite North Island, New Zealan Java, Indonesi Luzon, Philippines +Hokkaido, Japan +Tin Indonesian Sunda shelf, extending fro the islands of Bangka, Belitung, an Kundur +Malaysi Thailand +Diamonds West Coast, South Afric Namibia +Northern Australia +Diamond placer deposits exist in two distinct areas: a 700-km stretch along th coastal borders of Namibia and South Africa, and an area off the northern coast o Australia (Rona, 2005). Deposits off the coast of South Africa have not been activel mined since 2010 (De Beers, 2012) and Australian operations have not progressed +© 2016 United Nations + +since discovery. Offshore of Namibia, five vessels operated by NAMDEB (a join partnership between the Namibian government and De Beers) currently extrac approximately 1 million carats/year (De Beers, 2007; 2012). In addition there ar diver operated mining activities conducted from smaller vessels. A report from Th World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) South Africa (Currie et al., 2008) identified number of environmental concerns associated with offshore diamond mining. Thes included destruction of kelp beds, which provide important habitat for juvenile roc lobsters and the destruction of healthy reefs during the removal of diamondiferou gravels. The authors also suggested that the dumping of tailings back into the ocea or onto the beach (after processing) could also potentially result in the formation o land bridges from some islands to the mainland in the vicinity of islands. +Dredging of tin placers is the largest marine metal mining operation in the worl (Scott, 2011). The tin belt, as it is called, stretches from Myanmar, down throug Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. The largest operations are offshore o Indonesia, where submerged and buried fluvial and alluvial fan deposits are mine up to 70 meters below sea level, using large dredgers. P.T. TIMAH, a state-owne enterprise, operates the official tin mine offshore of Bangka and Belitung islands Their dredges can recover more than 3.5 million cubic meters of material per mont (Timah, 2014). Numerous “informal miners” also dredge in the shallow coastal are (see Figure 5). These operations use divers to suck sediment from the seafloor usin plastic tubing connected to a diesel pump (which also pumps air to the divers). Th Indonesian islands produce 90 per cent of Indonesia's tin, and Indonesia is th world's second-largest exporter of the metal. +Commercial production of tin began in Thailand in the late 1800s. Most of th offshore tin is located off the Malay Peninsula. The major offshore mining operation ceased in 1985 when the tin price collapsed. Prior to that, large-scale operation were located in the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Siam (now Gulf of Thailand). Th Thaisarco tin smelter in Phuket processes tin from inside and outside Thailand. Whil most of the Thai-sourced tin originates from land-based deposits, a number o privately owned suction boats still work the near shore during the dry season; typical boat can recover about 15 kg of cassiterite ore per day. +Gold placer deposits along the Gulf of Alaska of the United States of America coas have been worked since 1898. The gold is recovered from sands exposed at low tide but the gold-bearing sands extend for approximately 5 km offshore to water depth of 20 m (Jewett et al., 1999). The deposit was most recently actively mined fro 1987 to 1990, when the lease was terminated. During that period, 3,673 kg of gol were recovered (Garnett, 2000). The Placer Marine Mining Company purchased a offshore lease at Nome from the Alaska Department of Natural Resources in 2011 The AngloGold-De Beers partnership also has an offshore lease and has investe several million US dollars in exploration and baseline studies. They are hoping t have the required permits in place to begin mining by 2017. There are also a numbe of individual leases, and due to interest from the general public in shallow wate gold mining, the Alaska Department of Natural Resources has also established tw recreational mining areas offshore of Nome. +© 2016 United Nation + +Figure 5. Homemade dredges operating offshore Bangka Island Indonesia (Photo Rachel Kent, Th Forest Trust). +2.2.1. Case Study: New Zealand +Iron sands constitute a very large potential resource in New Zealand. Iron sand occur extensively in the coastal zone, and exploration off the west coast of the Nort Island of New Zealand’s exclusive economic zone has identified potential resource concentrated on the continental shelf. In 2014, following an exploration phase Trans-Tasman Resources Limited (TTR) was granted a 20-year mineral mining permi by the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment for th extraction of iron sand from the South Taranaki Bight (Figure 6). This permit is th first step in a regulatory process that may allow the company to extract iron san over a 66-km? area of seabed located in water depths of between 20-42 m, up to 3 km offshore. It is estimated that 50 million tons per year of sand could be extracte from the seabed (TTR, 2015). It may still take several years before minin commences and, in addition, the company also needs to obtain consent from th New Zealand Petroleum and Minerals branch of the Environmental Protectio Authority (EPA) before any mining can begin (NZ Petroleum and Minerals, 2014). A the time of publication of this report, the decision-making Committee appointed b the EPA has refused to grant the mining consent to TTR (NZ EPA, 2015). The reaso for this decision is related in part to the uncertainties about the scope an significance of the potential adverse environmental effects. +© 2016 United Nation + +lronSand | Concentration |} +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 6. Surficial concentrations of iron sand along the west coast of the North Island of New Zealan (Taranaki region) (modified from Carter, 1980, Taylor & Francis, Ltd., www.tandfonline.com). +2.3 Sulphur mining +Sulphur is used in manufacturing and agriculture. Most is produced onshore, bu native sulphur is associated with offshore salt domes in the Gulf of Mexico. On offshore mine, the Main Pass 299 facility, located in shallow water off centra Louisiana, United States, was operational until 2000 (Kyle, 2002). The sulphur wa extracted by the Frasch system, which uses the injection of superheated wate through boreholes to melt the sulphur, which is then forced to the surface b compressed air (Ober, 1995). The mine facility is one of the largest platfor configurations in the Gulf, with 18 platforms. However, it is unlikely that the min will resume operations in the near future, due to a glut in the supply of sulphur. Thi over-supply stems from the fact that sulphur is now extracted in environmenta control systems and petroleum refining, which account for 55 per cent of the worl sulphur production. +© 2016 United Nation + +3. Significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t offshore mining industries +3.1 Environmental Impacts +The current shallow-water seabed mining activities all employ dredging systems t excavate material from the seabed. Dredging techniques vary depending on th nature of the material being mined. They include: a plain suction dredge, whic vacuums up unconsolidated material; a rotary cutter dredge, which has a cuttin tool at the suction inlet to dislodge more consolidated material; and bucket dredges which drag a bucket along the sea floor. In marine mining, the dredged material i generally placed into an onboard hopper and excess water and tailings ar discharged back into the environment. +Environmental impacts include physical alteration of the benthic environment an underwater cultural heritage. Table 2 summaries the environmental impact associated with aggregate mining, which are potentially applicable to all types o shallow water marine mining. Examples of documented impacts are listed in Table 3 The most immediate impacts relate to sediment removal resulting in loss of benthi communities. The removal of the sediment may also affect (re) colonization an recovery rates of impacted communities (Tillin et al., 2011). Most studies on th impact of dredging on marine benthos show that dredging can result in a 30-70 pe cent reduction in species variety, a 40-95 per cent reduction in the number o individuals, and a similar reduction in biomass in dredged areas (Newell et al., 1998). +In addition to removal, sediment disturbance can expose marine organisms t increased turbidity and elevated suspended sediment concentrations. This ca reduce light availability, which can impact photosynthetic organisms lik phytoplankton. Tides and currents can spread turbidity plumes and sedimen beyond the mine area. This can be accompanied by changes in water chemistry an contamination (such as algal spores, and from formerly buried substances). +Changes in hydrodynamic processes and seabed geomorphology can also occur. Fo example, trailer suction dredging, a common form of aggregate dredging, involve dragging the dredge slowly along the seabed, resulting in furrows that are up to 2- m wide and 0.5 m deep. These furrows can persist, depending on the local curren regime and mobility of the sediments (Newell and Woodcock, 2013). Static suctio dredges are employed at sites where deposits are thick and can result in th formation of large pits. Hitchcock and Bell (2004 and references therein) reporte that pits within gravelly substrates may fill very slowly and persist after several years whereas pits in channels with high current velocities have been observed to fil within one year, and those in intertidal watersheds can take 5-10 years to fill. +The European SANDPIT project (Van Rijn et al 2005) aimed to develop reliabl techniques to predict the morphological behaviour of large-scale sand minin pits/areas and to understand associated sediment transport processes (Idier et al. 2010). In the study, a baseline pit, based on an actual Dutch pit, was defined as a inverted truncated pyramid 10 m below the seabed, with dimensions at the seabed +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +of 500m x1300m, an excavated volume of 3.5Mm}, and located 1.5km from shore a a water depth of 10m (Soulsby et al., 2005). Modelling results using this baseline pi indicate that, for example, there could be a reduction of current speed of up to 1 per cent in the pit; an increase in wave height in the centre of the pit of 1-5 per cent increasing to 10-15 per cent in the areas surrounding the pit; a reduction o sediment transport in the centre of the pit by 40-90 per cent and an increase of 70 200 per cent outside the pit (Soulsby et al., 2005). +Changes in sediment grain size composition can also occur. For example, diamon mining on the continental shelf of Namibia in 130 m depth was shown to hav altered the surficial sediments in a mined area, from previously predominantl homogenous well-sorted sediment, to a more heterogeneous mud, coarse sand an gravel. This is because, as part of the on-board processing, cobbles, pebbles an tailings are discarded over the side (Rogers and Li, 2002). Long-term or permanen changes in grain size characteristics of sediments will affect other factors such a organic content, pore-water chemistry, and microbe abundance and compositio (Anderson, 2008). +Less well-documented potential impacts include underwater noise. A review b Thomsen et al. (2009) summarized information on the potential risks from dredgin noise. They noted that dredging produces broadband and continuous low frequenc sound, that studies indicate that dredging can trigger avoidance reaction in marin mammals, and that marine fish can detect dredging noise over considerabl distances. They report that the sparse data available indicates that dredging is not a noisy as seismic surveys, pile driving and sonar; but it is louder than most shipping operating offshore wind turbines and drilling, and should be considered as a mediu impact activity. Marine fauna and birds may collide with or become entangled i operating vessels, but this potential impact is also not well studied. Todd et al (2015 noted that collisions with marine mammals are possible, but unlikely, given the slo speed of dredgers. +Because most marine mining currently occurs close to shore there has bee considerable concern regarding the potential impact of mining on archaeologica sites. Mining activities, particularly aggregate dredging, has been shown t irreversibly damage underwater cultural heritage, including shipwrecks, airplan crash sites and submerged prehistoric sites (Firth, 2006). Individual States, such a the United States have prepared recommendations and guidelines to avoid dredgin impacts on cultural sites (Michel et al., 2004). These include improved location o cultural sites using remote sensing technology, the establishment of buffer zone around known sites, and preparation of plans to preserve resources and subsequen monitoring of dredging activity. Government policies in the United Kingdom o marine mineral extraction from the seabed off the coast of England are set out i Marine Minerals Guidance Note 1 (MMG 1; Wenban-Smith, 2002). The MMG states that all applications for dredging in previously undredged areas require a environmental impact assessment. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, whic approves applications, can request the applicant to provide information relating t potential impacts to archaeological heritage and landscape and provide informatio on the measures envisaged to prevent, reduce and where possible offset an significant adverse effects. A review by Firth (2013) of marine archaeology in the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +United Kingdom recommends that thorough exploration of cultural sites, t constrain their area, may be more cost effective than blanket buffer zones, whic can disrupt dredging activity. +Table 2. Spatial and tem +the confidence associated with the evidence (from Tillin et al 2011). +poral scale of the main effects arising from aggregate extraction activities and +Effects arising fro aggregat extractio activities +Spatial Scale o Effect +Temporal Scale o Effect +Confidence i Evidence +Direct Impacts: +Removal o aggregates: +Impacts on benthi marine organism and seabe morphology Confined t footprint o extraction: th active dredge zone. +Recovery ma begin afte cessation o activity. +Good evidence fo impacts on seabe habitats an biologica assemblage (Newell et al 2004). +Direct Impacts: +Removal o aggregates: +Impacts on cultura heritage an archaeology +May be permanen and irreversible +Good evidence fo impacts (Michel e al., 2004) +Direct Impacts: +Formation o sediment plumes +From 300-500m fo sand particl deposition to 3k where particles ar remobilised b local hydrodynami conditions +Longevity o sediment plumes up to 4-5 tida excursions for fin particles (MALS 2009) +Confidence i understanding o sediment plum has been assesse as high (MALS 2009) +Indirect Impacts: +Visual Disturbance +May affect seabird and marin mammals, spatia extent of effec depends on visua acuity of organis and response. +Confined to perio of extractio activities +Little evidence unlikely to b different fro other forms of +shipping. +Indirect Impacts: +Noise Disturbance +Changes in nois levels detectabl up to several km Behavioura responses likely t occur over muc more limite distances and little +Confined to perio of extractio activities +Evidence of hearin thresholds onl available for a fe species (Cefa 2009). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +risk of hearin damage. +Indirect Impacts: +Collision Risk +Confined to activit footprint +Confined to perio of extractio activities +Little evidence unlikely to b different fro other forms of +shipping Indirect Impacts: From 300-500m for | Heaviest particles High (fro Sediment sand particle settle almost modelling studie deposition deposition to 3km__| immediately, and direct +where particles ar remobilised b local hydrodynamic +lightest particle will settle within tidal excursion (a +observations at number of sites). +conditions. tidal cycle of eb and flood) (Cefas +2009). +The scale of impacts will vary depending on the method and intensity of dredging level of screening (for example in aggregate mining screening may be employed t alter the sand to gravel ratio, in which case significant quantities of sediment typically unwanted fine sediment particles, can be returned to the seabed), sedimen type and local hydrodynamics (Newell and Woodcock, 2013). +Physical and biological impacts (e.g. smothering leading to death or impaire function) may persist well after the mining finishes. Recovery times are likely to var greatly and be species dependent (Foden et al., 2009). Cumulative impacts such a climate change and other anthropogenic activities may also affect recovery timing. +Some of the mitigation measures now used with dredging operations include — The use of silt curtains to contain dredge plumes — The return of overflow waste to the seabed rather than in the water column; +— Locating mining activities away from known migratory pathways and calving o feeding grounds; +— Limiting the number of vessels or operations in given areas — Requiring reduced boat speeds in areas likely to support marine mammals; +—Engineering to reduce the noise of the primary recovery and ore-lif operations; +— Limiting unnecessary use of platform and vessel flood lights at night an ensuring that those that are required are directed approximately verticall onto work surfaces to avoid or mitigate seabird strikes; +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +—Leaving patches within a mining site un-mined to increase the rate o recolonization and recovery of benthic fauna; +— Excluding areas from mining if they support unique populations of marine life; +— Excluding areas of mining if they are potential sites of cultural heritage; +— Depositing tailings within as small an area as possible surrounding the minin block, or onshore; and +— Avoiding the need for re-mining areas by mining target areas to completio during initial mining. +Table 3. Documented environmental impacts of offshore mining +Mining activity Location Impact Referenc Shell and sand Owen Anchorage, Dredging in shallow near-shore Walker et al. extraction south-west of waters associated with significant 2001 +Fremantle, Wester Australia +conservation values, e.g. seagrass, coral communities adverse effects on marine habitat due to direct seabed disturbanc and indirect effects, such a elevated turbidity levels. Othe concerns include changes in near shore wave and curren conditions, which could affec shipping movements an seabed/shoreline stability +Sand and grave extraction +European Union +Loss of abundance, specie diversity and biomass of th benthic community in the dredge area. Similar effects from turbidit and resuspension of sedimen over a wide area. Benthic impac is a key concern where dredgin activities may impinge on habitat or species classified as threatene or in decline (such as Maerl o Sabellaria reefs). +OSPAR, 2009 +Sand and grave extraction +Dieppe, France +10-year monitoring programm revealed a change in substrat from gravel and coarse sand t fine sand in the dredged area. Th maximum impact on benthi macrofauna was a reduction by 8 per cent in species richness and 9 per cent in both abundance an biomass. In the surrounding area the impact was almost as severe Following cessation of dredging species richness was fully restore after 16 months, but densities an biomass were still 40 per cent and +Desprez, 2000 +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +25 per cent, respectively, lowe than in reference stations after 2 months. The community structur differed from the initial one corresponding to the new type o sediment. +Sand and grave extraction +United States o America +Comprehensive review of impact from dredging operation identifying the most sever effects: entrainment of benthi organisms; destruction o essential habitat; increase turbidity affecting sensitive faun like corals and suspension-feedin organisms. +Michel et al. 2013 +Sand and grave extraction +Moreton Bay Australia +Alteration of the existing tida delta morphology by the remova of a small area of shallow banks In most cases, the prevailin sediment transport processe would result in a gradual infill o extraction sites. +Fesl, 2005 +Sand and grave extraction +Puck Bay, Souther Baltic Sea +Benthic re-colonization at a sit formed by sand extraction wa investigated some 10 years after th cessation of dredging. The examine post-dredging pit is one of five dee (up to 14 m) pits created with static suction hopper on the sandy flat and shallow (1-2 m) part of th inner Puck Bay (the southern Balti Sea). Organic matter was found t accumulate in the pit, resulting i anaerobic conditions and hydroge sulfide formation. Macrofauna wa absent from the deepest part of th pit and re-colonization by pre mining benthic fauna wa considered unlikely. +Szymelfenig e al., 2006 +Diamond mining +Benguela Region Africa (offshore o Namibia and Sout Africa) +Cumulative impacts of seabe diamond mining assessed ove time and as a combination o numerous operations. Four to 1 years for benthic recovery biodiversity altered in favour o filter feeders and algae, resultin in decreased biodiversity bu increased biomass. +Pulfrich et al. 2003; Pulfric and Branch 2014 +Diamond mining +Offshore Namibia Orange Delta +Changes in surficial sedimen grain size composition fro unimodal to polymodal, wit increased coarse sand and gravel. +Rogers and Li 2002 +Tin mining +Bangka- +Hundreds of makeshift pontoons +IDH, 2013 +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Belitung Province operate alongside a fleet of 5 Indonesia dredgers belonging to P.T. TIMAH The island coastline has bee altered by tailing dumps, and up t 70 per cent of coastal +ecosystems, particularly coral, sea grass and mangroves, are +degraded Gold mining Norton Sound, Mining with a bucket-line dredge Jewett et al. northeastern Bering occurred near shore in 9 to 20 m 199 Sea, United States. during June to November 1986 to +1990. Sampling a year after minin ceased indicated that benthi macrofaunal community parameter (total abundance, bio- mass diversity) and abundance o dominant families were significantl reduced at mined stations +Several studies have looked at the restoration of seabed habitat after mining activit (e.g., Cooper et al., 2013, Kilbride et al., 2006, Boyd et al., 2004). In the OSPA region, where damage to protected species and habitat occurs, restoration i identified within the obligations of the Convention for the Protection of the Marin Environment of the North-East Atlantic, various European directives, and in variou United Kingdom marine policy documents, (Cooper et al., 2013). A study on seabe restoration identified three issues central to decisions about whether to attemp restoration following marine aggregate dredging. They include: (i) necessity (e.g. clear scientific rationale for intervention and/or a policy/legislative requirement), (ii technical feasibility (i.e. whether it is possible to restore the impacts), and (iii whether is it affordable (Cooper et al., 2013). +A recent study of the Thames Estuary, United Kingdom, an area of aggregat extraction, used the estimated value of ecosystem goods and services to determin if seabed restoration was justifiable in terms of costs and benefits; they conclude that in this case it was not (Cooper et al., 2013). The proposed restoration involve levelling the seabed and restoring the sediment character for an estimated cost o over 1 million British pounds. In order to determine if this expenditure could b justified, the authors assessed the significance of the persistent impacts on th ecosystem goods and services and the cost and likelihood of successful restoration While the site-specific cost benefit analysis precluded restoration, they suggest tha the approach taken could be used at other sites to determine if restoration i practical and effective. +In the United Kingdom a research fund, (the Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund), wa established in 2002 and ran until March 2011, using revenue from the Aggregate Levy introduced in 2002 - a tax of 2.00 British pounds per ton on primary aggregat sales (including land- and marine-derived aggregates; Newell and Woodcock, 2013) There was intense public criticism when the Fund was discontinued in 2011, a previously 7 per cent of the Fund had been directed to communities, non- +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +governmental organizations and other stakeholders to fund projects deliverin conservation, local community and other sustainability benefits (e.g., BBC 2011 MPA 2011). Cooper et al., 2013 also suggest that the fund could have been used t finance seabed restoration projects. +3.2 Social impacts +Social impacts of offshore mining are likely to be complex and different an generally less than that for terrestrial mining (Roche and Bice, 2013). Table 4 detail potential social impacts from offshore mining. In countries where offshore mining i relatively new and untested (like Australia), societal expectations set highe standards for its acceptance, particularly with regard to environmental protectio and strengthening of the national economy (Mason et al., 2014). +Table 4. Positive and negative potential social impacts identified (after Tillin et al, 2011; Roche an Bice, 2013) +Impact Effect +Environmental Loss of ecosystem services that negatively affects livelihoods degradation +Provision of For coastal defence and beach replenishment. +material +Revenue Revenue to industry, government and community; Foreign exchang earner. +Reduced Avoidance of social impacts for resource extraction on land, including +pressure on land | competing resources, community relocations based resources +Employment Employment for local community, accompanied by influx of people t new industry; particularly for small island communities. +Cultural impacts | Loss of cultural sites; changes/loss in resource distribution (food territory, etc.); ignoring of/loss of traditional knowledge. +Governance and_ | New regulatory regimes; implementation of policy; social an policy environmental degradation can lead to conflict. +Regional initiatives, targeted at developing a holistic approach to decision-making that incorporate social, environmental and economic evaluation and stakeholde engagement, are outlined in Table 5. In some areas, such as the Pacific Island region, emphasis is on making informed decisions about deep-sea mining. Countrie which decide to engage in deep sea mining can obtain assistance from th Secretariat of the Pacific Community to develop national regulatory framework (offshore national policy, legislation and regulations) in close collaboration with al key stakeholders and in particular, local communities (SPC-EU, 2012). Elsewhere, th framework is focused more on the sustainable management of the marin environment, including non-living resources, and includes ecosystem-based +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +approaches and valuation of ecosystem services affected by human activity. Fo example the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008) advocate a transition from a sector-specific policy landscape to a system-based one, in whic activities are regulated in concert, based on shared space and time acros boundaries. Uncertainty remains, however, about how to value coastal assets an quantitatively measure social impact (Beaumont et al., 2007). +Awareness is increasing of the potential social impacts of marine and coasta extractive mineral industries, such as coastal dredging for aggregates and beach re nourishment schemes (e.g., Austen et al., 2009; Drucker et al., 2004). Strong publi sentiments about environmental and social issues already exist around land-base mining (e.g., Mudd, 2010). However, there is currently not the same level o understanding and informed debate around offshore mining (Mason et al., 2014). A offshore mining becomes more commonplace, information and data on the marin environment and impacts will be collected, and it is important that this informatio is disseminated to stakeholders. It is worth noting that the value of stakeholde participation in developing and implementing policy was included in Principle 10 o the Rio Declaration, which states that: “environmental issues are best handled wit the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level...” +Studies suggest that for an informed society to accept a nascent offshore minin industry, stakeholders require: better information (particularly rigorous scientifi analysis of potential impacts, costs and benefits); a transparent and sociall responsive management process within a consistent and efficient regulatory regime and meaningful engagement with stakeholders (Boughen et al., 2010; Mason et al. 2010). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Table 5. Relevant regional and national initiatives +Initiative +European MSFD (2008): “Directive 2008/56/EC on establishing a framework fo Union community action in the field of marine environmental policy” +This directive provides a transparent legislative framework for a ecosystem-based approach to the management of human activities supports the sustainable use of marine goods and services; an integrates the value of marine ecosystem services into decision +making United Marine Environment Protection Fund 2010: Framework to allo Kingdom marine aggregates extraction options to be analysed using socio- +economic information. The framework analyses the interaction between different uses of the marine environment at both local an regional levels (Dickie et al., 2010) +Pacific SPC-EU DSM Project (2011-2016): Technical assistance and advisor Islands service for Pacific Island countries choosing to engage in deep se mining to help them improve governance and management i accordance with international law, with particular attention to th protection of the marine environment and securing equitable financia arrangements for their people. +United Executive Order 13547- Stewardship of the Ocean, Our Coasts, and th States Great Lakes. The Order adopts the recommendations of th Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force, except where otherwise provide in this Order, and directs executive agencies to implement thos recommendations under the guidance of a National Ocean Council Based on those recommendations, this Order establishes a nationa policy to ensure, amongst other things, the protection, maintenance and restoration of the health of ocean and coastal ecosystems an resources. +3.2.1 Case Study: Kiribati +A recent study by Babinard et al. (2014) examined the potential social impacts o offshore aggregate mining in South Tarawa (see section 2.1.3). The author determined that as the ESAT (Environmentally Safe Aggregates for Tarawa) dredgin operation develops, it could have adverse consequences for the welfare of thos Kiribati residents who are either sellers or users of aggregates. Sellers of aggregate rely on beach mining for their livelihood (they currently receive 1 Australian dolla per bag). A 2006 household survey found that 206 out of 280 households surveye were involved in some form of beach mining (Pelesikoti, 2007). There is widesprea belief that they are acting within their rights as customary owners of the land, an they will likely lose economic opportunities as a result of the offshore dredgin operations. For users of aggregates on the island, the main issue is whether they wil be legally able to continue to mine aggregates from their own beaches. Residents +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +argue that the customary rights to mine are included in the Foreshore Amendmen Act of 2006 (Pelesikoti, 2007). +3.3 Economic benefits from marine mining +The economic benefits from near-shore mining are difficult to estimate. Marin aggregates are often sourced locally and reporting is scattered, but the marin sector is often distinguished from the land sector, so the value of the resource ca be estimated. In contrast, commodities like tin and diamonds are part of a globa market, which does not distinguish between land-derived and marine-derive materials. Table 6 gives estimated values where reported. +Table 6. Estimates of marine aggregates and minerals +Locations +Europea Union, Unite Kingdom Japan, Unite States (minor) +South Africa Namibia Australi (Inactive) +Indonesia Malaysia Thailand; +Australi (inactive) +New Zealan (inactive) +United States South America Australia, Ne Zealand, Africa Portugal, Indi (all inactive) +Mexic (inactive) +United State (now inactive) +Resource +Aggregate +Diamond Placers +Tin +Iron Sands +Phosphates +Phosphates +Sulphur +© 2016 United Nations +Quantity +~ 50-150+ millio m?/ year (can var strongly year t year depending o demand) +1.1 million carat (2012). +19,000 tons /yr tin +Total of 327. million ore tons a 18.5% P,Os, +0 +Revenue +1-3+ billion U dollars) +3.5 billion US dollars +Indonesia 500 millio US dollars +Employment +5,000-15,00 (estimate) +~1,600 +Indonesia ~3,500 +Malaysia Thailand N/A +N/A +N/A +References +Ifremer, 201 Herbich, 200 Marinet, 2012 +Newell an Woodcock, 2013 +NAMDEB, 201 NAMDEB, 2014 +Timah, 2012 +Don Deigo (2015) +2 + +4. Developments in other forms of seabed mining: current state and potentia scale +4.1 Phosphate mining +Phosphorites are natural compounds containing phosphate in the form of cement binding sediments in tropical to sub-tropical regions (Murton, 2002). They are widel distributed on the continental shelves and upper slopes, oceanic islands, seamount and flanks of atolls. Deposits have been found off the west coast of Tasmania Australia; Congo, Ecuador, Gabon, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, New Zealand, Peru South Africa, and the United States. They are usually located in less than 1,000 m o water and their formation is linked to zones of coastal upwelling, divergence an biological productivity. +Currently proposals to mine phosphate are under consideration in New Zealand Namibia and Mexico. In New Zealand, the Ministry of Business, Innovation an Employment has granted a 20-year mining permit to Chatham Rock Phosphate Ltd for the extraction of rock phosphate nodules from an 820-km2 area of the Chatha Rise (Figure 7). Before mining can commence, the company still needs to obtai consent from the Environmental Protection Authority. At the time of publication o this report the Authority had refused an application by Chatham Rise Phosphat limited for a marine consent to mine phosphorite nodules on the Chatham Rise (N EPA, 2015). The decision-making committee found that that “the destructive effect of the extraction process, coupled with the potentially significant impact of th deposition of sediment on areas adjacent to the mining blocks and on the wide marine ecosystem, could not be mitigated by any set of conditions or adaptiv management regime that might be reasonably imposed.” They also concluded tha the economic benefit to New Zealand of the proposal would be modest at best. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +HIKURANG PLATEAU +Chatha Islands +Matheson Bank +Bh Mining Permit A BOUNTY TROUG mien rrr rea +Continental Shel Prospecting Licence Area +Prospecting Permit i L100 k Application Areas 7 al +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 7. Location of Chatham Rise phosphate project area (RSC, 2014). +In Namibia, an Environmental Impact Assessment Report and an Environmenta Management Plan were submitted in March 2012 for the Sandpiper Phosphat Project (Figure 8), which proposed to dredge phosphate-enriched sediments sout of Walvis Bay, Namibia, in depths of 180-300 m (Midgley, 2012). The compan planned to extract 5.5 Mt of phosphate-enriched marine sediments.on an annua basis, for over 20 years. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) identified low level potential adverse impacts including biogeochemical changes, benthic habita loss, loss of biodiversity and cumulative impacts (Namibian Marine Phosphates 2012; Midgley, 2012; McClune, 2012). No official decision has been issued on th Sandpiper Phosphate Project application as yet, however in September 2013, an 18 month moratorium on environmental clearances for bulk seabed mining activitie for industrial minerals, base and/or rare metals (including phosporites) was declare by the Government of Namibia. During this period the Ministry of Fisheries an Marine Resources is required to make a strategic impact assessment on the potentia impacts of the proposed phosphate mining on the fishing industry. While th Ministry of Mines and Energy is allowing marine phosphate exploration activities t continue during the moratorium period, such activities are not currently bein undertaken in areas within the national jurisdiction of Namibia. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +vy +| +NAMIBIAN MARINE PHOSPHATE LTD LICENCE ARE Location +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 8. The Sandpiper Project (license area shown) includes the zone of highest regional phosphat concentration (Namibian Marine Phosphate, 2012). +A proposed Mexican underwater phosphate mine, the Don Diego project, is locate in 60-90m water depth, approximately 40 km off the cost of the Bay of Ulloa, on th west coast of Baja California. The permit area is 912 km? and it is estimated that i the project proceeds the area dredged annually would be around 1 per cent (1. km?; Don Diego, 2015). Phosphorite resources at the Don Diego deposit have bee estimated to total 327.2 million ore tons at 18.5 per cent P2O;. Odyssey Marin Exploration has lodged an environmental impact assessment for the recovery of th phosphate sands with the Mexican Secretary of Environment and Natural Resource and is awaiting a decision (Odyssey Marine Exploration, 2014). Local non governmental organizations including WildCoast, Centro Mexicano Derech Ambiental (CEMDA), Grupo Tortuguero, Vigilantes de Bahia Magdalena and Medi Ambiente Sociedad have been vocal in their opposition to the project (Pier, 2014). +4.2 Deep-Sea Mining +Although commercial deep-sea mining has not yet commenced, the three mai deep-sea mineral deposit types — sea-floor massive sulphides (SMS), polymetallic +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +nodules and cobalt-rich crusts — have been the subject of interest for some time (se SPC 2013a,b,c,d). Recent announcements make it seem likely that SMS mining wil begin in the Manus Basin of Papua New Guinea (Nautilus Minerals, 2014a and b) Other Pacific Island States (e.g., Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu) hav issued exploration licenses to various companies to evaluate the commercia feasibility of mineral resources development in their exclusive economic zones. Th economic interest in SMS deposits is their high concentrations of copper, zinc, gold and silver; polymetallic nodules for manganese, nickel, copper, molybdenum an rare earth elements; and ferromanganese crusts for manganese, cobalt, nickel, rar earth elements, yttrium, molybdenum, tellurium, niobium, zirconium, and platinum. +In addition, the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which regulates deep-se mining in the Area (the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil thereof beyond the limits o national jurisdiction) has entered into 15-year contracts for exploration fo polymetallic nodules, SMS and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabe with 26 contractors (composed of companies, research institutions and governmen agencies) plus 1 contract pending ISA Council action in July 2015 (ISA, 2000; IS 2001; ISA 2010; ISA 2013). +Seventeen of these contracts are for exploration for polymetallic nodules in th Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCZ, 16) and Central Indian Ocean Basin (1). Ther are six contracts for exploration for SMS in the South West Indian Ridge, Centra Indian Ridge and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and four contracts for exploration fo cobalt-rich crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean (3) and Atlantic (1) (ISA 2015a). Thes licences allow contractors to explore for seabed minerals in designated areas of th Area. +The ISA has called for comments on draft regulations for exploitation licensing in th Area (ISA 2015b). The decision to commence deep-sea mining in the Area wil depend in part on the availability of metals from terrestrial sources and their price in the world market, as well as technological and economic considerations based o capital and operating costs of the deep-sea mining system. +5. Gaps in capacity to engage in offshore minerals industries and to assess th environmental, social and economic aspects. +Despite the importance of marine extractive industries in many developin countries, the environmental, social and economic aspects are often not adequatel understood. Therefore it is necessary to strengthen the approach to planning an managing these activities. This includes implementing the precautionary principl and adaptive management, as well as transparent monitoring. There is also a lack o consensus on what is an acceptable condition in which to leave the seabed pos mining. Increasing public awareness and engendering a custodial and stewardshi attitude to the environment may help curb the most damaging practices. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Unregulated mining often occurs in parallel to regulated mining activities. Fo example, numerous small operators participate in the marine sector of the ti mining industry in Bangka and Belitung, Indonesia. Many of the practices associate with these workers are unsafe and miners are killed or injured every year; local new reports refer to over 100 fatalities per year (Jakarta Post, 2010). The lack o regulation or the lack of enforcement of regulations, allows mining to take place i critical marine habitats and extensive damage has been done to coral reefs an mangrove environments (IDH, 2013). Improved licensing, regulation, enforcemen and monitoring, in conjunction with social programmes to find alternative sources o revenue, would be needed. How the industry is being regulated would also need t be considered. The export data, published by the Bangka Belitung regiona administration, showed that P.T. Timah, which owns 473,800 hectares of concessio areas, exported 8,899 tons of tin in 2009, and privately owned smelters, whic Operate concession areas of 16,884 hectares, exported 13,867 tons. Thes discrepancies highlight the magnitude of the problem. The penalties provided b mining and/or environmental legislation may need to be strengthened to stop thes practices. +For any State or company planning resource development, integrating coastal an marine ecosystem services into the development process is important; however information on the services provided or the value of these services is often scarce. I many developing countries the interface between governments and offshor minerals industries needs to be strengthened. Deficiencies exist in the informatio available and in the institutional capacity to manage non-living marine resources. I summary, the following gaps can be identified: +—Increased capacity in coastal and marine geosciences information system (including social, cultural, economic, ecological, biophysical and geophysica information) to improve geoscientific advice for management and monitorin of coastal environments to meet the requirements of ecosystem-base management and sustainable development; +— Development and implementation of robust regulatory frameworks for marin mineral extraction industries, which include environmental impac assessments, environmental quality and social laws, environmental liability and monitoring capacity; +— Increased public awareness of the vulnerability of coastal environments, th benthic habitats and the fishery nursery grounds that may be affected b marine mining; and +— Technology transfer and skills development to ensure best practice in marin mineral extraction. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +References +Austen, M.C., Hattam, C., Lowe, S., Mangi, C., Richardson, K. (2009). Quantifying an Valuing the Impacts of Marine Aggregate Extraction on Ecosystem Goods an Services. MALSF funded project MEPF 08-P77 www.cefas.co.uk/media/462458/mepf-08-p77-final-report.pdf. Accesse June 2014. +Babinard, J., Bennett, C.R., Hatziolos, M.E., Faiz, A., Somani, A. (2014). Sustainabl managing natural resources and the need for construction materials in Pacifi island countries: The example of South Tarawa, Kiribati. National Resource Forum, 38, 58-66. +Beaumont, N.J., Austen, M.C., Atkins, J.P., Burdon, D., Degraer, S., Dentinho, T.P. Derous, S., Holm, P., Horton, T., van lerland, E., Marboe, A.H., Starkey, D.J. Townsend, M., Zarzycki, T. (2007). Identification, definition and quantificatio of goods and services provided by marine biodiversity: Implications for th ecosystem approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54 (3), 253-265. +BBC (2011). Dismay in Cumbria at quarrying tax fund end. 10 April 2011 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cumbria-13025923. 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Ecological significance o seagrasses: Assessment for management of environmental impact i Western Australia. Ecological Engineering, 16(3), 323-330. +Wenban-Smith, F.F. (2002). Marine Aggregate Dredging and the Histori Environment: Palaeolithic and Mesolithic archaeology on the seabed. BMAP and EH, London. +Webb, A. (2005). Technical Report--An assessment of coastal processes, impacts erosion mitigation options and beach mining. (Bairiki/Nanikai causeway Tungaru Central Hospital coastline and Bonriki runway--South Tarawa Kiribati). FU-SOPAC Project Report, 46. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_23.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_23.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_24.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_24.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..47c48cc9c49d7691e491b4ea71e290403e7addc7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_24.txt @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +Chapter 24. Solid Waste Disposal +Contributors: Alan Simcock (Lead member), Juying Wang (Co-lead member) +1. Introduction — the regulatory system +The disposal at sea of waste generated on land and loaded on board vessels fo dumping is the object of long-standing global, and (in many areas) regional, system of regulation. (These systems also cover, for completeness, dumping from aircraf and waste (other than operational discharges) from fixed installations in the sea) Such dumping must be distinguished from discharges into rivers and directly fro land into the sea and emissions to air from land-based activities discussed in Chapte 20 (Land-based inputs). +When concerns about the environment developed in the 1960s, growing constraint on the land disposal of waste and discharges into rivers led to pressures to find ne routes for waste disposal. Concerns about these pressures led to action in severa forums. Several United Nations specialized agencies set up the Group of Experts o the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP* — later altered to “Marin Environmental Protection”). +The preparatory committee for the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Huma Environment, set up by the United Nations General Assembly, established a intergovernmental working group on marine pollution. At the national level, severa countries started developing approaches to control such dumping. The United State of America put forward proposals for an international agreement on the subject Spurred from the national level by an attempt by the vessel Stella Maris to dump 65 tons of chlorinated waste, several countries started developing approaches t control such dumping. States adjoining the North-East Atlantic adopted a international convention regulating dumping in that area in Oslo, Norway, on 1 February 1972 (OSPAR, 1982; IMO, 1991). +Later that year, the Stockholm Conference adopted a set of principles fo international environmental law and called, among other things, for an internationa instrument to control dumping of waste at sea. The United Kingdom, in consultatio with the United Nations Secretariat, organized a further conference in London, an the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes an Other Matter 1972 (the 1972 London Convention) was signed on 13 November 197 in London, Mexico City and Moscow (ICG, 1982, IMO, 2014f).” +"At present, it is jointly sponsored by IMO, FAO, IAEA, WMO, UNESCO-IOC, UN, UNDP, UNEP an UNIDO * United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1046, No. 15749. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.1 The 1972 London Convention +The main provisions of the 1972 London Convention can be summarized as follows: +(a) +(b) +(c) +(d) +(e) +(f) +A definition of “dumping” to cover the deliberate disposal of waste an other matter at sea from ships, aircraft, platforms or other man-mad structures in the sea; +A ban on dumping at sea of any of the substances on the “black list (Annex | to the Convention): toxic organohalogen compounds, agree carcinogenic substances, mercury and cadmium and their compounds crude oil and petroleum products® taken on board for the purpose o dumping them, high-level radioactive substances as defined by th International Atomic Energy Agency and persistent synthetic substance (including plastics) liable to float or remain in suspension. Exception were allowed for force majeure and for trace amounts not added fo disposal purposes; +A requirement for a special prior permit for any dumping of an substances on the “grey list” (Annex II to the Convention) — arsenic, lead copper and zinc and their compounds, organosilicon compounds cyanides, fluorides and pesticides not in Annex |, bulky objects and ta likely to obstruct fishing or navigation, medium-level and low-leve radioactive waste and substances to be dumped in such quantities as t cause harm; +A requirement for at least a general prior permit for all other dumping Such permits were required to follow an approach set out in Annex III t the Convention, which required consideration of alternative land-base disposal and the avoidance of harm to legitimate uses of the sea; +A requirement to appraise the effectiveness of the regulator assessment process through compliance monitoring and field monitorin of effects; +An obligation to report to the Secretariat of the Convention (which i hosted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in London) o dumping permits issued and amounts permitted to be dumped (IGC 1982; LC-LP, 2014a). +When the 1972 London Convention entered into force in 1975, dumping at sea wa still a major disposal route for many kinds of waste. Over the years, the meetings o the Contracting Parties have tightened the requirements of the Convention, with th result that the amounts of waste that may be dumped were reduced significantly: +(a) +Guidance was adopted on the approaches to the grant of special an general permits for dumping. In many respects this guidance wa gradually made more precise and restrictive (IMO, 2014a); +> “Petroleum products” includes wastes from crude oil, refined petroleum products, petroleu distillate products, and any mixtures containing these substances. +© 2016 United Nations + +(b) In 1972 incineration of hazardous waste at sea was just beginning to b practised. In 1978 an amendment was adopted clarifying that th incineration at sea of oily wastes and organohalogen compounds wa permitted as an interim solution, but requiring a special prior permit i accordance with agreed guidelines for this practice. This amendmen came into force in 1979 (IGC, 1982). In 1988, the Consultative Meetin of the States parties called for such incineration to be minimized and fo a re-evaluation of the practice (LDC, 1988). In 1993 an amendment t prohibit this practice was adopted and entered into force from 199 (IMO, 2012); +(c) In 1990, the Contracting Parties adopted a resolution calling for th phasing out of the dumping of industrial waste (LDC, 43(13)). Followin this, an amendment to Annex | of the Convention was adopted in 1993 which entered into force in 1994, to prohibit the dumping of industria waste from the end of 1995 (IMO, 2012; IMO, 2014c). +(d) Even though the 1972 London Convention, as adopted, prohibited th dumping of high-level radioactive waste, many Contracting Partie remained unhappy with any dumping of radioactive waste of any kind. I 1983, a voluntary moratorium on such dumping was agreed. In 1993 a amendment was adopted to prohibit all dumping of radioactive waste subject to a review before February 2019, and every twenty-five year thereafter. The Consultative Meeting of the Contracting Parties i beginning preparations for this review (IMO, 2012; LC-LP, 2014). +1.2. The 1996 London Protoco/* +The generally restrictive policy of the Contracting Parties to the 1972 Londo Convention towards the dumping of waste and other matter at sea resulted in further development in 1996, when a protocol to the convention was adopted. Thi Protocol is intended gradually to replace the 1972 London Convention. The Londo Protocol entered into force in 2006. Among a number of other changes, th fundamental difference between the 1972 Convention and the 1996 Londo Protocol is that the Protocol adopts a “reverse list” approach. All dumping of wast is prohibited, except for a limited number of categories where dumping could b permitted, in contrast to the 1972 Convention approach, which prohibited dumpin only of a specified list of substances, while requiring a permit (general or special) fo everything else. The limited number of categories where dumping can still b permitted under the Protocol as originally adopted are: +(a) Dredged material (b) Sewage sludge; +(c) Fish waste, or material resulting from industrial fish processin operations; +* 36 International Legal Materials 1 (1997). +© 2016 United Nations + +(d) Vessels and platforms or other man-made structures at sea (e) Inert, inorganic geological material (f) | Organic material of natural origin; +(g) Bulky items primarily comprising iron, steel, concrete and simila unharmful materials for which the concern is physical impact and limite to those circumstances, where such wastes are generated at locations such as small islands with isolated communities, having no practicabl access to disposal options other than dumping. +Shortly after the Protocol entered into force in 2006, the Meeting of Contractin Parties to the London Protocol adopted an amendment to add “sub-seabed carbon dioxide (CO) streams from CO capture processes for sequestration” to the list o permitted forms of disposal (LP.1(1)). States Parties may therefore issue permits t allow the injection into a sub-seabed geological formation of CO streams from CO capture processes. This amendment entered into force in 2007. In 2012, specifi guidelines were adopted to for such disposal activities and the potential effects o the marine environment in the proximity of the receiving formations. In 2009, further amendment was adopted, allowing the export of CO2 from CO, captur processes for sequestration in sub-seabed geological formations (LP.3(4)). Thi amendment is not yet in force. Guidance on the implementation of the export of C streams for disposal in sub-seabed geological formations for the purposes o sequestration was adopted in 2013. The intention of carbon dioxide sequestration i sub-seabed geological formations is to prevent release into the biosphere o substantial quantities of carbon dioxide derived from human activities, by retainin the carbon dioxide permanently within such geological formations. +In 2008, the Contracting States to both the 1972 London Convention and the 199 London Protocol adopted a resolution agreeing that the scope of the Londo Convention and Protocol includes ocean fertilization activities, that is, any activit undertaken by humans with the principal intention of stimulating primar productivity in the oceans. (Ocean fertilization does not include ordinar aquaculture, or mariculture, or the creation of artificial reefs). It was further agree that: +(a) In order to provide for legitimate scientific research, such researc should be regarded as placement of matter for a purpose other than th mere disposal thereof under Article III.1(b) (ii) of the London Conventio and Article 1.4.2.2 of the London Protocol; +(b) Scientific research proposals should be assessed on a case-by-case basi using an assessment framework to be developed by the Scientific Group under the London Convention and Protocol; +(c) Such an assessment framework should include, inter alia, tools fo determining whether the proposed activity is contrary to the aims of th Convention and Protocol; +(d) Until specific guidance is available, Contracting Parties should be urge to use utmost caution and the best available guidance to evaluate the +© 2016 United Nations + +scientific research proposals to ensure protection of the marin environment consistent with the Convention and Protocol; +(e) For the purposes of the resolution, legitimate scientific research shoul be defined as those proposals that have been assessed and foun acceptable under the assessment framework; +(f) | Given the present state of knowledge, ocean fertilization activities othe than legitimate scientific research should not be allowed. To this end such other activities should be considered as contrary to the aims of th Convention and Protocol and should not currently qualify for an exemption from the definition of dumping in the Convention and th Protocol (LC-LP, 2008). +In 2010, the Contracting Parties to the 1972 London Convention and the 199 London Protocol adopted the Assessment Framework for Scientific Researc Involving Ocean Fertilization (LC-LP, 2010). In 2013, the Contracting Parties to th London Protocol adopted amendments to incorporate into the Protocol provision regulating the placement of matter for ocean fertilization and other marine geo engineering activities (LP.4(8)). These amendments are not yet in force (LC-LP, 2013) Guidance on implementing the provisions was adopted in 2014 (LC-LP, 2014). +1.3 Acceptance of the system of regulation +As of October 2014, there are 87 parties to the 1972 London Convention, and 4 parties to the 1996 London Protocol. Thirty-four States are parties to both th Convention and the Protocol (IMO, 2014b). There are, however, many regiona conventions on marine environmental protection that have specific reference to, or contain provisions relating to, the regulation of disposal of wastes into the sea Most regional conventions (the Abidjan, Antigua, Barcelona, Bucharest, Cartagena Helsinki, Jeddah, Kuwait, Lima, Nairobi, Noumea, OSPAR Conventions’) have specific +° Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coasta Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention) http://abidjanconvention.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100<emid=200&l ng=en +The Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine an Coastal Environment of the Northeast Pacific (Antigua Convention) http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/nonunep/nepacific/instruments/nep_convention.p f +Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of th Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention). United Nations Treaty Series. vol. 1102, No. 16908 Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention). Unite Nations Treaty Series. vol. 1764, No. 30674. +Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbea Region (Cartagena Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1506, No. 25974. +Convention on the protection of the marine environment of the Baltic sea Area, 1992 (Helsink Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2099, No. 36495. +Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (Jedda Convention). http://www.persga.org/Documents/Doc_62_20090211112825.pdf. +© 2016 United Nations + +provisions that regulate sea dumping. The dumping clauses are largely based on, o are more stringent than, the London Convention or London Protocol. (An overvie of Contracting Parties to the London Protocol, London Convention and Regiona Agreements that include management of sea dumping issues is set out in IM 2014e). Most States are therefore Contracting Parties to an international agreemen that relates to the management of sea dumping of solid waste or other matter However, there remain some States, including some of the world’s 20 larges economies, which are not party to any of these agreements. It is not known how fa such States apply policies along the lines of those required by the 1972 Londo Convention or the 1996 London Protocol. +2. Amounts and nature of current dumping +Agreements in, and under, the 1972 London Convention and the 1996 Londo Protocol provide for annual reporting of the number of permits and the quantity an nature of the waste dumped under them. However, reporting under th Convention and the Protocol is not consistent. Figure 1 shows, for 1976 to 2010, th number of States that are Contracting States of the 1972 London Convention, th number submitting reports and the proportion that the latter are of the former. +Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment fro Pollution (Kuwait Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1140, No. 17898. +Agreement on the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacifi (Lima Convention). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1648, No. 28325. +The Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coasta Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention) http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/The_Convention/index.asp. +Convention for the Protection of Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Regio (Noumea Convention) https://www.sprep.org/attachments/Legal/Files_updated_at_2014/NoumeaConvProtocols.pd Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the north-east Atlantic (the ‘OSPA Convention’). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2354, No. 42279. +© 2016 United Nations + +DAV ABAM oD ON 64.9% QP. 2 SN eB. QM 6D ON. TV... oO HV oH. 0% DN VL. MM... HA SBABRRA HH Pegwegpwgv nov ooo Ho NH HN oO I (Number of Contracting Parties to LC&LP == Number of Contracting Parties that Reporte ——— Percentage of Contracting Parties that Reported === Linear (Percentage of Contracting Parties that Reported) +Figure 1. Contracting Parties to the 1972 London Convention, Contracting Parties submitting report to the Convention Secretariat and the latter as a proportion of the former, 1976 — 2010. Source: IMO 2014g. +When the Meeting of Contracting Parties to the 1996 London Protocol set up compliance mechanism in 2007, the worrying decline in reporting led it to includ the issue of reporting in the terms of reference of the Compliance Group, whic formed part of that mechanism (LC-LP, 2007). Reports under the London Conventio and Protocol take some time to be compiled and submitted. It is usually only in th fourth year after the year being reported on that it is possible to take a final view o the reporting for that year. It is worth noting that non-reporting is the highes amongst London Convention parties, while reporting from London Protocol parties i above 75per cent. It may well be that some or all of the 59 per cent of Contractin States that did not submit reports had not authorized any dumping —like eight of th States in 2010 that did submit reports — but the absence of reports makes i impossible to draw clear conclusions. Also, several non-reporting States are land locked, and therefore may also not have had any dumping to report. There is also substantial degree of variation from year to year in which States submit reports. +The Meetings of the Contracting Parties have made efforts to try to improve th level of reporting on the dumping of waste at sea, but so far with limited success The steps taken include reviews and simplifications of the reporting forms and mor recently the introduction of on-line reporting. Improved outreach to Parties an contact with the industrial organizations (such as the International Association o Ports and Harbours) involved in dumping is beginning to produce some results Some States (such as Nigeria and South Africa) have also sought to assist neighbour to set up reporting systems (LC-LP, 2013). +© 2016 United Nations 7 +100.0% +90.0% +80.0% +70.0% +60.0% +50.0% +40.0% +30.0% +20.0% +10.0% +0.0 + +In spite of these efforts, it is therefore difficult to derive a clear picture of th quantity and nature of wastes and other matter being dumped at sea from th reports under the 1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol. +Nevertheless, it is clear that the overwhelming type of dumping is of dredge material. For the last year for which a summary of the national reports is availabl (2010), 35 of the 38 reports submitted recorded the dumping of dredged material Most, if not all, of this is derived from dredging for navigational purposes. Some i “capital dredging” for the creation of new berths or shipping channels, but most i “maintenance dredging” for the maintenance of existing harbours and shippin channels. The quantity of material involved is considerable. For example, Belgiu reported dumping 52 million tons in 2010: over 200,000 tons per working day. It i not, however, possible to give an overall picture of how much is the result of regula dredging and how much is new construction, because many reports do no differentiate between capital dredging and maintenance dredging. +The impacts of this dumping of dredged material are essentially twofold (althoug there can be other effects): the smothering of the seabed by the dredged material and the remobilization of hazardous substances contained in the dredged material The effects of smothering depend essentially on the nature of the dump area. If th dumpsite were to have a biodiverse benthic life, such smothering would b catastrophic. Where tidal action is very dynamic and there is a sedimentary bottom effects are limited, because much of the seabed material will be kept in motion b the tidal action. The choice of dumpsite is therefore important. The regular use o the same dumpsites (which is reported to be common) limits adverse effects. Th remobilization of hazardous substances is a different matter. The Guidance unde the London Convention and Protocol sets out procedures and criteria for decidin whether it is safe to dump contaminated dredged material. Where the harbour fro which the dredged material comes is on the estuary of a river with a history of heav industry (for example, the Rhine), it is frequently contrary to this Guidance (or, in th example quoted, parallel guidance from OSPAR, the local regional organization) t dump the material at sea, and it should be returned to land. +In the past, a substantial number of States dumped sewage sludge or animal slurry a sea. Where this was done, of course, it was an addition to the nutrient input. I many areas, this has now been stopped because it was a potential contributor t eutrophication problems. In 2010, only Australia (up to 20,000 litres) and th Republic of Korea (556,534 tons) reported dumping of this kind (IMO, 2014b). Th Republic of Korea has also reported that dumping of sewage sludge will end by th end of 2015 (LC-LP, 2013). +The other substances reported as dumped cover a miscellaneous range. Dumping o fish waste was reported in 2010 by six countries. The total amount dumped wa around 100,000 tons (not all reporting was in terms of tonnage). The othe categories of material dumped included rock, sand and gravel, spoilt cargoes (fo example, wheat, rice and fertilizer), molasses waste and a handful of ships an platforms (some of the latter being intended to create artificial reefs). In addition permits were granted for a few burials at sea (see Chapter 8 Cultural ecosyste services). The overall impression is that, for the countries submitting reports, +© 2016 United Nations + +disposal of waste at sea is now a minor impact on the marine environment an human uses of the sea, except for the dumping of dredged material. +3. Dumping of radioactive material +As noted above, the dumping of high-level radioactive waste has been prohibite under the 1972 London Convention since 1975, and dumping of medium- and low level radioactive waste has been prohibited also under the 1996 London Protoco (subject to a review every 25 years) since 1994. The first reported sea disposal o radioactive waste took place in 1946 and the last authorized disposal appears t have been in 1993. During the 48-year history of sea disposal, 14 countries hav used more than 80 sites to dispose of approximately 85,000 terabecquerels o radioactive waste. Some countries used this waste management option only fo small quantities of radioactive waste. Two countries conducted only one disposa each and one country conducted only two disposals (IAEA, 1999). +In 1992, reports that the former Soviet Union had dumped large amounts of high level radioactive wastes for over three decades in shallow waters in the Arctic Ocea caused widespread concern, especially in countries with Arctic coastlines. In 1992, joint Norwegian-Russian Expert Group was established to investigate radioactiv contamination due to dumped nuclear waste in the Barents and Kara Seas. Th Russian Federation provided information on the dumping, some of which had take place before 1975. It arranged exploratory cruises to the dumping areas, with th participation of the International Atomic Energy Agency. The results obtained durin the cruises did not indicate any significant radioactive contamination at the dumpin sites, although the levels near some dumped objects are slightly elevated compare with elsewhere (IAEA, 1995). +Norway undertook further radiological monitoring of the Barents Sea in 2007, 200 and 2009. Activity concentrations of the anthropogenic radionuclides usually used t trace the impact of radioactive waste were reported as low, and up to an order o magnitude lower than in previous decades, including in marine biota. Weighte absorbed dose rates to biota from anthropogenic radionuclides were low, and order of magnitude below a predicted no-effect screening level of 10 micrograys per hou (uGy/hr). Dose rates to man from consumption of seafood and dose rates to biota i the marine environment were found to be dominated by the contribution fro naturally occurring radionuclides (Gwynn et al., 2012). In 2012, a further join Norwegian/Russian project examined radioactive pollution in the Kara Se (Straleverninfo, 2012). It concluded that the situation gave rise to no immediat cause for concern, but that further monitoring of the situation is warranted (JNREG 2014). A further joint Norwegian/Russian study of radioactive contamination in th Barents Sea has been launched. +© 2016 United Nations + +4. Dumped explosives and military chemicals +After both World Wars, States were faced with the problem of how to dispose of th residues of explosive materials and other warlike stores (“munitions”), including number of containers of poisonous gases. The solution adopted for substantia quantities was to dump them in the sea. During peacetime, some States have als adopted this method of disposal for unwanted explosives and military chemicals The dump sites were usually chosen to avoid seabed areas then being used b people, but over time some of these areas have come into use as a result o improved technologies and pressures from other uses of the sea. +In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution noting th importance of raising awareness of the environmental effects related to wast originating from chemical munitions dumped at sea, and invited relevan international organizations to keep the issue under review (UNGA, 2010). +Munitions dumped at sea present a risk to several classes of users of the sea. Fisher in the location of the dump sites can bring the munitions up in their nets, especiall bottom-trawling nets. Construction of offshore installations, submarine cables an submarine pipelines can interact with dumped munitions. Some munitions based o phosphorus can break out from the (often wooden) boxes in which they were store at the time of disposal, float to the surface, be stranded on beaches and then (as th tide recedes and they dry out) spontaneously burst into flame, and burn a temperatures around 1,000 degrees centigrade. These present potential risks t users of beaches, especially tourists (HELCOM, 2013). +Exercises have been carried out in several parts of the world to map the dump site and to establish what was dumped there. The Baltic Marine Environment Protectio Commission (HELCOM) estimated that 40,000 tons of munitions were dumped in th Baltic at the end of World War II. Some of these munitions are contained in ship onto which they were loaded and which were then scuttled. Others were throw overboard piece by piece, a process which means that the munitions can end u scattered over a wide area. Similar conclusions about dispersed dumping have bee reached in other areas. The four main dumping areas in the Baltic were south-eas of the Swedish island of Gotland and south-west of the Latvian city of Liepaja, east o the Danish island of Bornholm and south of the Little Belt between the main Danis islands and Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. There is also evidence that munition were thrown overboard as the ships left port (HELCOM, 2013). The OSPA Commission has carried out a similar exercise, resulting in an “Overview of Pas Dumping at Sea of Chemical Weapons and Munitions”, together with a database o encounters with dumped conventional and chemical munitions, which it is intende to keep up-to-date. Best estimates suggest that over one million tons of munition were dumped in Beaufort’s Dyke (a trough in the United Kingdom of Great Britai and Northern Ireland between Scotland and Northern Ireland), some 168,000 tons o ammunition were dumped in the Skagerrak, some 300,000 tons of munitions o various types, such as bombs, grenades, torpedoes and mines, were dumped in th North Sea and an estimated 35,000 tons were dumped off Knokke-Heist, Belgiu (OSPAR, 2010). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +In other parts of the world, problems have arisen with dumped munitions. Fo example, in 2006 New Zealand had problems with munitions that had been dumpe improperly at the end of the Second World War. An estimated 1,500 tons o munitions had ended up in relatively shallow water and were posing threats t fisheries and recreational uses of the sea. The New Zealand authorities conclude that the best solution was to lift them and re-dump them in much deeper wate before they dried out: if they were brought ashore and allowed to dry, there was high risk that they would become unstable (LC-LP, 2006). +A non-governmental organization, the James Martin Center for Nonproliferatio Studies, conducted a general survey of dumped chemical warfare munitions an published an interactive map of 168 munitions dump-sites, with the publicl available information about them, on the interne (https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=zwm9Gb8KEKxl.kKMpXo9rjqlLZM&hl en). +In 2010, the Research and Technology Organization of the North Atlantic Treat Organization (NATO) reviewed the environmental aspects of the disposal o unwanted munitions. The overall conclusion was that that the technology an expertise existed to deal with immediate problems and with the current generatio of munitions, including the legacy of munitions dumped at sea, but that th expertise and technology was often lodged in countries where there was n significant problem, and that a mechanism was required to assist in the transfer o the technology and expertise to the places where it was needed. It was noted tha this could be significant in measures to control terrorism (NATO, 2010). +5. Illegal dumping +If there are problems in obtaining an overall global picture of dumping authorize under the London Convention and London Protocol, trying to gain an overview of th potential effects of illegal dumping presents much greater problems. While the 197 London Convention and the 1996 London Protocol have a mechanism for reportin illegal dumping’, no report has been received in the recent past. An alleged case o illegal dumping in Canadian waters is currently under investigation with a repor expected to be provided to the governing bodies of the London Convention an Protocol in the near future. +Several cases have been reported of illegal export of waste from industrialize countries for disposal in States in Africa. Most of these have concerned disposal o land. There have also been persistent informal reports of dumping of radioactive o toxic waste in the sea off the coast of the Federal Republic of Somalia. Informa information given to INTERPOL suggested that the naval force present off the coas of the Federal Republic of Somalia to combat piracy may have detected vessel suspected of illegal dumping of waste. Following the tsunami on 26 December 2004, +® See http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Reporting/incidents/Pages/default.aspx +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +UNEP responded to an urgent request from the authorities in the Puntland region o the Federal Republic of Somalia for help in assessing potential environmenta damage. After an initial UNEP report, an inter-agency mission, which included FAO UNDP, UNEP and WHO, went to Puntland in March 2005. It investigated thre sample sites along a 500-kilometre coastal stretch between the three mai populated coastal locations of Xaafuun, Bandarbeyla and Eyl where toxic waste ha reportedly been uncovered by the tsunami. No evidence of toxic waste was found b the mission. In June 2010, Greenpeace International claimed to have proof of th dumping of toxic waste in the Federal Republic of Somalia by European an American companies in the period from 1990 to 1997, citing testimony from a Italian parliamentary commission, evidence uncovered by an Italian prosecuto (including wiretapped conversations with alleged offenders) and warnings by th Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Somalia in 2008 of possibl illegal dumping in the Federal Republic of Somalia. While INTERPOL and some of th entities cited in the Greenpeace International report have uncovered fragmentar evidence and signs of the dumping of toxins, no international investigation has eve been able to verify the dumping of illegal waste in the Federal Republic of Somalia largely because of the security situation (UNSC, 2011). +Other evidence of illegal dumping appears from time to time as a result of ocea monitoring. For example, the authorities in Japan have detected within areas unde its jurisdiction high levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and butyl tin an phenyl tin compounds. The origins of such pollution could not be identified (Japa MOE, 2009). +6. Conclusions on knowledge gaps and capacity-building gaps +The disposal of solid waste at sea has been regulated under internationa agreements for the past 40 years. The majority of coastal States have accepted thi regime. If the 1972 London Convention and the 1996 London Protocol wer effectively and consistently applied, this source of inputs of harmful substance would be satisfactorily controlled. The problem is basically that we do not kno whether this regime is generally being fully implemented, since there is substantia under-reporting of what is happening. +There is therefore a major knowledge gap about the implementation of the 197 London Convention and the 1996 London Protocol, as has been acknowledged b the Meetings of the Contracting Parties to the two agreements. Some capacity building is available from the International Maritime Organization and some of th Contracting Parties, to promote better implementation of the agreements an better reporting of what is being done. However, a significant capacity-building ga remains. +The information gap about the scale and nature of dumping of waste and othe matter that is taking place is further compounded by the absence of informatio about dumping under the control of States which are subject to any formal reportin system under the 1972 London Convention, the 1996 London Protocol or regional +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +dumping agreements and which do not publish any national data. This categor includes some of the world’s largest economies. +Much work has been done to identify the locations where munitions have bee dumped. However, some gaps in the knowledge remain on this subject. There ar gaps in building capacities to help fishers and other users of the sea to draw on thi knowledge, in order to reduce the risks to which they are subjected and to kno how they should respond if they bring up dumped munitions in their nets. +References +Gwynn, J.P., Heldal, H.E., Gafvert, T., Blinova, O., Eriksson, M., Sveren, I. Brungot, A.L., Stralberg, E., Mgller, B., Rudjord, A.L. (2012). Radiologica status of the marine environment in the Barents Sea, Journal o Environmental Radioactivity, 113. +HELCOM (Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission) (2013). Chemica Munitions Dumped in the Baltic Sea. Report of the ad hoc Expert Group t update and Review the Existing Information on Dumped Chemical Munition in the Baltic Sea, Baltic Sea Environment Proceeding (BSEP) No. 142, Helsinki. +IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (1995). Special Report: Marine scientist on the Arctic Seas: Documenting the radiological record by Pavel Povinec lolanda Osvath, and Murdoch Baxter, in IAEA Bulletin 2/1995. +IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (1999). Inventory of Radioactive Wast Disposals at Sea, |AEA-TECDOC-1105. +IGC (Inter-Governmental Conference on the Convention on the Dumping of Waste at Sea (1982). Final Act of the Conference, International Maritim Organization, London. +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (1991). The London Dumping Convention The First Decade and Beyond. International Maritime Organization, London. +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2012). International Maritim Organization, Status of the London Convention and Protocol (IMO Documen LC 34/2), 2012. +LC-LP (International Maritime Organization) (2014a). Convention on the Preventio of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/Convent on-on-the-Prevention-of-Marine-Pollution-by-Dumping-of-Wastes-and Other-Matter.aspx accessed 9 April 2014). +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014b). Final report on permits issued i 2010 (IMO Document LC-LP.1/Circ.63). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014c). Status of multilatera Conventions and instruments in respect of which the International Maritim Organization or its Secretary-General performs depositary or other functions 2014 (http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/StatusOfConventions/Documents Status%20-%202014.pdfaccessed 28 October 2014). +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014e). The London Protocol — What is i and how to implement it, IMO 1533E. +IMO (International Maritime Organization) (2014f). Origins of the Londo Convention (http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/ReferencesAndArchives/IMO_Conf rences_and_Meetings/London_Convention/VariousArticlesAndDocumentsA outTheLondonConvention/Documents/Origins%200f%20the%20London%20 onvention%20 %20Historic%20events%20and%20documents%20%20M.%20Harvey%20Sep ember%202012.pdf accessed 12 October 2014). +IMO International Maritime Organization (2014g). Direct Communication from th IMO Secretariat in 2014. +Japan MOE (Ministry of the Environment) (2009). Present Status of Marine Pollutio in the Sea around Japan, Ministry of Environment, Tokyo. +JNREG (Joint Norwegian-Russian Expert Group) (2014). Investigation into th Radioecological status of Stepovogo Fjord. The dumping site of the nuclea submarine K-27 and solid radioactive waste. Result from the 2012 researc cruise. Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority. ISBN: 978-82-90362-33-6. +LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2006). Notificatio under Article 8.2 of the 1996 London Protocol regarding a case of emergency London Convention document LC-LP.1/Circ.2. +LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2007). Complianc Procedures and Mechanisms pursuant to Article 11 of the 1996 Protocol t the 1972 London Convention (Report of the Twenty-Ninth Consultativ Meeting Annex 7 (London Convention document LC 29/1 7, annex 7). +LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2008). Resolution LC LP.1 on the Regulation of Ocean Fertilization (LC-LP document 30/16, Anne 6). +LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2010). Resolution LC- +LP.2 on the Assessment Framework for Scientific Research (LC-LP documen 32/15, Annex 5). +LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2013). Report of th Thirty-Fifth Consultative Meeting of Contracting Parties to the Londo Convention & Eighth Meeting of Contracting Parties to the London Protoco (London Convention document LC 35/15). +LC-LP (1972 London Convention and 1996 London Protocol) (2014). (36t Consultative Meeting of Contracting Parties (1972 London Convention) and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +9th Meeting of Contracting Parties (1996 London Protocol), 3-7 Novembe 2014 (http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/LCLP/Pages/LC-36 LP-9.aspx accessed 20 November 2014). +LDC (London Convention) (1988). Resolution LDC.35 (11) Status of Incineration o Noxious Liquid Wastes at Sea. +NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) (2010). Environmental Impact of Munitio and Propellant Disposal. RTO Technical Report Tr-Avt-115. +OSPAR (Oslo and Paris Commissions ) (1982). The Oslo and Paris Commissions — th first ten years. London. +OSPAR (Oslo and Paris Commissions) (2010). OSPAR Commission for the Protectio of the North-East Atlantic, Overview of Past Dumping at Sea of Chemica Weapons and Munitions, London 2010 (ISBN 978-1-907390-60-9). +Straleverninfo (2012). Statens Stralevern, Felles norsk-russisk tokt til dumpe atomavfall | Kara havet (http://www.nrpa.no/dav/6ced2cea4b.pdf accesse 19 April 2014). +UNGA (United Nations General Assembly) (2010). Cooperative measures to asses and increase awareness of environmental effects related to waste originatin from chemical munitions dumped at sea (A/RES/65/149). +UNSC (United Nations Security Council) (2011). Report of the Secretary-General o the protection of Somali natural resources and waters (S/2011/661). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_24.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_24.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_25.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_25.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..2a19c92be5fd69a1d3a302d7ff95a1e0f384de2e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_25.txt @@ -0,0 +1,559 @@ +Chapter 25. Marine Debris +Contributors: Juying Wang (Lead member), Kim Kiho, Douglas Ofiara, Yuhui Zhao Arsonina Bera, Rainer Lohmann, Maria Clare Baker +1. Overview +1.1. Definition of marine debris +Litter disposal and accumulation in the marine environment is one of th fastest-growing threats to the health of the world's oceans (Pham et al., 2014) Marine debris, also known as marine litter, has been defined by UNEP (2009) as “an persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of o abandoned in the marine and coastal environment”. Marine debris consists of item that have been made or used by people and deliberately discarded into the sea o rivers or on beaches; brought indirectly to the sea with rivers, sewage, storm wate or winds; accidentally lost, including material lost at sea in bad weather (fishing gear cargo); or deliberately left by people on beaches and shores (UNEP, 2005). In 1997 the United States of America Academy of Sciences estimated the total input o marine litter into the oceans, worldwide, at approximately 6.4 million tons per yea (UNEP, 2005). Jambeck et al (2015) recently calculated that 275 million metric ton (MT) of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 t 12.7 million MT entering the ocean. +Marine debris is present in all marine habitats, from densely populated regions t remote points far from human activities (UNEP, 2009) from beaches and shallo waters to the deep-ocean trenches (Miyake et al. 2011). The density of marin debris varies greatly among locations, influenced by anthropogenic activities hydrological and meteorological conditions, geomorphology, entry point, and th physical characteristics of debris items. However, a recent study presented data o detectable floating plastic accumulation with visual observation in the North Atlanti and Caribbean from 1986 to 2008, the highest concentrations (> 200,000 pieces pe square kilometre) occurred in the convergence zones (Law et al., 2010). Compute model simulations, based on data from about 12,000 satellite-tracked float deployed since the early 1990s as part of the Global Ocean Drifter Program (GODP 2011), confirm that debris will be subject to transport by ocean currents and wil tend to accumulate in a limited number of sub-tropical convergence zones or gyre (IPRC, 2008; UNEP and NOAA, (2011)) (Figure 1). +© 2016 United Nations + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. A model simulation of the distribution of marine litter in the ocean after ten years show plastic converging in the five gyres: the Indian Ocean gyre, the North and South Pacific gyres, and th North and South Atlantic gyres. The simulation, derived from a uniform initial distribution and based +on real drifter movements, shows the influence of the five main gyres over time. Source: IPRC, 2008. +1.2 Types of marine debris +Marine debris comprises of various material types, and can be classified into severa distinct categories (ANZECC, 1996; Edyvane et al., 2004; Ribic et al., 1992; Galgani e al., 2010): +(a) Plastics, covering a wide range of synthetic polymeric materials, includin fishing nets, ropes, buoys and other fisheries-related equipment; consumer goods such as plastic bags, plastic packaging, plastic toys; tampon applicators; nappies smoking-related items, such as cigarette butts, lighters and cigar tips; plastic resi pellets; microplastic particles; +(b) Metal, including drink cans, aerosol cans, foil wrappers and disposabl barbeques; +(c) Glass, including bottles, bulbs; +(d) Processed timber, including pallets, crates and particle boards (e) Paper and cardboard, including cartons, cups and bags; +(f) Rubber, including tyres, balloons and gloves; +(g) Clothing and textiles, including shoes, furnishings and towels. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.3 Sources of marine debris +Marine debris originates from a wide and diverse range of sources. The majority o marine debris (approximately 80 per cent) entering the seas and oceans i considered to originate from land-based sources (Allsopp, et al., 2006), includin sewage treatment, combined sewer overflows, people using the coast for recreatio or shore fishing, shore-based solid waste disposal, inappropriate or illegal dumpin of domestic and industrial rubbish, poorly managed waste dumps, street litter whic is washed, blown or discharged into nearby waterways by rain, snowmelt, and wind etc. The remaining can be attributed to maritime transport, industrial exploratio and offshore oil platforms, fishing and aquaculture (UNEP, 2009) and loss an purposeful disposal (e.g. ballast weights made of steel, lead or cement) of scientifi equipment. +2. Environmental Impacts +The incidence of debris in the marine environment is a cause for concern. It is know to be harmful to biota, it presents a hazard to shipping (propeller fouling), it i aesthetically detrimental, and it may also have the potential to transpor contaminants over long distances (STAP, 2011). Marine debris, and in particular th accumulation of plastic debris, has been identified as a global problem alongsid other contemporary key issues, such as climate change, ocean acidification and los of biodiversity (CBD and STAP-GEF, 2012). +2.1. Entanglement and Ingestion +Marine debris results in entanglement of and ingestion by organisms, and poses direct threat to marine biota. Adverse effects of marine debris have been reporte for 663 species by reviewing available publications (CBD and STAP-GEF, 2012). Ove half of these reports documented entanglement in, and ingestion of, marine debris representing almost a 40 per cent increase since a review in 1997, which reporte 247 species (Laist, 1997). Reports revealed that all known species of sea turtles about half of all species of marine mammals, and one-fifth of all species of sea bird were affected by entanglement in, or ingestion of, marine debris. Species with th greatest number of individuals affected by entanglement or ingestion were th Northern fur seal, Ca/lorhinus ursinus, the California sea lion, Zalophus californianus and the seabird Fulmarus glacialis; the most frequently reported species are al either birds or marine mammals. About 15 per cent of the species affected throug entanglement and ingestion are on the IUCN Red List (CBD and STAP-GEF, 2012). +Abandoned, lost or discarded fishing gear (including monofilament line, nets an ropes), as well as ropes, netting and plastic packaging, can be a cause of +© 2016 United Nations + +entanglement for pinnipeds (seals and related genera), cetaceans, turtles, sharks sirenia (dugongs and related genera) and birds (WSPA, 2012). The effects range fro immediate mortality through drowning to progressive debilitation over a period o months or years (Laist, 1997). Pinniped entanglement usually involves plasti collar-like debris which is often referred to as “neck collars”, where the plastic form a collar around the neck. The animal cannot remove it and it hampers norma feeding or breathing (Allen et al., 2012; Waluda and Staniland, 2013). As the anima grows, the collar effectively tightens and cuts into tissues becoming firml embedded in skin, muscle and fat (WSPA, 2012) and may cause death. “Ghos fishing” as it is known, can affect many species of fish and invertebrates such a crabs, corals and sponges. For example, several dead and moribund Geryon crab were found associated with discarded nets in the deep Mediterranea (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2013). In addition, lost and abandoned traps and th associated by-catch are a global issue with annual trap loss rates approaching 90 pe cent in some fisheries (Al-Masroori et al. 2009; Bilkovic et al. 2012). +Marine debris can be mistaken for food items and be ingested by a wide variety o marine biota (Pham et al., 2014). Many species of seabirds, marine mammals an sea turtles have been reported to eat marine debris. Ingestion of sharp debris ma damage their guts and result in infection, pain or death. Plastic polymer mass ma irritate the stomach tissue, cause abdominal discomfort, and stimulate the animal t feel full and cease eating (Derraik, 2002; Galgani et al., 2010). Two sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) were found off the coast of northern California in 200 with a large amount of fishing gear in their gastrointestinal tracts (Jacobsen et al. 2010). A total of 141 mesopelagic fishes from 27 species in the North Pacifi Subtropical Gyre, were dissected to examine whether their stomach content contained plastic particles. The incidence of plastic in fish stomachs was 9.2 per cen (Davison and Ash, 2011). The study of planktivorous fish from the North Pacific gyr found an average of 2.1 plastic items per fish (Boerger et al., 2010). However, th consequences of ingestion are not fully understood, because effects associated wit ingestion can mostly be determined by necropsy (CBD and STAP-GEF, 2012; Hong e al., 2013). +2.2 Transport of chemicals +Plastics have a wide variety of chemicals, including those from manufacturing an those that accumulate from the marine environment (i.e. ambient seawater). +Plastics contain a wide variety of potentially toxic chemicals incorporated durin manufacture which could be released into the environment (Lithner et al, 2011) Research has established that chemicals used in some plastics, such as phthalate and flame retardants, can have toxicological effects on fish, mammals and mollusc (STAP, 2011). Experimental studies show that phthalates and bisphenol-A (BPA affect reproduction in all the species studied, impairing development in crustacean and amphibians, and generally inducing genetic aberrations (Teuten et al., 2009). +© 2016 United Nations + +There is recent evidence that large concentrations of microplastic and additives ca harm ecophysiological functions performed by organisms (Browne et al., 2013 Wright et al., 2013). +Because of their small size, microplastics (<1 mm) have a large ratio of surface are to volume that promotes adsorption of chemical contaminants to their surface, an therefore have a high capacity to facilitate the transport of contaminants. A estimated amount of about 35,000 tons, of microplastics are floating in the world’ oceans (Cozar et al. 2014; Eriksen et al. 2014). Boerger et al. (2010) found that 35 pe cent of the fish sampled in the North Pacific central gyre revealed microplastics i the gut. A range of marine biota are reported to have ingested microplastics including zooplankton (Cole et al., 2013), amphipods, lugworms and barnacle (Thompson et al., 2004), mussels (Browne et al., 2008), decapod crustacean (Murray and Cowie, 2011), fish (Boerger et al., 2010; Rochman et al., 2013) an seabirds (Tanaka et al., 2013; van Franeker, 2011). Ingestion of microplastics ha caused more and more concern in recent years, as it can provide a pathway fo long-distant transport and bioaccumulation of contaminants, and may b compounded by plastic microbead additives in many personal care products (Fendal and Sewell 2009, Kershaw and Leslie 2012). +Plastic debris can accumulate persistent, bio-accumulative and toxic substance (PBTs) that are present in the oceans from other sources, such as PCBs, PAHs, DDT and HCHs (Mato et al., 2001; Ogata et al., 2009). Within a few weeks thes substances can become concentrated on the surface of or in plastic debris by order of magnitude more than in the surrounding water column (Mato et al., 2001; Teute et al., 2009; Hirai et al., 2011; Rios et al., 2010). Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes exposed to a mixture of polyethylene with chemical pollutants absorbed from th marine environment, bioaccumulate these chemical pollutants and suffer live toxicity and pathology (Rochman et al., 2013). Plastics may provide a mechanism t facilitate the transport of chemicals to remote, pristine locations where they ar ingested by biota (Teuten et al., 2007; Hirai et al.,2011). However, it is not yet clea whether chemicals accumulated on plastic debris are effectively transferred t marine biota (Gouin et al., 2011; Koelmans et al., 2013a and b). +2.3. Habitat Destruction +Marine debris can cause destruction of habitats in a number of ways, includin smothering, entanglement, and abrasion. The extent of the impact depends on th nature of the debris (i.e., size, quantity, composition, persistence) and th susceptibility of the affected environment (i.e., habitat vulnerability and resilience). +In spite of the growing number of studies documenting the distribution an abundance of marine debris, the ecological impacts, including effects on habitats are not well documented (NRC, 2009). The few studies that do exist looked at th impacts of derelict fishing gear (that is, gear that has been abandoned, lost o discarded) on coral reefs and other structurally complex benthic communities (Bauer +© 2016 United Nations + +et al., 2008). For example, in the Florida Keys, USA, Chiappone et al. (2005) foun that 87 per cent of all debris was recreational hook-and-line fishing gear, bu because of low debris density, less than 0.2 per cent of the sessile species wer affected. However, Lewis et al. (2009) noted that lost lobster traps, upwards o 100,000 of which are lost each year, represent a significant threat to seagrass bed and coral reefs in the Florida Keys, especially during storms. Also, when gear an other marine debris wash up on shore, especially during storms, they can caus shoreline destruction and smother the underlying substrate where the debris come to rest. +Although studies of the effects of marine debris on habitat have focused mainly o benthic environments, the presence of floating debris can similarly undermine th quality of pelagic habitats by: (i) affecting the mobility of species, either throug entanglement or ghost fishing (that is, entangling fish in lost, abandoned o discarded fishing nets, traps or pots); (ii) reducing the quality of food available in th environment through accidental ingestion of the debris, which may hav accumulated toxins on its surface and interfere with digestion and excretion; and (iii altering the behaviour and fitness of species, as in the case of debris acting as fish-aggregating device (Hallier and Gaertner, 2008; Hammer et al., 2012; NRC 2009). +Abandoned and derelict vessels are a widespread problem for the marin environment. Besides the fact that sunken, stranded, and decrepit vessels can be a eyesore and become hazards to navigation, these vessels can pose significant threat to natural resources. They can physically destroy sensitive marine and coasta habitats, sink or move during coastal storms, disperse oil and toxic chemicals still o board, become a source of marine debris, and spread derelict nets and fishing gea that entangle and endanger marine life.* +2.4 Introduction and Spread of Alien Species +Marine debris can serve as a vector for numerous species. Hence, floating debris ca potentially transport and introduce species to new environments (Barnes, 2002 Winston et al., 1997). Donohue et al. (2001) recorded 13 invertebrate and 1 vertebrate species living on or within a tangle of debris comprising mostly derelic fishing gear in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Similarly, Barnes and Fraser (2003 documented 10 species from 5 different phyla on a single plastic packing ban floating in the Southern Ocean. Although none of the species documented in thes studies were non-native, the results nonetheless point to the potential for marin debris to serve as vectors for alien species. +To date, the establishment of an alien species via marine debris has yet to b documented (Lewis et al., 2005; Barnes, 2002; Barnes and Milner, 2005; Maso et al., +* (http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/abandoned-and-derelict-ves els.html). +© 2016 United Nations + +2003). The absence of such evidence probably reflects the paucity of research rathe than the unlikelihood of such events. However, examples of non-native specie arriving in new habitat have been well documented. For example, a 180-to concrete dock cast adrift from Misawa, Japan, by the March 2011 tsunami wa carried across the Pacific where it washed ashore in Oregon in the United States i June 2012 carrying at least 90 Japanese species including 6 species of non-nativ algae, crustaceans, and molluscs known to be invasive species in other parts of th world (Lam et al., 2013; Portland State University 2012). Removal of the dock and it burden of non-native species cost 85,000 United States dollars (Barnea et al., 2014). +A recent study by Goldstein et al. (2013) hints at the possibility of marine debri contributing to habitat expansion for the sea skater Halobates sericeus (of th Hemiptera order). They showed that abundance of H. sericeus was related to th availability of floating marine debris, and that such debris was used by the sea skate to attach its egg masses. This suggests that, in principle, H. sericeus and simila species could spread across ocean basins with the aid of marine debris. +Because marine debris is subject to surface and deep-water currents, the geographi spread of alien species by such debris is not expected to be random. For instance the North Pacific convergence zone, which tends to concentrate marine debris regularly occurs around the north-western Hawaiian Islands. Thus, the islands ar subject to unusually high loads of marine debris, and perhaps associated invasiv species. +Marine debris can also support the growth and transport of microbes (e.g. cyanobacteria, fungi, algae) to new habitats (Maso et al., 2003; Thiel and Gutow 2005a and b; Zettler et al., 2013). Maso et al. (2003) found dinoflagellates, includin those responsible for harmful algal blooms, growing on plastic debris, and raised th possibility that the increase in harmful algal blooms may be facilitated by th increasing abundance of marine debris. +2.5 Socioeconomics Impacts +The socioeconomic impacts of marine debris are a difficult problem to quantify because many pollution problems and biological and environmental effects hav taken a long time to identify and quantify, partly because of the diverse sources (lac of awareness, inadequate waste management, etc.), and because data o volume/mass, occurrence and distribution are seldom recorded. Furthermore, th literature is sparse for economic analyses addressing elements of potential effects The Kommunenes Internasjonale Miljgorganisasjon (KIMO) studies (Hall, 2000 Mouat et al., 2010) are the most thorough, but inconsistencies, missing data, an absence of detail have been noted. In such cases, verifiable data were used for poin estimates using a Benefits Transfer Approach (Ofiara and Brown, 1999; Unswort and Petersen, 1995). +© 2016 United Nations + +2.6 Impacts on Beach Communities, Beach Use, Coastal Touris 2.6.1 Beach cleaning +Several references in the literature cite anecdotal information related to costs o beach cleaning. NRC (1995) reports the 1993 cost of beach cleaning at Virginia Beach VA, United States of America, was 43,646 euros per km/yr (60,724 United State dollars per km/yr) and for Atlantic City, NJ, United States, was 215,225 euros pe km/yr (299,439 US dollars per km/yr) (2011 Euro values given in parentheses; for al the conversions see Appendix). OSPAR Commission (2009) reports this cost for 200 for the coast of the United Kingdom at 14 million British pounds per year (19. million euros per yr), for the Skagerrak coast, Sweden at 5.1 million euros per yea (1.87 million euros per yr) for 2006, and Naturvardsverket (2009) reports the cost o cleaning marine debris on five beaches and in two ports in Poland for 2009 a 570,000 euros per year (632,120 euros per yr). Lane et al., 2007, estimated it woul cost 286 million dollars per year to remove debris from the wastewater stream i South Africa (311 million dollars per year, 224 million euros per year -2011 values). recent study by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) reports beac cleaning costs and waterway debris removal for 43 communities from South Sa Francisco to San Diego, California, as 10,993,010 dollars spent (Stickel et al., 2013). +2.6.2 Damage to beach use +Studies in the United States examined damage to beach use from marine debris an medical waste (see Appendix). A major wash-up of marine debris on the shore i 1976 closed New York beaches and caused 15-25 million dollars in lost revenue (43-71 million euros, 59-99 million dollars, in 2011 values; Swanson et al., 1978). ER (1979) found that clean beaches in an adjacent state suffered piggyback effects fro the 1976 event; the public avoided going to an “open-clean” beach in an adjacen state (Seaside Heights, New Jersey, United States) as if it too had marine debris an was closed, an example of avoidance behaviour resulting in lost revenues (943,63 euros per year, 2011 values). Extensive pollution and medical waste wash-up occurred in 1987-1988 on New Jersey and New York beaches, with losses estimate at of 201-749 million euros at 2011 values for marine debris and medical waste; a average of 475 million euros (Ofiara and Brown, 1989 and 1999; Kahn et al., 1989 Swanson et. al., 1991) in 2011 values. +2.6.3 Losses to tourism +Ofiara and Brown (1989, 1999) found that marine debris wash-ups in New Jersey United States, decreased beach attendance by 8.9 per cent -18.7 per cent in 198 and by 7.9 to 32.9 per cent in 1988 (Appendix). A study in South Africa found that decrease in beach cleanliness could decrease tourism spending by up to 52 per cen (Balance et al., 2000). In Sweden, research found that marine debris on beache reduced tourism by between one and five per cent (OSPAR, 2009). Hence, even limited presence of marine debris can decrease coastal tourism by between one t five per cent, and severe events can decrease beach visits by 8.4 per cent to 25.8 pe cent (averaged limits). +© 2016 United Nations + +2.7 Impacts on Commercial Fishing +The Marine Pollution Monitoring Management Group (MPMMG, 2002) reported th cost of marine debris removal in the United Kingdom fisheries at 33 million euros and Watson and Bryson (Macfayden, 2009) reported a cost for one trap fisherman i the Scottish Clyde fishery of 21,000 dollars in lost gear and 38,000 dollars in lost time Without more information, it is hard to give these estimates their proper context Studies for the Kommunenes Internasjonale Miljgorganisasjon (KIMO) hav estimated average losses per vessel from marine debris as follows: cleaning marin debris from nets GBP 4,065 or Euro 12,007; contaminated catch GBP 1,686 or Eur 2,183, snagged nets GBP 3,392 or Euro 3,820; fouled propellers Euro 182 euros (Hall 2000; Mouat et al., 2010 - Appendix; GBP at 1998 values, Euro at 2008 values). +A recent study that examined blue crab ghost fishing from lost/abandone traps/pots found an average mortality rate of 18 crabs/trap/year were harvested i Virginia-Chesapeake Bay, United States waters (sampled in the winter) (Bilkovic et al 2014), compared to earlier mortality rate estimates of 20 crabs/trap/year i Maryland-Chesapeake Bay waters (Giordano et al. 2011), and 26 crabs/trap/year i Gulf of Mexico waters (Guillory, 1993). An earlier study examined ghost fishing catc rates during the crabbing season of 50 crabs/trap/year (live catch rate-capture rate in Virginia-Chesapeake Bay waters (Havens et al. 2006). Bilkovic et al. (2014) furthe estimated an overall loss of 900,000 crabs or 300,000 United States dollars fo Virginia-Chesapeake Bay, United States waters. +Impacts of lesser magnitude are summarized in Table 1. +Table 1. Summary of impacts of lesser magnitude, point estimates +Ghost Fishing: +Brown et al. (2005 NRC (2008) +Allsopp et al. (2006 Macfayden et al. (2009 Hall (2000) +Mouat et al. (2010) +Hall (2000) +Mouat et al. (2010) +Hall (2000) +Cantabrian Sea, Spai Not Available +United State Louisiana, United State United Kingdom +United Kingdom +Shetland Is. Livestock +crofts, United Kingdom +Shetland Is. Livestock +crofts, United Kingdom +United Kingdom +1.46% loss-landings +up to 5% EU landing $250mill/yr loss-landing 4-10mill. Crabs/yr lost +Avg. Cost cleanup = £L2355/hbr. +Avg. Cost cleanup = €8034/hbr-harbours €9492/hbr-marinas; €8253.hbr-composite +96% reported marine debris caught in fences 36% reported animals entangled, 20% reported +animals ill +71% reported marine debris caught in fences, +42% reported animals entangled or ill +11% reported cleanup costs of €20,199/yr, res €0 +Monkfishery +Lobster fishery +Blue Crab fishery +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 2. Summary - Projections (2011 values) +Beach Cleaning Costs (KIMO, United €14.301mill/yr - €14.487mill/yr (avg. €14.394mill/yr 2000,2009) Kingdo Damage to Beach Use (S-O), New York, New __ All causes: €1,403mill - €5,236mill (avg. €3,319mill) +J Unite ersey, Linited MD, Medical Waste: €201mill - €749mill(avg. €475mill) +State Commercial Fishing (KIMO, United €8.308mill/yr - €8.935mill/yr (avg. €8.6215mill/yr 2000,2009), Kingdo Aquaculture (KIMO, 2000,2009), United €94,338/yr +Kingdo Harbors, Marinas (KIMO, United €491,641 - €944,510/yr (avg. €718,076/yr 2000,2009), Kingdo Damages to Vessels (S-O), New York €749mill +Harbour, +United States +Coastal Agriculture (KIMO, United €486,270 - €614,461/yr (avg. €550,366/yr 2000,2009), Kingdom +Note: KIMO (2000, 2009) = Hall (2000), Mouat et al. (2010), S-O = Swanson et al., 1991, Ofiara an Brown, 1999, NA: not available. +2.8 Impacts from Invasive Species +The literature pertaining to economic impacts of invasive species is silent regardin marine debris, but it does contain some evidence about the dimensions of th impacts from invasive species. The Swedish Naturvardsverket (2009) cites th collapse of the anchovy fishery in the Black Sea due to the introduction of th American comb jellyfish at an estimated 240 million euros per year. Holt (2009 examined control and eradication costs associated with the Carpet sea squirt i Holyhead Harbour, Wales, and estimated those costs at 525,000 pounds over a 10-y period (2009-2019); the costs of inaction were estimated at 6.87 million pounds fo the same 10-yr period. +3. Assessment of the status of marine litter +3.1 Floating Marine Debris +Floating marine debris in the water column has been documented in the open ocea and in coastal waters. Results for densities of floating marine debris in differen regions of the world’s oceans are shown in Table 3. However, comparisons between +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +studies or even systematic status and trend analyses are challenging because o differences in the collection and measurement methodology used. +Table 3 Densities of floating marine debris in different regions +Location +Method +Density +Reference +Coastal North Atlantic Ocean +North Atlantic Ocean Caribbea Northwest Pacific +North Pacific central gyre +Southern California’s coastal water California Current +North Pacific Ocean, Kuroshio Curren California Current +Caribbean Sea +Gulf of Maine +North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (near 30°N). +Cape Cod, Massachusetts, United States to +Caribbean Se North Atlantic Ocea Southeast Bering Sea and United States west +coast +Northeast Pacific Ocean +South Pacific subtropical gyr Australi Bay of Calvi (Mediterranean-Corsica) +South-East Pacific (Chile) +Ligurian Sea, north-western Mediterranean +Floating marine debris in fjords, gulfs and +channels of southern Chile +North East Pacific Ocean +0.333mm mesh net +0.947mm mesh net +0.50mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.505mm mesh net +0.335mm mesh net +0.335mm mesh net +0.335mm mesh net +0.335mm mesh net +0.335mm mesh net +0.505mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.202mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.333mm mesh net +0.2 mm mesh net +visual observations +visual observations +visual observations +visual observations +3537 items/km’, 286.8 kg/km 1.023 g/cm* +up to 37.6 items/km? +334,271 items/km’, 5,114 g/km 7.25 items/m’, 0.02g/m* +3.29 items/m’, 0.003g/m 174,000 items/km”, 3600 g/km 0.011-0.033 items/m* (Median 1414 + 112 items/km* +1534 + 200 items/km 20,32842324 items/km* +0.80~1.24 g/ ml, 0.97~1.04 g/ml +0.808-1.24 g/ml +0.004-0.19 items/m?, +0.014-0.209 mg/m? +Summer 2009: 0.448 items/m? (Median Fall 2010: 0.021 items/m? (Median Mean: 26,898 items/km’, 70.96 g/km 4256.4-8966.3 items/km* +6.2 particles/100 m? +40°S and 50°S : <1 items/km? nearshore waters: >20 items/km 1997:15-25 items/km* +2000: 3-1.5 items/km? +1- 250 items/km? +0-15,222 items/km* +Carpenter and Smith, 197 Colton et al., 1974 +Day et al., 1990 +Moore et al., 2001 +Moore et al., 2002 +Lattin et al., 200 Yamashita and Tanimura, 200 Gilfillan et al., 2009 +Law et al., 2010 +Law et al., 2010 +Law et al., 2010 +Moret-Ferguson et al., 2010 +Moret-Ferguson et al., 2010 +Doyle et al., 2011 +Goldstein et al., 2013 +Eriksen et al., 2013 +Reisser et al., 2013 +Collignon et al., 2014 +Thiel et al., 2003 +Aliani et al., 2003 +Hinojosa and Thiel, 2009 +Titmus and Hyrenbach et al., +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +201 Northeast Pacific Ocean visual observations —_ 0.0014-0.0032 items/m? Goldstein et al., 201 Straits of Malacca visual observations 578 + 219 items/m? Ryan, 2013 +Bay of Bengal visual observations 8.8 + 1.4 items/m* Ryan, 2013 +Note: Ship-based trawling surveys and visual observations are used for small and large debris, respectively. +In coastal waters, the type, composition and density of floating debris vary greatl among locations. The spatial distribution is influenced by anthropogenic activities hydrographic and geomorphological factors, prevailing winds, and entry poin (Barnes et al., 2009; Derraik, 2002). Generally, the distribution and composition o marine debris floating at sea depends largely on near-shore circulation pattern (Aliani et al., 2003; Lattin et al., 2004; Ribic et al., 2010; Thiel et al., 2003). Prevailin winds also affect the pattern of debris abundance. Greater quantities of plastic were observed at downwind sites (Browne et al., 2010; Collignon et al., 2012) Collignon et al. (2014) observed that the density of floating debris was five time higher before a strong wind event than afterwards. This was explained by the win stress increasing the mixing and vertical redistribution of the plastic particles in th upper layers of the water column. However, most land-based litter is carried b water currents through rivers and storm-water (Ryan et al., 2009). The density of th debris in the southern California, United States coast water, after the storm wa seven times higher than prior to the storm (Moore et al., 2002). The weight of plasti increased by more than 200 times after a storm in Santa Monica Bay, California United States (Lattin et al., 2004). Higher densities of debris in coastal waters ar also associated with human population density (Lebreton et al., 2012; Thiel et al. 2003). +In the open ocean, spatial patterns of debris are influenced by the interaction o large-scale atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, leading to particularly hig accumulations of floating debris in the subtropical gyres (Howell et al., 2012 Goldstein et al., 2013; Martinez et al., 2009). A high profile publication in the Scienc journal presented over 20 years of data clearly demonstrating that some of the mos substantial accumulations of debris are now in oceanic gyres far from land (Law et al. 2010). The models developed by Martinez et al. (2009) suggest that marine debri deposited in coastal zones tends to accumulate in the central oceanic gyres withi two years after deposition. The persistent floating debris will accumulate i mid-ocean sub-tropical gyres, forming so-called garbage patches (Kaiser, 2010 Lebreton et al., 2012) (See Figure 1). +Although the type of litter found in the world's oceans is highly diverse, plastics ar by far the most abundant material recorded. Plastic debris was first reported in th oceans in the early 1970s (Carpenter and Smith, 1972; Colton et al., 1974). Plastic are estimated to represent between 60 per cent and 80 per cent of the total marin debris (Derraik, 2002; Gregory and Ryan, 1997). Almost all aspects of daily life +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +involve plastics, and consequently the production of plastics has increase substantially in the last 60 years and this trend continues. The fragmentation o plastics generates microplastics. For example, in sampling the South Pacifi subtropical gyre, 1.0mm - 4.7mm particles accounted for 55 per cent of the tota count and 72 per cent of the total weight (Eriksen et al., 2013). Research on th amount, distribution, composition and potential impact of microparticles ha received increasing attention. +Plastic debris continues to accumulate in the marine environment. Goldstein et al (2013) show that the density of microplastics within the North Pacific Central Gyr has increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades. In contrast there is no significant trend in the density of surface water plastics in the Nort Atlantic from 1986 to 2008, despite increases in plastic production during this tim (Law et al., 2010). Some form of loss must be taking place to offset the presume increase in input of plastics to the ocean. Possible sinks for floating plastic debri include fragmentation, sedimentation, shore deposition, and ingestion by marin organisms (Law et al., 2011). +3.2. Beach debris +Millions of volunteers in more than 150 countries are involved in beach-cleanu activities on International Coastal Cleanup Day every year (Ocean Conservancy 2011). The volunteers’ participation contributes to extensive sampling and helps t obtain more information from a wider range of sites (Rees and Pond, 1995). Th density of debris reported from the beaches in different regions of the world is liste in Table 4. For most of the beaches, the major debris is plastic. The spatia distribution of plastic debris is affected by multiple factors, including land uses human population, fishing activity, and oceanic current systems (Ribic et al., 2010). +Table 4. Density of beach debris in different beaches +Location +Density +Reference +Dominica +St. Lucia +Panama +Persian Gulf, United Arab Emirates +Tasmania, Australia +Marmion Marine Park, Australia +‘West Australia, Marmion Marine Park, +Australia +Northern New South Wales, Australia +© 2016 United Nations +1.9-6.2 items/m, 51.5-153.7 g/ 4.5-11.2 items/m, 8.2-109.2 g/ 3.6 items/m? (180/50 m?) +0.84 items/ m* +300 items/km, 0.09-0.35 items/ 2.74 items/m, 0.54 g/m +3.66 items/m, 0.12 g/m +10.9 items/km* +Corbin and Singh, 199 Corbin and Singh, 1993 +Garrity and Levings, 1993 +Khordagui and Abu-Hilal, 1994 +Jones, 1995 +Jones, 1995 +Jones, 1995 +Frost and Cullen, 1997 +1 + +Transkei Coast, South Afric Bird Island, South Georgi New Jersey, United States +Cliffwood Beach,New Jersey, United +State Caribbean Sea: Curacao +Orange County, California, United State Ensenada, Baja California, Mexic Japanese beaches +Russian beaches +Volunteer Beach, +Playa Voluntario, +Falkland Islands (Malvinas Gulf of Aqaba, Red Se Gulf of Oman, Oma Anxious Bay, Australia +Point Pleasant Park, Halifax Harbour, +Canada +Rio de Janeiro, Brazi NOWPAP region +Gulf of Aqaba, Red Se Chile +OSPAR regio Belgium +Caribbean Sea, Bonair Chile +Mumbai, India +Nakdong River Estuary, Republic of +Korea +Monterey Bay, CA, United States +Turkish Western Black Sea coast +19.6-72.5 items/m, 42.8-164.1 g/ 0.014-0.21 items/ 0.36-6.4 items/m +2.7-3.7 items/m* +60 items/m, 4.5 kg/m +1709 items/m +1.525 items/m? (including natural litter 2144 g/100 m’, 341 items/100 m? +1344 g/100 m’, 20.7 items/100 m* +accumulation rate:77+25 items/km/month +1.64-7.38 items/ 1.79 items/m; 27.02g/ 1.9-15.0 kg/km +accumulation rate: 355+68 items/month +13.76 items /100 m* +570 items/100 m?, 3864 g/100 m* +2.8 items/m’, 0.31 kg/m? +1.8 items/m? +712 items/100m +6429 + 6767 items/100m +115 + 58 items/m, 3408 + 1704 g/m (GM 27 items/m? (small plastic) +68.83 items/m?, 7.49 g/m? (Plastic debris large plastics: 8205(M), 27,606 items/m?(S) mesoplastics:238 (M), 237 particles/m?(S macroplastics : 0.97(M), 1.03 particles/m*(S 0.03-17.1 items/m? 142.1 items/m? +0.085-5.058 items/m? +Madzena and Lasiak, 199 Walker et al., 199 Ribic, 1998 +Thornton and Jackson, 1998 +Debrot et al., 1999 +Moore et al., 200 Silva-Ifiguez and Fischer, 200 Kusui and Noda, 2003 +Kusui and Noda, 2003 +Otley and Ingham, 2003 +Abu-Hilal and Al-Najjar, 200 Claerboudt , 200 Edyvane et al. 2004 +Walker et al., 2006 +Oigman-Pszczol and Creed, 200 UNEP/NOWPAP, 2008 +Abu-Hilal and Al-Najjar, 200 Bravo et al., 2009 +OSPAR Commission, 200 Van Cauwenberghe et al., 201 Debrot, et al., 201 Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 201 Jayasiri et al., 2013 +Lee et al., 2013 +Rosevelt et al., 2013 +Topcu et al., 2013 +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +20 beaches, Republic of Korea 480.9 (+267.7) count - 100 m'! for number, Hong et al., 201 86.5 (+78.6) kg - 100 m’ for weight, +0.48 (+£0.38) m* - 100 m for volume +GM: geometric mean; M: surveying results in May; S: surveying results in September. +Beach debris density may be linked to the number of tourists and the cleanin frequency (Bravo et al., 2009; Kuo and Huang, 2014). For example, beach debri densities in central Chile were lower than in northern and southern Chile, whic could be due to different attitudes of beach users or intensive beach cleaning i central regions (Bravo et al., 2009). Rodriguez-Santos et al. (2005) found that th quantity of litter depends on beach visitor density. Ocean current patterns, san types, wave action, and wind exposure have further effects on litter abundance. Fo example, in Monterey Bay, California, United States, the seasonal variability in debri abundance may be a function of oceanic winds, as well as the possibility tha seasonal current patterns may drive debris deposition (Rosevelt et al., 2013). +Although marine debris density is usually associated with population density, a fe studies contradict this. Ribic et al. (2010) show no trends over several decades i beach-debris densities along the Eastern Atlantic seaboard of the United States although large percentage increases in coastal population occurred in the south-eas Atlantic region and a smaller percentage increase in coastal population occurred i the north-east region. +3.3. Benthic marine debris +The occurrence of litter on the seafloor has been far less investigated than in surfac waters or on beaches, principally because of the high cost and the technica difficulties involved in sampling the seafloor. Nevertheless, a few investigations o benthic debris have been recorded, including on the continental shelves, on raise seabed features, such as seamounts, ridges and banks, in canyons and in pola regions. The surveying methods for the density and composition of benthic marin debris include bottom trawling, coring, scuba diving, the use of submersibles snorkelling, manta tows and sonar (Spengler and Costa, 2008) and more recently towed camera systems and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). +Abundances of benthic debris range from dozens to more than hundreds o thousands items per square kilometre. As more areas of Europe's seafloor are bein explored, benthic litter is progressively being revealed to be more widespread tha previously assumed. Pham et al. (2014) reported data on litter distribution an density collected during 588 video and trawl surveys across 32 sites in Europea waters (35-4500 m depth). Debris was found to be present in the deepest areas an at locations as remote from land as the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone across th Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The highest litter density occurred in submarine canyons, +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +reaching an average (+ SE) of 9.32.9 items ha. The lowest density was found o continental shelves and on ocean ridges; mean (+ SE) litter density of 2.2+0.8 an 3.941.3 items ha™’, respectively. As for most other marine environments studied plastic was the most prevalent litter item found on the seafloor. Woodall et al (2015 showed the litter was ubiquitous on deep-sea raised benthic features, such a seamounts, banks and ridges, A total of 56 items was found in the Atlantic Ocea over a survey area of 11.6 ha, and 31 items in the Indian Ocean over 5.6 ha, with significant difference in the type of litter between areas sampled in the Indian Ocea (where the dominant litter type was fishing gear) and sites in the Atlantic Ocea (which had mixed refuse). +Litter from fishing activities (derelict fishing lines and nets) was particularly commo on seamounts, banks, mounds and ocean ridges. A significant source of benthi debris is lost and discarded fishing gear, which is of particular concern due to ghos fishing effects that can kill both commercial and non-commercial species. Laist (1996 reports annual gear loss rates of about one percent for gillnet fisheries and betwee 5 - 30 percent for trap fisheries in United States fisheries. Whereas trap loss rates i the American lobster fishery are relatively low (5-10 percent), because the fisher involves more than 3 million deployed traps, the lobster fishery alone may accoun for the loss of more than 150,000 traps per year. +Hydrography, geomorphology, and anthropogenic activities all affect the abundance type, and location of debris reaching the seafloor (Barnes et al., 2009; Galgani et al. 2000; Schlining et al., 2013). Because they facilitate the transport and deposition o debris, submarine canyons act as conduits for debris, transporting it from the coas to the deep sea (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2013; Schlining et al., 2013). Ramirez-Llodra e al. (2013) suggest that debris in a canyon mainly originates from coastal areas, tha plastic debris can be transported easily by canyon-enhanced currents, wherea heavy debris is usually discarded from ships. Wei et al. (2012) indicate that th debris density was higher in the eastern than that in the western Gulf of Mexico primarily because of shipping lanes, offshore oil- and gas-installation platforms, a well as fishing activities. The litter density and diversity were independent of dept of water and of distance from land. Galgani et al. (2000) report that only smal amounts of debris were collected on the continental shelf, mostly in canyon descending from the continental slope. Ramirez-Llodra et al. (2013) repor accumulation of litter with increasing depth, but the mean weight at different depths or between the open slope and canyons, showed no significant variation. Schlining e al. (2013) found debris clustered just below the edge of canyon walls or on th outside of canyon meanders. Wei et al. (2012) indicated that the total density o anthropogenic waste was significantly different between parallel depth transects Woodall et al (2015) concluded that the pattern of accumulation and composition o the litter was determined by a complex range of factors both environmental an anthropogenic. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Table 5. Density of benthic debris in different regions +Location Method Density Depth range Referenc Bay of Biscay, France trawl 0.263-4.94 items/ha 0-100m Galgani et al., 1995 Northwestern Mediterranean trawl 19.35 items/ha 750m Galgani et al., 1995 French Mediterranean coast trawl 0-78 items/ha 100-1600m Galgani et al., 199 European coast trawl 0-1010 items /ha <2200m Galgani et al., 200 Eastern China Sea and the south — trawl 30.6-109.8 kg/km? _ Lee et al., 200 coast of the Republic of Kore Greek Gulfs trawl 72-437 items/km’, _ Koutsodendris et al., 200 7-47.4 kg/km Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea SCUBA 2.8 items/m*; 0.31 kg/m? — Abu-Hilal et al., 200 submarine canyons and the submersible 1.7 items/100m 20-365 m Watters et al., 201 continental shelf off California United State ‘West coast of the United States trawl 67.1 items/km? 55-1280m Keller et al., 201 West coast of Portugal ROV 1100 items/km? 850-7400 m Mordecai et al., 201 Eastern Fram Strait west of Image 3635-7710 items/km* 2500m Bergmann et al., 201 Svalbard observatio Gulf of Mexico trawl <28.4 items/ha 359-3724m Wei et al., 201 Antalya Bay, Eastern trawl 18.5-2,186 kg/km’, 200-800m Giiven et al., 201 Mediterranean . 115-2,762 items/km Belgium trawl 3125 + 2830 items/km? — Van Cauwenberghe et al. 201 Mediterranean Sea trawl 0.02-3264.6 kg/km? 900-2700m Ramirez-Llodra et al., 201 Monterey Bay, California, ROV — 25-3971m Schlining et al., 201 United State Atlantic Ocean, Core 1.4-40 pieces/SOml sediment = 1000-3500m Woodall et al,. 201 . . | . 13.4+3.5 pieces/50ml sediment Mediterranean Sea and Indian (microplastic Ocea Atlantic Ocean ROV 12.23-0.59 items/ha 200-2800m Woodall et al,. 201 Indian Ocean ROV 17.39-0.75 items/ha 1320-1610m Woodall et al,. 2015 +ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle; SCUBA: Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus +Debris continuously accumulates on the deep seabed; some research shows significant increasing trend. Watters et al. (2010) reported a significant increase in +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +the amount of litter at some of shelf locations off California, United States, betwee 1993 and 2007. The debris density has continued increasing, and has doubled durin the last decade in the Arctic deep sea (Bergmann and Klages, 2012). The density o microplastics in sediments has been increasing along the Belgian coast (Claessens e al., 2011). However, some studies did not observe significant temporal increases, fo example, in litter abundance between 1989 and 2010 in Monterey Canyon, centra California, United States (Schlining et al., 2013). +4. Prevention and Clean-up of Marine Debris +Numerous policies, global, international, national and local, address various aspect of marine debris. Some countries have banned outright the use of certain plasti derivative products. +5. Gaps, Needs, Priorities +Marine debris is a complex cultural and multi-sectoral problem that impose tremendous ecological, economic, and social costs around the world. One of th substantial barriers to addressing marine debris is the absence of adequate scientifi research, assessment, and monitoring. There is a gap in scientific research to bette understand the sources, fates, and impacts of marine debris (NOAA and EPA, 2011 NRC, 2008). Scalable, statistically rigorous and, where possible, standardize monitoring protocols are needed to monitor changes in conditions as a result o efforts to prevent and reduce the impacts of marine debris. Although monitoring o marine debris is currently carried out within several countries around the worl (often on the basis of voluntary efforts by non-governmental organizations), th protocols used tend to be very different, preventing comparisons and harmonizatio of data across regions or timescales (NOAA and EPA, 2011; Cheshire et al., 2009). +There is a gap in information needed to evaluate impacts of marine debris on coasta and marine species, habitats, economic health, human health and safety, and socia values. More information is also needed to understand the status and trends i amounts, distribution and types of marine debris. There is also a gap in capacity i the form of new technologies and methods to detect and remove accumulations o marine debris (NOAA and EPA, 2011), as well as in means of bringing home to th public in all countries the significance of marine debris and the important part tha the public can play in combating it. +Besides, the ways in which waste management is conducted are often a barrier. Thi is a global problem, but waste is managed on a very local level. Truly biodegradable naturally occurring, biopolymers are becoming more wide spread and commercially +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +available. There is a need to pursue truly biodegradable biopolymer alternatives t plastic (Chanprateep, 2010). +References +Abu-Hilal, A.H., Al-Najjar, T. (2004). Litter pollution on the Jordanian shores of th Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). Marine Environmental Research 58, 39-63. +Abu-Hilal, A.H., Al-Najjar, T. (2009). Marine litter in coral reef areas along the Jorda Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea. 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A Manual for Conducting Natural Resourc Damage Assessments: The Role of Economics. Division of Economics, Fish an Wildlife Service. US Department of Interior, Washington, DC. +Van Cauwenberghe, L., Claessens, M., Vandegehuchtea, M.B., Mees, J., Janssen, C.R (2013). Assessment of marine debris on the Belgian Continental Shelf. Marine +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Pollution Bulletin 73, 161-69. +van Franeker, J.A., Blaize, C., Danielsen, J., Fairclough, K., Gollan, J., Guse, N., Hansen P.L., Heubeck, M., Jensen, J.K., Le Guillou, G., Olsen, B., Olsen, K.O., Pedersen, J. Stienen, E.W.M., Turner, D.M. (2011). Monitoring plastic ingestion by th northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis in the North Sea. Environmental Pollutio 159 (10), 2609-2615. +Walker, T.R., Grant, J., Archambault, M., (2006). Accumulation of Marine Debris o an Intertidal Beach in an Urban Park (Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia). Wate Quality Research Journal of Canada 41, 256-262. +Walker, T.R., Reid, K., Arnould, J.P.Y., Croxall, J.P., (1997). Marine debris surveys a Bird Island, South Georgia 1990-1995. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34, 61-65. +Waluda, C.M., Staniland, I.J., (2013). Entanglement of Antarctic fur seals at Bir Island, South Georgia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 74, 244-252. +Watters, D.L., Yoklavich, M.M., Love, M.S., Schroeder, D.M., (2010). Assessing marin debris in deep seafloor habitats off California. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(1) 131-138. +Wei, C.L., Rowe, G.T., Nunnally, C., Wicksten, M.K., (2012). Anthropogenic "litter and macrophyte detritus in the deep northern Gulf of Mexico. Marine Pollutio Bulletin 64, 966-973. +Winston, J.E., Gregory, M.R., Stevens, L.M., (1997). Encrusters, epibionts, and othe biota associated with pelgaic plastics: a review of biogeographical environmental, and conservation issues, In: Coe, J.M., Rogers, D.B. (Eds.) Marine Debris: sources impact, and solutions, New York, Springer-Verlag, pp 81-97. +WMI. (1989). Use Impairments and Ecosystem Impacts of the New York Bight: SUNY Stony Brook, NY. +Woodall L. C., Sanchez-Vidal, A., Canals, M., Paterson, G.L.J., Coppock, R., Sleight, V. Calafat, A., Rogers, A. D., Narayanaswamy, B. E., Thompson, R. C., (2014). Th deep sea is a major sink for microplastic debris. Royal Society Open Science.1 140317. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.140317. +Woodall, L.C., Robinson, L.F., Rogers, A.D., Narayanaswamy, B.E. and Paterson, G.L.J. (2015). Deep-sea litter: a comparison of seamounts, banks and a ridge in th Atlantic and Indian Oceans reveals both environmental and anthropogeni factors impact accumulation and composition. Frontiers in Marine Science., 0 February 2015. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00003. +World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), (2012). Untangled-Marin debris: a global picture of the impact on animal welfare and of animal-focuse solutions. London: World Society for the Protection of Animals. +Wright, S. Thompson, R.C., & Galloway, T.S. (2013). The physical impacts o microplastics in marine organisms: a review. Environmental Pollution 178, +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +483-492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol. 2013. 02.031. +Yamashita, R., Tanimura, A., (2007). Floating plastic in the Kuroshio Current area western North Pacific Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54(4), 485-488. +Zettler, E.R., Mincer, T.J., Amaral-Zettler, L.A., (2013). Life in the "Plastisphere" Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris. Environmental Science Technology 47, 7137-7146. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_25.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_25.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_26.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_26.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e0b2c53d0015cf01dbf846fa30b7925c095f0231 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_26.txt @@ -0,0 +1,318 @@ +Chapter 26. Land-Sea Physical Interaction +Contributors: Julian Reyna (Convenor), Arsonina Bera, Hong-Yeon Cho, +William Douglas Wilson, Regina Folorunsho, Sean Green (Co-lead member), +Frank Hall, Peter Harris (Co-lead member), Lorna Inniss (lead member), Sung Yon Kim, Teruhisa Komatsu, Renzo Mosetti, Kareem Sabir, Wilford Schmidt, +Hannes Ténisson, Joshua Tuhumwire (Co-lead member)* +1. Introduction +This chapter deals with how human activities have changed the physical interactio between the sea and the land. This physical interaction is important because abou 60 per cent of the world’s population live in the coastal zone (Nicholls et al., 2007) The “coastal zone” is defined in a World Bank publication as “the interface where th land meets the ocean, encompassing shoreline environments as well as adjacen coastal waters. Its components can include river deltas, coastal plains, wetlands beaches and dunes, reefs, mangrove forests, lagoons and other coastal features. (Post et al., 1996) In some places, natural coastal erosion processes cause damag to property, harm to economic activities and even loss of life. In other places, huma activities have modified natural processes of erosion of the coast and _ it replenishment, through: (1) coastal development such as land reclamation, san mining and the construction of sea defences that change the coastal alongshor sediment transport system; (2) modification of river catchments to either increase o decrease natural sediment delivery to the coast; and (3) through global climat change and attendant sea level rise changes to surface wave height and period an the intensity and frequency of storm events. +2. Natural coastal erosion and property damage +Coastal erosion is a natural, long-term process that contributes to the shaping o present coastlines, but it can also pose a threat to life and property (Rangel-Butrag and Anfuso, 2009). For example, the total coastal area (including houses an buildings) currently being lost in Europe through marine erosion is estimated to b about 15 km? per year (Van Rijn, 2011). Over 70 per cent of the world’s beache experience coastal erosion, some portion of which is a natural process (Dar and Dar 2009). Other natural processes influencing coastal sediment dynamics include th supply of biogenic carbonate sand and gravel (see Chapter 7) and volcanism whic can provide an important sediment source to some coastal areas, including som continental coasts, such as in Italy (de Rita et al., 2002) and to volcanic islands, such +* The writing team thanks Kazimierz Furmanczyk for his substantive contribution to this chapter. +© 2016 United Nations + +as in Polynesia, Indonesia, the Caribbean, the Azores and sub-Antarctic islands (e.g. Dey and Smith, 1989; Ross and Wall, 1999). Volcanic activity may supply sediments t the coast directly in the form of ash deposited as atmospheric fallout, or as lava flow or debris flows down the flanks of volcanoes that are adjacent to the coast (Fishe and Smith, 1991). +3. Impacts of anthropogenic climate change +The impacts on coastal ecosystems of anthropogenic global climate change (Jaagus 2006; Jylha et al., 2004) are associated with sea-level rise (Johansson et al., 2004 an increased storminess (Alexandersson et al., 1998) (Lowe et al., 2001; Masselink an Russell, 2006; Meier et al., 2004; Morton et al., 2005; Ténisson et al., 2011; Suursaa et al., 2006; Wang et al., 1998). Coastal sedimentation and morphology ar influenced directly by regional land morphology and composition and anthropogeni activities that affect the amounts and locations of precipitation, run-off from bot point and non-point sources, sea level, and storm activity. In addition, aeolian (i.e. wind-blown) dust, especially from deserts in Africa and Asia, affects some coasta communities. Aeolian processes are discussed in Chapter 5 and will not b considered further here. +The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2013) has shown that th rate of global sea-level rise throughout the 20" century has increased, due to meltin ice caps and glaciers and the thermal expansion of the oceans, both resulting fro increased global temperatures. Local sea level is further affected by processe including sediment discharge and subsidence (the natural, gravitational sinking o land over time), hydrological management, fluid withdrawal, and tectonic activit (Millman et al., 1989; Reed and Yuill, 2009; Boon et al., 2010). The human respons to sea-level rise will include armouring coastlines to protect real estate, thus cuttin off the natural (landward) retreat path of coastal and intertidal organisms. Coasta development that has occurred on low-gradient, sandy coastlines is the mos vulnerable, since the natural response of such systems is to retreat landward as se level rises. +Another apparent response to the warming of the Earth’s atmosphere is a change i the ocean wave climate, manifested as increased wave heights associated with mor intense storm events (Carter and Draper, 1988; WASA Group, 1998; Gulev and Hasse 1999; Allan and Komar, 2000). Changes in wave regime may affect the stability o sandy shorelines and potentially dramatic changes in coastal geomorphology ma occur locally. For example, the transformation from tide-dominated to wave dominated coastal systems is possible in some locations (Harris et al., 2002) Increased wave height and period translates into an increase in the water depth a which sediments may be mobilized, thereby fundamentally changing the character o the seabed habitat. For example, areas of sandy seafloor previously stable under th prevailing wave and current regime may become transformed into a different habita type, subject to mobilizing forces of episodic storms (Hughes et al., 2010). +© 2016 United Nations + +4. Impacts of coastal development +Increasing human encroachment, land reclamation, coastal development an economic activity (e.g., shipping, recreation, mining) are considered to be among th major anthropogenic impacts on the coastal environment. These impacts have bot direct and indirect influences on the physical interaction of the ocean with the coast. +4.1 Land Reclamation +Land reclamation is a significant component of economic growth and developmen for many countries around the world. The need for space to accommodate a increasing world population, which is projected to exceed 8.1 billion by 2025 (Unite Nations, 2013), has been a contributing factor to the growing trend of large-scal reclamation projects in many coastal areas to provide suitable land for housing an recreation, industry, commerce, agriculture and, in some cases, to provide coasta protection for the adjacent coastline. Many land-reclamation projects are also foun in coastal cities that are short of space for expansion, particularly for port activities. +Two methods of land reclamation are generally used: infilling and draining of tida and submerged wetlands. Infilling is most common in coastal areas associated wit dredging activities, either indirectly by utilizing dredged material form port an harbour development or directly from offshore sources. Improved dredgin technologies over time have increased the scale efficiency, cost-effectiveness an value of the land created in reclamation projects (Kolman, 2012). Previously lan reclamation was restricted to shallow near-shore environments; however, wit improvements in dredging methods and technologies, land reclamation ha progressed to deeper water. +Large-scale land reclamation was pioneered in the Netherlands by the building o “polders” (areas of former swamp or intertidal land enclosed by embankment known as dikes). Since the 11™ century, the Dutch have reclaimed marshes an fenland, resulting in some 3,000 polders nationwide enclosing about 7,000 km? About half of the total surface area of polders in northwest Europe is in th Netherlands. With the advent of modern machinery, such reclamation of wetlands i achieved much more readily. In West Bengal, India, 1,500 km? of the coasta Sundarbans wetlands have been reclaimed over the last 100 years (UNEP, 2009). I China, 9,200 km? (16 per cent) of the wetlands present in the 1970s had disappeare by 2007 (Zuo et al., 2013). At a more local level, 28 per cent of the tidal flats aroun the coast of the Yellow Sea were reclaimed between the 1980s and the late 2000 (Murray et al., 2014). Around the world, polder-type reclamation has bee undertaken in Egypt, Morocco, Senegal and Tunisia in Africa, in Bangladesh, China India, Indonesia, Iraq, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Republic of Korea, Pakistan Thailand and Viet Nam in Asia; in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal Romania, Spain and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland i Europe; in The Russian Federation; in the south-eastern states of the United State o America in North America; and in Argentina, Colombia, Suriname and Venezuela i South America (MVenW, 1983). This reclamation work has particularly affected +© 2016 United Nations + +mangroves and salt marshes (see Chapters 48 and 49). +In recent times significant large-scale dredging projects have been undertaken i several countries in Asia and the Middle East. Rapidly emergent economies, such a China, Japan, Singapore, and United Arab Emirates, have all undertaken large-scal reclamation projects as a solution to finding land for economic development (Glase et al., 1991; Suzuki, 2003). Reclamation is no longer limited to near-shore coasta environments. Technological advances enabled the creation of the internationa airport of Hong Kong, China, Japan’s Kansai airport and resort developments, such a the Palm Jumeirah, Palm Jebel Ali, the Deira Islands and other similar facilities tha are now a prominent feature of the coastline of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. +Major projects, such as the creation of Hulhumalé Island in the Maldives betwee 1997 and 2002, have been used to relieve overpopulated urban areas and to enabl urban expansion. More than 10 per cent of the developed land area of Hong Kong China, is reclaimed from the sea (Jiao et al., 2001). Other examples of such urba land reclamation projects are: Rotterdam in Europe, New York/New Jersey Por Authority and San Francisco in North America, Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande i South America, Shanghai, Singapore and Tokyo in East Asia, Chennai and Kolkata i South Asia, Bahrain and Dubai in West Asia, and Cape Town and Lagos in Africa. I special cases, such as the Principality of Monaco, reclaimed land forms 20 per cent o the land area of the State (Anthony, 1994). +Several examples of reclamation are found in China, where the primary objective wa to provide suitable living space for a growing population and to promote economi development. Between 2003 and 2006, the Shanghai government spent 40 billio yuan (6.5 billion United States dollars) on the so-called Lingang New City Project t reclaim 133.3 km’ of artificial land from the sea. From 1949 to 2000, China reclaime about 12,000 km? of land. Land reclamation has also been used to tackle long-ter coastal erosion problems from storm surges and extreme climatic events. Fo example, significant financial investments have been allocated to reclaim beache along Florida’s eastern coastline in the United States and support a major touris industry. The Sand Engine” in the Netherlands is also an innovative example of a effort to alleviate long-term coastal erosion problems while at the same tim boosting local biological diversity and the economy (Stive et al., 2013). +4.2 Environmental impacts of land reclamation +Land reclamation causes significant negative impacts on coastal habitats and th ecosystem services they provide (Wang et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2010). Degradatio of wetlands, seagrass beds and coastal water quality is commonly associated with +? The Sand Motor is an innovative method for coastal protection. The Sand Motor (also known a Sand Engine) is a huge volume of sand that has been applied along the coast of Zuid-Holland (th Netherlands) at Ter Heijde in 2011. Wind, waves and currents will spread the sand naturally along th coast of Zuid-Holland. This is called ‘Building with Nature’. The Sand Motor will gradually change i shape and will eventually be fully incorporated into the dunes and the beach. The coast will b broader and safer. From: http://www.dezandmotor.nl/en-GB/. +© 2016 United Nations + +large-scale reclamation projects. Examples of studies examining the impacts o coastal wetlands reclamation are available from, e.g., Hong Kong, China (Jiao et al. 2001), the Republic of Korea (Lee, 1998) and the Netherlands (Waterman et al. 1998). +Large-scale reclamation can also affect the regional groundwater regime, causin changes of the groundwater level and the modification of natural groundwate discharge to the coast. For example, Mahamood and Twigg (1995) conducted statistical analysis of water table data to document a rise in the water table in area of Bahrain associated with land reclaimed from the sea. Some of the problem related to land reclamation in coastal areas are reported by Jiao (2000) as including: +e Rises in water level will lead to reduction in the bearing capacity o foundations and in the stability of slopes. +e Ground water may also penetrate underground concrete and caus corrosion of steel reinforcements. +e An increase in water level may cause damp surfaces and superficial damag to the floors of residential buildings (Mahamood and Twigg, 1995). +Furthermore, aquifers behave like underground reservoirs and can receive only certain amount of rainfall before they overflow. If the water level is increased as result of land reclamation, the additional water storage capacity will be significantl decreased, resulting in increased rainwater run-off. Thus, aquifers that are full wil increase the chance of flooding during heavy rainfall periods. As submarin groundwater input to the sea depends on the groundwater level relative to sea level a change in the groundwater regime may modify the coastal marine environmen and ecology (Jiao, 2000). +4.3 Socioeconomic impacts of land reclamation +The significance of land reclamation to the development of local and nationa economies cannot be overstated. Land development is inextricably linked to rapi economic growth in many countries. For example, Small Island Developing State depend on coastal economies for their growth and development. Several island rely heavily on the provision of suitable tourism infrastructure and seaports t maintain their development objectives. More generally, growth in international trad entails growth in shipping (see Chapter 17) both in volume and in the size of ships which makes port expansion necessary (see chapter 18). In many cities, such por expansion can only be achieved by land reclamation. +As well as benefits, interference with other uses of the sea can occur For example, i Japan, part of Isahaya Bay on the Ariake Sea was cut off from the rest of the bay by dike to reclaim land for agriculture and to create freshwater storage. Fishers an seaweed growers complained that the effects, especially on tidal flows, have harme fish, shellfish and seaweed production, a view that a Japanese court upheld in 201 (JT, 2014; AS, 2013). +© 2016 United Nations + +4.4 Habitats, coastal development and coastal squeeze +Measured normal to the coast, the assemblage of coastal habitats ranges in widt from only a few metres to tens of kilometres, offering very diverse environmenta conditions to numerous plant and animal species. These habitats formed as a resul of long-term stability in ecological conditions influenced by the constant distanc from the shoreline. The influence of the sea decreases rapidly towards the land an biodiversity decreases rapidly just a few hundred metres from the shoreline as well Therefore, it is noted that the loss of the land on the coastal zone often leads to th rapid decrease of biodiversity, especially on the uplifting regions (Kont et al., 2011). +Coastal vegetation (e.g., dune vegetation, reed-beds, mangroves, salt marshes inhibits erosion, reducing the effect of storm surges and wave attack (Kathiresan an Rajendran, 2005), and serves as natural protection. Removing the vegetation fo coastal development can increase coastal erosion (Waycott et al., 2009) and may ad to the amount of sediment moving along the shore, causing siltation of harbours an burial of coastal and coastal sea habitats. +One of the most recent and most notable coastal defence structures is the 25-km long Saint Petersburg Flood Prevention Facility Complex. The estimated cost of thi structure was approximately 3.85 billion United States dollars (Reuters, 2011). Recen winter storms have caused extreme erosion events on the surrounding sand beaches (T6nisson et al., 2012). +Several countries in the world have legislatively defined shoreline locations, an major efforts are made to implement the laws. The most notable examples ar Poland, the Netherlands and the United States of America. Today, over one-fourth o the 1032-km-long Polish coast is more or less engineere (www.climateadaptation.eu). For the period 2004-2023 a Long-Term Coasta Protection Strategy was developed for which 249 million euros has been secure (approximately 7.5 million euros per year). Approximately 3.5 million inhabitants liv in the region that might be potentially affected by the sea in Poland (ec.europa.eu) This cost is rather big compared to what the Baltic States (which have a shorelin that is four times longer) altogether are spending on coastal protection. The onl known cost is the Lithuanian Palanga nourishment project reaching 1.65 millio euros per year (Gulbinskas et al., 2009). +Most of the effort in the Netherlands is focused on the flood protection, becaus over three-fourths of the Netherlands is less than 5 m above sea level. Approximatel 9 million people live in the region at high risk from coastal flooding and over 50 pe cent of GDP is generated in this region. In principle, the Netherlands addresse coastal protection activities in a comprehensive (national) approach to counterac flood risk (coast and river flooding). The total amount spent on flood-risk protectio is estimated at 550 million euros per year. Over the period 1998-2015, measures t protect the Dutch coast against flooding and erosion and adapt to increase storminess and sea-level rise amount to 3.4 billion euros. The yearly expenditure o beach nourishments under the Sand Nourishment Programme has increased from 2 million euros in 2000 to 70 million euros in 2008 (ec.europa.eu). +Over 50 per cent of the population in the United States live in the coastal region an are more or less affected by changes in coastal processes. In the United States, +© 2016 United Nations + +coastal erosion is responsible for approximately 500 million United States dollars pe year in coastal property loss, including damage to structures and loss of land. T mitigate coastal erosion, the federal government spends an average of 150 millio dollars every year on beach nourishment and other shoreline erosion contro measures. However, it is estimated that despite the measures, every fourth hous within an approximately 500-m-wide coastal zone will be destroyed by erosion b 2050 (NOAA, 2013). +Economic losses related to coastal erosion are more complex to assess. Detaile analyses carried out in Louisiana in the United States show that major disruptions i economic activities caused by coastal erosion and flooding might result in ove 70,000 jobs lost in the United States and a long-term loss for the United State economy of approximately 10 billion dollars (dnr.louisiana.gov). Loss of coasta habitat in Louisiana results from three primary processes: control of the Mississipp River, which reduces the amount of replenishing sediment that rebuilds the coast subsidence, and industrial activity. +The United States Army Corps of Engineers will be spending upward of 5 billio dollars on shore protection projects following Hurricane Sandy. The vast majority o these funds will be spent on pumping sand onto beaches from Delaware t Connecticut, an amount approaching 25 to 35 million m*. This is an adaptation mode that cannot be exported to most developing countries due to its cost, and it i doubtful that it can be maintained for an extended period of time in the Unite States of America (Young et al., 2014). +The use of initially less expensive hard protection measures (which are extremel destructive to surrounding shores and natural habitats) has decreased, whereas th share of soft coastal protection measures has significantly increased in recen decades. However, in light of global sea-level rise, researchers and coasta communities have started the debate on managed realignment. In the Unite Kingdom, realignment of private property and infrastructure occurred in a 66-km long stretch of shoreline during 1991-2013. The United Kingdom government plan to reach 550 km (10 per cent of the United Kingdom coastline) by 2030 (Esteves an Thomas, 2014). These zones will function as natural buffer zones and reduce the ris of erosion and coastal defence costs to the surrounding coasts. Furthermore, most o the local communities are in favour of this measure and the strongest opposition i from those whose property will be most severely affected. This topic is als recognized by European Commission, and a new Horizon 2020 call (open until 201 autumn) was issued on the topic: “Science and innovation for adaptation to climat change: from assessing costs, risks and opportunities to demonstration of option and practices”, where realignment is considered as a key solution +(http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/portal/desktop/en/opportunities/h2020 ). +Many countries do not have the economic resources to protect their coast activel through engineering solutions, which are very expensive and often no technologically successful. Effective non-engineering solutions are available suc as restoring the processes that were in place before human intervention, improve urban planning, and orderly retreat strategies. The cost of not dealing with coastal +© 2016 United Nations + +erosion can be even more costly over the long-term. For example, in 2006 Mozambique requested 3 million US dollars from the international community t carry out engineering coastal protection countermeasures for potential flooding. Thi request was turned down in 2007, and since then, the international community ha spent over 90 million dollars to address extreme flooding in the region (Ashdown 2011). +5. Impacts of catchment disturbance +5.1 Decline in marine sedimentation as a result of water management +On a global basis, the natural (pre-Anthropocene) sediment load to the oceans fro rivers is estimated to be about 15 x 10° tons; the majority is supplied by mountai rivers with steep catchments (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Ludwig and Probst, 1998 Syvitski et al., 2005). Over the last few centuries, the global annual sediment flux int the coastal zone has increased by 2.3 x 10° tons due to anthropogenic soil erosio and decreased by 3.7x 10° tons due to retention in reservoirs: the net effect is reduction of sediment input by 1.4x10°tons (Syvitski et al., 2005). A majo environmental consequence of river sediment starvation is erosion of the coast an attendant loss of habitat; conversely, the consequence of increased sediment input i elevated coastal and estuarine turbidity and smothering and burial of biota. Man examples of the two opposite consequences are documented from different place around the world (Fig. 1). +A well-documented example of the first problem (sediment starvation) is th Mississippi River, which is controlled by the United States Army Corps of Engineer and has one of the most diverse and largest watersheds in the world. Over th Holocene period (the last 10,000 years) the Mississippi deposited the largest deltai coastal complex in North America. Prior to European settlement of North America the sediment load of the Mississippi was around 400 million tons per year, but a present it is around 100 million tons per year as a result of the construction o around 45,000 water reservoirs in the catchment (Syvitski, 2008). The decrease sediment load contributes to loss of wetlands in the delta; this loss peaked betwee 1955 and 1978 at 11,114 ha/year and declined to 2,591 ha per year from 1990 t 2000. Reductions in sedimentation, compounded by sea-level rise, water abstractio (causing subsidence), oil and gas extraction (also causing subsidence), tidal erosio and storm surges, have resulted in an approximate total land loss of 113,300 acres o the coastal Mississippi delta over the past 60 years (Morton et al., 2005). +© 2016 United Nations + +2500 Yello 150 50 6 4 2 00 C Mississippi [ 400 D Nil 30 20 10 120 E Danub 8 4 1 10 100 1000 +Years Before Present 2000 AD +500 +300 +10 0 +Sediment Load MT/y +Figure 1. Change in the sediment load in millions of tons per year (MT/year) delivered to the delta of five rivers over a period of 1,000 years: (A) Yellow; (B) Po; (C) Mississippi; (D) Nile; and (E) Danub (from Syvitski, 2008). In some cases an initial phase of catchment clearing and disturbance characterized by increased sediment load, is followed by a reduced sediment load phase attribute to dam building (A, B and C). In other cases the curves indicate only a steady decrease in sedimen load attributed to dam building (D and E) (Source: Syvitski, 2008). +Other examples of river systems that have undergone a similar pattern o anthropogenic sediment retention that has reduced the sediment discharge of th river to below pristine conditions include the Yellow, Indus, Colorado, Nile an Danube Rivers (Syvitski, 2008). In extreme cases the sediment load is reduced to nea zero (e.g., the Nile, Indus and Colorado Rivers). The Volta River in West Africa had sediment load of 11 million tons per year prior to the construction of the Akosomb Dam, but after the dam’s completion in 1963, this load was reduced to nearly zer (Milliman and Meade, 1983). With the recent construction of another dam on the +© 2016 United Nations + +Volta River (the Kpong Dam), its sediment yield has diminished further, starving th delta and coast of sediment input. +5.2 Increase in marine sedimentation as a result of catchment disturbance +In many instances, dam building and sediment entrapment in reservoirs does no offset the impacts of land clearing and soil disturbance in the catchment, such tha river sediment loads exceed pristine levels in spite of dam building. The dat presented in Figure 1 for the Yellow River 10 years ago and for the Po and Mississipp 100 years ago all showed this effect. Another example is the coast of northeas Queensland in Australia adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef; modelling work by Brodi et al. (2003) indicates that the total suspended sediment load of rivers draining int the Great Barrier Reef region is currently about 16 million tons per year, compare with pre-European settlement estimates of around 2 million tons per year. This is i spite of the fact that nearly all of the rivers in the region have been dammed Consequently, increased sedimentation (with attendant inputs of nutrients an pesticides) to the ecosystem are affecting inshore areas of the Great Barrier Reef causing increased algal growth, accumulation of pollutants in sediments and marin species, reducing light and smothering corals (GBRMPA, 2009). +One other key point noted by Milliman and Meade (1983, p. 19) is that “much of th sediment probably accumulates on the subaerial parts of subsiding deltas, neve really reaching salt water. Along coastlines that include a number of large estuaries most of the inflowing river sediment is trapped in embayments.” Hence a significan proportion of sediment discharged by most rivers is trapped within the coastal biome Nevertheless, more widespread impacts of increased sediment loads may occu during flood events, when buoyant river plumes extend across the continental shelf The input of fine-grained sediment in historical times may also have increased th turbidity of the coastal zone above pristine environmental conditions, affecting som light-dependent species. +5.3 Modelling Coastal Sedimentary Processes +Computer models have assisted in improving our understanding of sedimentatio processes in the near shore (Syvitski and Alcott, 1993; Syvitski and Alcott, 1995 Mulder et al., 1997; Syvitski and Milliman, 2007; Chu et al., 2013). Compute algorithms provide process-related information to understand flow dynamics particulate and chemical distributions, and the overall oceanography of coasta environments. +5.4 Impacts of increased sediment input on coastal habitats +The impact of sediments has been recognized by both global reviews and the Unite Nations Environment Programme (UNEP/GEMS, 2008). These impacts include: +e Smothering of marine communities and, in severe cases, complete buria leading to suffocation of corals, mangrove stands and seagrass beds. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +e Decreases in the amount of available sunlight, which may in turn limit th production of algae and macrophytes, increase water temperatures an reduce growth of natural vegetation. +e Injuring fish by irritating or scouring their gills and degrading fish habitats a gravel containing fish eggs becomes filled with fine particles, thus reducin available oxygen +e Reducing the success of visual predators, and may also harm some benthi macroinvertebrates. +e Infilling watercourses, storm drains and reservoirs, leading to costly dredgin and an increased risk of flooding. +e Many toxic organic chemicals, heavy metals and nutrients are physicall and/or chemically adsorbed by sediments, so that an increase of sedimen loading to the marine environment can also lead to increased deposition o these toxic substances that result in further negative impacts such a eutrophication. +It is important to recall that human impacts on marine habitats rarely (if ever) act i isolation (Lotze et al., 2006; Harris, 2012). Therefore it is difficult, if not impossible, t attribute specific changes in species composition or abundance to single, specifi impacts, such as increased sediment loads of rivers caused by human activities Nevertheless, increased sediment loads of rivers have evidently affected the marin environment, and this section reviews these effects as far as possible. +Coastal habitats and species that are most affected by increased sediment loads o rivers are those which are least tolerant of rapid sediment deposition and hig turbidity (in relation to natural background levels), and changes in sediment grai size and composition. Among such ecosystems, coral reefs and estuaries with thei associated mangrove, salt marshes and sea grasses are among the most vulnerabl habitats. +In the Caribbean, Burke et al. (2004) reported on the assessment of more than 3,00 watersheds across the region that discharged into an area where coral reefs wer present. They found that 20 per cent of coral reefs in the region are at high threat and about 15 per cent at medium threat from damage caused by increased sedimen and pollution from agricultural lands and other land modification. +Sediment input to temperate ecosystems also affects habitats and associated species For example, eelgrass meadows, which provide important near-shore marine habita for fish, shellfish, and invertebrates, as well as food for waterfowl and detritu feeders, can be buried or fragmented by increased sediment delivery associated wit river-delta channelization (Lotze et al., 2006; Grossman et al., 2011). Increase turbidity is a particular problem because seagrasses require some of the highest ligh levels of any plant group in the world, approaching 25 per cent of incident radiatio in some seagrass species, compared with 1 per cent or less for other angiosper species (Dennison et al., 1993). +Therefore, even small increases in turbidity can cause significant reductions i seagrass cover over a short time span (Orth et al., 2006). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Changes in sediment grain-size composition can also affect ecosystems. For example many shellfish beds and forage-fish spawning beaches depend on a specific sedimen grain-size composition that is linked to land-use activities and hydrological condition that release and carry sediment into coastal waters (Gelfenbaum et al., 2009). Wate quality, near-shore and offshore habitats, and aquatic ecosystem health are affecte by contaminants and nutrients that preferentially adsorb to fine sediments Specialized organisms that have adapted to fine sediments, high sedimentation rates and mobile substrate utilize estuaries. The macroinvertebrates that are found at th bottom of estuaries are much smaller than those found in streambeds with large particle sizes, and they tend to be opportunistic species (Schaffner et al., 1987) Within the estuary, the density of fauna is commonly greater in the freshwater tida areas than in parts of the estuary having (tidally) varying salinity (Schaffner et al. 1987). The species diversity of macroinvertebrates is usually lower in fine sediment than that in sediments with coarser particles. The diversity and evenness of specie decline with an increasing percentage of silt/clay and organic matter (Junoy an Vieitez, 1990). However, fine-sediment beds are important for burrowing tube building invertebrates and other burrowing species (Minshall, 1984). +The impacts of increased sedimentation from river input will differ between delta and estuaries (Harris and Heap, 2003). Estuaries and deltas formed along coasts a the end of the last Ice Age when sea level reached its present position, around 6,50 years ago. Deltas evolved in places where river sediment discharge filled the palaeo river valley to form a deltaic protrusion from the coast. The formation of a delt relies on the river supplying sediment to the coast more rapidly than can b redistributed by waves and tides, causing seaward progradation. For estuaries an lagoons, slow rates of sediment delivery to the coast results in the palaeo-valle remaining partially un-filled. Waves and tides produce deltas and estuaries wit distinctively different shapes in plain view (e.g., Harris and Heap, 2003; Syvitski 2008). +Prograding coastlines, characterized by deltas, strand plains and tidal flats, expor most of their sediment load to the sea and generally have a naturally low sediment trapping efficiency. They contain a suite of habitats that will not be significantl affected by sedimentation. In contrast, transgressive coastlines, characterized b estuaries and lagoons, have a high sediment-trapping efficiency (Fig. 2). They are therefore, more susceptible to the accumulation of particle-associated contaminant such as heavy metals. They also contain a suite of habitats that will change (evolve as they infill with sediments (Roy et al., 2001), and are therefore more susceptible t catchment perturbations that affect river sediment loads. The water contained i tide-dominated deltaic distributary channels, estuaries, and creeks that drai intertidal flats, is naturally turbid and generally well mixed. In contrast, wate contained in wave-dominated deltaic distributary channels, estuaries, and lagoons i naturally clear (low turbidity) and exhibits mainly stratified (estuarine) circulatio patterns (Fig. 2). +In arid regions of the Earth, this circulation is often of the inverse (negative) type driven by high evaporation rates. From a management perspective, therefore, huma activities that give rise to higher turbidity levels are likely to have a greater impact i wave-dominated systems (that have naturally low-turbidity, clear water) than in tide- +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +dominated systems that are naturally turbid (Harris and Heap, 2003). +Type o Coasta Environment +Turbidity +Habitat Chang due t Sedimentation +> Tide === dominated +5’ Delta +Naturall High +Wel Mixed +Wave dominate Delta +Naturall Low +Salt Wedge Partially Mixed +4” Tide = dominated +Naturall High +Wel Mixed +Naturall Low +Salt Wedge Partially Mixed +Naturall High +Wel Mixed +Negative/ +Natural +aturally | salt Wedg Partially Mixed +Negative Well Mixed +Figure 2. Diagram showing different types of coastal depositional environments in relation to fou common management issues: sediment trapping efficiency, turbidity, water circulation and habita change due to sedimentation (from Harris and Heap, 2003). +5.5 Coastal erosion caused by sediment starvation of coasts attributed to da building and impacts on habitats +When sediment delivery to the coast is reduced by dam building in the catchment critical near-shore habitat and beaches can be eroded by natural coastal processe and lost (Malini and Rao, 2004; Warrick et al., 2009). Erosion along pristin sedimentary coastlines will cause a landward retreat of habitats, such that a ecological succession is observed at a fixed observation point. For example supratidal vegetated dunes give way to intertidal salt marsh and tidal flats. Thus th entire suite of habitats is preserved, but laterally displaced. +Several factors can complicate this simple view. In some cases the space that coul allow habitats to retreat is simply not available (so-called coastal squeeze; Doody 2013; Pontee, 2013) For example, in a modelling study of continental United State coastal habitats, Feagin et al. (2005) found that beach erosion resulted in th disappearance of sand dune plants or in their confinement to a narrow belt becaus existing coastal development (or coastal defences like seawalls) occupies the +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +available space landward of the dune zone. This results in a breakdown of th successional process in built-up areas along the coastal zone. +An example of loss of habitat attributed to coastal erosion induced by dam buildin was reported for mangrove habitat of the Godavari Delta, India (Malini and Rao 2004). Elsewhere, coastal erosion caused by a combination of factors has bee attributed to loss of habitat (see Box 1). For example, loggerhead turtle nesting area in southern Italy have been affected by coastal erosion (Mingozzi et al., 2008) Although numerous examples exist from around the world where coastal erosion an habitat loss have occurred, it is often not possible to single out dam building as th single (or even the dominant) cause of coastal erosion. This is because o complicating, often related factors, such as subsidence, diversion of freshwater input coastal development and land-use changes, (e.g., Syvitski, 2008). For example, th loss of wetlands in the Mississippi Delta region is a famous example of habita destruction caused by human interference with a major river system (see Box 2), bu the loss of habitat has not been caused so much by dam building as by diversion o the river channel by the construction of artificial levees and dredging activitie (Shaffer et al., 2009). +Other responses to sediment starvation of the coast from dam building also occu (see Box 1). Erosion of a once stable or prograding coast can transform th composition and character of the subtidal habitat such that it no longer supports th original community. For example, erosion of the Elwa River delta in Washington State USA, transformed a sedimentary terrace in front of the delta from a sandy habita colonized by molluscs into a cobbled substrate hosting a different ecosystem (Warric et al., 2009). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Box 1 - Case Study — West African Coastal Erosion +The West African coastal zone stretches from Mauritania to Cape of Good Hope in South Africa an consists of a narrow coastal zone backed by a gradually rising Precambrian landmass that is drained b several rivers. The rivers carry sediments, nutrients and water to the coastal areas. The major river responsible for most of the sediment load are the Congo, Niger, Volta, Benue, Gambia, and th Orange. Of these rivers, the Congo, Niger and Orange are classified among the 10 largest rivers in th world in terms of sediment and water yield (Milliman et al., 1983). Minor rivers, such as Senegal Ouémé, Mono, Bandama and Calvally, collectively contribute significant amounts of sediments an water to the coast because of their basin size, length, and flood plains as compared to rivers such a the Niger, Congo and Orange (Fig. 1). +The ability of these rivers to effectively nourish the coast is hindered by climatic, environmental an anthropogenic factors that determine the amount of sediments, nutrients and water delivered, an include different origins of sediments, and climate variability in the catchment areas. (Folorunsho e al., 1998; Awosika et al., 2013; Awosika and Folorunsho, 2014). +Sediments carried to the coast by the major rivers and ephemeral rivers are derived predominantl from the weathered Precambrian rock complex comprised of schist, gneiss, and granite. The roc complex has now been reduced by erosion to piedmonts that dot most of the West African region Younger sedimentary rock types in the lower Niger River and flood plains have also been eroded alon the river courses and carried to the coast. Suspended sediments, comprising fine silt and fine san blown from the Sahara desert through the savannah and the Equatorial region, constitute anothe major sediment type in the region. +The large-scale impoundment of upstream reservoirs has reduced downstream flow volumes an velocities. As a consequence, the strength of the Niger River in its downstream segment is reduced The reduction in flow velocity encourages sediment deposition within river channels, and is reflecte in shallower river cross-sections and enlarged sand bars. Assessment of the spatial distribution an relative sizes of sand bars indicates increased deposition over the years of impoundment. The sand ba just north of Patani on the Forcados River increased from 0.1701 km2 in 1963 to 0.486 km2 in 1988 The sand bar at Anibeze, east of Patani on the same river, increased from 0.3645 km2 to 0.9315 km2 i the same period. A similar trend is observed on the River Nun, where the sand bar just south of Odon increased its size by 100 per cent between 1963 and 1988. The sand bar opposite Odi not onl increased in size, it also expanded in the upstream direction. +At Sampor, a major river channel completely silted up. Several other sand bars on the river betwee Onitsha and the bifurcation of the Niger into the Forcados and Nun Rivers have evolved into large sand bars, thereby significantly modifying the river morphology. The NDES environmental change atla for this area (NDES, 2000) confirms that changes have largely been confined to the flood plain. Thi channel modification has adversely affected the economy of the river channel and the Nigeria Federal Government's plan for large-scale dredging of the River Niger. +© 2016 United Nations 15 + +Box 2: Coastal Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta, USA, and the Impact of Hurricane Katrina +The Mississippi River Delta provides the primary buffer for inland communities within the State o Louisiana and is a major resource for fisheries. Land loss resulting from subsidence has historicall been replenished by the deposition of silt from the Mississippi River. However, human activity including resource exploitation, such as petroleum extraction and controlling the flow of th Mississippi River by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, has resulted in reduced sediment flow an significant loss of land. It is important to note that whereas southeast Louisiana contains 37 per cent o marsh habitat in the United States, it has the highest rate of land loss of any region of the countr (Glick et al., 2013). +This land loss resulted in the increased landward incursion of seawater during Hurricane Katrina i 2005, flooding coastal communities and eroding and displacing habitat. In addition, the Mississipp River Gulf Outlet provided a channel through which seawater flowed, overtopping the levees tha protected the City of New Orleans, causing billions of dollars of damage to property and economic +activities and loss of life (Shaffer et al., 2009). +5.6 Significant environmental, economic and/or social aspects in relation t changes in sediment input +The social and economic aspects of loss of specific habitats include loss of livelihoo (where important fish-food sources and access to croplands have been displaced o where tourism assets are lost), homes and communities (for example, where coasta erosion and shoreline retreat have damaged or destroyed buildings), and habitats o cultural or amenity values. The concept of waterfront property value is also linked t tourism, as it is often the case that the aesthetic and cultural aspects driving propert values and tourism are the same (Phillips and Jones, 2006). Many of these issues ar described in relation to the specific habitats involved in other parts of thi Assessment (coral reefs, see Chapter 43 and 44; estuaries and deltas, see Chapter 44 kelp and seagrass, see Chapter 47; mangroves, see Chapter 48; and salt marshes, se Chapter 49). +Shaffer et al. (2009) note in relation to the cost of restoring wetlands on th Mississippi Delta (estimated to be about 5,300 US dollars per hectare) that “the mos significant twenty-first century public works projects will be those undertaken t correct environmental damage caused by twentieth-century projects.” In other words the cost of restoring damaged habitats is often much greater than the cost of th projects that caused the damage in the first place. The cost of maintenance of coasta protection infrastructure is estimated to be about 300,000 dollars per mile (1.8 km of coast in the United States (Dunn et al., 2000). Along coasts that are eroding, th cost of allowing the coastline to retreat is immense. If the coast of Delaware in th United States were allowed to recede at its present pace (without shoreline defenc engineering works), the cost of lost property by 2050 has been estimated by Parson and Powell (2001) to be about 291 million dollars (year 2000 dollars), which th authors argue justifies the dollar cost of defence. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +6. Gaps in Capacity to Assess Land/Sea Physical Interactions +The assessment of land/sea physical interactions is multidisciplinary, requirin expertise in all aspects of oceanography (physical, geological, chemical, an biological) and concomitant terrestrial counterparts. Local, regional, and basin-wid scales must be considered, along with implications of climate change and sea-leve rise. Ultimately, the natural sciences must inform and serve the social realities o economic and infrastructural needs. This section is arranged according to gaps i knowledge of coastal processes, gaps in knowledge of ocean processes, and gaps i capacity to apply existing science to effective decision-making. Some examples ar taken from the Caribbean; however, the discussion is global, with many areas o extrapolation. +Globally, coastal engineering science has evolved dramatically during the last century from the application of crude coastal protection measures such as the ad ho placement of rocks and other natural materials, to the well-modelled an sophisticated coastal structures built today. These changes are mainly due to som improvement in understanding of coastal processes, such as the interaction o nearshore waves with littoral sediment transport paths. However, methodologies ar still developing, linking changes in sea level to changes in shape, sediment volume and beach width. New models have been developed, and produce better result when validated than the Bruun model (DECCW, 2010). Since the 1950s, the Bruu model has been used to model coastal retreat caused by increases in sea level, i spite of its apparent limitations as a two-dimensional representation of a multi dimensional process (Cooper and Pilkey, 2004). +In developed countries, such as the European Union Member States, the Unite States and Canada, permanent, extensive coastal and nearshore monitoring ensure that the body of data required for modelling coastal processes is readily available. A abundance of information exists on the sources and sinks of sediment, and o sediment transport processes. However, the situation is different in many African an Asian coastalstates, and in Small Island Developing States, where capacity an technologies for widespread monitoring are limited. The UNESCO Sandwatc programme has enabled establishment of beach profile monitoring in man developing countries by non-governmental organizations and school student (UNESCO, 2010). +Development of a specific global framework for land/sea physical interactio assessment needs to be initiated. This could include improving capacity of person who collect and analyze existing and new data at local, regional, and basin-wid levels. Ultimately, a standardized training programme, through an inter-institutiona network, should be established. Support is needed for ongoing in-situ measurement and for the re-establishment of discontinued data collection programmes, and fo initiating new studies. Above all, the scientific questions should be clearly articulated Forecasting ocean processes is a necessary capability for addressing climate chang and sea-level rise. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Many countries, including small island States, are susceptible to climate chang impacts, many of which will directly affect land-sea interaction (Carter et al., 2014) Inundation of coastal lowlands and small islands will lead to the loss of mangroves seagrasses, and coral reef habitats and ecosystems. It is also postulated that rainfal patterns over the region will be altered, changing river discharge and non-point source sedimentation. It is also thought that hurricanes will become less frequen but more intense, posing a particular threat to the coasts of island States. The globa Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM) programme of IOC-UNESCO is designe to assist countries in their efforts to build marine scientific and technologica capabilities as a follow-up to Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, and to Chapter IV of th Mauritius Strategy. The main objectives of ICAM are to increase capacity to respon to change and challenges in coastal and marine environments through furthe development of such science-based management tools as marine spatial planning ecosystem-based management, and the Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) approach. +Activities include syntheses of scientific information and preparation o methodological manuals, a strategic alliance with the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and its core project on Land-Ocean Interaction in th Coastal Zone (LOICZ), and a project on the development and application of indicator for integrated coastal and ocean management. +In the same way the SPINCAM (Southeast Pacific Data and Information Network I Support to Integrated Coastal Area Management) project was designed to establis an ICAM indicator framework at national and regional levels in the countries of th Southeast Pacific region (Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Peru), focusing o the state of the coastal and marine environment and socioeconomic conditions, t provide stakeholders with information and atlases on the sustainability of existin and future coastal management practices and development. The SPINCAM model i proposed for replication in other regions. +With respect to gaps in knowledge of ocean processes, it is noted that anthropogeni climate change will affect wave climate, sea level and ocean acidification (OA) Impacts of the latter are discussed in chapter 5, and the production of beach sand i discussed in chapter 7. However, given that the science on OA is now developing significant gaps exist in knowledge of this phenomenon and its effects. Thus far onl certain regions of the world’s oceans are being studied, e.g. off North America Canada and New Zealand. The Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network (GOA ON) is striving to assist in the development of standards, and of capacity fo researchers in other countries. +Sea-level monitoring and research is quite mature; almost all coastal State participate in the collection of sea-level data. Instrumentation is easily accessible an States utilize data for early warning of coastal hazards. The Global Sea Leve Observing System has improved monitoring in regions not previously monitored. Th main gaps in knowledge are in the use of sea-level data in models to determin changes in coastal processes and changes in shorelines. +Other gaps in capacity relate to the application of existing knowledge to inform th development of coastal areas. An understanding of coastal dynamics is vital in desig and construction of coastal infrastructure. Diversion of sediment pathways throug dam building, port/harbour construction, and_ infrastructure developmen constructed on dunes and sand spits may result in losses following coastal erosion. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Land reclamation may destroy habitat and ecosystem services that protect the coas from sea-level-related hazards such as storm surge and tsunamis. One significant ga in capacity is in coastal engineering, especially in Small Island Developing States Once capacities in physical oceanography and coastal engineering are linked, ocea and coastal processes may be better understood for application by coasta developers. +Even where capacity in Small Island Developing States exists, such as in Barbados, th challenge is to develop a comprehensive succession planning framework tha maintains that capacity over time. Additionally, the costs of appropriately located designed and constructed coastal infrastructure may be prohibitive. Currently Barbados is undertaking a Coastal Risk Assessment and Management Programm (CRMP) of 42 million US dollars through concessional loan financing. The aim of thi project is to conduct diagnostic studies of ocean and coastal processes, in order t determine the impact of sea-level rise and other coastal hazards on the country’ coastal assets (IDB, 2011). 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Estuaries and Coasts, Vol. 36, 390-400. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_26.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_26.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_27.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_27.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..26f2eab5ee4f2ebb57d9a784d89ca4fc71133151 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_27.txt @@ -0,0 +1,318 @@ +Chapter 27. Tourism and Recreation +Group of Experts: Alan Simcock (Lead member) and Lorna Inniss +1. Introduction +Seaside holidays have a long history. They were popular for several hundred year (100 BCE — 400) among the ruling classes of the Roman Empire: these visited th coast of Campania, the Bay of Naples, Capri and Sicily for swimming, boating recreational fishing and generally lounging about (Balsdon, 1969). But thereafte seaside holidaying largely fell out of fashion. In the mid-18" century, the leisure classes again began frequenting seaside resorts, largely as a result of the healt benefits proclaimed by Dr. Richard Russell of Brighton, England, in 1755 (Russell 1755). Seaside resorts such as Brighton and Weymouth developed in England substantially helped by the royal patronage of Kings George Ill and George IV o Great Britain (Brandon, 1974). After the end of the Napoleonic wars, simila developments took place across Europe, for example at Putbus, on the island o Rigen in Germany (Lichtnau, 1996). The development of railway and steamshi networks led both to the development of long-distance tourism for the wealthy, wit the rich of northern Europe going to the French Riviera, and to more local mas tourism, with new seaside resorts growing up to serve the working classes o industrialised towns in all countries where industrialisation took place. In England whole towns would close down for a “wakes week”, and a large part of th population would move to seaside resorts to take a holiday: for example, in 1860 i north-west England, 23,000 travelled from the one town of Oldham alone for a wee in the seaside resort of Blackpool (Walton, 1983). Between 1840 and 1969, th population of Blackpool (based almost entirely on the tourist industry) grew fro 500 to 150,000 (Pevsner, 1969). +This relatively local mass tourism industry gave way to the modern mass touris industry from the 1960s onwards. This was facilitated mainly by the introduction of first, large passenger jet aircraft in the 1960s and, then, large-bodied jet aircraft i the 1970s, which (like the railways a century earlier) enabled relatively cheap mas transit over long distances that were not previously feasible (Sezgin et al., 2012). +2. Present nature and magnitude of tourism +International tourism has grown immensely over the last half century. In 1965, th number of international tourist arrivals worldwide was estimated at 112.9 million Thirty-five years later, in 2000, this figure had grown to 687.3 million — an increase o 509 per cent, equivalent to an average annual compound growth rate of 5.3 per cen (WTO, 2014). A significant feature of these statistics is the increase in both absolut numbers and as a proportion of world tourist traffic of Asia and the Pacific: i absolute terms, the numbers of international tourist arrivals in that region has more +© 2016 United Nations + +than doubled, and the share of world traffic has increased by 6 percentage points from 17 per cent to 23 per cent of the global total. Likewise, tourist numbers i Africa have also risen both in absolute terms and as a proportion, although from much lower base. Tourist arrivals in Sub-Saharan Africa rose by over a quarte between 2007 and 2012, from 3.5 percent to 5 percent of the global total Nevertheless, Europe continues to dominate international tourism, with 51 per cen of all international tourist arrivals in 2012. Fuller details are in the Appendix to thi chapter. +When the origins of the tourists represented by these arrivals are considered, th pattern shown in Figure 1 is not markedly different: European tourists dominate th departures as much as the arrivals; Asian and Pacific tourism is growing strongly, an African tourism is also growing significantly, although from a low base. This is no surprising since most tourists tend to visit countries in their own region (Orams 2003). It is for small States that the growth in long-distance tourism is mos important: taking, for example, the 25 States and territories that cooperate in th Caribbean Tourist Organization, 35 per cent of their 24 million arrivals’ in 2012 wer from the United States of America, 14 per cent from Europe and 12 per cent fro Canada, meaning that at least 61 per cent of arrivals were from outside thei immediate area (CTO, 2013). +178. 171.6 +‘Oi 156 — Pr 222. rE 7 de P 180.9 +HEEL a +GB Africa @B Europe Middle East MB Asia and the Pacific MJ Americas +250.3 +237.2 +1308 +rye, ih Erte ETA 250.3 +or Be +5 =: +n oS 4 +Figure 1. Origins of tourists by WTO region. Source: WTO, 2014. +Although the figures for international tourist arrivals are the standard measure fo looking at the tourism industry, they are somewhat misleading. They relate to +* This figure differs from that given for the Caribbean in Table 1 because the Caribbean Touris Organization includes Belize and Cancun, Mexico in Central America and Guyana in South America. +© 2016 United Nations + +international tourism. In global regions where there are many States (as, fo example, in Europe), journeys will count as international when, in other parts of th world, they would be classed as domestic. This means that, for example, that 1,400 km journey from the Ruhr, Germany to the Costa Brava, Spain in Europe wil count towards international tourist statistics, while a 3,000 km journey from Beijin to Hainan Island in China will not. As a measure of global tourism, the statistics fo international tourism will therefore exaggerate the proportion of world touris activity in those global regions where there are relatively numerous States. +Statistics on total tourism (both international and domestic) are difficult to produce because there is not the opportunity to capture information that arises whe tourists cross national boundaries. What is clear, however, is that the numbers o domestic tourists are substantially more in large States than those of internationa tourists. In Brazil, it has been estimated that, in 2011, 49 million of the inhabitant made one or more visits within the country for the purpose of tourism (FIPE, 2012) This compares with 5.4 million tourists arriving from outside the country (AET, 2012) In China, in 2013, domestic tourism in mainland China was estimated to involv 3,260 million domestic tourists, compared with 129 million from Hong Kong, China Macau, China and Taiwan Province of China, and 29 million from the rest of th world (NBSC, 2014). In the United States, domestic tourism accounted for 1,60 million person-trips for leisure purposes in 2013, compared with internationa arrivals of 70 million (US Travel, 2014). On the other hand, in smaller State (particularly Small Island Developing States), international tourist arrivals will b more closely aligned with total levels of tourism. +Even when allowances can be made for domestic tourism, the available statistic tend to be too broad-brush to allow a clear analysis of the impact of tourism on th ocean, since they include tourism of all kinds. The statistics quoted above give th total number of tourists, irrespective of whether they are visiting a country for beach holiday, to view ancient monuments or to climb mountains. Again, in smalle coastal States (particularly Small Island Developing States), the total number o tourists will be close to the number of tourists who will have an impact on the ocean since there is only the coastal zone to accommodate them. But the available globa figures are not sufficiently differentiated to allow conclusions focused precisely o coastal tourism. +In Europe, efforts have been made to determine the proportion of tourists that ar staying in the coastal zone. For 27 countries of the European Union, there were i total in 2009 about 28.1 million “bed-places” (hotels, hostels, camp sites, etc.). O these, about 60 per cent were in coastal regions (coastal regions being defined a the 447 third-level statistical units (34 per cent out of a total of 1,294) that hav either a coastline or more than half their population within 50 km of the sea (Eurostat, 2014a). Looking at use, rather than supply, surveys showed that, in 2012 for the 28 European Environment Agency countries for which data are available, 59 million tourist person/nights were spent in coastal regions out of the total of 1,41 million tourist person/nights spent in those countries — that is, 42 per cent of al tourism in those countries was in coastal regions, which (as said above) represen only 34 per cent of the total number of regions (Eurostat, 2014b — extracted in +© 2016 United Nations + +Appendix)’. Surveys of the European population have also confirmed a strong wis for seaside holidays: 46 per cent of people in the European Union give a beac holiday as their reason for holiday travel; to this must be added the proportion o the 14 per cent giving a sporting holiday, since this covers scuba diving among othe activities (EU, 2014). This factor is made more important by the high proportion o international holiday travel originating in Europe. In Brazil, it was estimated that, i 2011, 78 per cent of domestic tourism destinations were in the coastal Federal Unit (although, of course, several of these stretch far inland) (FIPE, 2012). In the Unite States, surveys of the reasons for domestic travel in 2013 showed that visitin beaches was one of the five main reasons for travel, after visiting relatives, shopping visiting friends and fine dining (US Travel, 2014). Also in the United States, in 2008, i was noted that Miami Beach attracted more than twice as many visitors than th Grand Canyon, Yellowstone National Park and Yosemite National Park combined and that California beaches attract more visitors than all 388 National Park Servic properties combined (Houston, 2008). Coastal tourism therefore appears t represent a dominant form of tourism generally. +The statistics quoted above do not include Antarctica. Since 1966, a trade ha developed both by cruise ships and (to a lesser extent) for airborne tourists. This ha grown steadily (with a dip in the 2010/11 season) over the last decade from a tota of 27,537 in the 2003/04 season to 37,405 in the 2013/14 season. In 2013/04, 7 per cent of the tourists landed on Antarctica. Four-fifths of the tourists come fro the USA (30.1 per cent), Australia (12.6 per cent), China (11.3 per cent), German (8.4 per cent), the United Kingdom (7.3 per cent), Canada (4.4 per cent), France (3. per cent) and Switzerland (2.4 per cent) (IAATO, 2014). There are obvious concern about the potential impact (from, among other things, waste, accidents, accidenta introduction of organisms and exhausts and oil spills), although the authorities an tour operators attempt to minimise these. +Land-based tourism in the Arctic is included in the statistics for the differen continents above. In addition, there is also a very significant component of cruis ships which do not land their passengers, who therefore are not counted in th statistics. The limited statistics available on Arctic land-based tourism suggest that i is growing quite quickly, but is still only counted in the 100,000s. Cruising is probabl growing more quickly, with Arctic seas becoming ice-free in parts during the summe (Luck et al., 2010). The challenges posed for the marine environment are similar t those for the Antarctic. +In spite of the limitations of the available statistics, it is clear that the total amount o tourism has generally been increasing fairly steadily for the last 40 years (wit occasional set-backs or slowing down in times of global recession), that the domesti component of tourism is very important in large countries, that international touris is important in small States, and that coastal tourism is a major component o tourism, if not everywhere the predominant one. Particularly noteworthy is the wa in which international tourism is increasing in Asia and the Pacific, both in absolute +> The difference between the 60 per cent for bed-spaces and the 42 per cent for overnight stays in coasta regions is probably due to the fact that much coastal tourism in Europe is highly seasonal, with many bed-space being unoccupied during the winter months. +© 2016 United Nations + +terms and as a proportion of world tourism, with the implication that pressures fro tourism are becoming of significantly more concern in those regions. +3. Socioeconomic aspects of the human activities +Movements of people on the scale of the tourism described above requir substantial inputs in transportation, accommodation, feeding and recreation. As study of foreign direct investment in tourism by the United Nations Conference o Trade and Development (UNCTAD) puts it: “A significant part of tourism’ development potential stems from the fact that it links together a series of cross cutting activities involving the provision of goods and services such a accommodation, transport, entertainment, construction, and agricultural an fisheries production” (UNCTAD, 2007). Tourism has therefore become a majo economic activity. (Since it is often difficult to distinguish travel for busines purposes from travel for recreational purposes, it is often necessary to describe thi economic activity as “tourism and travel”; in the rest of this section, tourism must b understood in this wider sense.) +Even though international tourism is only a part of the picture, it is worthwhil examining the statistics on expenditure from international tourism to see th situation in the different regions of the world. The World Bank World Developmen Indicator 6.14 (Inbound tourism expenditure) gives details of inbound internationa tourism expenditure for 2006 and 2012 for 114 coastal States and territories. Tabl 1 shows an analysis of this data by global regions, showing also the proportion tha the inbound tourism expenditure forms of total exports. Fuller details are in th appendix to this chapter. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 1. Inbound international tourism expenditure by global region, ranked by regional average +percentage of total export Region Inbound Regional Inbound Regional State or State or territor (and tourism average % tourism average % territory with with lowest % o number of | expenditure of total expenditure of total highest % of total exports i States and (million exports (million exports total exports in region in 201 territories USDS) USDS) region in 201 covered 2006 2006 2012 201 Caribbean 10,467 40.3 12,008 44.2 | Aruba Haiti (16.3% Islands (11) (Netherlands (65.7% Oceania (7) 26,453 13.7 41,108 11.3 | Fiji (61.1%) Solomon Island (10.5% Sub- 14,981 7.8 20,740 5.9 | Cabo Verde Democrati Saharan (60.6%) Republic of th Africa (16) Congo (0.1% Western 378,794 6.9 440,661 6.1 | Cyprus (27.8%) Germany (3.0% and Centra Europe (18 Central and 22,245 4.9 36,606 4.5 | Belize (28.9%) Brazil (2.4% Sout Americ (17 North 163,599 74 234,108 7.4 | USA (9.0%) Mexico (3.4% America (3 Middle East 38,092 6.7 53,889 5.3 | Jordan (33.0%) Algeria (0.4% & Nort Africa (12 East Asia 132,024 4.0 273,708 4.7 | Macau, China Japan (1.8% (12) (94.2% South Asia 11,882 5.0 23,093 4.4 | Maldives (79.9%) | Bangladesh (0.4% (5 Eastern 17,488 4.0 28,624 3.7 | Albania (45.9%) Russian Federatio Europe (13) (3.0% * including Cyprus and Turke Source: Compiled from World Bank, 2014. +This shows that, on the basis of this sample of 114 States and territories, tourism an travel accounts for about 6 per cent of total exports globally. However, som regions of the world (particularly the Caribbean) are economically very dependen on international tourism in terms of foreign-currency earnings. It also shows tha most small coastal States and territories are more dependent on such earnings tha larger countries with more diversified and larger industries or resources of ra materials — although it is not unimportant in countries such as Australia or th United States. +© 2016 United Nations + +Expenditure by international tourists, however, is not the only important aspect o coastal tourism. As shown above, domestic tourism is also very important particularly in larger States. Although there are no global estimates of the tota expenditure in coastal regions by domestic and foreign tourists combined, it i helpful to look at estimates of this total expenditure for countries as a whole, give the evidence (see above) that coastal tourism can be nearly as much as a half o more of total tourism. +In assessing the importance of an economic activity such as tourism for a country, i is important to consider not only the direct expenditure on that activity, but also th “indirect” expenditure on that activity and the resulting “induced” economic activity The indirect expenditure is that which those active in the economic activity have t spend to buy assets and supplies that they need to carry it out. In the case o tourism, this includes the construction of hotels and other necessary buildings an the purchase of food, power and services, etc. The induced economic activit (sometimes called the multiplier effect) is that which is generated by thos supported by the economic activity in question. In the case of tourism, this include the spending of those who are directly or indirectly employed in tourism. The Worl Travel and Tourism Council (an industry body) has commissioned research t estimate the scale of the contribution of the tourism sector (in the wider sens explained above) to national economies. Table 2 summarizes the conclusions of thi research (unlike Table 1, information on land-locked States cannot be separated ou from that for coastal States). The Table also shows estimates of the proportion o employment in the different regions supported directly and in total. +Table 2. Estimated contribution of tourism to GDP and employment 2013, ranked by tota contribution to GDP. Source: Compiled from WTTC, 2014. +Direct % share Totalcontribution % share % share of % share of tota contribution to _of total to GDP of total direct employment . GDP GDP ce GDP employment includin Region USS million, multiplier effec USS million including the +multiplier effect +World 2,155,500 2.9 6,990,540 9.5 3.3 8. Caribbean 15,299 4.3 48,994 13.9 3.6 11. South East Asia 121,166 5.0 294,376 12.3 3.7 9. North Africa 34,951 5.6 74,998 12.1 5.2 11. Oceania 49,606 2.8 188,018 10.8 44 12. European Union (27) 552,148 3.2 1,512,360 9.0 4.0 9. Central and South America 142,476 3.2 387,609 8.8 2.8 7. North East Asia 431,742 2.6 1,389,330 8.5 2.9 8. North America 544,342 2.7 1,665,850 8.3 4.2 10. Remainder of Europe and Central Asia 111,596 2.3 362,120 7.2 NA N Sub-Saharan Africa 36,623 2.6 95,713 6.9 2.3 5. Middle East 63,988 2.4 167,598 6.4 2.5 6. South Asia NA NA NA NA NA NA +© 2016 United Nation + +These statistics show that tourism is a significant component of many economies. A a result, many international organizations promote tourism development as valuable way forward in improving national economies. However, three importan factors need to be borne in mind in evaluating its importance: +First, the direct employment provided by tourism in many countries has a very larg proportion of female workers. Studies by the World Travel and Tourism Counci showed that in four (Australia, France, Germany and South Africa) of the fiv countries studied, the proportion of women employed in tourism is over 60 per cen of the work force. The exception was Turkey, where the proportion was 27 per cent no doubt as a result of cultural differences (WTTC, 2014). It has been noted that thi predominance of female workers makes tourism significant in giving economic statu to women (Wilson, 2008). +Secondly, there will be a “leakage” from the earnings generated by a country’ tourism activity to the rest of the world economy. This leakage will have four mai components: +(a) Goods and services (such as wine or entertainers) must b purchased from abroad to meet demands from tourists (especiall international tourists) that cannot be met from indigenous sources; +(b) Expatriate staff (especially managers) will remit at least part o their earnings to their home countries); +(c) International hotel companies will remit earnings to their non resident owners. The terms on which they are able to do so, an the taxation regime to which any such earnings are subject will, i many cases, be the subject of negotiations between the loca authorities and the hotel companies, especially where a larg investment is concerned. Small States may be at a disadvantag when negotiating such terms with large international companies especially where there is a credible threat of choosing a site i another country as an alternative; and +(d) Commissions will be payable to tourism organizers for directin tourists to tourist establishments. +This “leakage” is usually a higher proportion of earnings in developing countries tha in developed countries, although it is not easy to quantify (Yu, 2012). +Thirdly, there is a risk that the employment in tourism will be relatively low-grad and/or seasonal. The risk of the employment being low-grade comes largely fro the fact that tourists frequently expect routine tasks (such as cooking, cleaning an making beds) to be done for them, although they would commonly perform thes tasks themselves in their own homes. In some areas, when managerial staff ar expatriates, the grade of work for the local population can be even lower. Th extent to which this is the case varies according to the quality of local trained staf that is available. An important factor is therefore the extent to which relate training and education are provided: for example, the University of the West Indies +© 2016 United Nations + +has undertaken specific programmes for this purpose, including a specialist trainin centre in the Bahamas (UWI, 2002; UWI, 2014). +Tourism has a further socioeconomic significance, going beyond its macroeconomi importance and the effects on those involved in providing services. Where touris resorts are created, the circumstances of those already living in the area are affecte — sometimes adversely. For example, the literature notes cases where (a) the loca residents lost access to beaches that they have previously enjoyed, even where th beaches are public property, because hotels or other tourist developments bloc access to those beaches; (b) local residents lost access to other areas that they hav enjoyed for recreation because they are taken for resort building; (c) local resident had their property expropriated without compensation for the erection of hotels; (d large increases in land values as a result of the erection of tourist establishment effectively prevented local residents from acquiring land; (e) local residents hav seen land to which they attach religious or cultural significance diverted to touris use (Bartolo et al., 2008; Cater, 1995; Wilson, 2008). On the other hand, case (mentioned in the same literature) are also found where careful planning an collaboration with the local people produced “win-win” situations, in whic successful tourist resorts have been created and the local people have benefite substantially. Information is lacking, and would almost certainly be impossible t collect, to make an assessment of the balance of adverse and beneficial effects, eve in one country or region, let alone globally. +4. Major impacts on the marine environment +4.1. Coastal built environment +Coastal tourism needs coastal infrastructure. In the first place, transport is neede to get the tourists to the coast. This requires airports, roads, car-parks and (in som cases) railways. All this tends to change the coastal landscape. In addition, touris demands accommodation. Hotels and restaurants are therefore built in larg numbers, with many completely new resorts being developed. These commonl include marine promenades, bathing places and other hard landscape features which completely change the shoreline (Davenport et al., 2006). +Globally, there are few statistics on the extent to which coastal areas have been buil up to meet tourism needs. Many studies of specific areas are available, most usin satellite-based photographs or sensing, but a comprehensive overview is lacking Particular efforts, however, have been made in Europe, making a more genera overview possible. Studies by the European Environment Agency have shown that for the coastal zone up to 1 km from the shoreline, more than 10 per cent was buil up in Bulgaria, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal an Romania, more than 20 per cent in France, Italy, Spain, more than 30 per cent i Slovenia and nearly 50 per cent in Belgium (the last two countries having very shor coastlines). Information was not available for the United Kingdom of Great Britai and Northern Ireland. The proportion of the area close to the shoreline covere with urban development has also been growing rapidly: between 1990 and 2000, +© 2016 United Nations + +nearly 8 per cent of the area within 10 km of the shoreline in the States mentione (together with Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Greece and Ireland) was changed fro agricultural or natural uses to artificial land cover (EEA, 2006). Some regional studie in the United States have shown a similar picture: more than 10 per cent of th estuarine coastlines of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina now hav artificial shorelines (Currin, 2013). +One significant factor is the extent to which built development for tourism is linke to more general urban development. In many parts of the world (for example Cyprus, Rousillon in France, southern Spain, Costa Rica, the Algarve in Portugal, an California and Florida in the United States), tourist development is linked with th development of residential property. This has often been targeted at the retiremen market from colder industrialised areas. The tourist market and the retiremen market overlap, and support a variety of land-use demands — in particular gol courses, which create specific pressures from high levels of fertilizer, pesticide an water use and the consequent run-off (see chapter 20) (Honey et al., 2007). +This change from agricultural or natural uses to hard, artificial land cover has bee happening wherever coastal tourism has been developed. The fundamental (an normally irreversible) changes that it brings about have significant implications fo coastal ecosystems. These changes are most obvious for species that use both lan and sea, such as seabirds, marine reptiles and some marine mammals, and fo habitats such as mangroves and salt marshes which combine both land and sea (se Chapters 48 and 49). The changes usually introduce a barrier of artificial land cove between the sea and the natural or agricultural land cover in the hinterland, thu preventing animals moving between one and the other, and affecting the plant cove in the marginal zone. The changes also usually introduce night-time illumination which also affects the way in which animals (particularly nocturnal animals such a bats) can use the terrain. +The impact of these changes is most obvious for sea turtles, which need to com ashore onto sandy beaches to lay their eggs, which are usually deposited near th vegetation fringe at the top of the beach. Such areas are obviously most affected b coastal development. In the Mediterranean, at the beginning of the 19" century there were significant breeding populations of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) and leather-back turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) Because of the transformation of so many Mediterranean sandy beaches into touris resorts, these breeding areas are now reduced to Cyprus (for the green turtle) an small areas of Greece and Turkey (for loggerhead turtles); breeding by leather-bac turtles is now virtually unknown, except for occasional reports from Israel and Syri (Davenport, 1998, and see chapter 39). Night-time lighting of tourist development is also a significant problem at turtle-hatching time: turtle hatchlings, which emerg at night, are programmed to make for the lightest part of the horizon, which i natural conditions will be the sea; they are confused by street lighting and fail t reach the sea (Tuxbury et al., 2005; Arianoutsou, 1988). +However, the change from natural to artificial shorelines also affects purely marin species. The difference between a naturally sloping beach and a more vertica seawall produces a significantly different environment. There is growing evidenc that the biota living on breakwaters, seawall, groynes and similar structures, and the +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +fish assemblages associated with them, differ from those on natural shorelines Even where the natural shoreline is rocky, the replacement artificial shoreline wil have different effects; for example, replacing natural rock with concrete may provid a different acid/alkali balance as a result of leaching (Bulleri et al., 2010). +The introduction of artificial hard coastal constructions can also affect the longshor movement of sediments, changing the patterns of sand transport an sedimentation. This can result in changes to beaches. The exact pattern will depen on local circumstances: for example, at Nouakchott, Mauritania, the construction o port facilities is resulting in erosion of dune systems, with increased risks of se flooding of coastal settlements, reduction of beach area and threats of siltation o the harbour (Elmoustaphat, 2007). Even though sophisticated computer modellin of the possible effects of coastal constructions can be used to reduce the risks, study of the Herzliya marina in Israel has shown that the effects in practice diverge extensively from those predicted by a meticulous prior environmental plannin exercise (Klein et al., 2001). +4.2 Waste and sewage +The influx of tourists to coastal resorts inevitably results in problems in th treatment and disposal of the large amounts of solid waste and urban waste wate (sewage) that result. Inadequate handling of solid waste often results in marin debris. Indeed, litter dropped on beaches by tourists is itself a significant source o marine debris (see chapter 24 for both these problems). As described in chapter 20 achieving adequate disposal of sewage is a problem in many areas. Not only do th nutrients contained in this sewage add to the enhanced levels of nutrients in th seawater, leading to eutrophication problems in many areas, but inadequat management can also easily result in health risks to tourists bathing or boating in th sea, a problem that is more directly linked to the success of tourist resorts. Suc health hazards for tourists can be self-defeating in attracting business in a highl competitive market. +A special case of these problems of waste and sewage is presented by cruise ships particularly in the Caribbean (as described in chapter 17, one of the major cruisin markets), where large cruise ships put into relatively small ports which have limite facilities for handling waste and sewage. Islands with populations in the range o 20,000 to 100,000 are faced with handling the waste and/or sewage from ships wit combined passengers and crew of up to 7,000 people. The resulting difficulties wer the main reason why it took so long for the Caribbean to be declared a Special Are for garbage under the International Convention for the Prevention of Marin Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), because adequate reception facilities were precondition of such a designation. A World Bank project in the member States o the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), costing about 50 million Unite States dollars, enabled much progress to be made in tackling both problems However, problems remain. During the implementation of this project, cruise line are reported by the World Bank to have warned the individual OECS government that any island that imposed waste disposal charges would lose cruise touris because the cruise lines would merely make a substitute call at ports in less +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +demanding States. The OECS managed to agree a common levy on cruise passenger entering ports, but the World Bank has reported problems in ensuring that thes resources are devoted to the waste and sewage management tasks (World Bank 2003; ECLAC, 2005). +4.3 Beachand shore usage +For many people, the main point of a seaside holiday is the use of a sandy beach fo a mixture of sun-bathing, lounging, swimming and surfing. In general, such usag does not require any change to the natural state of the beach. In many places however, steps have been taken to try to improve the beach. Often this has take the form of erecting groynes (wood or stone structures perpendicular to the shore to try to prevent longshore movement of sand and thus maintain a more sand beach. “Beach feeding” has also frequently taken place, involving the dredging o sand from further out to sea and its deposition on the beach. These efforts are on form of human intervention in the land/sea interaction, which is considered mor generally in Chapter 26. In addition, more recently, attempts have been made to us the creation of artificial reefs to improve the size of surf breakers, and thus th attractiveness of beaches to surfers. The first attempt of this kind was the Cable Reef at Mossman, West Australia. This involved dumping large amounts of natura rock to build up the existing reef. The local municipality reports that it ha universally been judged a success in improving the surfing (Mossman, 2003). Late attempts, mainly using a technology based on large sand-filled containers, have bee less successful. At El Segundo, California, USA, an artificial reef was created in 200 but did not achieve its purpose, and its removal began in 2008 (CCT, 2008). A Bournemouth, in the United Kingdom, an artificial surfing reef was created in 2009 but the structure has failed and hoped-for economic benefits have not materialized (Rendle et al., 2012; Rendle, 2014; Bailey, 2012). Other examples at the Bay o Plenty in New Zealand and at Tuvalom, in India, have also not produced the hoped for improvements in surfing (Mull, 2014). +Protection of bathers from attacks by sharks has been seen as necessary in som parts of the world, notably Australia and the United States. This has had som adverse effects on local populations of rays, dolphins and turtles, because they hav become entangled in this netting (Davenport, 2006). +The need to keep beaches attractive to tourists often leads to the local beac managers (either the communal authority or a hotel which has a concession on th beach) to clean up the debris left by the beach users. However, such clean-u Operations usually also include the removal of the natural deposits along the high tide line of seaweed and other marine material (including dead seabirds and othe biota). Such removal of natural material has been shown to reduce substantially th biodiversity of sandy shore shorelines, especially seabirds (Llewellyn et al., 1996 Mann, 2000). Mediterranean and Baltic beaches used substantially by tourists hav been shown to have lower densities and diversity of marine invertebrates tha neighbouring beaches with less use of this kind. This has been attributed to th combination of cleaning and trampling pressure from the tourists (Gheskiere et al. 2005). Nevertheless, such beach cleaning may often be necessary to maintain +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +tourism, especially where large amounts of seaweed are brought up onto beaches b the sea. A special problem of this kind has recently emerged in the Easter Caribbean: since 2011, high numbers of large mats of Sargassum species have bee washed up on beaches. The same problem, which appears to be emerging fro north equatorial recirculation region, has been encountered on the island o Fernando de Noronha, Brazil, and in Sierra Leone (Johnson et al.,2012). +Similar usage impacts can be found on rocky shores. Here even a relatively lo number of humans walking over rocks where seaweed and barnacles are found ca reduce the coverage of these biota significantly, and heavy (more than 200 visitors day during the tourist season) usage can take more than a year to recover. Suc effects have been shown for New Zealand (Schiel et al., 1999), Italy (Milazzo et al. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Pinn et al., 2005). +Dunes are also vulnerable to heavy usage by tourists, since the footfall can distur the vegetation cover on which the dunes’ stability relies. Because of the importanc of dunes in coastal protection, this has been studied extensively in Europe, where i has been shown that 200 passages a day over a dune was enough to reduc vegetation cover by 50 per cent (Hylgaard et al., 1981). Fixed dunes also have relatively low resilience to damage from vegetation removal (Lemauviel et al., 2003). +Use of the near shore for anchoring ships can also result in damage to the seabed This is particularly important for shores where the immediate underwater habitat i coral reefs or seagrass beds. Damage has been noted from small pleasure vessels which often anchor over coral areas so that those on board can dive to see th corals. But more serious damage is caused by cruise ships anchoring in such areas Destruction of corals of up to 300 square metres has been observed from on anchoring of one cruise ship. Recovery from such damage can take a long tim (Allen, 1992). +4.4. Enjoyment of wildlife +Over the past few decades, coastal tourism has come to include creatin opportunities for the public to enjoy the local wildlife. This has generated a larg number of businesses serving tourists. Six major categories of business are involved though others do occur. Five are non-consumptive (general marine diving, viewin corals, watching seabirds, watching whales and other marine mammals an watching sharks), and one (recreational fishing and hunting) has a direct impact o the marine biota. +4.5 General marine diving +All around the world, tourists (both domestic and international) engage in divin (usually using self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA)). Th attractions of this activity are both the sense of freedom conveyed by being in th water and the interesting rock and coral formations and biota that can be seen. Th scale of this tourist activity can be judged from the activities of the Professiona Association of Diving Instructors, a global organization of experts training people in +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +scuba diving: between 2000 and 2013, the number of firms in its membership gre by 24 per cent to 6,197, and the number of individual trainers by 26 per cent t 135,615. The annual number of people trained in this period has been aroun 900,000 (PADI, 2014). At low levels of usage, diving sites do not appear to b adversely affected by recreational diving. There are, however, thresholds abov which both the divers’ experience is affected by over-crowding and the marin environment is adversely affected (by physical damage and disturbance of fish an other biota). The problem lies in establishing where those thresholds lie, particularl in the absence of long-term monitoring (Davis, 1996). +To enhance the experience of recreational divers, artificial reefs have been create in several locations, including, Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, the Cayma Islands (United Kingdom) and the United States. Many of these used former nava ships as the basis of the new reef. These ships were cleaned of potentially pollutin material and then sunk at the desired location. Studies have shown that these hav brought substantial economic benefits to the areas from increased visits by tourist for the experience of diving around them (SWEC, 2003; Morgan et al., 2009). +4.6 Coral viewing +The sheer splendour and variety of tropical and sub-tropical coral reefs has mad them a very popular tourist attraction: people are prepared to travel great distance and pay substantial costs to see coral reefs in their native state. This has therefor generated a large component of the tourist trade. The scale of this component ca be judged from what is said on tourism and recreation in Chapter 43. +The specific pressures on corals generated by such viewing can be seen from a assessment of the tourism pressures on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Thes cover (in addition to what is said about anchor damage above): +(a) Damage (particularly to branching corals) by untrained scuba divers damage by qualified scuba divers is not seen as a problem; +(b) Damage by trampling at landing points where large concentrations o tourists were landed from boats to walk on the reef — more generally even in heavily trafficked areas, damage by tourists walking on the ree was not seen as a problem; +(c) Some reduction in growth caused by shading from pontoons moored t provide facilities (lecture theatres, restaurants, etc.) for tourists — thi could be avoided by careful choice of mooring sites, so that the pontoon were moored over sand rather than corals. Likewise, problems from th anchor points could be avoided by correct design and choice of site; +(d) Fish feeding by tourists: inappropriate types of food can adversely affec the health of fish, and frequent feeding of large volumes of food coul promote unduly large and aggressive fish aggregations. Again, suc problems can be avoided by proper management; +(e) Shell collecting: this was not seen as a major problem, provided tha operators gave guidance to tourists; +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(f) | Glass-bottomed boats and semi-submersible vessels were seen a potentially capable of causing damage through collisions with corals However, a survey of one heavily used site could find no overt damag caused by operations of semi-submersible vessels over a five-yea period. +The conclusion therefore was that coral viewing, even on a major and locall intensive scale, was compatible with sustaining the reef in a good condition provided that appropriate management steps were taken (Dinesen et al., 1995) Other studies, however, suggest that: (1) diving can, through abrasion, make larg massive coral communities more susceptible to other pressures (Hawkins et al. 1999); (2) damage is virtually impossible to avoid (based on studies in St Lucia an the Cayman Islands); (3) substantial damage can still occur even when restrictive an highly-policed management is in place and (4) camera-users do more damage tha divers not undertaking photography (Rouphael et al., 2001; Tratalos et al., 2001 Barker et al., 2004). In some places (for example, Eilat in Israel), artificial reefs hav been created to reduce pressure on natural coral reefs (Wilhelmson, 1998). +4.7 Bird-watching +There are no global statistics to show the extent of coastal tourism based on bird watching (Balmforth, 2009). This is largely due to two facts. First, it is not easy t identify bird-watching tourism as a distinct activity: many people may spend a day o two bird-watching out of a longer holiday, although many others will go t destinations where they intend to spend much of their time bird-watching. Th latter is particularly the case for destinations where the main attraction is th presence of birds, particularly during migration seasons. Secondly, the resource demanded for bird-watching are not elaborate. Although some sites may provid hides to enable closer observation, much bird-watching is done in the open with n more equipment than binoculars. The resource demand is therefore not easy t capture. Nevertheless, bird-watching is a substantial and growing part of th tourism market. As a major source of tourists of this type, the United States’ marke is worth noting. In the 2012 National Survey on Recreation and the Environmen (NSRE, 2012), it is estimated that 19.9 million people in the United States took trip away from home to watch birds, although not all of these will have visited coasta areas. This group is reported to have both higher educational qualifications an higher incomes than the national average. However, the previous rapid increase i the numbers watching birds (a 332 per cent increase between 1983 and 2002) ha slowed down or stopped. Some coastal resorts in the United States can rely ver substantially on bird-watching: in 1991, Cape May on the Atlantic Coast of Ne Jersey was estimated to be attracting 100,000 bird-watching visitors a year, wh were spending about 10 million dollars a year (Kerlinger et al., 1991). The Caribbea Tourist Organization has accepted an estimate that, worldwide, three million touris arrivals a year may be primarily for the purpose of bird-watching (CTO, 2014). +The adverse impact of bird-watching arises from the interaction of the tourist an bird populations. On land, tourists entering nesting areas during the breeding +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +season can disturb breeding birds, potentially leading to the abandonment of nests On water, boats carrying bird-watchers can disrupt seabird feeding. This i particularly significant at staging-post sites where migrant birds congregate, sinc the energy balance of migrating birds is often delicate. Such sites are particularl attractive to bird-watchers because of the numbers of birds (often of many differen species) passing through them. On both land and water, bird-watchers can caus birds to flush into the air, making them use energy which (particularly durin migration) can be in a tight balance. Careful management of bird-watching sites ca minimize this kind of problem (Green et al., 2010; Parsons et al., 2006). One surve of the literature has, however, commented on the lack of research in this fiel (Steven et al., 2014). +4.8 Whale, seal and dolphin watching +As a tourist activity, whale watching dates back to about 1950, when part of Poin Loma in San Diego, California, United States, was declared a public venue fo observing grey whales and the spectacle attracted 10,000 visitors in its first year Within a few years, boat trips to see whales from the sea were added to the land based opportunities for watching whales (Hoyt, 2009). The attraction spread t other areas and countries. A survey in 2008 showed that the activity was by the taking place in 119 countries, all around the world, involved about 13 million peopl a year taking part in whale-watching, supported about 13,000 jobs and generate expenditure by tourists of about 2.1 billion dollars (IFAW, 2009 — see Table 3) Whale watching involves not just whales in the strict sense, but also dolphins an other marine mammals: in total around 40 species. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Table 3. Whale-watching numbers and expenditure +Region Whale- Whale- Average Number of | Number of Jobs Direct Tota watchers watchers annual countries countries supported | expenditure* expenditure 1998 2008 growth rate 1998 2008 USD milli USD million 1998 - 2008 minion Africa and 1,552,250 1,361,330 -1.3% 13 22 1,065 31.7 163. Middle Eas Europe 418,332 828,115 7.1% 18 22 794 32.3 97. Asia 215,465 1,055,781 17.2% 13 20 2,191 21.6 65. Oceania, 976,063 2,477,200 9.8% 12 17 1,868 117.2 327. Pacific Island and Antarctic North 5,500,654 6,256,277 1.3% 4 4 6,278 566.2 1,192. Americ Central 90,720 301,616 12.8% 19 23 393 19.5 53. America an Caribbea South 266,712 696,900 10.1% 8 11 615 84.2 211. Americ GLOBAL 9,020,196 12,977,218 3.7% 87 119 13,205 872.7 2,113. TOTAL * In this table, “direct expenditure” is the expenditure on whale-watching trips, and “indirect expenditure covers the other costs of the tourist trip (travel, hotels, food, etc). +Source: Compiled from IFAW, 2009. +Other marine mammals also support tourism based on watching them. Dolphin watching has developed as a tourism activity since the 1980s, and is now practise around the world (Constantin et al., 1996). Seal-watching has also developed withi the ranges of the various species of seals and other pinnipeds. Since seals and othe pinnipeds regularly haul themselves out of the water onto rocks and beaches, seal watching can offer more reliable viewing of the animals to both operators an tourists, and therefore has enhanced popularity where it is feasible (Newsom, 1996 Bosetti et al., 2002). +Whale-watching involves risks to both humans and the animals. For humans, th risks come from their presence, often in relatively small boats, in the vicinity of larg marine animals. The risks are enhanced where the activity involves being in th water — “swimming with dolphins”. The threats to the animals are various. Th most obvious are those of collisions between whale-watching boats and cetaceans With quite large boats, often travelling at high speeds (in order to minimize th “blank” time to get from the shore to where the cetaceans are), such collisions ca often be fatal to whales (IWC, 2007). +In addition, the literature documents many responses by cetaceans to less extrem pressures from whale-watching traffic (whether on the surface or underwater) surfacing or diving (sometimes to considerable depths), slapping the tail on th water, breaching (that is, leaping out of the water), making noises, changing the size +© 2016 United Nations 17 + +of the group or the way in which the members of a group interact, changing thei swimming patterns, changing their patterns of feeding and/or resting (Senigaglia 2012; Parsons, 2012). The difficult issue to resolve is whether such behavioura changes are having long-term harmful effects. The result of increased demands fo energy and/or increases in stress levels and/or changes in patterns of feeding an resting may affect overall health. One study of bottle-nose dolphins (Tursiops suggests that, in the long term, such pressures may lead to reduced reproductiv rates (Bejder, 2006). Pressuring cetaceans to move from their chosen feedin grounds may result in them settling in areas providing less (or less appropriate) food with obvious deleterious effects. Noise from whale-watching boats may disrup communication between individuals (which may be important for promoting matin or avoiding harm). The cumulative effect of these various pressures may worsen th situation. These were the kinds of considerations that led the whale-watchin subcommittee of the International Whaling Commission to state in 2006 that “.. there is new compelling evidence that the fitness of individual odontocetes [that is the toothed whales (such as the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), the kille whale (Orcinus orca), beaked whales (Ziphiidae) and dolphins (Delphinidae) repeatedly exposed to whale-watching vessel traffic can be compromised and tha this can lead to population-level effects” (IWC, 2006). The effect of whale-watchin on the life-patterns of the majority of species of baleen (plankton-feeding) whales with feeding and breeding grounds separated by long migrations, is still under study Nevertheless, action has been taken in some areas, such as South Africa, to preven whale-watching in nursery areas (Workshop, 2004; IWCSC, 2013) +As a result, the International Whaling Commission has instituted a five-year strategi plan (2011 — 2016) on whale-watching (IWC, 2014). This aims to provide framework for research, monitoring, capacity-building, development an management by national authorities. The work includes analysis of the method adopted by various national administrations to control or regulate whale-watchin and coordination of scientific research (IWCSC, 2013). +The impact of watching on seals and other pinnipeds is rather different because o their habit of hauling themselves out of the water. This means that they can b observed both on foot and from boats without any interaction in the water Furthermore a distinction exists between pinniped species which are inherentl “tame” and readily allow very close human approach often to less than 20m wit little overt response (most fur seals, sea lions and southern phocid seals) and thos which are generally wary of human approach and flush to the water when boats ma be at a distance of 200m or more (grey and harbour seals). Some seal species ca also become habituated to human presence without any adverse reaction (Wilson 2015). +4.9 Shark watching +Chapter 40 describes the growth of the tourist activity in shark watching and shar diving, resulting in an industry that, on one estimate, exceeds 300 million dollars year. The activity in many cases involves placing tourists wearing scuba gear in meta cages and lowering them into the water, and then attracting sharks by throwing +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +“chum” (fish waste and offal) into the water. It therefore has considerable potentia both for injury to the tourists and for disturbing the local ecology. On the othe hand, strong arguments are made that the potential economic gains for developin economies are large and the environmental risks are low and can be kept withi acceptable bounds by suitable management and monitoring (Martin, 2006). +4.10 Recreational fishing +In most countries, marine recreational fishing is less significant than inlan recreational fishing. Nevertheless, estimates suggest that recreational fishing i important in 76 per cent of the world’s exclusive economic zones (Mora, 2009) Some coastal marine stocks in more industrialized nations are exclusively exploite for recreation, or intensive co-exploitation for commercial and recreational purpose occurs. Overall, there is a growing recognition of the immense economic, socio cultural and ecological importance of recreational fishing as a significant componen of global capture fisheries (FAO, 2012). One estimate puts the global level o expenditure in 2003 on recreational fishing at 40 billion dollars a year, supportin 954,000 jobs (Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2009). This includes fishing by people i the localities around their homes, and the proportion that is attributable to tourist (whether international or domestic) is uncertain. Recreational fisheries are mos developed in economically developed countries, but they are emerging as a socia and economic factor in many other economies (for example, Argentina, Brazil, China India) and some other developing countries. Where statistics are available, some per cent to 16 per cent of the populations engage in recreational fishing (FAO, 2012) For example, in Brazil in 2007, about 200,000 fishers have amateur angling permit and it was estimated that there were an additional one million unregistere recreational fishers. In addition, sport fishing in Brazil has grown at a rate of up to 3 per cent a year, with a corresponding growth in tourist numbers. This is reflected among other things, in the growing success of the sport fishing trade that draw thousands of visitors (FAO, 2010). In more detail for one developed economy wher recreational fishing is popular, in Great Britain (that is, the United Kingdom les Northern Ireland) in 2012, about 2.2 per cent of the adult population (1.08 millio people) went fishing in the sea at least once. Total resident sea-angler spending i that year was estimated at 1,230 million pounds (1,685 million dollars). This directl supported 10,400 jobs (Armstrong et al., 2013). +The environmental impact of this recreational fishing activity is twofold. First, it is driver increasing the demand for small boats in coastal waters: most marin recreational fishing is carried out from boats, rather than from the shore. Thi demand is one of the factors underlying the development of coastal marinas (se below). Secondly, the catch from recreational fishing is a component of the tota fishing mortality caused by capture fisheries. Traditionally, it has been regarded a of marginal importance in this regard. However, figures are beginning to emerg that show that it can be a significant component and needs to be taken into accoun in the general management of fish stocks. For example, in the United States recreational landings in 2002 accounted for 4 per cent of total marine fish landed i the country. When large industrial fisheries (such as menhaden (Brevoortia spp) an pollock (Theragra chalcogramma)) are excluded, the recreational component was 10 +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +per cent; when only the fish populations are considered where there are concern about sustainability, recreational landings in that year accounted for 23 per cent o the total nationwide, rising to 38 per cent in the waters of the States on the souther Atlantic coast of the United States and to 64 per cent in the Gulf of Mexic (Coleman, 2004). +The extent to which the effects of recreational fisheries are taken into account i managing fish stocks varies around the world. Of the authorities responsible fo managing the world's exclusive economic zones (EEZs), for recreational fishing, 2 per cent impose regulations on the size of fish caught, 15 per cent regulate th number of fish caught, 13 per cent collect data on what is happening and 3 per cen impose a limit on the number of recreational fishers (Mora et al., 2009). +It is therefore likely that the impacts of recreational fisheries are not being taken int account in managing fish stocks in much of the world. The acquisition of informatio on local impacts of recreational fishing and the skills to incorporate this informatio into fisheries management (especially since those undertaking the fishing will i most cases be very different from the usual populations of fisherfolk) will therefor represent significant gaps in much of the world. +Large sport fish (marlin (Wakaira nigricans, Istiompax indica and Tetrapturus spp) sailfish (/stiophorus platypterus), swordfish (Xiphias gladius) and similar species) ar a special case. Fishing by rod for these large fish requires relatively large an powerful boats. The tourist market for these species is therefore focused on th more wealthy tourists, especially from the USA. It is particularly significant in th American tropics and sub-tropics, but it is also found, for example, off Mozambique The economic value of the total of the various recreational fisheries of this kind ha been estimated at about 143 million dollars (2003 prices) (Ditton et al., 2003; IOTC 2013). Although some data on recreational fishing around Mexico have bee collected, no reliable data are available for catches of sailfish for the othe recreational fisheries of Central and South America, one of the main areas fo recreational fishing for large sport fish (for which we know of no reliable data o catches of sailfish (Hinton et al., 2013). Similarly, the data for the Indian Ocean ar only partial (IOTC, 2013). +Waste discarded from recreational fishing boats can cause problems. For example discarded monofilament fishing lines have been found on 65 per cent of cora colonies at Oahu, Hawaii, United States, apparently causing substantial mortality b abrading polyps when moved by wave surge (Yoshikawa et al., 2004). +Recreational hunting for seabirds and some marine mammals and reptiles also take place. In many countries, such hunting is prohibited or strictly controlled, especiall for species regarded as threatened or endangered. Nevertheless, such recreationa hunting can be of some economic significance for local communities. For example Canada is the only one of the five jurisdictions in which polar bears are found tha allows recreational (trophy) hunting for them; in the two other jurisdictions wher such hunting is permitted it is restricted to indigenous peoples (Lunn et al., 2002) An average of about 100 bears per year is taken by recreational hunters representing about 20 per cent of the total number taken in Canada. This has been +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +estimated to bring an income of about 1.3 million dollars per year (2010 prices) t the 30 or so communities where such hunting is permitted (Ecoressources, 2010). +4.11 Boating and personal leisure transport +In North America and Europe a massive growth has occurred over the last fifty year in the numbers of small vessels used for pleasure boating. For example, in th United States (including the Great Lakes and internal waterways), in 2013 just unde 12 million such craft were notified to the authorities (USCG, 2014), a slight reductio on the previous year, suggesting that the market may be becoming saturated. A hig proportion (82 per cent) is motorized, with consequent pollution problems from oi and noise. This activity is economically significant, with the turnover in the Unite States estimated at 121,500 million dollars a year. It is estimated that 36 per cent o the adult population take part in recreational boating at least once a year (NMMA 2013). Such widespread activities are not without their risks; global figures are no available but, for example, in the United States in 2013 4,062 boating accident occurred, involving 560 deaths. This shows that safety measures and instruction ca be effective, because these represent reductions of 50 per cent (accidents) and 3 per cent (deaths) over the last 15 years (USCG, 2014). Although the current level o participation in the rest of the world is much lower, it is expected to grow rapidl over the next few years in the fast-growing economies: in Brazil, sales of leisur boats have been growing at a rate of over 10 per cent per year since 2005 (except i 2009) (FT, 2011); in China, it is forecast that the number of pleasure yachts wil increase to over 100,000 by 2020 (CCYIA, 2013). +All these boats require moorings when they are not being used for recreationa sailing. There has therefore been a parallel growth in marinas and specialize harbours for small boats. These installations form a significant part of the har coastal constructions discussed above, and therefore present the problems analyze there. +The other main environmental problems from yachts and small boats are parallel t those from larger ships (see chapter 17). Apart from the inevitable impact of oi from motor engines, the most significant are the residual problems from anti-foulin paints (especially tributyltin (TBT)), the role of small boats as vectors of non indigenous species, waste disposal and anchoring and movement impacts. +The use of TBT has been banned since the 1980s for small vessels (under 25 metres in many parts of the world and, more generally, under the International Conventio on Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships since 2003 for new application and from 2008 for vessels already treated with TBT (see further in chapter 17) However, some States have still not accepted this prohibition: 16 per cent of th tonnage of the world’s shipping is registered in States that have not become partie to this Convention (IMO, 2014). Even where States are parties to the Convention areas still remain where TBT is being found in small-boat harbours and associate areas — for example, in Brazil, the II|ha Grande Bay, Rio de Janeiro (described as on of the most heavily protected tourist areas in the country) was shown in 2009 to b still heavily affected by TBT (Pessoa, 2009). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +As concern has grown over the transport of non-indigenous organisms by ships, th role of small boats as vectors of such biota has been shown to be significant — not s much in long-distance transport, as in the more local distribution of species onc they have been introduced into a region. Problems with the transport of non indigenous organisms by recreational boats are being found in locations as far apar as British Columbia on the Pacific coast of Canada and Cornwall on the Atlantic coas of England. The problem species include shellfish, seaweeds and bryozo (Davenport, 2006; Murray, 2011; ERCCIS, 2014). In 2012, the International Maritim Organization issued guidance for minimizing the transfer of invasive aquatic specie by recreational craft (IMO, 2012). +As with cruise ships, although on a smaller scale, recreational boat anchors can caus damage to coral reefs. Their anchors can likewise cause problems to seagrass bed (Backhurst et al., 2000). Recreational motor boats can cause further damage t seagrass beds from the action of their propellers in shallow water; re-growth afte such damage can take up to four years (Sargent et al., 1994; Dawes et al., 1997) Powerboats (high-speed motor-boats) cause disturbance through noise and wake t seabirds, marine mammals and sea turtles, particularly to slower-swimming specie that are unable to get away, and by disturbing foraging. They can also affect th enjoyment of beaches and inshore waters by other human users. Other devices ca cause similar disturbances. Such devices include Jet-Skis® and Wave-Runners® sand-yachts and kites and paragliders towed by all-terrain vehicles and motor-boat (Davenport, 2006). In effect, these newer forms of recreation on shore and i inshore waters are competing for marine space with non-motorized uses and th natural ecology. +5. Integration of environmental and socioeconomic trends +Successful management of sustainable tourism requires a complex balancin exercise. Many factors have to be taken into account: the means of access, th urban development of hotels, other accommodation, restaurants, and other suppor facilities, sewage and waste disposal, the many kinds of recreational activity, th interests of the local inhabitants, the profitability of resorts and, last but by n means least, the maintenance of the local natural ecology. The levels at which suc varied interests can be managed will vary, hence a successful balancing exercise wil usually require the involvement of a wide range of authorities, residents an commercial interests. Examples show, however, that it is possible for suc successful balances to be achieved and — even more difficult — maintained over lon periods. +A further factor in this balancing exercise is the cross-effects between differen recreational activities and different environmental compartments and species. Th impact of bird-watching on nesting and feeding areas for seabirds is explaine above. But similar impacts on birds are also caused by other recreational activities boats used in birds’ feeding areas for sea-fishing, whale-watching, shark-watching o simply for sailing will cause the same type of disruption as boats used for bird watching; coastal walking through nesting areas for simple enjoyment will cause the +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +same kind of disruption as access for bird-watching. Likewise, all kinds of uses o boats in areas frequented by cetaceans will have similar impacts to the use of boat for whale-watching. For wildlife which is disturbed, it does not matter what th purpose of the recreational use is: it is the cumulative impact which gives rise to threat. Secondly, the balancing exercise is further complicated where marin protected areas are created, since these add a further set of factors which have t be taken into account. +Tourism generally, however, suffers from the problem that success risk undermining itself. For many tourists, the attraction of a tourist location relies on combination of a relatively high level of service provision and a feeling of a relativel low level of pressure from other tourists. As a tourist location becomes recognise as providing this desirable combination, the pressure to intensify the provision o tourist services increases, thus undermining the balance. If the balance i maintained, prices are likely to rise as the service providers take advantage of th demand in the market, and the location will become less available to the less well off. If the balance is not maintained, those who can afford to will look elsewhere creating pressures for the development of new resorts. The world’s supply of goo sandy beaches is fixed. As disposable wealth in an increasing number of economie increases, the pressure to open up more and more areas for tourism will als increase. +At the same time, within any specific resort, there will be conflicting demands fo marine space: among others, sun-bathing versus beach volley-ball, swimming versu Jet-Skis® and similar devices, wildlife watchers versus water-skiers. All this wil require management — alongside the many other demands on coastal marine spac from fishing (both commercial and recreational), shipping, ports, sand and grave dredging and all the other human activities that affect the coastal zone. Th management of ecotourism is particularly important, because it is essential t ensure that the pressures on the wildlife from it are not more than can be accepted once a natural ecology is damaged, it is often impossible to restore. Sinc maintaining a good quality of local environment will be essential for the success of tourist location, tourism management will be one of the first areas to feel thes combined pressures. +6. Capacity-building gaps +Any successful management process will rely on a combination of good informatio about what is happening and the skills needed to integrate and apply tha information. Successful management of sustainable tourism has therefore to b based on a wide-ranging collection of all the relevant information and th development of the necessary skills. The information and skills should include: (a knowledge about the main features of the local marine environment and thei vulnerability to the tourist and recreational activities that affect the marin environment; (b) information about the location, scale and economic significance o those tourist and recreational activities; (c) the relationships between those touris and recreational activities and the other uses of the marine environment in the +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +locality; and (d) skills to evaluate what would be the most appropriate balanc between the various interests involved (including the conservation of the loca marine environment and any formally protected coastal or marine areas) and t broker or settle an acceptable agreement between all those interests. +In many parts of the world, much progress has been made in developing the skill necessary to monitor local ecosystems, and in training local residents in managin hotels and the many other trades necessary for the proper functioning of touris services, although there is scope for improvement. 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The International Hospitality Business: Management and Operations Routledge, London 2012. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_27.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_27.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_28.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_28.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7c52e64bd08561e9e51f70788ab8ea124747d05c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_28.txt @@ -0,0 +1,181 @@ +Chapter 28. Desalinization +Contributors: Abdul-Rahman Ali Al-Naama (Convenor), Alan Simcock (Lead member) +1. Introduction +Desalinization of seawater is an essential process for the support of human communities i many places around the world. Seawater has a salt content of around 35,000 parts pe million (ppm) depending on the location and circumstances: to produce the equivalent o freshwater (with around 1000 ppm (AMS, 2014) therefore requires the removal of over 9 per cent of the salt content. The main purpose of desalinization is to produce water fo drinking, sanitation and irrigation. The process can also be used to generate ultra-pur water for certain industrial processes. This chapter reviews the scale of desalinization, th processes involved and its social and economic benefits. Issues relating to discharges fro desalinization plants are considered in Chapter 20 (Coastal, riverine and atmospheric input from land). +2. Nature, location and magnitude of desalinization +As figure 1 shows, desalinization capacity has grown rapidly over the past half-century About 16,000 desalinization plants were built worldwide between 1965 and 2011. Abou 3,800 of these plants are thought to be currently out of service or decommissioned. Th current operational capacity is estimated to be about 65,200 megalitres per day (65,200,00 cubic metres per day (m?/d) — in comparison, the public water supply of New York City United States of America, delivers in total about 3,800 megalitres per day) (GWI, 2015 NYCEP, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations + +== Contracted +10 === Commissione — 8 Q Global cumulative contracte E \ capacity (2015): 92.0 million m3/ 5 60 = Global cumulative commissione = capacity (2015): 86.5 million m?/ = 4 s O 2 oO +1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 +Figure 1. Global desalinization capacity 1965 — 2015. Source: GWI, 2015. “Contracted” covers plant that i complete or under construction; “commissioned” covers plant that is in operation or is available for operation. +Historically, human settlements have tended to grow up where freshwater was available and their growth has been conditioned by freshwater availability and the possibilities o bringing it to serve the settlement. As long ago as 312 BCE, the Romans had had to build 16.4-kilometre aqueduct to bring water to Rome in order to avoid this constrain (Frontinus). Desalinization represents an alternative technology for avoiding this constrain on the growth of human settlements in areas with very limited availability of freshwater That capability, however, comes at the price of considerable capital investment and energ consumption. Gleick et al. (2009) give an overview of the worldwide distribution o desalinization capacity in 2009. +The nature of the industry, however, varies in many ways between the different regions particularly in respect of the technology used: the Middle East has relied more on therma processes, while the United States has relied more on membrane processes. Therma processes (mainly Multi-Stage-Flash (MSF) and Multiple-Effect-Distillation | (MED) evaporate the water and then re-condense it. At peak performance these distillatio processes produce a freshwater output of about 30-40 per cent of the seawater taken in The residue has to be discharged as brine. Membrane-based processes (such as revers osmosis (RO), electro-de-ionization (EDI) and electro-dialysis (ED)) force feed-wate through a semi-permeable membrane that blocks various particulates and dissolved ions leaving the feed-water behind as an enhanced brine, with or without further refinements (Details of these processes can be found in WHO, 2007 and in GCC, 2014). The energ needed for all forms of desalinization is usually obtained from fossil fuels. However combined plants for nuclear power generation and water desalinization have bee developed in a number of places (for example, Argentina, India, Japan and Pakistan), and th International Atomic Energy Agency has conducted studies on how far this might b developed (IAEA, 2007). At present, very little desalinization is powered by solar energy. +© 2016 United Nations + +One estimate puts it as low as 1 per cent (Kalogirou, 2009). Projects are emerging, however to develop this form of desalinization. For example, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, th Environment Agency completed 22 small (25 m?/day) solar desalinization plants for brackis groundwater in 2012 (The National, 2012). In Chile, Fundacion Chile started a small pilo project partly powered by solar energy in Arica in 2013 (Arica, 2013). +100 | | Membran 80 Oy therma § 6 = — Installed membrane capacity = 2014: 59.0 million m3/ = 4 2 —— Installed thermal capacity 2014: 24.0 million m3/ o 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 +Figures 2. Proportion of thermal and membrane technologies installed 1980 — 2014. Source: GWI, 2015. +|| RO: 65 || MSF: 21 || MED: 7% +86.5 million m3/d || ED/EDR: 3 Total worldwid installed capacity || NF/SR: 2% +|| Other: 2% +Figure 3. Proportion of different technologies in use 2014. RO: Reverse Osmosis; MSF: Multi-stage flash; MED: +Multi-effect distillation; ED/EDR: Electrodialysis/Electrodialysis Reversal; NF/SR: Nanofiltration/Sulfat Removal. Source: GWI, 2015. +Many countries have installed major amounts of desalinization capacity over the past 7 years: the largest amounts of capacity have been installed in Saudi Arabia (capable o producing over 10 million m® per day), the United States of America (over 8 million m? pe day (but see below), the United Arab Emirates (about 7 million m? per day) and Spain (abou 5 million m® per day). . More recently, Algeria, Australia, India and Israel also substantially +© 2016 United Nation + +increased their capacities (GWI, 2014). +2.1 The Persian Gulf area +The Persian Gulf area has the biggest concentration of installed desalinization capacity i the world. In total, the desalinization capacity of the area is around 9.2 million megalitres year. Ninety-six per cent of this capacity is located in the six countries that form the Gul Cooperation Council (GCC - Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Ara Emirates). +2.2 The GCC States +These six States have a common approach to desalinization. They are located in an arid, ho desert region, characterized by an average rainfall ranging between 75 and 140 mma yea and by limited, non-renewable groundwater resources. Surface freshwater resource comprise only 0.6 per cent of their total area. Natural freshwater resources range from 6 to 370 cubic meters a year per head across the GCC countries (World Bank, 2005). Th resources per capita are expected to decrease in the future by up to 20 per cent, du largely to population growth. The total GCC population in 2012 was 44,643,654, of whic Saudi Arabia constituted 62 per cent. This population is increasing at an average rate of 1 per cent annually. The discovery of oil and gas resulted in the GCC countries being th world’s top fossil-fuel exporters with the highest per capita incomes and the fastest growing economies in the world, which underlies the population growth. From 1998 t 2008, real GDP for GCC countries grew at an average rate of 5.2 per cent annually. +Bridging the gap between demand for, and supply of, freshwater has remained a majo issue. To meet the need for freshwater, desalinization of seawater has been one of th main water-supply alternatives that the GCC countries have adopted. Desalinization ha become the backbone of many GCC States. For example, Qatar draws as much as 99 pe cent of its drinking water from this source. In Saudi Arabia, 50 per cent of municipal wate supplies are obtained from desalinization: in 2012 this represented deliveries of 955,00 megalitres per year (SWCC, 2014). The total desalinization capacity installed in the GC States in 2012 for water production was 8.9 million megalitres a year. This productio capacity was divided: Saudi Arabia (KSA) 39 per cent, United Arab Emirates (UAE) 18 pe cent, Kuwait 18 per cent, Qatar 15 per cent, Bahrain 6 per cent, and Oman 4 per cent (GCC 2012). This is shown in Figure 4. +© 2016 United Nations + +Percentage Capacities of Desalinate Water Production per GCC Countries +MKS MUAE +™@ Kuwai ™Oma ™ Bahrain +@ Qatar +Figure 4. Desalinization capacity in the GCC States, 2012. Source GCC, 2012. +The practice of desalinization in the GCC States is heavily influenced by the high local leve of electricity consumption, which is largely due to the demand for air-conditioning an cooling, necessary in the hot desert climate, and to the energy-intensive petro-chemica industries. The demand for electricity and water is also influenced by the pricing policy Water and electricity subsidies are a commonplace practice among the GCC countries. Th shared rationale behind energy and water subsidization includes: cultural considerations expanding access to energy and water, protecting the poor, consumption smoothing fostering industrial development, avoiding inflationary pressures, and_ politica considerations. The result of the lower prices is to increase demand for both electricity an water. However, there is widespread recognition of the harmful effects caused by th current water and electricity tariff rates (Saif, 2012). +The high level of use of thermal technologies for desalinization in the GCC States is mainl due to the predominant method of electricity generation, which is through gas-fired powe plants. A by-product of the electricity generation process is steam, which can be utilized b MSF and MED thermal desalinization plants for their energy needs. The two plants need t be co-located in order for the desalinization plant to capitalize on the power stations’ by product of steam. This co-location of power and plants is referred to as co-generation Roughly 60 per cent of the MSF plants in the United Arab Emirates are co-generation, whil that percentage stands at 70 per cent in Qatar. The quality of the water available fo desalinization also plays a role. It has the 4 Hs: high salinity, high turbidity, hig temperature and high marine life. These factors have in the past made it less suitable fo membrane technology (Al Hashemi et al. 2014). +The thermal technology most used in the GCC States is the MSF, which is characterized b a high consumption of energy. Reverse osmosis (RO) is the next most used, and the leas used is MED: see figure 5. The GCC States constitute around 88 per cent of the world’s us of desalinization by thermal processes. +© 2016 United Nations + +GCC Desalination Technolog 1% +=R m MS ™ MED +@ other +Figure 5. Use of the different Desalinization Technologies in GCC States. Source: GCC, 2012. +Although this was the balance between thermal and membrane technologies in the GC States in 2012, the situation is changing quickly, because the GCC States will in future b adopting more RO projects, as a step towards minimizing energy consumption an decreasing environmental impacts. Most of the desalinization plants under construction i 2012 were RO or combined RO/MSF, and the balance is expected to change even more i the future (GCC, 2012). +The GCC States are continuing to invest heavily in their water and energy sectors a shown by many independent water and power plant (IWPP) projects. For example, i 2009, Qatar initiated a 30-year water and electricity master plan that will see majo investments in desalinization, water infrastructure and wastewater treatment (GWI, 2015) Between 2010 and 2015, Qatar plans to invest approximately 5,470 million United State dollars in desalinization projects, with an additional 1,100 million dollars investment i IWPP production facilities between 2013 and 2017. Likewise, the UAE plans to inves 13,890 million dollars in new desalinization plants and distribution networks betwee 2012 and 2016. +Generally, this investment in further desalinization is counterbalanced by a new interest i adopting an integrated water policy that uses wastewater and drainage water as a valuabl source of water and to augment the water supply by enforcing recycling and re-use i agricultural and industrial activities. To this are added an interest in increasing wate storage, particularly through groundwater recharge, and attempts to educate the public o the need for water conservation (Darwish and Mohtara, 2013; Al Hashemi et al. 2014). Fo example, Qatar has also created a National Food Security Program (QNFSP), with mandate to manage water resources efficiently in agriculture and food production throug the use of technologies to minimize water consumption. As well as supplying th agricultural sector with freshwater, a core objective of the QNFSP is to use the sola desalinization of water to replenish the country’s aquifers (QNFSP, 2012). Similarly, Ab Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, has already invested to increase water storage capacit (EAD, 2009). +© 2016 United Nations + +2.3 Other States in the Persian Gulf area +The other States in the Persian Gulf area (the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq) mak significantly less use of desalinization than the GCC States, although it still plays a part i their water supply arrangements. +It is assumed that the Islamic Republic of Iran has a desalinization capacity of about 40 megalitres per day (this is about 4.5 per cent of that installed in the GCC States). In terms o technology, the Islamic Republic of Iran's existing desalinization plants use a mix of therma processes and RO. MSF is the most widely used thermal technology, although MED an vapour compression (VC) also feature (GWI, 2014). +Although Iraq is believed to have about the same amount of installed desalinization capacit as the Islamic Republic of Iran (Iraq is reported to have a capacity of 430 megalitres pe day), it is used in a quite different way. Much of the water of the Euphrates and Tigri Rivers has a salinity above 1,000 parts per million. The Iraqi authorities therefore us desalinization mainly to improve the poor quality of the river water, and only undertake modest amount of seawater desalinization (ESCWA, 2009). +2.4 United States of America +Outside the Persian Gulf area, the United States has the largest installed desalinizatio capacity in the world. This is concentrated in California, Florida and Texas. However desalinization of seawater is only a small part of the desalinization carried out in the Unite States. In 2010, seawater desalinization represented only 10 per cent of the desalinizatio capacity — 82 per cent was for brackish-water desalinization (largely from brackis groundwater, but also from rivers) and 8 per cent for waste-water re-use (Shea, 2010). +In California, however, the situation is changing. In November 2002, California voter adopted by the initiative procedure (by-passing the State legislature) Proposition 50, th “Water Security, Clean Drinking Water, Coastal and Beach Protection Act, 2002”. Thi legislation allocated the sum of 50 million dollars for grants for brackish-water and ocean water desalinization projects. This grant programme - administered by the Stat Department of Water Resources - aimed to assist local public agencies to develop new loca water supplies through the construction of brackish water and ocean water desalinizatio projects and help advance water desalinization technology. Two rounds of funding wer conducted in 2004 — 2006. A third funding round announced eight further grants in Augus 2014, totalling nearly 9 million dollars for a mix of plant construction, pilot projects an research (DWR, 2014). +Statistics on desalinization in California show that there are 10 seawater desalinizatio plants in California, with a daily capacity of about 23 megalitres. Not all these plants are i regular operation, but are used only when other water supplies need to be supplemented Currently, there are proposals for a further 15 seawater desalinization plants. If all thes plants were built, they would have capacity to provide some 946 — 1,400 megalitres per day +© 2016 United Nations + +— about 5 - 7 per cent of California’s water demand in the early 2000s. One of thes projects (Carlsbad) is expected to become operational in 2016 and will then be the larges seawater-desalinization plant in the United States, capable of delivering 190 megalitres pe day of drinkable water (SWRCB, 2015). +3. Other countries with large desalinization capacities +A review of the countries other than those in the ROPME/RECOFI area’ and the Unite States that have recently installed major desalinization capacitiesshows the followin picture. +3.1 Algeria +Algeria is invested heavily in seawater desalinization capacity during the 2000s. By 2013 ten major plants had been put into service, with a capacity of 1,410 megalitres per day. I addition, 21 smaller plants with an aggregate capacity of 60 megalitres per day have bee created. Further plants, with a further aggregate capacity of 850 megalitres per day, ar expected to come into service in the near future, including that at Al Mactaa (500 megalitre per day), which will be one of the largest in the world (ADE, 2014) +3.2 Australia +At the start of the 2000s, the only operational seawater desalinization plants in Australi were on small islands. A prolonged drought in the middle of the 2000s, affecting most o the most heavily populated areas, led in 2007 to the creation of a National Urban Water an Desalination Plan, estimated to cost 840 million dollars, together with a National Centre o Excellence in Desalination, based in Perth, Western Australia. Desalinization is one of th options to be regularly considered under this plan. A major desalinization plant, with capacity of 144 megalitres per day, has been in operation near Perth since 2006. Anothe major desalinization plant was built, partly financed by this plan, at a cost of 1,500 millio dollars, for the city of Adelaide, South Australia, with a capacity of 280 megalitres per day This is said to give the city a climate-independent source of water. In the light of th operating costs and the recovery of the local river system, the plant has, however, bee placed on stand-by (ANAO, 2013). Similarly, major desalinization plants have been built t service Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney, but have been placed in stand-by because of th recovery of other sources of supply (BT, 2010; ABC, 2012; SDP, 2015). +* Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Members: Bahrain, Iran, Iraq Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Regional Commission for Fisheries (RECOFI Members: Bahrain, Iran (Islamic Rep. of), Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates. +© 2016 United Nations + +3.3 China +In 2012, the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) said that under a first plan covering 2011-2015, China aims by 2015 to produce 2,200 megalitres pe day of freshwater from desalinization. This compares with 660 megalitres per day in 2011 The NDRC said it will encourage innovation and upgrade desalinization facilities, as well a cultivate a number of desalinization facility manufacturers with internationa competitiveness. The NRDC will also encourage the use of desalinated seawater. More tha half of freshwater provided in the islands of China, and more than 15 per cent of wate delivered to coastal factories, is to come from the sea by 2015, according to the plan (PD (E) 2012). +3.4 Israel +Israel relies substantially on desalinization of seawater for its water supply. In 2008 desalinization represented 17 per cent (383 megalitres per day) of its water supply. B 2013, this was expected to rise to 32 per cent (4,950 megalitres per day) of the suppl (Tenne, 2011). +3.5 Japan +Although Japan has relatively limited natural freshwater resources (it has about half th world average of natural freshwater resources per head), desalinization has not so fa played a major role in meeting general demand for water: a 2006 World Bank review o water management in Japan does not mention desalinization (World Bank, 2006). The mai focus in Japan on desalinization has been in providing suitable cooling water for nuclea power plants — at least 10 such plants have associated desalinization plants (IAEA, 2002) Nevertheless, desalinization is used locally to supplement natural freshwater supplies fo domestic and industrial use. For example, the authorities on Okinawa, the main island o the Ryukyu archipelago, installed in 1997 a desalinization plant with a capacity of 4 megalitres per day (about 10 per cent of the island’s daily demand for water) (Yamazato 2006), and the city of Fukuoka on the southern Japanese island of Kyushu, after some majo water shortages, installed in 2005 a desalinization plant capable of supplying 50 megalitre per day (Shimokawa, 2008). +3.6 Spain +Spain has long had difficulties in providing adequate water supplies in some parts of th country. This is particularly the case along the Mediterranean coast, which has undergon massive development for tourism. In 2001, the Spanish authorities adopted legislation for National Hydrological Plan. Among other things, this legislation declared a substantia number of desalinization plants as projects being in the public interest (Spain, 2001). I 2005, this National Hydrological Plan was amended, and a new list of projects along th Mediterranean coastline was added, which the Ministry of the Environment and its +© 2016 United Nations + +associated bodies were to implement as a matter of urgency. This list included about 2 desalinization projects (Spain, 2005). The desalinization component of the Plan is reporte to have had an estimated cost of about 3,000 million dollars. By 2013, 27 of the 5 approved plants had been built at a cost of about 2,200 million dollars. However, th economic recession starting in 2008 is reported to have reduced the demand for water t such an extent that many of the plants are standing idle or working at well below thei planned capacity (Cala, 2013). +3.7 Other States +Many small islands have very limited natural freshwater resources, and have decided t supplement these with desalinization. In the Caribbean, the following use desalinization Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba (the Netherlands), the Cayman Islands (United Kingdom o Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Curacao (the Netherlands), Cuba and Trinidad an Tobago (Scalley, 2012; CWCL, 2015). Elsewhere, Malta (46 megalitres per day, 57 per cen of supply; (NSO, 2014)) and Singapore (capacity of 455 megalitres per day, 25 per cent o supply; (PUB, 2014)) are examples of island States which derive high proportions of thei public water supplies from desalinization. +In temperate zones, where natural freshwater supplies are usually adequate, authorities i some places are creating desalinization plants as an insurance against long droughts an other disruptions of supply. For example, Thames Water in the United Kingdom has built plant on the Thames estuary with a capacity of 150 megalitres per day (WTN, 2014). +In Chile, the northern provinces are some of the most arid areas in the world, yet it is her that the main minerals deposits are found that enabled mining to contribute 12.1 per cen of Chilean GDP in 2013 (BdeC, 2014). Since the extraction of metals from ore require substantial quantities of water, there is a growing pressure in these northern provinces o freshwater resources. Many mines rely on freshwater from local rivers, but suc abstractions (also called withdrawals) compete with growing demand from the loca population. Some mines use seawater, but this imposes extra costs of safeguards agains the corrosion that seawater causes. More recently, some mines have _ installe desalinization plants to provide them with freshwater. There has been debate in th Chilean Chamber of Deputies about making the use of desalinized water compulsory i freshwater is to be used (Moreno et al., 2011; CdD, 2013). It seems likely that furthe desalinization plants will be constructed. +4. Social and economic aspects of desalinization +Freshwater is essential to all life on land. Yet 97 per cent of all the water on earth is in th ocean (USGS, 2014). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC (IPCC, 2014), about 80 per cent of the world’s population already suffers serious threats t its water security, as measured by indicators including water availability, water demand, +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +and pollution. +As the description of the nature, location and magnitude of desalinization shows, there ar parts of the world where desalinization is essential to human populations at present, o greater, levels. The largest area of this kind is the six GCC States, but island States, such a Malta and Singapore, are also in this category. Such States are likely to continue t generate significant growth in population over the coming years, together with th associated economic development. The only source of additional freshwater for suc growing populations is likely to remain desalinization. +Climate change is likely to add to the number of States that will wish to explore the use o desalinization. The IPCC Fifth Report (IPCC, 2014) concludes that: +(a) The spatial distribution of the impacts of climate change on freshwater resourc availability varies considerably between climate models, and depends strongl on the projected pattern of rainfall change. There is strong consistency i projections of reduced availability around the Mediterranean and parts o southern Africa, but much greater variation in projections for south and Eas Asia; +(b) Some water-stressed areas are likely to see increased runoff in the future, an therefore less exposure to water resources stress; +(c) Over the next few decades, and for increases in global mean temperature of les than around 2°C above preindustrial levels, changes in population will generall have a greater effect on changes in the freshwater available per head than wil climate change. Climate change would, however, regionally exacerbate or offse the effects of population pressures; +(d) Estimates of future water availability are sensitive not only to climate an population projections and assumptions on usage per head, but also to th choice of hydrological impact model and to the measure of stress or scarcity tha is adopted. +As an indication of the potential magnitude of the impact of climate change, one estimat quoted by the IPCC forecasts that +(a) A1°C rise in global mean temperature (compared to the 1990s) will meant tha about 8 per cent of the global population will see a severe reduction in wate resources (that is, a reduction in runoff either greater than 20 per cent or mor than the standard deviation of current annual runoff); +(b) A2°C rise (on the same basis) will increase that proportion to 14 per cent; an (c) A3°C rise (on the same basis) will increase that proportion to 17 per cent. +The spread across climate and hydrological models was, however, large. The IPCC repor includes desalinization as one of the range of adaptive measures that may prove particularl effective but notes that desalinization will increase green-house gas emissions to the exten that it relies on fossil fuel for its energy requirements. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +It therefore seems likely that desalinization will increasingly be considered as a futur adaptation measure for communities suffering increased water stress. Given that; +(a) Desalinization is, at least at present, significantly more expensive than mos other forms of water supply when other options are available, and +(b) Most current forms of desalinization are using fossil fuels as an energy source, i is more likely that, outside areas where adequate alternative sources of wate are simply not available, desalinization plants will be built as a fall-bac provision, rather than as a primary source of freshwater. +5. Environmental impacts of desalinization +A major environmental impact of the majority of the present desalinization plants is th emission of greenhouse gases to generate the required energy. In some cases, especially i the GCC States, this is to some extent reduced through co-generation, by which the wast heat from electricity generation is used to desalinate water, without further major demand for energy. In those States, some 60 — 70 per cent of desalinization is done in this way Where solar or nuclear energy can be used to power the desalinization, this impact i reduced or eliminated. +The other main forms of environmental impact arise from the intake of feedwater and th discharge of brine. The discharges are discussed in Chapter 20. Intake pipes create a risk t marine biota. The risk is highly variable, and is dependent on the technology employed fo the seawater intake. In particular, it depends on how far the intake pipe is from the shore as well as how the intake pipes are located with reference to the water column or th seabed. Biota living in the vicinity of a desalination plant’s intake pipe can collide with, or b held against, the intake screens (impingement), or be sucked in with the feedwater into th plant (entrainment). Careful planning of the intake arrangements for each desalinizatio plant is needed to minimize this form of impact. For example, the intake arrangemen Fukuoka in Japan has the intake pipes buried in a sandy seabed, which acts as a form o sand-filter to prevent non-microscopic biota entering the pipes (Shimokawa, 2008) However, such an arrangement can require substantial disruption of the seabed durin construction and also lead to maintenance problems. +6. Significant environmental, social and economic aspects, knowledge gaps an capacity-building gaps +Desalinization has become essential to the functioning of many communities around th world. This is most evident in the GCC States and a number of small island States an territories. The impacts of climate change on freshwater supply are likely to increase th usefulness of desalinization as one of the effective forms of adaptation to these impacts, at +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +least as a fall-back provision for periods when natural freshwater supplies are deficient. +There are many commercial firms specializing in the design and construction o desalinization plants. The technology is therefore available on the market. States an communities, however, need to have the capacities to negotiate in this market and t obtain the technologies that they need at a fair price. +In several cases, desalinization plants have been built which have proved to be inefficient o too large for the eventual requirement. There is therefore a case for more efficient sharin of knowledge on the planning, construction and operation of these plants. +Given their continuing importance, the need exists for better knowledge of how to operat desalinization plants with the lowest possible inputs of energy. Considerable progres seems to be possible in this direction: Malta, for example, reports having reduced th energy demand for its desalinization by 33 per cent in a decade (NSO, 2014). +References +ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) News 18 Decembe 2012.http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2012/s3656791.htm +ADE (L’algérienne des eaux) (2014). Déssalement. http://www.ade.dz/index.php/projets 2/dessalement +Al Hashemi, R., Zareen, S., Al Raisi, A., Al Marzoogqi, F.A., Hasan, S.W. (2014).A Review o Desalination Trends in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries, Internationa Interdisciplinary Journal of Scientific Research, Vol 1, No. 2. +AMS (American Meteorological Society) (2014). Meteorological Glossary under the wor “Freshwater”. http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Freshwater . +ANAO (Australian National Audit Office) (2013). Grants for the Construction of the Adelaid Desalination Plant (Audit Report 32/2012/13), Canberra, (ISBN 0 642 81327 2). +Arica, G.R. (2013). Inauguran Ia primera planta desalinizadora de agua que funciona co energia solar en Arica, 12 de Marzo http://www.gorearicayparinacota.cl/w2/index.php/2013/03/12/inauguran-la primera-planta-desalinizadora-de-agua-que-funciona-con-energia-solar-en-arica/. +BdeC (Banco de Chile) (2014). Serie actividad econdmica sectorial mensual 2008 — 2013 http://www.bcentral.cl/estadisticas-economicas/series-indicadores/index_aeg.htm. +BT (Brisbane Telegraph) 5 December 201 http://www. brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/tugun-desalination-plant-to-be mothballed-20101205-18130.html. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Cala, A. (2013). Spain’s Desalination Ambitions Unravel, New York Times, October 9, 2013 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/10/business/energy-environment/spains desalination-ambitions-unravel.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 . +CdD (Chile Camara de Diputados) (2013). Redaccidn de Sesiones, Martes 10 de Diciembre d 2013. http://www.camara.cl/pdf.aspx?prmID=10338%20&prmTIPO=TEXTOSESIO Cooley, H., Donnelly, K. (2012). Key Issues in Seawater Desalination in California Proposed Seawater Desalination Facilities, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2014/04/desalination-facilities. pdf. +Cooley, H., Gleick, P.H., Wolff, G., (2006). Desalination, with a Grain of Salt, a Californi Perspective, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California. http://www.pacinst.org/wp content/uploads/sites/21/2013/02/desalination_report3.pdf. +CWCL (Cayman Water Company Ltd) (2015). Frequently Asked Question (http://www.caymanwater.com/html/FAQs.html). +Darwish, M.A., Mohtara, R. (2013). Qatar water challenges, Desalination and Wate Treatment, Volume 51, Issue 1-3. +DWR (California Department of Water Resources) (2014). Desalination http://www.water.ca.gov/desalination/ . +EAD (Abu Dhabi Environment Agency) (2009). Annual Report 2009. +ESCWA (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia) (2009). Wate Development Report 3: Role Of Desalination In Addressing Water Scarcity, Unite Nations, New York (ISBN. 978-92-1-128329-7). +Frontinus - Sextus Julius Frontinus, De Aquaeductu (Lib |.5), edited by R H Rodgers (2004) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. +GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) (2012). Water Statistical Report, Riyadh. +GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) (2014). Desalination In The GCC — The History, The Present The Future, Riyadh. +Gleick, P.H., Allen, L., Christian-Smith, J., Cohen, M.J., Cooley, H., Herberger, M., Morrison J., Palaniappan, M., Schulte, P. (2009). The World’s Water - The Biennial Report O Freshwater Resources, Volume 7, Island Press, Washington, DC. +GWI (Global Water Information) (2014). Water Desalinization Report — Market Data, citin Desal.Data. http://www.desalinization.com/market/desal-markets (accessed 2 October 2014). +GWI (Global Water Intelligence) (2015). Section 1: Market profile. In: IDA Desalinatio Yearbook 2015-2016. +IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (2002). Status of Design Concepts of Nuclea Desalination Plants, |\AEA, Vienna (IAEA-TECDOC-1326, ISBN 92—O0-117602-3). +IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) (2007). Economics of Nuclear Desalination New Developments and Site Specific Studies, Vienna (IAEA-TECDOC-1561, ISBN 978- +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +92-0-105607-8). +IPCC (2014). Jiménez Cisneros, B.E, Oki, T., Arnell, N.W., Benito, G., Cogley, J.G., Ddll, P. Jiang, T. and Mwakalila, S.S., Freshwater resources, in: Climate Change 2014 Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press Cambridge, United Kingdom. +Jenkins, S., Paduan, J., Roberts, P., Schlenk, D., Weis, J. (2012). Management of Brin Discharges to Coastal Waters, recommendations of a Science Advisory Panel Technical Report 694, Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Cost Mesa, California, United States of America. +Kalogirou, S.A. (2009). Solar Energy Engineering - Processes and Systems, Academic Press Burlington, Massachusetts (ISBN: 978-0-12-374501-9). +Moreno, P.A., Aral, H., Cuevas, J., Monardes, A., Adaro, M., Norgate, T., Bruckard, W. (2011) The use of seawater as process water at Las Luces copper-molybdenumbeneficiatio plant in Taltal (Chile), Minerals Engineering, Vol 24. +NSO (Malta National Statistics Office) (2014). World Water Day 2014: Water and Energy http://www.nso.gov.mt/statdoc/document_file.aspx?id=3974. +NYCEP (New York Environmental Protection Department) (2014). History of Drought an Water Consumption http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/drinking_water/droughthist.shtml . +PD(E) (People’s Daily (English version)) (2012). China unveils plan to boost seawate desalination, 27 December. http://en.people.cn/90778/8072171.html . +PUB (Singapore Public Utilities Board) (2014). The Singapore Water Story Water: Fro Vulnerability to Strength http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/Pages/singaporewaterstory.aspx +QNFSP (Qatar National Food Security Programme) (2014). The Qatar National Food Securit Plan. (www.qnfsp.gov.qa). +Saif, O. (2012). The Future Outlook of Desalination in the Gulf: Challenges & opportunitie faced by Qatar & the UAE. http://inweh.unu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The Future-Outlook-of-Desalination-in-the-Gulf.pdf. +Scalley, T.H. (2012). Freshwater Resources in The Insular Caribbean: An Environmenta Perspective, Caribbean Studies, Vol. 40, No. 2. +Shea, A.L. (2010). Status and Challenges for Desalination in the United States https://www.watereuse.org/sites/default/files/u8/Status_Challenges_US.pdf. +Shimokawa, A. (2008) Desalination plant with Unique Methods in Fukuoka (http://www.niph.go.jp/soshiki/suido/pdf/h21JPUS/abstract/r9-2.pdf. +Spain (2001). Ley 10/2001, de 5 de julio, del Plan Hidroldgico Nacional (Boletin Oficial del +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Estado, 161/2001 of 6 July). +Spain (2005). Ley 11/2005, de 22 de junio, por la que se modifica la Ley 10/2001, de 5 d julio, del Plan Hidroldgico Nacional (Boletin Oficial del Estado, 149/2005 of 23 June). +SDP (Sydney Desalination Plant) (2015), Our History http://www.sydneydesal.com.au/who we-are/our-history/ . +SWCC (Saline Water Conversion Corporation). (2014). )£¥°/) £¥9 ING x55 ISuedxg (Annua Report 1435-1436 AH — 2014 CE http://www.swcc.gov.sa/files/assets/Reports/annual2014.pdf +SWRCB (California State Water Resources Control Board) (2015). Draft Staff Report Desalination Facility Intakes, Brine Discharges, and the Incorporation of Other Non Substantive Changes (March 20, 2015) (http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/ocean/desalination/docs amendment/150320_sr_sed.pdf. +Tenne, A. (2011). The Master Plan for Desalinization in Israel 2020 http://www.water.gov.il/Hebrew/ProfessionallnfoAndData/2012/07-Israel-Water Sector-Desalination.pdf. +The National (2012). Twenty-two solar desalination plants completed, agency says, 1 January. http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/environment/twenty-two solar-desalination-plants-completed-agency-saysUSGS (United States Geologica Survey) (2014). The Water Cycle — The Oceans http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleoceans.html. +WHO (World Health Organization) (2007). Desalination for Safe Water Supply: Guidance for +the Health and Environmental Aspects Applicable to Desalination, Geneva http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/gdwqrevision/desalination.pdf +World Bank (2005). Annual Report 2005 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTANNREP2K5/Resources/51563_English.pdf. +World Bank (2006) Water Resources Management in Japan Policy, Institutional and Lega Issues http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/WR _Japan_experience_EN.pdf. +WTN (Water-Technology.net) (2014). Thames Water Desalination Plant, London, Unite Kingdom. http://www.water-technology.net/projects/water-desalination/. +Yamazato, T. (2006) Seawater Desalination Facility on Okinawa http://www.niph.go.jp/soshiki/suido/pdf/h19JPUS/abstract/r27.pdf . +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_28.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_28.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_29.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_29.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b240cfdd3837c59a618438c70b72811f5ce2ef09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_29.txt @@ -0,0 +1,132 @@ +Chapter 29. Use of Marine Genetic Resources +Writing team: Michael Banks, Caroline Bissada, Peyman Eghtesadi Araghi (Lead Autho and Lead member), Elva Escobar-Briones, Francoise Gaill, S. Kim Juniper, Anmed Kawser Ellen Kenchington, Nigel Preston, Gabriele Procaccini, Nagappa Ramaiah, Jake Rice (Co Lead member) Alex Rogers, Wouter Rommens, Zheng Senlin and Michael Thorndyke +1. Introduction +The natural environment has long been a source of inspiration for new drugs and othe products of biotechnology. Until relatively recently, the terrestrial environment, i particular, has been the primary source of genetic material and natural products at th centre of major new developments in biotechnology, including new drugs. Examples o natural products used in drug development include the anti-malarial drug quinin isolated from the bark of the Chinchona, the analgesics codeine and morphine fro Papaver somnifetum latex, and antibiotics such as penicillins and tertracyclines fro strains of Penicillium sp. and Streptomyces sp. The terrestrial environment contains fa more known species of plants and animals than are at present known in the ocean (Hendricks et al., 2006; Mora et al. 2011), and has contributed greatly to th development of new biotechnologies, and new drugs in particular (Molinski et al., 2009 Arrieta et al., 2010; Leal et al., 2012). Yet there are many reasons to expect that th marine environment should represent a rich reservoir of novel genetic material an natural products, particularly those derived from animals and their microbiomes Covering more than 70 per cent of the planet, and constituting 95 per cent of th volume of the biosphere, the oceans are home to a greater diversity of major anima groups (phyla) than the terrestrial environment (34 of 36 known phyla are found in th oceans versus 17 found on land). Most marine organisms have a large dispersa potential, either through the movement of adults, or through the dispersal of larvae b ocean circulation, potentially crossing hundreds to thousands of kilometres during thei development. It is thus likely for many species that the same genomic background coul be sampled both within several exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and in areas beyon national jurisdiction (ABNJ). +The study and utilization of marine genetic resources is a fairly recent human activit and, compared to the terrestrial environment, examples are relatively few and scattere throughout the world ocean. This chapter will therefore provide a general review o marine genetic resources (MGRs) rather than providing a regionally comprehensive an inclusive assessment. We will use a fairly broad definition of marine genetic resource that includes nucleic acid sequences, chemical compounds produced by marin organisms and unrefined materials extracted from marine biomass. Within areas unde national jurisdiction, where marine organisms are most abundant and most accessibl to researchers, MGRs and marine biodiversity are best known. MGRs in the vast, +© 2016 United Nations + +offshore oceanic areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) are, by comparison, poorl documented. The growing appreciation of the diversity and novelty of life in the ocean that has emerged from the results of programs such as the Census of Marine Life, an MicroB3 (Marine Microbial Biodiversity, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology - a Europea Union 7" Framework Program), have fuelled interest in the commercial possibilities o MGRs. Currently MGRs are important to the economies and sustainability of man sectors including the pharmaceutical industry (new medicines), cosmetics, the emergin nutraceutical industry, and aquaculture (new high-value high nutrition, healthy foods) biomedicine and many other economically and culturally important sectors. +Molinski et al. (2009) noted a decline since the mid-1990s in the interest of larg pharmaceutical companies in the development of ‘drugs from the sea’. This is likel related to a general decline in all natural product research (Dias et al. 2012; Lahlou 2012). Some hints of a recent resurgence exist, but it will be several years before it ca be determined if this is a sustainable trend. In parallel with large commercia pharmaceutical interests reducing their activity in this sector, activity increased i smaller academic-industry partnerships in developed countries, resulting in th emergence of small-scale, start-up companies. New and affordable developments i analytical technologies (gene sequencing, biomolecule characterization) have helpe drive this new trend. Further evidence of increased interest in MGR is found in a analysis by Arrieta et al. (2010), who noted growth over the past decade in th accumulation of patent claims related to marine organism genes (currently increasing b 12 per cent per year) and identified marine natural products. In the context of its wor on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyon national jurisdiction (ABNJ), the United Nations General Assembly stressed the need fo a comprehensive regime to better address the conservation and sustainable use o marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. Marine geneti resources, including questions on the sharing benefits, are part of the package of issue to be addressed by the preparatory committee established to make substantiv recommendations to the Assembly on the elements of a draft text of an internationa legally-binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Se (resolution 69/292). +2. Marine Pharmaceuticals +Marine biodiversity in theory has enormous biotechnological potential. Yet, to date despite “repeated waves of enthusiasm and much early promise,” examples o successful development of commercial products are very few. In the early 1950s, th first marine bioactive compounds, spongouridine and spongothymidine, were isolate from the Caribbean sponge Cryptotheca crypta. The 1970s saw the beginning of basi scientific research in chemistry and pharmacology of marine natural products an directed efforts in drug development (Molinski et al., 2009; Mayer et al., 2010). +© 2016 United Nations + +However, only in the last decade have these research efforts resulted in the productio of a first generation of drugs from the sea into clinical trials. Not until 2004 was the firs drug from the sea (developed from a neurotoxin produced by a tropical marine con snail, Conus magnus) finally approved for sale on the market under the name Prialt; it i used in the treatment of chronic pain associated with spinal cord injuries. Mor recently, in 2007, a second drug, the anti-tumour compound trabectedin (known a Yondelis, discovered from the colonial tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinata), was approve for the treatment of soft-tissue sarcoma in the European Union. Seven drugs derive from marine organisms are currently approved by the United States Food and Dru Administration (FDA) and on the market (Mayer et al., 2010 http://marinepharmacology.midwestern.edu/clinPipeline.htm). An example of medical but non-pharmaceutical usage of compounds produced by marine organism are wound treatment ‘dressings’ made of marine diatom polymers (Marine Polyme Technologies Inc.). +3. Marine Nutraceuticals +Related to the biopharma industry, attention also increasingly focuses on so-calle marine nutraceuticals. These compounds (or ‘substances’) are found to be beneficial t human health and “delivered” via food or food products (Kim, 2013). Commercial effort are also underway to synthetically produce some of these substances. Compounds o interest comprise a wide variety, including polysaccharides, polyphenols, bioactiv peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and carotenoids; with identified anticancer, anti inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and antimicrobial activities (Guerard et al., 2010; Ngo et al. 2011; Vidanarachchi et al., 2012). Many of the products derive from marine algae an include, for example, Fucoidan, a sulfonated polysaccharide found in brown algae an shown to benefit immune system and gastrointestinal health by neutralizing fre radicals. Other examples are: Vitamin C and carotenoids, anti-oxidants obtained fro Chlorella sp.; Spirulina (cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira), used as a natural blu food colorant and contains a wide variety of nutrients, such as B vitamins, minerals proteins, linolenic acid, and anti-oxidants such as beta carotene and Vitamin E. +In contrast to the more limited development of new drugs from marine organisms, th nutraceutical industry in Europe and Asia is experiencing significant growth. Marine an algal omega-3 products alone accounted for 1.5 billion United States dollars in sales i 2009, and the global nutraceutical industry as a whole is estimated to grow to a 18 billion US dollars business by 2017 (Kim, 2013). This rapidly growing sector often use marine biomass, such as fish waste or harvested algae, to produce health food product and restorative cosmetics. +© 2016 United Nations + +4. Marine organism-derived anti-foulants and adhesives +The antifoulant and marine adhesives industries have a long history. The costs o biofouling to the fleets around the world are estimated to run into 100 million U dollars each year. Many biocidal antifoulants are now banned (e.g., copper-base paints) because of their direct toxicity to marine organisms. Tributyl tin-based products once used extensively, are now banned because of their now well-known impact on se determination in marine molluscs and other organisms. Naturally derived antifoulant include enzymes, antimicrobials, biomimetics such as novel topographies, and natura chemical signals (Callow and Callow, 2011; Kirschner and Brennan, 2012; Gittens et al. 2013) +Marine algae are an important source of novel antifouling compounds and mangrove and sponges also feature high on the list of exploited marine organisms. Many alga species produce compounds that inhibit growth of marine bacteria. A red alga metabolite has been shown to affect the composition and density of bacterial colonies and compounds from the mangrove plant reduce larval barnacle settlement. Suc identified active natural compounds inspire the commercial synthesis of mimetics tha are more stable and easily applied to surfaces, such as ship hulls, docks etc. (Callow an Callow, 2011; Kirschner and Brennan, 2012; Gittens et al., 2013). +Although the antifoulant industry seeks to prevent undesirable attachments, the bio adhesive industry focuses on marine glues, materials that enable stable and robus adhesion under water. Perhaps not surprisingly, target organisms used as potentia sources of novel marine glues are precisely those that the antifoulant community seek to deter, for example, barnacles, mussels, tube-building worms and echinoderms. Al successfully attach to wet surfaces with tenacity and therefore provide a rich source o ideas for novel adhesives. Some (starfish) uniquely have strong yet temporary adhesive used to anchor their feet during locomotion (Kamino, 2010; Stewart et al., 2011 Petrone, 2013). The mechanisms employed often involve complex surface chemistrie and physico-chemical three-dimensional properties, but nevertheless often have simple biochemical basis. For example, one of the most widely employed cor substances is L-Dopa, whilst extracellular DNA is also thought to be an importan component in some bio-adhesives (Kamino, 2010; Stewart et al., 2011; Petrone, 2013) Bulk harvesting of natural glues from marine organisms is impractical and any economi exploitation will require an extensive research effort directed at the chemical structur and genetic basis of the natural glues produced by marine organisms. +5. Environmental, economic and social aspects of MGR research +Marine scientific research related to MGR involves the collection of ocean data and th collection of biological samples from the water column and the seabed. Most scientific +© 2016 United Nations + +instruments and sampling devices so far cause negligible harm to marine habitats Nonetheless, in some parts of the seabed scientific sampling is concentrated in relativel small areas, such as at well-studied hydrothermal vent fields. There, competing use have arisen between researchers requiring physical samples (biological or geological and researchers wishing to observe the natural evolution of local ecosystems (Godet e al., 2011). Such use conflicts led to the adoption of codes of best practices b international organizations such as InterRidge (http://www. interridge.org/publications (see Chapter 30 on Marine scientific research). +Although the possibility still exists of direct extraction of new natural products fro marine biomass, such as the extraction of compounds from seaweeds and oils fro Sargassum or krill, future exploitation of MGR for purposes of developing the geneti resource is unlikely to involve substantial large-scale harvesting of marine organism and the resultant destruction of habitat and depletion of species populations as cause by fisheries. Indeed, if recent trends can be used as a guide, future MGR products wil come from laboratories and larger facilities where genes and biomolecules will b discovered, and then incorporated into industrial processes that may involve th artificial synthesis of biomolecules (e.g. Mizuki et al., 2014; Wilde et al., 2012; Newma and Cragg, 2012), or the insertion of desired genes into microbes that then produce th desired molecule (Newman and Cragg, 2012). However, potential for habitat damag exists even from scientific fieldwork, particularly in vulnerable marine ecosystems an areas of intensive study and sample collection. In addition, the success of nutraceutica extraction from fish waste could lead to the large-scale harvesting of stocks with little o no food value to humans but attractive as sources of biomolecules for commercia products. +Benefits arising from MGR research include improved knowledge of marine biodiversit and the importance of biodiversity to the provision of ecosystem services and th maintenance of ocean health. Related marine natural products research will also resul in more efficient, value-added exploitation of marine resources, as described above. An accelerated growth in the MGR research sector will not only profit the marin pharmaceutical industry, but also result in health and other social benefits from acces to the pharmaceutical or other products themselves (Leary and Juniper, 2014; Broggiat et al., 2014). +6. Capacity to engage in MGR research +6.1 Research Vessels +The first step in the process of accessing MGRs is the collection of samples in the field In inter-tidal and coastal waters, the capacity to collect biological samples does no require advanced technology. Smaller vessels, even sailing vessels, can be used t sample water column organisms. For example, two recent expeditions used th privately owned sailing yachts; Tara (http://oceans.taraexpeditions.org/index-o.php/en © 2016 United Nations + +and Sorcerer Il (www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/gos/overview/) to conduct ocea basin-scale surveys of planktonic microorganisms. Further offshore sampling of deep water organisms and the seabed requires an offshore-capable ship (defined here a greater than 60 metres in length) and in most cases a specialized research vessel Operating costs for these larger vessels are typically greater than 25 000 United State dollars per day. At first glance, basic capability to engage in MGRs research appears t be fairly widespread among nations. The International Research Vessel databas (www.researchvessels.org) lists 271 vessels greater than 60 metres in length available i more than 40 countries. However, the majority of these vessels belong to a fe developed countries, as shown in Figure 1 (Juniper, 2013). +Russi EU +US Japa Chin Ukrain Canad Australi Agentin Thailan Kore Indi South Afric Others +0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 +Figure 1. Geographic distribution of offshore research vessel (60 m or greater in length). Source: Intemational Researc Vessel Database. +At sea, most biological specimens are collected by lowering or towing sampling device from the vessel (Juniper, 2013). Heavier gear, e.g., winches, cables, dredges and corers is required to sample the seabed, where the majority of known marine species ar found. This latter requirement reinforces the importance of larger, motorized researc vessels for accessing biodiversity at depths of several kilometres. Some sampling device are highly specialized and not all research vessels have the same collecting capacity. Thi is especially true for remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), which are used to locate an sample hydrothermal vent ecosystems, a source of novel species adapted to extrem conditions. Hydrothermal vent sites are very small in area, usually tens to hundreds o square meters, and cannot be easily sampled or even located by lowering standar sampling devices from ships. They require precisely navigated diving with ROVs o human-occupied submersibles, although the latter are used less frequently than ROVs These vehicles are capable of diving to much deeper depths than military submarines and are equipped with robotic arms, video cameras and various sampling devices. Th list of States possessing and operating deep-diving scientific submersibles is limited to subset of the developed countries currently leading marine scientific research efforts +© 2016 United Nations + +globally, such as the USA, Canada, the UK, France, the Russian Federation, Japan an most recently China, India and South Korea (Juniper, 2013). ROVs can also be chartere from commercial firms that provide support for the offshore petroleum industry, bu most of these vehicles are limited to depths of less than 2,000 metres. +6.2 Biodiversity Expertise +Another important capacity related to accessing and deriving value from marin biodiversity is the specialist knowledge required to identify species, both known specie and those new to science (Hendriks & Duarte, 2008; Juniper, 2013). Marine biodiversit specialists are mostly trained in developed countries with a long history of botanical an zoological scholarship in universities and museums. One way to measure the worldwid distribution of marine biodiversity expertise is to examine the level of publicatio activity in the scientific literature in relation to the country of affiliation of the lea author on these publications. A recent review of the literature revealed that th majority of publications in the field of marine biodiversity come from relatively fe developed countries (Hendriks and Duarte, 2008). +Table 1. Geographic distribution of paten claims for genes of marine origin Source: Amaud-Haond et al. (2011). +Country Marine Organis Patent Claim USA 199 +Germany | 14 128 +France 3 United Kingdom | 3 Denmark | Belgium. 1 Netherland 1 Switzerland l Norway 9 +These specialists are experts in the morphological identification of specimens and increasingly, the interpretation of DNA sequence information that is used to identif marine plants, animals and microbes. It could be argued that this scientific expertise i of greater importance to the usage and application of MGR than is access t laboratories that can produce gene sequence and biochemical composition informatio from field samples. Many countries have commercial sequencing and biochemica analysis facilities that serve national and international organizations/institutions, an academic and private clients. The raw data produced by these facilities require exper interpretation before they can be used to identify species, genes and biochemica compounds of interest. Table 1 illustrates the dominance by applicants from a fe developed countries in recent patent claims associated with genes of marine origi according to a database undertaken by Arnaud-Haond et al. (2011). The top ten +© 2016 United Nations + +countries account for 90 per cent of filed gene patents, with 70 per cent from the to three (Arnaud-Haond et al. 2011). Relatively new approaches, such as microbia metagenomics, also require sophisticated bio-informatics tools and training and thes are most accessible in developed countries. Nevertheless, some (growing?) capabilitie in bio-informatics and genomics exist in developing countries, particularly in the healt and agricultural science sectors, and these skills could be adapted and applied to th exploitation of MGRs. +6.3 Deriving Economic Value from MGR +Few examples exist of a direct developmental path from field collections of marin organisms through to the commercialization of marine natural products or genes fro marine organisms. The Vent Polymerase enzyme is one example of a rapid transitio from the discovery of a new microorganism in the field to the commercialization of biomolecule (Mattila et al, 1991). Field research in the marine environment is primaril led by academic or government scientists and is aimed at increasing our knowledge o the ocean and the organisms that it supports. It is this knowledge base that may be late used by laboratory-based scientists in academia, industry and government in researc more directly related to the eventual use of MGR for commercial purposes (Brock, 1997 Juniper, 2013). Surprisingly few direct connections are found between these basic an applied research sectors. +A review by the journal Nature (Macilwain, 1998) concluded that tens to hundreds o thousands of failed prospects exist for every example of a commercially successfu natural product. One measure of success at extracting drugs from the sea is the numbe of drugs from marine organisms approved for commercialization by the FDA. Currentl (June 2014) only seven drugs from marine organisms have received FDA approval (se also above), and approximately twice that number are in clinical trial (http://marinepharmacology.midwestern.edu/clinPipeline.htm). Mayer et al. (2010 note that the pre-clinical pipeline “continues to supply several hundred novel marin compounds every year and those continue to feed the clinical pipeline with potentiall valuable compounds.” +Among the myriad marine life forms, the greatest unknown potential source of nove bioproducts is marine microorganisms (Gerwick et al., 2001). The advent an applications of genome, proteome, and transcriptome analyses are helping to recogniz the enormous extent of marine microbial diversity and deepening our understanding o how the chemistry of the ocean and its interaction with the atmosphere are als mediated by microbial metabolism. From the bioprospecting perspective, th biomolecules produced by marine microbes remain virtually unstudied for potentia commercial applications. +Microbial bioproducts will remain undeveloped unless there is a feasible alternative t mass culturing and efficient harvesting. In general, molecular approaches offe particularly promising alternatives, not only to the supply of known natural products +© 2016 United Nations + +(e.g., through the identification, isolation, cloning, and expression of genes involved i the production of the chemicals), but also to the discovery of novel sources of molecula diversity (e.g., through the identification of genes and biosynthetic pathways fro uncultured microorganisms; Bull et al., 2000). +6.4 “Omics” Tools +Recent breakthroughs in marine metagenomics are paving the way for a new era o molecular marine research. Metagenomic studies of marine life are yielding ne insights into ocean biodiversity and the functioning of marine ecosystems; for the firs time we can explore ecological interrelationships at the gene level. The first study of thi type, led by the J. Craig Venter Institute, used these tools to survey marine microbia diversity, discovering thousands of new species, millions of new genes and thousands o new protein families. A seminal 2004 paper described how the analysis of 200 litres o surface water from the Sargasso Sea enabled the identification of about 1,800 genomi microbial species and 1.2 million unknown genes using an environmental metagenomi shotgun approach (Venter et al., 2004). This work led to other marine metagenomi studies, such as those reviewed by Gilbert and Dupont (2011) that show how massiv sequencing of environmental samples can lead to the discovery of extraordinar microbial biodiversity and to the unravelling of important components of the pathway of phosphorus, sulphur, and nitrogen cycling. These powerful molecular tools ar enabling a new “study it all approach” to discovering organismal, genetic, biomolecula and metabolic diversity in the oceans at an accelerated pace, as exemplified by th recent round-the-world Tara expedition (Ainsworth, 2013) that returned over 25,00 samples of water column organisms for intensive molecular analysis with so-calle ‘omics’ tools. +7. The importance of understanding life histories, plasticity and the impact o climate change +Climate change and ocean acidification are widely recognized as increasing threats t marine ecosystems impacting growth, survival, reproduction, and many othe phenotypic features of all marine organisms, leading to changes in species abundance and distribution. Many key marine invertebrates, including crabs, echinoderms an molluscs often have equally if not more complex life histories with several, vulnerable free-swimming planktonic stages before they metamorphose and settle to their adul benthic form. These sophisticated morphological and physiological processes ar underpinned by complex gene regulatory networks and genomic pathways (Gilbert 2013). This is significant because although it is now increasingly clear that predicte climate change events will affect marine biota, it is also now clear that several ke organisms exhibit a valuable plasticity in the face of environmental stresses an challenges (Byrne and Przeslawski, 2013; Chan et al., 2015a, b; Dorey et al., 2013; Harle © 2016 United Nations + +et al., 2006; Merila and Hendry, 2014; Reusch, 2014; Stumpp et al., 2011a, b; 2012; Tho and Dupont, 2015). Understanding and exploring this potential will be vital if we are t identify resilient and potentially phenotypically plastic populations. Identification of th genetic bases of this plasticity will be an important resource to the future of exploite marine species in a changing ocean. +8. Conclusion +The commercial utilization of MGRs had very modest beginnings in the 20" century particularly when measured against the estimated potential of the great diversity o species and biomolecules in the sea. More promisingly, the past decade has seen th commercialization of the first drugs derived from marine organisms, and considerabl growth in nutraceutical and other non-medical uses of marine natural products. Thi past decade has also seen an astounding increase in our capacity to discover nove marine organisms and biomolecules and understand the genomic basis of life in th oceans. New technologies are fostering a new wave of optimism about the commercia potential of MGRs that is influencing funding priorities for marine research and has le to the emergence of futuristic terms, such as ‘blue growth’ and the ‘knowledge-base blue economy of tomorrow’. Much of the capacity for discovery and commercializatio of MGRs remains in the hands of a few developed countries. Much of the geneti diversity in our seas and oceans remains unknown and relatively unexplored; yet mor potential is to be realized, particularly in the context of climate change. While thi chapter has emphasized the commercial utilization of marine genetic resources, ther are strong arguments to be made for the value to societies and ecosystems of simpl protecting and conserving marine genetic resources (e.g. Pearce and Moran, 1994). +References +Ainsworth, C. (2013). Systems ecology: Biology on the high seas. Nature 501, 20-2 doi:10.1038/501020a. +Arnaud-Haond, S., Arrieta J.M., and Duarte, C.M. (2011). Marine biodiversity and gen patents. Science 331, 1521-1522, doi: 10.1126/science.1200783. +Arnaud-Haond, S., Arrieta J.M., and Duarte, C.M. (2010). What lies beneath: Conservin the oceans’ genetic resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 107, 18318-18324. doi/10.1073/pnas.0911897107. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Brock, T.D. (1997). 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(2010). Biofouling. The Journal of Bioadhesion and Biofilm Research, 29, 735 749, DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2013.800863. +Kim, S.-K. (Editor) Marine Nutraceuticals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2013. 464 pp. +Kirschner, C.M. and Brennan, A.B. (2012). Bio-Inspired Antifouling Strategies. Annua Review of Materials Research 42, 211-29. +Lahlou, M. (2012). The success of natural products in drug discovery. Pharmacology Pharmacy 4, 17-31. DOI: 10.4236/pp.2013.43A003. +Leal, M.C., Puga, J., Serddio, J., Gomes, N.C.M. and Calado, R. (2012). Trends in th Discovery of New Marine Natural Products from Invertebrates over the Last Tw Decades — Where and What Are We Bioprospecting? PloS One 7, e30580. +Leary, D. and Juniper, S.K. (2014). Addressing the marine genetic resources issue: is th debate heading in the wrong direction? Chapter 34 (p. 768-785) in Cliv Schofield, Seokwoo Lee, and Moon-Sang Kwon (eds.), The Limits of Maritim Jurisdiction, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Netherlands, 794pp. +Macilwain, C. (1998). When rhetoric hits reality in debate on bioprospecting. Nature 392 535-540. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Mattila, P., Korpela, J., Tenkanen, T., and Pitkanen, K. (1991) Fidelity of DNA synthesis b the Thermococcus litoralis DNA polymerase - An extremely heat-stable enzym with proof-reading activity. Nucleic Acids Research 19: 4967-4973. +Mayer, A.M.LS. et al. (2010). The odyssey of marine pharmaceuticals: a current pipelin perspective. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 31, 255-265 doi:10.1016/j.tips.2010.02.005 +Merila, J. and Hendry, A.P. (2013). Climate change, adaptation, and phenotypi plasticity: the problem and the evidence. Evolutionary Applications 7: 1-14. +Mizuki, K., lwahashi, K., Murata, N., Ikeda, M., Nakai, Y., Yoneyama, H., Harusawa, S. and Usami, Y. (2014). Synthesis of Marine Natural Product (-)-Pericosine E Organic Letters 2014 16 (14), 3760-3763. doi: 10.1021/01501631r. +Molinski, T.F., Dalisay, D.S., Lievens, S.L. and Saludes, J.P. (2009). Drug developmen from marine natural products. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 8, 69-85 doi:10.1038/nrd2487. +Mora, C., Tittensor, D.P., Adl, S., Simpson, A.G.B., Worm, B. (2011). How Many Specie Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8): e1001127 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. +Newman, D.J. and Cragg, G.M. (2012) Meeting the supply needs of marine natura products. pp. 1285-1313 in E. Fattorusso, W. H. Gerwick, O. Taglialatela-Scafat (eds.) Handbook of Marine Natural Products. Springer Dordrecht, Heidelberg New York, London. DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-3834-0. +Ngo, D.-H., Wijesekara, I., Vo, T-S., Ta Q.V., and Kim, S-K. (2011). 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CO2-induced seawate acidification impacts sea urchin larval development II: Gene expression pattern in pluteus larvae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. A, Molecular integrative physiology 160, 320-330. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Stumpp, M., Wren, J., Melzner, F., Thorndyke, M.C. and Dupont, S. (2011b). CO2-induce seawater acidification impacts sea urchin larval development I: Elevate metabolic rates decrease scope for growth and induce developmental delay Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. A, Molecular & Integrative Physiolog 160, 331-340. +Stumpp, M., Hu, M.Y., Melzner, F., Gutowska, M., Dorey, N., Himmerkusa, N. Holtmann, W.C., Dupont, S.T., Thorndyke, M.C. and M. Bleich. (2012). Acidifie seawater impacts sea urchin larvae pH regulatory systems relevant fo calcification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Unite States of America 109, 18192-18197. +Thor, P. and Dupont, S., (2015). Transgenerational effects alleviate severe fecundity los during ocean acidification in a ubiquitous planktonic Copepod. Global Chang Biology, doi: 10.1111/gcb.12815. +Venter, J.C. et al. (2004). Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargass Sea. Science, 304: 66-74. +Vidanarachchi, J.K., Kurukulasuriya, M.S., Malshani Samaraweera A. and Silva, K.F (2012). Applications of marine nutraceuticals in dairy products. Adv. Food Nutr Res. 65: 457-478. +Wilde, V.L., Morris, J.C. and Phillips, A.J. (2012). Marine Natural Products Synthesis. Pp 601-673 in E. Fattorusso, W. H. Gerwick, O. Taglialatela-Scafati (eds.) Handboo of Marine Natural Products. Springer Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-3834-0. +Additional Reading +The European Marine Board (http://www.marineboard.eu/) has been responsible fo generating policy advice, position papers, vision documents, etc., that review th importance of “blue biotechnology;” most are available as free downloads, for exampl “Marine Biotechnology: a Vision and Strategy for Europe (http://www.marineboard.eu/publications/full-list). This is a review of the state of th art in marine biotechnology and its significant potential to contribute to scientific societal and economic needs (2010). In addition, the European Commission has hoste several projects that summarize and highlight the needs and advantages of developin coordinated programmes for harnessing and sustainably exploiting products from ou seas and oceans; often generically referred to as “Blue Growth,” it includes all aspects o marine and maritime technolog (http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/blue_growth/index_en.htm). +Other organizations, for example the National Association of Marine Laboratorie (NAML) (http://www.naml.org/) in North America also produce regular position paper from marine expert groups. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_29.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_29.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_30.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_30.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..57c67034b74abb3a2f26bd989c80ef35de460c94 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_30.txt @@ -0,0 +1,177 @@ +Chapter 30. Marine Scientific Research +Contributors: Patricio Bernal (Lead member), Alan Simcock (Co-Lead member) +1. Introduction +A scientific understanding of the ocean is fundamental to carry out an effectiv management of the human activities that affect the marine environment and th biota that it contains. This scientific understanding is also essential to predict o forecast, mitigate and guide the adaptation of societies to cope with the many way the ocean affects human lives and infrastructures at different spatial and tempora scales. +Ideally, in order to manage human activities so as to achieve sustainable use of th marine environment and its resources, we need to know the geology and geophysic of ocean basins, the physical processes at work as the waters of the world’s differen oceans and seas move around, the input, distribution and fate of substances (bot natural and artificial), the occurrence and distribution of flora and fauna (includin the assemblages and habitat dependencies that control the different ecosystems) the biological processes that regulate and sustain the productivity of ecosystems an the way in which all these elements interact. Marine scientific research is the mai way in which we can move towards this goal. +From a more fundamental perspective, the ocean is still one of the least know areas of the world. Humanity in its search of understanding has reached beyond ou solar system and seeks fundamental answers in the infinitely distant and in th infinitely small. It has been said that we know more about the morphologica features on the surface of other planets than of our own ocean. A significant effor of ocean exploration, using the most advanced techniques available today, is stil probably one of the most rewarding collective efforts for humanity, as is attested t by the series of achievements of major international scientific programmes of th past.. +Sustainability has to do with the mode by which humanity make use of nature. Th increasing pressures that we impose on natural systems leave no room fo complacency. At any point in time it is possible to extract the best advice tha science can provide to completely or partially remove uncertainties around phenomenon. From a scientific point of view, the need for better information alway exists, therefore unresolved uncertainties are not a valid ground for delaying action There are many improvements that can be made to managing human impacts on th ocean on the basis of current scientific knowledge. However, it is not long since th need to effectively communicate scientific results to policy makers has bee recognized and is being systematically addressed through internationally validate efforts. At the national level, it is becoming common practice among institution funding research to request those receiving their grants to undertake explici initiatives of outreach towards the general public or to summarize the result of +© 2016 United Nations + +publicly funded research for policy makers. From a more basic perspective, publicl funded projects in data intensive sciences, like earth sciences, geophysics, an genomics are requested to deposit and disseminate the raw data collected throug open access repositories. +The traditional knowledge of those who work with the sea has, in many cases, buil up over millennia an understanding of many of these elements. It is essential tha this traditional knowledge also be incorporated in our overall understanding of th ocean. Marine scientific research has an important role in validating traditiona knowledge and identifying emerging issues. Marine scientific research is therefor fundamental to achieving sustainable use of the oceans. +2. The scale and extent of marine scientific research +The scale and extent of marine scientific research are as wide as the scope of th World Ocean Assessment: every field that needs to be covered in an assessment o the state of the world’s marine environment needs to be explored scientifically. Thi Assessment therefore shows the results of the work that is being done in all thes fields and assesses the major gaps in information, thus pointing the way t judgements on priorities for further scientific research. +In order to obtain a full picture, it is necessary to consider where, by whom and ho the scientific research is being done. This is not an easy task, because until now n systematic collection of this information has occurred, although th Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC/UNESCO) ha initiated a process to produce regularly a Global Ocean Science Report (GOSR aiming to conduct a global and regional assessment of capacity development need in the field of marine science research and ocean observations. +One starting point is the question of who is doing this research. The IOC/UNESC maintains a database of “ocean and freshwater experts”, which can be analysed t help answer this question. The IOC/UNESCO database is compiled on the basis o voluntary self-recording by experts without any independent validation procedur (http://www.oceanexpert.net). There is therefore no reason to think that it i comprehensive, and the status and experience of the experts listed may vary Examination suggests that it contains practically no experts whose expertise is solel in fresh water, and that nearly all experts have chosen to declare a geographic are of study. It therefore enables an initial understanding of research demographics fo the various parts of the ocean. Table 1 shows the information on geographic area of study derived from an analysis of this database. As this information is provide individually by the experts without any independent validation procedure, an analysis based on it may well be affected by biases or incompleteness in th database, and as much of the detail of the information provided is determined b the experts themselves, any analysis is bound to be fairly broad-brush, but thi database is the best comprehensive basis available for examining the question of th spread of interests of marine scientists. This appears as a gap of information tha needs to be addressed. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 1. Regions of study of IOC experts +Area of Study +Experts located in +Experts located +Total number of experts +declared by experts | a coastal State of elsewhere declaring an interest i Area of Study the Area of Stud Arctic Ocean 59 78 13 North Atlantic Ocean | 519 208 80 Baltic Sea 91 7 9 Black Sea 135 11 14 Mediterranean Sea 393 71 46 North Sea 117 4 12 Wider Caribbean 314 12 32 South Atlantic Ocean | 169 562 73 Indian Ocean 588 137 62 Red Sea 61 18 7 The Persian Gulf 49 16 6 North Pacific Ocean 375 102 47 - West Pacific 100 34 13 ocean an fringing sea South Pacific Ocean 157 102 25 Southern Ocean 142* 6 148 +Source: Analysis of IOC, 2014. +Subject to the reservations explained above about the nature of the evidence, th main conclusions are that: +(a) Significantly more marine scientific researchers regard themselves a experts on the Atlantic Ocean than on the Pacific Ocean +(b) The +Indian Ocean +researchers; and +is relatively well +served by marine scientific +(c) The two main Southern hemisphere ocean basins (South Atlantic an Pacific and the Southern Ocean) attract relatively fewer marine scientifi researchers. +” For the Southern Ocean, the coastal States have been taken to be those States that maintai research stations on Antarctica. +© 2016 United Nations + +3. Status and trends of scientific output by regions +3.1 Status and trends relating to personnel +An alternative approach to assessing the capacities for marine scientific research b region is to review the number of scientific papers published about each region. Thi approach also suffers from limitations, and care must be exerted in using it. Some o the issues in assessing the numbers of scientific papers published about the differen regions lie with the language of publication and the cost per publication. Althoug most of the international scientific literature is published today in English, a larg potential bias remains with regard to scientific papers and reports published in othe languages, or in local journals not reported to international data bases. Althoug some data bases containing full-text articles address these issues, for example SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online; http://www.scielo.org ) for severa geographic areas and CNKI (China Knowledge Resource Integrated Database http://www.cnki.net ) for China, the risk of under-reporting of certain countries languages and regions exists. Another issue is the attribution of the origin of papers Usually, the attribution is assigned according to the location of the principal, first o corresponding author. This means that the attribution of where work has been don will exclude the location of junior authors in the multi-authored papers, which ar now very common. +The analysis below shows the global results analyzed by region of scientific paper published on oceanography from one database for scientific papers which has a wid coverage — Sclmago (http://www.scimagojr.com/). Although the papers used ar classified sensu lato as “oceanography”, the data base lists articles in 122 journal with a broader scope than what is usually understood as “oceanography” in the stric sense (Appendix). The journals covered are those that were regularly published i 209 distinct jurisdictions, national or otherwise (described as “countries an territories” in the data base) over the 17 years between 1996 and 2013. +During the 19 years of the data base, a healthy, clear, positive trend of increasin scientific contributions on oceanography each year from around 7,000 to nearl 14,000 altogether is shown (Figure 1). On the other hand, the number of countrie from which contributors are drawn has shown only a slight increase of about 20 ne countries in 17 years, probably due to the fact that the database is reaching th upper limit of the number of countries. +© 2016 United Nations + +# papers per year +1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 2000 +123 45 67 8 9 1011121314151617 +Figure 1. Increase in number of scientific papers on oceanography. Adapted from Analysis of Sclmago 2014. +When the countries and territories are grouped into eight regions, the followin breakdown emerges of the origins of the 213,760 articles published between 199 and 2013 (Figure 2). +| West_Eur +|= N_Amer += Asi EastEur +™ WestPac += LA Middle East +@Ss Africa +Figure 2. Geographic areas of origin of scientific papers on oceanography 1996 — 2013. Source Analysis of Sclmago 2014. +These proportions per region, with North America and Western Europe having th highest number, do not differ significantly from those obtained when analyzin papers from other scientific disciplines. This suggests that they accurately reflect th level of scientific activity in general, not merely a situation specific to the marin sciences, and therefore that this analysis may reflect common, broad issues o available research infrastructure, investment and institutional development that, +© 2016 United Nations + +together with appropriate national policies, do control the development of scientifi research in general. +3.2 Status and trends relating to equipment +Almost as important as the personnel involved in marine scientific research are th facilities available to them. It is even more difficult than with the personnel to gai an overall view of how far researchers studying the marine environment hav adequate equipment. Nevertheless, one indication can be gained from the availabl information about research vessels. The University of Delaware in the US maintains an online catalogue of research vessels, including both surface an submersible vessels, and their cruise schedules (www.researchvessels.org ). Thi covers 836 research vessels based in 59 countries, including both publicly owned an commercial research vessels. Again, given that it relies on voluntary recording, it i not comprehensive, but gives a general impression of the distribution of researc vessels. Judging by their size, many of these vessels are for coastal operations: 22 are less than 20 m length, while only 138 larger than 80 m. Of those with ocea going capabilities 179 are clustered between 40 and 60 m and 139 between 60 an 80 m. The different capabilities of the vessels can be roughly assessed by the type o equipment they have. All vessels in the database have echo-sounding capabilities while only 187 are equipped with Conductivity, Temperature and Depth probe (CTDs), 124 with Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP), 116 with multi-bea mapping systems and 57 with dynamic positioning systems. Of all the reported flee 129 have icebreaker capabilities and 103 can berth and deploy remotely operate vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) or submersibles. It is likel that many members of the modal classes (40-80 m length) are fisheries R/V o multipurpose platforms capable of fisheries survey capabilities (acoustic or standar trawling). Table 2 shows an analysis of the areas in which these research vessels ar based. +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 2. Marine Research Vessels +Geographic Area Number of Research | Largest number recorded in th of the World Vessels reported Geographic Area by one Stat Africa 6 4 (South Africa) +Asia 179 108 (Japan) +Eastern Europe 153 116 (Russian Federation Western Europe 184 39 (United Kingdom) +North America 288 230 (USA) +Oceania 10 7 (Australia) +Latin America and | 29 7 (Argentina) +Caribbean +Total 849 +Source: Analysis of IRVSI 2014. +Even with the limited information available, this analysis shows a preponderance o research vessels based in the northern hemisphere. Closer analysis suggests that th vessel capacities for research in the Indian Ocean, in other parts of the water around Africa and in much of the Pacific Ocean are also limited. Anecdota information suggests that this imbalance is also applicable to other equipmen needed for marine scientific research. +4. Collaboration in Marine Scientific Research +One way of overcoming imbalances in national capabilities to undertake marin scientific research is through international joint activities. +Oceanography has always been considered as an international endeavour. Th organizers of the Challenger Expedition, that conventionally marks the origin o modern oceanography, took every step necessary to secure the contribution of th best international specialists of the time to produce the fifty volumes of th Challenger Report, containing the results of the Expedition. The first efforts in th study of the North Sea, North Atlantic and the Arctic were also international, an gave rise to the creation in 1902 of the International Council for the Exploration o the Sea (ICES), which plays a fundamental role in codifying the methodologies tha enable progress in physical and chemical oceanography. +After the Second World War, the main event that brought together internationa scientific cooperation was the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58 Although the IGY included some oceanographic research, this was not its main focu and the oceanographic community reacted to this situation by planning a majo international expedition to the least-known ocean basin at the time: the Indian +© 2016 United Nations 7 + +Ocean. +These initiatives gave rise to two international institutions: first, the Scientifi Committee of Ocean Research (SCOR) under the International Council of Scientifi Unions (ICSU) in 1957 to coordinate ocean research in the IGY, and then th IOC/UNESCO in December 1960, following a recommendation of the Firs Oceanographic Congress held in July 1960 in the Danish Parliament. During th International Indian Ocean Expedition, the IOC coordinated the efforts of 27 nation employing over 40 oceanographic research vessels in more than 70 cruises in th Indian Ocean during 1962-1965. +Later SCOR and IOC, through the regular organization of the Joint Oceanographi Assemblies, kept the focus of the community on the design of international researc programmes. For example, the Committee on Climatic Changes and the Ocean sponsored by SCOR and IOC, is at the origin of two global research projects o primarily physical studies: the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) and th Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere Study (TOGA) also co-sponsored by the Worl Climate Research Programme (WCRP). WCRP was established in 1980 under th joint sponsorship of ICSU and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) an since 1993 the IOC has also sponsored it. +In the 1980s two major international programmes requiring ocean going capabilitie were co-sponsored by SCOR, the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programm (IGBP) and jointly with IOC: first the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), focusin on the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle, and second the Global Ocea Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC) programme. Over ten years GLOBEC developed seve regional comparative studies to understand marine ecosystem responses to globa changes, including both environmental and human pressures, and produced ove 3,500 publications, including 30 special issues of primary journals. The Integrate Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research (IMBER) programme has followe GLOBEC. +SCOR and IOC/UNESCO have also developed the Global Ecology and Oceanograph of Harmful Algal Blooms (GEOHAB) Programme with a focus on obtaining a understanding of the ecological and oceanographic conditions that cause harmfu algal blooms and promote their development. Other international programmes ar the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and the Census of Marine Life, a ten yea effort focusing on the biology of the ocean that mobilized more than 2,70 scientists, published 3,100 scientific papers and described 1,200 new species fo science, leaving as one of its legacies the Ocean Biodiversity Information Syste (OBIS), the largest repository of marine biodiversity to date. +In the domain of marine geology and geophysics, the Integrated Ocean Drillin Programme, that initially built and operated the R/V “Glomar Challenger” in th seventies, was followed after October 2013 by the International Ocean Discover Programme (IODP) currently operating the R/V “JOIDES Resolution”. Thes international programmes were instrumental in developing the technology to dril the sea floor and to obtain the long cores that provide a wealth of research activitie expanding our knowledge in different areas, including plate tectonics an seismology. +© 2016 United Nations + +In geochemistry, the Geochemical Ocean Sections Study, GEOSECS, obtained ver accurate sections and profiles of the distribution of chemical, isotopic, an radiochemical tracers in the ocean, building a global three-dimensional view of th chemical composition, including alkalinity, of the ocean, enabling the establishmen of a solid baseline to measure acidification worldwide. GEOSECS is now bein followed by GEOTRACES, which is measuring the distributions of trace elements i the sea. +4.1 The development of a permanent infrastructure to observe the Ocean. +Perhaps one of the most fundamental changes in marine scientific research was th realization that what was needed to underpin many of the more focused or loca research efforts was a common infrastructure to observe the oceans at the globa but also at other relevant temporal and spatial scales. In the late 1980s oceanographers had come to realise that the ocean played a tremendousl important role in the climate system through its ability to store large amounts o heat and to move this source of energy for the atmosphere slowly around the globe Accordingly, understanding and forecasting climate change was seen to requir observations over much longer periods of time, than the time-limited experiment such as the ocean observations done during the First GARP* Global Experimen (FGGE) during 1978-79 or the TOGA study, which ran from January 1985 t December 1994. +In 1989 IOC’s Technical Committee for Ocean Processes and Climate (TC/OPC recommended the design and implementation of a global operational observin system. The WMO Executive Council endorsed that call in June 1989, as did the 15t IOC Assembly in July 1989. Finally, in June of 1990, the Intergovernmental Panel fo Climate Change (IPCC) called for a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) which wa endorsed by the Second World Climate Conference in September 1990, that sa GOOS as a major component of the proposed Global Climate Observing Syste (GCOS). In February 1991, the TC/OPC agreed that the concept of GOOS should b broadened to include physical, chemical and biological coastal ocean monitoring climate was no longer to be the sole focus. In May 1991, WMO's 11th Congres accepted to co-sponsor the GOOS. +Existing physical oceanographic observing systems developed over the years b UNESCO/IOC became fundamental building blocks of GOOS. For example, the |OC’ global sea-level observing system (GLOSS) and the joint IOC/WMO Integrated Globa Ocean Services System (IGOSS), which included the Ship-of Opportunity Programm and the drifting and other buoys of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel. +The creation of GOOS reflected the desire of many nations to establish systems o ocean observations dealing with environmental, biological and pollution aspects o the ocean and coastal seas, to raise the capacity of developing nations to acquir and use ocean data effectively and to integrate existing systems of observation an data management within a coherent framework. +? GARP is the Global Atmosphere Research Programme +© 2016 United Nations + +That desire was reflected in the call made in Rio de Janeiro from the United Nation Conference on Environment and Development in June 1992 to develop GOOS as on of the mechanisms required to support sustainable development. This required tha the initial focus on climate research had to be enlarged to include other aspects, lik the impact of pollution and the status of marine living resources. The Health of th Ocean (HOTO) Panel was established as an ad hoc group in 1993, and became formal advisory group to J-GOOS in 1994. An ad hoc Living Marine Resources (LMR Panel met in 1993 and in 1996, and an ad hoc Coastal Panel met in 1997. +IOC/UNESCO and WMO gave first priority to the implementation of the physica oceanographic component of GOOS, as the ocean component of the climat observing system GCOS. This part of GOOS has been successfully in operation sinc 2005; however the development of the other parts of GOOS has continued as ne technologies emerge and mature, enabling the automatic long-term measurement of chemical and biological variables. +4.2 Operating Systems of GOOS +Although fundamentally underpinning most of the research conducted t understand the role of the ocean in climate change, strictly speaking GOOS is not research project. GOOS should be better recognized as a large and distribute scientific facility or infrastructure, equivalent to the large observatories o astrophysics or the big accelerators of particles of physics. This section describes it components (IOC/GOOS, 2015). +4.2.1 Surface moorings +Surface moorings are large fixed buoys, moored to the bottom of the ocean, mostl deployed in the Equatorial region. They measure surface winds, air temperature relative humidity, sea-surface temperature and subsurface temperatures from 500-m-long thermistor chain hanging below the buoy. Daily data are broadcast t shore through satellite links (TAO, 2015). +4.2.2 Argo Profiling Floats Programme +The Argo floats are autonomous observation systems which drift with ocean current making detailed physical measurements of the upper 2 kilometres of the wate column. Floating along at a depth of 2,000 metres, every 10 days an Argo floa awakens and increases its buoyancy by pumping fluid into an external bladder During its journey upward through the water column, it records the conductivit (salinity) of the seawater, its temperature, and pressure. Once at the surface, th Argo float finds its geographical position via global positioning systems (GPS) an transmits its data by satellite to Argo data centres. After completing the upwar profile it decreases its buoyancy and sinks again, collecting a similar record on th trip down to 2000 m. The information is joined with data from over 3,000 othe Argo floats to form a synoptic 3-D view of the ocean in near real tim (http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/index.html). +About 800 profiling floats are deployed on a yearly basis by a number of States Between 2004 and 2009, 26 States deployed at least one float to maintain a global +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +array of 3,200 units, spaced 3° by 3° of latitude and longitude. Profiling floa technology has evolved to reach the initial desired five-year lifetime, and a floa deployed today will probably last between 5 and 10 years. Argo floats spend 90 pe cent of their time at 2,000-m depth and on average rise to the surface every ten day to transmit their data. +This system has revolutionized oceanography since its inception in 1998 through th Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) programme and the Global Ocea Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE). +Argo floats take more than 100,000 salinity and temperature profiles each year more than 20 times the number of annual hydrography profiles taken from researc ships. The Argo array is maintained by the active engagement of 30 countries tha contribute floats and ship-time for the deployments. The original engineerin specifications of the floats were made available to many research institutions aroun the world and floats are now made in several countries. The International Arg Steering Team oversees technically the project and operations are monitored at th Argo Information Centre, a part of the IOC — WMO, Joint Technical Commission o Oceanography and Marine Meteorology - operational centre (JCOMMOPS). +Argo data have transformed ocean circulation studies. Today Argo data are routinel assimilated into global circulation models, giving accurate and timely global views o the circulation patterns and heat distribution of the ocean. This product has becom an essential element of atmospheric forecast models and greatly improves seasona climate, monsoon, El Nifio forecasts, as well as tropical cyclone simulations. Th value of subsurface heat content measurements to the study of global warming an climate change has made the Argo an invaluable component of 21*-centur environmental observation systems. +4.2.3 The Ship-of-Opportunity Programme (SOOP). +Ships of opportunity are usually ordinary cargo ships on regular routes, whos owners and crew agree to carry and, where necessary, operate oceanographi equipment during their regular voyages. Other types of vessel are also used. Th Ship-of-Opportunity Programme (SOOP) and its Implementation Panel (SOOPIP) is a operational programme under the intergovernmental governance of the Joint WMO IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM) The primary goal of SOOP is to satisfy upper-ocean data requirements which hav been established by GOOS and GCOS, and which can be met at present b measurements from ships of opportunity (SOO). +SOOP operates a global network of Expendable Bathythermograph (XBT) an ThermoSalinoGraphs (TSG) systems on board of merchant ships, from which data ar transmitted in real time and made available to the oceanographic an meteorological communities for operational use in ocean models and for othe scientific purposes. Around 14,000 XBT probes are launched every year and mor than 30,000 TSG observations are collected annually. Other types of measurement are also made. The following devices are commonly used: +(a) XBT (Expendable BathyThermograph) is an expendable (disposable temperature- and depth-profiling system; +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(b) TSG (ThermoSalinoGraph) is an automated sea-surface temperature an salinity measurement system for making continuous underwa measurements from the ship's water intake; +(c) CTD is an electronic set of instruments to make precise conductivity temperature, and depth measurements. The instrument is connected t the ship by a conducting cable; Accuracies better than 0.005 mS/cm ar usually achieved for conductivity, better than 0.002° C for temperature and better than 0.1 per cent of full-scale range for depth; +(d) XCTD is an expendable (disposable) conductivity, temperature and dept profiling system. +(e) ADCP (Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler). A beam of sound of know frequency is reflected from small particles moving with the water Adequate sampling of this backscattering beam allows curren measurements by the Doppler effect at different depths. ADCPs can, fo example, be installed on the hull of the ship “looking downwards” o lowered from a ship to different depths to measure a wider range o current profiles. An accurate GPS positioning system can then be used o a moving ship to subtract the ship's speed from the measured curren vector; +(f) pCO2. Measurements of the "partial pressure of CO2" (pCO2) on th ocean surface indicate whether the local ocean is acting as a source or sink of CO., Measurements use a standardized infrared analyzer or a ga chromatograph to determine the concentration of CO2. The probe i installed in the hull of a ship, and measurements can be made while th ship is under way. Partial pressure of CO: in the air can also be measured Accuracies in the order of 0.2 parts per million can be achieved. +4.2.4 Hydrography +The direct sampling of ocean water by lowering bottles from a ship and bringin water samples up on board ship for analysis remains one of the fundamental tools o ocean observations. A CTD rosette, equipped with Niskin bottles, is lowered to it deepest point and then as it is winched up to the ship the bottles are closed, one at time, capturing a CTD profile of the water column along the way. The water can b sampled for CO2, chlorophyll, microorganisms, biogeochemistry, and a wide variet of other uses. The International Ocean Carbon Coordinating Programme and th CLIVAR Programme organize and coordinate major hydrography cruises an maintain databases of tens of thousands of hydrography profiles taken throughou the world’s ocean. These programmes provide essential data streams for GOOS, a they provide precise and accurate in situ measurements that benchmar observations measuring the penetration of heat in the ocean or the changes i alkalinity, monitoring the ocean’s uptake of CO, that is changing the ocean acidit levels. +4.2.5 Surface drifting buoys +The Global Drifter Programme manages the deployment of surface drifting buoy around the world. These simple buoys take measurements of seawater-surface +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +temperature, salinity and marine meteorological variables that are telemetered i real time through the WMO’s Global Telecommunications System (GTS) to suppor global meteorological services, climate research and monitoring. The surface drifter are a flexible component of GOOS and can be deployed quickly for such tasks a monitoring an approaching typhoon. The global array is designed to use 1,250 buoy to cover the oceans at a resolution of one per 5° x 5° of latitude and longitude. Thi array provides over 630,000 sea-surface observations per year. The surfac temperature data are used to calibrate satellite temperature imagery, bringing bia errors down from 0.7° Celsius to less than 0.3° C, allowing accurate climate-chang monitoring. Along with the Argo profilers, the surface drifter programme ha contributed to the success of a real-time monitoring system of the oceans, enablin much more accurate weather and climate forecasts. +4.2.6 Continuous Plankton Recorder +Launched over the side of a research vessel, merchant ship, or other vessel o opportunity, the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) captures plankton from th near-surface waters as the ship tows the instrument during its normal sailing. Sinc 1946, the CPR has been regularly deployed in the North Atlantic and North Sea o several routes. The CPR is a critical component of GOOS and monitors the near surface plankton in the North Atlantic and North Sea on a monthly basis from network of shipping routes. Many other tracks around the world are now covered b the CPR programme. The amounts and types of phytoplankton and zooplankto captured by the CPR are analyzed in a laboratory. After analysis, the counts ar checked and added to the CPR database, which contains details of the plankto found in over 170,000 samples taken since 1946 in the North Sea and North Atlanti Ocean, and increasingly elsewhere. +4.2.7 Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) +The Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) is an international programm conducted under the auspices of the JCOMM of the WMO and the IOC. I coordinates a network of sea-level monitoring gauges installed along the coasts o over 70 countries. The main component of GLOSS is the “Global Core Network (GCN) of 290 sea-level stations around the world for long-term climate-change an oceanographic sea-level monitoring. Each station is capable of accurately monitorin sea-level changes with high accuracy, and many are able to transmit information i real time via satellite links. The GLOSS sub-network that transmits in real time is par of the global tsunami warning systems. +Real-time measurements of water-level changes can provide tsunami warnings fo locations surrounding the affected sea basins. Sea-level observations are also usefu for local navigation and continual refinement of tide-table predictions. Tide gauge measure rising water levels from storms and extreme tides, which can b responsible for billions of United States dollars in damage and lost productivity ever year. +4.3 Ocean Biological Dat As a result of the ten-year-long effort by the Census of Marine Life, a significant +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +increase in biological data took place. This new data was integrated to pre-existin data into the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBI http://www.coml.org/global-marine-life-database-obis ). Several of these new dat streams are associated to the tagging and tracking of live animals, for example th Tagging of Pacific Pelagics (TOPP) programme in Western North America and th Australian Animal Tracking and Monitoring System (AATAMS). The tagging of marin animals, fish, birds, turtles, sharks, mammals, with electronic sensors is increasingl being undertaken by scientists worldwide to track their movements. Electronic tag such as archival, pop-up archival and satellite positioning tags are revealing when where and how marine animals travel, and how these movements relate to th ocean environment. (http://www.scor-int.org/observations.htm). An Ocean Trackin Network is being developed. The network will track thousands of marine animal around the world using acoustic tags safely attached to the animals. At the sam time, the network will be building a record of data relevant to climate change through observation of changes in the animals’ patterns of movement. +5. Socioeconomic aspects of marine scientific research +Three major points emerge from the foregoing analyses and the material in othe chapters on the results of marine scientific research in the fields they cover. +First, the success of the management of human activities that affect the marin environment is conditional upon having reliable information about tha environment. If adequate information is not being collected, then managemen decisions will be less than optimal. Parts of the world that do not have adequat infrastructure for an adequate collection of information about their local marin environment are disadvantaged. Although research based in other parts of th world may provide a good understanding of how the marine ecosystems operate and of the pressures to which they are subject, such a general understanding mus be supplemented by adequate local information. Such collection of loca information is always likely to be more efficient, effective and economical. +Second, as the world’s marine environment is very much interconnected, sub optimal management in one part of the world is likely to affect the quality of th marine environment in other parts of the world. This is the case of land-based point sources of pollution that, depending on circulation, can broadcast their negativ impacts across maritime borders; or if stocks of marine living resources are not wel managed in one part of the world, diminishing the landings of a certain target species, this may increase fishing pressure on the same or similar species in othe parts of the world. +Third, even though universities and other educational establishments produce good quality marine experts throughout the world, graduates will experience pressure t move to those parts of the world where they can hope to have access to the bes equipment for their further research. It is only in that way that they can hope t develop their careers most successfully. Such a “brain drain” will undermine effort to establish adequate marine research in all parts of the world until appropriate local +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +conditions for the development of scientific research exist. +6. Environmental impacts of marine scientific research +Any observation of a natural system has the risk that it will disturb that system Proper design of marine scientific research can reduce, or even eliminate, this risk. I is particularly important that efforts that aim at improving the understanding o marine ecosystems should not damage those ecosystems. +The IOC has an important role in establishing safeguards for marine researc projects that risk adversely affecting the marine environment. Efforts have bee increasingly made to address this task. The International Ship Operators forum answering to concerns of the impact of both ship operations and marine scientifi research operations, developed a Code of Conduct for Marine Scientific Researc Vessels that was approved at the 21™ International Ship Operators Meeting (ISUM in Qingdao, China. The code calls for “the utilisation of environmentally responsibl practices” (...) and to “adopt the precautionary approach as the basis for th proposed mitigation measures”. “Every vessel conducting marine science shoul develop a marine environmental management plan” which “should be designed t employ the most appropriate tool(s) to collect the scientific information whil minimizing the environmental impact.” Among the activities addressed by the cod are: dredging, grab & core sampling, lander operations, trawling, moorin deployments, remotely operated vehicle (ROV) sampling, jetting system operation for cable burial, high intensity lighting for camera operations. +Other example can be taken from the Argo floats programme. Every year, about per cent of floats are beached or trapped in fishing nets. These are recovered secured and redeployed when possible, or recycled through a procedur coordinated by JCOMMOPS. All other floats finish their mission at depth, which i the best compromise found to date to limit the impact on the environment: (1) t avoid energy consumption to recover the instruments at sea by the use of moto vessels, and (2) to avoid having floats drifting at the surface for a long time (after set of predefined cycles) and becoming a potential issue for navigation. The tota mass of float hardware reaching the sea floor every year (less than 30 tons), an more precisely the small fraction of polluting material inside, can be more than fairl compared to old metro trains sunk to provide structure for artificial reefs, merchan ships, fishing vessels, off-shore stations, lost containers and decommissione offshore oil platforms, that sink to or stay on the sea floor. +Technological improvement now allows the use of a_ bi-directiona telecommunication system, which can “control” the behaviour of the platform b sending new configuration parameters and receiving data. About 30per cent of th Argo array is now equipped with this system. A float can then be asked to stay a surface to await its imminent retrieval. This is already being done today in pilo projects, and is used in particular to recover biogeochemical floats, which ar equipped with expensive sensors and require some_ post-calibration. Th involvement of civil society (for example, the yachting community, non- +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +governmental organizations and foundations) and industry in offering deploymen opportunities to cover large ocean areas can be also a way to improve retrieva capacity. This requires a large networking capacity and is encouraged by IO through its operational Centre JCOMMOPS. The manufacturers of floats are als encouraged, with rest of the world industry, to use environmentally friendl materials, whenever possible. As Argo is the main pillar of the ocean climate warnin system, the ratio between advantages and disadvantages for the environment i judged to be more than satisfactory by the marine scientific research community and at the same time that community continues to develop strategies to mitigate it impact. +Another example of the development of precautions against damage to the marin environment from marine scientific research concerns hydrothermal vents. In th 1990s, an international organization called Interridge was established and is toda supported by China, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the Unite States of America, together with Canada, India, Norway, Portugal and the Republic o Korea as associates, to pool resources for the investigation of oceanic ridges. Withi this framework, recommendations have been developed on how to protec hydrothermal vents during research (Interridge, 2001). This provides a helpful mode for developing protocols to ensure that marine scientific research does not harm th very objects that it wants to study. +7. Conclusions and capacity-building and information gaps +Major disparities exist in the capacities around the world to undertake the marin scientific research necessary for proper management of human activities that ca affect the marine environment. The other chapters of this Assessment demonstrat how these disparities constrain the tasks of managing these human impacts Capacities to undertake marine scientific research exist in most parts of the world. +Although a full assessment of all the existing programmes of capacity development i beyond the scope of this chapter, several long-standing international programme have addressed these disparities. For example, the Train-Sea-Coast Programme established in 1993 by the United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law o the Sea (DOALOS) with initial funding from the United Nations Developmen Programme and then by the Global Environment Facility, although now closed aimed to build capabilities to enhance national/regional capabilities on key trans boundary topics/problems in coastal and ocean-related matters. Topics addresse were quite wide, and ranged from coastal zone management, marine pollutio control to marine protected areas and responsible fisheries. On geophysics, th IOC/UNESCO has maintained an annual Training Through Research ocean-goin programme for young students to acquire hands-on experience in the operation, us and interpretation of data from current equipment used in marine geology an geophysics. In the area of living marine resources, the Food and Agricultur Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Norway have developed for the last 4 years the ocean-going Nansen Programme funded by the Norwegian Agency fo Development Cooperation (Norad) and executed in a partnership between the +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Norwegian Institute of Marine Research (IMR) and FAO. The first R/V Dr Fridtjo Nansen was commissioned in October 1974. The third version of the R/V is currentl being built and expected to be commissioned in 2016. The International Seabe Authority (ISA) has three active training streams, the Endowment Fund supportin the participation of qualified researchers from developing countries in cooperativ research on the seabed; the /SA/Contractors Training programme aimed at trainin developing countries’ scientists and managers and the ISA Internship Programm that, in a twofold approach, receives young scientists and managers from developin countries at ISA headquarters to learn about the goals and functions of ISA, but als receives young, highly qualified personnel to reside and contribute for short period to ISA activities. +Many other international training initiatives on marine sciences, bi-lateral o multilateral, do exist, especially in the academic/education domain, but n comprehensive global reporting or cataloguing of these important efforts exists t date. +Gaps remain in the abilities to integrate the results of scientific research into th development of policy: capacity-building gaps thus exist in creating an effectiv science/policy interface first and foremost at the national level, but also at th regional and global levels. +Furthermore, efforts to fill the capacity-building and information gaps identified i other chapters will be much less productive if they are not made against background of developing a global coverage of systems that can provide adequat integrated management information to global, regional and national authorities This will be both more efficient and more economical, because a coherent body o scientific information will ensure that unexpected results of human activities an efforts to manage them will not go undetected, and will avoid duplication an overlap. +As this chapter has suggested, systematic information and knowledge about th progress of marine science is lacking. This therefore strengthens the case fo supporting within the UN System the IOC’s efforts to develop a World Ocean Scienc Report (see Decision EC-XLVII/6.2) that would eventually complement the existin World Science Report of UNESCO. +References +Interridge (2001). Management and Conservation of Hydrothermal Vent Ecosystem (http://www. interridge.org/files/interridge/Management_Vents_May01.pd accessed 29 November 2014). +IOC (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission) (2014). Ocean Expert Directory of Marine and Freshwater Professionals (www.oceanexpert.ne accessed 9 October 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +1OC/GOOS (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission — Global Ocea Observation System) (2015). http://www.ioc-goos.org/ accessed 9 Octobe 2015. +IRVSI (2014). University of Delaware, International Research Vessels Schedules an Information (http://www.researchvessels.org/ accessed 9 October 2014). +Sclmago (2014). Sclmago Journal and Country Rank Porta (http://www.scimagojr.com/ accessed 6 August 2014). +TAO (Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project) (2015) http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao accessed 15 July 2015. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_30.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_30.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_31.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_31.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..3801da6fb21fdbba9b992e8b92d2d85578537153 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_31.txt @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +Chapter 31. Conclusions on Other Human Activities +Contributor: Alan Simcock (Lead member) +1. The nature and magnitude of the human activities +1.1 Communications and transport +The network of shipping routes covers the whole ocean. There are particular chok points, where large numbers of ships pass through relatively limited areas, wit consequent increases in the risks of both disasters and chronic pollution problems The impending opening of the Panama Canal to larger ships will tend to modify th pattern of ship movements. Global warming is likely to lead to more use of th routes between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Arctic waters, wit increased risks to ecosystems that have slow recovery times, and wher infrastructure for response to disasters does not currently exist. Shipping traffi grows in relation to world trade, and considerable further growth is therefore likely Cargo ships have been steadily increasing in size, but limits are probably bein reached because of the draught limitations of some of the world’s choke points More emphasis is being placed in many areas on coastwise movement of goods b ship to reduce pressures on roads. Passenger shipping is largely divided into cruis ships and ferries. The cruise-ship market is growing steadily and is also moving t larger vessels. Ferries are most important around the Baltic Sea, the North Sea an the Mediterranean Sea (where there are large international cargo movements ove relatively short crossings) and in States with a large scatter of islands (such a Greece, Indonesia and the Philippines). +Ports form the nodes of the network of shipping routes. General cargo ports hav changed completely over the past 50 years with the introduction of containerization A hierarchy of these ports is developing, with transhipment as cargoes are cascade to the ports nearest to their final destinations. Specialized oil and gas ports ar naturally located near the sources of supply and the major centres of demand. Thi pattern is likely to change as a result of changes in the oil and gas markets. Othe bulk terminals respond to the same drivers. In some cases, there are challenge because of the location of sources of supply or established delivery centres nea important sites for marine ecosystems and biodiversity. +Submarine cables likewise cross nearly all ocean basins. The development of fibre optic cables in the 1980s permitted the parallel development of the internet Submarine pipelines linking land-terminals are relatively limited in their coverage being mainly found in the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea and the waters aroun the United Kingdom. The environmental challenges that they present are the sam as those for pipelines linked to offshore oil and gas operations. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.2 Waste +All parts of the ocean are affected by waste materials arriving by a variety of routes Waste can take the form of discharges of liquid waste from land and emissions t the air, of dumping solid waste and other matter at sea, and of marine debri resulting from poor management of waste on land, discharges of garbage by ship and loss of fishing gear. Areas of particular concern are large conurbations, wher large amounts of human bodily waste have to be disposed of, and areas of heav industrial concentrations. Sewage from areas of high human population does no inevitably cause problems, since it can be treated to remove the potential to caus problems. However, in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries there is a lack of adequate sewage collection and treatment systems, and larg amounts of untreated sewage are discharged to the sea. Much progress is bein made in some places (particularly South America), but there is still a vast amount o further installation needed. Likewise, methods exist to avoid discharges o hazardous substances from industries, or to control them to acceptable levels, bu these are not being applied everywhere. In this context, the massive growth o chemical industries in East Asia over the past decade-and-a-half presents particula difficulties. High levels of use of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides are also leadin to discharges and emissions of nutrients and hazardous substances. Recent studie suggest that windborne transport of all these kinds of emissions is causing problem in the open ocean. +1.3 Extractive industries +Offshore oil and gas exploration and development is focussed in specific geographi areas where important oil fields have been discovered. Notable offshore fields ar found: in the Gulf of Mexico; in the North Sea; off the coast of California (in th Santa Barbara basin), United States; in the Campos and Santos Basins off the coast o Brazil; off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada; off West Africa, mainly west o Nigeria and Angola; in the Gulf of Thailand; off Sakhalin Island on the Russian Pacifi coast; in the Persian Gulf, on the Australian North West Shelf and off the west coas of New Zealand. +Offshore mining is a localised activity and is currently limited to relatively close t the shore. The activity on the largest scale is sand and gravel dredging, which take place in Canada, Denmark, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and th United States. Other minerals extracted from the seabed include tin, titanium ore and diamonds. Countries where such activities are currently active include Australia Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa an Thailand. Other minerals currently being considered for extraction include gol (Alaska, United States) and iron (New Zealand — where currently a permit has bee refused by the Environmental Protection Authority). The impacts are largely in th form of smothering the seabed. As regards deep-sea mining in the Area (the seabe and ocean floor and their subsoil beyond national jurisdiction) no actual extractio has yet started. Without careful management of such activities, there is a risk tha the biodiversity of areas affected could be destroyed before it is properl understood. +© 2016 United Nations + +1.4 Coastal zone +All around the world, there is a constant interaction between sea and land. On rock coasts, changes usually take place over geological time. On softer coasts, th changes can happen within a human lifetime. The changes happen both by the se eroding land and by sedimentation creating new land. In many places, human assist these processes, either by undertaking works to protect the land agains erosion, or by reclaiming land from the sea. Significant areas of land reclamatio have occurred in Europe (about 15,000 km?) and in Asia (about 12,000 km?) over th past century. This has lead to losses of much coastal habitat (especially o mangroves, salt marshes and coastal flood plains) and to significant adverse effect from changes in the form of the coast (in particular, the creation of “armoured” artificial coastlines). In comparison, about 15 km? is eroded from the coast o Europe every year. An important driver in reclamation processes is the increasin proportion of the human population who live in coastal areas. +Tourism and recreation is a major use of the coastal zone. It is also a significan element of many national economies, and (especially in the case of many smal island States) it may be the main support of the local economy. In most cases, th attractions of a coastal tourist resort will lie in beaches, dramatic scenery o interesting flora and fauna (either on land or in the sea), or some combination o these. But the natural attractions have to be linked to the provision of adequat facilities for the tourists. In many cases, therefore, there is an inherent tensio between conserving the natural attractions and developing the necessary facilities. +1.5 Other activities +The other activities discussed in Part V have very distinct profiles. Desalinization i crucial for the States on the southern shore of the Persian Gulf: without it, th present populations of that area could not be supported. The same applies to som island States, such as Malta and Singapore. Elsewhere, it is more of a fall-back fo situations when natural water resources are insufficient, but may have an importan role in avoiding constraints on urban development and in facilitating mining in deser areas. Renewable energy production from the sea (through offshore wind-farms an from wave and tidal power) is still in its infancy in much of the world, but clearly ha great potential for growth. The use of marine genetic resources is also in its infancy Finally, marine scientific research is fundamental for improving the management o all other human activities that affect the ocean. Without adequate coverage of al parts of the ocean, it will be difficult to make progress. +© 2016 United Nations + +2. Socioeconomic aspects of the human activities +2.1 Communications and transport +Shipping is fundamental to the world economy, both for the supply of raw material to those who will process them as well as for the delivery of agricultural an industrial products to consumers. The lead time for the delivery of new ships an the fluctuations in the world economy mean that there are substantial variations i the demand and supply sides of shipping, with consequential effects on th profitability of the industry. Ship-building has become concentrated in East Asia, an ship-breaking in South Asia. The personnel of the industry are drawn mainly fro North America, Europe and South and East Asia, with Africa and South America bein under-represented. At present supply and demand for qualified officers and cre are more or less in balance, but there is a risk of a lack of qualified officers and cre if and when the world economy expands rapidly. Women form only about two pe cent of those employed in shipping, and are mainly on cruise ships and ferries There is a lack of information about deaths and injuries to seafarers. +The move in general cargo shipping to containerization has revolutionized ports investment in machinery that requires skilled operators has ended the need for larg numbers of dockworkers capable of handling heavy loads by hand. The efficiency o port operations is very important for ship-operators. Increasingly, the ports in region are in competition with each other, and the charges are affected by th extent to which port charges are expected to cover the costs of construction an maintenance of ports and their road links to the hinterland. The quality of por infrastructure and operations varies widely, although many developing countrie achieve the highest standards in both. +The provision of submarine cables is driven by demand for internet bandwidth. Thi shows no signs of slowing its growth. Submarine cables to carry the traffic ar mainly provided by consortiums of telecommunications companies, internet servic providers and private-sector investors. The market appears to be working smoothly. +2.2 Waste +The socioeconomic aspects of waste reaching the sea have both direct and indirec features. Waterborne pathogens are commonly carried with sewage. These ca seriously affect human health, both through bathing in contaminated water, an through eating fish and seafood contaminated with them. Other wastes hav socioeconomic implications by affecting food quality and through their effects o fish and other species used for food by, for example, adverse effects o reproduction. More indirectly, effects of waste on water quality can damag tourism and reduce the aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem service that humans get from the sea. +© 2016 United Nations + +2.3 Extractive industries +The offshore oil and gas industries are significant for the economies of the countrie that have started them: the industry accounts for about 21 per cent of Norway' gross domestic product (GDP), 35 per cent of Nigeria’s GDP, 3.5 per cent of th United Kingdom’s GDP and 1.5 per cent of United States GDP. The number of peopl employed is relatively small: estimated at 200,000 worldwide. +Compared with land-based mining, the extraction of minerals from the seabed is very small-scale activity. The United Kingdom industry for extracting sand and grave seems to be the largest, with 400 employees. +2.4 Coastal zone +Since a high proportion of humans live in the coastal zone, there is a preoccupatio with making sure that: (1) land used for housing, industry or agriculture is not lost o flooded, (2) the demand for land suitable for urban development and ports (and i some cases agriculture) is met, and (3) existing homes and infrastructure are no destroyed. This leads to a readiness to invest substantial amounts in both coasta protection and land reclamation. The long-term effectiveness of hard engineerin approaches to these tasks has been called into question, and in many parts of th world the approach tends more towards adjusting the natural process of erosion an sedimentation to achieve the desired ends. +As has been said, in many parts of the world, tourism and recreation is a majo economic activity in the coastal zone. It requires a relatively high proportion o labour in preparing and serving food and in cleaning and maintainin accommodations, providing jobs that in many regions are strongly seasonal. A hig proportion of these jobs are filled by women. +2.5 Other activities +Desalinization is essential for the continued existence of many States. It ma likewise be important for avoiding constraints on future economic development i other places. Renewable energy from maritime sources, which is beginning to b implemented in some parts of the world, has a significant potential role to play i mitigating climate change,. The use of marine genetic resources offers possibilitie of finding and applying new marine ecosystem services. Marine scientific research i an essential underpinning of managing the sustainable use of the ocean. +3. Pathways from the human activity to its environmental impacts +3.1 Communications and transport +There are three main pathways by which shipping impacts on the environment: los of ships, chronic discharges and emissions, and noise. +© 2016 United Nations + +Ports also impact on the environment in three main ways: the demand for coasta land (which often leads to reclamation of the necessary land from the sea), change in the form of the coast (with hard coastlines replacing softer ones) and dredging t maintain navigation channels (and the consequent need to dispose of the dredge material). Ports also inevitably lead to concentrations of shipping, and therefor represent areas where the impacts of shipping are equally concentrated. +Submarine cables have very limited environmental impacts, since they are very sli (typically 25 — 40 millimetres wide in the deep sea), and since their routes are usuall chosen to avoid, where possible, areas that may cause problems from botto trawling and ships’ anchors. In soft substrates on continental shelves the cables ar usually buried by ploughing, but again the zone affected is narrow. +3.2 Waste +Waste products reach and affect the marine environment through a variety o routes. Liquid discharges may reach the sea either though discharges to rivers o directly through pipelines. Waste emissions to air can be carried to the sea directly or through run-off from the land on which they are originally deposited. Substance applied to land may volatilize and be re-deposited, either directly to the sea, o through successive re-volatilizations and re-depositions. Solid waste and othe matter may be deliberately dumped into the sea, or may reach it from badly managed waste disposal on land. +3.3 Extractive industries +The offshore oil and gas industries affect the marine environment through six mai pathways: the effects of seismic exploration during the exploration phase; the dril cuttings (and the drilling muds used to lubricate the drills which are mixed wit them) that are discarded on the seabed; the chemicals that are used and discharge during operation; the produced water (and its admixture of oil) that is discharge during production, and which increases in quantity as the wells age; the gas that ma be flared off during production; and the oil spills that may occur. In addition, there i the question of the disposal of offshore production platforms when they ar decommissioned at the end of the field’s life. +Since offshore mining is currently based on dredging, the impacts on the marin environment come from disturbance of the seabed and (except with sand and grave extraction) the discharge of the dredged material that is rejected as not containin the minerals that are sought. Disturbance of the bed of the deep sea by futur mining has considerable potential to harm benthic biodiversity, about which there i as yet limited knowledge. +3.4 Coastal zone +There are two main ways in which anthropogenic change to the natural processes o erosion and sedimentation along the coast affects ecosystems. First, wherever and +© 2016 United Nations + +however the anthropogenic change happens, there are likely to be consequentia changes in the processes elsewhere in the general neighbourhood. Secondly, suc change usually involves moving from soft shore forms (gravel, sand or mud) to har shore forms (stone or concrete). In addition to these two processes, changes in lan affecting river regimes (for example, through the building of dams) tend to reduc the flow of sediment from land to sea, weakening beach replenishment, as well a weakening the force of rivers, which can lead to the extension of sand bars at thei mouths. +Significant provision of tourist and recreational facilities usually leads to majo changes in the shore environment. Hard shorelines can replace soft ones. Urba development can destroy the natural hinterland of the shore. Night-time lightin can significantly affect habitats. Increased discharges of sewage (especially if no properly treated) can produce the problems associated with excessive nutrien discharges. Regular cleaning of beaches removes the natural detritus which i important for many shore-living birds and animals. +3.5 Other human activities +The pathways by which desalinization can affect the marine environment are mainl through its intakes of seawater and discharges of brine. The energy required fo desalinization can also have important implications when it is provided by th burning of fossil fuels. Most forms of renewable energy generation make substantia demands for ocean space which cannot be used for other purposes. The structure required for wind-farms may have effects on migrating birds, but with prope planning these seem to be limited. Although potential pathways for environmenta effects exist for other forms of human activity, they are currently judged to b minimal. Provided collection of specimens is done with care, there is no reason wh the development of the use of marine genetic resources should adversely affect th marine environment. Marine scientific research has to be involved with all forms o marine biota and habitats, but provided proper protocols are followed, no significan adverse effects should result. +4. Major ecosystem impacts +4.1 Communications and transport +Steady progress has been made in reducing the numbers of ships lost at sea, thu damage to the environment from shipping disasters has dropped significantly particularly in respect of the amounts of oil spilled in such disasters. Regimes hav been established to control chronic discharges from ships, in particular in the form o oil, sewage, garbage and air pollutants. Measures have also been taken to deal wit invasive species carried in ballast water and with wrecks. The challenge now is t improve enforcement of these regimes. Noise from ships may well be a source o significant human impact on marine life. Losses of containers overboard are low. +© 2016 United Nations + +Ports have an important role to play in enforcing the control regime over ships Since they are often in competition with other ports in the region, the regiona memorandums of understanding on port state control have an important function The quality of port reception facilities for waste oil, sewage and garbage is als important in reducing environmental impacts of ports and their users. The disposa of dredged material needs proper management. Even where the material i harmless, it can damage bottom-living plants and animals by smothering them Where the material contains contaminants (usually from historic industria activities), disposal at sea risks remobilizing them and again requires prope management. +Submarine cables have always been at risk of breaks from submarine landslides mainly at the edge of the continental shelf. As the pattern of cyclones, hurricane and typhoons changes, submarine areas that have so far been stable may becom less so, and thus produce submarine landslides and consequent cable breaks. Wit the increasing dependence of world trade on the internet, such breaks (in additio to breaks from other causes, such as ships’ anchors and bottom-trawling) coul delay or interrupt communications vital to that trade. +4.2 Waste +Waste material introduced into the ocean can cause problems for the marin environment in a variety of ways. Hazardous substances (heavy metals, persisten organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides an endocrine disruptors) can be toxic to marine biota, reduce their reproductive succes or weaken their immune systems so that they succumb more easily to disease Excessive discharges and emissions of nutrients (particularly nitrogen compounds from human bodily wastes, animal excreta, food-processing plants, agricultura fertilizers and traffic can produce hypoxic (low oxygen) dead zones in the sea, whic can kill bottom-living plants and animals and reduce fish stocks. They can also caus algal blooms which can smother beaches and which can consist of algae species tha generate toxins harmful both to humans and marine life. Pathogens in human an animal waste can cause illness from contact with the water into which they ar discharged and from food from the sea that they contaminate. All these impact undermine human health and ecosystems and make them much less resilient t other pressures. +4.3 Extractive industries +It is possible to regulate all the pathways by which the offshore oil and gas industrie affect the marine environment to keep the impacts at an acceptable level. Th success of such regulation depends on the regulatory methods chosen and th degree to which they are enforced. The impact of noise disturbance from seismi exploration depends very much on the overlap of the area to be explored with th habitats of marine life that is sensitive to noise. These animals often have seasona patterns of migration, and seismic exploration can be timed so that overlaps do no happen. Information on the impact is limited. The impact of drill cuttings is mainly +© 2016 United Nations + +from the drilling muds with which they are mixed, although some release of metal can occur form the rock cuttings themselves. Regulation of the drilling muds use can control this problem. The same approach can be used to control the chemical used on, and discharged from, offshore installation. Produced water, because of it quantity, has to be discharged to the sea. The problem which it poses is the oi content. This oil content can be largely removed by centrifuges, and an acceptabl level (usually 30 parts per million or less) can be achieved. In the North Sea, step have been taken to tighten limits as the amount of produced water increases. Spill from offshore installations or breaks in pipelines occur. The main safeguard agains such spills is the proper environmental management of the whole operation. In a least one region, steps have been taken to encourage high standards of suc management. There are two main approaches to the removal of decommissione installations. Under 1989 IMO Guidelines, installations should be removed so tha there are 55 metres of clear water over any remains. In the North Sea, removal o the rest of the installation is the norm, although exceptions can be made. In the Gul of Mexico, it is much more usual to allow installations to be placed to form artificia reefs. +For current offshore mining, the main issue are the turbidity created by the dredgin and the management of the disposal of unwanted dredged material. In most cases both are likely to mean that the area mined will be effectively cleared of marin biota. Recovery and the scale and speed of re-colonization after mining has cease in an area will very much depend on local circumstances. +4.4 Coastal zone +The form of consequential changes resulting from anthropogenic changes to th land/sea boundary will depend entirely on local circumstances: it may take the for of promoting erosion that would not otherwise have happened, because th longshore water movements are re-focused, or it may take the form of causin siltation where it has not previously happened, or it may be a mixture of these i different places. Only very careful modelling during the planning process can hop to identify the consequences, and even then the best models can prove not to hav been adequate. Where soft shorelines are replaced with hard shorelines, the loca biota will be affected. It will become more difficult for animals to move from sea t land and back, which may disturb their foraging or breeding patterns. It may als affect local plant communities. Such changes are likely to make the shoreline les resilient. Finally, it will offer a new hard substrate to biota that arrive, which is likel to change the local fish and shellfish communities. The natural consequence o beach erosion is the landward retreat of coastal habitats, but this natural process i hindered by coastal development, which causes so-called “coastal squeeze”; there i no space for the habitats to retreat. Coastal squeeze results in the fragmentatio and removal of some habitats and the species they support. Finally, in areas wher sediment loads have increased above natural levels, impacts include burial o habitat, reduced light levels caused by turbidity, changes to substrate (e.g., mu draping over once rocky habitat), and smothering of coral reefs and other sessil fauna. +© 2016 United Nations + +Tourism and recreational development is likely to produce all the problems o coastal development described above. In addition, it is likely to lead to larg numbers of people walking on the shore (and thus compacting sand and disturbin breeding sites) and using the water (and thus disturbing larger animals and fish (no least with noisy motorized devices), creating oil films on the water surface from sun tan preparations and leaving litter that becomes marine debris). +4.5 Other activities +Any effects of desalinization intakes and discharges are very local — a matter of ten of metres — and even these can be reduced by proper design. The remaining othe activities should not create major environmental impacts, but the use o autonomous floats in marine scientific research needs — and is receiving — care ove their eventual fate. +5. Integration of environmental and socioeconomic trends +5.1 Communications and transport +The levels of activities in shipping and in the ports that it uses, and the demand fo submarine cables, all respond fairly directly to the world economic situation. Th growth of industry in the Pacific basin, especially in the west, means that th pressures from all forms of communications and transport will particularly increas there. Growth in communications and transport activity means that, even if al ships, ports and cables achieve the best currently practicable level of environmenta protection, the pressures from them will nevertheless continue to increase. Sinc the environment is finite, it will only be possible to limit the pressure on th environment to no more than current levels, if improved performance i safeguarding the marine environment against those pressures is achieved. +5.2 Waste +Waste generation has tended to increase at least in step with economic growth. I some ways, economic growth has generated additional forms of waste, particularl through the development of packaging to protect agricultural and industria products. It is only relatively recently that efforts have been devoted to wast minimization. Population and industrial growth means that, even if the bes currently practicable levels of waste reduction and control are generally achieved there will be increasing pressure on the finite marine environment. As with shipping this implies that continuous improvement in environmental protection is needed. +5.3 Extractive industries +The creation of an extractive enterprise is the result of a decision balancing th economic benefits to be gained against the environmental and other impacts. It is +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +therefore important that, when a decision is initially taken, there should be a clea view of what measures will be required to protect the marine environment. There i now widespread understanding of what is required in most environments. Problem arise, however, when the circumstances of a new development are very differen from past experience. This is particularly the case in Arctic conditions, where natura processes to break down contamination will be slower because of the cold. +5.4 Coastal zone +Socioeconomic pressures are likely to be strongly in favour of intervention to reclai land and prevent erosion. With economic growth, there will be pressure for ports t improve their capacities, which is likely to require more land. Short of complet relocation of the port, reclamation of land from the sea may be the only option Equally, where erosion or flooding is threatened, there will always be pressure t safeguard existing investments in housing, industrial buildings and infrastructure. +Because of the economic importance of tourism and recreation in so many places there is usually pressure to extend tourist facilities. The problem is that too great a extension is likely to lead to devaluing the attractions that enabled a tourist industr to develop in the first place, and thus to undermine the justification for an extension. Without integrated coastal zone management to balance economic gai against environmental change, there is a risk that the basis of the economic gain ca be eroded. +5.5 Other activities +Pressures to increase the amount of desalinization that is carried out will result fro pressures to expand populations in water-poor locations. The economic and socia drivers of such developments are outside the scope of this Assessment. The nee for mitigation of climate change is undeniable, and the economics of expanding th amount of energy produced from marine renewable sources will depend o judgments about how far this form of mitigation is good value. Much of the geneti diversity in our seas and oceans remains unknown and relatively unexplored Without marine scientific research, it will be difficult (if not impossible) to achiev and maintain sustainable management of all human activities affecting the sea. +6. Environmental, economic and social influences +6.1 Communications and transport +The global shipping industry has recognized the need for improvement of it environmental performance. States have thus adopted, through the Internationa Maritime Organization (IMO), a range of measures to try to improve the industry’ performance. Enforcement of these measures is crucial. The IMO has now started collective process to improve the performance of its members in this enforcement. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +For submarine cables, the International Cable Protection Committee brings togethe cable owners, maintenance authorities, cable system manufacturers, cable shi operators, cable route survey companies and governments to consider all aspects o ensuring the safety of submarine cables and reducing their impact on th environment. +6.2 Waste +Global systems have been put in place to control persistent organic pollutants an mercury. These offer the possibility that the impacts of some forms of hazardou substances on the marine environment will be brought under control. In som regions (for example, the European Union), more general systems have been set u for controlling present and future chemicals that are placed on the market. There i general recognition in most international investment programmes of the need t improve sewage collection and treatment in many developing countries. The Globa Programme of Action to Protect the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activitie provides a framework within which States can consider their overall approach t these problems. The challenge is to make all these various steps operational. +6.3 Extractive industries +Offshore oil and gas extraction is usually significantly more expensive than extractio on land by normal drilling processes. Placer mining from the coastal seabed however, may well not be much more expensive than winning the same minerals o land. Commitment to offshore developments will therefore depend on judgement about future demand, costs and prices. The hydrocarbon market is currentl changing significantly with the emergence of new sources such as “fracking” and th Athabasca oil sands. The global market in hydrocarbons, and the other mineral mined from the seabed, will therefore determine the pressures to develop marin extractive industries further. However, in the longer term, the increasing difficultie of sourcing minerals on land are likely to increase the interest in mining the bed o the deep sea. The International Seabed Authority is charged with regulating suc activity in the Area. +6.4 Coastal zone +In the absence of integrated coastal zone management, with its capacity to brin together in one decision-making process all the various factors that can affect th sustainability of a coastal zone, there are bound to be problems in balancing th different factors involved in the land/sea interface and in maintaining a successfu tourist industry. +6.5 Other activities +The factors that will affect developments in the other human activities discussed i Part V are those sketched out above. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +7. Capacity building gaps +The capacity-building gaps identified in this Part are summarised in Chapter 3 (Capacity-building in relation to human activities affecting the marine environment). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_31.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_31.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_32.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_32.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..39699afc922148e38fca82d8237a50377203035b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_32.txt @@ -0,0 +1,335 @@ +Chapter 32. Capacity-Building in Relation to Human Activities Affecting +the Marine Environment +Group of Experts: Renison Ruwa, Sean Green, Amanuel Ajawin, Osman Keh Kamara Alan Simcock and Lorna Innis +1. Introduction +The oceans provide various ecosystem services or what are also referred to as th "benefits that people desire from ecosystems" (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). It is therefore necessary to know the types or nature of services that human receive from the oceans and the scale or level of human activities that can be exerte without causing imbalances that could affect sustainability. Achieving sustainabilit requires strong public understanding of the importance of the ocean. This therefor calls for enhanced outreach and communication efforts through the development o mechanisms and partnerships to build capacity for outreach and awarenes programmes. The major types of ecosystem services are described in Chapter 3. Fo sustainability the following are needed: scientific understanding of the services assessment of the level of food production which results from various ecologica processes, in order to address food security and safety; assessment of aesthetic uses o the ocean environment; and the level and type of capacity for studying and managin human activities and their impacts arising from exploitation of the ecosystem services The level of capacity-building reflects, among other things, the efforts at identifyin knowledge gaps in science, technological advances, human skills development an infrastructure. +To fulfil the overall objective of the Regular Process, all States need to address th overall objectives of the Regular Process as set out in the reports of the Ad Hoc Workin Group of the Whole (AHWGW) to the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA (A/64/347, 65/358), and the United Nations Secretary-General’s Report (A65/69/Add.1 (UNGA 2010, UNGA/AHWGW 2009 and 2010). This outcome can only be achieved wit significant efforts at capacity-building. The Regular Process itself therefore promotes facilitates, and, within its capabilities, ensures that capacity-building and technolog transfer are undertaken through promoting technical cooperation, including South South cooperation amongst developing countries and taking gender and equitabl geographical distribution into account. Over the long-term (i.e., beyond this firs Assessment), the Regular Process will support and promote capacity-building throug identifying opportunities and facilitate linkages for international cooperation tha includes technical cooperation and technology transfer with regard to developin countries (in particular the least developed countries, African coastal States and Smal Island Developing States), in order to improve the capacity in these geographical areas +© 2016 United Nations + +to undertake integrated assessments. Substantial capacity-building efforts are bein undertaken by United Nations agencies through technical cooperation programmes. I is also important that gaps are identified and priorities shared so that a coheren programme to support capacity-building in marine monitoring and assessment including socioeconomic aspects, is achieved, The approach for this first baselin Assessment was to conduct integrated assessments using the "Driver Pressure Stat Impact Response" (DPSIR) methodology commonly used to represent human environmental /economic interactions , including scaling up assessments (national, sub regional, regional and global). The workshops were also used as fora to explain th processes for conducting integrated assessments. The workshops were participator and helped to promote ownership of the Regular Process outcomes at various scales Furthermore, the workshops not only added further value in creating and promotin awareness of the Regular Process, but also promoted institutional capacity linkages Various regional and international reviews of capacity-building have been conducted b various agencies. These also provide sources of information for a critical analysis of thi subject, in particular for identification of gaps; therefore this chapter also includes a overview of these regional and international initiatives as per the chapters authored i this section. +This first Assessment has two chapters on capacity-building: one each in Parts V and VI Part V deals with "Assessment of other human activities affecting the marin environment" and includes this chapter on “Capacity-building in relation to huma activities affecting the marine environment.” Part VI, entitled: "Assessment of marin biological diversity and habitats", includes Chapter 53 on “Capacity-building needs i relation to the status of species and habitats”. The topics addressed in the chapters ar based on the DPSIR Methodology as approved by the AHWGW. Furthermore, pursuan to the guidance of the AHWGW, the regional workshops will also contribute t identification of capacity-building strategies to address the approved themes in the tw chapters on capacity-building for regional needs. +2. Outcomes based on regional workshops on capacity-building needs +The analysis showed that for most regions the main capacity needs were cross-cuttin issues among the regions; these are summarized as follows: (i) Data accessibility an data sharing; (ii) The provisions for mentoring and training opportunities for les experienced scientists and practitioners; (iii) Data collection and marine habita mapping to inform management of ecosystems, biodiversity and fisheries; (iv) Need t improve professional capacities to assess socioeconomic issues; and (v) Capacity t conduct integrated and ecosystem-services assessments. +The regional workshops were undertaken in the following regions: south-west Pacifi region (UNGA 2013a), Wider Caribbean region (UNGA 2013b), eastern and southeaster Asian Seas (UNGA 2012a), South-East Pacific region (UNGA 2011), the joint North +© 2016 United Nations + +Atlantic, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean and the Black Sea region (UNGA 2012b), the Wester Indian Ocean (UNGA 2013c), South Atlantic Ocean (UNGA 2013d) and Northern India Ocean (UNGA 2014). The regional outcomes in terms of knowledge gaps and capacit needs were as follows: +2.1 +Capacity needs for marine assessments in the south-west Pacific Region +This workshop was held in Brisbane, Australia, 25-27 February 2013 (UNGA 2013a). Th focus was on linkages and upscaling from national to regional and global scales t promote synergies for building capacity which will include mentoring, learning an cooperation in communication, data and information transfer, as follows: +The production of global marine assessments should be linked to ongoin efforts to support regional (led by the Secretariat of the Pacific Regiona Environment Programme) and national state-of-the-environment reporting an streamlining of reporting arrangements (led by the Pacific Islands Foru Secretariat/Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme). B providing capacity development and other support to these initiatives, th region will be better placed to contribute to and benefit from the Regula Process. The production of global marine assessments should be done in a wa that provides mentoring and learning opportunities for less experience scientists and practitioners. +Active facilitation of involvement of practitioners from Pacific Island countrie and territories in producing global marine assessments, including improve communication efforts to ensure awareness of the opportunity to be involved assistance in registering for the Pool of Experts and resourcing support for an formal recognition of work done will all contribute to capacity-building in thos countries. +A large quantity of data and information exists, but it is often not readil identifiable or accessible. Enhanced regional and national capacities to store access, share and interrogate data and information would assist the productio of global marine assessments and facilitate the meeting of regional and nationa objectives. +Resourcing is a substantial constraint on the capacity of the region to contribut to the production of global marine assessments. This can in part be addressed b the nature, scope and process for the development of assessments that mor deliberately support national and regional objectives, as well as the objective o producing a global report. For example, the global marine assessment coul provide region-specific information and access to the underlying data an information. +Because of the limited capacity of the region to engage in the drafting of thi Assessment, the review stage might be an efficient point for the region to ensur that regional information and perspectives are appropriately reflected therein. second workshop or network among involved practitioners may provide +© 2016 United Nations + +mechanisms for doing this. Similarly, providing support to an appropriate Pacifi regional organization to facilitate and coordinate ongoing regional engagemen may be useful. +2.2 Capacity needs for marine assessments in the Wider Caribbean Region +This workshop was held in Miami, United States of America, 13-15 November 201 (UNGA 2013b). The emphasis was placed on: needs for projects to include capacity building and have specialized research institutions and research vessels offe opportunities for training, including the use of ships of opportunity; specialize research institutions to offer learning and mentoring opportunities, especially data an information analysis and synthesis; building collaboration and networks across experts institutions and a variety of stakeholders, and promoting a culture of manpowe retention for sustaining research in institutions. Other points included: +— Previous or ongoing regional marine assessments, specifically the Caribbea Coastal Marine Productivity Programme, the Caribbean Planning for Adaptatio to Climate Change Project and the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem Project were highlighted as successful cases of capacity-building. +— In some disciplines, such as physical oceanography and remote sensing of th ocean environment, capacity is highly concentrated in a few institutions. In othe disciplines, such as social sciences, it is highly dispersed. +— Access to research vessels (e.g., NOAA ships) and ships of opportunity (e.g. those used in relation to the Living Oceans Foundation) offer opportunities an synergies on a wider scale with advanced technology for enhanced marin assessments. +— Data are often abundant, including data collected by ships of opportunity; th limitation is in the capacity to manage the data, including how to organize, store synthesize and analyse them. Participants discussed the need for nationals t study at institutions where data are already being used and then to bring th expertise home. +— Building collaboration among scientists, resource managers and othe stakeholders is central to capacity-building, especially as it includes building willingness to share and communicate. With this in mind, capacity-building in th region would benefit from establishing and promoting networks of practitioners experts, institutions and countries and promoting regional programmes. +— A fundamental shortfall exists in capacity to integrate the key insights of existin research into policy and management agendas, and this is a core area wher capacity-building would yield benefits. +— There would be great costs in capacity from failure to retain the knowledge tha is invested in training employees and management leadership. Such retentio requires fiscal incentives to retain individuals in positions. The constant cycle o promotion at all levels results in an export of knowledge out of the field. Often, +© 2016 United Nations + +the bulk of expert individuals will be lost from policy and management to narro academic research fields. +2.3 Capacity-building needs for the eastern and south-eastern Asian Seas +This workshop was held in Sanya, China, 21-23 February 2012 (UNGA 2012a). The focu was on building skills in integrated assessments, methodologies and quality assurance o data through effective creation of synergies and communication for data an information sharing. Creating awareness of the Regular Process within the scientifi community of the region was emphasized. A successful WOA would require the abilit to understand the implications of what we know about the status of biodiversity an link this with the state of the environment, as well as with ecosystem-based fisherie assessments in order to produce accurate fisheries status reports. In addition t assessing capture fisheries correctly, there is insufficient capacity for assessing impact of aquaculture on the surrounding marine ecosystems and more generally for assessin environmental impacts that are anthropogenic, and/or due to climate change an invasion of alien species, as well as for socioeconomic assessments of human well-being All these are candidates for capacity-building that would improve capacity to conduc integrated assessments. Other points included the following. +1. At the highest level, the workshop participants identified as the first priority th need for improved skills in and knowledge on the conduct of integrate assessments (i.e., including environmental, economic and social aspects). Suc experience/skills were lacking throughout the region and training i methodologies for conducting integrated assessments would be of direct benefi to the Regular Process. +2. Additional short-term capacity-building needs (i.e., that could deliver result within the next 18 months) identified by the workshop included the following: +(a) Building awareness of the need for interoperability between States an regions regarding several areas, including: an international classificatio standard for marine economic activities; quality assurance/quality contro for data collection and analysis; enhancing comparability an compatibility of data from different sources; and biological informatio management, including taxonomy; +Improved international networking and resource sharing, including a +network to facilitate international communication and cooperative +platform-building related to marine environmental, social and economi data; +Following the kind offer from UNEP, IOC-UNESCO and the Asia-Pacific +Network for Global Change Research (APN), the organization of a regional +workshop focusing on capacity-building and the technical and scientific +aspects of the Regular Process would aim to share information abou available assessments, data and knowledge of methodologies to be used +(b +(c +© 2016 United Nations + +in compiling and developing the first global integrated marin assessment. +3. This regional workshop would aim at gathering scientists and relevant nationa authorities to raise awareness of the Regular Process within the scientifi community of the region. The workshop would also aim at facilitating th appointment by States of individual scientists from the region to the pool o experts. The workshop would be co-organized by UNEP, IOC-UNESCO, GRID Arendal, the North-West Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP) and the Coordinatin Body on the Seas of East Asia (COBSEA), with the support of APN. +4. Long-term capacity-building needs (i.e., that should be started quickly but whic would only deliver results in the next three to five years) identified by th workshop included the following: +(a) Conduct of marine habitat mapping to inform management o ecosystems, biodiversity and fisheries. This included the development o skills in areas such as collection and analysis of remote sensing data acoustic seafloor mapping, underwater video analysis and _ statistica analysis of biophysical environmental data; +(b) Long-term and well-planned biodiversity assessments were needed o both commercial and non-commercial marine species, including usin genetic information to trace and determine stocks and species; +(c) Ecosystem-based fisheries assessment for capture fisheries an forecasting the status of fish and shellfish stocks; +(d) Assessing impacts of capture fisheries on the marine ecosystem; +(e) Assessing impacts of aquaculture on the surrounding marine ecosystem (f) Assessing impacts of habitat degradation (e.g., using ecological modellin and forecasting) on projected fish and shellfish stocks and aquaculture (g) Monitoring anthropogenic contamination of water, sediment and biota, +to ensure maintenance of food security; +(h) Assessing impacts of climate change on marine biota and ecosystems including the effects of ocean temperature change, ocean acidification changes in coastal sediment and water discharge, changes in tidal an other currents, swell and wave patterns and coastal habitat changes du to sea-level rise; +(i) Assessing impacts of alien species; +(j) Assessing socioeconomic aspects. +2.4 Capacity needs for marine assessments in the south-east Pacific Region +This workshop was held in Santiago, Chile, 13-15 September 2011 (UNGA 2011). Th focus was on addressing institutional and individual capacity-building, especially wit regard to technical support and joint development and implementation of partnershi projects. It called attention to the insufficient capacity to monitor harmful and alien +© 2016 United Nations + +species using remote sensing capabilities, as well as creating capacity to organiz databases using standardized tools and formats. It was also important to build capacit to assess the effects on biodiversity of human activities and to address biophysical an socioeconomic issues for human well-being. Other needs included: +2.4.1 Information +Information on this vast ocean region of the South Pacific is scattered an has not been summarized and collated, although it exists in the form o reports of scientific expeditions, historical records of fishing activities (fishin fleets) and a large number of scientific publications. The large increase i databases on biodiversity from 5 million entries in 2005 to over 32 millio geo-referenced records in 2011 was noted; +The South-East Pacific Group of Experts considered it essential in the shor term to strengthen the capacities of the competent technical bodies wit regard to integrated assessment methods. The DPSIR methodology adopte by the UNGA as the conceptual basis for carrying out this first integrate assessment of the marine environment, although known in the region an widely used in the terrestrial environment, has thus far not been regularl used in marine environmental assessments. The fruitful exchange o information between experts from the west coast of the Americas, fro Mexico to Chile is noted; +Incorporate geo-referencing information systems for ecosystem-focuse analysis; +Improve information and monitoring systems; +Compile base-line data, which is difficult and costly; +Improve information systems that can be shared. +2.4.2 Capacity-building +The South-East Pacific Group of Experts acknowledges the shortfall in abilit to generate capacity to analyse the ocean environment in areas beyon national jurisdiction; +More experts able to conduct research on climate change with reference t oceans; +Capacity to organize databases using standardized formats and tools fo access by the public; +Strengthen methodology for economic assessment; +Pilot project in Chile to harmonize economic assessment methodologies. +2.4.3 Knowledge gaps +Technical support for the maintenance of equipment and sensors Development of projects and research capacity on palaeoclimatology at th regional level, including effects on marine coastal areas (corals, sediments ice cores, etc.); +Monitoring of harmful algal blooms by remote sensing; +© 2016 United Nations + +— Assessment of wide-scale processes at the level of the entire South Pacifi Basin is of great importance in understanding and predicting the behaviou of living marine resources, particularly those exhibiting migratory behaviou (birds, turtles, mammals and pelagic fish species) in the south-east Pacifi region; +2.5 Capacity needs for marine assessments in the North Atlantic, the Baltic Sea, th Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea +This workshop was held in Brussels, Belgium, 27-29 June 2012 (UNGA 2012b). Th meeting determined that transfers of skills within the region were needed and that th region can provide a source of knowledge and skills for other regions through creatio of partnerships. It is necessary to address food security, marine biodiversity an habitats and information on anthropogenic impacts on the marine environment. Othe points included: +— It was agreed that capacity shortfalls did exist within the area covered by th workshop, and that the region could serve as a source of knowledge for othe regions. Transfers of skills within the region were needed both from north t south (particularly within the Mediterranean) and from west to east. +— Knowledge gaps at national and regional scales were identified in the repor entitled “Analysis of the existing marine assessment in Europe”, prepared i June 2012, including information on: +a. Food security b. Marine biological diversity and habitats c. Human activity affecting the marine environment. +2.6 Capacity needs for marine assessments in the western Indian Ocean +This workshop was held in Maputo, Mozambique, 6-7 December 2012 (UNGA 2013c) The focus was on capacity needs to address biophysical issues, which are important fo alteration of biodiversity, and socioeconomic impacts due to anthropogenic impact which consequently influence human well-being. Further emphasis was placed o building institutional and individual capacity to address biodiversity, fisheries, tourism aquaculture, information and data, mining, and economic valuation of natural resource and the environment for human well-being. +The experts assembled at this workshop clearly endorsed the Regular Process; however capacity-building needs were not highlighted in the December 2012 workshop report In the assessment workshop of August 2012 the following capacity needs and gaps wer identified: +— Information on environmental flows for major rivers; +© 2016 United Nations + +Information on ocean acidification: degree and extent of ocean acidificatio resulting from human activities (including coral bleaching) and socioeconomi implications; +— Regional perspective on ocean-source carbonate production; +— Information on pollution determination from aquaculture use and modificatio of habitats; +— Environmental flow assessments of coastal, riverine and atmospheric input from land; +— Lack of capacity for assessing offshore hydrocarbon industries — Lack of capacity to assess offshore mining industries — Carrying-capacity studies need for tourism and recreation; +— Economic valuation of resources/environment. +2.7 Capacity needs for the marine assessments of the South Atlantic Ocean +This workshop was held in Grand-Bassam, Ivory Coast, 28 to 30 October 2013 (UNG 2013d). The focus was on identifying knowledge gaps with regard to the biophysical food security and safety, socioeconomic, and biodiversity aspects, based on which th capacity needs were identified. +2.7.1 Biophysical aspects +The principal gaps identified by the experts are: (i) Absence of continuous long time series on sea-level rise and its impact on the coastal and marine environment; (ii Absence of information on the knock-on effect of El Nifio in the sub-region, especially i West Africa; (iii) Poor links between meteorological and oceanographic institutes; (iv Lack of continuous, long time-series on acidification, especially in situ measurements a tropical latitudes; (v) Scarcity of studies on the factors influencing surface-layer an species variation, notably studies based on in situ measurements of surface layers an plankton. +2.7.2 Food security and safety aspects +In the South Atlantic region, many national institutions and regional organization conduct assessments of the status of fish and shellfish stocks and fisheries. Althoug fisheries statistics are available, continuous time series are lacking in many areas. In fact many assessments are project-related, so when financing stops, the data collection i discontinued. This happens in all countries; the only exceptions are Argentina an Uruguay, where fairly complete time series are available for the most economicall important fish stocks. Vessel availability for independent fishery surveys is a constrain for the whole region. +© 2016 United Nations + +2.7.3 Socioeconomic aspects related to fishing +The principal gaps identified by the experts in the economic evaluation of fishin activities are: (i) Scarcity of evaluations of economic consequences (risk assessment) o disasters and impact of other activities on fisheries and the living standards of fishers (ii) Scarcity of studies on the impacts of the global economy on fisheries; (iii) Lack o data on post-fishing losses (during processing, marketing, etc.); (iv) Absence of studie on the impact of harmful algal blooms on fisheries in West Africa; (v) Lack o information on the contribution of artisanal fisheries. +The principal gaps identified by the experts on fishing practices and health and safet are: (i) Stock assessments of species caught by both the industrial and artisanal sector (they are frequently pooled together, although some countries have good reportin systems); (ii) Scarcity of information on illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU fisheries, although the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO evaluates the implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries countr by country; (iii) Scarcity of assessments of incidental catches of marine mammals turtles and birds, especially in the African countries; (iv) Scarcity of information on th number of people employed by the sector; (v) Ineffective implementation of health an safety control systems (poor reporting mechanisms). +2.7.4 Socioeconomic aspects related to environment +The principal gaps identified by the experts on environmental pollution affecting huma health and their socioeconomic impacts are: (i) Poor reporting mechanisms and/o difficulty in accessing existing documentation (reports) on oil leakages and spills; (ii) Lac of information on the types and amounts of oil dumped into the sea and trends for th next decade; (iii) Poor capacity in the region to assess the disposal of solid waste in th ocean; (iv) Impacts of exploration and exploitation activities and the lack of regulation o offshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation as well as of sand and gravel mining (v) Scarcity of studies on land reclamation and habitat modification; (vi) Lack o socioeconomic data and technological skills; (vii) Scarcity of studies on the touris industry and poor capacity to assess tourism and all associated (i.e., economic environmental and social) aspects. +2.7.5 Biodiversity aspects +The principal gaps identified by the experts regarding coastal areas, continental shel and deep sea habitats are: (i) Scarcity of information on deep sea and continental shel habitats; (ii) Lack of information on the current status of the mangrove species (in thi regard, surveys and geographic information system (GIS) mapping projects need to b conducted); (iii) Scarcity of seagrass mapping programmes; (iv) Lack of research o vulnerability and adaptation in response to climate change; (v) Scarcity of clos monitoring programmes of cetaceans, especially in West Africa; (vi) Absence o monitoring programmes for certain estuarine areas, especially in West Africa; and (vii Scarcity of knowledge with regard to deep-water corals and plankton. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +2.7.6 Capacity needs +A major capacity shortage facing many countries in the South Atlantic region is th ability to conduct assessments of the state of the marine environment at national t regional spatial scales. This need is mainly due to the lack of funding, but also due to th lack of resources and capability to conduct such studies, especially at the local an national levels. It is important to note, however, that capacity needs are unevenl distributed and that South-South cooperation also represents an opportunity to fil existing gaps. The experts therefore suggested that more capacity-building activities b organized under the umbrella of the Regular Process. +Another important gap concerns the geographical discontinuity of information in th South Atlantic region, and in particular the scarcity of studies on biophysical an socioeconomic dynamics in the region. This was deemed to be an important gap tha hinders the development of an integrated regional assessment. Optimizing th coordination of marine environmental data-collection activities within countries an within the region should contribute to the production of an integrated regiona assessment. +2.8 Capacity needs for marine assessments in the northern Indian Ocean +This workshop was held in Chennai, India, 27-29 January 2014 (UNGA 2014). Th meeting focused on identifying short-term and long-term capacity-building needs tha were determined through gap analyses. The capacity-building should concentrate o developing methodologies for integrated assessments and standardization of data an information generation for national, sub-regional, regional and global assessments. It i also a priority to create regional partnerships for undertaking joint research and t mobilize funds for capacity-building. Capacity-building to address biodiversity, critica habitats, microbial assessments, shipping, and environmental monitoring using satellit technology is also highlighted as a priority. Other points included: +(1) | The immediate action plan recommendation includes identification of the need for capacity-building (including the acquisition of necessary technology) fo marine monitoring and assessment (including integrated assessments). Th capacity-building activities need to concentrate on the following issues: +(a) methodologies to obtain the information from various sources on regular basis; +(b) standardization of the information content for assessments at variou levels; +(c) developing common methodologies to carry out the assessment and t train data collectors: this is very important for uniform data collection The procedure, data collection, formatting and preparation of report should be standardized for all the member countries. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(2) +(3) +(4 (5) +(6) +(7 (8) +3.1 +(d) developing methodologies for scaling up national, sub-regional, regiona and global assessments; and +(e) developing reporting forms to assist the integration process, with the ai of securing coherence, consistency and comparability as far as possible. +Development of a short-term capacity-building plan to mobilize the informatio and knowledge that is known to exist but has not yet been systematicall organized in a way that would allow its use for the Regular Process. However, fo this purpose, it may be necessary to identify the gap areas, and make efforts i capacity-building for those areas. India can help other States in capacity-buildin at various levels. +To identify and fill gaps like microbial assessment, seagrass mapping, etc Satellite-based techniques can be used to identify mangroves, seagrasses, etc. and create an ecosystem report card. +Undertake assessments on the open ocean and activities related to shipping. +To enhance cooperation between member States of the region, a template matrix will be developed for circulation to neighbouring countries to complete the questionnaire will include information for identifying gaps and capacit needs. +It is stressed that improving communication among the countries of the region i the most important first step. +Shortfalls in continuous monitoring of the environment using satellit technology. +Insufficient involvement of regional organizations, undertaking joint researc programmes, and securing funds for capacity-building activities. +Outcomes based on chapters focussing on knowledge gaps to inform capacity building needs +Assessment of major ecosystem services from the marine environment (other +than provisioning services) +This section deals with three types of ecosystem services: regulating, cultural an supporting services (Chapters 3-9). The identified gaps and capacity-building needs t address them are as follows: +3.1.1 Ecosystem services other than provisioning services +— Data availability and resolution at different scales and geographica ranges: the developing world especially has massive gaps. +— Capacity to undertake heuristic/participatory processes at regional an global levels: this should involve training and empowering local +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +stakeholders to enable them to understand the impact of ecosyste services on their well-being. +Human capacity and infrastructure (research laboratories and institutes observatories and oceanographic fleets) should be developed on continual basis. +3.1.2 Oceans and the hydrological cycle +Skills to quantify potential impacts on society and natural environmen due to flooding and sea-level rise: the latter are acknowledged as bein among the most serious issues confronting humankind. +Capacity is inadequate to determine local sea-level changes which ar also influenced by several natural factors, such as regional variability i the ocean and atmospheric circulation, subsidence, isostatic adjustment and coastal erosion. It is necessary to study the latter too. +Regional capacity is not sufficient to study changes in the rates o freshwater exchange between the ocean, atmosphere and continent because of their significant impacts. There is also inadequate ability t determine spatial variations in the distribution of evaporation an precipitation that create gradients in salinity and heat that in turn hel drive ocean circulation. +Capacity is insufficient to utilize traditional knowledge as an additiona resource to address adaptation in given impact settings; this knowledg should be carefully evaluated within adaptation planning. +Capacity is insufficient for standardizing methodologies to addres regional differences which are due to differing data sources, tempora periods of analysis, and analysis methodologies. +Capacity is insufficient for disaster preparedness to address high-intensit cyclones, because the scientific consensus shows that global warming wil lead to fewer but more intense tropical cyclones globally. This wil certainly affect coastal areas that have not been exposed previously t the dangers caused by tropical cyclones. +3.1.3 Sea-air interface +Regional capacity is not adequate to determine levels of rising carbo dioxide (CO) in the atmosphere and increased absorption of CO, by th oceans, which has created an unprecedented ocean acidification (OA phenomenon that is altering pH levels and threatening a number o marine ecosystems. It is necessary to map OA hotspots, which have no become a global problem. +Capacity is insufficient to study the impact of shellfish farming due t acidification and to establish indicators for OA to facilitate determinatio of OA hot spots. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.1.4 +Plankton productivity and nutrients +— There are important shortfalls in regional capacity in terms of bot infrastructure and human skills to enable measurement of primar production jin situ and through remote sensing. The infrastructur includes multiplatform infrastructure, e.g., laboratories, oceanographi ships, moorings, drifters, gliders, aircraft, and satellites that can enabl continuous measurements for both short-term and_ long-ter monitoring. +— Various regions lack long-term measurements of primary production an therefore lack long-term data to construct predictive models to estimat trends. +— Phytoplankton can play a significant role in climate regulation t undertake continuous regional measurements of phytoplankto production through carbon sequestration, which is an order magnitud higher than that provided by grasslands and forest vegetation, and als form a basis for prediction of fisheries production to address foo security. For both reasons it is important to undertake continuou regional measurements of phytoplankton production, and thes measurements will require improved capacity for plankton monitoring. +— There is insufficient ability to identify which species of phytoplankton ar most suitable for development of bio-fuels and pharmaceuticals. +— There is insufficient ability to identify which species of phytoplankto engage in nutrient recycling or nutrient stripping from seawater, cultur them and use them for management of water quality in aquaculture. +Ocean-sourced carbonate production +There is a shortfall in capacity to deal with the impacts of global warming an sea-level rise. +There are gaps in our knowledge of the impacts of future rises in sea level o individual atolls; determining shoreline changes has rarely been undertaken, an long-term studies are especially lacking. +Drastic effects from loss of sand dunes to beach mining and interruption o sediment pathways, especially as caused by coastal protection works. +There is shortfall in capacity to deal with the impacts of acidification, whic inhibit organisms from secreting carbonate shells or skeletons. Furthermore reduction in sand-carbonate production leads to a decrease in supply to san beaches. Relatively few studies exist of rates of carbonate production an transport of marine sand and gravel to contribute to coastal ecosystems. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.1.6 +Aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services derived from the +marine environment +3.2 +It is necessary to identify the priority concerns in terms of the nature of th aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services derived from th marine environment in relation to the various geographical areas, developed an developing countries, and find out how humans have adapted for their own well being. +Assessment of the cross-cutting issues: Food security and food safety +Food security and food safety are important activities which play a crucial role in huma well-being in the provisioning services category of the ecosystem services panoply. Th major activities covered are capture fisheries and aquaculture, as well as scientific an socioeconomic aspects. From the gap analyses, the capacity-building needs to addres are as follows: +3.2.1 +3.2.2 +Oceans and seas as sources of food +Covering 71 per cent of the earth’s surface, the oceans offer a variety of habitat for various fisheries species which are used for various competing needs: thes are both consumptive and non-consumptive but of varying socioeconomic value To maximize benefits, to address these competing needs would requir multidisciplinary research teams. Fisheries must address food security as well a recreational, cultural and spiritual aspects. +To enhance the traditional subsistence type of fishing commonly practised in th developing world will require addressing fishing in terms of commerce and profi and thereby creating employment and supporting livelihoods. Advance capacity-building for appropriate skills will be required to be able to us advanced technologies to create wealth from capture fisheries and maricultur in a sustainable way. +Capture fisheries +Efforts have been made to create awareness to reduce post-harvest losses especially in small-scale fisheries, as a means of increasing production. However little is known to what extent this is implemented and to what extent it ha increased production, although this would greatly improve the socioeconomi benefits to small-scale fishers. Enhanced capacity-building for appropriat research and innovative technology and its transfer would address these issues. +Efforts have been made to reduce by-catch and increase awareness of thi problem, including efforts to make by-catch excluder devices. Globally it is stil poorly known whether this has been successfully achieved in terms of th relative ratio of the target catch landed and the by-catch caught and eithe landed or discarded. To address these issues would require building capacity t monitor and ensure compliance and promote observer programmes effectively. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.2.3 +To improve the ecosystem approach to fisheries management to address no only ecological issues and governance but also socioeconomic issues for huma well-being will require increased efforts to promote ecosystem-base management. +To avoid fisheries depletion requires controlling fishing effort for stocks. Fo most important fisheries, historical fishing trends are unknown and _ thei recovery rates are also poorly known, but their fisheries continue to expand int new areas. These issues can only be addressed with increased efforts to buil enough capacity with appropriate technological and scientific skills to provid adequate information and data to facilitate regional and global management There is insufficient capacity to address fish diseases from capture fisheries an illnesses caused by ingestion of toxic fish. Globally the phytosanitary issues ar not well known, especially in developing countries. +Aquaculture +To obtain a clear understanding of the trends and contribution of maricultur globally in terms of aquatic farming will require building capacity to address th relative ratio of freshwater aquaculture production and mariculture. Maricultur includes marine plant cultivation, which mostly consists of seaweeds. +There is insufficient knowledge of mariculture diseases and how to combat the because they are poorly known, especially in the developing world. Filling thi knowledge gap would require greater capacity in fish health in maricultur contexts. +There is insufficient capacity to categorize mariculture for addressing foo security, ornamental and decorative uses and clearly document thei socioeconomic benefits. +There is insufficient capacity to map cultivated species, where they are farme regionally and globally, and share information and data to facilitate worl production. +To promote sustainability of mariculture will require building capacity to improv mariculture technologies that are environmentally friendly. +There is insufficient capacity for improving industrial production of fish fee using low-value or trash fish, including by-catch that would otherwise b discarded. However, this should not compete with fish for direct huma consumption or deliberate fishing that would be undesirable for biodiversit conservation. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.2.4 +3.2.5 +3.2.6 +3.3 +Fish stock propagation +There is insufficient capacity in aquaculture technologies which will promot efficient and effective stock propagation; this includes culture techniques unde controlled conditions, provision of artificial habitat, feeding, fertilization predator control and subsequent release of the aquatic organisms into the sea Improved sustainability of fish stock propagation requires applying comprehensive integrated ecosystem-based fisheries-management approac and therefore it is necessary to build capacity in terms of individuals infrastructure and institutions that can deliver effective stock propagation. +Seaweeds and other benthic food +Seaweed farming and aquaculture are seriously affected by disease and there i insufficient capacity to research seaweed diseases and build techniques fo combating the diseases. +To harness their wide variety of nutrients, medicinal and food values woul require undertaking and building capacity for biochemical research on seawee extracts from various species. +Social and economic aspects of fisheries and other marine food +Certain issues, particularly at the micro level, demand additional research an therefore need capacity-building to address them. The state of small-scal fisheries throughout the world, and gender issues in fisheries, are particularl prominent and are poorly studied. A further issue that has been seriously under researched is the relationship between capture fisheries and aquaculture. +Assessment of other human activities and the marine environment +The activities addressed in this section are basically centred on in situ use of the ocean e.g., in shipping, ports, tourism, waste disposal and extractive uses, e.g., mining desalination, etc. The gaps and the needed capacity-building are as follows: +3.3.1 +Shipping +Knowledge gaps +The IMO has emphasized the need for better information on the health and well being of ships’ crews. The death rate is unacceptably high, and little is know about causes of death, injuries and illnesses, with the result that it is difficult t formulate policies to address the problems. +The potential development of Arctic shipping routes between the Atlantic an the Pacific highlights the inadequacy of charts of these waters: some date bac to surveys in the mid-19" century. Similar shortcomings exist in Antarcti waters. +As new anti-fouling systems for ships are developed, the resolution of the partie to the IMO Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +calling for the harmonization of test methods and performance standards fo anti-fouling systems containing biocides presents a necessity to investigate an evaluate such methods and standards. +Capacity-building +3.3.2 +3.3.3 +Potential shortages exist in adequately trained ships’ officers and crew, and bot Africa and South America are proportionally under-represented in the globa pool of such officers and crew. Capacity-building to develop training institution of high quality and to use such institutions to meet the demand is therefor desirable. +Increased navigation in the Arctic Ocean and (in spite of the emergency respons plans of the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators) the presenc of large passenger cruise ships in the Southern Ocean mean that there are gap in adequate emergency response systems in both areas. +In coastal areas where large numbers of very small vessels (especially wit wooden hulls) operate, to ensure that the operators of such vessels have th knowledge and equipment to make them safe would require capacity-building This could include capacity-building to ensure that maritime administrations ca apply regional safety codes where they exist, or develop them where they hav not yet been prepared. +Improved port-state control is very important for ensuring the safety of shippin and the protection of the marine environment from accidents and unacceptabl practices involving ships. There are gaps in the technical skills and equipment i some States for implementing effective port-state control. +Ports +Because the operation of a port can significantly affect both the successfu operation of ships and the economic performance of the countries it serves some ports need capacity-building in the operational skills needed for successfu port operation. +The delivery to shore of garbage from ships is an important element o combating marine debris. Building capacity in this field for ports which do no have adequate and easily used port waste-reception facilities would improv their ability to combat marine debris. +Many ports that need dredging to maintain or improve navigation adjoin bays rivers or estuaries with a history of industrial discharges. Decisions on whethe such material can safely be re-deposited in the sea, guided by internationa standards, requires the capacity to examine the dredged material relative t such standards. +Submarine cables and pipelines +If coastal States wish to safely locate submarine cables and pipelines that cros areas of potential geological change and disruption, or (at least) to negotiate +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.3.4 +successfully with commercial undertakings planning to install cables in suc locations, they need access to the skills in marine geology needed. +In taking decisions on submarine cables and pipelines, States need to have th capacities to address possible competing uses of the seabed on which the cable and pipeline are laid. +Coastal, riverine and atmospheric inputs from land +Shortfalls were found the skills and capacities for several important disciplines including: +3.3.5 +3.3.6 +Skills and infrastructure to monitor wastes and waste water (municipal, cruis ships and degree of treatment, industrial discharges, agricultural runoff atmospheric emissions). +Skills and infrastructure to treat waste and wastewater. +Gaps in capacity to assess the environmental, social and economic aspect related to coastal, riverine and atmospheric inputs from land. +Capacity to identify hazardous substances, which also includes ability t establish: thresholds of toxicity, persistence and bio-accumulation, a substanc database with experimental data, monitoring and assessment programmes Ability to monitor and assess atmospheric circulation and detect airborne inputs. +Offshore hydrocarbon industries +A major capacity gap is the ability to manage environmental impact assessment and monitor compliance, mainly within (but not confined to) developin countries. +Other marine energy-oriented industries +The other sources of marine energy production industries are: offshore wind, waves tides, ocean currents, marine biomass and energy from ocean thermal difference between different water layers. The capacity gaps to assess the environmental, socia and economic aspects of offshore renewable energy deployment/generation are: +More +Lack of information and data for full evaluation of Environmental Impac Assessments (EIAs). Data gaps are very common due to remoteness, or the leve of technology not being available for long-term data and information gatherin (especially for developing countries). +Capacity in terms of enabling infrastructure to exploit these sources of energy Skills or knowledge capacity lacking in most developing countries. +High organizational capacity to foster relationships and linkages among ocea users, stakeholders and resource managers required to enable proper plannin for use of these sources with minimal conflict and environmental impact. +awareness campaigns would enhance appreciation of the fact that these +renewable sources of energy, given their immense potential, can reduce use of th fossil-fuel carbon-based energy sources and reduce CO2 emissions. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.3.7 +3.3.8 +Offshore mining industries +As in oil and gas, the major gap for this activity is the ability to undertake EIA and monitor compliance, especially because of their remoteness; this is mainl so in developing countries. +The offshore mining technology and management are still nascent and in mostl shallow water (<50m depth). Where such mining affects various stakeholde activities, social and economic conflicts can arise. Enhanced capacity fo meaningful engagement with stakeholders will contribute to avoiding an resolving such conflicts. +Solid waste disposal +Information gaps +Serious information gaps exist on the nature and volume of dumping. These gap exist with regard to waters under the jurisdiction or control of both parties an non-parties to the London Convention and Protocol. The understanding of th potential effect of the dumping of solid waste on the marine environment i directly affected by these gaps. +In areas where the possibility exists that explosives or containers of harmfu substances, such as chemical weapons, have been dumped in the past, especiall in areas where fishing vessels operate or where it is planned to locate submarin cables or pipelines, information on the location of such dumping must b available to the authorities, fishers, and others involved in activities in thos areas. +Capacity-building +3.3.9 +Where States are still authorizing the dumping of solid waste, they need acces to the skills and equipment needed to analyze the chemical constituents o potential hazardous waste to see whether it may be acceptable to be dumped i the sea. +Marine debris +One of the major barriers to addressing marine debris is the absence o adequate scientific research, assessment, and monitoring. Scientific research i needed to better understand the sources, fates, and impacts of marine debris Research is inadequate to qualify and evaluate the effects of plastic polyme masses that cause irritation in the stomach tissue and abdominal discomfort and stimulate the organism to feel full and cease eating. +Scientific evidence is insufficient to test for direct links between the chemica characteristics of marine debris and adverse effects on marine life. +In spite of the growing number of studies documenting the distribution an abundance of marine debris, the ecological impacts, including effects o habitats, are not well documented. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +3.3.9 +3.3.10 +Research is insufficient to qualify and evaluate the presence of floating debri which can similarly undermine the quality of pelagic habitats; as is informatio on the impacts of marine debris in benthic habitats which are comparatively wel studied. +Scientific evidence and assessment efforts have not been adequate to evaluat the impacts of microplastics in the water column of the ocean. +To date, the introduction of an alien species via marine debris has yet to b documented and there are important shortfalls in the scientific evidence of th role of marine debris in introducing alien species, especially in developin countries. +Research, assessment, and monitoring are not sufficient to evaluate impacts o marine debris on coastal and marine species, habitats, economic health, huma health and safety, and social values. Research and monitoring are insufficient t understand and in many parts of the sea, to qualify, the status and trends o marine debris. Development of new technologies and methods for detecting an removing accumulations of marine debris will also require additional research The capacity to raise awareness about the problems posed by marine debri needs to be strengthened, especially in developing countries. +Land/sea physical alteration +Capacity for data acquisition, especially in developing countries which suffe data-poor conditions. +Capacity to undertake integrated assessments by multidisciplinary teams in th framework of ecosystem-based management in order to assess and understan the impacts on coastal and shoreline changes caused by a multiplicity of factor which include both anthropogenic and natural causes; capacity for modellin coastal processes, and to collect quality data based on defined standar techniques for use in developing such models. +Due to the transboundary nature of large coastal water flows and sedimen dispersal, undertaking to meet identified research needs can only be done wit an improved regional capacity of individuals from various disciplines and network of institutions. +Tourism and recreation +Information is inadequate in many parts of the world on the extent of coasta tourism and its contribution to the local economy. +Authorities concerned with the management of coastal areas where tourism i or could be occurring as an important activity need access to the skills necessar for integrated coastal management. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +3.3.11 Desalinization +— Many areas suffering from shortages of freshwater could be helped by th creation of installations for desalinization and the skills needed to maintain an manage them. This is likely to become increasingly important with changes i rainfall as a result of climate change. +3.3.12 Use of marine genetic resources +— Marine biodiversity is best known in areas within national jurisdiction, and it i least known in the vast offshore oceanic areas beyond national jurisdiction. +— Biotechnology of marine biodiversity for commercial products is similarly at it infancy at the global level, and it is almost non-existent in developing countries. +— If marine genetic resources are to be explored and where appropriat developed, there are currently insufficient analytical technologies, especially fo developing countries. +— There is current insufficient knowledge and skills to ensure application o environmentally friendly harvesting techniques in poorly known habitats an vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as cold water coral and sponge systems o hydrothermal vents; any exploitation in such areas requires a precautionar approach. +— There is inadequate capacity to study and collect marine genetic resources: thi will require suitable vessels, both for deep sea and shallower waters, an appropriate research laboratories; the absence of this spectrum of neede resources is usually an important constraint in developing countries. +References +Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being Washington, D.C., Island Press. +UNGA (2010). Report of the Secretary-General (A/65/69/Add.1). +UNGA (2011). Final report of the workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the regular process for global reporting and assessment o the state of the marine environment, including Socioeconomic aspects. Santiago Chile, 13-15 September 2011(A/66/587). +UNGA (2012a). Final report of the Workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the state of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects. Sanya China, 21-23 February 2012 (A/66/799). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +UNGA (2012b). Final Report of the workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects. Brussels 27 to 29 June 2012 (A/67/679). +UNGA (2013a). Final Report of the sixth workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the State of the Marine Environment including, Socioeconomic Aspects. Brisban Australia, 25-27 February 2013 (A/67/885). +UNGA (2013b). Final report of the fourth workshop held under the auspices of th United Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomi Aspects. Miami, United States of America, 13-15 November 2012 (A/67/687). +UNGA (2013c). Final report of the fifth workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for the Global Reporting an Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomi Aspects. Maputo, Mozambique, 6 and 7 December 2012 (A/67/896). +UNGA (2013d). Final report of the fourth workshop held under the auspices of th United Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomi Aspects. Grand-Bassam, Céte d' Ivoire, 28-30 October 2013 (A/68/766). +UNGA (2014). Report of the eighth workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects. Chennai India, 27-29 January 2014 (A/68/812). +UNGA/AHWGW (2009). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whol to recommend a course of action to the General Assembly on the Regular Proces for Global Reporting and Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment including Socioeconomic Aspects. (A/64/347). +UNGA/AHWGW (2010). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whol to recommend a course of action to the General Assembly on the Regular Proces for Global Reporting and Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment including Socioeconomic Aspects. (A65/358). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_32.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_32.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_33.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_33.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..4098e4d1b6963c0730c85fc1903b4270853a5a78 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_33.txt @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +Part VI +Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats +Chapter 33. Introduction +Group of Experts: Jake Rice, Alan Simcock +The biodiversity of the world’s oceans directly supports many of the services an industries reviewed in Parts III, IV, and V, and may be affected by how the various socia and economic benefits are used. To ensure the ongoing availability of those benefits t current and future generations, and to maintain healthy oceans, it is essential that th uses made of the ocean are sustainable, both individually and in the aggregate. In Par VI we examine ocean biodiversity from several perspectives, and when trends ar apparent, link those trends to their main drivers. From this multi-perspectiv investigation of biodiversity trends, we obtain the third part of the information to b integrated in this first Assessment. This information may contribute importantly t improving global ocean literacy worldwide, and informing policies and selection o management measures from local to global scales. +The Convention on Biological Diversity’ (CBD 1992) emphasizes that “biodiversity” exist on many scales: from genetic diversity within populations, through diversity o populations of the same species, the diversity of species in ecosystems, to the diversit of habitats within geographic areas. The diversity at all of these scales reveals pattern and structures that are crucial to the functioning of ecosystem processes and th delivery of ecosystem functions. However, in-depth analyses of patterns and trends linking them to all drivers that underlie them and their ecological, social, and economi consequences are not feasible for the entire ocean, at even one of these scales. +Therefore Part VI presents overviews of these biodiversity features first spatially, an then followed by more focused examinations of key species groups and habitats. Fro these overviews, it is possible to present an analysis that integrates how global ocea biodiversity is changing as a result of the impacts of humanity’s uses of the ocean, wit the ability of the ocean to sustain itself, and humanity’s uses of it into the future. +Chapters 34 and 35 present the main global patterns of diversity of populations, species and habitats. Chapter 34 summarizes what has been learned about the nature an scales of those global patterns of diversity in species, and the dominant natural +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619. +© 2016 United Nations + +gradients that underlie those patterns, including features of the seabed such as depth topography and types of substrate, of the water column such as temperature, salinity nutrients and currents, and planet-scale features such as latitude, seasonality, an proximity to coasts. These patterns and their natural drivers underlie natural variatio in biodiversity and provide the foundation for evaluating the potential for supportin human uses and sustaining perturbations from those uses. The ocean is vast an complex, hence these patterns in global biodiversity are incompletely quantified an their natural drivers are not fully understood. Chapter 35 summarizes the degree t which the biodiversity of the world’s oceans has been sampled at even a descriptiv level, and the subset of places and taxa for which sufficient sampling exists to quantif trends in biodiversity components in space and time, and to provide strong evidenc linking those trends to specific natural and anthropogenic drivers. +Two contrasting messages emerge (a) An immense amount remains to be learned about the ocean’ biodiversity. Sampling has been insufficient to fully quantify patterns an relationships with potential drivers in most of the ocean, and even to describe th biodiversity present in many parts of the ocean. This presents major challenges t fulfilling a core task of this Assessment — setting baselines against which t measure future changes. +(b) Nevertheless, with the current levels of sampling, much can be conclude about how the ocean has changed in the past decades and centuries and trend that may continue into the future. These past changes and current trends provid information about the sustainability of human interactions with marin biodiversity, whether those interactions take the form of direct use or indirec impacts. Although relationships between biodiversity variation and its driver need to be better quantified almost in all parts of the world, we have sufficien knowledge to indicate which outcomes are likely to be more sustainable or les sustainable, and thus inform our choices. Nevertheless, we must acknowledg that uncertainties will remain and surprises will be encountered. +Chapter 36 comprises the largest part of Part VI. That chapter presents the majo temporal trends in biodiversity from the primary and secondary producer (phytoplankton and zooplankton), through the benthos and fish to the top predators To the extent that they are known in each case, it also links the major trends to their ke natural and anthropogenic drivers. Where important changes in trends ar documented, the knowledge of the degree to which the changes are due to natura causes to impacts of human uses or to responses to efforts to mitigate past impacts, i summarized. This provides the raw material for integration of biodiversity trends wit sustainability of human uses of marine biodiversity. Chapter 36 is subdivided into eigh divisions, presenting similar assessments of trends in biodiversity for the northern an southern sub-basins of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, for the Indian Ocean, the +© 2016 United Nations + +Arctic Ocean and the Southern Ocean, and for the open-ocean and deep-sea areas of al the oceans together. +For all but the open-ocean division, the trends are generally reported separately fo coastal and offshore/shelf areas, because the species and habitats, and the main driver of trends, often differ in the near-shore and the offshore/shelf areas. Even at this leve of subdivision, only major trends in biodiversity can be reported, and often it i necessary to report the patterns and trends at finer geographic scales, because thes sub-basins and oceans contain many partially independent marine ecosystems, wit differing species and habitats, different temporal trends, and possibly different driver of trends. +None of these regional assessments can be exhaustive of all trends in biodiversity at th regional scale. They focus on trends that are well documented, and likely to b representative of what is happening to biodiversity at those regional scales. Illustrativ examples of the trends and their relationships to drivers are presented consistently, an some chapters are supported by technical annexes with additional data and reference to enable more in-depth documentation of the conclusions in the sub-chapters Although several divisions of Chapter 36 have made some use of traditional knowledg in assessing patterns and drivers, in all divisions, institutional assessments and scientifi publications were the predominant source of information on patterns, trends, an drivers. That creates an unavoidable (but unintentional) bias towards more extensiv assessment of biodiversity trends and drivers in the parts of the world with large investments in scientific research and monitoring, and where such investments hav occurred over longer periods. If the divisions of Chapter 36 report fewer trends i biodiversity in parts of the world with less research and monitoring, this reflects th mandate of this Assessment to use only published sources. Hence at least some of th differences among the regional assessments arise from differences in the quantity o information that informs this Assessment, and not necessarily differences in what i happening to marine biodiversity at these large regional scales. When strong trends ar present consistently in regional assessments where appropriate data are available, i would be precautionary and sound scientific practice to consider them as relevan information for less data-rich areas as well. +Regional assessments are only one perspective for documenting, and to the exten possible explaining, trends in biodiversity. Other perspectives are legitimate, and fo some aspects of biodiversity the regional assessments may not be the most powerfu assessment approach, for two reasons. First, some species groups include wide-sprea and highly migratory species; hence no one region captures the trends in th populations, and some habitat types important to biodiversity often are found i relatively small individual occurrences (as well as, rarely, larger ones) but in many of th regions, and a piecemeal regional approach may be inefficient. Second, some groups o species and certain types of habitats are considered particularly vulnerable to natura and anthropogenic drivers. Hence assessments of trends and drivers are most powerful +© 2016 United Nations + +when all the relevant information is viewed together, regardless of the specific region from which the parts of the whole story were documented. +Therefore Part VI concludes with short chapters on five key species groups with th above characteristics: marine mammals, seabirds, marine reptiles, elasmobranch (sharks, rays, and their relatives), and tuna and billfish. Chapters then follow on number of key habitats. Many are near coastal habitats of known high biodiversit value and subject to multiple human pressures, such as estuaries, kelp forests, an similar habitats. Several are offshore or deep-sea habitats known often to b biodiversity hotspots, and to be attracting increasing pressure from direct or indirec human uses. Examples include seamounts, tropical and sub-tropical corals, cold-wate corals, cold seeps and hydrothermal vents. These shorter and more focuse assessments of species groups and habitats that are both highly valued economically culturally, or both, and highly vulnerable to impacts from unsustainable use, provid flagship cases to integrate ecological, social, and economic aspects of marin biodiversity and its contributions to human well-being. +Collectively, across Part VI, this Assessment evaluates the patterns of occurrence o marine biodiversity (Chapter 34) and the extent to which it is known (Chapter 35), th major trends in coastal, offshore, and deep-sea biodiversity, usually at regional scale and sometimes sub-regional scales, as well as the main known drivers of those trend (Chapter 36A-36H), and examines issues of particular concern for species (Chapters 37 41) and habitats (Chapters 42-51). This provides the third main pillar of thi Assessment, for integration with Parts II-V in Part VII (Overall Assessment). +© 2016 United Nations + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_33.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_33.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_34.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_34.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f366ac37121fba83438fd408a90ad399920ed138 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_34.txt @@ -0,0 +1,382 @@ +Chapter 34. Global Patterns in Marine Biodiversity +Contributors: Paul Snelgrove (Convenor), Edward Vanden Berghe, Patricia Miloslavich Phil Archambault, Nicolas Bailly, Angelika Brandt, Ann Bucklin, Malcolm Clark, +Farid Dahdouh-Guebas , Pat Halpin, Russell Hopcroft, Kristin Kaschner, Ben Lascelles Lisa A. Levin, Susanne Menden-Deuer, Anna Metaxas, David Obura, Randall R. Reeves Tatiana Rynearson, Karen Stocks, Marguerite Tarzia, Derek Tittensor, Verena Tunnicliffe Bryan Wallace, Ross Wanless, Tom Webb, Patricio Bernal (Co-Lead member), Jake Ric (Co-Lead member), Andrew Rosenberg (Co-Lead member)’ +1. Introduction +Marine environments encompass some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. Fo example, marine habitats harbour 28 animal phyla and 13 of these are endemic t marine systems. In contrast, terrestrial environments contain 11 animal phyla, of whic only one is endemic. The relative strength and importance of drivers of broad-scal diversity patterns vary among taxa and habitats, though in the upper ocean th temperature appears to be consistently linked to biodiversity across taxa (Tittensor e al. 2010). These drivers of pattern have inspired efforts to describe biogeographica provinces (e.g. the recent effort by Spalding et al., 2013)) that divide the ocean int distinct regions characterized by distinct biogeochemical and physical combinations) Biogeographers such as Briggs (1974) examined broad-scale pattern in marin environments in historical treatises and although many of the patterns describe therein hold true today, the volume and diversity of data available to address th question have increased substantially in recent decades. We therefore focus our chapte on more recent analyses that build on those early perspectives. The Internationa Census of Marine Life programme that ran from 2000-2010 provided significant ne data and analyses of such patterns that continue to emerge today (McIntyre, 2011 Snelgrove, 2010). Indeed, many of our co-authors were part of that initiative and tha influence is evident in the summary below. In the few years since that programm ended, some new perspectives have emerged which we include where space permits noting that we cannot be exhaustive in coverage and also that the large data set necessary to infer broad-scale patterns do not accumulate quickly. +Not surprisingly, the different scales, at which many organisms live, from ambits o microns for microbes to ocean basins for migratory fishes and marine mammals, alon with variation in the drivers and patterns of diversity, render a single analysi impossible. In order to assess gradients in marine biodiversity we use a taxonomi framework for some groups of organisms and a habitat framework for others. +"The writing team thanks Roberto Danovaro, Esteban Frere, Ron O'Dor, Mayumi Sato and Chih-Lin We for their valuable contributions to this chapter. +© 2016 United Nations + +Comparatively well-sampled groups taxonomically (primarily pelagic (water column vertebrates and cephalopods) could be treated at a phylum or class level globally whereas for taxa in which taxonomic or geographic knowledge is highly uneven, w followed a habitat framework, noting that a group by group treatment of benthi invertebrates would encompass more than 30 phyla and would render the chapte unwieldy. We therefore organized the chapter into an Introduction, a series o summaries on biodiversity patterns in pelagic taxa, and then summaries of knowledg on biodiversity in contrasting benthic ecosystems. Although this strategy is imperfec (e.g. many fishes occupy primarily benthic environments), it nonetheless creates framework in which to evaluate current knowledge of biodiversity patterns within relatively short chapter. Space limitations also preclude comprehensive coverage of al habitats and taxa, and we therefore present a broad but incomplete summary tha omits kelps, seagrasses, and salt marshes, for example. We therefore encourage reader to also review the more detailed chapters within the World Ocean Assessment tha focus on the biology and status of specific taxa and ecosystems. Our goal in this chapte is to identify the key environmental drivers of global diversity patterns based on curren knowledge, while acknowledging many data gaps that will necessitate revising thes patterns as new data become available. Specifically, we address how depth, latitude productivity, temperature and substrate influence broad-scale distributions an diversity patterns, and identify the knowledge gaps (taxonomic, geographic) tha constrain our ability to assess such patterns. Below we summarize knowledge o biodiversity gradients with a few key references, but we also include a more extensiv reading list for those seeking more detailed information (Appendix). +2. Pelagic ecosystems +2.1 Marine Mammals +Marine mammals include cetaceans (baleen whales and toothed whales, dolphins an porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, walrus), sirenians (manatees and dugongs), th marine otter (Lontra felina), and sea otters (Enhydra lutris and subspecies) and the pola bear. Excluding the seven extant freshwater species, about 120 wholly or partly marin species are currently recognized (www.marinemammalscience.org). However, ongoin taxonomic revision will keep this number in flux. Marine mammal species occupy almos all marine habitats: from fast ice to the tropics, on shorelines where pinnipeds haul ou during their moulting, mating or pupping season, in shallow coastal waters where som dolphins and baleen whales spend much of their time, and in the open ocean wher many pelagic pinnipeds, baleen whales, and toothed cetaceans occur. However, othe than sperm whales and perhaps some of the beaked whales capable of diving beyon 2,000 m, air-breathing limits marine mammals to bathypelagic depths at most. I contrast to highly restricted distributions in some smaller cetaceans and pinnipeds many species exhibit circumglobal or circumpolar distributions, with some (balee whales in particular) undertaking long annual migrations. +© 2016 United Nations + +Many marine mammals spend most of their time offshore, but sirenians, marine and se otters, and some small cetaceans and pinnipeds, as well as benthic feeders such a walruses and grey whales, rarely venture beyond the continental shelf except whe migrating. Global marine mammal species richness peaks at mid-latitude (around 60°) i both hemispheres (Kaschner et al., 2011; Figure 1a)”. Pinnipeds mostly drive the peaks which despite some highly endemic species in the subtropics, largely concentrate i polar to temperate waters (Figure 1b).Thick blubber or fur layers insulate marin mammals; hence they occupy all climate zones, although temperature nevertheles influences distributions (Tittensor et al., 2010), often through feeding and breedin constraints. As with other marine predators, food availability drives patterns in man marine mammals, but so does availability of breeding habitat for many species Dugongs, as highly specialized herbivores, associate with sea grass beds in warm shallow coastal waters and estuaries. Baleen whales, which feed at low trophic levels require dense prey aggregations to sustain their metabolic needs, forcing most specie to migrate to high latitudes during peak feeding seasons to utilize high summe productivity (except for some resident tropical populations associated with productiv upwelling waters). Some species concentrate at specific breeding or calving grounds i winter. Toothed cetaceans generally feed at higher trophic levels and are not linked, a are some baleen whales, to zooplankton aggregations along the polar ice edges, and thi helps drive higher species diversity at mid-latitudes (Figure 1a) (Kaschner et al., 2011) Nevertheless, the finer-scale distribution of most species links with ocean features tha aggregate prey such as eddies, fronts or upwelling areas, or with specific breedin grounds. Many pinniped distributions correlate with prey aggregations; however availability of suitable haul-out sites, on either land or sea ice, for moulting, breedin and pupping, limits most pinniped species, as does maximum length of foraging trips, a well as temperature (Tittensor et al., 2010). +Despite their often impressive body size, new discoveries of whale species still occur b re-evaluation of molecular and morphological evidence. Despite well-established broad scale distributions of most small cetaceans, pinnipeds, sirenians and otters (Reeves e al., 2002), range maps or predictions of environmental suitability for the beaked whale (ziphiids) largely represent guesswork; their actual distributions potentially span entir ocean basins (Kaschner et al., 2011). Similarly, even after centuries of intense whaling i all oceans, the breeding grounds and migration patterns of some of the large balee whales, such as North Pacific right whales, are still not well known. +Relatively low densities with often very large ranges, low detectability, an inconspicuous behaviour of many species limit studies on marine mammal distributions To date, most dedicated sampling has centred on Northern hemisphere continenta shelves and slopes (Halpin et al., 2009). Large knowledge gaps remain on specie occurrence throughout much of the tropics and Southern hemisphere temperate water north of 60° (Kaschner et al., 2011). Although range maps and opportunistic sightings +* all figures and tables can be found at the end of this chapter. +© 2016 United Nations + +document species presence in an area and facilitate larger-scale biodiversity inventories extending these types of sources to estimate density or abundance or to assess relativ ecological importance often proves problematic. Dedicated sighting surveys o cetaceans conducted annually in offshore areas of the North Pacific under sponsorshi of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) (IWC-POWER: IWC) can help addres these gaps and evaluate North Pacific whale recovery trajectories (Halpin et al., 2009) +2.2 Seabirds +“Seabirds” denotes species that rely on the marine environment for at least part of th year, and include many spectacularly mobile species that travel thousands of kilometres returning to land only to breed. Seabirds as a group occur in all seas and ocean worldwide, exploiting surface waters in all habitats from the intertidal zone to the ope ocean. Globally, seabird density, diversity and endemism are highest in the highl productive temperate latitudes and in upwelling areas (Croxall et al., 2012; Chown et al. 1998). +Seabirds are central-place foragers (foragers that return to a particular place t consume food) during the breeding season, with many adapted to exploit highl clumped prey. Therefore largest aggregations occur where food availability is hig within a restricted foraging range from a suitable nesting habitat (Lascelles et al., 2012) Foraging ranges vary from a few kilometres from shore (e.g., seaduck and small terns) t several thousand (e.g., larger albatross). Seabirds adopt a range of behaviours t capture prey, from surface-seizing to plunge or pursuit diving. Feeding generally occur at or immediately below the water’s surface, although the Emperor Penguin reache depths over 500 m. +Seabirds can be roughly subdivided into three groups. “Pelagic seabirds”, such a porcellariiformes, pelecaniformes, alcids and penguins, often travel far from land primarily use oceanic pelagic water (seas above the open ocean, typically >200 m i depth). In contrast, “coastal seabirds (year-round)”, including most larids, are thos that primarily use coastal inshore water (seas along coasts, typically <8 km from th shoreline) throughout the year. “Coastal seabirds (nonbreeding season)”, such a seaduck, grebes and divers, are those that primarily use coastal inshore water durin the non-breeding season. +For much of the year coastal species tend to be relatively static, often tied to particula habitats or topographic features. Pelagic species distributions, however, often link t dynamic processes and variables and require complex analyses to define. BirdLif International recognizes around 350 species as seabirds (i.e., 3.5 per cent of all bir species), of which over 280 meet a stricter definition (excluding ducks, loons, etc.) use in some earlier reviews. However, ongoing taxonomic revision will keep this number i flux. In recent years new species have been found, as well as rediscovery of som thought to be extinct. Re-evaluation of molecular and morphological evidence has spli some taxa, adding an additional eight species since 2000 with a further 15-20 under +© 2016 United Nations + +review in the coming years. Knowledge of the at-sea distribution of species remain patchy. Many species are relatively well studied at specific sites, but at-sea movement across entire ranges are known for only a few species, as are areas used during non breeding periods and those areas visited by juvenile birds. The at-sea distributions fo many tropical species, particularly in the Central and South Pacific and South East Asi are also under-studied. +Seabird distribution may vary depending on their breeding site (e.g., tropical vs temperate zones), age, sex, whether it is day or night and the time of year (Lascelles e al., 2012). In addition, many species, particularly procellariiforms, alternate betwee “long” and “short” foraging trips during the breeding season. Areas most important fo their survival have rarely been defined in any systematic way, although recent studies such as the BirdLife Marine Important Bird Area Atlas, have helped fill this gap and sho distribution patterns at multiple scales. +2.3 Turtles +Marine turtles have inhabited the world’s oceans for more than 100 million years having survived the dinosaurs and numerous major global shifts in climate. Today ther are seven recognized marine turtle species, six belonging to Chelonidae, green turtle Chelonia mydas, hawksbills Eretmochelys imbricata, loggerheads Caretta caretta, oliv ridleys Lepidochelys olivacea, Kemp’s ridleys Lepidochelys kempii, and flatbacks Natato depressus, and one extant member of Dermochelyidae, the leatherback Dermochely coriacea. Despite few species, marine turtles occur circumglobally, inhabit nearly al oceans, occupy unique ecological niches, and exhibit variations in abundance an trends, as well as reproduction and morphology among populations of the same specie (Wallace et al., 2010). +Marine turtles have evolved several adaptations to marine habitats (e.g., maintainin water balance in saltwater, hydrodynamic body shape and swimming efficiency) that ar unique compared to other turtle species, but because they are reptiles, temperatur fundamentally constrains their distributions and life history (Spotila, 2004). For example the development, and survival of marine turtle embryos means successful hatchlin production requires the consistently warm temperature (28-33°C) of sandy beac environments. Because these habitats are limited to the tropics and subtropics, mos major marine turtle nesting sites occur between the equator and 30° latitude (Wallac et al., 2010) (see Figure 1, chapter 39). +Temperate also limits marine distributions, as most population ranges only reach 45 latitude (see Figure 1, chapter 39), extending only seasonally into northern and souther extremes of their ranges (Spotila, 2004). Leatherbacks defy this pattern, with cor migratory and foraging habitats into temperate and even sub-arctic regions and averag water temperatures between 10-20°C (Eckert et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations + +Within ocean basin-scale distributions, adult marine turtles generally migrate hundred to thousands of kilometres from nesting beaches for foraging, often showing high sit fidelity to both breeding and feeding areas. Immature turtles also show site fidelity t areas used for foraging and growth. For some species, primary habitat types, e.g., cora reefs for hawksbills, seagrass beds for green turtles, constrain foraging to tropica regions (Spotila, 2004). +Many marine turtle populations demonstrate ontogenetic variation in habitat use that i related to geography and oceanography (Bolten, 2003). In several places around th world, hatchlings disperse from nesting beaches and orient toward persistent, offshor current systems (e.g., Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean), where they associate wit ephemeral habitats in convergence zones, such as Sargassum communities. Afte spending the first few years of life in these oceanic areas and growing to larger bod sizes, juvenile turtles tend to recruit to neritic habitats where they remain—for the mos part—until reaching sexual maturity. Although this description provides a usefu heuristic for understanding sea turtle life history distribution patterns, significant within population variation exists in timing and duration of recruitment by individuals from on life stage—and habitat type—to another; these variations have implications for overal population dynamics and management (Bolten, 2003). +The wide distributions of marine turtles can vary greatly among populations, which ar subject to multiple threats that operate on different spatial and temporal scales Effectively prioritizing limited management resources requires understanding whic threats will most strongly influence distribution patterns in space and time (Wallace e al., 2011). +2.4 Fishes +In English, ‘fish’ designates any aquatic multicellular animal (jellyfish, cuttlefish starfish, etc.). The term ‘finfish’ designates those with a central spine comprised o vertebrae (Chordata/Vertebrata — vertebrates), whether or not present in adults ossified, or with paired and/or impair fins supported by rays. Although no longe recognized as a valid taxonomic group, ‘finfish’ (hereafter “fish”) offers a practica descriptor of a group exclusive to aquatic life that constrains many adaptations an defines a similar body plan, while acknowledging diverse body forms. +By the end of 2013, more than 33,000 valid species of extant species were describe (Eschmeyer, 2014), constituting more than half of all vertebrates; ca. 17,500 occur i marine environments for at least part of their life cycle. Surprisingly, specie descriptions have accelerated since World War II: between 1999 and 2013 (15 years), new fish species was described every day, a rate that is still increasing (Figure 2). Thi increase comes in spite of decreasing fish taxonomists around the world, and cannot b attributed to recent molecular advances, given the low proportion of species discovere by genetics methods. Different editions of Fishes of the World (e.g., Nelson, 2006 report new discoveries (Table 1), and although the deep seas were expected to deliver +© 2016 United Nations + +many new species, given the assumed high rate of exploration of continental shelve <200 m, species richness per surface area in shallow waters remains much higher noting that waters below 2,000 m deep remain largely unexplored. Coral reefs stil deliver most newly described marine fishes each year, especially for cryptic species suc as gobies and small labrids. Coral reefs are not the only source of new species: fo instance, populations of many fish species previously thought to be distributed widely i the Indo-Pacific region are now recognized as different species between the Indian an the Pacific Ocean, and even more recently between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. +Fishes are ubiquitous throughout the world ocean, in locations as small as tidal pool that may dry up daily, and from the poles down to the base of the Marianas Trench i the West Central Pacific (11,782 m). They live in caves, on the shoreline, sometimes ou of the water for some periods in mangroves or intertidal areas, over, on or in soft o hard bottoms, in crevices in rocky or coral reefs, and a few are even found in poorl oxygenated water. As in many groups, species richness (as well as species per family o genus, and number of genera) generally increases from high to low latitudes (Figure 3) more so than the number of families, but local climate, oceanography or phylogeneti history may alter this pattern (Tables 2 and 3). Shallow coral reefs with a high diversit of habitats and high biomass productivity support the most species; deep-sea corals ar less species-rich. Several studies show highest species richness in the Coral Triangl (Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea region), thought to be the centre of tropica marine diversity. More than 300 widespread species (2 per cent) occur in 10 or mor FAO areas (from over 19 possible areas), and 8,000 (47 per cent) occur in just one are (12,000 — 65 per cent in 1 or 2). Geographic and/or hydrological conditions restrict th majority of species distributions. Amphitropical distributions occur only in large pelagi species. +Although fishes occupy all depths, species diversity drops dramatically below th continental shelves. Depth ranges are incomplete for many species, but about 6,800 (5 per cent) of the 11,000+ species with recorded ranges in FishBase (www.fishbase.org Froese & Pauly, 2014) are restricted to the upper 200 m, with only ca. 620 spp. (4 pe cent) below 2,000 m. Lack of data on deep-sea species, except for a few targete around submarine seamounts in the high seas by non-sustainable fisheries, illustrates serious sampling bias that demands cautious interpretation. +Only a few species of shark and rays have been caught below 3,000 m and none belo 4,000 m. Gobies that constitute the most speciose family in marine life zones in tropica and temperate waters in general, are barely present in the North Pacific above 40° N The life cycles of more than 700 hundred species (including salmonids, eels), alternat between marine and fresh waters (amphidromy, diadromy, catadromy, anadromy). +Few herbivorous species occupy high latitudes as compared to tropical areas. Althoug anti-freeze blood proteins prevent ice formation in the blood of some cold water fishes digesting plants requires a higher metabolic activity than most cold water fishes ca maintain. Based on recorded information for about 6,400 species in Fishbase, abou 1,000 species are top predators and carnivores, 4,400 are predators or omnivores, and +© 2016 United Nations + +1,000 are herbivores or omnivores. The commercial large species that are most studie predominantly occupy the upper trophic levels. +The high diversity of forms, behaviour, ecology and biology based on one body pla enables great success in the marine environment. However, the populations of man exploited species are threatened by fisheries that now access stocks in almost the entir water volume between 0 and 1,500 m depth. Despite some local extirpations, no marin fishes are reported to be globally extinct; however, large species with few offspring such as some sharks and manta rays, are endangered, often because of threats alon migration pathways. Populations of some shark species targeted for their fins hav decreased by 90 per cent, but although the populations are no longer economicall exploitable, no sign of extirpation has been noted so far (Ferretti et al., 2010). +2.5 Cephalopods +Shell-less coleoid cephalopods occur from pole to pole, and from the ocean’s surface t depths of many thousands of metres; many can even fly above the ocean’s surface. The range from surface-dwelling tropical forms with adults the size of a grain of rice to 30- giants in the deep oceans. +Squid compete with fishes in nearly all marine niches, although there are only one tent as many species, perhaps reflecting their relatively recent radiation since th disappearance of the dinosaurs. The same event killed all of the Ammonites, a highl diverse group of cephalopods that lived near the sea surface. The deep ocean remain sparsely sampled for cephalopods, raising questions about their total biomass an global patterns. For those areas that have been sampled, recent evidence suggests tha primarily oceanic squid peak in diversity in the northern hemisphere at temperat latitudes, a pattern reflected by (primarily coastal) non-squid cephalopods in the Pacifi Ocean at least; temperature strongly drives these patterns (Tittensor et al., 2010). +More information on the biology, biogeography and diversity of cephalopods is availabl from CephBase (cephbase.eol.org), which is now available through the pages of th Encyclopedia of Life. +2.6 Marine Microbes +Marine microbes, defined as single-celled or chain forming microorganisms, span a ver broad size range, from microscopic cells that are <1/50" the diameter of a human hai to forms visible to the naked eye. They are found throughout all the oceans, from th tropics to the poles and from the surface to the deepest depths. These single-celle organisms divide asexually, up to several times per day, leading to high biomass tha fuels nearly all marine productivity, including all important fisheries around the globe and drives global biogeochemical cycles, including carbon, oxygen, and many others Marine microbes also represent the most phylogenetically diverse organisms on Earth. single litre of seawater can contain representatives of all major branches of the tree of +© 2016 United Nations + +life: Archaea, Bacteria and all major kingdoms of Eukaryotes. Microbial diversity withi the plankton far exceeds that in terrestrial habitats. For example, planktoni photoautotrophs represent deep phylogenetic diversity, including 20 diverse clades. I contrast, autotrophic diversity in terrestrial environments is dominated by just on clade (Falkowski et al., 2004). Planktonic heterotrophs are equally diverse. +Eukaryotic plankton includes purely autotrophic species (phytoplankton) that conver inorganic to organic carbon, fuelled by light energy through photosynthesis. Primar production supplied by phytoplankton forms the basis of the food web and ultimatel feeds all marine organisms, up to the largest whales. Eukaryotic plankton also include heterotrophic microbes that ingest organic carbon through a myriad of feedin strategies, and so-called mixotrophic species, which include species eithe simultaneously or sequentially alternating between phototrophic and heterotrophi modes. Feeding by heterotrophic and mixotrophic plankton is the single largest factor i reducing primary production; it can control the abundance and biogeochemical activit of phytoplankton, and it is essential for the transfer of matter and energy to highe levels in the food web, and for the recycling of nutrients (Sherr et al., 2007). Bacteria ar also essential for recycling and remineralizing organic matter and contribut substantially to primary production. +Latitude, proximity to land, and season primarily delimit global large-scale distributio patterns of plankton. Abundance declines from high nutrient coastal areas to the vas areas of the generally low-nutrient (oligotrophic) waters of the open ocean. Bu exceptions exist. For example, Charles Darwin on his ‘Beagle’ voyage noted tha nitrogen-fixing phytoplankton can become very abundant in the open ocean and for surface mats and filaments. Latitude interacts with season in forcing plankto abundance patterns. In lower latitudes, seasonal variations in irradiance an temperature, including ice cover, result in highly variable plankton abundance seasonally, with spring and fall peaks. Organism physiology, nutrient availability susceptibility to grazing, and viral attack, as well as the fluid flow regime, further defin distributions. +2.7. Zooplankton +Zooplankton occur from pole to pole, and from tide-pools to the deepest trenches in th ocean. They span the size range from single cells and multicellular organisms that ar smaller than 0.05 mm, to gelatinous colonies that are longer than the largest whales. I the vast scale of the oceans, they are united by their inability to control their movemen in the horizontal scale, but many perform vertical migration of hundreds of metres pe day. +As an assemblage, the ~7,000 described species of multicellular zooplankton (Wiebe e al., 2010) encompass species from every major animal phylum, and the majority of th minor phyla; some of these 15 phyla are almost exclusively planktonic (Bucklin et al. 2010). Many additional phyla are classically considered as non-planktonic, but they do in +© 2016 United Nations + +fact live within the plankton for their earliest life stages, and are referred to a meroplankton, in contrast to the holozooplankton generally considered. This mean that the zooplankton encompass an exceedingly wide range of body plans, and mode of life, ranging from relatively passive herbivorous species, to blindingly fast attac carnivores. It also includes some of the world’s most passive predators that literally rel on prey blundering into them. Finally, some zooplankton taxa have develope symbiosis with internally housed algae so successfully that they no longer rely on othe organisms as prey. +The majority of zooplankters range from <1 mm to 1 cm in length. With ~2,00 described planktonic species typically representing 80-90 per cent of total zooplankto abundance and living biomass in most marine ecosystems, copepods represent the mos successful body plan. These small, robust crustaceans are easily collected with simpl nets and manipulated for experimental purposes, making them the central focus o ecological research on plankton for the past century. Different species of copepods pla almost every imaginable ecological role: the majority are suspension-feeding grazers o smaller single-celled plankton, some are scavengers and detrital feeders, and other range from active attack to passive ambush predators. Several other diverse crustacea groups illustrate a wide range of feeding strategies: ostracods (detritivores), euphausiid (filter-feeders), amphipods (predators, or commensalists), mysids (scavengers) an decapods (predators); note that the latter two groups may be considered eithe planktonic or benthic, given their tight association with the seafloor. +Lacking the arthropod skeleton, most other planktonic groups are considere “gelatinous” zooplankton, which are generally not well collected in nets because of thei fragility and often lower abundances. With the exception of the nearly 140 species o pelagic tunicates (larvaceans, pyrosomes, doliolids and salps) and about 80 species o shelled pteropods, all other groups are clearly predatory. Two of the three classes o medusae or “jellyfish” within the phylum Cnidaria (hydrozoans and scyphozoans), ar clearly the most speciose gelatinous groups, followed by the phylum Mollusca with it three functional groups (shell-less pteropods, heteropods, and cephalopods — althoug the latter are considered by many as nekton, as are the fishes). Once grouped with th cnidarians, the Ctenophora, or comb-jellies, are probably the most seriousl underestimated group in terms of their biodiversity: their extremely fragile bod construction confounds specimen collection. Of the extant worm-like groups, onl Chaetognatha (arrow worms) occur in plankton samples in high abundance; primaril benthic polychaetes and nemertines usually occur in the plankton in modest diversit and abundance. +The >100-year quest to find patterns in zooplankton distribution shows that eac species has its own environmental preferences and tolerances, with some specie confined to specific regional habitats and others that are relatively wide-spread. Ove time, several broad patterns have emerged for zooplankton that exhibit consistenc across multiple taxa (Dolan et al., 2007). Diversity in offshore habitats exceeds that i coastal regions, although coastal abundance and biomass may be higher. Diversit increases from the poles to the tropics, often with an equatorial dip (Boltovskoy, 1999) +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +(again in contrast with abundance and biomass). Diversity increases with increasin depth in polar systems (Kosobokova et al., 2011), has a mid-depth peak i temperate/subarctic systems, but may peak in surface waters of tropical oceans Although these trends hold for the overall zooplankton community, they vary amon every taxonomic group within the assemblage. +Zooplankton experts seek to create global maps for every major taxonomic grouping, o even for entire communities or ecosystems, particularly using observational data, i conjunction with environmental data, to predict biodiversity distribution (e.g. Rombouts et al., 2009). Obtaining sufficient data for all taxa under consideration, acros the full spectrum of habitats, remains a primary hurdle. One of the greates accomplishments of the Census of Marine Life (CoML) was to build the Ocea Biogeographic Information System (OBIS), a system that can address such questions b pulling together the disparate datasets to allow such synthetic tasks to be undertake (e.g., Tittensor et al., 2010; Vanden Berghe et al., 2010). +New insights derived from DNA-based approaches represent the biggest curren challenges in understanding zooplankton biodiversity. Initially, these tools offered grea promise in tackling simple issues, such as phenotypic variation or rates of hybridization In practice they are revealing numerous cryptic species not previously recognized base on morphology alone, that force rethinking on what represents a species, and th geographic/environmental boundaries between them. Many species believed to spa several ocean basins may in fact represent species assemblages, suggesting that curren estimates may severely underestimate the overall diversity of marine zooplankton in al groups. +3. Benthic ecosysystems +3.1 Rocky Shore Ecosystems +The ease of access and suitability for experimental work of rocky shore habitats hav attracted a long history of scientific study and engaged a broad audience. Biodiversit assessments in this habitat typically use quadrat and transect assessment with visual o photographic identification, and do not require ships or complex technology. In man rocky intertidal environments, and particularly in regions with large tidal ranges, aeria exposure at upper tidal levels and predation at low tidal levels create distinct bands o species, or zonations, that represent one of the most striking and well-documente gradients in the ocean (first described by Stephenson and Stephenson 1949). The globa distribution of rocky intertidal habitats creates opportunities to compare latitudina trends and to detect large-scale patterns and changes. Despite fairly well-understoo local patterns and processes, large-scale patterns (regional to global) are difficult t discern; however, many drivers, such as temperature and exposure, act on large scales as do human influences, such as invasive species and pollution. Examples from aroun the world (e.g. Thompson et al., 2002) demonstrate the past and current effects on +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +rocky shores of pollution (e.g. oil, eutrophication), overfishing, introduced exoti species, modification of coastal processes (e.g. coastal defences, sedimentation) an global change (e.g. temperature, sea level). The relative magnitudes of som anthropogenic pressures differ among industrialized countries and developin countries. +Very few long-term studies have addressed temporal trends in rocky shore biodiversit and most focus locally and regionally. Barry et al. (1995) and Sagarin et al. (1999 observed changes in the abundance of macroinvertebrate species in a rocky intertida community in California between surveys in 1931-33 and 1993-96. These changes ar consistent with recent climate warming that shifts species northward. Eight of nin southern species increased in abundance and five of eight northern species decreased however, cosmopolitan species displayed no trend. Blanchette et al. (2008) describe the spatial pattern of distribution of species abundance for rocky intertidal communitie along the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Mexico (more than 4000 km). +This biogeographic study represents one on the larger-scale analyses of this habitat, an reported strong spatial structure in the rocky intertidal communities of the north-eas Pacific. Breaks in similarity among clusters generally linked with known biogeographica and oceanographic discontinuities. Sea surface temperature and species similarity bot correlated strongly, coinciding with long-term temporal trends along the California coas that point to both geography and oceanographic conditions as primary determinants o patterns of intertidal community structure. +Recent efforts through the NaGISA project of the Census of Marine Life (e.g., Iken et al. 2010) and others demonstrate large-scale patterns. The NaGISA project gathere information on rocky shore systems globally, and compared diversity and abundance o key benthic groups from intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky shore sites in order t identify latitudinal trends and their environmental drivers. Global analyses wer constrained by differences in sampling efforts (numbers, years, and strata sampled) timing of sampling, under-sampling of some ecoregions, and unbalanced representatio of the northern and southern hemispheres. Results indicate that distribution patterns o diversity and biomass of various taxonomic groups (e.g., macroalgae, gastropods decapods and echinoderms) are very complex and sometimes defy the expecte latitudinal gradient of species decreasing towards the poles. Regional diversity hotspot often complicate any simple broad-scale pattern. Despite differences in sampling effort timing, and coverage, this effort identified likely drivers of diversity of specific taxa an communities, several of which were tightly linked to human activities. For example pollution indices correlate significantly with diversity in several phyla (e.g., Iken et al. 2010). Although the natural heterogeneity of these systems complicates unequivoca establishment of cause-consequence relationships, a larger data base for the analysis o global diversity trends and their drivers will provide more substantive evidence for th identification of likely drivers. +However, although much progress has been made recently, our understanding of rock shore biodiversity patterns remains incomplete, especially beyond local or small +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +regional scales. Similarly, the complexity of these systems constrains efforts to assig environmental or human-induced drivers to rocky shore diversity, because such driver can act on different scales (Benedetti-Cecchi et al., 2010), and may act cumulatively synergistically, or antagonistically. That 40 per cent of the world’s population currentl lives within 100 km of the coast enhances the urgency of this issue, particularly give that as population density and economic activities increase, so will pressures on rock shores, as well as other coastal ecosystems from tropical to temperate systems, an even some polar regions. +3.2 Tropical coral reef ecosystems +Tropical coral reefs span the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, although cool upwellin associated with boundary currents limits distributions along the west coasts of Afric and South/Central America. We refer readers to Chapter 43 for a more detaile discussion on tropical and subtropical coral reef habitats that extends beyond our focu on biodiversity gradients. The diversity and productivity of coral reefs and associate ecosystems (mangroves, seagrasses and pelagic habitats) are among the highes globally, providing essential ecosystem services to tropical countries. The taxonomi richness of corals reefs is second to none, with tropical coral reefs housing 25per cent o all known marine life on the planet including sea fans, sponges, worms, starfish, brittl stars, sea urchins, crustaceans, and fish. In fact the variety of life supported by cora reefs rivals that of the tropical forests of the Amazon or New Guinea. Temperature an habitat complexity, particularly for stony corals and bony fish, have been show quantitatively to drive tropical reef diversity on global scales (Tittensor et al., 2010) with other features such as habitat area (rocky substrates within the photic zone), an historical factors (historical speciation/extinction patterns) being secondary drivers o regional to global patterns of coral reef biodiversity. +Tropical coral reefs are restricted to warm waters with average annual temperature typically above 18 °C though with annual mean temperatures between 20-27 °C, whic enable stony corals, via photosynthetically enhanced calcification, to lay down skeleton fast enough to build up reefs over multiple generations. The symbiosi between stony corals and their intra-cellular symbionts (zooxanthellae) limit coral reef to sunlit substrates, optimized in the top 10-15 m of the water column but with ree build-up possible down to 30-50 m depth. Thus coral reefs are restricted to island an continental fringes, and shallow oceanic banks that reach the photic zone. Classic cora reef descriptions emphasize oligotrophic low-sediment oceanic conditions being idea for coral reefs, however vibrant coral and reef growth, with high-diversity communities can occur in relatively high turbidity and sedimentation conditions in eutrophic water near highly productive major estuaries (e.g., along the Andaman Sea). This ability fo coral reefs to flourish in both sets of conditions is due to tight cycling of carbon an nitrogen between the coral symbionts. +A total of 836 tropical reef-associated coral species have been described globally, wit 759 from the Indo-Pacific and just 77 from the Atlantic, with no species in common +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +across these two ocean systems. The broad swath of equatorial currents that cross th Pacific and Indian Oceans, joined through the ‘leaky’ Indonesian region, dominate global patterns of coral reef diversity connecting East Africa to French Polynesia - o 4,000 species of tropical fishes, 492 are shared between the Western Indian Ocean an French Polynesia (Randall, 1998). Westwards from here, the large deep-water barrier i the East Pacific isolates the Eastern Tropical Pacific from the broader Indo-Pacific. +At the centre of the Indo-Pacific, the Indo-Australian Arc (IAA) provides optima temperature conditions and the highest habitat area for corals; within this ‘Cora Triangle’ (Roberts et al., 2002; Hoeksema, 2007) sub-regions show peaks of over 60 species of hard corals, 550 species of reef fishes and 50 species of stomatopods (Reak et al., 2008). Diversity declines east and west from here into the Central Indian an Pacific Oceans (<300 coral and fish species, 5-15 stomatopods), though new evidenc suggests a second peak of diversity in the Western Indian Ocean/Eastern African region in both stomatopods (30 species, Reaka et al., 2008) and hard corals (350-400 species Obura, 2012). The lowest diversity in tropical Indo-Pacific coral reefs is in the Easter Pacific due to isolation, with <150 coral and fish species, and <5 stomatopod species Coral reefs harbour high levels of cryptic diversity: for instance, populations of man coral and fish species previously thought to be distributed widely in the Indo-Pacifi region are now recognized as different species between the Indian and the Pacifi Ocean, and even more recently between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. +High levels of endemism are shown in remote island coral reef systems, in low dispersive groups such as fishes. In Hawaii and the Easter Island group levels o endemism in fish exceed 20 per cent (Randall, 1998), and only 12 shore fish species ar shared between the Red Sea, Easter Island, and the Hawaiian Island archipelago. Th small size and lower diversity of the tropical Atlantic, with subregions in the Caribbean Gulf of Mexico and around Brazil, may increase vulnerability to anthropogenic an climate threats compared to the larger, more diverse Indo-Pacific. +Deep-water corals also form reef structures, which we describe briefly in the deep-se section below; we also refer readers to Chapter 42, which presents a more detaile description of these environments. +3.3 Mangrove forest ecosystems +Mangroves are woody plants that grow normally in tropical and subtropical latitude along the land-sea interface, bays, estuaries, lagoons, and backwaters (Mukherjee et al. 2014). These plants and their associated organisms constitute the ‘mangrove fores community’ or ‘mangal’. Although mangrove ecosystems occur in more than 12 countries world-wide, encompassing just over 80 plant species, subspecies and varietie globally (Masso i Aleman et al., 2010), they are generally species-poor vegetatio formations. Nonetheless, they support a complex community of animals and micro organisms, the numbers of which have never been reliably estimated. Mangrov decapods and, to a lesser extent, insects are better studied than most taxa but the +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +scientific community is only just beginning to understand how mangrove ecosystem work and what they contribute to ecosystem functions, goods and services, includin biodiversity support, storm protection, fisheries production, effects on water qualit and providing significant carbon sinks (Dahdouh-Guebas, 2013). Several recent paper document immense carbon sequestration and suggest they may represent the mos carbon-rich tropical forests (Donato et al., 2011). +Mangrove tree species may be divided into two distinct floristic groups, an Atlantic-East Pacific and Indo-West-Pacific, the latter of which represents the mangrove specie richness peak between 90 and 135 degrees East. Latitudinal richness peaks globally nea the equator (Figure 4). Local species richness links significantly to regional richnes (Ellison, 2002), with recent recognition that high variability temperature interacts wit aridity in defining upper latitudinal limits of Avicennia and Rhizophora (Quisthoudt et al. 2012). +The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) rarely lists mangrove specie as threatened because they are often widely distributed, creating conservatio challenges. Yet, reports of local extirpations, sometimes hidden as cryptic ecologica degradation, may affect local and regional fisheries or other coastal functions (Dahdouh Guebas et al., 2005). These losses point to an urgent need to re-assess mangrov ecosystems nationally and regionally to identify regions most at risk of losing mangrov ecosystems and associated functions, goods, and services (Mukherjee et al., 2014). +3.4 Coastal sedimentary ecosystems +The coastal zone denotes the relatively narrow transition zone between land and ocea where strong interactions occur with humans. Sediment covers much of the continenta shelf from the poles to the equator and supports a wide diversity of invertebrate spanning almost all animal phyla. The shallowest depths along the shoreline suppor seagrasses, mangroves, and salt marshes, but seabed primary production is otherwis limited to benthic photosynthetic microbes that quickly disappear as light attenuate with depth. Resuspended material and phytoplankton sinking from the photic zone ad significantly to benthic production. +For organisms ranging from large megafaunal clams and crabs to meiofaunal nematode and copepods, temperature primarily defines broad biogeographic provinces, but withi regions substrate composition plays a major role in defining composition and diversit of sedimentary fauna. Sand and coarser substrates typically occur in high-energ exposed environments, with muds characterizing quiescent areas. Depth an productivity also strongly influence faunal patterns, with peak diversity at mid-shel depths and locations with moderate organic input (Renaud et al., 2007). A hump-shape pattern of maximum diversity linking with productivity has been reported elsewhere including the Arctic (Witman et al., 2008) and in fossil marine invertebrate (brachiopods) (Lockley, 1983). Intertidal sediments typically exhibit very low diversity, +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +irrespective of substrate composition; this is likely to be due to the harsh, dynami nature of that environment. +In a broad sense, evidence suggests high species richness in tropical sediments relativ to temperate and polar regions, but because sampling effort is strongly biased toward temperate seafloor environments, this complicates broad-scale comparisons. Fo example, total species number for sedimentary invertebrates in the Canadian Arcti compares favourably with the Canadian Pacific and Atlantic (Archambault et al., 2010 and on the eastern and western coasts of the United States, gastropod mollusc increase in species richness from the Arctic towards the equator, but peak in th subtropics (Roy et al., 1998). Multiple studies testing latitudinal gradients over varyin scales find few consistent patterns, and suggest that complex differences in loca environments play a much greater role than latitude in defining diversity an composition; indeed, landscape heterogeneity may obliterate a simple broad-scal pattern, except where broad physical drivers dominate. The strong influence of the Gul Stream on coastal European waters produces high species richness in high latitud sediments (Ellingsen and Gray, 2002). Algal genera generally exhibit an invers latitudinal gradient, with biodiversity hotspots in temperate regions, but bryopsidalea algae peak in diversity in the tropical Indo-Pacific region (Kerswell, 2006). +Key data gaps in species richness data for coastal sediments of Africa, South America the western tropical Pacific and polar regions (Costello et al., 2010) constrain latitudina comparisons, but we do know that Australian coastal sediments support very hig species richness (Butler et al., 2010), and that Antarctica diversity (Griffiths, 2010) onl modestly exceeds Arctic diversity (Piepenburg et al., 2011). +However, it is recognized that even with less attention than European waters, the Indo Pacific area is the most diverse area of our oceans. Molluscs have the largest diversity o all phyla in the marine environment (Bouchet, 2006), and mollusc diversity i exceedingly high in the tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific, particularly in coral ree environments (Crame, 2000). How this pattern translates to sedimentary fauna remain unknown and leads us to conclude that we need far more studies in many regions t drawn firm conclusions about general patterns of marine biodiversity in the coasta zone. +Very few studies compare sedimentary fauna across sharply contrasting sediment because differences in sampling gear complicate such comparisons. Sampling cobble and gravel, which support a wide diversity of encrusting epifauna and flora, require very different tools than sampling muds or even coarse sand. Nonetheless, a qualitativ comparison of species lists indicates strongly different faunas within these substrata linking to a wide range of variables spanning physical disturbance, larval supply, an food quality, to name just a few. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +3.5 Deep-sea benthic ecosystems +The deep sea spans depths from 200 m to almost 11,000 m, encompassing more tha 90 percent of the global ocean area, and representing the largest ecosystem on Eart (Watling et al., 2013). However, less than 5 percent of its area has been explored, an less than 0.001 per cent, the equivalent of a few football fields, has been sample quantitatively, making it among the least known environments on Earth. Decades ag researchers projected 1 to 10 million total species in the deep sea (Grassle an Maciolek, 1992). More recently, Mora et al. (2011) predicted that 91 per cent of marin species remain unknown, largely due to undersampling of the deep sea (other work downsize that estimate — see Appendix). For example, 585 of 674 isopods specie collected in recent expeditions to the deep Weddell Sea were new to science (Brandt e al., 2007). Sampling is uneven, with very limited understanding of hard substrate biot outside of chemosynthetic ecosystems, and under-sampling of metazoan meiofaun and protozoa. +Deep-sea sediments cover much of the deep-sea floor, with little variation i temperature and salinity. The absence of photosynthesis below ~200 m means tha most deep-sea life depends exclusively on sinking food from surface waters. Thes sediments support a highly diverse fauna spanning most phyla; the first comprehensiv sampling covered just 21 m? of seafloor, yielding 1,597 species from 13 different phyl of invertebrates (Grassle and Maciolek, 1992). The best known broad-scale diversit patterns for deep-sea invertebrates and fishes are the unimodal diversity-dept relationship, bathymetric zonation, and a general decline in species richness toward the poles. Macrofauna in total and as individual taxa provide the strongest evidence fo unimodal diversity-depth relationships (Rex and Etter, 2010) in which, despite som contradictory patterns in some locations, highest diversity occurs at depths of ~1,500 2,000 m. Significant unimodal diversity-depth relationships have also been reported fo nematodes, ostracods, and foraminifers in the Arctic Ocean, and for megafauna invertebrates and fishes in the western North Atlantic. Reduced population densitie under extreme food limitation may suppress species diversity in the deep oligotrophi abyss (>3,000-4,000 m depth), whereas elevated carbon fluxes at shallow depths ma suppress diversity by driving competitive exclusion or creating physiological stress. O upwelling along continental margins, low oxygen at upper bathyal depths (100-1000 m suppresses diversity. Declining food supply and thermal energy with depth (and distanc from continents) are likely to drive these patterns, which are complicated by regiona variation in food availability. Topographic isolation or complexity, boundary effects sediment characteristics, currents, oxygen concentration, physical disturbance biological interactions and patch dynamics, as well as evolutionary history, als influence diversity and distribution patterns at regional and local scales (Rex and Etter 2010). +Many fish and invertebrate taxa occur at a similar depth range in “bands” of distinc assemblages or “zones”. Zonation describes sequences where few changes in specie composition occur within a band, but abrupt faunal boundaries occur. However, majo oceanographic features, such as oxygen minimum zones, strong bottom currents and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +abrupt shifts of water masses, can obscure, alter, or create zonation patterns. Globally clear faunal differences are observed between upper bathyal depths compared to mi and lower bathyal depths (Rex and Etter, 2010). The preponderance of rare specie complicates these analyses, particularly in abyssal environments where many specie occur only once in samples (Grassle and Maciolek, 1992). +Multiple biological and physical factors, such as larval dispersal, competition, predation temperature, oxygen concentration, hydrostatic pressure, and food supply, al potentially drive zonation. Temperature, oxygen, and food supply vary most in th upper bathyal region, where pronounced species turnover occurs, creating a ubiquitou shelf-slope transition zone. In lower bathyal (3,000-4,000 m) and abyssal depths declining food supply homogenizes fauna and reduces species turnover. +Multiple studies report latitudinal diversity gradients in many deep-sea invertebrat groups, although patterns vary in sparse sampling of limited taxa (Kaiser et al., 2013) For several macrofaunal groups, and for meiofaunal foraminifers, diversity decrease with increasing latitude in the North Atlantic. In the South Atlantic, isopod diversit increases, whereas gastropods and bivalves decline poleward (although there ar exceptions to this trend). Strong seasonality and pulses of phytodetritus at hig latitudes may depress diversity, much like physical disturbance. Other work suggest increasing diversity in the northern hemisphere for nematodes. +Thousands of topographic features, such as submarine canyons and fjords, incis continental and island margins and increase complexity of bottom topography, modif abundance and diversity by intensifying mixing, amplifying currents, enhancin productivity, sediment and food deposition, and channel cascading shelf waters Enhanced food deposition drives species aggregations and consequent increase diversity in these habitats compared to adjacent, topographically simpler areas. Stee topography and amplified currents often expose bedrock and boulders within canyons supporting additional fauna, such as megafaunal and macrofaunal suspension feeder that require hard surfaces for attachment and strong currents for food delivery. +Biogenic reefs (formed mainly by deep-water coral and sponges) occupy hard substrat with high currents, often within basins or along the continental margins. These reef form from skeletons of dense aggregations of one or a few species. The skeletons creat surfaces for colonization, extend higher in the water than the surrounding seafloor (thu reaching faster currents and greater food delivery) and add spaces for protection fro predators and other disturbances. These reefs therefore enhance local species diversity and provide nursery areas for many macro- and megafaunal invertebrates and fishes. +Despite their remoteness, human activities affect deep-sea diversity, resulting i declines in deep-sea fishes, loss of habitat-forming invertebrates (e.g., deep-wate corals), and increased contaminants in deep-sea biota. Although these impacts illustrat local to regional effects, the cascading effects of warming surface layers porten substantial changes in the food supply to deep-sea ecosystems. Manifestations o climate change including ocean warming, acidification and deoxygenation, may reduc the bathyal habitats available, with concomitant broad-scale changes in patterns of +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +species distribution and diversity. Deep-sea biodiversity loss could adversely affec ecosystem functions of the Earth’s largest environment. +Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps occur where dissolved chemical compounds emerg at the seafloor at rates and concentrations high enough to sustain chemosynthesis Chemosynthesis is the process that some microbes use to transform CO into organi molecules. The emerging fluid is often associated with active tectonic features such a spreading centres, subduction zones, and volcanoes, but seeps may also be linked t methane escape via mass wasting, brine pools, turbidity flows, diapirs, and pockmarks canyons and faults. The resulting habitat distribution tends to be linear, following mid ocean and back-arc spreading centres, as well as volcanic arcs in the case of vents, an along continental margins in the case of seeps. The fluid emissions at most regions o high carbon accumulation - oil, gas and clathrate-rich deposits — suppor chemosynthesis. Thus, the microbes form the basis of a food web for a metazoa community that is mostly endemic to these systems. Habitats supportin chemosynthetic production and communities occur in every ocean. +No overall assessment of diversity patterns and drivers exists, although alphadiversity a vents and seeps is often lower than in the surrounding non-chemosynthetic ecosystems The considerable work on biogeographic patterns includes exploration of fauna relationships and origins. Despite similarity in many taxa at vents and seeps, the usually differ at species or genus levels; however, both habitats harbour many endemi taxa. Some taxa at vents and seeps are new to science at higher taxonomic levels especially those housing microbial symbionts. +Overall, species diversity at seeps exceeds that at hydrothermal vents, driven by hig variability in the geological settings of methane and sulphide release and within-sit heterogeneity (Levin and Sibuet, 2012). Depth may describe both the biogeographi similarity of seeps across the Atlantic and, possibly, the decrease of symbiont-hostin species with depth in general at seeps. However, depth may reflect more direct drivers such as greater production and predation at shallower depths or behaviour of fluid flu sustaining chemosynthesis. Local site longevity and stability of the fluid source wil influence any pattern analysis, as will depth; vents in the photosynthetic zone above 20 m differ notably in taxa and structure. These habitats exhibit low diversity within taxa Habitat and depth drive a variety of patterns in vesicomyid clams hosting symbionts, bu better systematics are needed. The East Pacific Rise represents a diversity hotspot fo the most speciose family, the vent-endemic dirivultid copepods. +Biogeographic patterns at vents are likely to share controlling factors with all ocea fauna: continental barriers, oceanographic barriers, and pressure gradients with depth However, similarity analyses with growing datasets indicate strong control by the histor of spreading ridges from the mid-Mesozoic to the present. Thus, diversity analysis i likely to identify connectivity, geological longevity and ridge stability as important reflecting the smaller-scale drivers currently known. Recent discovery of ven communities in the Antarctic and Arctic reveal a unique community composition and +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +suggest that dispersal barriers are also important drivers of diversity (Rogers et al. 2012). +Increasing evidence suggests that the character of the venting fluids fundamentall drives taxonomic composition, overlaid on geographic separation, particularly in th complex settings of the Atlantic and the western Pacific back-arc rifting and volcanis (Desbruyéres, 2000); relevant factors may include reduced compound composition water temperature and metal content. Similarly, the high diversity of animals recentl recognized from mud volcanoes relates to the nature of the chemical substrates i emerging fluids and the adaptations of associated microbes and symbiont hosts bot across and within sites (Rodrigues et al., 2013). Where geochemical driver characteristic of vents and seeps come together, an intermediate ecosystem wit biodiversity elements from both vents and seeps emerges (Levin et al. 2012). Decay o large organic falls also supports microbial processes and species reliant o chemosynthesis (Smith et al., 2015). Thus vents and seeps also hold many taxa i common with organic remains, such as wood falls and whale carcasses. +Seamounts are undersea mountains historically defined by an elevation of 1 km o more, but more recently by a more ecological definition, that includes knolls and hill with an elevation of 100 m or more. They occur in all oceans of the world, from th tropics to the poles, and cover depth ranges from near the surface to the abyss. Th total number remains uncertain because so little of the deep ocean has been surveyed but estimates range from 14,000-50,000 large seamounts and tens to hundreds o thousands of smaller ones (Stocks, 2010). +Three important characteristics distinguish seamounts from the surrounding deep-se habitat (Clark, 2009). First, as “islands” of shallower sea floor, they provide a range o depths for different communities. Second, their typical hard and often bare roc surfaces contrast with the fine, unconsolidated sediments that cover the majority of th sea floor. Third, the physical structure of some seamounts alters local hydrography an currents so as to concentrate species and productivity over the seamount, thu increasing their importance as oceanic ecosystems but also attracting commercia exploitation. The very low proportion of seamounts sampled globally limit understanding of their diversity, and the composition, structure, function, an connectivity of seamount ecosystems remain unexplored and unknown except in a fe locations (Stocks and Hart, 2007). +Seamount benthic communities are rich and varied; sandy or muddy sediment dominate where currents are slow, with mostly deposit-feeding species of polychaetes echinoderms, various crustaceans, sipunculids, nemertean worms, molluscs, sponges and nematodes utilizing sinking particulate matter. Suspension feeders, including corals crinoids, hydroids, ophiuroids, and sponges, dominate where faster currents expos rocky areas. The large corals and sponges can form extensive and complex reef-like o thicket structures, which add habitat for smaller mobile fauna. Seamount biodiversit research has rapidly increased the number of known species in recent decades. A global +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +review in 1987 (Wilson and Kaufmann, 1987) recorded 449 species of fish and 59 species of invertebrates from 100 seamounts, but more recent surveys suggest muc higher numbers (Stocks, 2010). The Census of Marine Life on Seamounts amalgamate data on over 5,400 taxa (although not all to species) from 258 seamounts into the publi database SeamountsOnline (Stocks, 2010), which can currently be accessed through th Ocean Biogeographic Information System portal (www.iobis,org) by selecting th Seamounts Online database. However, gear selectivity and generally few samples pe seamount limit biodiversity knowledge for any one seamount. +Depth-related environmental parameters strongly influence seamount specie composition, together with seafloor type and character (e.g., substratum, hardness composition, mobility) (see Clark et al., 2010a). Habitat complexity on seamounts largel determines benthic species occurrence, distribution and diversity. Volcanic activity, lav flows and areas of hydrothermal venting add to habitat diversity on seamounts, creatin unique environmental conditions that support specialized species and assemblages (se preceding section). Water column stratification and oceanic flow conditions also ad local dynamic responses that can regulate the spatial scale of faunal distributions. +Many early studies suggested high seamount endemism given their geographi isolation, often separated from other seamounts by deep water and considerabl distance. Although seamount assemblages can differ in species abundance or frequency similarity in deep-sea fish assemblages between seamounts and adjacent continenta slopes or islands (scales of km), as well as across oceans (1000s of km), contradicts th idea of ecological islands (Clark et al., 2010b). In the latter case, the global-scal circulation of deep-sea water masses presumably influences fish distribution. Regional scale similarities in faunal composition between seamounts and other habitats in th South Pacific demonstrate that seamounts share a common regional pool of specie with non-seamount communities. Schlacher et al. (2014) found high species turnove with depth and distance in seamount assemblages off Hawaii at the scale of individua seamounts, but geographic separation was a poor predictor of ecological separation fo the region as a whole. These studies emphasize that the spatial scales over which fauna assemblages of seamounts are structured cannot be generalized. Nevertheless, recen biogeographic classifications for the deep ocean suggest that benthic communit composition will vary markedly among basins (e.g., Watling et al., 2013). +Better understanding of global deep-sea biodiversity gradients requires more sampling but predictive species distribution modelling and use of environmental surrogates ca improve our short-term understanding (e.g., Clark et al., 2012) and help infor management options for the deep sea. +3.6 Cross-taxa integration +The global ocean houses an enormous variety of life. In total, the oceans support a estimated 2.2 million eukaryotic species (Mora et al., 2011), of which science has +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +described some 220,000 (WoRMS Editorial Board, 2013). A key question is whethe consistent ‘rules’ constrain the distribution of this life across the variety of differen organisms and habitats examined here, and if so, whether they result in consisten large-scale patterns of biodiversity. Global-scale studies to explore this question bega long ago and especially in the last decade (e.g., Rutherford et al., 1999; Roberts et al. 2002), but the enormous amounts of data collected and compiled by the Census o Marine Life enable exploration and mapping patterns across more taxonomic group than ever before (Tittensor et al., 2010) to understand the consistency of diversit patterns. +Perhaps the most common large-scale biodiversity pattern on the planet is th ‘latitudinal gradient’, typically expressed as a decline in species from the equator to th poles (Figure 5). Adherence to this pattern varies among marine taxa; Chlorophyta an other macroalgae, for example (Figure 5, lower right panel), do not exhibit the sam latitudinal gradient, as noted earlier above in this chapter). Although coastal specie generally peak in abundance near the equator and decline towards the poles, seal show the opposite pattern; indeed pinnipeds peak at high latitudes (Fig. 1a) Furthermore, strong longitudinal (east-west) gradients, complicate patterns, wit ‘hotspots’ of richness across multiple species groups in the ‘Coral Triangle’ in the Indo Pacific and the Caribbean (Figure 6). +Oceanic organisms, such as whales, differ in pattern entirely, with species number consistently peaking at mid-latitudes between the equator and poles. This patter defies the common equator-pole gradient, suggesting that different factors ar involved. Different processes may control species richness among oceanic and coasta species (for example, in terms of dispersal, mobility, or habitat structure), but genera patterns appear to be reasonably consistent within each group. However, across al groups studied, ocean temperature is consistently related to species diversity (Tittenso et al., 2010), hence the effects of climate change are likely to be observed as restructuring of marine community diversity (Worm and Lotze, 2009) +Although the above patterns hold for the 11,000 species studied (Tittensor et al., 2010) numerous groups and regions were not represented. For example, global-scale pattern of diversity in the deep ocean remain largely unknown (Rex and Etter, 2010). Ou diversity and distribution knowledge is taxonomically biased towards large, charismati (e.g., whales) or economically valuable (e.g., tunas) species. Our knowledge of pattern in microbial organisms remains particularly limited relative to the enormous diversit therein, and enormous challenges to even measure biodiversity remain. Viruses remai a critical part of the oceanic system for which we lack any global-scale biodiversit knowledge. +Other than species richness, we are just beginning to explore other patterns of globa marine biodiversity. Patterns of ‘evenness’ in reef fishes, which relates to relativ proportions of individual species in the community, apparently show an inverse gradien (Stuart-Smith et al., 2013). This pattern, in turn, affects ‘functional richness’, whic relates to the diversity of functions in reef fishes, a potentially important component of +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +ecosystem productivity, resilience, and goods and services provision. The importance o these patterns depends on their robustness and consistency across different specie groups, but opening such new insights into other facets of biodiversity provide additional information with which to manage it, particularly in support of huma welfare. +6 ——All specie Pinniped 50 4 —— Small odon Large odon ——Mysticete 40 6 30 z 20 10 O-+ T T T T 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 +Latitude [° Figure 1a. Global marine mammal species richness peaks between 30 °and 60 ° in both hemispheres Number of species (as predicted by a relative environmental suitability model, (Kaschner, 2006) wa summed over 5° latitudinal bands for all species, mysticetes, small odontocetes, large odontocete (beaked whales and sperm whales), and pinnipeds (from Kaschner et al., 2011). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +A 3 Br +& 2B +24 +20 +16 +2 +8 +4 +B 4 +t a +18 +6 +2 +9 +3 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1b. Predicted patterns of marine mammal species richness. A. All species included in the analysi (n=115), B. Odontocetes (n=69), C. Mysticetes (n=14), D. Pinnipeds (n=32). Colours indicate the number o species predicted to occur in each 0.5°x0.5° grid cell from a relative environmental suitability (RES) model using environmental data from 1990-1999, and assuming a presence threshold of RES>0.6. (fro Kaschner et al., 2011). +—— Marine (17535 +ir + a +y +vo +& +2 S spp.) +S Po00 ——Fresh (15467 spp. 5 8 +vv +€ ooo +29 +oo +2 F000 +S +3 +£ +3S 5000 +T 1750 1800 1850 Years 1900 1950 2000 +Figure 2. Cumulated number of species described per year between 1758 and 2013. The rate o descriptions accelerates after 1950, mainly due to an increasing number of freshwater specie descriptions; the rate of marine species descriptions has been linear since the early 1980s. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Species per genus - Fish +3.0 + ° ° ° o 0 ° wo | eo ° “ o ° 8% ° oy 00 8 O ° O ° 2° ° ° go BSB NT ° S 0 0° ° ° 3 ° ° ° © 5 ome 0 re) ° SOO é e PES g 00,0 & 2 M4 6 o 0 oF Q as 6 88 o 0 Wo @ 0 o 4 e 24 o T T -50 0 5 latitude +Figure 3. Number of species of fish per genus, in each latitudinal band of 1 degree, as calculated fro distribution data available in OBIS on 26 September 2011. +70 +s +Numberof specie $ ao" { ¢ +t .¢ +-60 -30 0 30 6 Latitude +Figure 4. Latitudinal species richness of mangrove plant species. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Latitudinal gradient Aves Mammalia +latitude +Figure 5. ES(50) calculated for various groups, from the data as available in OBIS as of the end of 2012 ES(50) (or Hurlbert's index) represents the numbers of species expected to be present in a random sampl of 50 individuals; this metric measures the diversity (not species richness, as its name might suggest) independent of sample size. Points in the graphs above represent calculation of ES(50) for bands of degree of latitude. The blue line is the LOESS (LOcal regrESSion) prediction/smoothing; the darker gre bands are the 95% confidence intervals around the LOESS estimate. Most groups, but not all (e.g Chlorophyta) show a clear unimodal pattern. All calculations were made with R (R Development Cor Team, 2014), using package ggplot2 for LOESS and plotting (Wickham, 2009). +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +700 ¥ +600 +Number of specie 8 8 8B +8 +100 +lWeorarTriang! J +SahulShel SChinaSe SundaShel NwWaAustralia +JavaTran ECoralfriang! +7S ee ea $22 gage £588 Fre +ili, +MGElslands | +Ei} +CPolynesi WSindi ciOlsland SomaliArab +RedSeaAden +BengalBa SEPolynesia +Hawaii TropNwat! +lorcHowe J +® Atlantic +® Tropt Pacific +© EindoPacifi A CiadoPacific +@ WindoPacific +Easter | TropEPac mn +Tropswat! f Marquesas | WAfricaTrans I +North Brazil Ea +GuifGuinea I +Figure 6. Coral species richness by province in the Marine Ecosystems of the World Classification, from th IUCN Red List of Threatened Species database (IUCN 2013). +Table 1: Number of species by life zone (Saltwater including diadromous, Freshwater) from the successiv editions of Fishes of the World by J.S. Nelson (1976, 1984, 1994, 2006). The last line gives the curren counts from the Catalog of Fishes (Eschmeyer, 2014). +Sal Year Water Freshwater Tota Fishes of the World (Nelson) successive edition 1976 11967 | 64% | 6851 36% | 1881 1984 13312 | 61% | 8411 39% | 2172 1994 14652 | 60% | 9966 40% | 2461 2006 16025 | 57% | 11952 43% | 2797 Catalog of Fishe 2013 17535 | 53% | 15467 47% | 33002 +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Table 2. Number of marine fish species per FAO area. +FAO area Spp. coun Arctic Ocean 14 Atlantic, Northwest 112 Atlantic, Northeast 111 Mediterranean and Black Sea | 81 Atlantic, Western Central 242 Atlantic, Eastern Central 169 Atlantic, Southwest 177 Atlantic, Southeast 177 Atlantic, Antarctic 25 Indian Ocean, Western 443 Indian Ocean, Eastern 475 Indian Ocean, Antarctic 25 Pacific, Northwest 529 Pacific, Northeast 71 Pacific, Western Central 649 Pacific, Eastern Central 413 Pacific, Southwest 224 Pacific, Southeast 191 Pacific, Antarctic 170 +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 3. Number of marine fish species per Ocean and FAO area. E: East; N: North, S: South; W: West indicates which part of the ocean. Note: The second eastern central line for Atlantic represents th Mediterranean and Black Seas. The Northwestern Pacific includes some coral reef areas in its souther part which explains the high number of species compared to the Northeastern part. +Ocean Atlantic Indian Pacific +Latitude +Arctic N | 147 +North W | 1129] E | 1115 W | 5299 | E | 717 +Central Ww E | 811 W | 6490 | E | 4138 +Central W | 2428 | E | 1699 | W | 4432 | E | 4757 +South W | 1779 | E | 1777 W | 1916 | E | 2249 +Antarctic |S | 250 S | 250 S | 17 References +Archambault, P., Snelgrove, P.V.R., Fisher, J.A.D., Gagnon, J.M., Garbary, D.J. Harvey, M., Kenchington, E.L., Lesage, V., Levesque, M., Lovejoy, C., Mackas, D.L. McKindsey, C.W., Nelson, J.R., Pepin, P., Piché, L., Poulin, M. (2010). From Sea t Sea: Canada's Three Oceans of Biodiversity. 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PLoS ONE, vol. 6, No. 9 e24510. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024510. +Watling, L., Guinotte, J., Clark, M.R., Smith, C.F. (2013). A proposed biogeography of th deep sea. Progress in Oceanography, vol. 111, pp. 91-112. +Wickham, H (2009). ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer New York. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Wiebe, P.H., Bucklin, A., Madin, L.P., Angel, M.V., Sutton, T., Pagés, F., Hopcroft, R.R. Lindsay, D. (2010). Deep-sea sampling on CMarZ cruises in the Atlantic Ocean an Introduction. Deep-Sea Research II, vol. 57, pp. 2157-2166. +Wilson, R.R., and Kaufmann, R.S. (1987). Seamount biota and biogeography. In: Keating B.H., Fryer, P., Batiza, R., Boehlert, G.W., eds., Seamounts, islands and atolls Washington DC, USA: American Geophysical Union. pp. 319-334. +Witman, J.D., Cusson, M., Archambault, P., Pershing, A.J., Mieskowska, N. (2008). Th relation between productivity and species diversity in temperate- arctic marin ecosystems. Ecology, vol. 89, pp. S66-S80. +Worm, B., and Lotze, H.K. (2009). Changes in marine biodiversity as an indicator o climate change. In: Letcher, T., ed., Climate change: observed impacts on plane Earth. Elsevier. +WoRMS Editorial Board (2013). World Register of Marine Species. VLIZ. Available fro http://www.marinespecies.org. Accessed 21 November 2013. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_34.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_34.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_35.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_35.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e88175fb89b7159515b8c4059174014b21cebf0a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_35.txt @@ -0,0 +1,509 @@ +Chapter 35. Extent of Assessment of Marine Biological Diversity +Contributors: Patricia Miloslavich, Tom Webb, Paul Snelgrove, +Edward Vanden Berghe, Kristin Kaschner, Patrick N. Halpin, Randall R. Reeves, +Ben Lascelles, Marguerite Tarzia, Bryan P. Wallace, Nicholas Dulvy, +Colin A. Simpfendorfer, George Schillinger, Andre Boustany, Bruce B. Collette, +John E. Graves, David Obura, Martin Edwards, Malcolm Clark, Karen Stocks, +Telmo Morato, Verena Tunnicliffe, Russell Hopcroft, Philippe Archambault, Pierre Pepin John W. Tunnell, Jr., Fabio Moretzsohn, Elva Escobar-Briones, Henn Ojaveer, +Judith Gobin, Massa Nakaoka, Katsunori Fujikura, Hiroya Yamano, Xinzheng Li, +K. Venkataraman, C. Raghunathan, Charles L. Griffiths, Nicholas J. Bax, Alan J. Butler Angelika Brandt, and Huw J. Griffiths, Jake Rice (Lead member) * +1. Introduction +This chapter provides a summary of currently assessed marine biodiversity in terms o its coverage for the most conspicuous and well known taxonomic groups, particula ecosystems, and large geographic regions. Assessments will be focused on th evaluation of the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity; however, for some groups such evaluations are provided indirectly by studies aimed to establish threat and or ris status. The groups that have been summarized globally are the sea mammals (cetacean and pinnipeds), seabirds, sea turtles, sharks, tunas, billfish, corals, and plankton. Th special ecosystems are seamounts, vents, and seeps. Regional summaries of coverage o assessments are provided whenever possible for large basins, such as North Atlantic South Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Souther Ocean. However, in some cases, information is compiled by countries (e.g., Canada when these have more than one basin, or by large continents (e.g., South America which share a history of surveys and exploration. After each of the sections, a globa analysis of the status of knowledge of marine biodiversity is summarized within a fe synthesis graphs. About 40 scientists contributed to this effort, each within their area o expertise and specified for each subsection. Supplementary material providing a list o assessments with date, special area, habitat, taxonomic groups, and web informatio has also been compiled for a few of the regions (Caribbean, Europe, Gulf of Mexico, th Southern Ocean and Sub-Saharan Africa) and States (China, India and Japan), as well a for vents and seeps ecosystems and for turtles (Appendix |). In addition, a complet reference list for further reading for each of the taxonomic groups and regions i provided (Appendix II). +* The writing team thanks Esteban Frere, Mayumi Sato and Ross McLeod Wanless for their contribution to this chapter. +© 2016 United Nation + +2. Groups summarized globally: Cetaceans, pinnipeds, seabirds, sea turtles sharks, tunas, billfish, corals, seamounts, vents and seeps. +2.1 Marine Mammals +Global assessments of marine mammal distributions are limited by geographic an seasonal biases in data collection, as well as by biases in taxonomic representation du to rarity and detectability. In addition, not all data collected have been published i open-access repositories, thus further constraining our ability to develo comprehensive assessments. Given the financial, logistical and methodologica challenges of mounting surveys, especially for animals that spend most of their tim underwater, assessments have been most extensive and intensive on the coasta shelves and continental slopes along the coastlines of developed countries (Kaschner e al., 2012 & Figure 1A). Ship-board surveys of large ocean areas have been and continu to be carried out in the Southern Ocean and North Pacific under among others, th auspices of the International Whaling Commission, focusing on those whales previousl subject to commercial whaling. Advances in satellite telemetry are helping to fill in som gaps in offshore areas for both cetaceans and pinnipeds (Block et al., 2011). +However, the remaining geographic biases in sampling coverage are very apparent, fo example, in the map portal Ocean Biogeographic Information System Spatial Ecologica Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations OBIS-SEAMAP (http://seamap.env.duke.edu) which is an online data portal compiling occurrence records of higher vertebrates livin in the marine environment (Halpin et al., 2009), where the majority of specie observation records fall within the coastal shelves and continental slopes of th Northern Hemisphere. Around 95 per cent of the marine mammal observation published on the portal are from inside the 200-nautical-mile (nm) exclusive economi zone (EEZ), while ~5 per cent are in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). A recen analysis of global coverage of cetacean visual line-transect survey coverage showed tha only ~ 25 per cent of the world’s ocean area had been covered by systematic surveys b the year 2006, and only 6 per cent had been covered frequently enough to be able t detect population trends (Kaschner et al., 2012). Pinniped and cetacean populations ar monitored fairly frequently in the United States of America, European and Souther Ocean waters; more than half of the total global line-transect effort from 1978 — 200 was in areas within the national jurisdiction of the United States (Kaschner et al., 2012 and ~35 per cent of all marine mammal observations held in OBIS-SEAMAP are fro within the 200-nm EEZ of the United States. +Geographically, the largest gaps in sampling coverage are in the Indian Ocean and th temperate South Atlantic and South Pacific, where comparatively few dedicated survey have been conducted. In the Southern Hemisphere, surveys have been carried ou mostly in the EEZs of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa wher more than 50 per cent of the world’s species are found, and endemism is relatively high Seasonally, most data collection using standard visual monitoring methods i concentrated in the summer as poor weather conditions seriously lower detectability, +© 2016 United Nation + +but again, satellite telemetry and passive acoustic monitoring are helping to fill in som of the temporal gaps. Although passive acoustic monitoring can be very useful i detecting the calls of certain species, and thus help determine their presence in a region during seasons of poor visibility or low survey effort, such monitoring cannot yet b used routinely for the development of abundance or density estimates. +Sampling effort and reporting is also highly variable for different species. For example although OBIS-SEAMAP currently contains a total of >560,000 marine mamma occurrence records covering 106 species of the roughly 120 marine mammal specie (~88 per cent), the data sets are uneven, with no records available of some uncommo species (~12 per cent) and fewer than 10 records available for others (~14 per cent) Overall, the distributions of some well-known species, such as the humpback whal (Megaptera novaeangliae) and the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), have bee studied extensively and are well established; they are based on sightings and stranding or analyses of catch data. Relatively large proportions of the known ranges of thes species are being monitored frequently, using different survey techniques (Kaschner e al., 2012). Similarly, at-sea movements and occurrence of other species, such as th southern and northern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina, M. angustirostris), have bee investigated in considerable detail, using data loggers and satellite tracking (Block et al. 2011). In contrast, the information on some species is limited and patchy due to thei rarity and/or cryptic behaviour. Some have rarely, if ever, been seen alive and ar known only from a few stranding records (e.g., Perrin’s beaked whale, Mesoplodo perrini). +Assessments of marine mammal species distribution and status derived from availabl data sets must be viewed in comparison to survey effort to control for unsurveye regions or areas where observation data have not been shared with open-acces information systems (Figure 1A). Accumulated data sets and understanding of marin mammal species distributions are improving, but any interpretation of the state o knowledge needs to take account of the significant biases, as noted. In summary assessment of marine mammals globally is far from comprehensive, with abundanc estimation and trend analysis at the population level limited to relatively few species i particular geographic regions, and for some species even such basic information as thei actual range of occurrence is still lacking. +© 2016 United Nation + +Number +of Survey 1 +% 2- 4 +% 5-10 +% 11-15 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1A. Global coverage of visual cetacean line-transect survey effort (Frequency of coverage) (fro Kaschner et al., 2012). See also the OBIS SEAMAP data available through http://seamap.env.duke.edu. +2.2 Seabirds +BirdLife International is the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN Red List authority for birds, and assesses the status, trends and threats of all Criticall Endangered seabirds each year, as well as species thought to warrant immediat uplisting. In addition BirdLife International carries out a comprehensive assessment o all 350+ species of seabird every four years. Some seabird populations and/or specie lack population monitoring altogether, resulting in unknown population trends for 5 seabird species on the IUCN Red List (Croxall et al., 2012). The International Waterbir Census (IWC) includes certain seabird species. It has run since 1967 and today cover over 25,000 sites in more than 100 countries. Results are reviewed and published i Waterbird Population Estimates, which assess the trends and 1 per cent thresholds fo over 800 species and 2,300 biogeographic populations worldwide. +At the global and regional levels many Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs include priority species lists for which aspects of status, trends and threats are suppose to be assessed. Seabirds are included on some of these lists and are used as indicator for assessing the state of the marine environment. Those currently most activel undertaking work include the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrel (ACAP) (29 species), the Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of th Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds (the European Unio (EU) Birds Directive (all seabirds in the EU), the Convention for the Protection of th Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) (9 species), th Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) (8 species), the Convention for Protection against Pollution in the Mediterranean Se (Barcelona Convention) (14 species), the Convention on the Conservation of Migrator Species of Wild Animals (CMS) (20 seabird species on Annex |; 50 on Annex Il), th Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and natural habitats (Bern +© 2016 United Nation + +Convention) (over 30 species), the Convention on the Protection of the Marin Environment of the Baltic Sea (HELCOM) (11 species), the Convention on the Protectio of the Black Sea against Pollution (Bucharest Convention) (2 species), the Commissio for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) (7 species), th Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) (3 species), the North America Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (1 species), and the Convention o International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) (6 species) Other MEAs that have this remit but are not yet active include the Nairobi Conventio for the Protection, Management and Development of Marine and Coastal an Environment of the Western Indian Ocean Region (the Nairobi Convention) (47 species) the Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Ade Environment (Jeddah Convention) (lists not yet provided by contracting parties) Convention for Cooperation in the Protection, Management and Development of th Marine and Coastal Environment of the Atlantic Coast of West, Central and Souther Africa Region (Abidjan Convention) (considering adding a species list), and th Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in th Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) (5 species). These MEAs (and othe processes) have led to the development of individual species management plans, whic often outline how (and by whom) monitoring of status, trends and threats can b addressed. +Numerous online databases have pooled seabird data at regional or global scales (a well as national programmes); these include data for: +— Colonies — Sea Around Us Project, BirdLife International World Bird Database an Marine E-atlas, Global Seabird Colony Register, Circumpolar Seabird Data portal New Zealand National Aquatic Biodiversity Information System (NABIS) +— Productivity - Pacific Seabird Monitoring Database. +— Tracking - Seabirdtracking.org, OBIS-SEAMAP, Movebank, seaturtle.org, Taggin of Pacific Predators (TOPP), British Antarctic Survey, CNRS-Chize +— At-sea surveys - European Seabirds at Sea, North Pacific Seabird Portal, Australi Antarctic Division, Royal Navy Birdwatching Society, OBIS-SEAMAP, Atlas o Seabirds @ Sea, eBird, North Pacific Pelagic Seabird Database, Globa Biodiversity Information Facility. +— Threats - the New Zealand Threat Classification System: conservation status o 473 taxa assessed. For seabirds, perhaps the world second largest in terms o number of species assessed (Robertson et al., 2013). +The BirdLife International Marine Important Bird Areas (IBA) e-Atlas provides a site based information portal for seabird conservation. This first global network of ove 3,000 sites covers 6.2 per cent of the world’s oceans and was compiled by BirdLif International drawing on work from 1,000 seabird scientists, government ministries an secretariats of conventions. The World Seabird Union (comprised of 22 seabird +© 2016 United Nation + +organizations) has established the Seabird Information Network aiming to showcase and link, different global seabird databases. +2.3 Marine Turtles +The primary global assessment framework for marine turtle species is the IUCN Red Lis of Threatened Species™ (www.iucnredlist.org). The IUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Grou (MTSG), one of the IUCN/Species Survival Commission’s specialist groups, is responsibl for conducting regular Red List assessments of each marine turtle species on a globa scale. Currently the Red List identifies the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) a Vulnerable, the loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia mydas) turtles a Endangered, the Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles as Critically Endangered, and th flatback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) as Data Deficient. +To address the critical issue of geographically variable population traits in marine turtl species, the MTSG developed an alternative assessment framework and a new approac to Red List assessments that better characterize variation in status and trends o individual populations (Wallace et al., 2010), which results in official Red List categorie for subpopulations in addition to the single global listing. +To address the challenges presented by the mismatched scales of global Red Lis assessments and regional/population-level variation in status, the IUCN Marine Turtl Specialist Group (MTSG) convened the Burning Issues Working Group of marine turtl experts who developed (1) regional management units (RMUs) (i.e., spatially explici population segments defined by biogeographical data for marine turtle species) as th framework for defining population segments for assessments (Wallace et al., 2010) These RMUs are functionally equivalent to IUCN subpopulations, thus providing th appropriate demographic unit for Red List assessments. The Group also developed (2) flexible yet robust framework for assessing population viability and the degree o threats that could be applied to any population in any region, and (3) a “conservatio priorities portfolio” for all RMUs, with globally included identification of critical dat needs by RMUs, as well as individual population risk and threats criteria, and tha reflects the wide variety of conservation objectives held by different stakeholder depending on institutional or regional priorities. South Asia had the highest proportio of RMUs categorized as requiring critical data needs (~40 per cent), followed by th West Indian Ocean (25 per cent) and Australasia (20 per cent). Similarly, population ris and threats scores for RMUs in the Indian Ocean were associated with the lowes availability and quality of data among ocean basins. +Among population risk criteria, insufficient information was available to assess recen and long-term trends for roughly 25-30 per cent of all RMUs. Among threats, climat change was scored “data deficient” in two-thirds of all RMUs, while pollution an pathogens were scored “data deficient” in more than half of all RMUs. These result demonstrate the need to enhance data collection and reporting on population trends, +© 2016 United Nation + +as well as current and future impacts of climate change and pollution/pathogens o marine turtles. +In addition to the two primary global assessment frameworks described above, severa other global status assessments exist for marine turtles. The Convention o International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and th Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS, or Bon Convention) include all marine turtle species in their lists, meaning that internationa trade in any products of any marine turtle species is prohibited and marine turtles ar categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion o their range. +National laws to assess and protect endangered species can also result in globa assessments. For example, all marine turtle species (except the flatback, Natato depressus which does not appear in the United States territorial waters) are liste globally as either Endangered or Threatened under the United States Endangere Species Act. Recently, the United States designated “distinct population segments” which are similar to the RMUs and IUCN subpopulations described above—fo loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) and listed all populations as either Threatened o Endangered. In addition, global status reviews are performed every five years for al marine turtle species listed under this act in the United States (Wallace, 2010). +Regional assessments offer more detailed views of marine turtle status, significan threats, and data gaps. Three noteworthy examples of regional marine turtle status ar highlighted here. First, the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Networ (WIDECAST, www.widecast.org) generated an “atlas” of marine turtle nesting sites, lega protection, and other relevant information for more than 40 countries and territories i the Wider Caribbean. Second, regional members of the IUCN Marine Turtle Specialis Group conducted a comprehensive assessment of the distribution, threats, an conservation priorities with regard to marine turtles in the Mediterranean. Third, th Indian Ocean-Southeast Asia Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding (IOSEA www.ioseaturtles.org) has produced status and threats assessments of two specie (loggerheads and leatherbacks) across more than 30 countries in the Indian Ocean an Southeast Asia. Assessments of marine turtle status at national and local levels occu around the globe, but a complete review is beyond the scope of this section (se Appendix | — Turtles: Summary of existing assessment frameworks and resources fo marine turtles at global and regional scales). +In general, an urgent need remains for enhanced monitoring and reporting of marin turtle population status and trends, as well as of threats to marine turtles globally Although much _ information exists in some regions (e.g., Wider Caribbean Mediterranean, North America), significant data needs are apparent in other region (e.g., West and East Africa, North Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia). Regional and globa efforts to compile all available information in such regions are vital to filling these dat gaps. Nonetheless, significant efforts to quantify fundamental marine turtle +© 2016 United Nation + +demographic rates and processes (NRC, 2010) are still required to improve assessment of marine turtle status at global, regional and local scales (Wallace, 2011). +2.4 Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras +Sharks, rays and chimaeras comprise the Class Chondrichthyes. This group is highl diverse (at least 1,200 valid species) and occur in a broad range of habitats, so a wid range of approaches has been taken to assess the status of individual populations. Th most publicly available assessments for chondrichthyans are available from the IUC Red List. The IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Shark Specialist Group (SSG), is global network of experts in the biology, taxonomy, and conservation of sharks, rays and chimaeras which continuously conducts global and regional assessments of the Re List Status of chondrichthyans. Established in 1991, the SSG currently has more than 12 members from 33 countries collaborating to assess threat level, collate knowledge highlight species at risk, and advise decision-makers on effective, science-based policie for sustainable use and long-term conservation (www.iucnssg.org). In 2011, using th 2001 IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (version 3.1 http://www. iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/categories-and-criteria), a total o 1,041 chondrichthyan species had been assessed and their extent of occurrenc mapped, highlighting considerable gaps in knowledge (Dulvy et al., 2014). A total of 48 out of the 1,041 species were categorized as Data Deficient, particularly in four regions (1) Caribbean Sea and Western Central Atlantic Ocean, (2) Eastern Central Atlanti Ocean, (3) Southwest Indian Ocean, and (4) the South and East China Seas (Dulvy et al. 2014), and in 2014, the assessed number of species was raised to 1,088. Sinc assessments are considered out of date after ten years, a concerted effort has bee initiated to reassess all species in support of the 2020 Aichi targets of the Convention o Biological Diversity’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (e.g. North-East Pacific and Europ regions in 2014; Australia and Oceania planned for 2015). +The Red List Assessments are complemented by data from catch landings, fishery catc rates, fisheries stock assessments, fishery-independent surveys, transect surveys (divers boats, and aerial), as well as increasing quantities of individual photographi identification data, satellite tracking data and population genetics data, which vary i availability, quality, and geographic and taxonomic coverage. These data collectio programmes and research projects are also combined with historical ecologica information and traditional knowledge-based assessments of the change in specie distributions. +National catch landings data are reported annually to the Food and Agricultur Organization of the United Nations (FAO). From 2000 to 2009, 143 countries/entitie reported shark, ray and chimaera catches to FAO. The taxonomic resolution of th global landed catch has improved, but remains poor. By 2010, only a small proportio (29 per cent) of the catch was reported to species level, the remaining bulk of the globa catch reported at much coarser taxonomic levels, and around one-third of globa catches reported at the taxonomic Class level (i.e. “Sharks, rays, skates, etc”). Among +© 2016 United Nation + +the top shark fishing nations (Indonesia, India, Spain, Taiwan Province of China Argentina, Mexico, United States of America, Malaysia, Pakistan, Brazil, Japan, France New Zealand, Thailand, Portugal, Nigeria, Islamic Republic of Iran, Sri Lanka, Republic o Korea, Yemen), half (11) report 50 per cent or more of their catch at the species an genus level. +The taxonomic and geographic distribution of fisheries assessments of stock biomas and fishing mortality is very sparse. To date, we are aware of 41 stock assessments fo 28 chondrichthyan species. The United States and Australia conduct most stoc assessments; the majority conducted in the Atlantic Ocean (21), followed by the India Ocean (11) and 9 in the Pacific Ocean. Research surveys and shark control programme are increasingly being used to assess the trajectory and status of shark and ra populations, particularly in the coastal waters of the United States, Europe, South Africa New Zealand, and Australia. Many of these time series are ongoing and the specifi assessment of the status of chondrichthyans is periodic and dependent on researc funding. +Emerging technologies, such as satellite tags and acoustic tracking arrays, as well as th widespread availability of digital underwater photography, web-based databas capability and photo identification systems, are providing information for bette population estimates and refined geographic distributions. The miniaturization an longevity of electronic tags have revealed complex sex-biased migrations, migrator routes and infrequent but biologically important ocean transits connecting population that were previously thought to be separate. The development of pattern-matchin algorithms has transformed collections of photographs into mark-recapture methods fo estimating local abundance and spatial dynamics of larger, more charismatic species such as: White Shark (Carcharodon carcharias), Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus), an manta rays (Manta birostris and M. alfredi). Assessment approaches have bee complemented by the rapid emergence of worldwide tissue-sampling and populatio genetics work that has led to an increasing understanding of the variation in gene flo and connectedness of populations within species, and increasingly the degree to whic their ecology and life histories shape patterns of genetic relatedness. Geneti information is also increasingly used to assess the scale of the trade in shark fins an other valuable traded items, including the species composition of trade, an occurrences of illegal sale and trade (Abercrombie et al., 2005). +Assessments of long-term changes in distribution and population trajectories ar increasingly being compiled from less formal sources of historical ecological information including newspaper reports, trade records, and sightings. Compilations of museu records, newspaper reports and sightings have been used to reconstruct the forme distribution of sawfishes, prompting conservation action. Assessments of historica landings and the traditional ecological knowledge of fishers have revealed a massiv reduction in the diversity of chondrichthyans landed in Southeast Asian markets. +Key challenges that remain include continuing ongoing assessment activities, researc surveys, and expanding assessments to include other species, not just the larger and +© 2016 United Nation + +more charismatic species. Assessments would also need to be expanded to includ lesser known species, which are often more threatened, particularly the rays and ray like sharks, and the 90 obligate and euryhaline freshwater species. Geographically greater attention would need to be paid to Central and South America, Africa, and Sout East Asia. +2.5 Tuna +As many tunas are commercially important fisheries species, most assessments ar based on fisheries-dependent catch data, although these are occasionally augmented b fisheries independent datasets, such as larval trawls, aerial surveys and scientific catc surveys. Fisheries catch data have the potential for bias due to extrinsic factors, such a those that may influence fishing effort (e.g., fuel and fish prices; regulations on fishin times and areas; changes to gear that influences fishing efficiency over time), as well a lack of reporting of catch and/or effort, and changes in the distribution of tuna specie that may cause changes in the interaction rates with individual fisheries (Collette et al. 2011). In addition to limitations in data on catch rates, data on basic biologica parameters necessary for accurate stock assessments (e.g., growth rates, stock structure size/age of maturity, natural mortality rates) are often poorly known, thus also affectin the accuracy of the assessments. These limitations have begun to be addressed throug advances in scientific methodologies. Electronic and conventional tagging studies hav shed light on all these biological parameters, and population genetic and micro constituent studies have facilitated delineation of stock structure in many tuna species In addition, traditional sampling methodologies, such as histological sampling of gonads counting rings on hard parts, such as otoliths and fin spines, and cohort analysis have al provided information on growth rates and reproductive maturity schedules. However collecting these data costs money, hence data, and therefore the assessments, ar usually better for the tuna species that are more economically important. +Most tuna assessments are conducted through regional fisheries managemen organizations (RFMOs), a collection of national and other fishing parties that jointl manage shared fish stocks (Aranda et al., 2010). Five tuna RFMOs currently exist tha regulate fisheries for their member States: the International Commission for th Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), regulates tuna in the Atlantic Ocean, the Inter American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), regulates tuna in the eastern tropica Pacific, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), regulates tuna i the Western and Central Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) regulates tuna in the Indian Ocean and the Commission for the Conservation o Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), regulates southern Bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii throughout its range. In addition to assessments conducted through RFMOs, othe international organizations such as the IUCN, the CITES, national governments an independent scientists also occasionally conduct assessments of various tuna species Unlike RFMO assessments, which generally seek to assess stock health in relation t optimal fisheries yield, most other organizations conducting assessments on tunas +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +attempt to estimate extinction risk. As a result, RFMOs’ and others’ assessments ma differ greatly in their evaluations of the health of tuna stocks. +The most commercially important tuna species have been assessed recently, eithe regionally or throughout their range by the above-mentioned tuna Commissions. Th Bluefin tunas (Pacific [Thunnus orientalis], Southern [7T. maccoyii] and Atlantic [T thynnus]) have all had a full stock assessment within the last four years through thei respective RFMOs. Likewise, Bigeye tuna (7. obesus), Yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) Albacore tuna (T. alalunga) and Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) have all bee assessed regionally through the RFMO assessment process, as well as globally throug the IUCN. Other species, such as Blackfin tuna (7. atlanticus) and Longtail tuna (T tonggol) have not had full assessments conducted through their respective RFMOs although localized assessments in part of their range may have been undertaken RFMOs for these are the ICCAT for Blackfin tuna, and the IOTC and WCPFC for Longtai tuna. +Less is known on the stock status of tuna species for which there are only small, directe fisheries or for which most of the catch occurs as by-catch. Slender tuna (Allothunnu fallai), frigate tuna (Auxis thazard), and bullet tuna (Auxis rochei) all range widely, bu formal assessments have not been conducted by RFMOs in each ocean basin. Blac skipjack (Euthynnus lineatus), Kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis), and little tunny (Euthynnu alletteratus) are all regionally distributed (Eastern Pacific, Western Pacific and tropica Atlantic, respectively), and few data are available on range-wide catches over time; thi is necessary for a full population assessment. However, the wide ranges of these si species, coupled with relatively low and localized exploitation, caused these species t be classified under “Least Concern” by the IUCN. +Although formal stock assessments have been completed for almost half of the tun species (7 out of 15), few standardized data sets exist on catch rates over time for th remainder of the species. Improvements in the collection of fishery-dependent data o initiation of fisheries-independent data collection would be necessary to obtain accurat estimates of stock health. In the meantime, relatively stable catches over time for th unassessed species suggest that there is little immediate threat to the viability of any o these species. +2.6 Billfish +Billfish are epipelagic marine fishes distinguished by elongated spears or swords on thei snouts. Most of the species have very large, ocean-wide or cosmopolitan ranges i tropical and subtropical waters and all are tied to the tropics for reproduction. However the Swordfish extends into temperate waters. All are of commercial or recreationa importance; hence our knowledge of their distribution comes largely from fisheries Three species are restricted to the Indo-West Pacific: Istiompax indica, Black Marlin Tetrapturus angustirostris, Shortbill Spearfish; and Kajikia audax, Striped Marlin. The +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +other three species of spearfish and the White Marlin, Kajikia albida, are restricted t the Atlantic Ocean. +Most of the species are well known and easily distinguished; fisheries records documen their distribution. However, this is not the case for Black versus Blue Marlin or for th spearfish. The Atlantic Longbill Spearfish, Tetrapturus pfluegeri, was not described unti 1963 and a second species, 7. georgii, Roundscale Spearfish, although originall described in 1841, was not validated as a species until 2006. This species is easil confused with White Marlin (Kajikia albida), hence the exact distributions of these tw species are not yet completely clear, but appear to include much of the North and Sout Atlantic. Due to overfishing, two billfish meet the IUCN Red List criteria for a threatene category, Vulnerable (Collette et al., 2011): Makaira nigricans, the Blue Marlin, an Kajikia albida, the White Marlin. +The ICCAT, operating since 1969, is the organization responsible for the conservation o tunas and tuna-like species in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas including severa species of billfishes including the White Marlin, Blue Marlin, Sailfish (/stiophoru albicans) and Longbill Spearfish. Studies carried out by the ICCAT are mostly focused o the effects of fishing on stock abundance and include data on biometry, ecology, an oceanography. In the tropical Atlantic, this responsibility is held by the Inter-America Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) operating since 1950. +2.7 Coral and coral reef assessments +Coral reefs are among the most charismatic of tropical marine ecosystems (Knowlton e al., 2010) and have been assessed globally under several frameworks. Interestingly however, because they occur in complex shallow seas, the application of large scal oceanographic tools and observation systems on major vessels is impossible; at th same time, they are accessible to small-scale, small-vessel direct observation methods Their visual attractiveness, ecological complexity and the growth of observationa science due to the invention of SCUBA technology in the 1960s have made them a focu for direct observational methods by researchers. As a result, even in the most accessibl of coral reef systems in the Caribbean, recent synthesis has found diversity of method and incompatibility of datasets to be the norm (Jackson et al. 2014). +Coral reefs bear among the highest taxonomic diversity of any ecosystem, and at th same time reef science is relatively youthful. This has resulted in high fluidity in th taxonomy of reef species, in particular complex symbiotic organisms, such as corals though some well-sampled groups such as, bony fish and molluscs have benefited fro taxonomic work inherited from other ecosystems. At the same time, molecula techniques, such as barcoding, are showing high levels of un-described diversity i microbial and invertebrate communities, both major components of coral reef biota. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Nevertheless, the broad global patterns in marine biodiversity are well-describe through patterns in indicator groups including corals, stomatopods, and fish. The Indo Malayan region is a clear centre of diversity for coral reef taxonomic groups, resultin from a broad range of biodiversity-generating and -maintaining processes from short t long time scales (Roberts et al. 2002). Diversity assessments in other regions have however, been less complete, but resulting in emerging evidence of elevated diversity i other regions, such as in Eastern Africa and the South China Sea. The Caribbean o tropical Atlantic region is highly depauperate in terms of species diversity compared t the Indo-Pacific, resulting from isolation mechanisms over tens of millions of years, a well as since the formation of the isthmus of Panama (Veron, 2000). Coral species hav been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, resulting in over one-third o species being identified as Threatened, among the highest proportions of all taxonomi groups globally (See also chapter 43). +Most of the global level assessments of coral reefs are ecological in nature, or use highe taxonomic levels, such as genera for recording absolute or relative abundance. Th principal variables used in reporting coral reef health include proportional cover fo attached benthic taxa (e.g. hard coral cover, in percent), abundance or density per uni area for key mobile taxa (invertebrates and vertebrates) and biomass, particularly fo fish. The establishment of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) was i response to the largest global reef impact ever recorded: the 1998 El Nifio event. Th resulting series of GCRMN reports (Wilkinson 1999, 2000, 2002, 2004 and 2008 exemplify the challenges in continuing such a large effort. At the same time, remot sensing technologies and global threat datasets have been used to prepare globa assessments of the health of coral reefs in the Reef at Risk publications of the Worl Resources Institute (Burke et al. 2011). The most recent reporting under the GCRMN ha focused on regional level reporting, with the first major regional assessment focusing o the Caribbean (Jackson et al. 2014). In this regard, it matches the scope of regiona assessment frameworks, which have included those for: (1) the Caribbean, such as th Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGGRA), the Caribbean Coastal Marin Productivity (CARICOMP); (2) parts of the Pacific such as the Coral Reef Monitorin Activities in Polynesia Mana Node, Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries an Food Security (CTI-CFF) and (3) parts of the Indian Ocean such as the Coral Ree Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO), all building on the governance framework that are the product of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regiona Seas programme established in 1974. Due to the popularity of coral reefs for SCUB diving, volunteer and participatory monitoring are popular alternatives, with the mos comprehensive one being that of Reef Check (Hodgson, 1999). In these, assessments ar based on indicator species and estimates of variables such as benthic cover. Thoug variable in quality and coverage, the resulting data can be invaluable in broad scal scientific assessments of reef status. Coral reef areas with the least investment i assessments are those in poor developing countries with generally low nationa dependence on the sea (though they may have large sectors of society with high level of livelihood/subsistence dependence on the sea, e.g. the Indian Ocean) and of +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +middle/low biodiversity and interest for international science. Coral reef areas with th most investment in assessments are dispersed throughout the Pacific and tropica Atlantic. +Cold-water or deep-water corals are found globally, but have been most extensivel mapped in the North Atlantic, due to extension of fishing and exploration for seabe resources in that region, and New Zealand has undertaken significant coral mapping With greatest development from 200-1,000 m, and on topographic promontories suc as seamounts, they can form large reefs of several 100s of m across and 10s of m abov the substrate, but are highly vulnerable to damage and changing chemica oceanographic conditions. Further discoveries on the distribution of cold water coral are continuing to be made, such as in the southern Indian Ocean (Cairns, 2007). +Coral reefs are mentioned as a model ecosystem under Aichi Target 10 of th Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (to reverse impacts on climate-sensitiv ecosystems). The search for “Essential Biodiversity Variables” (EBVs) to suppor monitoring for such targets and commitments is gaining momentum, and there i recognition that coral reefs may provide one of the ten globally-consistent sources t support this process, and not only with respect to biodiversity - greater recognition o the ecosystem services contributed by coral reefs (to communities, global tourism, an national/global economies and trade) should secure resources for monitoring of th ecosystem processes/indicators that underpin those services and goods, incentivizin monitoring and assessment to manage them for future benefit. In parallel with the CBD the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystems service (IPBES), and the Sustainable Development Goals may generate increased justification fo upscaling coral reef assessments globally. +2.8 Plankton +At the global level, the seasonal pattern of Chlorophyll a is the best known and mos studied phytoplankton-related variable in most marine ecosystems. Long-term studie on seasonal changes in phytoplankton diversity and abundance have been mor localized geographically. The Western Channel Observatory (WCO) run by the Plymout Marine Laboratory and the Marine Biological Association (United Kingdom) holds marine biodiversity reference dataset for the Western English Channel with some of th longest time-series in the world for zooplankton and phytoplankton. At the Chesapeak Bay, a monthly, continuous 20-year phytoplankton database exists. In the Baltic Sea historical phytoplankton data on community composition shows long-term changes i comparison to the early 1900s (Hallfors et al., 2013). However, much less is know about how changing diversity affects the productivity and functioning of marine foo webs as well as the drivers behind these changes. Some global changes in diversity hav been addressed based on the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) data. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Perhaps the longest time-series sets exist for planktonic organisms (zooplankton an fish larvae) from the North-eastern Atlantic (North and Baltic Seas, English Channel an Bay of Biscay). It is important to note that plankton monitoring has extended t practically all the regions of the European coast due to the implementation of relativel recent legislation (e.g., the European Water Framework Directive). In this way, the stud of plankton taxonomic composition and dynamics is being conducted in many areas tha have been poorly studied or not studied at all. Surveys on micro-, nano-, picoplankto also exist, but these are spatially more restricted and substantially more comprehensive. +Some of the early formal accounts on zoobenthos date back to the famous Michael Sar expedition in the Atlantic in 1910, amended with several major contributions fro Census of Marine Life activities (such as “Patterns and processes of the ecosystems o the northern mid-Atlantic”, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Ecosystem Project (MAR-ECO), an the global project Census of Marine Zooplankton) about a century later and introducin innovative identification techniques involving molecular biology. +2.8.1 The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey +The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey is recognized as the longest sustaine (operating since 1931) and geographically most extensive marine biological survey in th world. The dataset comprises a uniquely large record of marine biodiversity coverin ~1,000 taxa over multi-decadal periods. The survey determines the abundance an distribution of microscopic plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton, includin fish larvae) in our oceans and shelf seas. Using ships of opportunity from ~30 differen shipping companies, it obtains samples at monthly intervals on ~50 trans-ocean routes In this way the survey autonomously collects biological and physical data from ship covering ~20,000 km of the ocean per month, ranging from the Arctic to the Souther Ocean. The survey is an internationally funded charity with a wide consortium o stakeholders. +Plankton are collected on a band of silk and subsequently visually identified (~1,00 taxa) by experts from around the world. Additionally, over the last decade the CPR have been equipped with modern chemical and physical sensors, as well as molecula probes, to provide an array of additional information about our changing oceans. Th final stages in the operation of the survey are the archiving of the resulting data an samples and interpreting the results at its central hub in Plymouth, United Kingdom Strict quality control procedures are maintained for all CPR activities to ensure th integrity and long-term value of the programme. The database and sample archiv together provide a resource that can be utilized in a wide range of environmental ecological and fisheries-related research, e.g., molecular analyses of marine pathogens modelling for forecasting and data for incorporation in new approaches to ecosyste and fishery management. Since the first tow of a CPR on a “ship of opportunity” in 1931 more than 6 million nautical miles of sea have been sampled and over 100 million dat entries have been recorded. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Over the last eight decades the purpose of the survey has also co-evolved, wit changing environmental policy, from purely monitoring plankton distributions t addressing and providing indicators for major marine management issues ranging fro fisheries, harmful algal blooms, biodiversity, pollution, eutrophication, ocea acidification and climate change. For example, the CPR survey has documented northerly shift of 1,000 km of marine organisms around Europe associated with climat change over the last four decades, with large ramifications for the European fishin industry. In the Arctic, the CPR survey recently recorded the first modern trans-Arcti migration of a diatom species (Neodenticula seminae) related to declining ice coverag (Reid et al., 2007; Edwards et al., 2012). +This diatom species, normally found in the Pacific Ocean, has been absent from th North Atlantic for over 800,000 years; perhaps it signifies the rapidity an unprecedented nature of climate change in the Arctic over recent geological histor (Reid et al., 2008). In 2011, the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS) along with 12 other research organizations using the CPR from around the world formed a Global Alliance of CPR surveys (GAC) with the aim of training new surveyors producing a global ocean status report, capacity-building and developing a globa plankton database. This global network of CPR surveys now routinely monitors th North Sea, North Atlantic, Arctic, North Pacific and Southern Ocean. +New surveys are underway in Australian, New Zealand, Japanese and South Africa waters; a Brazilian and an Indian Ocean survey are under development (Figure 2). Thes surveys provide coverage of large parts of the world’s oceans, but many gaps still exist particularly in the South Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. This global network als brings together the expertise of approximately 50 plankton specialists, scientists an technicians from 12 laboratories around the world. Working together, centralizing th database and working in close partnership with the marine shipping industry, this globa network of CPR surveys with its low costs and new technologies makes the CPR an idea tool for an expanded and comprehensive marine biological sampling programme. Th database and website can be accessed via www.sahfos.ac.uk (Edwards et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Oia! +ira +BCLME +Ret elas ett +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Start of sustained open-ocean biological time series and records (temporally broken and coasta time series are not included) plotted along the global mean SST time series from 1900 (Hadley Centre) Note that the majority of the time series are less than 30 years long. Station P (North Pacific); VIC (Vancouver Island Continental Margin time series); NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service collection) BATS (Bermuda Atlantic Time Series Study); HOT (Hawaii Ocean Time Series program); Iberian coasta time series (North Coast of Spain); SO CPR survey (Southern Ocean CPR survey); AMT (Atlantic Meridiona Transect); AZMP (Atlantic Zone Monitoring Program) (Edwards et al., 2010). +2.9 Seamounts +Several global seamount databases have been compiled, including the Seamoun Catalogue (mainly geological), Seamounts Online (SMOL) (biological) and the Seamoun Ecosystem Evaluation Framework (SEEF) (ecological) (Kvile et al., 2014). There are als detailed national datasets on seamount location and faunal composition, such as of New Zealand, the Azores, and for the western South Pacific (Allain et al., 2008). Thes databases and knowledge of seamounts have benefited from increased research o seamounts in the early 2000s by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States Japan, Australia, Portugal (Azores), among other countries, including the internationa CenSeam project of the Census of Marine Life (Clark et al., 2010). +A total of 684 seamounts have data recorded in the SEEF and SMOL up to the end o 2012. Their spatial distribution is: 458 in the Pacific Ocean, 164 in the Atlantic Ocean, 2 in the Mediterranean Sea, 12 in the Indian Ocean and 28 in the Southern Ocean. Thei distribution is shown in Figure 3. +© 2016 United Nation + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. The distribution of seamounts with geological or biological sample data (sources: SEEF an SMOL). +The seamounts have a mixture of data types: all have geological information, and 54 pe cent have had some level of biological investigation (Kvile et al., 2014). Overall, th seamounts in the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea have been the mos studied; other oceans are typically patchy. For example, in the Pacific Ocean, over 6 per cent of seamounts in the database had biological data, but extensive sampling wa focused on a few areas: on the Nazca and Sala y Gomez chains in the eastern Sout Pacific, around New Zealand and southern Australia in the southwest Pacific, and of parts of Hawaii, Alaska and the west coast of the United States in the North Pacific. +The last decade has seen a dramatic increase in the number of seamounts bein surveyed. This has in part been due to efforts by the fishing industry to find new fis stocks, but also by major national or international (such as the Census of Marine Lif project CenSeam) research programmes carrying out biodiversity surveys (see Figure 4 from Kvile et al., 2014). The CenSeam data can be accessed through the OBIS porta (www. iobis.org) by selecting the Seamounts Online database. +© 2016 United Nation + +Seamounts sampled == "Ecology *@**Geology +2000 500 +] . 1800 fy 45 a 1 y 2 1600 4 400 $ L E = 1400 350 = 1200 + 300s g 1000 F250 2 800 200 5 600 150 = 400 100 z | = +200 5 0 + + +t t T 0 +yn oS wy oS w oS n S ww S wow S om oS +Tt yw wy oO ‘oO C~ C~ se we aD aS S Se = +aH an an nH nH an an n n n n —] So So +~~ - - a ~” al 7 - - -_ - a a an +Year +Figure 4. The cumulative number of seamounts explored over time (from Kvile et al., 2014). +Biological surveys of seamounts vary considerably in the methods and equipment used In the North Atlantic, off the west coast of the United States, and in the North Pacific remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) and manned submersibles have bee used to carry out extensive survey work. However, these tools tend to focus samplin on the mega-fauna, the large taxa that are clearly visible to the eye or camer equipment. Fish trawls have been used on many seamounts, and although these sampl fish very effectively, they are poor at retaining fragile or small invertebrates. Off Ne Zealand and Australia, epibenthic sledges have been used on seamounts, which tend t catch a wide size range down to macroinvertebrates. Typically, a combination o sampling gear is necessary to adequately describe the benthic biodiversity o seamounts. +However, globally, a very low proportion of the large number of seamounts have bee sampled. Of the nearly 450 seamounts sampled, relatively good data existonly for 300 and few of these are in equatorial latitudes, or deeper than about 2,000 m. Therefore much about the structure, function and connectivity of seamount ecosystems remain unexplored and unknown. Continual, and potentially increasing, threats to seamoun resources from fishing and seabed mining are creating a pressing demand for researc to inform conservation and management strategies. To meet this need, intensiv scientific effort in the following areas would be needed: (1) Improved physical an biological data; of particular importance is information on seamount location, physical +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +characteristics (e.g., habitat heterogeneity and complexity), more complete an intensive biodiversity inventories, and increased understanding of seamoun connectivity and faunal dispersal; (2) New human impact data; these should encompas better studies on the effects of human activities on seamount ecosystems, as well a monitor long-term changes in seamount assemblages following impacts (e.g., recovery) (3) Global data repositories; there is a pressing need for more comprehensive fisherie catch and effort data, especially on the high seas, and compilation or maintenance o geological and biodiversity databases that underpin regional and global analyses; (4 Application of support tools in a data-poor environment; conservation and managemen will have to increasingly rely on predictive modelling techniques, critical evaluation o environmental surrogates as faunal “proxies”, and ecological risk assessment. +2.10 Vents and seeps +Since the discovery of hydrothermal vents and continental margin seeps in 1977, man animals found there were recognized as new to science, often at higher taxonomi levels. A recent assessment suggested that about 70 per cent of vent animals and 40 +per cent of seep species now known are endemic to these habitats (German et al., 2011). +In addition, many animals displayed unusual adaptations to habitats of reduce chemical compounds and physiological stresses. Systematic studies have generate many dispersed publications and some compilations have examined evolutionar patterns in a larger taxonomic group, ecological phenomena within a seep or ven region, and biogeographic pattern analyses. In this Assessment, only the most recent o these compilations are presented. +The InterRidge Vents Database is an important tool for metadata on hydrothermal ven sites that is currently maintained in an open-source content-management system i which updates depend on researcher input (Beaulieu et al., 2013). Over 500 confirme and inferred referenced locations are listed. In the last decade, vent discoveries in ar and back-arc settings increased the known vent fields within exclusive economic zones No biological or collection information is listed, hence it is a site for geographi information only. No similar information for seeps and other chemosynthesis-base habitats exists. The most recent map for locations of seeps globally appears to be tha of Seuss (2010). +The Census of Marine Life (CoML) sponsored the eight-year project calle Chemosynthetic Ecosystem Science (ChEss), with a primary focus to document th distribution of diversity in deep-water chemosynthetic ecosystems. The development o the ChEss database remains ongoing, but it is currently linked to OBIS; however, the are faunal lists and must be manipulated for site or taxonomic comparisons Assessments emerging from use of the database are underway, but many are specific t faunal groups or regions. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +To facilitate work in the field and laboratory, a handbook of vent fauna that assimilate most of the taxonomic papers and locality information related to hydrothermal ven fauna is available. The format of the book is a page for each species with a brie description, drawings or photographs and distribution information; it covers over 50 species in 12 phyla. No overall assessment of diversity is presented, but managers wil find useful information on the species in their area of interest. +The ChEss Database has been used to formulate an assessment of the drivers o biogeographic patterns in vent faunas. The assessment focuses on_ historica relationships and centres of diversity. The approach uses network analysis and is a high quality assessment of patterns. Another similar analysis for seep faunas of th equatorial Atlantic highlights discoveries on the western African margins and points ou regions that still need investigation. Both datasets are available through IFREMER France. +An overall assessment of vent and seep faunal diversity distribution and major driver has yet to be executed. Exploration of these habitats is still underway, as biogeographi analysis shows major gaps in knowledge. Because of the close relationship of seeps o continental margins to areas of resource exploration interest (oil and gas, methan hydrates), assessment of the nature of diversity and its role in ecosystem function i important before potential alteration and/or destructions takes place. Similarly growing interest in the metals associated with hydrothermal vent deposits may driv more work to define diversity patterns at vent habitats, as well as their relationship with other chemosynthesis-based habitats (See Appendix I-Vents and seeps: Majo Inventories Available for Vent and Seep Habitats and Faunas). At present, many dee sea research initiatives have teamed up in INDEEP (International Network for Scientifi investigation of deep-sea ecosystems) with the goal of providing a framework that wil allow coordinated efforts in deep sea research across all its habitats while reaching ou scientific results to managers and society. +3. Regional summaries of coverage of assessments: Arctic, North Atlantic, Nort Pacific, Indian, South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Southern Ocean +The following regional summaries are largely based on the work carried out by th network of National and Regional Committees of the Census of Marine Life (O’Dor et al. 2010; Costello et al., 2010). In this summary, the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas a well as the Gulf of Mexico are included in the North Atlantic section. There are a fe gaps in terms of geographic coverage (e.g. the Pacific coast of the Russian Federation the Atlantic coast of Africa) due to lack of information or difficulties obtaining the data However, a complete global analysis including all of the world’s oceans was carried ou using data from OBIS and presented in part 3 of the chapter. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +3.1 The Arctic +Despite more than a century of observations on the Arctic’s marine life, information o basic species inventories, as well as a quantitative synthesis, has remained fragmente until recently; however, some areas are still poorly known. Renewed interest in marin biodiversity generated by activities, such as those of the CBD, the Census of Marine Lif and the International Polar Year, has begun to change this situation, but it is a slo process. At best, we are now armed with relatively complete lists of the species present and have begun the process of assembling various datasets throughout the Arctic wit the ultimate goal of establishing pan-Arctic patterns and trends over time (se Gradinger et al., 2010) for the taxonomic groups. The most comprehensive assessmen in the Arctic is the Arctic Biodiversity Assessment (ABA), which includes chapters o marine mammals, birds, fishes, invertebrates, parasites, and ecosystems, contribute and reviewed by more than 100 scientists (Caff, 2013). +There are about 24 species of large unique vertebrates, such as the Polar Bear, Walrus seals and several species of whales, found in the Arctic. As for seabirds, 64 species ar recognized as breeding in the Arctic, and an even greater number of species is known t exploit its productivity seasonally (Archambault et al., 2010). Many of these air breathing species are displaced southward during the winter’s ice cover. As for fishes nearly 250 species are known from the Arctic. About 30 of these divide their live between the oceans and freshwater, and the rest are fully marine; the majority of thes species are associated with the seafloor rather than living higher in the water column Invertebrate diversity is higher and, unlike the vertebrates, invertebrates are typicall studied in terms of communities rather than by species or higher taxonomic units. Fro functional and logistical perspectives, these communities are further divided by habitat as this is how they are targeted during sampling: those associated with the sea ice those within the water column (plankton) and those living on the seafloor (benthos). O the functional groups of organisms considered thus far, with the exception of birds an mammals, species discovery continues within them all, especially now with the use o molecular tools for species identification (Gradinger et al., 2010). The Arctic is a mosai of habitats across all its marine realms, within which information is very unequall collected between regions and over time. Habitat complexity, combined with th logistical challenges of sampling in the Arctic, and the generally limited interest i surveying the perceived low-diversity invertebrate fauna of the Arctic, have greatl impaired our ability to construct precise regional and temporal understanding of marin invertebrate diversity. Although changes have been noted in population size abundance, growth, condition and behaviour of several marine mammals and fish, fe changes for planktonic and benthic systems are documented. No comprehensiv monitoring activities are conducted in the Central Arctic Ocean; oceanographic an ecosystem sampling has been occurring largely on an opportunistic basis, as part o national (e.g. Canadian) and international research programmes. Some efforts hav been directed at developing directed systematic programmes for data collection sometimes relying on community-based collaborations, but these are recent +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +developments and baseline data from the Canadian Arctic Ocean are very limited i their spatial and temporal extent. +Examples of these collaborations are the Arctic Council CBMP (Circumpolar Biodiversit Monitoring Program), the Russian-American Long-term Census of the Arctic (2004-12) which involves a partnership of several United States and Russian Federatio institutions to create a baseline dataset in the Pacific gateway area of the Bering Strai and southern Chukchi Sea, and other bi-national collaborations (e.g. United States an Canada, Russian Federation and Norway). Recently, the United States Bureau of Ocea Energy Management (BOEM) initiated programmes in Arctic waters to provid estimates of abundance and species composition of marine fishes and invertebrates, a well as information on the macro- and microzooplankton communities and thei oceanographic environment. In 2008, the oil and gas industry began new biologica assessment programmes (Chukchi Sea Offshore Monitoring in Drilling Area: Chemica and Benthos) in the Chukchi Sea in response to the sale of leases for new offshor prospect areas (Fautin et al., 2010). +3.2 Northern Hemisphere: focus on Canada +Canada borders the Pacific, Arctic, and Atlantic Oceans; and its coastline of 243,791 k (16.2 per cent of the global coastline) exceeds all of Europe combined. At 2,687,667 km’ Canada’s territorial sea covers 14.3 per cent of the global total. The Census of Marin Life program (Archambault et al., 2010), in collaboration with the Canadian Health Oceans Network (CHONe) (Snelgrove et al., 2012), conducted an assessment of th status of knowledge on marine biodiversity in Canada’s oceans which included fou biogeographical provinces: the Canadian Arctic (including the sub-Arctic Hudson Ba System), Eastern Canada, St. Lawrence estuary and Gulf, and Western Canada (Pacifi coast). The taxonomic assessment encompassed the status of knowledge on microbes phytoplankton, macroalgae, zooplankton, benthic infauna, fishes, and marine mammal resulting in an estimate of between 15,988 and 61,148 taxa (including microbes), number that is most likely to be an underestimate, as many poorly sampled taxa an regions still exist. This assessment noted that significant data gaps exist, that large species (e.g., mammals and fishes) are better known than small species (e.g., microbes) and that knowledge of diversity is inversely related to both water depth an geographical remoteness. Thus, even for well-known groups, such as fishes, deep-wate and Arctic environments continue to yield new species. The Eastern Canada waters ar the best-sampled province of Canada. +The Census of Marine Life was very active in Canada and significantly helped advanc knowledge of marine biodiversity. The Barcode of Life developed barcodes for man Canadian species, and the Future of Marine Animal Populations (FMAP) programm provided many new insights on trends in fisheries, global patterns in biodiversity, an movements of animals in the oceans. The Pacific Ocean Shelf Tracking (POST) projec provided new insight into movements of Pacific salmon species, sturgeon, and othe species along the North Pacific coastline. The Canadian Healthy Oceans Network +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +(CHONe) (Snelgrove et al., 2012), a five-year national research programme to establis biodiversity baselines in poorly sampled areas, grew out of the Census of Marine Life Several other Census projects sampled in Canadian waters: include the Arctic Ocea Diversity (ArcOD) project, and the Natural Geography of Inshore Areas (NaGISA), an the Gulf of Maine Area (GoMA) project. The latter project assembled species lists fo that region and worked closely with the Canadian scientists of the Ocean Biogeographi Information System (OBIS) program, which assembled extensive datasets produced b Fisheries and Oceans Canada over several decades. +Current monitoring programmes, largely by the Department of Fisheries and Ocean Canada (DFO), the lead agency responsible for monitoring Canada’s three ocean (Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic) and freshwater habitats, will further improve knowledge o Canadian oceans. Many of DFO’s monitoring activities were initiated to addres operational requirements dealing with commercial exploitation of marine an freshwater populations, but over time many have evolved to provide assessments of th state of local ecosystems in the context of a consistent national approach. A genera assessment of aquatic monitoring in Canada, conducted in 2005-2006 (Chadwick, 2006) provides an overview of the diversity of activities carried out by DFO and other agencies. +Most programmes that contribute to biodiversity assessments derive data from: (1 broad-scale regional multispecies bottom trawl surveys that provide information on th distribution and abundance of fish and invertebrate species, (2) oceanographic survey that collect observations of phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance and taxonomi composition, and (3) single-species surveys that can yield knowledge for non-targe species caught or observed during data collection. Most surveys are carried out by DFO but in several instances, most importantly in the Pacific region, partner organization contribute significantly, such as assessments of coral and sponge diversity distribution aided by academic and by non-governmental organizations (NGO) activities. Coverag varies greatly among aquatic environments. +Monitoring of the Atlantic and Pacific continental shelves and slopes is fairly extensiv and generally conducted annually for focus areas. On the Pacific coast, Canada ha maintained one of the longest — in duration — datasets that exist on ocean conditions phytoplankton and zooplankton through the Line P/Station Papa programme. For othe species groups, such as marine mammals, groundfish and salmon on the west coast monitoring remains a DFO focus. Differences in the extent and intensity of surve activities in specific ecosystems within these two ocean areas will affect our ability t detect changes in biodiversity. For example, the coastal sea near Vancouver and th Fraser River salmon runs are the focus of sustained monitoring for many species however, little information on the biodiversity of the northern west coast fjord exists Furthermore, protocols for data collection, taxonomic resolution and expertise, an quality assurance vary greatly among survey types and location, which are also likely t significantly affect the estimation of Canadian marine biodiversity, particularly wit respect to the occurrence of rare or difficult-to-identify species, including invasiv species. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +In all of Canada’s oceans, information sources on habitat structure, invasive species food web structure and interactions, species at risk, and any effects of cumulativ anthropogenic impacts are limited. There are few systematic efforts to assess ecosyste health, particularly in near-shore and coastal areas, and data pertaining to pelagi species other than plankton are restricted in scope and coverage. Finally, almost al marine observations are collected from ships, yet the number of sea days declined b half between 1995 and 2005, while costs have doubled (Chadwick, 2006). +3.3 North Atlantic: The East Coast of the United States +The marine biodiversity of the United States is extensively documented; however, eve the most complete taxonomic inventories are based on records scattered in space an time. The best-known taxa are those of commercial importance or large body sizes Best-known areas are the shore and shallow waters. Measures of biodiversity othe than species diversity, such as ecosystem and genetic diversity, are poorly documented In the North-east Continental Shelf region, scientific sampling of coastal intertidal an shallow subtidal organisms extends back to the mid-1800s. Off-shore, early assessment in the late 1800s and early 1900s include those conducted by the Fish Hawk, th Albatross, and by Henry Bryant Bigelow. +In the last decade, the Gulf of Maine Area Program of the Census of Marine Lif assessed this ecoregion, plus the southern and western Scotian Shelf, the continenta slope to 2,000 m, and the western New England Seamounts. In the South-eas Continental Shelf region, assessments began during the United States colonial perio (seventeenth and eighteenth centuries). Early offshore studies focused on findin exploitable fish populations. In the late 1800s, exploratory surveys were aimed primaril at bottom-living organisms. Since the mid-twentieth century, the United States Nationa Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and its predecessor agencies (e.g., th Bureau of Commercial Fisheries) have explored habitats and their natural resources of the coast of the south-eastern United States. Beginning in the 1950s, several ship conducted exploratory fishing surveys using trawl nets; they found concentrations o snappers, groupers, and other economically valuable fishes, along with other significan fishery resources (drums, flatfishes, mullets, herrings, shrimps). Additional surveys usin dredges, grabs, and other benthic samplers collected invertebrates and new species. +Valuable fish surveys have been carried out by the NOAA Marine Resources Monitoring Assessment and Prediction (MARMAP) and Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessmen Program (SEAMAP) monitoring programmes. Significant regional invertebrate surveys o the South Atlantic Bight (SAB) were conducted under the auspices of the Bureau of Lan Management (BLM) and the Minerals Management Service (MMS). From the 1970 until now, surveys of the continental shelf and slope off North Carolina and in th tropical western North Atlantic have been made by the Duke University Marin Laboratory (DUML) and the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +(RSMAS) of the University of Miami, respectively. The RSMAS collections and archive (Marine Invertebrate Museum: http://rsmas.miami.edu/divs/mbf/invert-museum.html document the biodiversity of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico’s tropical and deep-se species and include material from the Straits of Florida and the Florida Keys Nationa Marine Sanctuary. Marine resource agencies of the individual states have als conducted faunal and fishery surveys within state waters, particularly within estuarie (Fautin et al., 2010). +3.4 North Atlantic: The Gulf of Mexico +The most recent survey of the Gulf of Mexico’s biodiversity appeared in book for (Felder and Camp, 2009), and as an open-access online database for utilization b anyone, as well as for updating and expansion by taxonomists (see GulfBase a www.gulfbase.org/biogomx; Moretzsohn et al., 2011). Over 15,400 species are listed i the database, with full biological and zoogeographical information for each species. +Historically, environmental studies or assessments on the Gulf of Mexico’s biota can b divided into four different periods: (1) Exploratory Period (1850-1939), (2) Local Coasta Study Period (1940-1959), (3) Multidisciplinary Investigation and Synthesis Period (1960 2009/2010), and (4) Ecosystem Focus Period (2009/2010-present). The initial perio involved the exploratory work of early oceanographically equipped ships, such as th Blake and the Albatross, and coastal expeditions from northeastern United State universities and institution. During the second period, over a dozen marine laboratorie were established around the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and scientists at thes facilities expanded our biodiversity knowledge in those early locations in the Unite States, Mexico, and Cuba. Recently, a dedicated issue of the journal Gulf of Mexic Science (Volume 28, 2010) mapped the current 35 laboratories around the Gulf an presented a history of 21 of them; many are still instrumental in biodiversit assessments. Important fisheries vessels, such as the Alaska and the Oregon | and II, als operated in this second period and expanded our knowledge of faunal distributions i the region. In addition, although not comprehensive, the first biotic inventory of specie in the Gulf of Mexico was published by Galtsoff (1954). +The third period involved large-scale, multidisciplinary investigations and synthesi projects in selected regions, primarily in the United States and Mexico. In the Unite States during the early to mid-1960s, the Hourglass Cruises were among the first large scale projects, focused on the biota of the West Florida Shelf, and funded by the state o Florida. The United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management Minerals Management Service, and now the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management funded decades of environmental studies, including biotic surveys, mainly related to th oil and gas industry and its impact in the northern Gulf of Mexico. These studies firs focused on the continental shelves, but as the oil and gas industry began exploring an producing in deeper and deeper water down the continental slope, studies focused o that area and out onto the adjacent abyssal plain. Those reports can be found at http://www.data.boem.gov/. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +The fourth period marks its beginning with the publication of the comprehensiv inventory of all Gulf of Mexico species (Felder and Camp, 2009; an affiliate Census o Marine Life project) and the Deepwater Horizon blowout and oil spill in 2010, includin the establishment of the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative funded by BP with 50 million United States dollars to study the Gulf and its ecosystems over the next 10 year (at 50 million dollars per year) (See Appendix 1-Gulf of Mexico: selection of the majo assessments or surveys - the Gulf of Mexico). +Gaps in knowledge include selected taxa and selected geographic areas or depths withi the Gulf of Mexico. Similar to most well-studied areas, the larger taxa are well known but smaller ones, particularly meiofauna and microbiota (viruses, microbes, fungi benthic nematodes and harpacticoid copepods, etc.), gelatinous plankton and othe soft-bodied invertebrates (that often do not preserve well in non-targeted sampling), a well as parasitic groups, are little known. Biomass, ecology, trophic interactions an diseases are poorly known for most species. Geographically, still not well known are th abyssal plain in the deepest part of the Gulf, and selected areas in the southern Gulf such as off the northern coast of Tamaulipas and the very southern coast of Veracruz of the San Andres Tuxtlas Mountains. +3.5 North Atlantic: The Caribbean +Historically, knowledge of marine biodiversity for the Caribbean islands has resulte from inclusions within larger marine surveys and assessments funded by foreig institutions. For example, the Universities of Havana and Harvard (1938 to 1939) carrie out a joint marine expedition which was the first such baseline information for th Cuban archipelago. Additionally, some territories have benefited from visiting researc vessels (e.g., the 1969 RV John Elliott Pillsbury expedition to the Lesser Antilles). Mor recently, local institutions dedicated to marine research have been established i several islands, such as: The Oceanology Institute (Cuba), the Institute of Marine Affair (Trinidad) and The Discovery Bay Marine Lab (Jamaica). The Association of Marin Laboratories of the Caribbean (AMLC) (http://www.amlc-carib.org/) is an umbrell organization (with over 30 institutions) which has been promoting collaborations i marine sciences since 1968. Other organizations supporting research initiatives in th region are the International Oceanographic Commission-Caribe (IOCARIBE), the Natur Conservancy (TNC)), and several universities (e.g., the University of the West Indie island campuses of Mona in Jamaica, Cavehill in Barbados, and St. Augustine in Trinida and Tobago). +To date not a single comprehensive marine assessment has detailed the Caribbea island territories, although several projects have targeted certain ecosystems an taxonomic groups. One of the most successful research programmes to date (1993 t present) is the Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP), whic covers islands throughout the Wider Caribbean (e.g., Barbados, Dominican Republic, +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Jamaica, Puerto Rico (Mona Island) and Trinidad and Tobago) and has over 3 participating institutions. The project datasets include: percentage coral cover, se urchin density, gorgonian density, seagrasses (growth, biomass and leaf area) mangrove forest structure and productivity, sea water temperature, salinity and clarity daily maximum and minimum air temperature, and rainfall. +Furthermore, the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) Program is a international collaboration of scientists and managers aimed at determining th regional condition of reefs in the Western Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico and include some Caribbean territories. Additionally, the Northern Caribbean and Atlantic node o the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) monitors coral reefs and thei status in the Bahamas, Bermuda (United Kingdom), Cayman Islands (United Kingdom) Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and the Turks and Caicos Islands (Unite Kingdom). The Centre for Marine Sciences (CMS) at the University of the West Indie (UWI), at Mona, Jamaica, is the repository for these three databases (CARICOMP AGRRA, GCRMN). Reef Check is another coral programme and is active in: Anguill (United Kingdom), Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat (United Kingdom), St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincen and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. +The Caribbean Sea Ecosystem Assessment (CARSEA) was a sub-global assessment (200 to 2008) out of the global Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2001 to 2005 which made a major contribution to Caribbean biodiversity knowledge, and provide analytical status reports, including trends in some populations such as fish and cora reefs. The Census of Marine Life resulted in a detailed review of the known marin biodiversity of several Caribbean islands, including Bermuda (United Kingdom), , Cuba the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Puerto Rico (United States) and of the marin biodiversity along the Caribbean coasts of Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico and Venezuel (Miloslavich and Klein, 2005). The nearshore (NaGISA) project followed shortl thereafter, with biodiversity surveys in Colombia, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, an Venezuela. This assessment examined patterns of biodiversity at both global and loca scales on rocky shores and seagrass beds and made a major contribution to marin biodiversity (Miloslavich et al., 2010). +Overall, within the larger assessments (CARICOMP, CARSEA, CoML), certain ecosystem (mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds and rocky shores) have been studied in detail an certain marine taxonomic groups (marine mammals, turtles, seabirds, fish, corals sponges) have also been comprehensively reviewed/assessed by local researchers scientists and post-graduate students. Macrobenthic organisms for both Trinidad an Tobago and Jamaica, and plankton (for Jamaica) have been well documented. Thes important baseline data were improved by later surveys by the Institute of Marin Affairs in Jamaica (IMA) during the period 1980 to 1992. +Despite these efforts, there are still many gaps in our knowledge of Caribbea biodiversity (e.g. offshore and deep regions, small sized taxonomic groups) (Miloslavic et al., 2010). To fill these gaps and build regional capacity, almost all Caribbean +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +countries have strengthened their environmental institutions (e.g., Coastal Zon Management Institute-Belize; Coastal Zone Management Authority-Barbados; Darwi Initiative by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute) and administrative capacitie (e.g., the Environmental Management Authority-Trinidad and Tobago), to integrat environmental considerations into physical planning. Another initiative that ha improved capacity building and aimed towards maintaining functional and structura integrity and biodiversity in this region is the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem Projec (CLME). While not a monitoring programme, the CLME Program has one pilot project o Reef Biodiversity and Reef Fisheries which implemented the ecosystem-based approac for the conservation and effective management of coral reef ecosystems and associate resources. +3.6 North Atlantic: Oceans around Europe +There is early evidence of European marine biota assessments from the 3rd century B.C. but formal scientific studies did not begin until the 18th century in the Mediterranea region and early 19th century throughout the remainder of Europe (Coll et al. 2010 Ojaveer et al., 2010). For several taxa these early works provide historical baseline against which to compare contemporary biodiversity data. +In the European Atlantic, as mentioned earlier in the plankton section, the longest time series sets exist for planktonic organisms. Regarding benthic organisms, in shelf seas such as the North and Baltic Seas, benthic survey and monitoring programmes hav been in place. One of the priority research areas, directly linked to provision o management advice, in European seas has been commercial fish and fisheries. Th related surveys include egg and larval fish surveys, young fish surveys, experimenta bottom trawl surveys and, more recent hydro-acoustic surveys. Some of these data-set date back to before the 1950s. However, information on non-commercial fish is scarc and incomparable and should be considered as a major drawback in drawin conclusions about the spatio-temporal patterns and dynamics of fish communities. representative overview of the status and trends of non-indigenous species in Europea waters is assembled in the database “Information system on aquatic non-indigenou and cryptogenic species in Europe”, AquaNls. +In the North-East Atlantic, the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environmen of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR, formerly the Oslo-Paris Convention) established i 1972, is aimed towards the conservation of the marine environment and its resources As such, OSPAR has pioneered ways of ensuring monitoring and assessment of th quality status of the seas, including the implementation of a Biodiversity and Ecosyste Strategy under the coordination of the Joint Assessment and Monitoring Progra (JAMP). +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +3.7. North Pacific: focus on the West Coast of the United State 3.7.1 The Gulf of Alaska +There have been many scientific expeditions to the Gulf of Alaska over the years sinc early times and a historical review of scientific exploration of the North Pacific Ocea from 1500 to 2000 is available. Early explorations were carried out mostly for mappin and species identification (i.e. fishes, birds, and invertebrates). Marine surve expeditions in the late 1800s include the United States steamer Tuscarora in th Aleutian Trench, the Albatross, and the Harriman Alaska Expedition from Seattl through Prince William Sound, out to the Aleutians, and north along the Russia Federation coast of the Bering Sea. In the 1950s, major expeditions were carried out b NORPAC (North Pacific), the Japanese research vessel Oshoro Maru, the University o Washington's Brown Bear, the Russian Federation research vessel Vityaz, the Bering Se Commercial Research Expedition, and the Pacific Research Institute of Fisheries an Oceanography (TINRO). Recent survey programmes are funded by MMS and NOAA. Th MMS Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP) began i 1974 and is still active. The bottom trawl surveys run by NOAA collect information o fishes and many species from the Bering Sea, the Aleutians and Gulf of Alaska to suppor fishery management decisions by the North Pacific Fishery Management Council and th United States Secretary of Commerce. Biodiversity information has also been collecte by the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council in Prince William Sound, continuou plankton recorder surveys across the North Pacific, Seward Line zooplankton collection in the Gulf of Alaska, and Hokkaido University's annual training cruises on the Oshor Maru to the Bering Sea and Strait and, less frequently, to the Chukchi Sea. Mor recently, the NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration supported cruises (2002-05) to stud biodiversity implementing the use of ROVs. +Large-scale research programmes off Alaska (see, e.g., the joint National Scienc Foundation-North Pacific Research Board Bering Sea study at http://bsierp.nprb.org contribute to broader knowledge of biodiversity, and continue adding to the man efforts over the past 40 years to enumerate species from the coastal rocky headlands t the deep ocean and even in sea ice. However, no species inventory of all realms exist for any region of Alaska. Important databases containing biodiversity information ar listed in Fautin et al. (2010) and efforts are underway to compile data in databases (e.g. Alaska Resources Library and Information Services - ARLIS; the Exxon Valdez Oil Spil Trustee Council - EVOSTC). +3.7.2 The California Current ecosystem: +Early surveys in this region began in the late 1700s and 1800s by European explorers including Cook, La Perouse, Vancouver, and Bodega y Quadra. In the 1800s, Unite States naval expeditions collected information on fishes and whales. In the 1900s marine research laboratories were established (e.g., Hopkins Seaside Laboratory i Monterey, California) which today form the Monterey Bay Crescent Ocean Researc Consortium. Today, 40-50 marine research facilities operate in the region under th umbrella of the Western Association of Marine Laboratories. At present, many of the +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +available long-term data are a product of fishery management efforts, mostly funded b NOAA. Biodiversity databases of this region are listed in Fautin et al. (2010). Two majo assessments in this region are the California Current Ecosystem Long Term Ecologica Research (CCE LTER) and the California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigation programme(CALCOFI), both focused on the pelagic realm. The CalCOFI programme is 60+ year survey including zooplankton with strong relations to biodiversity and a world recognized data base allowing analysis of temporal trends (Kang and Ohman, 2014). +3.7.3 Insular Pacific-Hawaiian Large Marine Ecosystem: +Initial surveys of the Hawaiian Islands began in the early 1800s by French, Russian, an United States expeditions. The first plankton samples were taken by the Challenger i mid-1875, while major collections from Hawaii were initiated by the Albatros Expedition in the early 1900s. Between 1923 and 1924, four trips were made with th Tanager to survey 13 Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll and Wake Island. Results from th Tanager expedition were published in Marine Zoology of Tropical Central Pacific, an included crustaceans, echinoderms, polychaetes, and foraminiferans. Between July an September 1930, an expedition led by P.S. Galtsoff to Pearl and Hermes, surveyed th abundance of pearl oysters for potential commercial use, and also noted the corals algae, sponges, molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. +Since these early cruises, conducting inventories of the biota of Hawaii has largely bee the responsibility of the Bishop Museum, which at present has been designated th Hawaii Biological Survey (HBS). Surveys have occurred in targeted sites in the mai Hawaiian islands, such as Kaneohe Bay and Pearl Harbor on the island of Oahu, an waters around the island of Kahoolawe. +Since 1995, surveys have also covered Midway Atoll, French Frigate Shoals, an Johnston Atoll. Electronic datasets for Hawaiian marine biodiversity include http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/ (Hawaii Biological Survey) http://cramp.wcc.hawaii.edu/ (Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program) http://www.nbii.gov/portal/community/Communities/Geographic_Perspectives/Pacifi _Basin/ (National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII), Pacific Basin Informatio Node); and http://www.nbii.gov/portal/community/Co munities/Habitats/Marine/Marine_Data_ (OBIS-USA)/. Intensive biological inventorie have been carried out on fishes, stony corals, crustaceans, and molluscs (Fautin et al. 2010). +3.8 North Pacific: focus on Japan +In Japan, nationwide censuses of biodiversity of coastal areas, such as tidal flats, cora reefs, seagrass and algal beds, were conducted by the Ministry of the Environment, an showed long-term decline of these important habitats during the 1970s-1990s. However the survey frequency was insufficient to identify the causal mechanisms of changes i relation to various environmental factors. Since 2002, the Ministry started a new type o monitoring programme, called "Monitoring Sites 1000" which aims to monitor the 1000 +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +most important ecosystems in Japan over the whole 21° century. In this programme, ca 50 coastal sites, including tidal flats, rocky intertidal shores, seagrass beds, algal bed and coral reefs are being monitored annually over the long term. These data will b utilized for various purposes, such as the prediction of coastal ecosystem response t global climate changes and other more local factors, as well as the impact assessment o the catastrophic disturbance by the 2011 earthquake and tsunami. +However, the number of sites is too small to set out in detail the changes in the coasta areas of the entire Japanese coast. In the meantime, local prefectural governments fisheries agencies and certain NGOs have been conducting assessments of local coasta habitats of their areas, although the systems for sharing the information gathered ar not well established at present. Certain ongoing network activities, such as the Japa Biodiversity Observation Network (JBON) and the Japan Long-term Ecological Researc Network (JaLTER), are expected to collect this scattered information for use i developing integrated analyses of coastal ecosystem changes (Fujikura et al., 2010) (se Appendix 1-Japan for a list of assessments). +3.9 North Pacific: focus on China +The marine biological investigations in China started late. Until the early twentiet century, only limited areas had been explored and scattered taxonomic groups ha been collected and researched. Additionally, due to the lack of special researc institutes and taxonomists, many precious samples were lost. +From 1919 to 1949, some independent investigations and research on marine biologica work in China were conducted. This period saw the real beginning of marine biologica research in the country; the first qualitative benthic trawling investigation was launche in this time. But research conditions were very precarious and no research vessels fo marine or fisheries science existed; therefore, surveys were relatively limited. Durin this period, research mainly focused on the coastal areas of Qingdao, Yantai, Xiamen Beidaihe and Hainan Island. +Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, many marin research institutions were set up gradually (e.g. Chinese Academy of Sciences - Institut of Oceanology (IOCAS) and South China Sea Institute of Oceanology (SCSIOCAS), Stat Oceanographic Administration (SOA), Ocean University of China (OUC), Chines Academy of Fishery Sciences, etc.). Comprehensive oceanographic surveys were carrie out from the 1950s to the 1980s. The National Comprehensive Oceanographic Surve (1958-1960; the First National Marine Census) was the first large-scale nationa comprehensive marine survey with participation of over 60 organizations and more tha 600 researchers, which covered most coastal areas of the China seas north to th Taiwan Strait and most parts of the northern South China Sea. The biologica investigation of this survey included assessments of plankton, benthos and nekton More than 200,000 biological specimens were collected. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Other large-scale comprehensive marine surveys include the National Coastal Zone an Beach Resources Comprehensive Survey (1981-1987) and the First National Islan Resources Comprehensive Survey (1988 -1996). These two surveys covered over 50,00 km?, and involved microbial, planktonic, benthic and nektonic community investigations These surveys investigated the coastal and island natural environments from China, an comprehensively evaluated the quantity, quality and distribution of biological resources By the late 1980s, most of the waters under the jurisdiction of China had bee investigated, and the diversity, distribution and utilization of the main marine biologica species were roughly identified. +From the 1990s to date, large-scale comprehensive marine surveys include: th Continental Shelf Environment and Living Resources Survey (1997-2000), the Nationa Offshore Comprehensive Oceanographic Survey and Evaluation (2004-2010), als referred to as the Second National Marine Census, and the ongoing Second Nationa Island Resources Comprehensive Survey. These surveys were very intensive an thorough, providing supplemental data to the earlier efforts. +In the past 20 years, more regional investigations, including assessments in Bohai Gulf Liaodong Bay, Jiaozhou Bay, Changjiang Estuary, Dayawan Bay, Quanzhou Bay, Haina Island, and some islands in the South China Sea have been performed, with continue study in several regions. More studies were focused on particularly diverse habitats such as coral reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass beds. Oceanographic exploration i reaching further into areas adjacent to China’s seas, including in the West Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean, even the North and South Poles, as well as cold seeps and seamounts i the deep sea of South China Sea. +Although significant advances have been made in marine biodiversity research in Chin since the 1950s, much insufficiency still remains. First, the marine biological specime collection and biodiversity research is considered inadequate, especially from coral reefs the deep sea and other special habitats. Second, the current investigations ar considered as lacking systematic and thorough data publication. Third, the phylogeneti and biogeographic studies on marine living organisms are insufficient. Last, supervisio and conservation are weak, and many species are critically endangered (Liu, 2013) (se Appendix 1-China, for a list of assessments). +3.10 Indian Ocean: focus on India +The two major institutions concerned with surveys and inventories of the fauna an flora in India are the Zoological Survey of India and the Botanical Survey of India, alon with other research organizations, such as the Central Marine Fisheries Researc Institute and the National Institute of Oceanography. +The published literature on coastal and marine biodiversity of India comprises a inventory indicating that 17,795 species of faunal and floral communities were reporte from seas around India (see Appendix 1-Species diversity India). The taxonomy of man of the minor groups, particularly invertebrates (especially sponges, octocorals, +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +ctenophores, tunicates, polychaetes and other worms, as well as small siz invertebrates) remain a challenge to specialists; as a result these taxa continue to b inadequately known from Indian seas. However, considerable knowledge on th taxonomy of groups, such as seaweeds, seagrasses, mangroves, scleractinian corals crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, fishes, reptiles and marine mammals, is available i India. +Most of the marine biodiversity data come from surveys that sample up to 200 meters There are large data gaps for smaller taxa and for large parts of the shelf and deep se ecosystems, including seamounts (Wafar et al., 2011). The data provided in this pape warrant continued taxonomic research on the least-studied and unknown groups, i light of current threats to marine biodiversity. The full extent of biodiversity in any o the world’s oceans may never be known, and the rate at which our understanding i increasing (Keesing and Irvine, 2005) is likely to be lowest in Indian seas. The impacts o climate change will alter coastal marine ecosystems, affecting the range of species an their ecology at a rate faster than it is possible to record their presence and abundanc (Keesing and Irvine, 2005). In conclusion, it is evident that comprehensive taxonomi coverage of the marine biota of the entire region remains a monumental task, beyon the capacity of existing local taxonomic expertise. +Thus, to gain an appreciable knowledge on the patterns of diversity in the region, it wil be necessary to identify indicator species to assess responses to unpredictable climat change. It would be quite appropriate to plan systematic studies rather than continu the present system of haphazard and opportunistic description of new species as an when they are discovered. +Within the largest Indian Ocean basin, the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE was held during years 1962-1965. This expedition was one of the greatest international interdisciplinary oceanographic coordinated research efforts to explore the India Ocean in almost all disciplines in the marine sciences. The culmination of IIOE led t birth of the National Institute of Oceanography at Goa, the first regional institute fo oceanographic research. At present, the plan for a second International Indian Ocea Expedition (IIOE2) has been drafted by the Science Council for Oceanic Research (SCOR) +and will include more biological aspects than the first, particularly in marine biodiversity. +The need for these expeditions as well as other continued studies are of overal importance in a region recognized by having growing concerns on food security biodiversity loss, coastal erosion and pollution, along with a pressing need o conservation for tourism and sustainable fisheries. +3.11 Sub-Saharan Africa +Along the coastline of Sub-Saharan Africa, states of knowledge of marine biodiversit vary dramatically between the east, southern and west coasts of Africa. The biota of th east coast is moderately known. A general field guide to marine life in the region exist and two reviews have attempted to tabulate and assess states of knowledge of regional +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +marine biodiversity. However, this listing is far from complete. Some well-known taxa such as reptiles, birds and mammals, are simply omitted from the tabulation. Othe larger and/or more economically valuable taxa, such as seaweeds, flowering plants fishes, corals, larger molluscs and crustaceans, etc., are probably fairly accuratel represented. +However, many smaller and difficult-to-identify taxa are not included in the lists at al (for example, Nematoda, Copepoda and Ostracoda) or are likely to be severely under represented, and probably less than half of the actual numbers of marine specie present in the region have been described. Notable regional differences in samplin effort are found: Kenya, United Republic of Tanzania and southern Mozambique are th best-sampled regions, and northern Mozambique and especially Somalia are the leas studied. In all regions, sampling effort declines rapidly with depth and distance from th coast; the deeper continental slope and abyssal habitats are almost completel unexplored. Regional taxonomic capacity is very limited and adequate marin collections in regional museums are lacking. +The marine biota of South Africa is by far the best known on the continent. The regio has a relatively strong history of marine taxonomic research and a reasonabl comprehensive and well-curated museum collection network, totalling some 291,00 marine records. South Africa has more than a dozen institutions with a strong focus i marine science (e.g. South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity or SAIAB, formerl the JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology), with the largest concentration of marin scientists found in the Cape Town region. +Several regional guides to marine life, such as Branch et al. (2010), list more specialize taxonomic monographs. The regional data centre, AfrOBIS, houses some 3.2 millio records of more than 23,000 species. These are derived from the wider African region although the vast majority of data points originate from within South Africa. The tota number of recorded marine species stands at 12,914 and these are tabulated b taxonomic group by Griffiths et al. (2010), who also list taxonomic resources and expert for the region. Many groups, particularly of smaller invertebrates, still remain poorl studied, however. In terms of regional coverage, shallow waters have been relativel well sampled, but sampling effort declined dramatically with increasing depth: 99 pe cent of all samples have been taken in depths shallower than 1000 m. The 75 per cent o the EEZ that lies deeper than 1,000 m thus remains extremely poorly explored and is priority for future research. +The marine biota of West Africa is poorly known. No regional marine guide exists and n comparative analyses of regional marine biodiversity have been compiled. Some report purport to list the biodiversity for various individual countries in the region, but thes are clearly superficial and fail to adequately reflect the diversity of smaller taxa. Fo example, in the Namibian EEZ, only 1,053 species are documented, of which more tha half are fishes. This amounts to less than 10 per cent of the total known from Sout Africa, where fish comprise less than 20 per cent of the recorded taxa, indicating tha the Namibian estimate is strongly biased towards larger, more conspicuous taxa. Similar +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +biases are evident in other national estimates, which appear to radically underestimat smaller, less conspicuous components of the biota and to concentrate on fishes an other ‘target species’. This entire region probably remains amongst the least explored o coastal marine areas and a pressing need remains for taxonomic study of mos invertebrate groups in the region. As with other regions sampling effort in water deeper than 1,000 m is particularly lacking (see Appendix 1-Africa for a summary o assessments). +3.12 South Pacific: focus on Australia and New Zealan 3.12.1 Australia +Although Australia has the world’s third largest EEZ, extending more than 5,000 km fro the tropics (9°S) to temperate latitudes (47°S), it has a comparatively small marin survey capacity. At the same time, Australia has been very active in progressing marin conservation planning (called Marine Bioregional Planning), including the identificatio of a network of representative marine reserves covering 36.4 per cent of the EEZ. Th need to support marine bioregional planning encouraged researchers to recover validate and make accessible older surveys going back to the 1950s. Some of the mos widespread data are associated with 4,000 exploratory demersal trawls by Russia Federation fishing vessels for the period 1965-78. Cooperation with scientists i Vladivostok, in the Russian Federation, and in Australia enabled data for earlier survey to be made accessible and, where necessary to be aligned with modern taxonomy. +Aboriginal people accumulated much knowledge of Australia’s flora, fauna, an ecological systems, including those of its “sea country,” over the last 40,000 to 60,00 years, but much of this knowledge and understanding remains cryptic (Butler et al. 2010). European scientific study began with the first scientifically staffed voyages o discovery, notably those of James Cook in 1770, Nicolas Baudin in 1801-03, an Matthew Flinders in 1802. Charles Darwin visited Australia in the Beagle in 1836. Th voyage of HMS Challenger, 1872-76, included Australian samples in its globa investigation of the deep sea, and its reports are a basis of many disciplines. Soon afte the British established the colony of New South Wales in 1788, scientific societies an natural history museums entered an active period of research. Discovery in the sea wa more difficult and more limited than on land, but there was much activity during th twentieth century. +The taxonomy and descriptive ecology of organisms on accessible shores were an earl focus, which has developed into a strong tradition of experimental ecology on seashore and in shallow water, as well as a determined effort to produce identification guide (Butler et al., 2010). The study of plankton and of benthopelagic coupling is less wel developed than the study of benthos in Australia. Publications on phytoplankton hav been available in Australia since the 1930s, but species lists are available only for limite locations. Research on zooplankton ecology has increased recently and several transect are now surveyed regularly with the Continuous Plankton Recorder. Mesopelagic +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +organisms are being assessed on several cross-Tasman transects from commercia vessels using standardized mid-water acoustic survey techniques supported by periodi mid-water trawls. These two standardized approaches are part of the Integrated Marin Observing System (IMOS; www.imos.org.au). +The diversity of sources from which Australian marine biodiversity data are obtaine means that there are few repeat surveys — typically each survey has set out to answer particular research question with scant regard to long-term comparison. A notabl exception is the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) Long-Term Monitorin Program; it recently analyzed 2,258 standardized surveys from 214 different reef between 1985 and 2012 and showed that coral cover had declined from 28.0 per cent t 13.8 per cent (0.53 per cent y-1). This programme, together with the much newer IMOS are the only long-term sustained monitoring programmes in Australian waters, althoug individual researchers have conducted repeat surveys using standardized samplin techniques for individual research projects, or have collated a variety of historical dat sources to answer particular questions. Australian scientists recognize the need t develop longer time-series of survey data to support national State of the Environmen reporting and to measure the effectiveness of the marine reserve network. This wil require increased capabilities and capacity for biological sampling, which need to b brought to a similar level of standardization, replication, sustainability, interpretatio and communication, as has been achieved by physical oceanographers. +Beginning in the first half of the twentieth century, energetic research was targeted a fisheries by Australian state agencies and by CSIRO’s Division of Fisheries and it predecessors (Mawson et al., 1988). Although searching for commercial prospects, thi work collected many non-commercial fish and invertebrates that were lodged i museums throughout the country, including the Australian National Fish Collection a CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (CMAR). These fish collections have recentl provided the most comprehensive and useful biological dataset for bioregionalization o Australian waters. In the 1960s, a period of intensive environmental research began targeting in particular, bays, estuaries, and continental shelf near major capital citie (Wilson, 1996). +More recent work has explored deeper waters, with interests in exploration, th conservation of biodiversity and research on sustainable fisheries, more recently as par of the Australian Government’s National Environmental Research Program Marin Biodiversity Hub (and predecessors), set up to provide the scientific information t support government policy and decision-making. Thus, museums are building importan collections of Australian specimens from depths as great as 2,000 m and, in restricte parts of the shelf and slope, quite comprehensive faunal collections. An importan component of the taxonomists’ work, besides describing the 30-50 per cent of specie that are new to science found on each survey, has been to provide regionally consisten descriptions of species so that broader bioregional patterns can be established Although this has been available for fish species for many years, supported by geneti barcodes, it has only recently been possible for some invertebrate taxa. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +With the declaration of Australia’s Commonwealth Marine Reserve networ (http://www.environment.gov.au/marinereserves/), survey emphasis is shifting fro discovery to monitoring (or establishing the first quantitative baseline). Non-destructiv sampling approaches, including autonomous underwater’ vehicles (e.g. www.imos.org.au/auv) and possibly genetic approaches, will be important additions t what will remain Australia’s most prevalent deepwater activity — commercial fisherie which will continue outside the marine reserve network and inside the network i multiple-use areas, collecting data from their fishing operations and additionally through cooperation with scientists, to routinely collect scientific information. I shallower waters it is likely that standardized citizen science will become increasingl valued. +3.12.2 New Zealand +The New Zealand’s EEZ is one of the largest in the world. Despite important exploratio efforts begun more than 200 years ago by James Cook followed by Louis Duperry an Dumont D’Urvillefor, Charles Darwin, the Challenger, and continued at present, much o this region remains unexplored biologically, especially at depths beyond 2,000 m. Th major oceanographic data repository is the National Institute of Water and Atmospheri Research (NIWA), which is also data manager and custodian for fisheries research dat owned by the Ministry of Fisheries. Museum collections in New Zealand hold more tha 800,000 registered lots representing several million specimens. During the past decade 220 taxonomic specialists (85 marine) from 18 countries engaged in the review of Ne Zealand’s entire biodiversity, which ended in a major three-volume publication (Gordon 2009). Current marine biodiversity in New Zealand surpasses the 17,000 species, and list of all described New Zealand marine Animalia is available through OBIS (Gordon e al., 2010). +Multiple surveys (2000-2008) have been commissioned by the Ministry of Agricultur and Forestry Biosecurity New Zealand (MAFBNZ) in ports to detect alien species whic have generated baseline information of species composition in these areas. At present marine research (including marine biodiversity assessments) has a_ significan momentum in New Zealand with funding from the Ministry of Fisheries, the Foundatio of Research, Science and Technology, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Biosecurity New Zealand, and the Universities Performance Based Research Fund. Th Ocean Survey 20/20 programme(administered by Land Information New Zealand), coul perhaps be noted as one of the most significant biodiversity assessments carrying ou biodiversity sampling and habitat mapping in the New Zealand EEZ and Ros Sea/Southern Ocean on a yearly basis. Large areas have been surveyed on the Chatha Rise, Challenger Plateau (down to about 1,200 m), the Ross Sea and Southern Ocea (down to about 3,500 m), and currently in a large area of the northeastern North Islan shelf out to 200 m. Data from many of these surveys is still being processed (Gordon e al., 2010). +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +3.13 Oceans around South America +The first studies of the South American coastal biota were carried out during a series o expeditions by European and North American researchers in the late 1700s and the firs half of the 1800s, with naturalists Alcyde d'Orbigny, Alexander Von Humboldt, Aim Bonpland, and Charles Darwin, among others. In the late 1800s, several other importan oceanographic expeditions, including the HMS Challenger, collected samples along th coasts of Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil. In the 1900s, th Deutsche Siidpolar Expeditions in 1901-03, the Swedish Lund University expedition t Chile in 1948-49, the Royal Society Expedition to Southern Chile, the Soviet Antarcti Expedition in 1955-58, and the Calypso campaigns in 1961-62 were among the mos significant European expeditions to South America. Other important campaigns durin the second half of the twentieth century which increased the knowledge of marin biodiversity and strengthened the local research capacities were carried out by the R/ Academik Knipovich (1967), the R/V Almirante Saldanha (1966), the R/V Atlantis II (1971), the R/V El Austral (1966-67), the R/V Vema (1962), and the R/V Walther Herwi (1966-71). At present, the oceanographic vessel Polarstern from the Alfred Wegene Institute (Germany) has been carrying out exploration voyages to the southern region of the continent and the Southern Ocean for more than 20 years. +In the northern latitudes of the continent, the Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP Biogeographic Region has a rich history of oceanographic and biological exploration dating back to the voyage of Charles Darwin to the Galapagos Islands aboard the HM Beagle in 1835 and the Eastern Pacific Expedition of the United States National Museu of Natural History in 1904 aboard the United States Fish Commission steamer Albatross A series of research cruises and expeditions organized by North American institutions i the first half of the twentieth century contributed greatly to the discovery an knowledge of the marine fauna and flora existing in the rich area between the low-tid mark and 200 m of depth in the Panama Bight, including Panama, Colombia, an Ecuador (e.g., the Saint George to Gorgona Island in 1927, the Allan Hancock cruise aboard the Velero III and IV vessels (1931-1941), the Askoy Expedition of the America Museum of Natural History in 1941). Taxonomic and ecological studies have bee carried out in the last three decades in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador mostly in the Gulf of Nicoya, the Bay of Panama, the Pearl Islands, the Bay o Buenaventura, Gorgona Island, and the Gulf of Guayaquil. +Important collections or libraries of regional marine fauna are maintained by the Lo Angeles County Museum, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at La Jolla, California the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, and the Smithsonian Tropica Research Institute (STRI) in Panama City. +In the Tropical Western Atlantic (TWA), the natural history of Guyana (formerly Britis Guiana) was described by early explorers Sir Walter Raleigh (circa 1600) and Charle Waterton (early 1800s), who reported his discoveries in the book “Waterton' Wanderings in South America”. In French Guiana, the first studies were carried out afte World War Il, for fish inventories and later, in the 1950s, on benthic (mostly shrimps) +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +and demersal continental shelf fauna, from 15 to 100 m depth. The Venezuelan Atlanti Front was until recently almost completely unexplored, and the little informatio available concerned commercially valuable species of fish and shrimp. +In the southern part of the continent, the local and regional academic community als had important historical representatives and in the 1900s, research on coasta biodiversity received a strong stimulus due to the immigration of many Europea scientists who contributed to knowledge and capacity-building mainly through thei involvement in local universities and natural science museums. Although a few researc institutions were established in the region early in the twentieth century, such as th Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) in Panama (1923), the most importan stimulus to regional, autochthonous marine science was given by the establishment o several marine research institutions, mostly in the 1950s and 1960s. These institution changed the way that marine science was done by incorporating time series of th environmental variables and their effect on biodiversity into the traditional taxonomi studies. +In the 1960s, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations began t develop projects giving an impetus to fisheries, especially in the southwest Pacific, a upwelling zone of extraordinary productivity that was responsible for 20 per cent of th world's fisheries by the end of that decade. In the 1980s and 1990s, centres for marin biodiversity research were created along the coasts of several countries, especiall Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. The natural history museums in South America have bee fundamental to preserving the regional marine biodiversity patrimony, both i collections and in the literature, and are considered to be taxonomically indispensable. +Some of the most relevant museums are the Museo de La Plata and the Muse Argentino de Ciencias Naturales (Argentina), the Museo de Historia Natural (Quint Normal) in Chile, the Museo Damaso Larrafiaga and the Museo de Historia Natural i Uruguay, and the Museo de Boa Vista (Brazil). Other important collections are held a research institutions such as the STRI in Panama, the Instituto del Mar del Per (IMARPE) in Peru, the Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (INVEMAR) i Colombia, and at universities. +Today, South America benefits greatly from regional cooperation. One example o cooperation was the Census of Marine Life that incorporated the region into several o its field projects (e.g., Shore Areas, Antarctic Life, Continental Margins, Marine Microbe (ICOMM), and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Ecosystem (MAR-ECO) projects), which al contributed greatly to increasing the knowledge of marine biodiversity in the region South America also has contributed nearly 300,000 records to OBIS from almost 7,00 species through its regional node. +© 2016 United Nation + +At present, some of the main marine biodiversity assessments carried out in the regio are: +(1) SARCE: South American Research Group in Coastal Ecosystems (regional); sinc 2010. Aimed to study biodiversity and ecosystem function in the intertidal zone o rocky shores: http://sarce.cbm.usb.ve/; +(2) Pampa Azul: South Atlantic (Argentina, approved in 2014). Aimed to carry ou research for conservation purposes along with technology development and outreach; +(3) SIMAC: Sistema Nacional de Monitoreo de Arrecifes Coralinos en Colombia; sinc 1998. Yearly sampling to monitor state of coral reefs. Taxa monitored include corals macroalgae, invertebrates, and fish; +(4) IMARPE (Instituto del Mar del Pert) and Universidad Nacional Mayor de Sa Marcos have initiated at least four projects characterizing marine biodiversity i several areas along the Peruvian coasts since 2009/2010 focused on benthic groups. +(5) The Colombian National Authority for Aquaculture and Fisheries (AUNAP) i conjunction with INVEMAR carry out scientific research programmes to evaluate th Colombian potential to take advantage of new marine fishery resources such as tuna, +dolphin fish, billfish, snappers, groupers and other fish of high commercial importance. +The objective of these programmes is to establish the current status of these resource in order to take management measures to promote the extraction of unconventiona resources and discourage fishing pressure on those resources that are over-exploited These studies provide not only information on highly important commercial species, bu also a characterization on the status of marine biodiversity in the exclusive economi zone of Colombia. +3.14 The Southern Ocean +Whilst the economic exploitation of Antarctica’s marine resources dates back to the 18 century, scientific research on its marine ecosystems only began in the mid-19" century The HMS Challenger, the Belgica and the Discovery Investigations were among the firs to undertake systematic sampling of the marine biology in the region. Taxonomi studies from these early expeditions provide the foundations of modern taxonomy i the Southern Ocean. Advances in technology, such as SCUBA diving, ice-capabl research vessels and underwater imagery from remotely operated vehicles, hav heralded a new era for marine ecological work in polar regions. Together with th recognition by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and some nationa agencies of the importance of fundamental taxonomy, the rate of discovery an description of new species in the Southern Ocean has increased significantly. +In the framework of the Census of Marine Life a Decade of Discovery, life in the world’ oceans has been investigated and questions about the known, the unknown and th unknowable have kept marine researchers busy. Many resources were made availabl for future research within the CoML community, but also for the public and policy- +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +makers. One of the flagship projects was the five-year Census of Antarctic Marine Lif (CAML), which investigated the distribution and abundance of Antarctica’s marin biodiversity, how it is affected by climate change, and how change will alter the natur of the ecosystem services currently provided by the Southern Ocean for the benefit o mankind. In this framework and within the International Polar Year 2007-2009, 1 research voyages were coordinated by CAML, involving more than 400 biologists fro over 30 nations. +The CAML community explored the unknown bathyal and abyssal Southern Ocean (SO and many shallow sites. Within the project about 16,000 SO taxa were identified an included in a database of Antarctic Marine Life; see the SCAR-Marine Biodiversit Information Network (www.scarmarbin.be). The CAML projects barcoded more tha 3,000 species, a SO Plankton Atlas was established, life underneath the collapsed Larse A and B ice shelves was studied and many scientists worked on the biodiversity biogeography and conservation of various marine taxa. +Moreover, more than 700 species new to science were discovered (Brandt et al., 2007 and new and unknown habitats were explored, e.g., the SO deep sea, and th Amundsen Sea. The lasting legacy of CAML is a benchmark, a system (or database) fo monitoring change in the SO. Another major legacy of the CAML project and the SCA Marine Biodiversity Network is the Biogeographic Atlas of the Southern Ocean (D Broyer and Koubbi, 2014) which compiles in more than 80 chapters an extensive revie of the state of knowledge of the distributional patterns of the major benthic and pelagi taxa and of the key communities in the SO within an ecological and evolutionar framework. The Atlas relies on vastly improved datasets, and on insights provided b innovative molecular and phylogeographic approaches, and new methods of analysis visualisation, modelling and prediction of biogeographic distributions. A dynamic onlin version of the Biogeographic Atlas will be hosted on www.biodiversity.aq. +The development of molecular techniques is a technical advance which promises t revolutionize work on the diversity and biogeography of Antarctic marine biota. CAM supported these efforts through its DNA Barcoding program. This technology is rapidl evolving and becoming ever more sophisticated. In particular such work is starting t uncover a wealth of cryptic species within what were once regarded as single, widel distributed species. Not only does this work increase the known species richness of th SO, but it also changes biogeographic patterns (typically reducing the range size o depth range) and hence affects our interpretation of the evolutionary history of th fauna. Along with these techniques, recent advances in satellite and aerial imagery wil also become important for mapping and visualization and will help improve knowledg of marine ecosystems in the Southern Ocean. The Commission for the Conservation o Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is regarded as a model for regiona cooperation and maintains scientific research programmes (including ecosyste monitoring) to address risks to commercially exploited fish stocks in the SO using a ecosystem-based approach. +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Despite the recent outstanding progress, some problems, gaps in knowledge an questions remained unaddressed (Griffiths et al., 2011). Besides obvious geographic an sampling gaps which still exist in the SO (East Antarctic, the Amundsen an Bellingshausen Seas and the SO deep sea, Figure 5), the extent of our knowledge of the +biology, distribution, zoogeography, and evolution of Antarctic species is size-dependent. +The smaller the species are (nano-, meiobenthos, <1mm), the less is known about them This also includes a lack of information on species’ life histories and their diets, as ou knowledge of the SO food web is mainly based on the diets of large pelagic predators. I is largely unknown what bottom dwellers feed on. This might be due to the fact tha scientific effort and sampling of the benthos has predominantly concentrated on th continental shelves. Besides this bias in sampling depths, additional knowledge gaps ar due to bias in the sampling gear used, with different gear considered as being eithe quantitative or qualitative (corers vs. trawled gear). Different working groups an expeditions have used different mesh sizes (not all scientists use fine mesh-sized gea and sieves), protocols and fixation methods. +In many marine areas (especially in the deep sea) more than 50 per cent of all specie are rare and occur in samples as singletons. The fact that species occurrences ar unevenly distributed — depending on their evolution and the availability of food source — makes it difficult to understand the phenomena of patchiness and/or rarity. Very littl is known at the community level about the potential effects of ongoing environmenta change in the region. Although some shallow-water species have been physiologicall investigated (and physiological adaptations are known for certain single species) community-scale effects of stressors, such as temperature rise, ocean acidification increased frequency of iceberg scouring, etc., are very little known completely unknow (See Appendix 1-Southern Ocean for a summary of assessments). +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +HB 10001 - 1500 H-15001 - 20000 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 5. The total number of all marine sample sites and species found within each cell of a 3° of latitud by 3° of longitude grid, from distribution records in SCAR-MarBIN. The red line indicates the mea position of the Antarctic Polar Front, which defines the maximum northern extent of this study. A Sample sites. B. Species richness (total number of all marine species recorded in that cell). Taken fro Griffiths, 2010. +4. Status of Knowledge of Marine Biodiversity: A Synthesis United the Ocea Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) +4.1 Taxonomic completeness +Appeltans et al. (2012) estimated at about 226,000 the number of eukaryotic marin species described. More importantly, these authors report that more species wer described in the past decade (about 20,000) than in any previous one and that th number of authors describing new species has been increasing at a faster rate than th number of new species described in the past six decades, demonstrating that progres has been made globally. Despite this, between one-third and two-thirds of marin species may be undescribed, representing a major gap. Costello et al. (2010), based o the regional reviews of the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity compile worldwide by the Census of Marine Life, provided a global perspective on what is know and what the major scientific gaps are. They concluded that although there have bee significant surveys and research efforts over the years, many habitats had been poorl sampled, especially in the deep sea, and several species-rich taxonomic groups especially of smaller organisms, were still poorly studied. The best-known groups, whic together comprise more than 50 per cent of total known biodiversity across regions, are +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +crustaceans, molluscs, and fishes. However, knowledge of marine biodiversity is not onl related to surveys but also to the availability of local and regional taxonomic expertise and to commercial value (e.g. fish and crustaceans). Here we examine the current globa availability of biogeographic knowledge across all major marine taxa, using OBIS (OBIS IOC of UNESCO, 2014) data. +Overall, the figure includes data for 228,935 accepted marine species across al taxonomic kingdoms (Figure 6). Forty per cent (90,921) of these species, including a least one representative from each major taxonomic group, contribute to the total o 28,369,304 OBIS distribution records. This figure shows that very few groups have mor than 50 per cent of their species represented in OBIS (mammals, birds, bony fish, shark and rays, and other fishes among the vertebrates and echinoderms, cephalopods, coral and anemones among the invertebrates). For example, over 80 per cent (13.7K) of th 16.7K known species of bony fish have a record in OBIS; on average these 13.7K specie are known from between 10 and 100 distribution records (median = 25). The maximu number of records in OBIS is 849,179 and corresponds to the Atlantic cod Gadhu morhua. The typical species occurring in OBIS has just 6 distribution records, and 20 pe cent of them (18,181 species) are represented by only a single record. Nonetheless, 2 of the 30 groups considered here include at least one species with >1,000 distributio records, with 17 and 7 groups, respectively, including species with >10,000 an >100,000 records. +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Mammal Bird Reptile Bony fis Sharks & Ray Other fis Other chordate Echinoderm Crabs, lobsters, shrimp etc Other crustacean Cephalopod Gastropod Bivalve Other mollusc Brittle worm Flat worm Corals, anenomes etc Other cnidarian Comb jellie Sponge Other invertebrate Fung Seagrasse Mangrove Other plant Green alga Red alga Brown alga Protozoans +Bacteria & Archaea +0 O05 1/10° 10° 107 10% 10% 10° 10° +Prspecies in OBIS Nosis +Figure 6. Summary of the current global availability of biogeographic knowledge across all major marin taxa, using Ocean Biogeographic Information System data. The left-hand panel shows, for each taxonomi group, the proportion of all known species within that group which have at least one distribution record i OBIS (P species in OBIS), with the solid vertical line indicating data available for 50 per cent of species. Th thickness of each bar is scaled to the number of described species in each group, according to the Worl Register of Marine Species (WoRMS; WoRMS Editorial Board, 2014). The right-hand panel shows for eac group the number of records across all species occurring in OBIS (N OBIS). The solid bar is the median, th coloured box shows the interquartile range, and the lines extend to the minimum and maximum numbe of records for each group. Colours indicate: red (vertebrates), blue (invertebrates), orange (fungi), gree (plant and algae), purple (protozoans), yellow (bacteria and archaea). +© 2016 United Nation + +A. Specie ‘South Pacific Southem Ocean North Pacific: +‘Arctic Ocean — indian Ocean North Atlantic =~ South Allantic +Ocean +‘South Pacific Southern +North Pacific +‘South Atlantic: +North Atlantic +Ocean +‘Arctic Ocean — Indian | +Protozoa 49? | +ing ae B. Sampl ‘South Pactic Southem +‘indian Ocean North Alfantic South Alfantic North Pacific +Arctic Ocean: +‘Southern Ocean +‘South Pacific +North Pacific +‘South Atantic +‘North Atiantic, +Indian Ocean +‘Arctic Ocean + +Coastal & continental shelf ‘Open oceanideep sea +Figure 7 provides a visual representation of our knowledge measured as number of observations fo species (7A), sampling (7B), and records (7C) for the different taxonomic groups comparing coastal an continental shelf environments versus open ocean and deep sea waters for the seven ocean basins. I general, it is clear from Figure 7A that fishes, along with crustaceans and molluscs, are the most divers groups in all ocean basins. Figures 7B and C show that the North Atlantic is the best-known ocean basi for all groups. (www.iobis.org). These figures also demonstrate that, for each of the ocean basins knowledge is significantly higher in the coastal and continental shelf environments in comparison to th open ocean and deep sea environments which reflects the same situation exposed by Costello et al (2010), four years later despite important efforts in advancing deep sea research. To analyse geographi completeness, we show an estimate of the number of species using the Chao index for the different sea within the seven ocean basins using the OBIS database. It is evident from this graph that the best sample areas have been in the northern hemisphere, and that the southern hemisphere, with the exception o the Southern Ocean, has been poorly sampled (Figure 8). +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Chand redex per 1000km2 +Fes a fo ber -——— } je h b n b r n be het La 4 1 hot j my i m = m Hi = al fot i+ " 4 ast ‘ ‘ ft " 4 + + - be Rat : I * be h - o 4- ceira I = ea b - f be +Figure 8. Estimate of the number of species, using the Chao index, for the different seas within the seve ocean basins using the OBIS database (www. iobis.org). +Final remarks +© 2016 United Nations +5 + +Marine biodiversity assessments are very variable among taxonomic groups and among +ecosystems. Best assessed are groups such as fish, sea mammals, sea birds, turtles, an plankton, and ecosystems such as coral reefs. However, assessments are mostly limite in time, as very few have long term series data (as, for example, the CPR -Continuou Plankton Recorder has), and are limited by geographic range and taxonomi representation. Regarding taxonomic representation, for example, among fish effort are mostly focused on commercial species (stock assessments) and top predators. +Among large vertebrates, efforts are focused on “iconic” and/or under-threat larg species such as whales and turtles. Regarding geographic range, there is a considerabl amount of information on coastal shelves and slopes along developed nations (e.g Europe, United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, South Africa), however, even in thes regions, knowledge is patchy in time (very few sustained long term efforts) and spac (concentrated in particular areas of those coasts). The Arctic and Southern Ocean hav received considerable attention (again the “charismatic” reason), but due to habita complexity and logistical challenges, knowledge is fragmented, with some areas ver poorly known. A generalized problem common to developed and developing countries is that there is much unpublished data (at least not available through open acces databases). +In addition, the ecosystem-approach type of assessment leading to an integrate management strategy is very recent, and still not widely used. Coral reefs may be th pioneer ecosystems in which this approach has been used, as monitoring programme measure live cover, abundance and biomass in addition to biodiversity. This approach i also extending to other shallow water communities such as rocky shores through th integration of data and the creation of international networks. In the deep sea seamounts seem to be the best assessed ecosystems, again maybe due to thei potential economic value for fisheries or other extractive harvests such as minerals, a well as their potential to support significant biodiversity. This creates the urge t understand what they have in terms of living resources so that they can be manage properly before serious exploitation begins. On geologically active ecosystems such a vents and seeps, no assessments have been carried out, and information about these i very recent, very patchy, and very scarce. +We continue to stress the importance of taxonomy, systematics, and studies o biodiversity to advance our knowledge of ecology, ecosystem-based management, an understanding/valuation of ecosystem services. These are especially needed wit increasing extinction rates, continued anthropogenic pressures on biodiversity, and th consequences of human-induced climate change. In this sense, biogeographi information is of fundamental importance for discovering marine biodiversity hotspots detecting and understanding impacts of environmental changes, predicting futur distributions, monitoring biodiversity, or supporting conservation and sustainabl management strategies. The major challenges and needs for obtaining a mor comprehensive overview of global marine biodiversity are the need to: (1) invest i taxonomy and capacity-building; (2) standardize methodologies to ensure proper +© 2016 United Nations +5 + +comparisons; (3) increase sampling effort, exploring new habitats, and identifying an mapping biodiversity hotspots; (4) make historical and new data increasingly mor accessible through open access data portals such as OBIS; (5) quantify ecosyste services and the impact of loss of biodiversity on these goods and services in differen marine habitats and ecosystems across regions, and analyze how cumulative an synergistic anthropogenic impacts may affect these services; and (6) continue t enhance the importance of biodiversity in marine management policy decisions. +References +Abercrombie, D.L., Clarke, S.C., and Shivji, M.S. (2005). 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Accessed 2014-05-06. +© 2016 United Nations +5 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_35.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_35.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36A.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36A.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..64b04d7ada4cde9b3ab8d7f1aea8df7c68faea63 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36A.txt @@ -0,0 +1,970 @@ +Chapter 36A. North Atlantic Ocean +Writing team: Jake Rice (Convenor and Co-Lead member), Christos Arvanitidis, Laur Boicenco, Panagiotis Kasapidis, Robin Mahon, Thomas Malone, William Montevecchi Marta Coll Monton, Fabio Moretzsohn, Patrick Ouellet, Hazel Oxenford, Tim Smith, Joh Wes Tunnell, Jan Vanaverbeke, Saskia Van Gaever (Co-Lead member) +1. Introduction +The North Atlantic is characterized by relatively wide continental shelves, particularly i its northerly portions, with steep slopes to the abyssal plain’. The width of the shel decreases towards the south, with typical boundary current systems, characterized b strong seasonal upwelling, off the Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa. Two chain of volcanic islands, the Azores and the Canaries, are located in the east central Nort Atlantic, and a large number of islands of volcanic origin, many with associated war water coral reefs, are found in the southwest portion of the North Atlantic. In the fa north of the region is the world’s largest island, Greenland, primarily of Precambria origin, whereas Iceland and the Faroe Islands are of more recent volcanic origin. All hav rugged coastlines with rich faunas. +The biota of the North Atlantic is strongly influenced by both the warm Gulf Strea flowing north-eastward from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean to northwes Europe, and the cold, fresh Labrador Current flowing south from the Canadia Archipelago and Greenland to the northeast coast of the United States. Majo oceanographic and associated biotic regime shifts have been documented in the Nort Atlantic, but not with the frequency or scale of the North Pacific. +Around the coasts of the North Atlantic are a number of semi-enclosed seas. These sea have distinct oceanographic and bathymetric regimes, and ecosystems with man characteristics determined by local-scale processes and pressures. Hence each of thes semi-enclosed seas, including the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea (and simila coastal estuaries of the United States), the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico receive some individual consideration in this assessment. Within the North Atlantic there are several habitat types of special importance for biodiversity, such as seagras beds and cold- and warm-water corals. Since these are important where they are foun on the globe, they are treated in an integrated manner, respectively, in chapters 47, 42 43, rather than separately. +Coastal areas of the Northeast Atlantic have been settled in and used for severa millennia. Commercial fisheries, both coastal and, as technology developed, offshore have exploited fish and shellfish resources for centuries as well (Garcia et al., 2014), with +* Biodiversity of the abyssal plain and mid-Atlantic Ridge that divides the eastern and western Atlantic i dealt with in Chapter 36F © 2016 United Nation + +periods of widespread overfishing in the twentieth century. Industrialization develope first in northwest Europe and eastern North America, and land-based pollution an coastal infrastructure have been significant pressures on coastal biodiversity of th North Atlantic for nearly two centuries. Large urban centres developed on the coasts o the North Atlantic at the time of industrialization, and below the boreal latitudes mos of the North Atlantic coastal areas have been altered by various combinations of urba or municipal development, industry, agriculture, and tourism. Although some tens o kilometres of coasts and a few hundreds of square kilometres of coastal seabed are no protected in various ways, almost all biotic communities have been altered by centurie of pressures from human uses. +2. Coastal and Shelf Holoplankton +2.1 Status 2.1.1 Phytoplankton +Diatoms and dinoflagellates account for most phytoplankton species (> 2 um) in coasta and shelf waters of the North Atlantic (Tables 36A.1 and 36.2), with diatom bloom typically peaking during spring and dinoflagellate blooms during summer (cf. McQuatters-Gollop et al., 2007). The ubiquitous prokaryotic species Synechoccocus spp (< 2 tum) also peaks in abundance (> 10’ cells liter”) during summer (cf., Wang et al. 2011). On a decadal time scale (1960-2009), dinoflagellate species richness ha increased while abundance has decreased relative to diatoms in the North-East Nort Atlantic and North Sea, a trend that has been attributed to the combined effect o increases in sea surface temperature (SST) and wind shear during the summer (Hinde et al., 2012). +2.1.2 Mesozooplankton (200 - 2000 um) +Calanoid copepods dominate the holoplankton in coastal and shelf waters throughou the North Atalntic (Table 36A.3). Many of these species are cosmopolitan, e.g., > 60 pe cent of the species described from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico are also foun in the North-East Atlantic (Park, 1970). A decadal scale (1958 — 2005) progressiv increase in the abundance of warm-temperate calanoid species (e.g., Calanu helgolandicus, Centropages typicus) and a decline of cold-temperate calanoid specie (e.g., Calanus finmarchicus, Euchaeta norvegica) has been documented in the North East North Atlantic (Beaugrand et al., 2002, 2009; Chust et al., 2014). Coincident with +2 Sampling for species identification employs different techniques (e.g., water samples, net samples continuous plankton recorder) and, therefore, are not comparable from region to region in terms o species richness. +3 Note that the lists of abundant taxa in Tables 36A.1 and 36A.2 are not meant to be comprehensive. Fo example, a phytoplankton check list for the Baltic Sea describes over 1,500 species (Hallfors, 2004). +© 2016 United Nation + +this trend, the mean size of copepods decreased as their species diversity increased an SST increased (Beaugrand et al., 2010). +2.2 Long-Term (multi-decadal) Trends and Pressures in Holoplankto 2.2.1 Regime Shifts: Overfishing and Climate Change +The primary pressures responsible for regime shifts in shelf ecosystems are overfishin and climate-driven changes (hydro-climate pressures including Arctic ice melting, ocea warming, and mode variability) in the marine environment (Steele, 2004; Edwards et al. 2006; Kane, 2011). Synchronous, system-wide regime shifts in plankton communitie were initiated during the late 1980s and early 1990s in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, Scotia Shelf and Gulf of Maine (Reid et al., 2001; Edwards et al., 2002; Alheit et al., 2005 Record et al., 2010; Kane, 2011; Mdllmann, 2011). In each case, synergies betwee trophic cascades triggered by overfishing and changes in hydro-climate were th primary pressures with overfishing reducing resiliency and hydro-climate forcin initiating the regime shift (Drinkwater, 2005; Beaugrand et al., 2008; Fogarty et al. 2008; Hilborn and Litzinger, 2009; Mdllmann, 2011). +Gulf of Maine — During 1961-2008, the annual cycle of species richness an abundance was characterized by a seasonal peak during spring when diatom dominated (Kane, 2011). The most abundant taxa were Thalassiosira spp. Rhizosolenia hebetate, Phaeoceros spp., Thalassiothrix longissima, an Thalassionema nitzschioides. On a decadal time scale, Kane (2011) documente three consecutive multi-year periods of varying species richness and abundance below average (1961 — 1989), above average (1990 — 2001), and average (2002 2008). Decadal changes were more pronounced for diatoms than dinoflagellate (Médllmann, 2011), and the most striking feature in the time-series was th persistent positive anomaly of the 1990s. +Zooplankton species richness and abundance also increased sharply during th 1990s as the abundance of smaller copepod species increased and larger specie declined (Pershing et al., 2005; Kane, 2007; Record et al., 2010). Increases i zooplankton and phytoplankton stocks were also reported during this period ove the Newfoundland and Scotian shelves as Arctic species originating from the Gulf o St. Lawrence and the Labrador Current (e.g., Calanus glacialis, Calanus hyperboreus became more abundant and warmer water species (e.g., Calanus finmarchicus Centropages typicus, Metridia lucenss, Temora stylifera) became less abundan (Head and Sameoto, 2007; Mdllmann, 2011). This inter-decadal zooplankto biodiversity signal was significantly correlated with phytoplankton biomass (Recor et al., 2010). +North Sea — As indicated by rapid changes in plankton biomass and species diversity, +a regime shift was initiated between 1983 and 1988, apparently as a consequence of +increases in SST, a positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and +increases in advection from the North-East North Atlantic (Beaugrand, 2004 © 2016 United Nation + +McQuatters-Gollop et al., 2007). Mean phytoplankton chlorophyll levels peaked i 1989 (Reid et al., 1998), and the new regime (1990 - 2003) maintained 13 per cen and 21 per cent higher chlorophyll concentrations in open and coastal waters respectively (McQuatters-Gollop et al., 2007). The regime shift was also marked b increases in the abundance and diversity of dinoflagellates relative to diatoms decreases in the abundance of Ceratium spp. (e.g., C. furca, C. fusus, C. horridum, C tripos, C. lineatum), increases in diversity and abundance of warm water calanoi copepod species (e.g., Rhincalanus nasutus, Eucalanus crassus, Centropages typicus Candacia armata, Calanus helgolandicus), decreases in cold water species (e.g. Heterorhabdus norvegicus, Euchaeta norvegica, Calanus finmarchicus), and increase in the frequency of jellyfish outbreaks (most notably the hydrozoan Aglanth digitale and the scyphozoan Pelagia noctiluca) (Attrill et al., 2007; Beaugrand et al. 2009, 2010; Edwards et al., 2009; Richardson et al., 2009; Licandro et al., 2010). +2.1.2 Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms: Invasions, Eutrophication and Climate Change +The frequency of toxic phytoplankton blooms has increased over the last three decade in coastal waters of both the western and eastern North Atlantic (Anderson et al., 2012) Toxic taxa include dinoflagellates (Alexandrium spp., Gymnodinium catenatum, Kareni mikimotoi, Karenia brevis, Dinophysis spp., Protoperidinium crassipes, Prorocentru spp.), diatoms (Pseudo-nitzschia spp.), and microflagellates (Chrysochromulina polylepis Chattonella spp., Fabrocapsa japonica).* Increases in toxic events associated with thes species have been attributed to more frequent and comprehensive observations, th dispersal of invasive toxic species via the ballast water of ships, coastal eutrophication and climate change (Skjodal and Dundas, 1991; Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Belgrano e al., 1999; Anderson et al., 2002; Sellner et al., 2003; Glibert et al., 2005; Dale et al. 2006; Edwards et al., 2006; Moore et al., 2008; Fu et al., 2012). The risk of harmfu phytoplankton blooms in the future has increased due to synergy between climate driven changes and anthropogenic nutrient inputs (Hallegraeff, 2010). +2.1.3 Invasive Species: Ballast Water, Aquaculture and Climate Change +Large numbers of non-indigenous species have been introduced to coastal marine an estuarine ecosystems, largely due to transoceanic shipping (ballast water) an aquaculture (cf., Reise et al., 1999; Gollasch et al., 2009). Many of these species becom invasive. Four ecologically significant invasions have been unequivocally documente (Birnbaum, 2006; Javidpour et al., 2006; Reid et al., 2007; Riisgard, 2007). The nuisanc diatom (produces mucilage), Coscinodiscus wailesii, was introduced in the 1970s. Th increase in abundance and geographic expansion of this species from the Englis Channel into the North Sea over the last three decades is a prototypical example of planktonic species invasion. Likewise, by the 1990s the cladoceron Cercopagis pengo and comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi, both voracious planktivores with the potential t disrupt trophic dynamics, had spread from the Gulf of Riga into the Baltic Sea and Gulf +* http:www.marbef.org/wiki/OSPAR_eutrophication_assessment http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/species/by-syndrom © 2016 United Nation + +of Finland. These species appear to have been introduced via ballast water. The Pacifi diatom Neodenticula seminae was transported into the Labrador Sea via the Canadia Arctic Archipelago in the late 1990s. It has since spread south to Georges Bank an further east, south of Iceland. The geographic expansion of this species portends o more trans-Arctic invasions from the Pacific Ocean as climate-driven Arctic ice mel continues. +2.1.4 Jellyfish: Overfishing, Eutrophication and Climate Change +Jellyfish blooms have increased in frequency in the northeast North Atlantic since 2002 e.g., Pelagia noctiluca, Aglantha digitale, and Physalia physalis outbreaks in the North East North Atlantic (Attrill et al., 2007; Doyle et al., 2007; Richardson et al., 2009 Licandro et al., 2010), and mounting evidence suggests that these outbreaks may lead t trophic shifts from fish to jellyfish and other gelatinous zooplankton as the dominan consumers (Richardson et al., 2009). Primary pressures leading to a more gelatinou state include overfishing (Lynam et al., 2006; Bakun and Weeks, 2006; Roux et al., 2013) coastal eutrophication and hypoxia (Purcell et al., 2001; Condon et al., 2001), an climate-driven ocean warming and mode variability, e.g., the NAO (Purcell et al., 2001 Atrill et al., 2007; Gibbons and Richardson, 2008; Doyle et al., 2007), although decline i predation by sea turtles has also been implicated as a factor in the outbreaks. +2.1.5 Calcifying Plankton: Climate Change +A multi-decadal time series (1960-2009) for the North-East North Atlantic region show that changes in the abundance and distribution of foraminifera (Globerigina spp.) coccolithophores (Emiliania huxleyi), pteropods (Clione limacine, Limacina helicina) non-pteropod molluscs and echinoderm larvae were positively correlated with decada changes in annual SST and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and negativel correlated with pH, i.e., abundance increased as pH decreased (Beaugrand et al., 2013) Beare et al. (2013) found no statistical relationship between the abundance of calcifyin plankton in the North Sea and pH, although Globerigina spp, Emiliania huxleyi an echinoderm larvae increased during the period, and pteropods and bivalve larva decreased. Thus, although acidification may become a serious threat to calcifyin plankton, observations to date suggest that the primary driver of calcifying plankto abundance has been ocean warming. +3. Benthos +Most studies dealing with “benthos” in the North Atlantic focussed on macrobentho (i.e., metazoan animals living in the seafloor and retained on a sieve of 500-1000 um) Studies on meiobenthos are more scattered, and often targeted towards the dominan meiobenthic taxon: the nematodes. +Much of the available information has been compiled at the beginning of this century, i the framework of large-scale projects including the Census of Marine Life (CoML, 2000- +© 2016 United Nation + +2010), and the European Network of Excellence MarBEF (2004-2009). MarBEF wa highly successful in compiling data on coastal benthos of the North-East Atlantic, an CoML captured many data of the deeper parts of the Atlantic in general. +3.1 Coastal Benthos +Within MarBEF, a large database (MacroBen), consisting of more than 460,00 distribution records on the distribution of 7,203 taxa from almost 23,000 stations wa compiled (Gage et al., 2004; Vanden Berghe et al., 2009). Data were collected betwee 1972-2005 in the North-East Atlantic and adjacent semi-enclosed seas (North Sea, Balti Sea, Mediterranean Sea) in a depth range of 0-450 m. Highest sampling density was i the North Sea and North-East Atlantic. As the analysis of this entire database reduce the potential problem of a disproportionally large effect of site-specific features o large-scale patterns (Renaud et al., 2009), and as the analyses of this database took int account methodological issues related to sampling and treatment of samples, th findings from these analyses are taken to reflect the general trends in macrobenthi communities in the North Atlantic. A first macro-ecological analysis showed that mos macrobenthic communities follow the same right-skewed frequency distribution know from terrestrial ecosystems, revealing that most species are rare, and only few specie have a wide distribution (Webb et al., 2009). Except for polychaetes, macrofauna communities on a geographical scale of tens of km? or less are not random subsets of species list at a wider geographical scale: species belonging to the same communit tend to be more closely related to each other than would be expected whe communities were randomly assembled from a regional species pool (Somerfield et al 2009). Hence, community composition for most taxa is determined by regiona processes, whereas random assembly, followed by local environmental and ecologica processes, is more important for polychaete communities. +After removal of the confounding effect of depth, sampling effort and the low diversit in the Baltic, Renaud et al. (2009) demonstrated a modest increase in diversity wit increased latitude. Much stronger effects were observed for the diversity-dept gradient where a unimodal trend with water depth (within the 0-450 m depth range was observed: species richness peaked at 100-150 m depth, and maximum values fo the expected number of species in a sample with 50 individuals (ES (50)) were observe at 200-350 m (Escaravage et al., 2009). Diversity was negatively related to the fractio of primary production reaching the seafloor, corresponding with the decreasing part o the unimodal productivity-diversity curve (Escaravage et al., 2009). +3.2 Offshore Benthos +General patterns on the offshore benthos from the eastern and western part of th North Atlantic, here defined as the macrobenthos from continental slopes and the dee sea, have been investigated in relation to both latitudinal and depth-related patterns However, data are scarce in comparison with the more shallow areas, and trends have +© 2016 United Nation + +been deduced from a limited number of studies, focusing on a limited number of taxa A poleward decrease in diversity was observed for deep-water molluscs and crustacean (Rex et al., 1993) and cumaceans (Gage et al., 2004). Trends for the cumaceans wer stronger in the eastern part of the basin. Data seem to be too scarce at the moment t make statements about the mechanisms behind the patterns (Narayanaswamy et al. 2010). Trends in the relationship between diversity and depth differ between sites fo the same taxon: bivalve diversity (measured as ES (50)) is a significant unimoda function of depth, with diversity peaking at mid-bathyal depths in the western part o the North Atlantic, whereas the diversity-depth relationship can be described as significant, linear function of depth (Brault et al., 2013) in the eastern part. The absenc of the unimodal relationship between depth and diversity has been described for othe taxa in other areas as well (Narayanaswamy et al., 2010). However, “depth” itself is no the explanatory variable, as it covaries with a variety of environmental characteristic and not always in the same manner (Narayanaswamy et al., 2010). Strong difference exist in the flux of organic carbon to the seafloor between the eastern and the wester part of the Atlantic at depths > 3800m, where the flux of organic carbon is 56 per cen higher in the eastern basin, which is probably reflected in the macrofaunal densities an the feeding mode composition of bivalves (Brault et al., 2013). Although the flux o organic matter is indeed important, processes regulating diversity at local, regional an global scales in the deep sea are multivariate, and smaller-scale processes ar hierarchically embedded in larger-scale processes and tend to occur at faster rate (Levin et al., 2001). Processes at the local scale involve biological interaction (competition, facilitation, and predation), patch type characteristics (biogeni structures, nutrient concentrations, topography) and disturbance and recruitment. All o these are hierarchically embedded in environmental gradients at the regional scale dispersal, metapopulation dynamics and gradients in habitat heterogeneity. Processe at the global scale include, amongst others, speciation/extinction, large-scal disturbances and large-scale environmental gradients. +Apart from patterns in diversity, the relationship between biomass and depth receive considerable attention as well. The decrease in total biomass with increasing depth ha been observed at both sites of the Atlantic Ocean (i.e., Heip et al., 2001; Rex et al. 2006), and is explained by a decreased flux of organic matter when depth increase (Johnson et al., 2007). A global-scale analysis (Wei et al., 2010) showed that thi decrease in total biomass is related to a decrease in individual size of the organisms. +3.3 Dominant Pressures +Many human activities have been documented to have impacts on benthic communitie (Rice et al., 2010). Effects of mobile bottom-contacting fishing gear on coastal and shel benthic communities have been documented essentially everywhere that such gear ha been used. However, the nature of those impacts and their duration have been show in many reviews to depend on the type of substrate and frequency of trawling (Collie e al., 1997; FAO, 2009; Hiddink et al., 2006; Kenchington et al., 2007; National Research +© 2016 United Nation + +Council, 2001), with the longest-lasting impacts on hard-bodied biogenic structures such as corals and glass sponges (see chapters 42 and 43). Recovery of benthi communities following cessation of bottom trawling has also been documented i several studies (Grizzle et al., 2009; Kaiser et al., 2006). Similar effects have bee documented for other physical disturbances, such as aggregate extraction (Barrio Froja et al., 2011), with moderate recovery rates from local extraction events (Boyd et al. 2005), although such disturbances are usually concentrated in coastal areas (ICES 2009). +Coastal benthic communities are also documented to be affected by pollution fro land-based and coastal sources (see Chapter 20), such as nutrient runoff from the land and shoreline alteration for human recreation and infrastucture. These impacts ar nearly universal where pollution and nutrient inputs occur, and where coastlines ar urbanized or adapted for tourism. However, their nature depends on the type, intensity and duration of the pollution or nutrient input and extent of alteration, althoug persistent pressures of this type can greatly alter the species composition and biomas of benthos directly and infirectly through processes such as hypoxia (Borja et al., 2008 Gagné et al., 2006; HELCOM, 2009a; Middelburg and Levin, 2009). These effects can b specific enough that benthic community composition and/or productivity is often use as an indicator of ecosystem stress from pollutants or nutrient inputs (Borja et al., 2009 Quintaneiro et al., 2006; Solimini et al., 2006). +Climate change, including multi-year climate variability, is another major and growin pressure on the benthos. Not only are there effects of coastal warming, but th dependency of deep-sea benthos on the export of organic matter from the ocea surface seems to be at the basis of possible large-scale changes in biomass distributio under future climate scenarios (Jones et al., 2013). Surface ocean warming can result i increased stratification and a less efficient nutrient supply for primary production leading to a projected decrease in upper ocean biomass (Joos et al., 1999; Steinacher e al., 2010), and a subsequent decrease in organic matter flux to the open ocean seafloo communities (McClain et al., 2012). Jones et al. (2012) modelled particulate organi carbon (POC) fluxes to the seafloor and the resulting macrofaunal biomass distributio under future climate scenarios (RCP 8.5 and RCP 4.5). Under the more severe RCP 8. scenario, global macrofaunal biomass is predicted to decrease by 3.771 per cent as result of decreased organic matter fluxes. Both the greatest negative (-49.7 per cent and positive (+36.79 per cent) change are predicted for the North Atlantic, with positiv changes mainly located on the western side and major negative changes to the east These shifts can result in range changes of species and facilitate colonization by invasiv species in certain areas (Thatje, 2005). The reduction in total biomass of macrofauna wil coincide with a size-shift toward smaller organisms (Jones et al., 2012, 2013), which ha important biological consequences, including increasing respiration rates and reductio in overall biomass production efficiency (Brown et al., 2004; McClain et al., 2012; Smit et al., 2008) and a reduced energy transfer to higher trophic levels (Brown et al., 2004) Ocean acidification is an increasing threat to coastal marine benthos. Species havin calcareous exoskeletons may have particularly high vulnerability to acidification, but it +© 2016 United Nation + +has been found to affect many species of benthos (Andersson et al., 2011). It can b concluded that climate change, through its effect on primary production, is likely t have an important impact on the deep-water benthos, as well as coastal and shel benthic communities. +4. Fish Communities +Much has been written about the status, trends and drivers of North Atlantic fis communities. These fish communities have been exploited for centuries, and hav experienced additional pressures from coastal development, land-based inputs to th seas, and climate variation and change. Much effort has been devoted to teasing apar the influences of exploitation and environmental conditions as drivers of change in fis populations and communities, but definitive answers are elusive. Although long time series of survey data and commercial catches exist, most effort has gone into assessin the status of commercially exploited populations. +Studies of fish biodiversity in the wider sense are much less numerous, and usuall restricted to portions of the North Atlantic only. Thus general patterns have to b assembled from multiple studies, with many differences among them. Consolidatin results of multiple studies as a basis for inferences on status, trends and pressures o fish communities has risks, because of the need to account for differences in th catchability of various species (Fraser et al., 2008), the underrepresentation of smalle fish in surveys (Cook and Bundy, 2012), the large sampling effort needed to documen fish diversity (Greenstreet and Piet, 2008), and the dependence of inferred patterns o community change on the spatial scale of the analyses (Gaertner et al., 2007). Henc there will be many exceptions to generalizations and many gaps in knowledge. Som species groups, such as tuna and other large pelagics, and elasmobranchs, ar addressed in separate chapters of this Assessment, and should be reviewed there Likewise the parts of this Chapter on the several semi-enclosed seas have informatio on fish communities at those scales, and should also be consulted. The rest of thi section looks at general patterns of near-coastal and shelf fish communities mor generally. +4.1 Coastal Fish Communities +The need to piece together emergent messages from numerous separate studies i particularly true for near-coastal fish communities, where time series are usually muc shorter and of localized spatial coverage. Most studies devote more attention t explaining variation among coastal fish community properties relative to features of th physical and chemical habitats, including temperature, salinity, oxygen and nutrien levels, clarity of and pollutants in the water column, and to depth, sediment types benthic communities, contaminant levels, oxygen levels, and disturbance regimes of the +© 2016 United Nation + +seafloor. All of these factors have been shown to influence fish community compositio and structure in at least some coastal areas around the North Atlantic. +A few generalizations can be drawn from the diversity of results, but many are commo sense. Studies have documented that when any of a large number of environmenta factors are altered substantially from values historically characteristic of a coastal area fish communities are highly likely to be altered as well. Large effects have bee documented for factors like oxygen depletion (Oguz and Gilbert, 2007; Stramma et al. 2010), eutrophication (Buchheister et al., 2013; Olsen et al., 2012), sedimentatio (Franca et al., 2012; Jordan et al., 2010; Kopp et al., 2013), and contaminants (Bergek e al., 2012; McKinley et al., 2011; Pato et al., 2008). Emergent macroalgae are a important determinant of coastal fish community diversity and fish abundance, an correspondingly many studies have documented that altering aquatic vegetation ca have large effects on fish community status (Pihl et al., 2007; Waycott et al., 2009; Yor et al., 2012). +However, effects are often situation-specific, and multiple factors interact. Fo example, coastal flow regimes can dominate over nutrient loading, possibly throug ensuring reoxygenation of water and sediments (Kotta et al., 2009; Reiss et al., 2010) Scales of wave energy can also influence how strongly local perturbations of habita conditions are reflected in changes in fish communities (Jordaan, 2011). The local scal at which fish community structure is determined and variation is documented (e.g. Bonaca and Lipej, 2005) can be amplified, because many drivers of change in coastal fis communities are either both local in scale, such as coastal infrastructure developmen (e.g., Bulleri et al., 2012) or episodic, such as major oil spills (e.g., Mendelssohn et al. 2012). +Unfortunately the local scales at which coastal fish communities are structured, an where many impacts are experienced, means that it is not possible to present quantitative accounting of trends in coastal fish communities on regional or Nort Atlantic scales. Long-term or large-scale studies do document that effects of majo oceanographic drivers, such as warming or cooling trends, can be seen in coastal fis communities, documenting that large-scale as well as local factors affect communit status (Henderson et al., 2011; Hurst et al., 2004). Species composition generally wil react to such large-scale drivers at greater rates than more integrative communit metrics (Bui et al., 2010; Hurst et al., 2004). +Given the intensification of use of coastal areas for aquaculture (Chapter 12) infrastructure (several chapters in part V), and land-based inputs to coastal area (Chapter 20), it is likely that overall the status of coastal fish communities around th North Atlantic has been altered, and in areas with high human use and large habita changes, the alterations could be large, with a reduction in species diversity an simplification of community structure (Lotze et al., 2006; Waycott et al., 2009). I addition, invasive species can have a large impact in coastal fish communities, and i cases such as the lionfish invasion of Caribbean and coastal southern northern America waters, may spread rapidly from multiple points of initial establishment, seriously +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +disrupting native fish communities (Whitfield et al., 2007; Mufioz et al., 2011). Suc changes would, in turn, have consequences much wider than the local scale of th impacts, given the important role of coastal systems as nursery habitats (Beck et al. 2001; Persson et al., 2012). +Consequently, even if the overall trends in coastal fish communities cannot b quantified on the scale of the North Atlantic, the impacts of many pressures on thes communities have been documented, as have the effects of larger-scale oceanographi and climatic drivers. With the increase in intensity of human activities causing many o these pressures (Sections IV and V) and a background of a changing ocean climate, ther is ample justification for attention to the conservation of these systems. The evidenc also indicates that appropriate management regimes need to be designed an implemented on local scales, to accommodate local communities and pressures, even i the overarching policies are developed at larger scales (sensu FAO Ecosystem Approac to Fishing (Staples and Funge-Smith, 2009)). +4.2 Shelf Fish Communities +A few studies have reconstructed fish communities and their variation over centurie into the past, albeit usually for just a few selected species and using catch records sediment layers, or middens for local areas. These studies have consistently show major changes in the composition of the fish community over the full time series sometimes in regime-like ways. Likely impacts of overfishing were already evident earl in the second half of the previous millennium (Mackenzie et al., 2007; Poulsen et al. 2007), but changes to the fish community associated with warmer and cooler periods o the North Atlantic are documented for the last several centuries (Enghof et al., 2007). +The current status of shelf fish stocks is best evaluated by the assessments done by th major fisheries management authorities around the North Atlantic. When data ar sufficient, assessments provide estimates of fishing mortality and biomass, and interpre these relative to sustainability benchmarks. The biomass benchmarks reflecting that stock is not overfished vary among jurisdictions and often are based on data series tha do not extend back to a time when the stocks were unexploited (Lotze and Worm 2009; Greenstreet et al., 2012). Nevertheless, Table 36A.4 presents the evaluations fo most of the major assessment jurisdictions. The general messages are clear: man stocks are overfished and/or experiencing current overfishing, based on their curren status relative to their management benchmarks, and the status of a number of othe exploited stocks is not known. However, that only reflects part of the picture. For a larg fraction of these stocks, the severe overfishing occurred in the 1990s and 2000s, an their status is improving. The improvement is consistently attributed to reductions i fishing effort (ICES and NOAA websites). +Of course the status of exploited stocks is only part of the fish diversity of the Nort Atlantic shelf systems. Many studies have analysed trends in the properties of fis communities, but these studies have varied greatly in the time intervals used, the parts +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +of the North Atlantic examined, the metrics of community status quantified, and th species included in the metrics. Given that the results of community analyses are scale dependent (e.g., Gaertner et al., 2007), metrics are often partially redundant but no interchangeable (e.g., Greenstreet et al., 2012), and both fishing pressure an environmental conditions have changed substantially over the past several decades (te Hofstede et al., 2012), only a few broad generalizations can be drawn from the diversit of results reported (Table 36A.5). +Based on Table 36A.5 and consistent with other overviews (ICES annual reports, NOA annual reports), it is without question that in nearly every area of the North Atlanti examined, even moderate fishing pressure has been associated with a decrease in th proportion and absolute number of large fish in the community. Everywhere that heav fishing was reported, not only does the size composition of the community continue t be truncated, but dominance usually declines as the most common species are reduce in abundance and species of lower or no commercial importance increase in at leas relative and often absolute abundance. Whether this changes the diversity metric depends on case-specific properties of the fish community (how dominant were th most dominant species) and fishing pressure (how intense, how sustained, and ho selective). +It is also without question that for every time series of even moderate (decadal) length effects sought of changing oceanographic conditions on fish community have bee documented (e,g, Perry et al., 2005; Lucey and Nye, 2010; Pinsky et al., 2013) . Warmin is usually associated with increases in richness and diversity metrics, as the pool o warm-water species that can move into an area from the south during warm periods i almost always larger than the pool of cold-water species that can move in from th north during cold periods. Occasionally one of these environmentally sensitive specie becomes very abundant (e.g., the Snake Pipefish outbreak in the North Sea aroun 2005, Harris et al., 2007), affecting diversity and evenness metrics. However, a numbe of studies report a negligible or even no trend in community metrics over moderat periods of varying environmental conditions, yet report large changes in the specie composition of the community underlying the aggregate metrics. This highlights th strong buffering capacity that is increasingly being argued, where functional redundanc (Schindler et al., 2010; Widemann et al., 2012) gives resilience to fish communities even if the species composition is changing substantially and without strong structurin processes (Rice et al., 2012). +In a few cases, time series of several decades are available. In all these reports th effects of both changes in fishing effort and in oceanographic conditions are apparent These can be seen in individual species (e.g., herring, Harma et al., 2012; Larsson et al. 2010; cod, Drinkwater, 2010; Eero et al., 2011; Lilly et al., 2013; sole, Horwood, 2010 and such metrics of community as can be assembled from samples over long tim periods (Foch et al., 2014; Greenstreet et al., 1999; ter Hofstede and Rijnsdorp, 2011 Shackell et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Bringing together the results of studies that look at how environmental drivers an fisheries have affected North Atlantic fish communities, the key messages include: +(i) Essentially every shelf fish community in the North Atlantic has been altered b decades to centuries of fishing. For many areas, excessive fishing persisted long enoug for target species to be depleted to states where recovery has been slow, and whol communities have had their diversity reduced, with size metrics showing the greates effects at community scales. However, in the twenty-first century, fishing effort ha been reduced in most parts of the North Atlantic shelves, particularly where stocks an communities were most stressed, and there is evidence of recovery in most of thes areas, albeit at different rates for different species, with some species having recovere to target levels. +(ii) Where data have been examined, every shelf fish community has had its specie composition change as oceanographic conditions have changed. Responses to warmin and cooling trends seem to be most prevalent, but these also have been looked for mos often. Regime-like changes in fish community composition have been documente often, but they are not universal. Aggregate community metrics have often change much less than the abundance of the species contributing to them. +(iii) On case-by-case examples it is often hard to definitively untangle the effects o fishing and of environment on fish communities although some at least partial successe are being reported (Bell et al., 2014). However, unless fishing is kept at a sustainabl level, community-scale effects of depletion of target species are highly likely, and ma reduce resilience to environmental drivers (Shackell et al., 2012). +5. Seabirds” +5.1 North Atlantic Overview +Overall, populations of breeding seabirds in the North Atlantic appear to be decreasing This contention is the outcome of an integration of negative trends in both the Nort Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) and the International Council for the Exploratio of the Sea (ICES) Regions. Most of the uncertainty about the Iceland population centre on estimates of the very abundant auk species which drive the overall populatio patterns. Further resolution of these estimates is essential. +Trends are considered for all species and for diving and surface-feeding taxa, whic often have different sensitivities to climatic and anthropogenic environmental changes Considerations of marine bird biodiversity are swamped by these most abundan species, although some aspects of species trends and community changes are addresse in the appended regional accounts. +* Information in this subchapter is based on the appended spreadsheets of regional trends, numbers an sources, and can be modified as gaps are filled and new information obtained. Trends in breeding seabir populations from the 1970s/80s through the 2000s are reported where possible, although more ofte only the most recent decade[s] is available. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The overall picture here indicates that surface-feeders (storm-petrels, gulls, terns) driv the negative NAFO trend, and diving auks (Dovekie Alle alle, Thick-billed Murre Uri lomvia, Common Murre Uria aalge) in Iceland drive the negative ICES trend, with th ICES decrease being six times greater than that reported for NAFO. +Within regional trends considerable variation is observed (Table 36A.6), with differen areas exhibiting increasing trends (E Baffin Island, Newfoundland/Labrador, E Canada US, Faroes) or decreasing trends (W Greenland, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Caribbean, Greenland, Iceland, Norwegian and North Seas). +5.2 NAFO Area +The negative trend in the NAFO Region is driven by surface-feeding species (gulls, terns petrels) that are decreasing in eastern Canada (Cotter et al., 2012) and in the Caribbea (Bradley and Norton, 2009). The decline is also driven by an inferred decreasing trend i a diving planktivore (Dovekie) in Western Greenland based on North America Christmas Bird Counts (BirdLife International, 2014). Otherwise, divers are increasing i all regions, with the exception of the Caribbean, where a small population of Brow Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) is declining (Bradley and Norton, 2009). Decreasin trends in surface-feeders and increasing trends in diving species are associated wit fisheries closures in eastern Canada and the concurrent cessation of discards and gill-ne removals (Bicknell et al., 2013; Regular et al., 2013). Surface-feeders are vulnerable t sea-surface temperature perturbations (Schreiber and Schreiber, 1984) and long-lin fishing (Zydelis et al., 2009). Some ocean regions, notably the Gulf of Mexico, are data deficient. +5.3 ICES Area +The decreasing trend in the ICES Regions is overridden by the uncertain negativ Icelandic estimates. Positive trends are reported for the Faroes Islan (Denmark)/Western United Kingdom and for the Barents Sea (which is excluded fro consideration as it is in the Arctic rather than in the North Atlantic region). +Decreasing trends in auks in the Norwegian Sea (Anker-Nilsen et al., 2007) ar associated with warming ocean trends and the consumption of forage prey by warm water predatory fishes (e.g., Atlantic mackerel) moving into the region (T. Anker-Nilsen pers. comm.). +6. Marine mammals +Many marine mammals primarily inhabit the margins of the North Atlantic Ocean especially the continental shelf and within the many semi-enclosed regional seas. Othe species primarily occupy the North Atlantic gyre, bounded by clockwise flowing currents +© 2016 United Nation + +most famously defined by the Gulf Stream in the north and the Canary Current in th east (Figure 36A.1). Many of these latter species also utilize habitats in areas furthe north and south of the gyre, at least seasonally. +The gyre species as identified here include many historically subjected to whaling including slower whales such as right whales, humpback whales and sperm whales, al targeted by open boat whalers through the nineteenth century. Faster whales, such a blue whales and fin whales, were targeted beginning in the late nineteenth century Several medium-sized whales were also subject to whaling, with some continuing to b so down to the present, including long-finned pilot whales (targeted, for example, for millennium in a drive fishery in the Faeroe Islands), the northern bottlenose whal (targeted from ships from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century), and mink whales (targeted from ships by twentieth- and twenty-first-century whalers). The effect of whaling range from slight for species such as long-finned pilot whales (Taylor et al. 2008) to near extinction for right whales (Reeves et al., 2007). In recent decades, specie such as humpback whales that migrate across the North Atlantic gyre from breedin grounds near islands in the Caribbean have recovered from earlier effects of whaling However, those humpbacks breeding near the Cabo Verde islands apparently have no (Reilly et al., 2008). +Other gyre cetaceans include short-finned pilot whales, killer whales, pygmy kille whales, various other bottlenose whales and common dolphins. Generally these hav not been subject to intense whaling. +In addition to the effects of historical and ongoing whaling, cetaceans in the Nort Atlantic are subject to various forms of disturbance (see Chapter 37). For example disturbance and sometimes injury of individual animals by noise, including soun generated from military operations and from seismic operations has been demonstrate for some species of beaked whales (Cox et al., 2006; Whitehead, 2013). Similarly mortality from ship strikes and entanglement in fishing gear have been demonstrate for humpback whales and right whales in the North Atlantic, and, especially for the smal population of right whales that survived whaling, such mortality can be significant (Lais et al., 2001). +Harbour porpoise and common dolphin occupy continental shelf regions in the Nort Atlantic, and also occur further north. These have been subject to entanglement i fishing gear in many areas, especially bottom-tending gill nets (NOAA, 2014). Pinnipe species, such as harbour seals, gray seals and harp seals, generally occur further north but also occupy northern continental shelf regions around New England in the west an the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in the east. They ar dependent on haul-out areas, beaches and ice cover, and have often been thought t compete with fishermen for prey. Gray and harp seals have been subject to predato control programmes and, especially in the western North Atlantic, commercial harvests However, both have increased in abundance in recent decades to relatively high levels For example, in the northwest North Atlantic, gray seals have increased, reachin roughly half a million animals in 2014 (Figure 36A.2). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +7. Specific areas of the North Atlantic +The predominance of semi-enclosed seas with characteristic biota around the Nort Atlantic, particularly the more southern and central portions of the region, and th concentration of human pressures around these seas, result in many important trend in biodiversity being observed most clearly at the scale of these seas. Hence thi chapter includes brief summaries of the main patterns of and pressures on biodiversit for a number of these regional seas. +7.1 Black Sea +The Black Sea is a very deep inland sea with an area of 432,000 km?. The thin uppe layer of marine water (up to 150 m) supports the unique biological life in the Black Se ecosystem. The deeper and more dense water layers are saturated with hydroge sulphide, that over thousands years, accumulated from decaying organic matter in th Black Sea. Due to the unique geomorphological structure and specific hydrochemica conditions, specific organisms, basically on the level of protozoa, bacteria, and som multi-cellular invertebrates inhabit the deep-sea waters. Knowledge about biologica forms of life in the deep waters of the Black Sea is very limited. The disturbance of th natural balance between the two layers could trigger irreversible damage to the peopl and ecosystem of the Black Sea®. +The recently published evidence raises the number of species, including supra-specifi taxa, inhabiting the Black Sea to 5,000 (Gomoiu, 2012). +The distribution diagram of different physiological types of species from the Black Se fauna shows the coexistence of four categories of species, according to a salinit gradient: (1) marine species, (2) freshwater species, (3) brackish water species, and (4 Ponto-Caspian relic species (Skolka and Gomoiu, 2004). The Black Sea biota consist of 8 per cent of Atlantic-Mediterranean origin species, and 10.4 per cent and 9.6 per cent o species of freshwater and Ponto-Caspian origin, respectively (Shiganova and Ozturk 2010). The eastern sector is one of the biologically richest regions on Earth and i recognized as a biodiversity hotspot, along with other parts of the Caucasus Biodiversit Hotspot Region (Kazanci et al., 2011). +Genetic studies confirm the recent origin of many Black Sea marine taxa from th Mediterranean. The majority of these taxa most probably entered the Black Sea throug the Marmara Sea and the Straits linking the Black Sea and the Marmara Sea after th last glacial maximum, when a connection between the Mediterranean and the Black Se was re-established (Ryan et al., 1997). For this reason, these Black Sea populations ar genetically similar to the Mediterranean ones, although in some cases they have alread diverged, implying reduced genetic connectivity (e.g., Durand et al., 2013). There ar also cases of Black Sea taxa, such as the copepod Calanus euxinus, to which the species +° http://www.blacksea-commission.org/_geography.as © 2016 United Nations +1 + +status has been attributed, although they have only recently diverged (Papadopoulos e al., 2005). On the other hand, genetic studies have confirmed the ancient origin of th Ponto-Caspian species and have even revealed an additional diversity in the form o cryptic species (Audzijonyte et al., 2006). +The migration of marine species from the Mediterranean is hampered by a number o ecological barriers: (1) low salinity and ionic composition and the difference in th thermal conditions, (2) the presence of hydrogen sulphide in the Black Sea botto areas, and (3) the lack of tides (Skolka, 2004; Gomoiu, 2004). +Our current knowledge on the biodiversity of certain taxa in the region shows a well defined zoogeocline from the Marmara Sea and Bosphorus Strait to the inner parts o the region (Azov Sea), depicted both as a pattern in overall species composition an species (or taxa) numbers. As a general trend, species numbers decrease along with th decrease in salinity towards the inner parts of the basin. The trend is homologous t that seen in the benthic invertebrate inventories of all the major European semi enclosed regional seas. Salinity and food availability appear to be the dominant abioti factors correlated, though weakly, with the various patterns deriving from th taxonomic/zoogeographic categories (Surugiu et al., 2010). +The invasion of the basin by alien species began in the Middle Ages, with the bivalv Teredo navalis, as the first one recorded. The anthropogenic disturbance graduall increased and reached an unprecedented amplitude, becoming evident durin the1950s, concurrently with the penetration of the Indo-Pacific predator gastropo Rapana thomasiana, which has severely reduced stocks of native oysters - Ostre sublamelossa (Gomoiu, 1998; Skolka, 1998). +The invasive species may affect not only the ecosystem but also various sectors of th economy, with devastating effects for some of these sectors. This is the case of th American comb jelly, Mnemiopsis leidyi, accidentally introduced into the Black Sea b ship ballast water in the early 1980s. The introduced comb jelly nearly led to th collapse of pelagic fish populations (over 26 commercial Black Sea fish stocks), an finally caused a major shift in the marine ecosystem. Only after the penetration of a ne warm-water ctenophore, Beroe ovata, ten years later, did the M. leidyi populatio diminish, allowing the ecosystem to recover its entire trophic web. +Another particularly important case of accidental immigration is that of toxi microscopic algae, whose outbreaks produce the so-called toxic blooms. The biotoxin produced inside the algal cells (i.e., domoic, okaidic, yessatoxine or azaspiracids acids) can have toxic effects on the other taxa and even on humans. The vast majority of thes species, such as Noctiluca scintillans, also can reduce or deplete the oxyge concentration in the water column and sediments, leading to hypoxia or anoxia. +During recent decades, the temperature increased both in the surface mixed and in th cold intermediate water layers. This has been shown to be another factor acceleratin the establishment of more thermophilic species populations, promoting their northwar expansion from the Mediterranean (Shiganova and Ozturk, 2010). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +In the conditions present during periods after major eutrophication outbreaks hav returned towards more typical states, two antagonistic and synergistic processes hav taken place: (a) the penetration of some opportunistic species, and (b) th disappearance of some economically valuable native species. In 1999, the first Black Se Red Book was issued, which includes 160 endangered and rare plant and animal species Sturgeons are the most endangered species, along with those that inhabit shallo coastal waters (turbot, sharks), seals, shrimp and oyster species. +The same critical status is also attributed to most of the coastal margin neritic and ope sea habitats, and to 13 out of 37 benthic habitats. Among the habitats at risk ar included the neritic water column, coastal lagoons, estuaries/deltas an wetlands/saltmarshes (Goriup, P., 2009). +In the Black Sea Region, almost a quarter of the habitat types listed in the Europea Union (EU) Habitats Directive can be found. Many are located in the intertidal zone an are consequently heavily influenced by the presence of salt water and continuous wav action. They include extensive areas of mud and sand flats, salt meadows and marshes and long stretches of white sandy beaches (Sundseth and Barova, 2009). +Coastal forests are also well represented, especially on the low-lying hills in the south o Bulgaria and within the Danube Delta. They include a variety of rare habitat types liste in the Habitats Directive, such as the Western Pontic beech forests, as well as floodplai forests, alluvial and mixed riparian forests, all of which are important roosting an resting habitats for bats and birds (Sundseth and Barova, 2009). +7.2 Mediterranean Sea +The Mediterranean Sea is a marine biodiversity hot spot. Approximately 17,000 marin species have been reported from the Mediterranean Sea (Coll et al., 2010). Of these, a least 26 per cent are prokaryotic (Bacteria and Archaea) and eukaryotic (Protists) marin microbes. Phytoplankton includes more than 1,500 species. Macrophytes includ approximately 850 species. Among microzooplankton, the foraminifera are the mai group with more than 600 species, and about 100 species are commonly present i Mediterranean waters (Dolan, 2000). However, it is within the Animalia group that ther is published evidence for the majority of the species so far reported (~11,500) with th greatest contribution coming from the Crustacea (13.2 per cent) and the Mollusca (12. per cent), followed by the Annelida (6.6 per cent), the Plathyhelminthes (5.9 per cent) the Cnidaria (4.5 per cent), the subphylum Vertebrata (4.1 per cent), the Porifera (4. per cent), the Bryozoa (2.3 per cent), the subphylum Tunicata (1.3 per cent), and th Echinodermata (0.9 per cent). With regard to the Vertebrata, there are ~650 marin species of fish, of which approximately 80 are elasmobranchs and the rest are mainl from the Actinopterygii class (86 per cent). Nine species of marine mammals (fiv belong to the dolphins, Delphinidae, and one each to the Ziphiidae, Physeteridae Balaenopteridae, and Phocidae (seals)) and three species of sea turtles (the gree Chelonia mydas, the loggerhead Caretta caretta and the leatherback Dermochelys +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +coriacea) are regularly recorded in the Mediterranean Sea. A total of 15 species o seabirds frequently occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Coll et al., 2010). +However, estimates of marine diversity are still incomplete as yet-undescribed specie will be added in the future (Coll et al., 2010; Danovaro et al., 2010). In many cases several cryptic species, mainly invertebrates, have been revealed through molecula approaches (Calvo et al., 2009), thus increasing the number of reported species Moreover, diversity for microbes is substantially underestimated, and the deep-se areas and portions of the southern and eastern regions are still poorly known (Coll et al. 2010). The next generation of sequencing data are already producing a wealth of uniqu sequences, in unprecedented rates, many of which are new operational taxonomic unit (OTUs). Tens of thousands of OTUs are produced in the context of minimal monitorin projects (Pavloudi et al., in press), a fact which will soon alter the numbers so fa reported. In addition, the invasion of alien species is a crucial factor that will continue t change the biodiversity of the Mediterranean (Zenetos et al., 2010), mainly in its easter basin, where invading species can spread rapidly northwards and westwards due t the warming of the Mediterranean Sea (Lejeusne et al., 2010). +Genetic diversity, especially the presence of genetically distinct populations within species, is another important component of biodiversity. Although the lack of stron physical barriers in the marine environment and the high dispersal ability of man marine taxa tend to diminish genetic differentiation, several marine species within th Mediterranean exhibit a strong genetic structure as a result of their life history trait and of the complex geography and hydrography of the Mediterranean. Diverse taxa from small pelagic fish, like anchovy (Magoulas et al., 2006), to molluscs (Cordero et al. 2014) have been shown to consist of genetically distinct populations, with lo connectivity, which calls for more local-scale management and conservation actions especially for commercially exploited or vulnerable species. This differentiation ofte occurs across well-known biogeographic barriers, like the Almeria-Oran front (Patarnell et al., 2007) and the Siculo-Tunisian strait (Mejri et al., 2009). +Spatial patterns of species diversity show a general gradient characterized by th decreasing number of species from the west to the east (Arvanitidis et al., 2002, 2009 Coll et al., 2010). For certain taxa such as polychaetes, indications of habita diversification, such as the average island distance from the nearest coast, number o islands and island surface area, have been reported to be best correlated with thei multivariate community patterns (Surugiu et al., 2010). The decrease in species richnes gradient has also been attributed to a synergy of variables, such as food availability salinity (Surugiu et al., 2010) and current knowledge gaps with regard to the biota ove large sectors, such as the northern African and eastern coasts (Coll et al., 2010; Coll e al., 2012). Lower productivity rates (oligotrophism) are related to the significantly lowe size of the species in the eastern basin, a phenomenon known as “Levantine nanism (dwarfism) (Por, 1989). Biodiversity is also generally higher in coastal areas an continental shelves, and with some exceptions it decreases with depth (Coll et al., 2010 Danovaro et al., 2010). However, fish biodiversity components, measured as species +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +richness of total, endemic and threatened coastal fish assemblages, as well as thei functional and phylogenetic diversity, have been mapped and described as spatiall mismatched between regions of the Mediterranean Sea (Mouillot et al., 2011). +The Mediterranean Sea is also diverse in terms of habitats and ecosystem types, due t its unique biogeography (Bianchi et al., 2012). Although empirical data are insufficient t have a full representation of habitat types (Danovaro et al., 2010; Levin et al., in press and are only fully available for some coastal habitats (Giakoumi et al., 2013), a series o surrogates or modelling techniques are used to characterize marine habitats in th whole Mediterranean basin (Micheli et al., 2013; Martin et al., 2014). +Temporal trends have indicated that overexploitation of some fish and macro invertebrates and habitat loss have been the main human drivers of historical change in biodiversity (Coll et al., 2010; Lotze et al., 2011; Coll et al., 2012). At present, habita loss and degradation, followed by fishing, climate change, pollution, eutrophication, an the establishment of invasive species, are the most important factors that affect most o the taxonomic groups and habitats (Claudet and Fraschetti, 2010; Coll et al., 2010; Abdu Malak et al., 2011: Lotze et al., 2011; Bianchi et al., 2012; Coll et al., 2012; Micheli et al. 2013). All these impacts are expected to grow in importance in the future, especiall climate change and habitat degradation. +7.3 Baltic Sea +The Baltic Sea is a small sea on a global scale, but as one of the world’s largest and mos isolated bodies of brackish water, it is ecologically unique. Eutrophication, caused b nutrient pollution, is a major concern in most areas of the Baltic Sea. The biodiversit status was classified as being unfavourable in most of the Baltic Sea, as only the Bothni Sea and some coastal areas in the Bothnian Bay were classified as having an acceptabl biodiversity status. The results indicate that changes in biodiversity are not restricted t individual species or habitats; the structure of the ecosystem has also been severel disturbed (Helcom, 2010). +Baltic Sea biodiversity and human pressures on it have been summarized for al components except bacteria in Helcom (2009a) integrated thematic assessment Alongside the general deterioration of the Baltic Sea biodiversity positive signs were als found for grey seals and some fish and bird species. A recent expert evaluation o endangered species in the Baltic Sea by Helcom (2013) shows the risk for extinctio among a number of plant and animal species still existing. +The Baltic Sea is characterized by large areas (ca 30 per cent) that are less than 25 deep, interspersed by a number of deeper basins with a maximum depth of 459 m. Th western and northern parts of the Baltic have rocky seabeds and extended archipelagos the seafloor in the central, southern, and eastern parts consists mostly of sandy o muddy sediment (ICES, 2008b). +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +The Baltic Sea phytoplankton community is a diverse mixture of microscopic alga representing several taxonomic groups, with more than 1,700 species recorded. Th species composition of the phytoplankton depends on local nutrients and salinity level and changes gradually from the southwest to the northeast. Primary production exhibit large seasonal and interannual variability (Helcom, 2002). In the southern and wester parts, the spring bloom is dominated by diatoms, and by dinoflagellates in the centra and northern parts (Helcom, 2002, 2009a). +Cyanobacteria are a natural component of the phytoplankton community in most part of the Baltic Sea area. They usually dominate in summer in the coastal and open areas o most sub-basins of the Baltic Sea, with the exception of the Belt Sea and the Kattegat Cyanobacterial blooms in the Baltic Proper are typically formed by the diazotrophi species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Anabaena spp. and Nodularia spumigena that ca fix molecular nitrogen. N. spumigena blooms are potentially toxic, whereas no toxi blooms of A. flos-aquae have been recorded in the Baltic Sea. The blooms of N2-fixin cyanobacteria as such do not necessarily indicate strengthened eutrophication (Helcom 2009b). +The zooplankton of the Baltic Sea is dominated by calanoid copepods and cladocerans The species composition is influenced by the salinity gradient. Generally marine specie (e.g., Pseudocalanus spp.) prevail in the southern more saline part, while brackis species (e.g., Eurytemora affinis and Bosmina longispina maritima) dominate in th northern areas (ICES, 2008b). The latitudinal distribution of marine macrozoobenthos i the Baltic Sea is limited by the gradient of decreasing salinity towards the north. Th decreasing salinity reduces macrozoobenthic diversity, affecting both the structure an function of benthic communities. In addition, the distribution of benthic communities i driven by strong vertical gradients. Generally, the more species-rich and abundan communities in shallow-water habitats (with higher habitat diversity) differ from th deep-water communities, which are dominated by only a few species (Helcom, 2009a). +The composition of the benthos depends both on the sediment type and salinity level with suspension-feeding mussels important on hard substrata and deposit feeders an burrowing forms dominating on soft bottoms. The species richness of the zoobenthos i generally poor and declines from the southwest towards the north due to the drop i salinity. However, species-poor areas and low benthos biomass are also found in th deep basins in the central Baltic due to the low oxygen content of the bottom wate (ICES, 2008b). +The distribution of the roughly 100 fish species inhabiting the Baltic is largely governe by salinity levels. Marine species (some 70 species) dominate in the Baltic proper, an fresh-water species (some 30-40 species) occur in coastal areas and in the innermos parts (Nellen and Thiel, 1996, cited in Helcom, 2002). Cod, herring, and sprat compris the large majority of the fish community in both biomass and numbers. Commerciall important marine species are sprat, herring, cod, various flatfish, and salmon. Sea trou and eel, once abundant, are now in very low populations. Sturgeon was a ver important component of local exploited fish fauna for centuries, especially in the +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +southern Baltic. Currently, sturgeon is a red-listed fish in the Baltic Sea and reintroduction programme has been initiated (Helcom, 2009a). The seabirds in the Balti Sea comprise pelagic species like divers, gulls, and auks, and benthic-feeding species lik dabbling ducks, sea ducks, mergansers, and coots (ICES, 2003). The Baltic Sea is mor important for wintering (ca 10 million) than for breeding (ca 0.5 million) seabirds an sea ducks. The common eider exploits marine waters throughout the annual cycle, bu ranges from being highly migratory (e.g., in Finland) to being more sedentary (e.g., i Denmark). +The marine mammals in the Baltic consist of gray (Halichoerus grypus), ringed (Phoc hispida), and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), and a small population of harbour porpois (Phocoena phocoena). Seals and harbour porpoise were much more abundant in th early 1900s than they are today (Elmgren, 1989; Harding and Hark6nen, 1999) wher their fish consumption may have been an important regulating factor for the abundanc of fish (MacKenzie et al., 2002). Baltic seal populations — harbour seals, gray seals, an ringed seals — are generally increasing. The recent abundance of the harbour porpoise i the Baltic Proper is low (Helcom, 2009a). +7.4 North Sea +The North Sea is a large semi-enclosed sea on the continental shelf of northwes Europe, formed by flooding in the Holocene period. The sea is shallow, deepenin towards the north. The seabed is predominantly sandy, but muddy in deeper parts an in southern coastal areas with extensive river influence. +The strong coupling between benthic and pelagic communities in the shallow parts o the North Sea makes it one of the most productive marine areas in the world, with wide range of plankton, fish, seabirds and benthic communities. +The most commonly found zooplankton genus in the North Sea is of the copepo Calanus. Hays et al. (2005) observed between 1960 and 2003 a clear decrease in th abundance of Calanus finmarchicus, and an increase in C. helgolandicus, with a marke overall decrease in both species combined. Beaugrand et al. (2002) also found decrease in the abundance of cold water and Arctic zooplankton species and an increas in warmer water ones. +The 50-m, 100-m, and 200-m depth contours broadly define the boundaries betwee the main benthic communities in the North Sea (Kinitzer et al., 1992; Callaway et al. 2002). Bottom temperature, sediment type, and trawling intensity have been identifie as the main environmental variables affecting local community structure. Epifauna communities are dominated by free-living species in the south and by sessile species i the north. +Throughout the year, the pelagic fish component is dominated by the herring Clupe harengus. The mackerel Scomber scombrus and the horse mackerel Trachurus trachuru are mainly present in summer, when they enter the area from the south and from th northwest. Dominant gadoid species are the cod Gadus morhua, the haddoc © 2016 United Nations +2 + +Melanogrammus aeglefinus, the whiting Merlangius merlangus, and the saith Pollachius virens; the main flatfish species are the common dab Limanda limanda, th plaice Pleuronectes platessa, the long rough dab Hippoglossoides platessoides, th lemon sole Microstomus kitt, and the sole Solea vulgaris. The major forage fish specie are the sandeel Ammodytes marinus, the Norway pout Trisopterus esmarki, and th sprat Sprattus sprattus, but juvenile herring and gadoids also represent an importan part of the forage stock. However, large annual variations in species composition occu as a consequence of natural fluctuations in the recruitment success of individua species. Fish species richness is highest around the edges of the North Sea (particularl along the coast of Scotland, in the Southern Bight, and in the Kattegat) and lowest in th central North Sea (ICES, 2008). +Certain highly migratory species that historically were fairly common in the North Se have become very rare (e.g., tunas and the halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus). Th stocks of most elasmobranchs are at low levels (ICES, 2008). The spurdog (Squalu acanthias) was the most common shark species, but is now considered to be deplete to approximately 5 per cent of its virgin biomass in the whole Northeast Atlanti (Hammond and Ellis, 2005). Decades of intensive fishing have been shown to hav altered both the species (ICES, 2008; Piet et al., 2009; Greenstreet et al., 2010) and siz composition (Daan et al., 2005) in the North Sea, with greatest effects where fishing ha been most intense. There is some evidence that these effects are being reversed sinc fishing pressure was reduced in the late 2000s, but community metrics are still far fro their values observed prior to the 1970s (Greenstreet et al., 2011). +About 2.5 million pairs of seabirds, belonging to some 28 species (ICES, 2008) bree around the coasts of the North Sea. Although most species breed in dense colonie along the coast, they make very different use of the marine ecosystem. During th breeding season, some species depend on local feeding conditions within tens o kilometres around their colony, whereas others may cover several hundreds o kilometres during their foraging trips. Outside the breeding season, some species sta quite close to their breeding grounds, and others migrate across the North Sea o elsewhere, even as far as the Antarctic. Feeding habits also diverge. Auks an cormorants dive from the surface, gannets and terns use plunge diving, and gulls fee mostly from the surface. A few (especially skuas) are kleptoparasites (Dunnet et al. 1990). Their food resources vary accordingly, ranging from plankton to small schoolin fish and discards. Because of all these differences, seabirds do not represent a singl homogeneous group that responds to fisheries in a uniform way. A few species profi directly from human consumption fisheries, either discards or offal, e.g., fulmars an gulls. Current seasonal distributions, status, and trends of these species have shown a increasing trend over the last century. Auks and cormorants are now protected in som areas (e.g., the southern North Sea and Kattegat). Gull numbers have been controlled i many areas. Fulmars may have benefited from the expansion in fishing. Skuas may hav profited directly from the increase in population size of seabirds in general. On a shorte time scale, 12 out of 28 species show an increasing trend during the last decade and +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +four a decreasing trend; four appear to be stable and for another four the situation i unknown (ICES, 2008). +Many cetacean and pinniped species have been observed within the North Sea, bu most of these must be considered vagrants and only a few are resident representative of the North Sea ecosystem. Harbour Phoca vitulina and gray Halichoerus grypus seal have undergone large population changes over the past century. Populations of harbou seals along the continental coast reached an all-time low in the 1970s. Subsequently these populations increased steadily at an annual rate of 4 per cent, with two majo interruptions in 1988 and 2002, when the populations were hit by outbreaks of th phocine distemper virus (ICES, 2008). +Although several cetacean species visit the North Sea, the dominant species are mink whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata, harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoena, an whitebeaked dolphins Lagenorhynchus albirostris. Preliminary abundance estimate from a survey conducted in 2005 indicate the status quo for all these species. Harbou porpoises, however, have shifted their focal distribution from the northern part of th North Sea to the southern part. The reasons for this southward shift of harbour porpois distribution are unknown; however, a change in distribution and availability of pre species is considered the most likely explanation, although other explanations ar possible (ICES, 2008). +A number of sand banks across the North Sea qualify for protection under the Europea Union Habitats Directive, mainly along the UK coast, the eastern Channel, th approaches to the Skagerrak, and the Dogger Bank. Extensive biogenic reefs of Lopheli have recently been mapped along the Norwegian coastline in the eastern Skagerrak, an Sabellaria reefs have been reported in the south, although their distribution and exten are not known. Gravel deposits also qualify for protection, but comprehensive maps at total North Sea scale are not readily available (ICES, 2008). +7.5 Gulf of St. Lawrence +The Gulf of St. Lawrence (hereafter the Gulf) is a relatively small (236,000 km’) se located along the southern Canadian Atlantic in the Northwest Atlantic connected to th ocean by the shallow (60 m) and narrow (17 km) Strait of Belle Isle in the northeast where dense Labrador Shelf water enters the Gulf and the deep (480 m) and wide (10 km) Cabot Strait in the south (Figure 36A.2bis). The Gulf receives large quantities o freshwater from the St. Lawrence River system, more than half of the freshwater input from the east coast of North America, which gives the Gulf an estuarine-like circulation The Gulf has a complex geomorphology, with a broad shallow shelf (<100 m) in th south and a northern region characterized by narrow coastal shelves and deep (>300 m channels. The environment is influenced by climate variability in the Northwest Atlantic The seasonality is characterized by severe winters with low temperatures and ic covering a large surface from December to April, and by warm surface water in summer The sea surface temperature differences between winter (less than 0°C) and summe (close to 20°C in the south) are among the largest recorded around the Atlantic. Th © 2016 United Nations +2 + +Gulf’s multilevel complexity provides the conditions for a highly diverse fauna, with mixture of boreal, temperate and sub-tropical species, and productive biologica communities (Benoit et al., 2012). +Global climate change, including ocean warming affects the Gulf as indicated by a clea decreasing trend in winter ice coverage and volume and increasing sea surfac temperatures in recent years (DFO, 2013). The characteristics of the deep layer ar influenced by the quality and relative proportions of the deep Atlantic water masse from which it originated. Low levels of dissolved oxygen (and associated low pH levels are found in the deep channels and some areas (e. g., the head of the Laurentia Channel) have been hypoxic (oxygen concentration < 20 per cent) since the mid-1980 (Benoit et al., 2012). Appropriate oxygen and pH levels are important conditions for th health of the organisms; the observed levels have been attributed in part to loca biological oxygen consumption in the deep layer, but also to changes in the sourc water masses from the North Atlantic. About 1 M people live in periphery of the Gul and depend (82 per cent of regional employment, 79 per cent of regional GDP) directl on marine activities (DFO, 2013). The St. Lawrence River upstream and other tributarie from the urban and industrial zones are sources of contaminants that, combined wit human activities in the coastal zone (e.g., agriculture/aquaculture, habita destruction/modification, nutrient loading), can have disturbing effects on th ecosystem. The Gulf is also an important maritime route and the heavy commercia shipping connecting the Atlantic (and other oceans of the world) with the Great Lake industrialized region in mid-North America represent another pressure (e.g., noise potentially invasive species from ballast water) on the ecosystem. Human activity ma have directly contributed to the establishment of 20 non-indigenous (alien) aquati species in the Gulf; half of these since 1994 (SOTO, 2012). For decades, if not centuries the principal human activity in the Gulf has been fishing, both commercial an recreational. That may change in the near future, however, with the development of oi and gas exploitation projects. +The timing of the phytoplankton bloom is affected by the timing of the winter ic retreat and water stratification. The bloom may have been earlier in the late 1990s tha today, but no clear trend in timing and intensity is detected (Dufour et al., 2010) However, systematic monitoring of the lower level of the ecosystem (phytoplankton zooplankton) is recent, less than 20 years, for the Gulf, and temporal trends are difficul to detect from the important interannual variability. Phytoplankton communit structures vary regionally but, generally, diatoms (the group of phytoplankton typicall associated with intense spring blooms in productive northern seas) and small-celle planktonic organisms (e.g., dinoflagellates) are found in equal proportions (Bérard Therriault et al., 1999). Recently, decreasing diatom/dinoflagellate and flagellate ratio have been observed due to an increase in dinoflagellates and flagellates that may reflec increasing stratification, temperature and nutrient loading in the system (Dufour et al. 2010). Ecosystems dominated by dinoflagellates and flagellates are less productive. Th Crustacea are the most important group (60 per cent) in the zooplankton, and th Copepoda account for 70 per cent of all species (Brunel et al., 1998). There are close +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +associations between the abundance of some small copepod species, the young stage of larger species and feeding by young fish. In the Gulf, all copepods seem to hav increased around 2005, but the abundance of the key species Calanus finmarchicus ha been below average since 2009 (DFO, 2013). Although there are important uncertaintie about total biomass and trend, high concentrations of krill (Euphausiids) are found a specific sites and large numbers of blue whales from the Northwest Atlantic populatio migrate to the Gulf to feed (Gagné et al., 2013). At least 12 species of whales migrate t the Gulf every year, which makes the Gulf (and the Estuary) one of the best whale watching sites in the World. In addition, the head of the Laurentian Channel in th Estuary is the refuge of an endangered Beluga whale population. Despite conservatio efforts (control on contaminants, noise, and a protected areas project), the Belug whale population shows no sign of increase; at present it is, at best, stable. +The total number of fish and invertebrates species is approximate, due in part to th poor sampling of the shallow or coastal zones. The current inventory lists some 220 marine invertebrate species (Brunel et al., 1998). An analysis of scientific bottom traw survey records indicates that ~130 species of fish may be present in the northern Gul alone (Dutil et al., 2006, 2009). The total fish biomass is dominated by a small number o large species, most of commercial interest; hence many species are relatively rare o occasional visitors. Nonetheless, the importance of the habitat is shown by at least 4 species of ichthyoplankton (eggs and larval fish) recorded in the Gulf. As for th Canadian shelf regions, dramatic shifts to both the northern and southern Gul ecosystems occurred in the late 1980s, particularly in response to fishing and, to a lesse extent, to changes in environmental conditions. These shifts include changes in specie abundance and/or biomass and food web structure and functioning (Savenkoff et al. 2008) (Figure 36A.3). The ecosystems that were dominated by large demersal fis predators (e.g., Atlantic cod, redfish and white hake) are today dominated by small bodied forage species and invertebrates. The biomass of shrimps (close to 20 species has increased since the early 1980s and at an accelerated rate beginning in the earl 1990s. Despite a 15-year moratorium on harvesting, the ecosystem structure has no returned to its previous state. In the southern Gulf, the natural mortality of co remained high, causing a decline in their abundance. Evidence is mounting tha predation by top predators (e.g., seals, whose abundance has been increasing) is th cause of this mortality (Benoit et al., 2012). +Fishing can affect population structure, entire communities, and the habitat itself. Th only important bottom trawl use remaining in the northern Gulf is by the norther shrimp fishery. The fishery is well regulated and the use of a separator grate i mandatory to reduce the catch of large fishes. Nonetheless, an analysis in 2012 showe small specimens from 69 taxa (the majority in low numbers) as remaining in the catc (Savard, 2013). +7.6 Chesapeake and other coastal estuaries and bays of the United States +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +The Chesapeake Bay estuarine system’ supports more than 3,000 species of plants an animals (Table 36A.7). A subset of species has been identified as being ecologicall valuable® (Table 36A.8), based on their importance in (1) regulating the flow of carbo through the food web, (2) providing habitat, and/or (3) supporting ecosystem service (Baird and Ulanowicz, 1989; Costanza et al., 1997; Jordan, 2001; Martinez et al., 2007 Koch et al., 2009). Marshall et al. (2005) documented 1454 phytoplankton species in th Bay during 1984-2004; diatoms were the most abundant taxon (Table 36A.6). The rati of planktonic centric diatom species to benthic pennate diatom species increased from 1 prior to European settlement to ~ 5 today (Cooper and Brush, 1991), a trend tha coincided with a decrease in species richness and an increase in phytoplankton biomas due to increases in anthropogenic nutrient loading and a rapid decline in the abundanc of filter feeders (oysters) during the twentieth century (Newell, 1988; Cooper and Brush 1991; Marshall et al., 2003; Kemp et al., 2005). Projected increases in wate temperature and winter-spring precipitation associated with climate change are likely t enhance these trends and promote the growth of toxic dinoflagellates (Pyke et al. 2008). +Species richness is correlated with fisheries productivity (Worm et al., 2006). Historicall important fisheries in the Bay included striped bass (Morone saxatilis), Atlantic sturgeo (Acipenser oxyrinchus), American shad (Alosa_ sapidissima), Atlantic menhade (Brevoortia tyrannus), blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), alewife (Alos pseudoharengus), soft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria), eastern oyster (Crassostre virginica), and blue crab (Callinectes sapidus). Of these, landings of sturgeon,” shad,’ soft-shelled clams*’ and eastern oysters (Rothschild et al., 1984; Wilberg et al., 2011 experienced dramatic declines (> 98 per cent) during the twentieth century due t overfishing and habitat loss. Herring’? and menhaden’ landings have declined by ~8 per cent. +Habitat loss has been expressed primarily in terms of increases in the spatial extent o summer hypoxia and decreases in the spatial extent of tidal marshes, submerge vascular plant beds, and oyster reefs. Oyster reefs, submerged vascular plant beds and +” Chesapeake Bay (including tidal waters of its tributaries) is the largest estuary in the U.S. (~ 320 km long 11,700 km’). It is a partially stratified, coastal plain estuary (drowned river valley) with a mean depth o 8.4 m and three salinity zones: oligohaline, 0 — 10 psu; mesohaline, 11 — 18 psu; and polyhaline, 19 — 3 psu (Schubel and Pritchard, 1987). Eleven major rivers flow into the Bay through six states and a drainag basin of 172,000 km?. River flows are typically highest during spring and lowest during summer. Th climate is moderate with mean water temperatures ranging from a winter low of ~ 5°C to a summer hig of ~25°C. With a large ratio of watershed to estuarine area (14:1), the Bay is closely connected to th landscape. With a relatively long residence time of water (~ 6 months), the Bay is susceptible to impact from land-based inputs of nutrients and toxic contaminants (Kemp et al., 2005). +5 The Ecologically Valuable Species Workgroup of the Living Resources Subcommittee for the Chesapeak Bay Program (http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P1001WSJ.PDF?Dockey=P1001WSJ.PDF). +8 http://www.dnr.state.md.us/fisheries/fishfacts/atlanticsturgeon.asp +*© http://www.fws.gov/chesapeakebay/SHAD.HTM +™ http://www.dnr.state.md.us/irc/docs/00000260_04.pdf +2 http://www.dnr.state.md.us/fisheries/fishfacts/herring.asp +8 http://www.asmfc.org/species/atlantic-menhaden +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +tidal marshes support high species diversity (Heck and Orth, 1980; Orth et al., 1985 Newell, 1988; Chambers et al., 1999; Coen et al., 1999; Jackson et al., 2001; Wyda et al. 2002; USACE, 2009; Philine et al., 2012). During the course of the twentieth century, th spatial extent of these habitats declined significantly: oyster reefs by 92 per cen (USACE, 2009; Wilberg et al., 2011), submerged vascular plants by 65 per cent (Kemp e al., 1983, 2005; Orth and Moore, 1983, 1984) and marshes by 60 per cent.” +Sea level rise is expected to result in even greater losses of marshes, putting hundred of species of fish, invertebrates and birds at risk (Titus and Strange, 2008), and estuarin acidification poses a significant threat to oyster restoration efforts in the Bay (USACE 2009; Waldbusser et al., 2011; Sanford et al., 2014). Loss of these habitats exacerbate the impacts of overfishing and is one of the main pressures on species richness, ofte leading to species extirpation (Orth and Moore, 1983, 1984; Ruiz et al., 1993; Duarte e al., 2008; Heck et al., 2008; Keppel et al., 2012). +Recurring deep-water hypoxia (Cooper and Brush, 1991; Malone, 1991)*° represents major loss of pelagic and benthic habitat during a critical period for reproduction an growth of benthic macrofauna and fish, resulting in declines in their abundance (Llanso 1992; Ruiz et al., 1993; Baird et al., 2004; Kemp et al., 2005; Buchheister et al., 2013 and the threat of extirpation of commercially valuable species that have bee overfished, e.g., Acipenser oxyrinchus (Secor et al., 2000) and C. virginica (Wilberg et al. 2011). Projected increases in climate-driven water temperature and winter-sprin precipitation over the twenty-first century may increase the pressure of summe hypoxia on species richness (Pyke et al., 2008), an impact that may be exacerbated b the direct effects of rising water temperatures: e.g., M. arenaria is near its souther distribution limit and may be extirpated if summer temperatures approach and remai near 32°C, and temperate fish species such as white perch (Morone americana), stripe bass (Morone saxatilis), and summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) may experienc similar fates (Najjar et al., 2010). +More than 170 known or possible non-native species have invaded the Bay.*° Of these at least eight are potentially major threats to species richness in the Chesapeake Ba estuarine system (Table 36A.7).”” +Given the collective importance of vegetated habitats and oyster reefs as refugia for broad diversity of species and the impacts of fishing, seasonal hypoxia and invasiv species, it is highly likely that the species diversity of the Chesapeake Bay estuarin system significantly declined during the 20" C. Continued declines in habitat extent combined with the impacts of seasonal hypoxia and climate-driven sea level rise estuarine warming, and acidification, portend increases in the rate of extirpations an declines in species diversity during the twenty-first century. Given similarities in +1 http://chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/wetland * http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/eyesonthebay/documents/DeadZoneStatus_Summer2013.pd 16 2 . . http://invasions.si.edu/nemesis/chesapeake.htm ” http://www.mdsg.umd.edu/topics/aquatic-invasive-species/aquatic-invasive-specie © 2016 United Nations +2 + +pressures, all of the estuaries of the Virginian Province’® (Hale et al., 2002) are likely t exhibit similar trends in their capacity to support species diversity. +7.7 Caribbean Sea +The Caribbean is the most biologically diverse area of the Atlantic Ocean, hostin approximately 10 per cent of the world’s coral reefs, including the Mesoamerica Barrier Reef System; extensive coastal mangroves and shallow banks with seagras communities; as well as sandy beaches, rocky shores and many bays, lagoons an brackish estuaries. The Caribbean also has open-ocean and lesser-known deep-se environments, and has been listed as a global-scale hotspot of marine biodiversit (Roberts et al., 2002). +The Caribbean Sea receives primarily oligotrophic, high-salinity North Atlantic wate from the North Equatorial Current, but it also receives South Atlantic water entrained i North Brazil Current rings which transport water from the Amazon into the Caribbea basin via the Guiana Current (Cowen et al., 2003). The persistent through-flow of th warm Caribbean Current is modulated by a highly complex and variable pattern o mesoscale eddies (Lin et al., 2012) and upwelling along the South American coastline Two significant South American rivers, the Orinoco and the Magdalena, also discharg directly into the southern Caribbean. The considerable spatial heterogeneity of physica environments and habitats across the Caribbean Sea influences the distribution population connectivity and biodiversity of marine organisms found there. Severa significant barriers to gene flow in Caribbean reef populations have been recognize (Cowen et al., 2006). This has led to relatively high levels of endemism. Miloslavich et al (2010) estimate a value of 25.6 per cent regional endemism across 21 of 78 marine tax examined in the Caribbean, with values ranging from 45 per cent for fish, 26 per cent fo molluscs and 2 per cent for copepods. They also summarize the diversity, distributio and key threats to marine biota in the Caribbean and conclude that the 12,046 specie currently reported is a gross underestimation, considering that the marine biota is fa from well known in this area. +The significant drivers of declines in Caribbean marine biodiversity are overexploitatio and environmental degradation. These are being exacerbated by external drivers including climate variability and change, and alien species invasions. Iconic Caribbea mega-vertebrates have suffered from historical overexploitation (Jackson, 1997) including the now extinct West Indian monk seal (Wonachus tropicalis); the endangere Caribbean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus); the North Atlantic humpback whal (Megaptera novaeangliae); and marine turtles, of which five species are found here, al endangered. The number of fishery stocks that are fully exploited or overexploited ha grown over the last few decades and total landings have declined significantly since th late 1980s, driven by increasing market demand, inadequate fisheries management, and +8 Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, Hudson-Raritan system, and Long Island Soun © 2016 United Nations +2 + +exacerbated by habitat degradation (Salas et al., 2011; Sea Around Us Project www.seaaroundus.org). +The abundance of reef fishes has decreased region-wide (Paddack et al., 2009). Mos fishable reef species are fully exploited or overexploited; those most vulnerable t fishing are now rare (Roberts, 2012). Notable is the Nassau grouper (Epinephelu striatus), once of great commercial importance and now endangered (Sadovy, 1999) There is concern regarding the decline of key functional groups on reefs, especiall herbivores, such as parrotfishes, that are vital to reef resilience (Mumby et al., 2006) Large highly migratory pelagic species, such as the billfishes (swordfish and marlins) have suffered significant population declines from fishing by foreign fleets operating i the Atlantic. +Caribbean coral reefs are considered globally unique (UNEP, 2005). Overexploitatio and deterioration of coastal water quality (primarily due to high nutrient, sediment an bacterial loads, and toxins from domestic, agricultural and industrial activities in coasta watersheds) have altered reef communities and resilience, leading to region-wid decreases in live coral cover (Gardner et al., 2003; Jackson et al., 2014) and ree structural complexity (Alvarez-Filip et al., 2009) over the last three decades Concomitant increases in disease epidemics (Rogers, 2009) and in macro-algae (Bruno e al., 2009) have resulted in ecosystem shifts from coral-dominated to algal-dominate reefs (Hughes et al., 2007). The once dominant Acropora palmata was severely reduce by coral disease from the late 1970s through the 1980s, and this genus is now listed a endangered in the United States Caribbean (http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/laws/esa/) The 1982-1984 mass die-off of the Diadema antillarum sea urchins left Caribbean reef without a keystone herbivore (Jackson et al., 2014). Pioneering coral species, such a Porites astreoides, are becoming more prevalent (Green et al., 2008). The degradation i exacerbated by global climate change resulting in warming causing mass coral bleachin and associated coral mortality (Eakin et al., 2010), physical destruction from mor intensive storms (Gardner et al., 2005; Wilkinson and Souter, 2008) and the threat o ocean acidification. Caribbean reef biodiversity is being further affected by the alie invasive Pacific red lionfish (Pterios volitans), which has spread across the Caribbean i the last decade (Schofield, 2010). +Mangroves and their associated biodiversity occur throughout the insular an continental Caribbean coastlines (Bossi and Cintron, 1990). The Caribbean has nin mangrove tree species (Polidoro et al., 2010), but is reported to host the world’s riches mangrove-associated invertebrate fauna (Ellison and Farnsworth, 1996). Mangrove are has declined by about 1 per cent annually over the last three decades, representing th second highest loss rate globally (FAO, 2007). Pelliciera rhizophorae, endemic to Centra America, is now listed as vulnerable (Polidoro et al., 2010). Mangrove declines ar driven by exploitation (of timber); deteriorating water quality (especially petroleu pollution); and coastal development (aquaculture ponds, marinas, reclamation fo coastal construction and agriculture); and climate change (Ellison and Farnsworth, 1996 Polidoro et al., 2010). +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Seagrass communities occur throughout the Caribbean and support a high diversity o epiphytic and other species (van Tussenbroek et al., 2010). Seven native seagras species are known from the region; two (Halophila engelmanni and H. baillonii) ar considered to be near-threatened and vulnerable, respectively. A recently introduce species, Halophila stipulacea, is spreading rapidly through the Lesser Antilles (Willette e al., 2014). CARICOMP found that most study sites showed a decline in seagrass healt between 1993 and 2007 (van Tussenbroek et al., 2014). +Caribbean seabirds comprise 25 breeding species, of which seven are regionall endemic species or subspecies: the abundant laughing gull subspecies Larus atricill atricilla; the rare and declining white tailed tropic bird subspecies Phaethon lepturu catesbyii; the near threatened Audubon’s shearwater Puffinus [herminieri lherminieri the endangered brown pelican subspecies Pelicanus occidentalis occidentalis; th critically endangered black capped petrel Pterodroma hasitata and black nodd subspecies Anous minutus minutes; and the probably extinct Jamaica petrel Pterodrom caribbaea (Lee and Makin, 2012). Most of the 25 species including both surface feeder and divers are declining, threatened by human disturbance and nest predation b introduced species; pollution of ocean waters; and fishery by-catch impacts (Schreibe and Lee, 2000; Lee and Mackin, 2012). +Caribbean economies are the most tourism-dependent in the world (CLME, 2011) Declining marine biodiversity will have enormous social and economic consequences through loss of goods and critical ecosystem services. Caribbean-wide degradation o coral reef, mangrove and seagrass ecosystems, ecosystems that are fundamental to th Caribbean tourism product and at the core of the region’s ability to cope with climat change sea level rise, will mean annual losses amounting to billions of United State dollars (CARSEA, 2007; Burke et al., 2011). +7.8 Gulf of Mexico +The Gulf of Mexico is a semi-enclosed sea and one of the most economically an ecologically productive bodies of water in the world (Tunnell, 2009). The Gulf i connected to the Caribbean Sea through the Yucatan Channel between the Yucata Peninsula and Cuba, where warm, tropical water flows into the Gulf and forms the Loo Current, the dominant Gulf current, and then exits via the Florida Straits betwee Florida and Cuba into the Atlantic Ocean, where it forms the Gulf Stream, one of th world’s strongest and most important currents. +As a large receiving basin, the Gulf of Mexico receives extensive drainage from fiv countries (the United States, Canada, Mexico, Guatemala, and Cuba). The Mississipp River dominates this drainage, which includes over two-thirds of the U.S. watershed i the north, and the Grijava-Usumacinta River System dominates in the south. Thirty three major rivers and 207 estuaries and lagoons are found along the Gulf coastlin (Darnell and Defenbaugh, 1990; Tunnell, 2009). +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Biologically, the shallow waters of the northern Gulf are warm-temperate (Carolinia Province) and those in the southern Gulf are tropical (Caribbean Province) (Briggs 1974). Oyster reefs and salt marshes are the dominant estuarine habitat type i northern, low-salinity estuaries, and seagrass beds are common in clearer, more salin bays. In the tropical southern Gulf, mangroves line bay and lagoon shorelines; som oyster reefs, salt marshes, and seagrasses are distributed in similar salinity conditions a in the northern Gulf. Offshore, coral reefs are common in the Florida Keys, Cuba, an the southern Gulf off the state of Veracruz and on the Campeche Bank (Tunnell et al. 2007; other topographic highs or hard bottoms are sporadic on the normally smooth soft substratum of the continental shelves (Rezak and Edwards, 1972; Rezak et al. 1985). Unique, recently discovered, and highly diverse habitats in deeper Gulf water include chemosynthetic communities and deepwater coral communities (Lophelia reefs (CSA International Inc., 2007; Brooks et al., 2008; Cordes et al., 2008). +Regarding the biodiversity of the Gulf of Mexico, the Harte Research Institute for Gulf o Mexico Studies at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi recently led a multi-year, multi international effort (Biodiversity of the Gulf of Mexico Project) involving 14 taxonomists from 80 institutions in 15 countries to prepare a comprehensive list of al species (Felder and Camp, 2009). This list of 15,419 species with range, distribution depth, habitat-biology, and updated taxonomy was subsequently added to GulfBase i 2011 at http://www.gulfbase.org/biogomx/biosearch.php, where it is openly accessibl and completely searchable by any topic or species. The database has since been used i two major papers comparing biodiversity of other United States regions (Fautin et al. 2010) and four other global case studies in marine biodiversity (Ellis et al., 2011). +Several Gulf of Mexico iconic or well-known species are of historical, social, an economic importance (Davis et al., 2000). The West Indian monk seal (Monachu tropicalis) was probably the first large animal to become extinct because of huma activity in the Gulf and Caribbean region. It was last seen on the Campeche Bank island in the Gulf in 1948 and in the Caribbean in the early 1950s (Wursig et al., 2000). Othe species that have become endangered include the Kemp’s Ridley sea turtl (Lepidochelys kempii), brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), and whooping crane (Gru americana). Restoration programs for each of these have increased their populations i recent decades. West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) are greatly reduced, an they only exist now in certain drainage areas along the west coast of Florida. The larges commercial fishery by weight in the Gulf is for menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), and th penaeid shrimp fishery is the largest by value (the white shrimp Litopenaeus setiferus the pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus duorarum, and the brown shrimp Farfantepenaeu aztecus). +Predominant commercial estuarine shellfish in the northern Gulf include the easter oyster (Crassostres virginica) and blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) (Nelson, 1992; Patillo e al., 1997). In the tropical southern Gulf, spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) and queen conc (Eustrombus gigas) are taken. However, these are now commercially extinct in many +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +areas and are taken only by recreational fishers, sometimes under strict regulation (Tunnell et al., 2007). +The Gulf-wide bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is probably the single mos recognizable Gulf species by the public, as it is abundant in coastal bays and estuaries as well as offshore in the northern Gulf (Wursig et al., 2000). +Gulf-wide biodiversity patterns cannot be completely explained, for lack of complet information, although we do know that the Gulf of Mexico exhibits great habita complexity that probably supports high levels of biodiversity due to both endemic an cosmopolitan species (Rabalais et al., 1999). Linkage to the Caribbean Sea with large scale circulation provides the southern and eastern Gulf with a distinct Caribbean biota However, strong regional endemism appears to exist, as demonstrated in large-scal studies across the entire northern Gulf (Rabalais et al., 1999; Harper, 1991; Carney et al. 1993). Eventual analysis of databases from the Biodiversity of the Gulf of Mexico Projec on GulfBase will provide considerable insight into the spatial distribution of species. O the 15,419 species found, 1,511 (10 per cent) are endemic to the Gulf of Mexico an 341 (2 per cent) are non-indigenous (Felder and Camp, 2009). The most diverse tax include crustaceans (2,579 species), mollusks (2,455), and vertebrates (1,975), and th least diverse include kinorhynchs (2 species), entoprocts (2), priapulids (1) hemichordates (5), and cephalochordates (5). In addition, other taxa are known to exis in the Gulf of Mexico (placozoans, orthonectids, loriciferans, and pogonophorans), bu representatives have not yet been identified (Felder and Camp, 2009; Fautin et al. 2010). +A recent ecosystem status report for the Gulf of Mexico, utilizing the DPSER (Drivers Pressures, States, Ecosystem Services, Responses) conceptual modelling framework gives a high-level overview of the state of the Gulf (Karnauskas et al., 2013). Major large-scale climatic drivers include the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, Atlantic War Pool, sea surface temperature, Loop Current, and geostrophic transport in the Yucata Channel and Florida Current. Long-term trends or changes in these drivers in turn caus fluctuations or changes in selected pressures, such as hurricanes or hypoxic zones Other pressures include contamination by pollution (e.g., mercury, cadmium), oil an gas exploration and production (including major oil spills, such as Ixtoc | in 1979 an Deepwater Horizon in 2010), bacterial water quality problems, and habitat destruction mainly caused by coastal development. Harmful algal blooms (HABs), such as red tid and brown tide, are well documented in the Gulf, as are some invasive species (Tunnell 2009; Fautin et al., 2010; Karnauskas et al., 2013). +The recent Deepwater Horizon oil spill prompted a study of the ecosystem services o the Gulf of Mexico by a leadership committee of the United States National Researc Council (NRC). This comprehensive report utilizes the ecosystem services approach an frames for the first time the goods and services provided by the Gulf for an economicall and ecologically healthy ecosystem (NRC, 2013). +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +8. Factors of Sustainability +The biodiversity of the North Atlantic has supported harvesting and trade by borderin cultures for millennia. Pressures from human uses both diversified and intensified wit industrialization and associated coastal development already more than two centurie ago. Every form of direct use of North Atlantic biodiversity and every indirect effect o human activities on coastal populations and habitats have been unsustainable in at leas some times and places. Some of these impacts, such as the depletion of populations o the great whales by overharvesting (section 36A.6) will take centuries to recover, eve with effective policies and high compliance. +Efforts towards sustainability have been greatly aided by coordinated internationa efforts to provide scientific and technical information on the status and trends i biodiversity, and threats to sustainable uses. The Quality Status reports (QSRs) from th OSPAR Commission at the start of each of the past three decades have prove invaluable in assessing status and trends in many marine environmental indicators an the biodiversity they represent, and guiding policies and management measures t address poor or declining marine environmental quality in the northeast Atlanti (OSPAR, 2010, and earlier QSRs). Other examples of such efforts are the coordinate processes carried out within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity fo identifying Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas in the Northwest Atlantic (CBD 2014a), and Mediterrean (CBD, 2014b), and the on-going process in the Northeas Atlantic (ICES, 2013a), and the processes to identify Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems i the NAFO (NAFO, 2013) and North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) (FAO 2015). +Although there are well-documented examples in the sections above of cases wher habitats, lower-trophic-level productivity, benthic communities, fish communities, o seabirds or marine mammal populations were severely altered by pressures from specific activity, such as over-fishing, pollution, nutrient loading, physical disturbance, o transplanted species, many biodiversity impacts, particularly at larger scales, are th result of cumulative and interactive effects of multiple pressures from multiple drivers It has repeatedly proven difficult to disentangle the effects of the individual pressures impeding the ability to address the individual causes (Fu et al., 2012; Blanchard et al. 2005; ter Hofstede and Rijnsdorp, 2011). Particularly given that the North Atlantic i surrounded by many of the best marine research centres in the world, has many of th longest and most systematic data sets, and has an international science organization the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (ICES), that has functioned for ove a century to promote and coordinate scientific and technical cooperation among man of the circum-North Atlantic countries with the highest science capacities, this inabilit to consistently disentangle causation of unsustainable uses of, and impacts on, marin biodiversity may seem initially discouraging. +On the other hand, well-documented examples also exist of the benefits that can follo from actions to address past unsustainable practices. Many of the fish stocks deplete © 2016 United Nations +3 + +by overfishing in both the Northeast and Northwest Atlantic have shown increasin trends in abundance and recovery of range when unsustainable levels of fishing effor have been reduced (Table 36A.4). Efforts to control pollution and nutrient inputs driven by the EU Water Framework Directive and the United States Environmenta Protection Act, have led to reduction in these pressures and in many cases to th commencement of the recovery of benthic communities (EEA, 2012). Coastal habita restoration activities have also shown clear benefits in improved environmental qualit and biodiversity measures in many coastal areas around the North Atlantic (Pendleton 2010). All of these improvements have come with at least short-term costs, which ar sometimes large, such as displaced or reduced fishing opportunity (see Part IV), th costs of pollution control and nutrient management in coastal areas and watershed (costs summarized in the chapters of Part V), and the direct costs of habitat restoration which may run to the millions of dollars for restoration projects of even moderate scal (Diefenderfer et al., 2011; Kroeger and Guennel, 2014). +In summary, the North Atlantic presents examples of both the extent to whic unsustainable actions can adversely affect biodiversity and the benefits that can accru from policies and programmes that are well developed, adequately resourced, an effectively implemented. The best examples of effective policies and programmes hav been designed to address the dominant pressures from the twentieth century overharvesting of living marine resources and pollution and excessive nutrient input from coastal and land-based sources. In the twenty-first century, additional pressure are growing, particularly climate change, invasive species (both responding to changin environmental conditions and transported by shipping), and in many areas, particularl at lower latitudes, ocean-based tourism. Lessons learned from dealing successfully wit the earlier pressures, if applied proactively, may help safeguard biodiversity fro unsustainable impacts, and result in healthy ecosystems producing many ecosyste services of value to the circum-Atlantic human populations. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Table 1. Abundant phytoplankton species of selected taxa (based on abundance and number of gener represented) in coastal and shelf waters of the western North Atlanti (* produce mucilage and foam, ** potentially toxic species). +Domain Location Division No. | Abundant Specie Coastal Gulf of | Heterokontophyta | 386 | Chaetoceros spp., Navicula spp., Nitzschia spp. & Shelf Maine? (Diatoms) Rhizosolenia hebetata, Coscinodiscus _ spp. Pleurosigma spp., Thalassiosira spp., Gyrosigm spp., Phaeoceros spp Alveolata 151 | Peridinium spp., Alexandrium spp.**, Amphidiniu (Dinoflagellates) spp., Ceratium spp Haptophyta 31 Chrysochromulina spp.**, Diacronema spp. Emiliania huxleyi, Pavlova spp., Prymnesium spp Cyanophyta 22 Synechococcus spp Chlorophyta 20 Halosphaera viridia, Micromonas __ pusilla Ostreococcus _ sp., Pycnococcus _ provasolii Tetraselmis spp TOTAL 66 Gulf of | Heterokontophyta | 274 | Leptocylindrus danicus, Skeletonema_ costatum Maine & Asterionella glaccialis, Pseudo-nitzschi New York pungens**, Rhizosolenia delicatul Bight” 8 Alveolata 332 | Procentrum micans**, P. minimu Haptophyta 19 Emiliana huxley Cyanophyta 12 Nostoc commun Chlorophyta 13 Nannochloris atomu TOTAL 678 +Coastal New York | Heterokontophyt Bight”* +Skeletonema_ costatum, Asterionella japonica Leptocylindrus danicus, Thahsionem nitzschioides, Chaetoceros debilis +Alveolata +Gymnodinium splendens, Prorocentrum micans** P. triangulatum +Chlorophyta +Nannochloris atomus +Shelf New York | Heterokontophyt Bight? +Rhizosolenia abta, R. faeroense, Chaetocero socialis, Cylindrotheca closterium +Alveolata +Ceratium tripos, C. macroceros, C. furca, +* Lietal., 2011 +20 Marshall and Cohn, 198 *1 Malone, 1977 +© 2016 United Nations +36 + +- Peridinium depressu Coastal Gulf — of | Heterokontophyta | 152 | Guinarda spp., Hemiaulus senensis, Leptocilyndru & Shelf Mexice” danicus, Thalassionema_ spp.,_ Cylindrothec closterium, Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissim Alveolata 124 | Ceratium spp., Dinophysis caudate**, Gyrodiniu fusiforme, Scrippsiella trochoide Cyanophyta 18 Trichodesmium spp TOTAL 30 Table 2. Abundant phytoplankton species of selected taxa (based on abundance and number of gener represented) in coastal and shelf waters of the eastern North Atlanti (* produce mucilage and foam, ** potentially toxic species) Domain Location Division No. Abundant Specie Coastal & | NE Atlantic” Heterokontophyta 59 Bacteriastrum spp., Chaetoceros spp., Cylindrothec Shelf (Diatoms) closterium*, Guinardia delicatula, Odontella aurita Proboscia alata, Pseudo-nitzschia spp. ** Rhizosolenia spp., Skeletonema costatum Thallassionema nitzschioide Alveolata 48 Ceratium furca, C. fusus, C. horridum, C. lineatum, C (Dinoflagellates) longipes, C. macroceros, C. tripos, Dinophysis spp.** Gonyaulax spp.**, Noctiluca scintillans, Prorocentru spp., Protoperidinium spp Haptophyta 1 Phaeocystis pouchetii TOTAL 17 Coastal German Heterokontophyta 109 | Chaetoceros curvisetus, Chaetoceros Spp. Bight”* (Diatoms) Coscinodiscus spp., Coscinodiscus wailesii*, Guinardi flaccida, Odontella sinensis, | Pseudo-nitzschi pungens**, Rhizosolenia imbricate, Rhizosoleni styliformi Alveolata 26 Noctiluca scintillans, Ceratium tripos, Ceratium fusus (Dinoflagellates) Ceratium longipes, Gyrodinium spirale Protoperidinium depressu Haptophyta 3 Emiliana huxleyi, Phaeocystis sp. TOTAL 29 Coastal English Heterokontophyta 131 | Guinardia spp., Phaeocystis globosa, Paralia sulcata Channel”® (Diatoms) Pseudo-nitzschia spp**., Chaetoceros spp. Thalassiosira spp 2 Merino-Virgilio et al., 201 3 Barnard et al., 2004; Edwards et al., 200 4 \wasmund et al., 201 5 Guilloux et al., 201 © 2016 United Nations 37 + +Alveolata 28 Prorocentrum spp. * (Dinoflagellates Haptophyta Phaeocystis globosa TOTAL 17 Coastal Iberian Heterokontophyta 68 Chaetoceros spp., Leptocylindrus danicus, Pseudo Peninsula”® (Diatoms) nitzschia delicatissima**, Guinardia spp., Rhizosoleni fragile, Thalassiosira spp., Nitzschia longissim Alveolata 69 Prorocentrum micans**, Amphidinium curvatum (Dinoflagellates) Dinophysis spp.** Ceratium lineatum, Gymnodiniu sp.**, Scrippsiella trochoide TOTAL 161 +26 Rodrigueza et al., 2003; Not et al., 2007; Ospina-Alvarez et al., 2014 +© 2016 United Nations +38 + +Table 3. Abundant mesozooplankton species for selected taxa (based on abundance, number of gener represented and their importance as indicators of climate-driven changes in hydro-climate) in coastal and +shelf regions of the North Atlantic +coast, west Africa; North — Labrador +NE - British Isles, Baltic and North Seas; SE - Bay of Biscay, Iberia and Norwegian Seas, Greenland and Iceland; NW — New York Bight Gulf of Maine, Newfoundland and Scotian Shelves; SW — Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, South Atlantic +Bight) Location Taxa No. | Abundant Specie NE North | Calanoida 286 | Acartia spp., Calanus finmarchicus, Calanu Atlantic?””® helgolandicus, Centropages spp., Clausocalanus spp. Eurytemora affinis, Metridia lucens, Paracalanus spp. Para-Pseudocalanus spp., Pseudocalanus spp., Temor longicornis Cyclopoida 1 Oithona spp Cladocera 3 Evadne spp., Podon spp., Penilia avirostri Thecosomomata | 4 Limacina spp Copepod Total 38 SE North | Calanoida 580 | Acartia —_spp., Calanoides __ carinatus, Calanu Atlantic??? helgolandicus, Candacia armata, Centropages typicus Clausocalanus spp., Ctenocalanus vanus, Euchaet hebes, Metridia lucens, Paraeuchaeta gracilis, Para Pseudocalanus spp., Pseudocalanus spp., Temor stylifera, Undeuchaeta spp., Lucicutia flavicornis Nannocalanus minor, Paracalanus parvus Ctenocalanus vanus, Neocalanus gracilis, Rhincalanu cornutus, Eucalanus subtenui Cyclopoida 4 Oithona spp Cladocera 7 Evadne spp., Podon sp Thecosomomata | 4 Limacina inflata, Limacina trochiformis, Creseis acicul Copepod Total 74 North North | Calanoida 188 | Acartia spp., Calanus finmarchicus, Heterorhabdu Atlantic’? norvegicus, Paraeuchaeta norvegic Cyclopoida - Oithona spp Cladocera - Evadne spp Thecosomomata | - Limacina spp Copepod Total 204 +27 Barnard et al., 200 8 van Ginderdeuren, 2012; Laakmann et al., 2013; Razouls et al., 201 29 Thiede, 1975; Poulet et al., 1996; Valdés et al., 2007; Albaine and Irigoien, 2007, Hernandez-Leon et al., +2007 +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +NW North | Calanoida 204 | Acartia spp., Calanus finmarchicus, Calanus glacialis, +Atlantic??? Calanus hyperboreus, Centropages spp., Labidocer aestiva, Metridia lucens, Para-Pseudocalanus spp. Pseudocalanus spp., Clausocalanus —_arcuicornis Paracalanus spp., Temora_ longicornis, Tortanu discaudatus +Cyclopoida - Oithona spp. +Cladocera - Evadne spp., Podon spp., Penilia spp. +Thecosomomata | - Limacina retroversa, Limacina spp. +Copepod Total 261 +SW North | Calanoida 553 | Acartia spp., Calanus tenuicornis, Centropages spp., +Atlantic?" Clausocalanus spp., Corycaeus spp., Eucalanus spp. Euchaeta spp., Haloptilus longicornis, Labidocer aestiva, Lucicutia flavicornis, Paracalanus crassirostris Paracalanus parvus, Parvocalanus spp., Pleuromamm gracilis, Nannocalanus minor, Temora spp. +Cyclopoida Oncaea venusta, Corycaeus amazonicus, Oithon brevicornis, Oithona nana, Oithona plumifera, Oithon simplex +Cladocera Evadne sp. +Thecosomomata Limacina trochiformis +Copepod Total 715 +Table 4. Tabulation of conclusions o +assessment authorities on stock status. Each authority has its ow standards for benchmarking status. Where quantitative reference points are not estimated, a stock wa counted as “healthy or cautious” if abundance was reported as average or high, or as increasing if belo average. Stocks reported as depleted or low and declining were counted as negative status. F = statu relative to fishing mortality reference points; B = status relative to biomass reference points (,) +Authority US-NMFS Canada-DFO | NAFO | ICES +Positive or Cautious Status | 195 (B) 72 Healthy | 5 6 290 (F ) 31 Cautious +Negative Status 38 overfished | 17 5 4 27 overfishing +Unknown 247 35 4 75 +30 Malone, 1977, Johns et al., 2001; Durbin et al., 2003; Runge and Jones, 2012 +3 Grice, 1960; Park, 1970, 1975; Cummings, 1983; Elliott et al., 2012 +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Table 5. Tabulation of a number of primary publications documenting status and trends in fish community +metrics for areas in the North Atlantic. +A large number of community metrics were used, and have been grouped into several categories: “size includes metrics of body size; “diversity” includes any of the typical indices of species diversity; “richness and “evenness” include numbers of species recorded and how numbers were distributed among species “dominance” includes measures of how much the abundance of the few most common species in community comprised of all the individuals in the community; “N” includes measures of total abundanc of individuals in a community, “B” includes measures of community biomass; “slope” and “intercept” are +parameters of community size spectra; “species composition” are diverse ways representation of particular species in the community c +reporting how the +hanged. For reporting trends in the metric, “+” +means an overall upward trend, “-”means an overall downward trend and “nt” means no overall trend, +although there could be substantial interannual variation in the metric Location Indicators and Interval Comments Referenc trend Georges Size +, diversity+, | 1960s - Decline in F and Collie et al Bank Biomass/areat+ 2009 effort 201 North Sea Size +, diversity+, | 1960s - Decline in F and Collie et al B+ 2009 effort 201 lonian Sea N+, Richness+, 1998-2008 | Decline in F and Tsagarakis e Size+ effort al. 201 Galicia Diversity, 1980-1991 | Species composition | Farina et al Richness, N, B changed more than 199 indice Multiple Slope +, intercept | Various; 2 | Increases in F Bianchi et al * decades+ 200 Scotian Shelf | Slope+, 1970-1997 | Increases in F intercept+ diversity n North Sea Slope+, 1972 - Increase F and intercept+, 1998 expansion o richness+ southern specie Portugal Slope nt, 1982 - Large variation in intercept nt, 1998 with species compositio evenness nt gaps w/o tren NW North Diversity -, 1920 - Large changes in Greenstreet e Sea dominance + 1990s non-commercial al. 199 (with gaps) | species a commercial one decreased +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Canary Diversity nt, 1990s Large changes w/o Uiblein et al Islands richness nt trend in species 199 compositio Baltic and Richness +, N nt 1990 - Difference in Hiddink an Kattegat 2008 connectance not a Coleby 201 facto West of Richness - 1997-2008 | F stayed high ter Hofstede e Scotland al. 201 North Sea Richness+ “ Southern species incursion Celtic Sea Richness+ “ “ Iceland Richness +, 1996-2007 | Warming Steffansdotti diversity nt et al. 201 Iceland Species 1970s- Warming Valdimarsso Composition 2010s et al. 201 Dogger Bank | Diversity-, 1991 - Warming, and Sonnewald an dominance + 2010 common species Turkay 201 increase NE Shelf Richness+, 1980 - Abrupt regime like Simpson et al Diversity+ 2008 change 201 Species makeu changed mos North Sea Richness+ (eggs 1958 - Warm species Beaugrand e & larvae) 2005 entering al. 200 Barents Sea_ | Functional 2004 - Many changes in Wiedmann e diversity nt 2009 species comp. al. 201 Scotian Shelf | B-, Size-, 1970 - Period of heavy Shackell et al Evenness- 2006 fishing 201 W of Richness nt, 1980s — Fishing stable but Campbell et al Scotland diversity nt 2000s high 201 North Sea Slope+, 1972 - Large species Daan et al Intercept+, Lmax- | 2000s becoming rarer. 200 Greater in high area Scotian Shelf | Evenness+. 1970 - F high and increasing | Shackell an Dominance - 2000 Frank 2003 +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Medit. and Length nt, N nt 1997 - Large variability but | Rochet et al NE Atlantic 2007 no persistent trends | 201 Portuguese | Richness nt, 1989 - High spatial Sousa et al shelf Diversity nt 1999 patchiness, no 200 overall trend NW Atlantic | Diversity nt 1970s — Latitudinal trend but | Fisher et al 2000s no time trend 200 NW Atlantic | N-, MaxAge-, 1978 F high and not Hutchings an Size- various declining Bau Medit. Abundance-, 1948-2005 | Just sharks Ferretti et al Richness- 2013 +Table 6. Population trends of breeding seabird tax shearwaters, gannets, cormorants, shags, pelicans, auks; +frigatebirds, skuas, jaegers, gulls, terns. +in the North Atlantic Ocean. Divers includ surface-feeders include fulmars, storm-petrels, +REGION ALL SPECIES DIVERS SURFACE-FEEDER NORTH ATLANTIC Decrease Decrease Decreas NAFO Decrease ncrease Decrease +E Baffin Is Increase ncrease ? +W Greenland Decrease Decrease No Change Newfoundland/Labrador No Change ncrease Decreas Gulf St. Lawrence Decrease ncrease Decrease +E Canada/United States Increase ncrease Increas Gulf of Mexico ? ? ? +Caribbean Decrease Decrease Decreas ICES Decrease Decrease Increase +E Greenland/Iceland Decrease Decrease Increas Barents Sea® Increase ncrease Decreas Norwegian Sea Decrease Decrease Increas Faroes Island (Denmark), | Increase ncrease Decreas Shetland, Western United +Kingdom +N Sea/English Channel Decrease No Change? Decreas Baltic Sea, Skagerrak, | ? ? ? +Kattegat +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +France, Iberia, Azores ? +a-—not included +Table 7. Estimates of indigenous species richness and pressures on them in the Chesapeake Bay estuarin system (sans meiofauna, bacteria and microzooplankton). Of the phytoplankton, diatoms accounted fo 46%, chlorophytes 19%, dinoflagellates 13%, cyanobacteria 9% and toxic species 2%. Of the benthic (sof bottom) macrofauna, arthropods accounted for 37%, annelids 25%, and mollusks 25%. (Data sources lee and Jacobs, 1987; Birdsong et al., 1989; Birdsong an d Austin, 1999; Nizinski, 2003; and Marshall et al., 2005) +Orris, 1980; Musick et al., 1985; Brow Buchanan, 1993; Wagner, 1999; Wagner an +Trophic Level | Category Number of | Major Anthropogenic Pressure Specie Primary Marsh grasses 19 Coastal development, Sea level rise Producers Invasive specie Submerged 15 Nutrient loading, Invasive specie vascular plant Macroalgae 25 Nutrient loading, Invasive specie Phytoplankton 1453 Nutrient loading, Harvest of pelagi & benthic filter feeder Consumers Zooplankton (> | 400 Nutrient loading, Harvest of pelagi 200 uum) filter feeders & predators, Ocea warmin Fin fish 348 Fishing, Habitat loss, Invasiv species, Ocean warmin Benthic 696 Fishing, Seasonal hypoxia, Ocea macrofauna warmin Waterfowl 49 Fishing, Habitat los 300 TOTAL +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +Table 8. Representatives +of ecologically important species drawn from Heck and Orth (1980), Orth et al. +(1987), Baird and Ulanowicz (1989), Sellner and Marshall (1993), Birdsong and Buchanana (1993), Houde +(1993), Dauer et al. (199. +3), Newell and Breitburg (1993), McConaugha and Rebach (1993), Jorde et al. +(1993), Stevenson and Pendleton (1993), Jordan (2001), Buchanan et al. (2005), Orth et al. (2006), and +Chambers et al. (2008). +(*Ilconic species, **Toxic species). +Category +Species +Tidal marsh grasses +Pontederia cordata, Zizania aquatica, Scripus olneyii, Spartina cynosuroides Spartina alterniflora, S. patens +Submerged — vascular | Vallisneria americana, Stuckenia pectinata, Potamogeton perfoliatus, Ruppi plants maritime, Zostera marin Macroalgae Ulva lactuca, Agardhiella spp., Enteromorpha spp., Cladophora spp. +Phytoplankton +Diatoms -— Cerataulina pelagica, Rhizosolenia fragilissima, Leptocylindru minimus, Skeletonema costatum, Asterionella glacialis; Dinoflagellates Gymnodinium spp., Ceratium lineatum, Prorocentrum minimum**, Dinophysi acuminata*; +Cyanobacteria — Microcystis aeruginosa** +Zooplankton +Bosmina longirostris, Leptodora kindtii, Acartia tonsa, Eurytemora affinis Nemopsis bachei, Mnemiopsis leidyi, Chrysaora quinquecirrha +Benthic infauna +Mya arenaria, Macoma balthica, M. mitchelli, Nereis succinea +Benthic epifauna +Crassostrea virginica*, Callinectes sapidus* +Forage fish +Alosa pseudoharengus, A. aestivalis, A. sapidissima, A. mediocris, Ancho mitchilli, Brevoortia tyrannus, Gobiosoma bosci, Menidia menidia, Fundulu heteroclitus, Cyprinodon variegates, Gambusia holbrooki +Intermediate +Micropogonias undulatus, Trinectes maculatus, Leiostomus xanthurus*, Morone +predators americana™*, Ictalurus punctatus +Top predators Pomatomus saltatrix, Cynoscion regalis, Paralichthys dentatus, Moron saxatilis* +Waterfowl Aythya americana, Aythya valisineria, Anas rubripes, A. americana Phalacrocorax auritus, Ardea herodias, Branta canadensis*, Cygnus +columbianus, Haliaeetus leucocephalus +Invasive species +Marsh grass — Phragmites australis, Lythrum salicaria, Trapa natans Benthic macrofauna — Dreissena polymorph Fin Fish — /ctalurus furcatus, Pylodictis olivaris; +Other —Cygnus olor, Myocastor coypus +Threatened & +endangered species +Sturgeon — Acipenser oxyrinchus, A. brevirostrum Mussels — Alasmidonta heterodon +Turtles — Caretta caretta, Lepidochelys kempi +© 2016 United Nations + +Figures +Figure 1. Currents defining the North Atlantic gyre. +From http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html +Total Population +0 T T T T T T T 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 +Year +Figure 2. Estimated recent population trends of Northwest Atlantic gray seals. +Taken from Hammill et al., 2014. Estimated based on surveys and population model; dashed line represent 95% confidence interval of estimates +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +(lias - 30 EE- 200 +Northwest Atlantic +70°0 +Figure 2bis. Bathymetric chart of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in eastern Canada. Cabot Strait in the southeas and the Strait of Belle Isle in the northeast connect the Gulf to the continental shelf regions of th Northwest Atlantic. (Prepared by Marie-Noélle Bourassa, DFO, Canada) +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +a +Mid-1980s +Mid-1990s + i +G Pahing +---------------—------------» +48 +© 2016 United Nation + +Mid-1980s +Mid-1990s +Figure 3. Changes in species abundance and/or biomass and food web structure and functioning +References +Abdul Malak, D., Livingstone, S.R., Pollard, D., Polidoro, B.A., Cuttelod, A., Bariche, M. Bilecenoglu, M., Carpenter, K.E., Collette, B.B., Francour, P., Goren, M. Kara, M.H., Massuti, E., Papaconstantinou, C., Tunesi, L. (2011). Overview of th Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea. \UCN, vii 61pp., Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain. +Albaina, A. and Irigoien, X. (2007). Fine scale zooplankton distribution in the Bay o Biscay in spring 2004. Journal of Plankton Research, vol. 29, No. 10, pp. 851-870. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Alheit, J., M6llmann, C., Dutz, J., Kornilovs, G., Loewe, P., Mohrholz, V., Wasmund, N (2005). Synchronous ecological regime shifts in the central Baltic and the Nort Sea in the late 1980s. /CES Journal of Marine Science, vol. 62, pp. 1205-1215. +Alvarez-Filip, L., Dulvy, N.K., Gill, J.A., Coté, ILM, Watkinson, A.R. (2009). 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Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, an Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, Townsville, Australia, 152pp. +Willette, D.A., Chalifour, J., Dolfi Debrot, A.O., Engel, S., Miller, J., Oxenford, H.A., Short F.T., Steiner, S.C.C., Védie, F. (2014). Continued expansion of the trans-Atlanti invasive marine angiosperm Halophila stipulacea in the Eastern Caribbean Aquatic Botany, vol. 112, pp. 98-102. +Woodland, R.J., Secor, D.H., Fabrizio, M.C., Wilberg, M.J. (2012). Comparing the nurser role of inner continental shelf and estuarine habitats for temperate marin fishes. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 99, pp. 61-73. +Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N., Duffy, J.E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson, J.B.C. Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J. Watson, R. (2006). Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services Science, vol. 314, No. 5800, pp. 787-790. +Worm, B., Hilborn, R., Baum, J.K., Branch, T.A., Collie, J.S., Costello, C., Fogarty, M.J. Fulton, E.A., Hutchings, J.A., Jennings, S., Jensen, O.P., Lotze, H.K., Mace, P.M. McClanahan, T.R., Minto, C., Palumbi, S.R., Parma, A.M., Ricard, D. Rosenberg, A.A., Watson, R., Zeller, D. (2009). Rebuilding Global Fisheries Science, vol. 325, No. 5940, pp. 578-584. +Wyda, J.C., Deegan, L.A., Hughes, J.E., Weaver, M.J. (2002). The response of fishes t submerged aquatic vegetation complexity in two ecoregions of the mid-Atlanti Bight: Buzzards Bay and Chesapeake Bay. Estuaries, vol. 25, pp. 86-100. +York, P.H., Kelaher, B.P., Booth, D.J., Bishop, M.J. (2012). Trophic responses to nutrien enrichment in a temperate seagrass food chain. Marine Ecology Progress Series vol. 449, pp. 291-296. +Zenetos, A., Gofas, S., Verlaque, M., Cinar, M.E., Raso, G., Bianchi, C.N., Morri, C. Azzurro, E., Bilecenoglu, M., Froglia, C., Siokou, |., Violanti, D., Sfriso, A. San Martin, G., Giangrande, A., Katagan, T., Ballesteros, E., Ramos-Espla, A. Mastrototaro, F., Ocafia, O., Zingone, A., Gambi, M.C., Streftaris, N. (2010). Alie species in the Mediterranean Sea by 2010. A contribution to the application o European Union’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Part I. Spatia distribution. Mediterranean Marine Science, vol. 11, pp. 381-493. +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Zydelis, R., Bellebaum, J., Osterblom, H., Vetemaa, M., Schirmeister, B., Stipniece, A. Dagys, M., van Eerden, M., Garthe, S. (2009). Bycatch in gillnet fisheries — A overlooked threat to waterbird populations. Biological Conservation, vol. 142 No. 7, pp. 1269-1281. +Also: Centre for Marine Biodiversity (CMB) http://www.marinebiodiversity.ca/cmb. +Extra References for Gulf of Mexico +Literature cited — all references originally provided were NOT listed in manuscript +Briggs, J. C. (1974). Marine Zoogeography. McGraw-Hill, New York. 480 pp. +Brooks, J. M., Fisher, C., Roberts, H., Bernard, B., McDonald, I., Carney, R., Joye, S. Cordes, E., Wolff, G., Goehring, E. (2008). Investigations of Chemosyntheti Communities on the Lower Continental Slope of the Gulf of Mexico. Interi Report 1. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf o Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, Louisiana. OCS Study MMS 2008-009. 332 pp. +Carney, R. S. (1993). Review and Reexamination of OCS Spatial-temporal Variability a Determined by MMS Studies in the Gulf of Mexico. OCS Study MMS 93-0041 New Orleans, Louisiana: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Managemen Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office, New Orleans, Louisiana. +Cordes, E., McGinley, E., Podowski, M.P., Becker, E.L., Lessard-Pilon, S., Viada, S.T. Fisher, C.R. (2008). Coral communities of the deep Gulf of Mexico. Deep-Se Research I, vol. 55, pp. 777-787. +CSA International, Inc. (2007). Characterization of Northern Gulf of Mexico Deepwate Hard Bottom Communities with Emphasis on Lophelia Coral. U.S. Department o the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, Ne Orleans, Louisiana. OCS Study MMS 2007-044. 169 pp. + app. +Darnell, R.M., Defenbaugh, R.E. (1990). Gulf of Mexico: Environmental Overview an History of Environmental Research. American Zoologist, vol. 30, pp. 3-6. +Davis, R.W., Evans, W.E., Wirsig, B. (eds.). (2000). Cetaceans, Sea Turtles and Seabirds i the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Distribution, Abundance and Habitat Associations Vol. Il. Technical Report. Prepared by Texas A&M University at Galveston and th National Marine Fisheries Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geologica Survey, Biological Resources Division, USGS/BRD/CR-1999—0006 and Minerals +© 2016 United Nations 8 + +Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, Louisiana, OC Study MMS 2000-003. 346pp. +Ellis S.L., Incze, L.S., Lawton, P., Ojaveer, H., MacKenzie, B.R., Pitcher, C.R., Shirley, T.C. Eero, M., Tunnell, Jr., J.W., Doherty, P.J., Zeller, B.M. (2011). Four regiona marine biodiversity studies: Approaches and contributions to ecosystem-base management. PLoS ONE, vol. 6, No. 4: e18997 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018997. +Fautin, D., Dalton, P., Incze, L.S., Leong, J.A.C., Pautzke, C., Rosenberg, A., Sandifier, P. Sedberry, G., Tunnell, Jr., J.W., Abbott, I., Brainard, R.E., Brodeur, M., Eldredge L.G., Feldman, M., Moretzsohn, F., Vroom, P.S., Wainstein, M., Wolff, N. (2010). +An overview of marine biodiversity in United States waters. PLoS ONE, vol. 5, No. +8: e11914. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011914. +Felder, D.L., Camp, D.K. (eds.) (2009). Gulf of Mexico—Origin, Waters, and Biota. Vol. 1 Biodiversity. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas. 1393 pp. +Harper, Jr., D.E. (1991). Macrofauna and macroepifauna. In: Brooks, J. M. (ed) Mississippi-Alabama Continental Shelf Ecosystem Study Data summary an synthesis. Vol. Il. Technical. U.S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. +© 2016 United Nations +8 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36A.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36A.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36B.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36B.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e13792573a59a7b48457c647f88edce80c1c04ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36B.txt @@ -0,0 +1,480 @@ +Chapter 36B. South Atlantic Ocean +Contributors: Alexander Turra, Angel Perez, Flavia Lucena-Frédou, Monica Muelbert Andrea Raya Rey, Laura Schejter, Javier Calcagno, Enrique Marschoff and Beatric Ferreira (Lead members) +1. Introduction +In this chapter we refer to the area of the Atlantic Ocean south of the Equator and nort of the Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence). The main topographical feature in the Sout Atlantic is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which runs between Africa and South America fro approximately 58° South to Iceland in the north. A rift valley is associated with th Ridge. The Ridge is of volcanic origin and the development of transverse ridges creates number of basins: the Argentine, Brazil, Guinea, Angola and Cape Basins. +The Atlantic coast of South America is influenced by three major rivers, Orinoco Amazon and La Plata, that discharge large amounts of freshwater and sediment into th Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon discharges about one-fifth of the world’s total freshwate runoff into the Atlantic (Curtin, 1986) and it is transported offshore up to 500 k seaward (Lentz, 1995). The heavy sediment discharge (2.9 - 10° tons year)”) is no deposited over the outer shelf, but is carried by the North Brazil Current to Guyana’ shelf, where it forms extensive mud deposits (Gratiot et al., 2008). The continental shel is wider along its West Coast, both in the north at the Amazon (=300 km) and i southern Argentina, where it reaches up to 600 kilometres (Miloslavich et al., 2011) The shelf is narrower along the East Coast of the Atlantic and also along the east coas of Brazil, where riverine muds give way to calcareous deposits and the shelf in some area reaches a minimum of 8 km width (Miloslavich et al., 2011). +The continental slope is cut by deep canyons connecting shelf and deep waters. Hig benthic richness was reported at the head of the submarine canyons, and about half o the species are shared with the shelf-break community (Bertolino et al., 2007; Schejte et al., 2014b). The ~7500 km of the Brazil coasts comprise a combination o freshwater, estuarine and marine ecosystems, with diverse but poorly known habitat in its northern part and with sandy beaches, mangrove forests, rocky shores, lagoon and coral reefs to the south (Miloslavich et al., 2011). Uruguay’s coasts are dominate by sandy beaches; a narrow rocky portion has high biodiversity (Calliari et al., 2003) The coasts of Argentina are mostly sandy beaches, with some rocky formations locate mainly at Mar del Plata, Peninsula Valdes and Tierra del Fuego; pebble beaches ar common in Patagonia. The coasts of South Africa are part sandy beaches, rocks an rocks mixed with sand on the upper shore and a wave-cut rocky platform (Bally et al. 1984). +© 2016 United Nation + +South Atlantic waters are characterized by the counterclockwise central subtropical gyr of surface and intermediate waters running close to South America and South Africa with more complex currents developing on the coasts of both continents (Campos et al. 1995; McDonagh and King, 2005). The gyre is approximately 4,500 km in diameter an lies between the equator and 40° S (Piontkovski et al., 2003). The eastern (African branch transfers warm water to the northern hemisphere and the western (Sout American) branch carries cold water from the north, both as part of the globa circulation known as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. The gyre is close to the south by the subantarctic branch of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (Wes Wind Drift). The gyre constitutes a biogeographic province with distinct physical an biological properties relative to adjacent regions (Longhurst, 1998). +The currents, closely linked to the topography, result in a series of surface fronts wit varying depth expressions associated with the different ridges which effectively limi exchange of water among the different basins. The Benguela Current runs northward of the African continent carrying cold water towards the equator, with a coastal branc close to the continent (Griffiths et al., 2010). Its counterpart near South America is th Brazil current, which meets the northward current derived from the Antarcti Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift) running close to the Patagonian shelf (se chapter 36H, Figures 1 to 3). +The offshore waters in the South Atlantic Gyre occupy more than half of the Sout Atlantic Ocean; the Gyre is characterized by low concentrations of nutrients, and lo phytoplankton and zooplankton abundances. Along the South American continenta shelf, circulation patterns are modified by topography, upwelling and continental runof (Gonzalez-Silvera et al., 2004). The South Subtropical Convergence is the intersectio point of low-macronutrient subtropical gyre waters and high-macronutrient Antarcti Circumpolar Current waters and therefore represents one of the most dynamic nutrien environments in the oceans (Ito et al., 2005). +On the African shelf, as in the South American coasts, the Agulhas retroversion, and th Benguela and the Angola Currents are responsible for upwelling processes an enhanced primary production (Lutjeharms and Ballegooyen, 1988). The different wate masses resulting from these processes offer an ample variety of habitats for pelagi biodiversity. The Congo and, on the western side, the Amazon and the Plata plumes ca also seasonally contribute to the enhancement of plankton, thus becoming one of th most productive marine areas of the Atlantic Ocean, which is essentially due to th presence of a great variety of frontal productive systems (Acha et al., 2004; da Cunh and Buitenhuis, 2013). +On the western coasts and shelves, the plumes of the Amazon and of the De la Plat Rivers extend up to 1000 km into the ocean, modifying coastal waters. The De la Plat River plume impinges on coastal and shelf waters of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazi (Muelbert et al., 2008). Lateral mixing results in a water mass typical of the De la Plat plume waters (Piola et al., 2008) with high nutrient concentrations and primary +© 2016 United Nation + +productivity. The Amazon plume influence is felt on the northwest coast of Brazil an modifies the vertical structure of the Equatorial West Ocean (Hu et al., 2004). +Modelling and observed trends predict that the low-productivity subtropical gyre wil expand as a result of climate warming. Such an increase will affect not only the plankto communities, but also fisheries on both sides of the South Atlantic Ocean. Since 1998 the gyre has been expanding at average rates between 0.8 per cent/yr and 4.3 pe cent/yr. The rate of expansion is greater during the winter (Polovina et al., 2008; Henso et al., 2010). +2. Plankton and Nekton +Water-mass properties and movements are the main factors behind plankto distribution in the South Atlantic. The quantitative distribution of pelagic life in th South Atlantic parallels those found in the other oceans: a large area of poor centra waters bound to the north and south by richer equatorial and subpolar bands respectively, with the biologically richest sectors found in the coastal regions, especiall along Africa (Boltovskoy et al., 1999). These conditions are exacerbated at the inshor component of the Benguela Current, which exhibits strong a wind-driven upwelling wit a periodicity of 5 to 10 days; more intense in summer (Shannon and Nelson, 1996) Much of the organic matter associated with this high productivity sinks onto th relatively wide continental shelf, where decay results in the reduction of dissolve oxygen in bottom waters. Periodically, these low-oxygen conditions extend clos inshore, sometimes reaching the shoreline itself and resulting in mass mortalities of fish rock lobster, and other invertebrates (Griffiths et al., 2010). +In general, knowledge of the plankton taxonomy and ecology is relatively scarce in th South Atlantic, in particular the oligotrophic waters of the South Atlantic gyre are ver little known; little sampling has been conducted there (Piontkovski et al., 2003). Table presents a summary of the relevant parameters for different regions of the Sout Atlantic Ocean. +Table 1. Major structural-functional characteristics of the South Atlantic (0-100 m layer). Dat presentation adapted from Greze (1984) and Boltovskoy et al. (1999) in Piontkovski et al., 2003. +South Equatorial Brazil West Win Parameters Benguela Current Current Current Drift Central Gyr Extension of current (km) 4000 4000 4800 640 Current velocity (cm s“) 50-150 40-70 150 50-6 Primary production (mgC m? d’ (1) Koblentz-Mishke (1977) 250->500 150-250 <100-150 100-250 <10 (2) Greze (1984) 1000-5000 175-480 117-547 285-515 95-20 (3) Longhurst et al. (1995) 880 360-430 830 330-370 210 +© 2016 United Nations + +Chla (surface) (mg m-3) 3.0415 0.15 +0.05 0.3040.10 0.22+0.10 0.09 + 0.04 +C:Chl a (0-100 m) (mg mg-—1) 35 70 45 91 8 Phytoplankton total biomass (mgC m? 105 15 14 18 1 >5-um phytoplankton (mgC m”) 103 3 2.9 1.2 Species of >5-pym phytoplankton 110 264 155 70 23 Phytoplankton diversity (a) 13 49 46 27 5 Zooplankton biomass (mgC m™) 3.5 3.4 1.6 1.1 1. Copepod species (number) 176 215 280 161 30 Copepod diversity H' (bit ind? 3.1 3.9 44 2.5 45 +Primary production values in the central gyre range around >0.1-0.2 g C m-2 d”, wit phytoplankton concentrations below 103 cells [* In the vicinity of the equator biological richness is enhanced by equatorial divergence and by seaward advection o nutrient- and biomass-rich Benguela upwelling waters (Boltovskoy et al., 1999). A 30 fold difference in mean surface chlorophyll and a 100-fold difference in phytoplankto biomass were found between the centre of the gyre and the Benguela Current water (Piontkovski et al. 2003). The high productivity region extends to the north along th African coast. In the Southwestern Atlantic, primary production and chlorophyll- measurements show a number of areas of enhanced phytoplankton output. Diatom play an important role in this biomass build-up (Olguin et al. 2006). +Diversity increases in oligotrophic waters; the abundance in the Antarctic Circumpola Current decreases from West to East, whereas the diversity index increases. In th Benguela Current, the number of species is similar to that in the Antarctic Circumpola Current, but the diversity index is lower; the taxonomic composition of the Sout Equatorial Current and the central gyre are similar (Greze, 1984). South of th Subtropical Convergence, the primary limiting nutrient is Fe, whereas to the north th phytoplankton standing crop seems to be limited by macronutrients (Browning et al. 2014). +In general, the taxonomic study of plankton species in the South Atlantic is poor t average, approximately 2500 zooplankton species have been identified in the Sout Atlantic and it is expected to find 300 more (Boltovskoy et al., 2003). Copepods, in term of numbers and biomass, are the main component of zooplankton; within this group th largest proportion is made up of the smaller copepods (less than 0.3 mm). Euphausiid and amphipods are important components, especially in neritic zones (Thompson et al. 2013). +Squid are important components of the South Atlantic marine ecosystem, for ecologica and socioeconomic reasons. They show high predation rates and contribut substantially to the flux of energy and nutrients to higher trophic levels (Rosas-Luis e al., 2013). The Argentine shortfin squid (/llex argentinus) is a common species on th western shelf; mainly feeding on amphipods and euphausiids (Ivanovic, 2010), i sustains an important fishery by trawlers and jigging vessels, and Doryteuthis gahi is also +© 2016 United Nations + +targeted by the commercial fishery with substantial annual catches (Arkhipkin et al 2013). On the African coast, the chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudii) is closely linke to the Agulhas ecosystem; its catches and biomass are highly variable (Roberts, 2005 and, in the south Brazil ecosystem, Loligo plei is an important link between pelagic an demersal energy pathways (Gasalla et al. 2010), supporting small-scale fisheries aroun Sado Sebastido Island (Postuma and Gasalla, 2010). Other squid species, such as D. gahi Onykia ingens and Histioteuthis atlantica, are important components of the ecosyste on the outer Patagonian shelf. +3. Benthos +In general, the development of the benthic communities is mainly linked to th availability of food (primary producers and nutrients), closely related with th development of the seasonal and permanent frontal systems, as well as upwellin processes. Benthic habitats are variable in the South Atlantic, with unique and highl diverse ecosystems (Miloslavich et al., 2011), such as kelp forests (Rozzi et al., 2012) an huge rhodolith beds (Amado-Filho et al., 2012). The services derived from benthi habitats (e.g., Copertino, 2011) support several human activities, such as fisheries (Sala et al., 2011) and tourism. Distribution patterns of the different taxa, benthi communities and assemblages mainly obey oceanographic conditions; the majority o them are distributed according to biogeographical regions (Kréncke et al., 2013) although patterns are not always clear because of the fragmented and unequa sampling effort along the total extent of the South Atlantic. +To date, benthos studies have been based on basic sampling methodologies, wer usually limited to descriptive results, and population and ecological features wer mostly studied in communities dominated by commercial species (mussels, scallops oysters). There is still a lack of knowledge in coastal and mid-shelf waters, wherea benthic communities beyond the shelf-break are only poorly known. +The available information on the fauna inhabiting the deep basins is scarce: ophiuroid and surface deposit feeders are dominant in the Cape Basin, sponges, sipunculids an fish in the Angola Basin, asteroids, crustaceans and fish in the Eastern Guinea Basin, an sipunculids in the Western Guinea Basin. The content of chlorophyll in sediments i consistent with primary production and flux rate of organic matter in the three basins o the south-east Atlantic. The structure and function of the three basin communitie correlate with the amount of seafood reaching the seafloor (Wei et al., 2010). +Along the South American coast, many research programmes have been developed tha focus on individual, but mainly coastal, communities and species. Several adopted a integrated approach to the study of benthos in deep waters, such as the REVIZE Programme (Programme for the Evaluation of the Sustainability Potential of Livin Resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone), which so far is the most concerted effort t increase knowledge (see Lana et al., 1996, for a baseline of the REVIZEE) on the benthic +© 2016 United Nation + +diversity on the continental shelf and slope, recording more than 1000 taxa in 32 samples. More recently, the Pampa Azul initiative focused on the interdisciplinary stud of the marine environment in the South Atlantic (www.mincyt.gob.ar/accion/pampa azul-9926). As part of the environmental requirements of the licensing policies, th offshore oil industry produced an important amount of data on benthos that are not ye available for scientific research purposes. +In coastal areas the benthos is better known; several research groups work along th South Atlantic, although with distinct hotspots of effort. Most of the informatio regarding benthic biodiversity, richness and distribution patterns must be obtained fro publications devoted to a single taxonomic group or from local ecological studies. +Although there are areas with no information on benthic habitats and diversity, ther are places where studies are concentrated. One example is the Araca Bay, Southeaster Brazil, where 733 benthic species were historically recorded (Amaral et al., 2010) an where, in a recent and continued study, more than 1,000 species have already bee recorded in this area. In the SW Atlantic Ocean, 134 echinoderm species have bee identified from the five classes (Brogger et al., 2013; Souto et al., 2014), about 36 benthic molluscs (bivalves+gastropods) (Zelaya, 2014 and pers. comm.), of which 27 ar of present or potential commercial interest (Roux et al., 2010), 102 crustacean decapo species, with five of commercial interest (Boschi, 2010), at least 212 amphipod specie (Lopez Gappa et al., 2006), at least 218 sponge species (L6pez Gappa and Landoni, 2005 Schejter et al., 2006; Bertolino et al., 2007; Goodwin et al., 2011), 246 bryozoan specie (Lopez Gappa, 2000), 88 hydrozoan species (Souto et al., 2010) and at least other 2 cnidarian species, including corals (Zamponi, 2008), at least 70 polychaete specie (Bremec et al., 2010) and 79 ascidians, including the records of exotic species (Tatidn e al., 2013). Many other minor groups (e.g., brachyopods, nemertina, sipunculida echiurida, other molluscs, etc.) contribute to the total richness of the benthic realm. +Studies on the deep benthic macro- and mega-fauna in the South Atlantic hav concentrated on the South American and African continental margins; the deep centra areas have remained one of the least studied areas of the world ocean (Perez et al. 2012). Much of the diversity data in the southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for example, stil derive from large-scale expeditions conducted in the late nineteenth century, such a the HMS Challenger expedition, which recorded over 80 species of echinoderms polychaetes and bryozoans (Murray, 1895), and surveys conducted by the former USS in the second half of the twentieth century, which focused mostly on seamounts an trenches (e.g., Malyutina, 2004). Fishing surveys conducted on seamounts of the Walvi Ridge provided further descriptions of crustacean (McPherson, 1984) and scleractinia coral faunas (Zibrowius and Gili, 1990), including several new species and the extensio of geographic distribution ranges of species from the North Atlantic and Souther Oceans. +More recently, efforts to increase knowledge on deep benthic fauna in the Sout Atlantic have derived from global initiatives such as the Census of Marine Life (e.g. German et al., 2011; Perez et al., 2012) on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Walvis Ridge. +© 2016 United Nation + +Vent sites 3° — 7° south of the Equator were found to contain the mussel Bathymodiolu puteoserpentis, the vesicomyd clam Abyssogena southwardae, and the alvinocari shrimp Rimicaris exoculata, also common in North Atlantic vent sites. These record imply that the Equatorial Fracture Zone may not be a significant barrier to dispersal o North and South Mid-Atlantic ridge fauna (German et al., 2011). Nearly 190 benthi species records were obtained in non-chemosynthetic environments of the Mid-Atlanti Ridge and Walvis Ridge, with particularly increased diversity found on the Romanch Fracture Zone (Perez et al., 2012). Among these records new species of Hemichordates amphipods and caridean shrimp were recently described (Cardoso and Fransen, 2012 Holland et al., 2013; Serejo, 2014). Findings such as the ones described will tend t escalate as the deep areas of the South Atlantic are more and better sampled in th future. +National efforts to increase the knowledge on marine biodiversity are taking place i recent years. The Long-Term Ecological Studies Programme(PELD, in Portuguese) funded by the Brazilian National Science Foundation (CNPq), and the SISBIOT Programme(National Biodiversity System), funded by national and state science-fundin agencies, are examples of structured initiatives to produce relevant information o benthic habitats. Several groups are producing temporal series of benthic data to enabl the understanding of the impacts of local and global changes. The Brazilian Network fo Monitoring Benthic Coastal Habitats (ReBentos; rebentos.org) is a strategy to aggregat and support this kind of study, linking the scientific efforts to public policies related t marine conservation, such as the National System of Marine Protected Areas, th National Plans for Adaptation to Climate Changes, and the National Action Plans fo Coral Reefs and Mangroves. Several research institutions operate along the coastline. number of regions meeting the criteria set for Ecologically or Biologically Significan Marine Areas (EBSAs) of ecological and socioeconomic importance have been identifie in the South Western Atlantic (Falabella et al., 2013); they contain mussel beds reproductive areas for mammals and birds (Peninsula de Valdés), high primar productivity (shelf-break frontal system), oceanic biodiversity, including corals an sponges (Namuncura — Burdwood Marine Protected Area), king crab, mussel beds an corals (Beagle and Isla de los Estados). Along the southern South American Atlanti coast, the rocky intertidal community is dominated by the bivalves Brachidonte rodriguezi (north to 382S, warm temperate waters), Perumytilus purpuratu (=Brachidontes purpuratus, ca. 42-442S, cold temperate waters) or Mytilus chilensi (south to 472S, cold waters) forming dense beds (Olivier et al., 1966; Penchaszadeh 1973; Zaixso and Pastor, 1977; Zaixso et al., 1978; Sanchez and Zaixso, 1995; Adami e al., 2004; Bazterrica et al., 2007; Hidalgo et al., 2007; Kelaher et al., 2007; Liuzzi an Lopez Gappa 2008). +On the eastern coast, the UNEP-CBD Regional Workshop (Anon., 2013) recognized th biological and ecological importance at the regional level of the Subtropica Convergence Zone, the Walvis Ridge and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and at the subregiona level the Guinea-Canary Currents convergence, the migratory corridor along the Guine Current, the seamounts facing the Congo Basin, the Congo Basin and adjacent canyons’ +© 2016 United Nation + +marine area, the Guinea-Benguela Currents convergence zone, and the equatoria production zone. This latter zone stretches along both sides of the Equator to th convergence of the Guinea-Canary Currents; the area was described for its hig productivity. It is also a breeding ground and migration area for tuna and relate species, as well as of marine mammals. Overall 45 areas of interest were identified a requiring further research in the fields of oceanography, geomorphology, ecology an taxonomy. +The benthic communities are subject to different natural and anthropogeni disturbances, depending on the area. Overfishing, trawling, chemical contamination i harbours and coastal areas, changes in the habitats due to the introduction of alie species, oil prospective and extractive activities are the main activities influencin benthic communities. Succession and stability in rocky intertidal communities ar subject to artisanal shellfish gathering, which in some areas occurs so intensely that i may cause the local disappearance of these communities. +Global analyses of environmental impacts reveal that the South Atlantic is experiencin diffuse but increasing impacts that affect mainly the coastal areas (Halpern et al., 2008) Although the Central South Atlantic is characterized as subjected to a “low impact, most of the region (about 70 per cent) exhibits indicators of higher impacts. “High” an ‘Very High” affected areas are spread along the coastal zones and concentrated close t the most urbanized and/or populated centres, such as Southeastern Brazil and the Gul of Guinea. This scenario was also evident based on the Ocean Health Index (Halpern e al., 2012), which indicates the sustainable use of marine and coastal ecosystem services with the Southeastern Atlantic and Gulf of Guinea presenting the worst performances Several drivers are responsible for this scenario, which is in essence a consequence o public policy implementation gaps associated with evident indices of poverty. On element that directly influences the benthic habitats is the nutrient and sewage input i coastal areas. Diaz and Rosemberg (2008) reported the occurrence of several dea zones (areas with no oxygen to support life), along the Southwestern Atlantic Coast an the Gulf of Guinea. +Additionally, climate change and global warming are also acting in the South Atlanti Ocean. However, concerted efforts to understand the effects of global environmenta changes on the South Atlantic lag behind other regions worldwide, leaving society ill prepared to cope with future changes (Turra et al., 2013). In fact, the paucity of time series data in the southern hemisphere is especially acute in developing countrie (Rosenzweig et al., 2008). +Bottom fishing has represented a variable source of threats to benthic communities i deep areas of the South Atlantic. The development of deep water fishing in slope area off southern Brazil may have produced significant impacts on benthic organisms a reported by Perez and Wahrlich (2005) and Perez et al. (2013). Further south, off th Patagonian Shelf, benthic communities along the shelf-break front are dominated b scallop beds (Bogazzi et al., 2005) that have been studied and exploited since 1996 when the Patagonian scallop fishery started (Lasta and Bremec, 1998; Bremec and Lasta, +© 2016 United Nation + +2002). However, interactions of bottom trawling operations and vulnerable benthi communities were found to be generally low (Portela et al., 2012; Schejter et al. 2014a). +A limited number of vessels operate on seamounts of the Walvis Ridge aiming at botto resources, most notably orange roughy and alfonsino. Although a general paucity o data exists regarding ecosystem impacts of these operations (Bensch et al., 2008; Roger and Gianni, 2010), catch reports made by different countries throughout the 1980s an 1990s suggest that some seamounts may have been heavily fished by bottom gear producing an uncertain impact on benthic organisms, including scleractinian corals an sponges (Clark et al., 2007). Countries such as Spain and Namibia have made efforts t describe these communities in different deep fishing areas in the South Atlantic hig seas and to identify those considered to be “vulnerable marine ecosystems” (VMEs) whose protection would be a priority in the process of managing deep sea fisherie worldwide (FAO, 2009; Duran Mufioz et al., 2012). In 2006, the Southeast Atlanti Fishery Organization (SEAFO) precautionarily adopted the closure of ten seamount area for bottom fishing, which were reviewed in 2010 and some reopened (Weaver et al. 2011). Currently, a total of eleven areas are closed in order to protect VMEs (SEAF Conservation Measure 29/14 Annex 2). +Offshore extraction of oil and gas may cause potential harm to deep benthi communities mostly in association with the production of waste deposits and discharge of chemical pollutants (Davies et al., 2007). Deep areas of Brazilian and West Africa margins have large reserves, which will be increasingly exploited in the next decade Nearly 80 per cent of all oil produced annually in Brazil derives from deep oil fields i Campos Basin, off southeastern Brazil, where important efforts to describe benthi diversity and define environmental baselines have been undertaken (Lavrado and Brasil 2010). It is critical that these efforts expand in the upcoming years, as an even greate offshore oil extraction activity is expected to develop in the large pre-salt reserve recently discovered in the Santos Basin (Abreu, 2013). +Deep mineral deposits have been prospected in the South Atlantic “Area,” particularly i association with abyssal plains (polymetallic nodules), the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (seafloo massive sulphides) and seamounts (cobalt-rich crusts) (Hein et al., 2013). In 2013-14 first plan for exploration of cobalt-rich crusts in a large seamount area named Ri Grande Rise was proposed by Brazil and approved by the International Seabed Authorit (ISA, 2014). This contract will aim, in a 15-year programme, to characterize virtuall undescribed benthic communities and produce an environmental baseline an monitoring plan for the claimed area. This programme follows ISA regulations fo contractors, which include assessing potential disturbances of benthic habitats an organisms caused by crust-removing activities on the seafloor. Although most claims fo mineral exploration are currently concentrated in the Pacific Ocean, it may be expecte that interest in other areas, such as the South Atlantic, will also develop as knowledge o the South Atlantic increases (Perez et al., 2012). +© 2016 United Nation + +One promising tool to reconcile benthic conservation and industrial development i offered by the implementation of Marine Protected Areas (MPA) (Marone et al., 2010 Turra et al., 2013). Studies and efforts to increase the number of MPAs are ongoing such as the survey of priority areas for marine conservation in Brazil (MMA, 2007). I fact, the pressure of particular stakeholders (as shrimp farmers) reduced the protectio of mangroves and wetlands along the Brazilian coast (Rovai et al., 2012). In addition, th recent findings of high oil and gas reserves in the Pre-Salt layer off the Southern Southeastern Brazilian coast, as well as the potential of mining activities, rais awareness about the conservation of the fragile deep-sea benthic habitats. +Due to growing maritime traffic, the record of exotic species is expected to increase. I the Southwest Atlantic, a survey of exotic species in coastal and shelf areas of Urugua and Argentina revealed that 31 species were introduced and 46 were cryptogenic Coastal ecosystems between La Plata and Patagonia have been modified. Only expose sandy beaches appear to be free from the pervasive ecological impact of invasion b exotic species. Poor knowledge of the regional biota makes it difficult to track invasion (Orensanz et al., 2002). Alien species (more than 40 reported for Argentina) severel modified native habitats and may cause loss of biodiversity. The most significan examples are: the Japanese alga Undaria pinnificata that highly transformed the benthi structure found in gulfs and bays in Patagonia (Dellatorre et al., 2012), the introduce barnacles that greatly modified hard substrates in harbours and surrounding areas, th polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus that built reefs in the coastal lagoon Mar Chiquit (Buenos Aires) (Schwindt et al., 2004), the alien oyster Crassostrea gigas tha transformed and colonized coastal and intertidal areas in Buenos Aires and in Patagoni (Castafios et al., 2009; Giberto et al., 2012), the Rapana venosa with an increasin population (Giberto et al., 2006), a voracious gastropod that has already caused hug financial losses in other countries in scallop, mussel and oyster culture and natura populations. In Brazil, a recent report indicated the occurrence of 58 exotic species, wit 9 considered invasive (MMA, 2009), one in the phytobenthos, the green alga Caulerp scalpelliformis var. denticulate, and six in the zoobenthos: the cnidarian anthozoan Tubastraea coccinea and Tubastraea tagusensis, the mollusc bivalves Isognomon bicolo and Myoforceps aristatus, the crustacean decapod Charybdis hellerii and the ascidia Styela plicata. +Due to continental sources of materials (sediment) and pollutants, including chemicals nutrients and solid wastes, as well as the strong and widespread impact of huma occupation, fishing, mining and oil industry activities, benthic coastal habitats are i danger in the South Atlantic and deserve proper attention from governments an society. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +4. Fish +4.1 Status +The area of direct influence of the Amazon and Tocantins rivers is highly heterogeneou in terms of the dynamics of sedimentary deposition and freshwater discharge. Thi determines the characteristics of its fauna (Coelho, 1980; Camargo and Isaac, 2001) an flora (Prost and Rabelo, 1996), including species richness and distribution pattern (Giarrizo and Krumme, 2008). This area supports high fish biodiversity. Camargo an Isaac (2003) estimated that >300 fish species inhabit this area from 23 orders and 8 families, with a high degree of diversification mainly of the families Sciaenidae an Ariidae, but also of Rajiformes, Pleuronectiformes and Tetradontiformes. Many fis species of these families were also reported in French Guyana, Suriname and Guyan (Lowe Mc-Connell, 1962; Planquette et al., 1996, Le Bail et al., 2000, Keith et al., 2000 and Venezuela (Cervigon, 1996). Souza and Fonseca (2008), who also include information on the shelf and shelf break, identified more than 500 species from 10 families. A river-ocean gradient in the distribution of different species reflects thei capacity to tolerate varying levels of salinity. Seasonal changes occur in the compositio of the fish community, with predominance of freshwater species during the rainy seaso and marine species during the dry season (Camargo and Isaac, 2001). The hig productivity of the area offers a high potential for fishery activities due to the numerou rivers and estuaries that empty into the Atlantic Ocean, forming a complex aquati environment with high biological productivity. +Further south along the east Brazil LME, fringing and barrier reefs occur along the coas and over the shelf, harbouring diverse reef fish communities (Maida and Ferreira, 1997 Floeter et al., 2001). Offshore are located a major oceanic plateau, the Ceara Rise, and th Fernando de Noronha Ridge, with a chain of seamounts and the only atoll in the Sout Atlantic Ocean, Atol das Rocas. The Southwestern Atlantic region (SWA; including Brazilia oceanic islands and Argentina) has an impoverished reef fish fauna in relation to th Northwestern Atlantic and Caribbean, with only over half (471) of the reef species richnes and 25 per cent of endemic species distinguishing the ‘Brazilian Province’ (Rocha, 2003 Floeter et al., 2007). +The Amazon freshwater and sediment outflow is a strong (albeit permeable) barrier t shallow-water reef fish and other organisms, and it is probably responsible for most of th endemism found in Brazilian coastal habitats (Rocha, 2003). Where the continental shelf i narrower and unusually steep, reef formations on the shelf-edge zone and slope down t 500 m depth support important multi-species fisheries, harbour critical habitats for the lif cycle of many reef fish species, including spawning aggregation sites (Olavo et al., 2011) serve as a faunal corridor that extends beyond the Amazon mouth area (Collette an Rutzler, 1977), including the hump of Brazil and connect cold habitats in southern Brazi and the Caribbean (Olavo et al., 2011). Snapper dominates the demersal fisheries in th region (Frédou et al., 2006). Further south the shelf widens and the Abrolhos Bank forms a +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +physical barrier to the Brazil Current, hence upwelling and land conditions create eve more diversity, especially for the reef fauna. +The South Brazil Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) extends roughly over the entir continental shelf off southeastern South America. The shelf waters result from th mixing of several water types: coastal, sub-Antarctic, sub-tropical and mixed water (Bisbal, 1995). The Rio de la Plata represents the greatest freshwater inflow to th region, discharging on average 22,000 m?/s (with an annual fluctuation of 22 per cent) About 185 species of fish have been identified in South Brazil and around 540 i Argentine and Uruguayan shelf areas (Miloslavich et al., 2011). Two of the mos commercially important finfish species exploited from this system are common hak (Merluccius hubbsi) and Patagonian hake (Merluccius australis) (Bisbal, 1995). Man Sciaenid species are also important as a fishery resource. In this region more than 55 pe cent of the stocks are overexploited (MMA, 2006). +At the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, the fish fauna comprise 53 marine species (Nidn 1998). The most abundant species undergo migrations related to changes i hydrographic conditions. In the coastal zone fishes from the family Sciaenidae ar dominant to a depth of 50 m (Calliari et al., 2003). South of the Rio de la Plata th patagonian shelf is much wider and highly productive with great fish diversity sustainin fisheries on more than 50 species. Common hake (M. Hubbsi), patagonian grenadie (Macruronus magellanicus), whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furneri), sardinell (Sardinella brasiliensis and S. aurita), southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis) anchovy (Engraulis anchoita), prawns (Pleoticus muelleri) and several species of skate and rays (http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/en). +Along the eastern margin of the South Atlantic, fisheries resources are highl productive, supported by the upwelling resulting from the Guinea and Canary Current along the coast. Currently fish stocks in the area are already overexploited by th foreign distant-water fleets fishing in the Exclusive Economic Zone of West Africa countries (Alder and Sumaila 2004; Atta-Mills et al., 2004) under bilateral agreement with the European Union (Alder and Sumaila, 2004). +4.2 Pressures and Trends +Landings of fisheries in Brazil far exceeded sustainable target levels in the main portio of this area, according to the results from fisheries assessments from a multi-yea Brazilian research programme called REVIZEE; the majority of stocks were either full (23 per cent) or over-exploited (33 per cent) and little room remained for expansion int new fisheries (MMA, 2006). The decline of landings of many demersal stocks has bee reported in the Southern areas of Brazil [Perez et al., 2003]. +Brazilian marine fishes were regionally assessed according to the IUCN Red List criteria For 151 marine Chondrichthyes species, 39 per cent were categorized as threatened mainly due to intense and unmanaged fisheries (Peres et al., 2012), and 35 per cen marine teleost species were also assessed as threatened. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Some species in the south west Atlantic have experienced local collapse (e.g., Cynoscio guatucupa, a migratory species) at Bahia Blanca from the increasing fishing pressur exerted by the industrial fishing fleet operating in open waters (Lopez Cazorla et al. 2014). Information on the status of the exploited species can be found i www. inidep.edu.ar/pesquerias/ppales-pesquerias. +Global climate change affects fish and fisheries. The effects range from increase oxygen consumption rates in fishes, to changes in foraging and migrational patterns i polar seas, to fish-community changes in bleached tropical coral reefs. Projections o future conditions portend further impacts on the distribution and abundance of fishe associated with relatively small temperature changes (Roessig et al., 2004). Th information on the effects of climate change and long-term studies to assess thos effects in the Southwest Atlantic are scarce or non-existent. Schroeder and Castell (2010) modelled effects of climate change scenarios on Patos Lagoon estuarine dependent resources, notably pink shrimp, white-mouth croaker and grey mullet. ENS cycles and climate changes may increase the limnic and decrease the saline influence i the estuary. This scenario may affect the biology and dynamics of estuarine-dependen species and their fisheries, because temperature influences metabolism, which affect the growth of individuals. The natural mortality of larvae may increase due to metaboli stress, although increased growth rates may also reduce the period during which th young are vulnerable to predation. A decrease in the maximum size of the species is als expected, as well as a shift in biomass peaks and the effect of fisheries. West Africa i considered one of the regions most vulnerable to the impact of climate change o fisheries because of the threats to livelihoods and well-being of communities dependin on fisheries. The model’s estimates indicate a 21 per cent drop in landed value and a 5 per cent loss in fisheries-related jobs (Lam et al., 2012). +5. Marine Mammals +5.1 Status +Marine mammals comprise a diverse group of taxonomically and ecologically distinc aquatic vertebrates that inhabit pelagic to coastal and estuarine waters, from the photi zone to deep ocean canyons (Berta et al., 2006). Most marine mammals are to predators that have spatial and temporal separation of feeding and nursing areas; the must maximize the energy obtained during foraging events and thus are considere good indicators of environmental conditions and health because they depend on th ocean for food and survival (Block et al., 2002; Hooker and Boyd, 2003; Fedak, 2013) Along the coast of South America, several species of marine mammals are found a different (partial or full) stages of their life cycles (Miloslavich et al., 2011 and reference herein). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Worldwide, 129 species of marine mammals are described, of which 60 have also bee reported for the South Atlantic Ocean (Perrin et al., 2009). Among resident, frequen and occasional visitors, the South Atlantic Ocean is home to approximately 20 species o the Order Carnivora (Suborder Pinnipeda and Family Mustelidae), and ~45 species of th Order Cetacea. Three Mysticete families (seven species of baleen whales), fiv Odontocete families (27 species of toothed whales), two Pinniped families (10 species) two Mustelidae species and one Sirenid family (a manatee) were reported fo Patagonian and Brazilian coastal waters. Throughout South America, we find marin mammals that are endemic or limited in distribution (La Plata River dolphin, Austra dolphin, Commerson dolphin and manatees), and others with wider distribution tha depend on coastal areas of the region for important stages of their life cycles. +Some baleen whales, such as the southern right whale and the humpback whale, bree in waters off Santa Catarina, Brazil (28°S), the north Patagonian gulfs (34°S), or in th Abrolhos Bank (17°S), Northeast Brazil, and on the coast of Southwest Africa. The onl representative of the manatees in the SAO, Trichechus manatus, occurs discontinuousl along coastal waters of Northeast Brazil (Alagoas -9°S to Amapa 0°) where it is unde serious threat (Luna et al., 2010). Manatees (Trichechus spp.), that are commonly foun in mangrove areas in the North and Northeast regions and along the Amazon Rive Basin, were hunted in the past for their meat and skin and were at risk of extinction, bu they are currently protected by the Brazilian Government. Humpback whale (Megaptera novaengliae) frequent the southern tip of South America, the Beagl Channel and South Africa. Blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) are only see sporadically along northern Argentine and South African coasts. Southern right whales Eubalaena asutralis, inhabit the north Patagonian gulfs, one of the most importan breeding grounds for the species, and are also regularly seen along the coasts o Uruguay and Brazil. Three coastal dolphins are endemic to the region: Peale’s dolphi Lagenorhynchus australis, Commerson’s dolphin Cephalorhynchus commersonii and th La Plata or Franciscana dolphin Pontoporia blainvillei (Bastida and Rodriguez, 2010). Th orca Orcinus orca presents smaller populations with a characteristic predator behaviour in north Patagonia (Lewis and Campagna, 2008) and Isla de los Estados (Ray Rey, pers. obs.). Given advances in technology, the at-sea movements of several specie have been revealed, from the pelagic southern elephant seals (Campagna et al., 1999 Campagna et al., 2006) and the more coastal South American sea lion (Campagna et al. 2001) to the endemic and coastal La Plata River dolphin (Bordino et al., 2008) an breeding and post-breeding humpback whales (Horton et al., 2011). +Resident species also include the South American sea lion Otaria flavescens, widel distributed all along the southern coast of South America, including Isla de los Estado and Falkland Islands (Malvinas), South American fur seals Arctocephalus australis an southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina, with the only land-breeding colony along th coasts of Peninsula Valdés and Punta Ninfa (Chubut, Argentina) believed to be the sam stock as the seals breeding at the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Lewis and Campagna 2008). On the African coast between the resident species are found the Cape fur sea Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Among the cetaceans that visit and live within the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, fiv species are considered "vulnerable" or "endangered" worldwide. Among these are th blue whale, the humpback whale, the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus, the L Plata River dolphin Pontoporia blainvillei and the manatee Trichechus manatus. Most o the Odontoceti species are considered to be data-deficient (Lewis and Campagna, 2008) Two of the three mustelid species, Lontra provocax and L. felina, that inhabit th southern region, are considered endangered. +5.2 Pressures +Some coastal species are threatened by anthropogenic activities, such as pollution fishing and fisheries by-catch, tourism activities, coastal development and habita destruction. Pelagic species are also threatened by increasing traffic of ocean vessel (boats and ships), seismic prospection, fishing, and oil and gas activities. +The indirect effects of fisheries have also been observed in seal populations. For th South American sea lion it has been shown that the level of harvested squid and hak could have a negative impact on seal populations (Koen Alonso and Yodzis, 2005). In th Benguela ecosystem, the interaction of seals (Cape fur seal Arctocephalus pusillu pusillus) and fisheries have been also described (Yodzis, 1998). +Artisanal fisheries and entanglement pose a major threat for small cetacea populations, in particular the endangered La Plata dolphin (Praderi et al., 1989; Pére Macri and Crespo, 1989; Secchi et al., 1997). Although not in big numbers and without clear impact on the population, some other species caught in fishing nets are th Commerson’s dolphin (Crespo et al., 1994; Crespo et al., 1997; Crespo et al., 2000 Schiavini and Raya Rey, 2001; Dans et al., 2003), dusky dolphin, common dolphin an seals (Dans et al., 1997; Crespo et al., 2000; Dans et al., 2003). Elephant seals are als known to become entangled in squid fishing gear (Campagna et al., 2007), as well a many sea lions dying every year with plastic rings around their necks, although this fac has not been quantified and therefore its effect on the population is not known. +Recently the Southern right whale populations have suffered from kelp gull (Laru dominicanus) attacks. This problem started during the 1970s as a consequence of gul population growth due to an increase in food supply of human origin (fisheries an home garbage). Although wounds inflicted by kelp gulls do not pose a real threat for th population, gull attacks impose a change in behaviour by the target whale as it increase its attention to the source of the attacks in 24 per cent of cases, to the detriment o other “natural” forms of behaviour (Rowntree et al., 1998; Rowntree et al., 2001 Bertellotti and Perez Martinez, 2008). On average, 27 southern right whales, mostl pups, die annually in Peninsula Valdés; saw a record of 83 dead whales from unknow causes. Although pathogens are not believed to be a major threat to biodiversity, th growth of human activities and climate change could promote their expansion (Uhart e al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +5.3 Trends +Recent studies have provided insights into marine biodiversity in South America specifically regarding the Patagonian Shelf (Uruguay and Argentina) and the Brazilia Continental Shelf (Miloslavich et al., 2011). Even though Miloslavich and colleagues assessment represented a major breakthrough in our knowledge of marine biodiversit in South America, their focus was on macroalgae, cnidarians, molluscs, crustaceans echinoderms, and fish. The assessment represented an initiative by the Census o Marine Life (CoML) to promote a thorough background check into the information o marine biodiversity produced and accessed only locally in South America and to make i available worldwide via a marine diversity database (OBIS). The knowledge generated b marine research in South America has been limited, given the poor access t oceanographic vessels, isolation between researchers, and the lack of coordinatio between scientific programmes (Ogden et al., 2004). The lack of dedicated efforts t examine the trends in biodiversity and species richness for the region has represented major bottleneck for the development of efficient conservation and managemen measures. Whereas governmental agencies (e.g., the National Oceanic and Atmospheri Administration (NOAA) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) of the Unite States and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans of Canada (DFO)) in the Nort Atlantic are focused on performing marine mammal assessments to help establish thei status and improve their conservation, south of the Equator most assessments are result of isolated research initiatives with local or regional scope, given the cost associated with this type of assessment. +The South American sea lion is the most abundant marine mammal in the region, wit several breeding grounds along the coast from Uruguay to Tierra del Fuego, State Island and Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Reyes et al., 1999; Dans et al., 2004; Schiavini e al., 2004). Most of its populations have been recovering over the last decades from th devastating exploitation suffered between the 17" and 20" centuries (Bastida an Rodriguez, 2010). Nevertheless, whereas colonies in north Patagonia are growing at 5.4 per cent (Dans et al., 2004) annual rate, the Uruguay populations are decreasing by per cent annually (Paez, 2005). The South American fur seal, with smaller populations, i also recovering, with a 1-2 per cent annual increase rate in the Uruguay population (Bastida and Rodriguez, 2010). Southern elephant seal populations also increased at a annual rate of 3 per cent from the 1980s to 2000, and have remained stable in number since then (Lewis and Campagna, 2002; Lewis and Campagna, 2008). +Data on cetacean population numbers and trends are scarce for the region. Souther right whales show a 7 per cent annual increase rate in Peninsula Valdés (Cooke et al. 2001). Population numbers are known for some of the coastal species (Brownell et al. 1998; Lescrauwaet, 1997; Schiavini et al., 1999; Pedraza, 2008) with no trends available although given the mortality rate and the narrow distributional range, the La Plat dolphin populations are thought to be decreasing (see threats). No population estimate are known for the Falkland Islands’ (Malvinas’) resident populations (Otley et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The Brazilian Ministry of Environment has established MPAs and implemented actio plans for wildlife, particularly marine mammals (Barreto et al., 2010; Di Beneditto et al. 2010; Luna et al., 2010; Campos et al., 2011). In Uruguay and Argentina, MPAs ar increasing, but the implementation of specific action plans for marine mammals has no yet been achieved. In Argentina, marine and coastal resources (Yorio et al., 1998 Sapoznikow et al., 2008), have been under protection in about 59 coastal and marin protected areas, which include marine organisms, such as seabirds and marin mammals, among their main conservation targets (GEF, 2013) . In Uruguay, the proces of establishing MPAs is incipient, but a National System of Protected Areas i responsible for this process, and three coastal areas are currently being considere (Santa Lucia, Cabo Polonio, and Cerro Verde), as well as a proposal for a network o MPAs (Defeo et al., 2009). Recently, ecosystem-based fishery management and MPA are emerging as promising tools to conserve marine environments, in view of declinin fisheries indicators in the South Western Atlantic Ocean (Mugetti et al., 2004; Milessi e al., 2005; Defeo et al., 2009). The overall aim is to ensure ecosystem resilience an adaptation to a changing environment while maintaining ecosystem processes and sustainable use of marine resources. Thus it is important to focus not only on vulnerabl species, such as the coastal manatees, sea lions or breeding baleen whales, but also o vulnerable areas, or areas of ecological significance for many species of marin mammals as well as also other groups, such as birds, turtles and fish (Mittermeier et al. 2011). +6. Seabirds +6.1 Status +Tropical waters are relatively poor in seabirds as a result of low productivity. About 13 coastal and marine species are found north of the Rio de la Plata. The larger part o these birds comes from the northern hemisphere between September and May an from the southern seas between May and August to reproduce in areas such as Atol da Rocas, which are crucial for the maintenance of their populations (Miloslavich et al 2011). +South of the Rio de la Plata, shelves are high-productivity areas which maintain a grea diversity of seabirds. This ecosystem not only harbours many birds that come eac summer to breed, but also thousands of seabirds forage within its waters (Yorio et al. 1999; Croxall and Wood, 2002; Favero and Silva, 2005). Pelagic and coastal waters ar home to about 50 species that belong to the orders Procellariiformes, Sphenisciformes and the families Stercorariidae, Sterniidae, Lariidae and Phalacrocoraciidae. +The main breeding sites in the South West for these populations are concentrated i three areas: (a) Peninsula Valdés and adjacent coasts; (b) Tierra del Fuego and adjoinin areas; and (c) the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Croxall et al., 1984; Strange, 1992; Wood and Woods, 1997; Yorio et al., 1999). Three species (Magellanic penguin Spheniscus +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +magellanicus, southern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes chrysocome and black-browe albatross Thalassarche melanophris) have over half their world population in the are (Boersma et al., 2013; Putz et al., 2013) and two others (gentoo penguin Pygosceli papua and thin-billed prion Pachyptila belcheri) probably have more than one-quarter o their world population in the region (Croxall and Wood, 2002). +Seabird diversity and abundance have long been studied by ship surveys (e.g., Cook and Mills, 1972; Jehl, 1974; Veit, 1995; Orgeira, 2001a; Orgeira, 2001b). With advance in technology (satellite tracks, global positioning system devices and geolocators), th origin, sex, age and status of birds using the area can be established and quantifie (Falabella et al., 2009). Therefore, it is known that the area is intensively used by a wid range of species: from pelagic flying birds (e.g., Jouventin and Weimerskirch, 1990 Weimerskirch et al., 1997; Prince et al., 1998; Berrow et al., 2000; Gonzdlez-Solis et al. 2002; Quintana and Dell’Arciprete, 2002; Trathan and Croxall, 2004; Masello et al. 2010) to penguins (Stokes et al., 1998; Stokes and Boersma; 1999; Putz et al., 2002; Piit et al., 2007; Wilson et al., 2007; Raya Rey et al., 2007; Sala et al., 2014; Rattcliffe et al. 2014) and coastal birds (Suarez and Yorio, 2005; Suarez et al., 2012). The waters are no only used by resident species but also by seabirds that breed in distant colonies wandering albatrosses Diomedea exulans from the South Georgias Islands extensivel use the Patagonian shelf, two fulmarine petrels, cape petrel Daption capense an Antarctic fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides, which breed on the Antarctic Peninsula an Continent, are very common visitors over the Patagonian shelf (Orgeira, 2001a) Wilson’s storm petrel Oceanites oceanicus, a trans-equatorial migrant, with a larg Antarctic but small Falkland Islands (Malvinas) breeding population is also common i the region (Orgeira, 2001a). Although only present in small numbers, seabirds breedin at Tristan da Cunha and Gough (mainly soft-plumaged petrel Pterodroma mollis, Atlanti petrel P. incerta, Kerguelen petrel Lugensa brevirostris and great shearwater Puffinu gravis) visit the southern part of the Patagonian Shelf (Orgeira, 2001a). In addition substantial numbers of Tristan albatross Diomedea dabbenena, Atlantic yellow-nose albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchos and spectacled petrel occur in similar areas o northern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil (Olmos et al., 2000). Finally, norther royal albatross Diomedea sanfordi, endemic to New Zealand, is known to forage alon the Patagonian Shelf (Nicholls et al., 2005). +Of the seabirds which breed in the region, two species (southern rockhopper pengui and white-chinned petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis), qualify under the IUCN criteria fo globally threatened status; magellanic penguin, black-browed albatross and gento penguin are regarded as Near Threatened. Also seven of the non-resident visitor specie qualify for the globally threatened status (BirdLife International, 2014). Seabirds in th region are considered in the International Plans of Action presented by Argentina, Brazil Chile, South Africa and Uruguay. +South African waters are of prime importance for conserving seabirds because th Benguela upwelling system and the Agulhas Bank provide rich foraging opportunities fo a wide diversity of seabirds (Petersen et al., 2009). The Benguela Ecosystem harbours 1 seabird species, of which 10 are endemic to South Africa. Species belong to the families +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Spheniscidae, Hydrobatidae, Pelecanidae, Sulidae and Haemotopodidae with on species each, three species of the Laridae family and four species in th Phalacrocoracidae and Sternidae families (Kemper et al., 2007). Seabirds from th Benguela Ecosystem are highly threatened; in particular, the African Penguin Spheniscu demersus and Cape Cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis are now considered endangere following ongoing decreases (Birdlife, 2014).The Southeast Atlantic Ocean also ha numerous islands (Ascension, St. Helena, Inaccessible, Tristan and Nightingale) rich i seabird species (Cuthbert 2004; Birdlife, 2014). Most of these islands are home to th endangered northern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes moseleyi (Birdlife, 2014), and 1 albatrosses and petrels foraging within these waters qualify under the IUCN criteria fo globally threatened status, such as the Tristan albatross which is critically endangere (Abrams, 1983; Abrams, 1985; Ryan and Moloney, 1988; Nel and Taylor, 2002; Wanles et al., 2009; Petersen et al., 2009; Birdlife, 2014). +6.2 Trends +Population trends of resident and non-resident seabirds that forage in the Southwes Atlantic Ocean present different trajectories over the years, with some species showin opposite trends at different locations. Some of the large Procellariiformes species hav declined over the past decades (i.e., wandering albatross) and this trend continue (Poncet et al., 2006), but others, such as the southern giant petrel, are recovering a least at some colonies (Reid and Huin, 2005; Quintana et al., 2006; Wolfaardt, 2012) Small petrels’ trends are not well known in the area (Otley et al., 2008). Amon penguins, southern rockhopper penguins have experienced dramatic declines betwee 1930 and 2005 (Pitz et al., 2003), although this trend seems to have reverted within th Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Baylis et al., 2013), whereas the population at Staten Islan has reduced its numbers during the last decade (Raya Rey et al., 2014). Gentoo an Magellanic penguins present different trends, depending on the colony. Gentoos in th Falkland Islands (Malvinas) presented a 42 per cent decrease, which was attributed to paralytic shellfish poisoning in 2002, with a later increase of 95 per cent since 200 (Pistorius et al., 2010); a recent study showed interannual fluctuations without a clea trend (Baylis et al., 2012), but in the meantime the small population of Tierra del Fueg has increased (Raya Rey et al., 2014). Magellanic penguin population trends ar variable: some of the bigger colonies are decreasing, but at the same time new colonie are being established in northern Patagonia (Boersma, 2008; Boersma et al., 2013); th population in the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) does not present a clear trend, wherea populations in Tierra del Fuego are increasing (Raya Rey et al., 2014). +Long-term population trends for coastal birds, such as gulls, cormorants, skuas an terns, are scarce and limited for certain regions. Cormorants present opposite trend depending on the species and site, but in general numbers have been stable with som populations slightly increasing or decreasing (Frere et al., 2005; Raya Rey et al., 2014) Kelp gulls take advantage of human garbage, and their populations are increasing al along the Patagonian coast (Lisnizer et al., 2011; Raya Rey et al., 2014). Terns and skuas +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +are the least studied of the species, with small populations and frequent variations i colony locations with unknown trends (Yorio, 2005; Otley et al., 2008). +Southeast Atlantic seabird population trends contrast between species, but several hav experienced severe decreases during the last decades, such as the African penguin, th Cape Gannet Morus capensis and Cape cormorant (Kemper et al., 2007). Some gul populations are increasing, which is largely attributable to the provision of additiona food sources from human activities (Crawford, 1997) and the cessation of populatio control measures (mainly the destruction of eggs and chicks) at most breeding localitie (Hockey et al., 2005). The decrease in Northern rockhopper penguins is evident fro population estimates in the Tristan da Cunha group and Gough Island, which indicate decline of more than 50 per cent (Cuthbert et al., 2009). The Tristan albatross als decreased severely at 3 per cent per year, and the sooty albatross Phoebetria fusca Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchos and southern giant petrel Macronectes giganteus remained stable during the last decade (Cuthbert et al., 2014). +6.3 Pressures +Direct and indirect discharge of chemical pollutants, industrial and expanded cit pollution, bycatch, entanglement, climate change and alien species pose severe threat for seabird populations both at sea and at their colonies in the Southwest Atlanti Ocean. Oil pollution in Argentine inshore waters is of major concern and kills thousand of Magellanic penguins annually (Gandini et al., 1994; Garcia-Borboroglu et al., 2006 Garcia-Borboroglu et al., 2010). Negative consequences of garbage disposal have als been documented in the region (Copello and Quintana, 2003; Otley and Ingham, 2003). +Bycatch (incidental mortality) of seabirds in fishing gear has been a foremos conservation issue, due to the large number of albatrosses and petrels killed by longlin fishing vessels (Croxall, 1998; Neves and Olmos, 1998; Olmos et al., 2000; Prince et al. 1998; Schiavini et al., 1998; Stagi et al., 1998). Seabird mortalities decreased by on order of magnitude towards the end of the decade (2001-2010), not due to lowe bycatch rates but rather to a drop in the number of hooks set per year (Favero et al. 2013). Black-browed albatrosses, white-chinned petrels, southern giant petrels an southern royal albatrosses are the most common species interacting with trawlers. Th total annual mortality of these birds associated with the trawl fleet under investigatio was roughly estimated to be from several hundred to over a thousand albatrosse (Favero et al., 2011). Entanglement of penguins in trawl nets is considerable, and othe inshore feeding species are doubtless at risk (although this risk is in some cases minor in various other net fisheries (Gandini et al., 1999; Gonzdlez-Zevallos et al., 2007 Gonzdlez- Zevallos and Yorio, 2011; Seco Pon et al., 2012; Seco Pon et al., 2013). +Seabirds foraging and breeding in the Southeast Atlantic are subject to many threats such as: human disturbance of breeding colonies; destruction of breeding habitats b development (du Toit et al., 2003); predation by domestic cats and mice (Wanless et al. 2009); egg and chick predation by Kelp Gulls and Great White Pelicans (Crawford, 1997; +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +du Toit et al., 2003); competition with commercial fisheries for food (du Toit et al. 2003). Longline fisheries pose a serious threat in particular for the Tristan albatross, an also for albatrosses and petrels in general (Baker et al., 2007). Introduced mice specie at Gough Island are known to affect albatrosses and petrels (Cuthbert et al., 2013). Foo supplies for northern rockhopper penguin may be affected by squid fisheries, climat change and shifts in marine food webs (Cunningham and Moors 1994; Guinard et al. 1998; Hilton et al., 2006). African penguins have dramatically decreased during the las decade, which is related to prey abundance (Crawford et al., 2011). +References +Abrams, R.W. (1983). Pelagic seabirds and trawl-fisheries in the southern Benguel Current region. Marine Ecology Progress Series 11: 151-156. +Abrams, R.W. (1985). Pelagic seabird community structure in the southern Benguel region: changes in response to man’s activities? Biological Conservation 32: 33 49. +Abreu, F.V. (2013). 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Scientia Marin 54(1):19-46. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36B.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36B.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36C.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36C.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..927139f993399ce353953a1935d240dc9e447100 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36C.txt @@ -0,0 +1,419 @@ +Chapter 36C. North Pacific Ocean +Contributors: Thomas Therriault (Convenor), Chul Park and Jake Rice (Co-Lead member and editors for Part VI Biodiversity) +1. Introduction +The Pacific is the largest division of the World Ocean, at over 165 million km’, extendin from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south (Figure 1). Alon the western margin are several seas. The Strait of Malacca joins the Pacific and th Indian Oceans to the west, and the Drake Passage and the Strait of Magellan link th Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean to the east. To the north, the Bering Strait connects th Pacific with the Arctic Ocean (International Hydrographic Organization, 1953). Th Pacific Ocean is further subdivided into the North Pacific and South Pacific; the equato represents the dividing line. The North Pacific includes the deepest (and, until recently the least explored) place on Earth, the Mariana Trench, which extends to almost 11 k below the ocean’s surface, although the average depth of the North Pacific is much less at approximately 4.3 km. Thus, the North Pacific encompasses a wide variety o ecosystems, ranging from tropical to arctic/sub-arctic with a wide diversity of specie and habitats. Further, the volcanism that creates the “rim of fire” around the Pacific ha resulted in unique undersea features, such as hydrothermal vents (including th Endeavor Hydrothermal Vents) and seamount chains (including the Hawaiian-Empero Seamount Chain). Both create unique habitats that further enhance biodiversity in th North Pacific. The continental shelves around the North Pacific tend to be very narro with highly variable productivity, with the exception of the continental shelf of th Bering Sea, which is one of the largest and most productive in the World Ocean (Miles e al., 1982). Further influencing productivity and biological diversity in the North Pacific i a series of large-scale oceanic currents on both sides of the basin, especially th Kuroshio and Oyashio Currents on the western side and the Alaska and Californi Currents on the eastern side. Also, the North Pacific Transition Zone (NPTZ) is a oceanographic feature of special importance to the biology of many species in the Nort Pacific Ocean. This 9,000 km wide upper water column oceanographic feature i bounded by thermohaline fronts thereby establishing a highly productive habitat tha aggregates prey resources, attracts a number of pelagic predators, and serves as migratory corridor. Ocean climate indices, such as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) reflect spatial and temporal variability observed in the North Pacific (Mantua and Hare 2002). For example, the PDO tends to indicate that a cool eastern North Pacific i associated with a warmer central and western North Pacific and vice versa, thereb contributing to spatial and temporal variability in ecosystem productivity and shiftin patterns of biological diversity. The density of human habitation around the Nort Pacific is more concentrated in southern latitudes and on the western side of the basin. +© 2016 United Nation + +This in turn influences the anthropogenic stressors affecting biodiversity an productivity. +om me 2015 +tas Htc is a wasnt +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Sources: Bathymetry extracted from the GEBCO Digital Atlas (GDA): |OC, IHO and BODC, 2003 Centenary Edition of the GEBCO Digital Atlas, published on CD-ROM on behalf of the Intergovernmenta Oceanographic Commission and the International Hydrographic Organization as part of the Genera Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans, British Oceanographic Data Centre, Liverpool, U.K. More information a http://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gebco_digital_atlas/ +Ocean and Sea names extracted from ESRI, DeLorme, HERE, GEBCO, NOAA, National Geographic Geonames.org, and other contributors More information a http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=0fd0c5b7a647404d8934516aa997e6d9. With the kin assistance of the FAO. +2. Coastal Areas of the North Pacific +Like other oceanic basins, the coastal areas of the North Pacific encompass a wid variety of complex habitat patches, each with different levels and types of biologica diversity. Spalding et al. (2007) identify at least 50 ecoregions around the North Pacific based in part on their relatively homogenized biological diversity and differentiatio from adjacent areas, but status and trend information for biodiversity is not availabl even at this intermediate spatial scale. Limited information is derived from localized smaller-scale studies conducted for specific habitat patches (e.g., coral reefs, estuaries etc.) or fish stocks, but synthesis at the basin scale remains a critical gap for coastal +© 2016 United Nations + +areas of the North Pacific. For example, Japan has established a programme to trac community-structure changes at 1,000 monitoring sites (both terrestrial and marine and many countries around the North Pacific conduct stock assessments for majo commercial species, but higher-level synthesis remains a gap. Furthermore, coasta systems are under different pressures in different parts of the basin, which will onl complicate higher-level synthesis of status and trends. +2.1 Biodiversity status and trend 2.1.1. Primary producers +Climatic variability continues to increase in the North Pacific Ocean, especially in th eastern part of the basin, where both extreme warm and cool events have occurred i the Gulf of Alaska , the California Current and equatorial waters in recent year (Sydeman et al., 2013). At finer spatial scales, eddies and current meanders ar important determinants of ecosystem productivity. For example, in the Gulf of Alask region, eddies influence nutrients, phytoplankton, and even higher trophic levels (Rea et al., 2005). In the California Current, chlorophyll concentrations have increased (Kahr et al., 2009), but this has resulted in a shift to a community more dominated b dinoflagellates, at least in Monterey Bay, that has resulted in significant ecosyste changes, including impacts at higher trophic levels. In the Kuroshio Current region, th species-composition time-series is limited, hence it is not possible to identify trends i biomass, but the dominant taxa have been highly variable with an obvious diatom spik in 2004, possibly due to the meandering of this current (Sugisaki et al., 2010; Figure 2) In general, large-scale, taxonomically diverse time series for phytoplankton are lacking. +Chaetocero > Coscinodiscu (mg/m) 399 L Rhizosolenia +e Thalassiosir & others_cen 2 250 So 8 wschi 8 Thala ssiothri 5 others_pennate +5 2 200 +32 +a5 +Bz 190 a +4 +23 [——-4 +22 100 +£2 +38 +ee 80 +5 +Be --—-— + 2002 2003 «42004 2005 2006 2007 +year +Figure 2. Composition of diatoms in the euphotic zone at Station BO3 (34°N 138°E) in May (fro Sugisaki et al., 2010). +2.1.2 Zooplankton communities +© 2016 United Nation + +One of the most significant biological changes in the North Pacific is the explosion o gelatinous macrozooplankton in the western portion of the basin, especially the Yello Sea, where medium to large jellyfish have become overly abundant in recent years an have resulted in increased reports of impacts (Purcell et al., 2007; Figure 3). Thi increase in jellyfish has had unforeseen biological (e.g., effects on productivity an diversity) and economic consequences (e.g., effects on fisheries, industry, and tourism with resulting impacts to ecosystem and human services. += 30 & Power statio 3B 250 5 N Stingin 2 200} Mm Fisherie £ 15 6 10 : % 50 N 8 N > oL_ Bm. \ a N oP? oF? we iw oF? oe oF? o PPP PF SS SS € +Decades +Figure 3. Percentage of years in each decade with reports of human problems with jellyfish in Japa (from Purcell et al., 2007). +Studying the California Current system Chelton et al. (1982) showed a strong correlatio between zooplankton biomass anomalies and temperature anomalies. Thus, it is no surprising that recent changes between warm and cool periods in the eastern Nort Pacific coincided with large-scale changes in zooplankton community composition an abundance. Cool periods favour northern copepod species that tend to be larger an energy rich, making them good prey items while warm periods favour southern copepo species that tend to be smaller and energy poor making them less suitable pre (McKinnell et al., 2010; Figure 4). Anomalously strong upwelling further influences th zooplankton community composition and abundance in the California Current system On the western side of the North Pacific, the hydrography of the Kuroshio Current act to differentiate zooplankton biomass and diversity between the onshore and offshor sides and main stream of this current. Further, copepod biomass varies interannuall with different seasonal peaks but the overall trend remains relatively constant (Sugisak et al., 2010). Large-scale, taxonomically diverse time series are lacking for othe important zooplankton species (e.g., arrow worms, pteropods, salps, krill). +© 2016 United Nation + +Biomass Anom. (log10) Temperature Anom. (°C g 8 | ° 8 « +Biomass Anom. (log10) +Figure 4. Northeast Pacific anomaly time series for upper ocean temperature, biomass of “Northern and “Southern” copepods, and marine survival of coho salmon relative to ocean entry year (fro McKinnell et al., 2010). +2.1.3 Benthic communities +Although cold, deep-water corals and sponges have received some attention in recen years (and some have been afforded special protection at regional or local scales), ou understanding of the diversity and distribution of these organisms at larger spatia scales is very incomplete, making inferences about status of and trends in diversit impossible. Given their very slow growth rates and long regeneration times, they ar particularly sensitive to disturbances, such as bottom-contact fishing gear, harvesting natural resource exploration and extraction, submarine cable/pipelines, climate change ocean acidification, and invasive species (Hourigan et al., 2007). Corals and sponges ar not the only benthic taxa but no large-scale synoptic information was identified o status and trends in the diversity of other benthic communities in the coastal areas o the North Pacific. However, Kodama et al. (2010) and Kodama and Horiguchi (2011 document periods of defaunation in Tokyo Bay for macrobenthic and megabenthi communities, suggesting there have been decreases in benthic community diversity a least at local scales around the North Pacific (beyond the scope of this Assessment). +© 2016 United Nation + +2.1.4 Higher trophic levels +McKinnell et al. (2010) provide the only intra-basin comparison of changes in key fis and invertebrate stocks between 1990-2002 and 2003-2008. In this study many taxa i the Sea of Okhotsk and Oyashio regions increased and many taxa in the Californi Current, Yellow Sea, and East China Sea decreased (Table 1). In addition to changes i abundance, distributional shifts occurred, related at least in part to changing ocea conditions; these shifts can have ecological and economic consequences on ocea services (e.g., Mueter and Litzow, 2008). +In the eastern North Pacific, a mid-water trawl survey for the California Current syste provides evidence that the forage fish community of this ecosystem tends to alternat between a less productive warm community and a more productive cool community i response to widely recognized regime shifts in oceanic conditions (NOAA’s Southwes Fisheries Science Center (SWFSC) in Bograd et al., 2010). Similarly, on the western sid of the basin in the Kuroshio-Oyashio system, where a strong latitudinal gradient i annual productivity (Pope et al., 1994) exists, evidence of decadal-scale changes in fis communities or “species replacements” linked to regime shifts have been observe (Chiba et al., 2010; Figure 5). +10000 2000 9000 1800 8000 1600 7000 14000 = 6000 12000 3 6000 [phen 10000 % $000 | chs mackere sooo 3000 | -©- Common sauid 600 é 2000 | > Pacific saury es 4000 1000 200 0 0 +1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 +Figure 5. Biomass of sardine, anchovy, chub mackerel, Pacific saury and common squid (winte spawning stock) along the Pacific coast of Japan (from Chiba et al., 2010). +Pacific salmon are an economically and culturally important species in the North Pacific Marine survival for over 40 coho salmon stocks has decreased substantially in th California Current system since the early 1970s, due at least in part to poor marin survival (Bograd et al., 2010; Figure 6); extremely low survival corresponds to the 200 smolt entry year; this trend is also detected in marine birds (see 2a (v) below). Similarly masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) in Japan have experienced significant declines i returns over the same period (Chiba et al., 2010). Additional higher trophic level specie in the North Pacific include a variety of fish and invertebrate species, including: smal pelagic species (e.g., anchovy, sardine, saury, mackerel, squid); large pelagic specie (e.g., tuna, shark, billfish, ray); benthopelagic species (e.g., rockfish, croaker, cod); and +© 2016 United Nation + +demersal species (e.g., pollock, flatfish, crab), some of which may have experience population declines at regional or sub-regional scales. +2 2 15 +10 +Marine survival (%) +5 + 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 201 Ocean Entry Year +Figure 6. Average marine survival of up to 45 coho salmon (O. kisutch) stocks in the northern Californi Current region by year of ocean entry (from Bograd et al., 2010). +For Pacific salmon spawning in Canadian waters, the Canadian Department of Fisherie and Oceans has provided outlooks since 2002. In the most recent iteration, 91 stock were assessed and an outlook provided for 84, of which 28 were linked to conservation concern, despite 21 units showing improvement, compared to 9 that hav worsened since the previous period (DFO, 2014). In the United States, the Nationa Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reports on the status of 480 manage stocks and stock complexes, including rockfishes, flatfishes, and gadoids, relative t fishing mortality and biomass reference points. Several of these stocks from the Pacifi Ocean have been identified as overfished, but all domestic stocks are rebuilding and on stock (Sacramento River Fall Chinook) was recently removed from this list (NOAA, 2013) No domestic stocks in the Pacific currently are experiencing overfishing, althoug several stocks of highly migratory species are under international management and tw species (Pacific bluefin tuna and striped marlin) were added to the list of overfishe stocks in 2013 (NOAA, 2013). +2.1.5 Other biota +At least eleven species of marine birds and nine species of marine mammals designate as being at risk by the IUCN are found in the North Pacific; overall, it does appear tha populations are either stable or increasing. Only planktivorous auklets in the Sea o Okhotsk appear to be the exception for marine birds (McKinnell et al., 2010; Table 3) Steller sea lions and harbour seals in the central and western Aleutian Islands, norther fur seals from the Pribilof Islands, and potentially harbour seals in Prince William Sound Alaska, are the exceptions for marine mammals (McKinnell et al., 2010; Table 4) hav experienced population declines. Additional species that are critically endangered in th North Pacific include the vaquita (Phocoena sinus) which is on the verge of extinction only 241 animals were estimated in 2008 (Gerrodette et al., 2011) and Hawaiian mon seals (Monachus schauinslandi). Additional marine birds and mammals may be +© 2016 United Nation + +considered at-risk at regional or sub-regional scales that are beyond the scope of thi Assessment. +In the California Current, increased variability has resulted in significant responses a higher trophic levels, including marine birds and mammals, and the cumulative effect of human-mediated stressors on marine predators can be difficult to unravel (Maxwel et al., 2013). For example, Cassin’s auklets experienced an almost complete breedin failure in 2005-2006, due to changes in upwelling phenology that affected euphausii prey populations (Sydeman and Thompson, 2010). Also, the California sea lio (Zalophus californianus), where the number of pups produced at the Channel Islan reference site has shown a quadratic increase since the mid-1970s (Bograd et al., 2010) has experienced a recent decline in abundance and poor pup health. The spotted seal of the Yellow Sea also have decreased precipitously since the 1960s, due t overharvesting and habitat destruction; this has resulted in local extirpation and som rookeries support fewer than 150 individuals. +2.2 Major pressures in the coastal area and major groups affected by the pressures +In addition to global climate change impacts, including ocean acidification, there are large number of coastal pressures affecting the North Pacific, similar to other coasta marine ecosystems, due largely to the diverse human-mediated activities in thes environments. These include, but are not limited to: habitat loss; over-exploitation an fishing impacts; shipping; energy development/exploration; aquaculture; pollution (bot direct and indirect), eutrophication and resulting impacts (pathogenic bacteria, harmfu algal blooms; hyp/anoxia); species introductions/invasions; watershed alteration an physical alterations of coasts; tourism; and marine litter. None have been quantified a the scale of the North Pacific, but some regional patterns can be highlighted. Studie such as by Halpern et al. (2008) demonstrate that coastal area can be severely affecte by human activities, including those in the western North Pacific. Furthermore, th Yellow and East China Seas area is one of the most densely populated areas of the world approximately 600 million people inhabit this area, resulting in immense anthropogeni stressors on this coastal system. Urbanization in Asia is not unique and other coasta areas of the North Pacific also have experienced increased urbanization and an increas in a wide variety of ecosystem stressors. +Runoff from the Fraser and Columbia Rivers in the California Current region, the Amu River in the Sea of Okhotsk, the Changjiang River in the East China Sea, and the Pear River and Mekong River in the South China Sea all play important roles in driving coasta processes and resulting ecosystem services. The Changjiang River is the world’s third longest river; its watershed of approximately 1.8 million km? encompasses about one third of China’s population and 70 per cent of its agricultural production. Th widespread use of fertilizers for agricultural production has resulted in increase nutrient discharge to the coastal environment, causing increased eutrophication sinc the early 1970s. As a result, in the Yellow Sea, nitrogen:phosphorus and nitrogen:silico ratios have been increasing basin-wide for decades (Yoo et al., 2010; Figure 7). This in +© 2016 United Nation + +turn has resulted in an increase in the frequency and intensity of harmful algal bloo events and a shift in the phytoplankton community from diatoms to dinoflagellates tha have affected ecosystem services and increased the severity of hypoxic events in th estuary (Yoo et al., 2010). A related anthropogenic activity that could significantly alte riverine discharges is large-scale water diversion projects that would result in les discharge to coastal environments around the North Pacific. For example, much of th flow of the Columbia and Fraser Rivers is used for agricultural production that can resul in less discharge reaching ocean in some years. This can result in reduced nutrien inputs, which in turn lowers productivity, and that reduction adversely affects th diversity that depends on it. As increased climate variability intersects with growin human populations and increased irrigation demands in coastal environments, reduce river discharges could have profound impacts on coastal productivity and biodiversity. +(a)s +4 +DIN (umol1. e +y + 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 1976 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 +0: 1976 1980 1985 1990 1998 2000 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 +Figure 7. Long-term trend in the nutrients along a transect across 36°N in the Yellow Sea. (a) Dissolve Inorganic Nitrate (DIN), (b) phosphates, (c) silicates, (d) N:P ratio (from Yoo et al., 2010, and modifie from Lin et al., 2005). +The introduction of non-indigenous species continues to result in economic an ecological consequences, including negative impacts on native biodiversity (Sala et al. 2000). In the first synoptic study of non-indigenous species in the North Pacific, Lee I and Reusser (2012) identified 746 species that were present in, but not native to, a least one ecoregion in the North Pacific. Of these, 32 per cent were native elsewhere i the North Pacific, 48 per cent were native to regions outside the North Pacific, and 2 per cent were cryptogenic (of unknown origin). Furthermore, the Hawaiian an Northeastern Pacific regions had considerably more introduced species than th Northwestern Pacific (Lee Il and Reusser, 2012; Figure 8). Given the continued increas in global trade, it is expected that the number of species that will be introduced to ne environments also will increase. Combined with the high species richness and density o non-indigenous species already reported for many regions that have significantly altered +© 2016 United Nation + +population, community, and ecosystem processes (Ruiz et al., 1997), additional cumulative consequences of these invasions should be expected. +Northern Central Northwest Pacific Northeast Pacific Hawai Indo-Pacific NIS=208 NIS= 368 NIS=34 NIS=73 +ala al +S. China Sea Oceanic Is Gulf of Tonki Southern Chin South Kuroshi Ogasawara Island East China Se Central Kuroshi YellowSea +Sea of Japan +NE Honsh Oyashio Curren Sea of Okhots Kamchatk Aleutian Is. +Gulf of Alaska +N. Amer. Pac. Fijordlan Puget Troug Northern Californi Southern Californi Magdalen Cortezian +Oregon, Wash., Vancouver +Figure 8. Number of non-indigenous species in central/northern North Pacific marine ecoregions (fro Lee Il and Reusser, 2012). +Other major stressors in the North Pacific include hypoxia, habitat destruction, pollution and overfishing. However, none of these have been quantified at the scale of the Nort Pacific. Ocean acidification has dramatically impacted some calcifying organisms such a pteropods (Orr et al., 2005). Hypoxia has not only increased in the Yellow Sea, bu continues to be a major pressure on coastal ecosystems in the eastern North Pacific including off Oregon, with lethal consequences for benthic species (Grantham et al. 2004) and the western North Pacific, including Tokyo Bay where there has been reduction in nutrient recycling (Kodama and Horiguchi, 2011). Further, the shoaling o this continental hypoxic zone has reduced habitat for several species, including som commercially important ones, which could alter ecosystem services. Habitat destructio is the leading cause of biodiversity loss (Sala et al., 2000). Many forms of habita destruction and/or degradation are occurring around the North Pacific, includin shoreline hardening/development and land creation, but quantifying the amount o habitat lost or impaired at the scale of the North Pacific remains a gap. Overfishin continues to be a major pressure in some coastal areas of the North Pacific. Fo example, in the Yellow Sea, overfishing has contributed to trophic cascades, resulting in +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +fishing down the food chain. In addition, Hutchings (2000) has shown that most stock are very slow to recover from overfishing; this has consequences for ecosystem service and can adversely affect biodiversity. However, it should be noted that some manage fisheries systems in the North Pacific are doing well (Hilborn et al., 2005). +2.3 Major ecosystem services being affected by the pressure 2.3.1 Ecosystem services being lost +Although it is expected that ecosystem services being lost in coastal areas of the Nort Pacific would be consistent with those affected by these pressures globally, these dat are lacking at the scale of the North Pacific. Worm et al. (2006) showed that reduce biodiversity increased the rate of resource collapse and decreased recovery potential stability, and water quality; in contrast, restoration of biodiversity increased productivit and decreased variability. Furthermore, Francis et al. (1998) document the ecologica consequences of major species re-distribution in the northeast Pacific following th major regime shift in 1977. Species invasions (and extinctions) also reorganize coasta ecosystems; Hooper et al. (2005) show that this has altered ecosystem goods an services in many well-documented cases and that most are difficult, expensive, o impossible to reverse. +The Pacific Ocean has the largest pool of low-oxygen water in the global ocean and i recent decades this pool has been expanding, with reduced oxygen concentration observed both on the western and eastern sides of the basin (Ono et al., 2001; Emerso et al., 2004; Bograd et al., 2008). Generally, global climate models predict that globa warming will lead to deoxygenation of the deep ocean because warmer surface water will hold less oxygen and will be more stratified, resulting in less ventilation of the dee ocean (Sarmiento et al., 1998; Keeling et al., 2010). This will adversely affect benthi and pelagic ecosystems (Levin et al., 2009; Stramma et al., 2010; Koslow et al. 2011) Koslow et al. (2011) showed decreased mid-water oxygen concentrations wer correlated with the decline of 24 mid-water fish taxa from eight families. Extended t larger scales, this could have significant adverse ecological and biogeochemical effects. +2.3.2 Human services being lost +Changes to marine biodiversity in coastal systems, and hence in ecosystem structur and function, can result from both direct impacts (e.g., exploitation, pollution, specie invasion, and habitat destruction), or indirect impacts, via climate change and relate perturbations of ocean biogeochemistry (e.g., acidification, hypoxia); these can hav severe consequences on human services. Although no basin-scale studies quantifying +these impacts were found, smaller-scale examples can highlight what might be expected. +Myers and Worm (2003) demonstrated a dramatic decline in large predatory fis globally while Ovetz (2007) showed how industrial longline fishing has extensiv negative economic and social consequences for coastal communities, especially thos heavily reliant on fish protein, as biomass/species changes resulted in cascading effects some of which were not predicted. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Also, Schroeder and Love (2002), who compared rockfish assemblages among thre differently fished areas, showed large differences in fish density, size structure, an species composition. Only the protected area had both higher density and larger fis and greater species composition. Finally, Jackson et al. (2001) highlight how overfishin that precedes other forms of human disturbance to coastal ecosystems (pollution degradation of water quality, and anthropogenic climate change) has resulted i ecological extinctions, especially of large vertebrate predators, with significan ecological and economic consequences. +In the western North Pacific, increased jellyfish blooms have had both direct an indirect negative impacts on human services. These blooms have reduced tourism affected fishing and aquaculture and increased industrial costs, by, e.g., clogging th cooling-water intake screens of power plants (e.g., Purcell et al., 2007). Furthermore blooms of gelatinous zooplankton have indirect effects on fisheries by feeding o zooplankton and ichthyoplankton; thus they are predators on and potential competitor with fish. Similarly, Cooley et al. (2009) showed that ocean acidification could affect range of ecosystem services, such as fishery/aquaculture harvests, coastal protection tourism, cultural identity, and ecosystem support, by adversely affecting calcifyin marine organisms; they also showed that these impacts are expected to be greater i developing countries. Thus, more research is needed to understand how pressures ar affecting services at the basin scale. +Coastal eutrophication is a growing concern, especially in the western North Pacific where increases in nutrient loading have been linked with the development of larg biomass blooms and harmful algal blooms, resulting in anoxia and toxic/harmful impact on fisheries, aquaculture, ecosystems, human health and recreation (see Anderson et al. 2002; McKinnell and Dagg, 2010). +3. Oceanic Areas of the North Pacific +Unlike the coastal realm, where Spalding et al. (2007) proposed marine ecoregions, th oceanic realm of the North Pacific does not have a similar delineation scheme Longhurst (2007) identifies zones in the North Pacific, but these are delineated more o the basis of oceanographic conditions and have relatively little weighting based o differences in biological diversity, species composition and productivity. It is probabl that biological diversity in the oceanic North Pacific is also patchy, but the nature an scale of this patchiness needs to be determined. +3.1 Biodiversity Status and Trend 3.1.1. Primary producers +Using SeaWiFS satellite data, it is possible to detect large-scale changes in chlorophyl concentrations between 1998-2002 and 2003-2007. During this period, average +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +chlorophyll decreased in parts of the eastern North Pacific (with the exception of th California Current region) and increased in the western North Pacific (McKinnell et al. 2010; Figure 9). Also of note is the significant decline in average chlorophyll across th entire tropical/subtropical zone from Indonesia to Baja California, Mexico. However, a finer spatial and temporal scales, interannual variations in the location, timing, an magnitude of surface chlorophyll levels can be considerable around the North Pacifi (Yoo et al., 2008). The general trend towards increased sea surface temperatures ha resulted in an expansion of the low surface-chlorophyll extent in the subtropical Nort Pacific (Polovina et al., 2008). The areal increase in these low-chlorophyll waters of th central North Pacific from 1998 to 2006 is about 2 per cent per year (Batten et al., 2010) much of this expansion is eastward. The expansion of low surface-chlorophyll waters i consistent with increased vertical stratification due to ocean warming; this situation als has been identified in the South Pacific, North Atlantic, and South Atlantic (Polovina e al., 2008). Two satellite-derived time series exist for chlorophyll estimates (SeaWiFS an MODIS) for three major domains in the North Pacific (Batten et al., 2010; Figure 10) Both the central subarctic Pacific (CSP) and eastern subarctic Pacific (ESP) ar completely oceanic; the western subarctic Pacific (WSP) does infringe upon the coasta environment and thus is subject to potential biases in spring-bloom characteristics (bot concentration and seasonal variability were greatest for this domain). The spike in 200 is obvious in both the ESP and CSP series. As noted above, the NPTZ is a key feature o the oceanic realm of the North Pacific and the transition-zone chlorophyll front (TZCF) which indicates a strong meridional gradient in surface chlorophyll at the boundary o the subarctic and subtropical gyre, migrates from south to north over 1,000 km annuall (Polovina et al., 2001). Ocean productivity estimates derived from models and satellit observations (Behrenfeld and Falkowski, 1997) indicate high annual averag phytoplankton production throughout the NPTZ, in particular in the west, related to th Kuroshio Extension region. Surface chlorophyll concentrations in the subtropical gyr are usually <0.15 mg/m’, whereas in the subarctic gyre and NPTZ they can be >0.2 mg/m?. Further, the expansion of the subtropical central gyre appears to have resulte in a change in primary productivity from a_ nitrate-limited, diatom-dominate phytoplankton community to one that is dominated by the N>-fixing Prochlorococcu (Karl, 1999; Karl et al., 2001). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 9. Ratio of mean chlorophyll a between 1998-2002 (denominator) and 2003-2007 periods White colour indicates minimal change between the two periods (ratios = 0.9-1.1) (from McKinnell e al., 2010). +e* + WSP Sear i ad “+ WSP MOD S20 +15 +1 z 0 i 0. +g 2228 +8 -e- CSP SeawirFs + g + CSP MOO 10 +3 222 8 ++ ESP Sear ESP MODIS +«bah la aan ptpvnta PEPER EEE EEE EE +Figure 10. Chlorophyll a concentration for three regions (western subarctic Pacific (WSP), 155-172°E 45-53°N; eastern subarctic Pacific (ESP), 140-155°W, 49.5-57°N; and central subarctic Pacific (CSP), 45 51°N 160-180°W) estimated from ocean colour-sensing satellites (from Batten et al., 2010). +3.1.2. Zooplankton communities +The NPTZ supports higher secondary productivity with respect to zooplankton biomas (McKinnell and Dagg, 2010) relative to other areas of the North Pacific, but no singl comprehensive index exists for mesozooplankton time-series trends in the North Pacific. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Efforts at sub-basin scales are focused on the Alaska Gyre (Continuous Plankto Recorder (CPR) Survey, Line P), near Hawaii (Hawaii Ocean Time Series), and in th western Pacific along 155°E (Hokkaido University T/S Oshoro Maru). The Weathershi surveys provided a zooplankton time series within the Alaska Gyre along Line P off th West Coast of Vancouver Island from 1956-1980 (see Fulton, 1983) but only intermitten sampling was conducted opportunistically, until more regular surveys were initiated i 1997 (Mackas and Galbraith, 2002). In addition, a CPR survey has provided additiona zooplankton productivity and diversity measures since 2000 (Batten et al., 2010) Although zooplankton taxa are similar between nearshore and offshore stations, th dominance hierarchies differ between the shelf margin (Mackas et al., 2001) and th oceanic zone, (Mackas and Galbraith, 2002) where “subarctic oceanic” copepod specie dominate. These species have distributions that span the Pacific basin north of th subarctic front and their interannual variability has been attributed both to temperatur variability and increased transport by the North Pacific Current; this could result in re distribution of other marine species (Batten et al., 2010; Figure 11). Zooplankton time series information also exists for station ALOHA, due to survey efforts by the Hawai Ocean Time Series programme showed an increase in biomass between 1994 and 2004 after which it either stabilized or decreased slightly (Sheridan and Landry, 2004; Batte et al., 2010). The sampling along the 155°E transect provides an opportunity to look a productivity and diversity along a north:south gradient that encompasses the subarcti front, transition domain, subarctic boundary and subtropical current system. Batten e al. (2010) demonstrate that zooplankton biomass tends to be higher in the transitio domain, and during the unprecedented warm year of 2008, this transition domai extended north into the historical zone of the subarctic front. Furthermore, taxonomi composition differs along this latitudinal gradient, with small and large copepods mos prevalent at the subarctic front and transition domain; amphipods, euphausids chaetognaths, and copepods are represented in the subarctic boundary and subtropica current system. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +$250 (a) +& += +a +z —® 2003 +i > 2004 +2 —e 2005 (c) Taxonomic composition +~ —— 2006 (1 Small Copepoda +4 +a = 2007 +a ~~ 20] +z —O- Mean { +3 +a oe +, BRESERESS RES © Chocoguie +SSbSS3SSseSF B Otes +Latitude ('N) along 155°E Latitude (N) along 155°E +Figure 11. (a) Zooplankton dry biomass at 35°45’N-44°00’N along 155°E in the western North Pacifi between 10-20 May, 2003-2008. (b) biomass anomalies compared to a 6-year mean, (c) and th taxonomic composition (from Batten et al., 2010). +3.1.3 Benthic communities +Perhaps with the exception of the limited snap-shot surveys of hydrothermal vent an seamount chain communities, no large-scale synoptic information is available on statu of and trends in the diversity of benthic communities in the oceanic realm of the Nort Pacific. Much of this area is extremely deep, making survey efforts virtually impossibl until recently, leaving much to be explored and characterized. The limited studies o vent communities in the North Pacific suggest high levels of endemism and diversity especially within microbial communities that have different physiologies/metabolism and thermal and salinity tolerances (e.g., Hedrick et al., 1992; Tunnicliffe et al., 1993) Furthermore, for these unique systems, the chemosynthesis that forms the basis o these deep-water food webs is critically important (Zhou et al., 2009). Stone an Shotwell (2007) have identified at least 140 coral species associated with seamounts i Alaska, representing at least six major taxonomic groups. +3.1.4 Higher trophic levels +Taxonomic diversity in both the eastern and western divisions of the North Pacifi contains a mix of subtropical, temperate, subarctic and arctic species. The easter North Pacific shows a gradient in diversity from east to west (Mueter and Norcross 2002), with most fish biomass (and exploited stocks) on the continental shelf or coasta nearshore areas. Relatively little is known about the demersal species in the oceanic +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +realm due to the great depths. Some exploitation of species associated with seamount occurs in the Gulf of Alaska and along the west coast of North America, for species suc as sablefish (Anaplopoma fimbria), but within exclusive economic zones (EEZs), mos seamounts have some level of protection due to restrictions on bottom-contact fishin gear and seamounts have been identified as Ecologically and Biologically Significan Areas (CBD, 2014). Furthermore, limited surveys/data mean that no time series ar available. +The NPTZ once supported large-scale squid (Ommastrephes bartrami) driftnet fisheries until a United Nations General Assembly ban on this gear was imposed in 1992 (se resolution 46/215) (PICES, 2004). Now the NPTZ supports the pelagic longline fisher based in Hawaii, with many vessels targeting tunas (including albacore, Thunnu alalunga), billfish, and squid. Albacore tuna is an economically important and widel distributed species in the North Pacific. Reported catches for albacore have bee variable over time, but peaked in 1976 and 1997, and were rather depressed until th early 1990s, in part due to overfishing and below average recruitment (Cox et al., 2002 Batten et al., 2010; Figure 12). The catch of other tuna species, especially skipjack an yellowfin, has increased substantially since the 1950s (Sibert et al., 2006). However Sibert et al. (2006) found that, although biomass was lower than that predicted in th absence of fishing (and perhaps higher than management targets), a reduction in th proportion of large fish, and the decreased trophic level of the catch suggest fisherie impacts on these top-level predators. +140000 +120000 100000 80000 - +60000 +Total catch (t) +40000 20000 - +6+ +1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 +Year +Figure 12. Total annual catch (tons reported) of North Pacific albacore tuna by all nations, 1966-200 (from Batten et al., 2010, with data taken from ISC, 2008). +3.1.5 Other biota +As noted in 2(a) above, at least eleven species of marine birds and nine species o marine mammals designated as being at risk by the IUCN are found in the North Pacific Although it appears that some populations are either stable or increasing, significant +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +threats remain. No additional entirely oceanic organisms are known to be designated a being at risk for the North Pacific. +3.2 Major pressures in the oceanic area and major groups affected by the pressures +It appears that the open oceanic area of the North Pacific is significantly less affecte than coastal areas, where multiple point-source stressors are routinely encountered However, the large-scale stressors that are affecting this oceanic area will requir substantial international efforts to mitigate: specifically the climate impacts that hav resulted in changes to both the physical and biogeochemical properties of the ocean For example, global climate change is altering temperature, salinity, mixed-layer depth and pCO) (acidification) in the open ocean. It has been demonstrated that marin organisms have shifted their distributions in response to changing marine condition and this can result in local extinctions or incursions (Cheung et al., 2009). Furthermore Cheung et al. (2009) suggest that under certain climate change scenarios up to 60 pe cent of current biomass could be affected, and disrupt existing ecosystem services. +In addition to climate change, overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and commercial shipping are major pressures in the oceanic North Pacific. Other majo pressures in the oceanic areas of the North Pacific include ocean dumping and increase UV-B radiation (Gray, 1997). However, time series are unavailable for these oceani stressors at the scale of the North Pacific and require more study. +A rather unique but more localized feature of the North Pacific that could be affectin the open-ocean environment is the Pacific garbage patch. Day and Shaw (1987) hav shown that the amount of plastic material in the oceans has increased over historica levels, and as oceanic eddies represent favourable locations for accumulation of floatin debris like plastic, it should not be surprising that Moore et al. (2001) found the highes concentrations of plastic recorded in the Pacific within the North Pacific Subtropica Gyre. Also, mesopelagic fish species such as myctophids, have been shown to inges microplastics in both the eastern (Davison and Asch, 2011) and western (Van Noord 2013) parts of the basin. Thus, there are potential implications of this microplastic on variety of organisms and on ecosystem structure and function although the specifi effects are less clear. +3.3 Major ecosystem services being affected by the pressure 3.3.1 Ecosystem services being lost +It has been shown that zooplankton on both sides of the North Pacific respond strongl to regime shifts and hence should be expected to respond similarly to climate change Thus, if the results of the study by Beaugrand et al. (2010) for the North Atlanti translate to the reorganization of the planktonic ecosystem towards smaller organis dominance that affects carbon flows, there could be adverse effects. As in coasta ecosystems, oceanic fishing operations can cause different types of ecological impacts, +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +including bycatch of non-target species, habitat damage, mortality caused by lost o discarded gear, pollution, generation of marine debris, etc. Understanding the specifi ecosystem services lost due to these activities will require more study. +3.3.2 Human services being lost +As in the coastal areas, changes to marine biodiversity (and hence to ecosyste structure and function) in oceanic systems also can result from direct impacts (e.g. fishing, pollution, and habitat destruction), and indirect impacts via climate change an related perturbations of ocean biogeochemistry (e.g., acidification) and these can hav severe consequences on human services. As with the coastal areas, no basin-scal studies quantifying these impacts have been found and the lack of smaller-scal examples from oceanic areas of the North Pacific suggest that significant gaps exist Although some studies have suggested fisheries targeting top predators have resulted i fewer large fish available for fishermen (Myers and Worm, 2003), other impacts o human services are less clear, suggesting that additional research is needed. +Historically, plastic debris was seen as a major concern for organisms that becam entangled in or were ingesting it, especially marine mammals, seabirds, turtles, and fis (Laist, 1987). More recently, Boerger et al. (2010) showed that 35 per cent of th planktivorous fish sampled in the North Pacific Gyre (Garbage Patch) had ingeste plastics; with this increased recognition of microplastics in the marine environment, th potential services being lost could be greater than initially thought, suggesting tha more research is warranted. +4. Specific Areas of the North Pacific +The Bering Sea is a semi-enclosed subarctic sea that connects the North Pacific an Arctic Oceans and is bounded to the north by the Bering Strait and to the south by th Aleutian Archipelago. The deep central basin of this sea is bordered by a western shel that extends from the Gulf of Anadyr along the Kamchatka Peninsula and a very broa eastern shelf extending from Alaska to the Russian Federation. Sea ice is important fo determining the extent of the cold pool and regulates the timing of the spring bloo that has important cascading effects on ecosystem productivity and biological diversit (Stabeno and Hunt, 2002; Stabeno et al., 2007). Similarly, sea ice is a critical componen of the structure and function of the Sea of Okhotsk. As with the Bering Sea, the Sea o Okhotsk has a relatively large shelf zone covering approximately 40 per cent of the basi (Udintsev, 1957). Predictions of potential impacts of global climate change are expecte to be more severe at higher latitudes, suggesting native biodiversity could be adversel affected. +The South China Sea is a tropical system that includes diverse habitats such as mangrov forests, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. It lies within the Tropic of Cancer and has an are of 3.5 million km?, of which 30 per cent is relatively deep sea with an average depth of +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +about 1,400 m. The unique feature of this sea includes the effect of a monsoona climate and complex surface-current patterns (Huang et al., 2010 and reference therein). The complex surface-current system greatly influences the structure of th marine ecosystem, which is a mixture of tropical and subtropical communities. I addition, the Pearl and Mekong rivers discharge a huge amount of nutrients into th South China Sea. These characteristics support very diverse fauna and flora, with ove 2,300 fish species (Caihua et al., 2008), 58 cephalopod species, and many othe invertebrates (Jia et al., 2004). However, the dramatic expansion of fishing effort an improved fishing technology (Pang and Pauly, 2001) resulted in over-exploitation o fisheries resources here (Cheung and Sadovy, 2004). +Two additional semi-enclosed seas around the North Pacific deserve attention, due t increased human population growth and anthropogenic stress (e.g., urbanization pollution, fisheries, and invasive species). On the eastern side of the basin is the Salis Sea; this relatively large estuarine system extends from the Strait of Georgia/Desolatio Sound in the north to Puget Sound in the south and the Strait of Juan de Fuca to th west. With over seven million people living in the basin, the number of anthropogeni stressors is large with many having the potential to adversely affect biodiversity an ecosystem structure and function. Similarly, on the western side of the basin is the Set Inland Sea, which serves as an important transportation link between the Pacific Ocea and the adjacent sea and between industrial centres around Japan. Many uniqu species call the Seto Inland Sea home, but anthropogenic impacts have been severe For example, increased frequency of red tide (HAB) events and jellyfish blooms, possibl due to changes in nutrients in recent years, have resulted in significant losses t fisheries and aquaculture production. +A number of major rivers terminate in the North Pacific, but the ones that empty int semi-enclosed basins can result in unique attributes there. For example, the Colorad River, that discharges into the upper portion of the Gulf of California, results i biophysical features and oceanographic characteristics (strong tidal mixing, significan freshwater influx) that has resulted in a high level of endemism, such as the vaquita ( critically endangered porpoise; Gerrodette et al., 2011). In addition, other marin megafauna, such as the totoaba (Totoaba mcdonaldi) and the curvina golfina (Cynoscio othonopterus) have disjointed distributions in the upper Gulf of California. +The Emperor Seamount Chain and Hawaiian Ridge extends over 3,000 km from th Aleutian Trench to the Hawaiian Islands and seamounts outside of the United States EE were identified as meeting the criteria for Ecologically and Biologically Significant Area (CBD, 2014). Hart and Pearson (2011) identified 49 fish species associated with thi seamount chain and commercial fisheries targeting North Pacific armorhea (Pseudopentaceros wheeleri) and Splendid alfonsin (Beryx splendens) have operate since the late 1960s. Further, Japanese surveys have identified a variety of coral specie inhabiting this chain including; Gorgonaceans (8 families, 24 genera), Alcyonaceans ( families, 7 genera), Antipatharians (4 families, 5 genera) and Scleractinians (6 families 16 genera). Also, the more productive surface waters provide good foragin environments for a variety of seabird species, including albatrosses. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Other specific areas in the North Pacific include the Mariana Trench and deep-se hydrothermal vents. The Mariana Trench is unique in being the deepest location know on Earth. Relatively few studies exist; most characterize or describe the uniqu bacterial communities inhabiting this environment. Globally, hydrothermal vents ar relatively rare and a unique geological feature associated with the spreading of tectoni plates. These sites support chemosynthetically driven ecosystems that support diverse array of unique organisms (see Chapter 45). +5. Special conservation status issues +5.1 Taxonomic groups +Corals are often identified as a taxonomic group requiring special conservatio consideration. In the North Pacific, approximately 30 per cent of the world’s coral reef are located in Southeast Asia; Wilkinson et al. (1993) suggest that more than half ar already destroyed and being destroyed by sedimentation, overexploitation (including b dynamite and chemicals), and pollution. In addition to these warm-water corals, growing number of cold-water corals and sponges also should be considered (e.g., Ston and Shotwell, 2007). Both warm- and cold-water corals are covered in more detail i Chapters 43 and 42, respectively. +Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus species) are ecologically, commercially, and culturall important around the North Pacific. As anadromous species they require bot freshwater and marine habitats for their continued survival and productivity bu increased human activities have reduced productive habitat (in both freshwater an marine environments) and resulted in a number of additional stressors. The uniqu homing nature of salmon has resulted in a high degree of stock differentiation. Fo example, Slaney et al. (1996) identified 9,662 anadromous salmon stocks in Britis Columbia and the Yukon, including 866 Chinook, 1,625 Chum, 2,594 Coho, 2,169 Pink 917 Sockeye, 867 Steelhead and 612 sea-run Cutthroat trout stocks. Maintainin genetic diversity will be important for maintaining productive Pacific salmon stocks; goal of Canada’s Wild Salmon Policy (DFO, 2005). +Other taxonomic groups often identified for special conservation status include man large or apex predators, such as tunas, sharks, billfish, and sea turtles, includin Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtles ofte found associated with the NPTZ (Polovina et al., 2004), because of their vulnerability t overexploitation and their role in ecosystem structure and function. Each of these i considered in more detail in Chapters 37-41. +5.2 Habitats +Much remains to be discovered with respect to biodiversity in the North Pacific, bu additional conservation measures could be considered for several habitats, including +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +hydrothermal vents, seamounts, large river deltas, kelp forests, mangroves, and coasta lagoons. In general, seamounts are often highly productive ecosystems that can suppor high biodiversity (Pitcher et al., 2007; Chapter 51), especially where their summi reaches into the euphotic zone and can be utilized by pelagic species, including marin birds and mammals. However, they can be susceptible to overfishing (see Douglas 2011). Closer to the equator, coastal habitats, such as mangroves and coastal lagoons are important habitats supporting relatively higher levels of biodiversity wher degradation and/or complete destruction are significant concerns (see Chapters 48 an 49). +6. Factors for sustainability +It is clear that the maintenance of biodiversity contributes to ecosystem stability an sustainability and, like the other world oceans, the North Pacific is not unique in bein under a barrage of anthropogenic stressors, that threaten the biodiversity and th sustainability it provides both for ecosystem services and human well-being. However these stressors are not uniformly distributed across the North Pacific, with many mor stressors noted for coastal ecosystems relative to the oceanic North Pacific Furthermore, as research expands into the realm of how multiple stressors interact t affect biodiversity and ecosystem structure, function, and productivity, evidence i mounting that ecosystems are responding in complex, non-linear, non-additive - bu cumulative - ways. Understanding and managing human activities to maintain o enhance biodiversity will make a substantial contribution to ecosystem sustainabilit globally (e.g., Hughes et al., 2005) and in the North Pacific specifically. However, a human populations, many of which are dependent on coastal or oceanic ecosystems fo their existence, continue to expand around the North Pacific, there will be challenges. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Table 1. Interregional comparison of levels in biomass or abundance indices of fishes and invertebrate since 2003 compared to 1990-2002. Colour codes are: blue (increase), red (decrease), orange (chang <|10%|), grey (not relevant to the region), and white (no data). The symbol © indicates that th evaluation for that taxon/region is based on catch data. In some regions, flatfish data were not reporte by species, so any trends that are indicated apply only to the aggregate of flatfish species caught in tha region, and not necessarily to the individual species listed in the column headers (from McKinnell et al., +2010). +SUT EL} +Region Sockeye +Nur} Mackerels +Oceani California +Alaska Current +E. Bering Sea +W. Bering Sea +Okhotsk Sea +Oyashio +Kuroshio +Tsushima Lima Curren Yellow Sea +East China Sea +Region Tun Billfish +Oceanic +California Current +Alaska Current +E. Bering Sea +W. Bering Sea +Okhotsk Se Oyashio +Kuroshio +Tsushima Liman +Yellow Sea +East China Sea +© 2016 United Nations +Presen in +CECI ETS +Walleye | Giant Pacfic | Pacific Saffon | Longfin | Goosefish | Smal pollock | grenadie | hake cod cod codlin r +2 + +Region Halibut | Arrowtooth | Flathead | Rex | Yellowfin | Rock | Dover | Greenland | Alaska | Pacifi flounder sole sole | sole sole | sole turbot plaice | halibu Oceani California Curren Alaska Curren E. Bering Se W. Bering Se Okhotsk Se Oyashi Kuroshi Tsushima Liman Curren Yellow Se East China Se Table 2. Status of commercial fishery stocks in the North Pacific Stock Status Region Sourc Bigeye tuna Overfishing Pacific/Western | NOAA (2013 Pacifi Pacific bluefin tuna Overfishing Pacific/Western | NOAA (2013 Pacifi Striped marlin (Central Overfishing Western Pacific NOAA (2013 Western Pacific Blue king crab (Pribilof Islands) | Overfished North Pacific NOAA (2013 Canary rockfish Overfished Pacific NOAA (2013 Pacific ocean perch Overfished Pacific NOAA (2013 Yelloweye rockfish Overfished Pacific NOAA (2013 Striped marlin (Central Overfished Western Pacific NOAA (2013 Western Pacific Seamount groundfish complex | Overfished Western Pacific NOAA (2013 (Hancock Seamount Pacific bluefin tuna (Pacific) Overfished Pacific and NOAA (2013 Western Pacific +© 2016 United Nations +Squids +24 +Crab + +Table 3. Trends in the numbers or productivity of planktivorous species of marine birds and baleen whales. +[CA= California, USA; BC=British Columbia, Canada; PRBO= Point Reyes Bird Observatory in California, K carrying capacity] (from McKinnell et al., 2010 Location Species iV Celdata Dates used Trend tae lita California Curren Farallon Is., CA Cassin’s auklet Population trend 1998 - 2008 No trend PRBO - pers. comm Farallon Is., CA Cassin’s auklet Productivity 2002 - 2008 Down PRBO - pers. comm California & Oregon Blue whale Population trend 1991 - 2008 Up <3% y* Calambokidis 200 California, Oregon Washington Blue whale Population trend | 2001 - 2005 No trend Caretta et al. 200 California, Oregon Washington Fin whale Population trend | 2001 - 2005 No trend Caretta et al. 200 California & Oregon Humpback whale Population trend 1990 - 2008 Up 7.5% yt Calambokidis 200 California, Oregon Washington Humpback whale Population trend 1999 - 2003 Up Caretta et al. 200 British Columbia an Southeast Gulf of Alask Hipfner, pers . ay - comm Triangle Is., BC Cassin’s auklet Population trend 1999 - 2009 No tren Hipfner, pers Triangle Is., BC Cassin’s auklet Productivity 1998 - 2006 No trend comm British Columbia Humpback whale Population trend Up 4.1% Ford et al. 200 Northern and wester Gulf of Alask Allen & Anglis Northern Gulf of Alaska Humpback whale Population count 1987 - 2003 Up 6.6% y" 200 Allen & Anglis Shumagin-Kodiak areas Fin whale Population count 1987 - 2003 Up 4.8% y"" 200 Sea of Okhots Andreev et al., I Talan Island Crested auklet Population count 1989 vs 2008 Down Pres Andreev et al., I Talan Island Ancient murrelet Population count 1989 vs 2008 Down Pres Andreev et al., I Talan Island Parakeet auklet Population count 1989 vs 2008 Down Pres Western North Pacifi 1991-93 vs. Allen & Anglis Asia stock Humpback whale Population count 2004-06 Probably Up 2009 +© 2016 United Nations +25 + +Table 4a. Piscivorous species in the North Pacific [PRBO= Point Reyes Bird Observatory in California, USA K= carrying capacity; CA= California, USA; WA= Washington State, USA; BC= British Columbia, Canada GOA= Gulf of Alaska; DFO= Canadian Department of Fisheries & Oceans] (from McKinnell et al., 2010) +Location Spe Metric Dates used Trend tes lela California, Oregon Washington +California sea lion Population trend 2000 - 2006 No trend Caretta et al. 200 San Miguel Is., CA Northern fur seal Population trend 1998 - 2005 Up Caretta et al. 2009 +1972-76 vs Up - interrupted by +San Miguel Is., CA Northern fur seal Pup production 2002-06 ELNifio Olesiuk 200 Channel Islands, CA California sea lion Population trend 2004 - 2008 Up Bograd et al. 201 Channel Islands, CA Northern elephant seal Population trend 2000 - 2005 Up Caretta et al. 200 Farallon Is. CA Common murre Population trend 1998 - 2008 Up PRBO — pers. comm Farallon Is., CA Common murre Productivity 2002 - 2008 No trend PRBO — pers. comm Farallon Is, CA Rhinoceros auklet Population trend 1998 - 2008 Unknown! PRBO — pers. comm Farallon Is., CA Rhinoceros auklet Productivity 2002 - 2008 No trend PRBO — pers. comm Farallon Is. CA. California sea lion Population trend 1998 - 2008 No trend PRBO — pers. comm Farallon Is., CA Northern fur seal Population trend 1998 - 2008 Up PRBO — pers. comm Farallon Is., CA Northern elephant seal Population trend 1998 - 2008 No trend PRBO — pers. comm Central California Steller sea lion Non-pup count 1996 - 2004 No trend Caretta et al. 200 Northern Californi & Oregon Steller sea lion Non-pup count 1996 - 2002 No trend, at K Caretta et al. 200 California Harbour seal Population trend 1995 - 2004 No trend, at K Caretta et al. 200 Oregon & Washington Harbour seal Population trend 1995 - 2004 No trend, at K Caretta et al. 200 Tatoosh Is., WA Common murre Productivity 1998 - 2008 Up Parrish, pers. comm Triangle Is., B.C. Rhinoceros auklet Population trend 1999 - 2009 Up? Hipfner, pers. comm Triangle Is., B.C. Rhinoceros auklet Productivity 1998 - 2007 Up? Hipfner, pers. comm British Columbia Steller sea lion Pup count 1980s - 2006 Up 7.9% y* DFO, 200 British Columbia Steller sea lion Non-pup count 1998 - 2002 Up Allen & Angliss 200 St. Lazaria Is., E GOA Rhinoceros auklet Population trend 1994 - 2006 Up Slater, pers. comm St. Lazaria Is., E GOA Rhinoceros auklet Population trend 1998 - 2006 Up 5% y" Dragoo, pers. comm St. Lazaria Is., E.GOA Rhinoceros auklet Productivity 2002 - 2006 Up? Dragoo, pers. comm St. Lazaria Is., E GOA Unid. murre Population trend 1998 - 2006 No trend Dragoo. pers. comm St. Lazaria Is., E GOA Unid. murre Population trend 1994 - 2006 Down Slater & Byrd 200 St. Lazaria Is., E GOA Unid. murre Population trend 2001 - 2006 No trend Slater & Byrd 200 Southeast Alaska Steller sea lion Pup counts 1996 - 2009 Up 5.0% y* DeMaster, 200 Southeast Alaska Harbour seal Population trend 1990s - 2002 Variable no trend Allen & Angliss 200 Eastern GOA Steller sea lion Pup count 2001 - 2009 No trend DeMaster 200 Central GOA Steller sea lion Pup count 1994 - 2009 Down 0.6% y* DeMaster 200 Middleton Is., GOA Unid. murre Population count 1998 - 2007 Down Hatch, pers. comm Middleton Is., GOA Rhinoceros auklet Population count 1998 - 2007 Up Hatch, pers. comm Middleton Is., GOA Black-legged kittiwake Population count 1998 - 2007 Down Hatch, pers. comm Western GOA Steller sea lion Pup count 1998 - 2009 Up 2.6% y* DeMaster 200 Prince William Sound Harbour seal Population trend 1984 - 1997 Down Allen & Angliss 200 Kodiak Region, GOA Harbour seal Population trend 1993 - 2001 Up 6.6% y* Allen & Angliss 200 Semidi Is, W GOA Black-legged kittiwake Population trend 1998 - 2007 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm Semidi Is., W GOA Common murre Population trend 1999 - 2007 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm. +© 2016 United Nations +26 + +Table 4b. Piscivorous species in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (from McKinnell et al., 2010) +Species MV ieida( Dates Used uit) esi Black-legge St. Paul Is., E Bering kittiwake Population trend | 1999 - 2008 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm St. Paul Is., E. Bering Common murre Population trend | 1999 - 2008 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm Black-legge St. George Is., E. Bering kittiwake Population trend | 1999 - 2008 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm St. George Is., E. Bering Common murre Population trend 1999 - 2008 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm 1972 - 76vs Pribilof Is., Bering Sea Northern fur seal Pup count 2002 - 06 Down 2.7% y" Olesiuk 200 Allen & Anglis St. Paul Is., Pribilofs Northern fur seal Pup count 1998 - 2006 Down 6.1% y" 200 Allen & Anglis St. George Is., Pribilofs Northern fur seal Pup count 1998 - 2006 Down 3.4% y~! 200 1972 - 76vs Bogoslof Is., Bering Sea Northern fur seal Population trend 2002 - 06 Rapid growth Olesiuk 200 Allen & Anglis Bogoslof Is., Bering Sea Northern fur seal Pup count 2005 - 2007 Up 200 Allen & Anglis Bering Sea Harbour seal Population trend 1980s - 1990s Probably down 200 Aiktak Is., Unidenitifie Eastern Aleutian Islands murre Population trend 1998 - 2007 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm Eastern Aleutian Islands Steller sea lion Pup count 1998 - 2009 Up 4.2% y* DeMaster 200 1977 - 82vs. Allen & Anglis Eastern Aleutian Islands Harbour seal Population trend 1999 Down 45% 200 Koniuji Is., Black-legge C. Aleutian Islands kittiwake Population trend 1998 - 2007 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm Koniuji Is., Unidentifie C. Aleutian Islands murre Population trend 2001 - 2007 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm Unidentifie Ulak Is., C. Aleutians murre Population trend 1998 - 2008 Up 6.2% y"" Dragoo, pers. comm 1977 - 82vs. Allen & Anglis C. Aleutian Islands Harbour seal Population trend 1999 Down 66% 200 Black-legge Buldir Is., W. Aleutians kittiwake Population trend 1998 - 2007 No trend Dragoo, pers. comm Allen & Anglis Bering Sea Stock Harbour seal Population trend | 1980s - 1990s Probably down 200 Western Aleutian 1977 - 82vs. Allen & Anglis Islands Harbour seal Population trend 1999 Down 86% 200 Aleutian Islands Steller sea lion Pup count 1994 - 2009 Down 1.6% yt DeMaster 200 Western Aleutia Islands Steller sea lion Pup count 1997 - 2008 Down 10.4% y" DeMaster 2009 +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Table 4c. Piscivorous species in the western Pacific, including western Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Oyashio, +and Yellow Sea (from Mc +innell et al., 2010). +Location Species Metric DFTA ULT I Trend Xa es E. Kamchatka Steller sea lion Non-pup count 2001 — 2008 No trend Burkanov et al. 200 Commander Islands Steller sea lion Non-pup count 2000 - 2008 No trend Burkanov et al. 200 1972 - 76vs Commander Islands Northern fur seal Pup production 2002 - 06 No trend Olesiuk 200 1972 - 76vs Kuril Islands Northern furseal | Pup production 2002 - 06 Up, 3% y"" Olesiuk 200 1972 - 76vs Robben Is., Okhotsk Northern fur seal Pup production 2002 - 06 No trend Olesiuk 200 Kuril Islands Steller sea lion Non-pup count 2000 — 2007 Up Burkanov et al. 200 N. Okhotsk Steller sea lion Non-pup count 1996 — 2006 Up Burkanov et al. 200 Sakhalin Island Okhotsk Steller sea lion Non-pup count 2000 — 2009 Up Burkanov et al. 200 Andreev et al., I Talan Is., Okhotsk Horned puffin Population count 1989 vs 2008 | Up Press Black-legged Andreev et al., I Talan Is., Okhotsk kittiwake Population count 1989 vs 2008 _| Up Pres Unidentified Andreev et al., I Talan Is., Okhotsk murre Population count 1989 vs 2008 | Notrend Pres Japanes Teuri Is., W. Hokkaido cormorant Nest count 2007 - 2008 No trend Watanuki, pers. comm Rhinocero Teuri Is., W. Hokkaido auklet Population count 1985 -1997 Up Watanuki, pers. comm. +References +Anderson, D.M., Glibert, P.M., Burkholder, J.M. (2002). Harmful algal blooms an eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. Estuaries 25, +704-726. +Batten, S., Chen, X., Fling, E.N., Freeland, H.J., Holmes, J., Howell, E., Ichii, T., +Kaeriyama, M., Landry, M., Lunsford, C., Mackas, D.L., Mate, B., Matsuda, K. 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The Journal of Microbiology 47, 235-247. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36C.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36C.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36D.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36D.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6a0f6c6b525395f071c92cf6fda76cc0527634aa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36D.txt @@ -0,0 +1,782 @@ +Chapter 36D. South Pacific Ocean +Contributors: Karen Evans (lead author), Nic Bax (convener), Patricio Bernal (Lea member), Marili Bouchon Corrales, Martin Cryer, Ginter Forsterra Carlos F. Gaymer, Vreni Haussermann, and Jake Rice (Co-Lead member and Edito Part VI Biodiversity) +1. Introduction +The Pacific Ocean is the Earth’s largest ocean, covering one-third of the world’ surface. This huge expanse of ocean supports the most extensive and diverse cora reefs in the world (Burke et al., 2011), the largest commercial fishery (FAO, 2014) the most and deepest oceanic trenches (General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans available at www.gebco.net), the largest upwelling system (Spalding et al., 2012), th healthiest and, in some cases, largest remaining populations of many globally rar and threatened species, including marine mammals, seabirds and marine reptile (Tittensor et al., 2010). +The South Pacific Ocean surrounds and is bordered by 23 countries and territorie (for the purpose of this chapter, countries west of Papua New Guinea are no considered to be part of the South Pacific), which range in size from small atolls (e.g. Nauru) to continents (South America, Australia). Associated populations of each o the countries and territories range from less than 10,000 (Tokelau, Nauru, Tuvalu) t nearly 30.5 million (Peru; Population Estimates and Projections, World Bank Group accessed at http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/population-projection-tables August 2014). Most of the tropical and sub-tropical western and central South Pacifi Ocean is contained within exclusive economic zones (EEZs), whereas vast expanse of temperate waters are associated with high seas areas (Figure 1). The eastern an western extremes of the ocean basin contain two major boundary currents: th poleward-flowing East Australian Current (EAC), which runs along Australia’s North West shelf in the west (Ridgway and Dunn, 2003) and the northward-flowin Humboldt Current, which runs along South America’s continental shelf in the eas (Montecino and Lange, 2009). The dominant shallow water ecosystems of the regio are tropical coral reef and lagoon systems and mangrove communities in the sub tropics and tropics and temperate rocky reefs and kelp beds in temperate zones Other marine communities across tropical, sub-tropical and temperate zones includ rocky intertidals, mudflats, seagrass beds, estuaries and salt marshes in inshor areas and seamount, hydrothermal vents and trenches in offshore zones. Five Larg Marine Ecosystems (www.|Ime.edc.uri.edu) have been defined across the Sout Pacific Ocean, including the Humboldt Current, the northeast Australian shelf, east central Australian shelf, southeast Australian shelf and New Zealand shelf. +© 2016 United Nation + +ee ee eco 2015 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. The South Pacific Ocean. Sources: Bathymetry extracted from the GEBCO Digital Atlas (GDA) lOC, IHO and BODC, 2003. Centenary Edition of the GEBCO Digital Atlas, published on CD-ROM o behalf of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission and the International Hydrographi Organization as part of the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans, British Oceanographic Dat Centre, Liverpool, U.K. More information at +http://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gebco_digital_atlas/ +Ocean and Sea names extracted from ESRI, DeLorme, HERE, GEBCO, NOAA, National Geographic Geonames.org, and other contributors More information at +http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=0fd0c5b7a647404d8934516aa997e6d9 With the kind assistance of the FAO. +Physical processes of the basin play an important role in driving shelf and coasta marine processes and climate across the region. Northern parts of the South Pacifi Ocean are dominated by a basin-scale sub-tropical gyre, whose northern branc forms the South Equatorial Current (SEC; Figure 2; Reid, 1997). The SEC i predominantly driven by prevailing easterly trade winds and as water moves fro the east to the west, a thick layer of warm water (>29°C), the Western Warm Poo (WWP) is formed west of ~170°E (Picaut et al., 1996). As the westward-flowing SE encounters islands and land masses, it splits into several currents and jets, some o which, particularly the New Guinea Coastal Under-current (NGCU), contribute to th Equatorial Under-Current (EUC; Figure 2). The EUC contributes significantly t equatorial thermocline waters and is thought to modulate the El Nifio-Souther Oscillation (ENSO; Grenier et al., 2011). The EUC is also the primary source of iron i the photic layer of the region, and variability in the EUC drives regional biologica productivity (Ryan et al., 2006). Once the jets meet the land mass of Australia, they +© 2016 United Nation + +form the poleward-flowing western boundary current, the East Australian Curren (EAC). +As the EAC flows south along the Australia’s North-West shelf, eddies separate fro the main body of the EAC, forming a region of upwelling and downwelling. Outflo from the EAC forms a band of zonal eastward flow, the Tasman Front. The band o zonal eastward flow associated with the Tasman Front contributes to the Eas Auckland Current and eventually to the subtropical gyre moving northward an contributing to the SEC. +Subtropical +Gyre + oS TL +140°E 180° 140°W 120° The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations Figure 2. Major currents of the South Pacific Ocean. NECC: North Equatorial Counter-Current; NGCU New Guinea Coastal Under-current; EUC: Equatorial Under-Current; SEC: South Equatorial Current SECC: South Equatorial Counter-Current; ITF: Indonesian Through-Flow; QC: Queensland Current; EAC East Australian Current; LC: Leeuwin Current; ACC: Antarctic Circumpolar Current. +The eastern boundary of the gyre combines waters from the trans-Pacific West Win Drift (WWD) with a northward-flowing arm of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. A its arrival on the South American coast, the WWD diverges into the poleward-flowin Cape Horn Current and the northward-flowing Humboldt or Peru-Chile Current (PCC which flows along western South America (Strub et al., 1998). Similarly to the EAC the PCC is characterized by significant mesoscale variability in the form of fronts eddies and filaments (Hill et al., 1998; Montecino and Lange, 2009), which intensif closer to the coast. The Humboldt Current system is highly productive due to th combined effect of advection of nutrient-rich waters from the south and upwelling Cool, nutrient-rich waters are brought to the surface north of ~40°S as a result o coastal upwelling driven by winds and the impingement of the subtropical gyre alon the coast (Morales et al., 1996; Montecino and Lange, 2009). Upwelling occur seasonally across the ~30°S-40 °S region (Strub et al., 1998; Shaffer et al., 1999) whereas in Northern Chile and off the Peruvian coast, upwelling is permanent (Hill e al., 1998; Vasquez et al., 1998). As the EUC encounters the Galapagos Islands it splits one arm forms an under-current that reaches South America near the equator an becomes the poleward-flowing Gunther or Peru-Chile Under-Current, which flows +© 2016 United Nation + +beneath the PCC across the slope and outer shelf. The other arm flows to th southeast of the Galdpagos Islands and forms the poleward-flowing Peru-Chil Counter-Current which divides the PCC into two branches: a coastal and an oceani branch (Strub et al., 1998). +The physical dynamics of the region vary markedly with ENSO: during La Nifia stronger trade winds increase the intensity of the SEC, pushing the WWP west, an upwelling and productivity in the Pacific Equatorial Divergence (PEQD) increase During El Nifio, trade winds weaken, the SEC weakens, allowing the WWP to exten east and upwelling and productivity in the PEQD decrease (Ganachaud et al., 2011) Shifts in the intensity of the SEC have flow-on effects for both basin-scale circulatio and shelf systems at the basin edges where shifts result in weakening/strengthenin of the boundary currents. +Interaction of the easterly trade winds and ocean currents with island topograph modifies the flow of water downwind of the islands, creating counter-currents eddies and upwelling. This results in enhanced mixing of deeper nutrient-rich water with surface waters, increasing biological production and enriching coastal water (Ganachaud et al., 2011). For many South Pacific islands, these processes suppor rich coastal ecosystems in regions which would otherwise be regarded a oligotrophic. +Coordinated assessments of the state of the environment (including the marin environment) have been undertaken by several countries over the last decade including: Australia (State of the Environment Committee, 2011), French Polynesi (Gabrie et al., 2007), Kiribati (Ministry of Environment Lands and Agricultura Development, 2004), New Zealand (Ministry for the Environment, 2007), Pala (Sakuma, 2004), Peru (World Bank, 2006), Samoa (Ministry of Natural Resources an Environment, 2013), the Solomon Islands (Ministry of Environment Conservation an Meteorology, 2008) and Vanuatu (Mourgues, 2005). A number of regiona assessments have also been undertaken: The State of the Environment in Asia an Pacific 2005 (UNESCAP, 2005), the Pacific Environment Outlook (MclIntytre, 2005) the Global International Waters Assessment (UNEP, 2006a), including the Globa Assessment and Synthesis Reports from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessmen (www.unep.org/maweb/en/Global; UNEP 2006b), the Pacific Ocean Synthesi (Center for Ocean Solutions, 2009), the UNEP Large Marine Ecosystems Repor (Sherman and Hempel, 2009), the Global Biodiversity Outlook (Secretariat of th Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010), the Global Environment Outlook (UNEP 2012) and the Pacific Environment and Climate Change Outlook (SPREP, 2012). Thi chapter summarizes the available assessments and current knowledge from peer reviewed literature on the status of, immediate and long-term concerns for, an threats to the coastal and shelf marine ecosystems of the South Pacific Ocean. +2. Status and trends of biodiversity +Across the South Pacific Ocean, the most reliable time-series of the status o biodiversity across the region from which trends can be derived are largely limited to +© 2016 United Nation + +high-level indicators, including some oceanographic parameters (e.g., sea-surfac temperatures, sea level) and industrial commercial fisheries (e.g., tuna, anchoveta) Indicators of pressures and impacts are similarly limited to high-level indicators o population and socio-economic measures. Long-term monitoring initiatives (e.g. those spanning multiple decades) are sparse and are largely limited to within country monitoring of a few indicators associated with specific objectives. Th TAO/TRITON array, which consists of approximately 70 moorings deployed acros the tropical Pacific Ocean to collect primarily physical and meteorological data, ca be considered the most extensive ocean observation system currently functional i the South Pacific Ocean. For a short period in the late 1990s, biological and chemica sensors (i.e., continuous pCO, analyzers, three biospherical irradiance meters nitrate analyzers, and PAR sensors) were added to several buoys. This enable continuous monitoring of biological productivity during deployment, improvin understanding of biophysical coupling from inter-annual (ENSO events) to intra seasonal (tropical instability waves) time scales (e.g., Chavez et al., 1998; Chavez e al., 1999; Strutton et al., 2001). More recently, several regional alliances an programmes under the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), including th Australian Integrated Marine Observing System (www.imos.org.au; see Lynch et al. 2014), Pacific Islands Global Ocean Observing System (PI-GOOS) and GOOS Regiona Alliance for the South-East Pacific region (GRASP) are expanding physical an biological monitoring of ecosystems across the South Pacific Ocean. +2.1 Primary producers +High inter-annual variability in surface chlorophyll concentrations throughout th South Pacific Ocean tends to be associated with the eastern boundary upwelling o the Humboldt Current system, restricted regions east of New Zealand, aroun islands and in coastal margins where variability in local dynamics is hig (Dandonneau et al., 2004). Although information on the assemblages of plankton i available for most coastal and shelf regions across the South Pacific Ocean, data o seasonal and inter-annual variability or longer-term trends are sparse. +In the western equatorial region, during the northwest monsoon, an area o upwelling develops along the coast of Papua New Guinea (Ueki et al., 2003), bringin nutrient-rich waters to the surface and resulting in increased concentrations o surface chlorophyll which are evident in satellite imagery (Messié and Radenac 2006). This pool of nutrient- and chlorophyll-rich waters advects eastward durin westerly wind events with concentrations of phytoplankton rapidly declining as th oligotrophic waters of the WWP are reached. This decline in concentration i thought to be associated with low nitrate concentrations in surface waters resultin from a stratified salinity layer at the base of the WWP that creates a barrier layer t nutrients (Messié and Radenac, 2006). Shifts in the nitrocline depth, which allo mixing of surface waters with deep nutrient-rich waters associated with eastwar expansion of the WWP during La Nifia events, contribute to positive primar production anomalies observed in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean (Radenac e al., 2001; Turk et al., 2001; Messié et al., 2006). This is further enhanced by change in NGCU circulation which enhances iron transport from the shelf and upper slope o Papua New Guinea to the EUC (Ryan et al., 2006). Diatoms in the region have been +© 2016 United Nation + +observed to increase their concentration fourfold as a result of this increase nutrient input (Rousseaux and Gregg, 2012). +In situ sampling across the shelf region of north-eastern Papua New Guinea ha recorded a phytoplankton community during the austral summer dominated b nanoeucaryotes and Prochlorococcus (Everitt et al., 1990; Higgins et al., 2006) Variability in phytoplankton community assemblages has been observed to be hig with a gradient in concentrations from the coast (high) to waters further offshor (low). High nitrogen-fixation rates have also been observed in coastal regions o north-east Papua New Guinea, associated with nanoplankton cyanobacteria an Trichodesmium spp. (Bonnet et al., 2009). Across the western equatorial region nitrogen fixation is dominated by fractions of less than 10 mm associated wit unicellular photosynthetic diazotrophs. +Further to the south in the western Pacific Ocean (south of ~23°S) and in the regio of New Caledonia, seasonal enrichment of surface chlorophyll concentrations durin the austral winter months has been observed and is associated with surface coolin and vertical mixing (Dandonneau and Gohin, 1984; Menkes et al., 2015) Assemblages are dominated by the cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus, with lowe concentrations of Synechococcus and picoeukaryotes (Dandonneau et al., 2004 Menkes et al., 2015). Around the New Caledonian and Vanuatu archipelagos, bloom of Trichodesmium spp. are often reported during the austral summer months an have been associated with increased nutrient inputs from islands as a result o seasonal patterns in rainfall (Rodier and Le Borgne, 2008; Le Borgne et al., 2011) although direct linkages between Trichodesmium blooms and seasonal land-base nutrient input are not clear (Peter Thompson, CSIRO, pers. comm., 21 August 2014) In contrast to the productivity observed around high islands, such as Papua Ne Guinea, New Caledonia and Vanuatu, productivity around low islands and coral atoll is rarely enhanced. This is because in general these islands and atolls release ver few sediments and nutrients into coastal and shelf regions (Le Borgne et al., 2011). +Overall, a distinct latitudinal gradient in phytoplankton is observed in easter Australian coastal and shelf waters: higher concentrations of the picoplankto Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus are found in the north, which gradually declin to the south (Thompson et al., 2011). Tropical shelf waters are typified b phytoplankton communities similar to those observed in the oligotrophic waters o the northern Coral Sea and those around New Caledonia and southern parts of th Coral Sea. The Great Barrier Reef lagoon supports a high diversity of nanoplankto and picoplankton species, which demonstrate a seasonal progression in communit structure and biomass across the austral summer months (chlorophyll concentrations have been observed to increase by up to 50 per cent). In oute regions of the lagoon this is associated with intrusion of nutrient-enriched Coral Se water (Furnas and Mitchell, 1986; Brodie et al., 2007) and in inner regions associate with sediment-laden river plumes (Revelante et al., 1982). Surface chlorophyl concentrations are frequently, although not always, higher in lagoon regions of th Great Barrier Reef than in adjacent shelf regions (Furnas et al., 1990). Assessment of surface chlorophyll a concentrations throughout the Great Barrier Reef lagoo suggest that relatively short (5 — 8 years) time-series may provide spurious estimates +© 2016 United Nation + +of longer-term trends, given the high variability in multi-year patterns (Brodie et al. 2007). +In general, phytoplankton assemblages in the EAC are diatom-dominated in inshor regions; flagellates dominate offshore regions (Young et al., 2011). Assemblage associated with the mesoscale features of the EAC are highly variable with distinc spatial separation of phytoplankton species observed across individual eddy system (Jeffrey and Hallegraeff, 1980; Jeffrey and Hallegraeff, 1987). Further south, acros the temperate neritic province, episodic phytoplankton blooms driven by seasona intrusions of nitrate-rich water into the euphotic zone occur (Hallegraeff and Jeffrey 1993; Bax et al., 2001). These seasonal blooms can include diatoms such a Pseudonitzschia, which is responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning (Hallegraeff 1994), Thalassiosira partheneia (Bax et al., 2001), and also coccolithophorids (e.g. Figure 3). +Waters around the north of New Zealand typically demonstrate similar seasona patterns in chlorophyll concentrations to those observed in the broader Tasman Sea higher concentrations in the austral spring and autumn and lowest in the winter Phytoplankton maximas in north-eastern New Zealand shelf regions have bee associated with diatom blooms with community succession to dinoflagellates nanoflagellates and picophytoplankton as blooms decline (Chang et al., 2003). Alon the west coast, diatoms are most abundant close to shore, phytoflagellates mos abundant seaward of shore areas and dinoflagellates most abundant in areas furthe offshore (Chang, 1983). In the High-Nitrate-Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) subantarcti waters southeast of New Zealand, episodic elevated chlorophyll events have bee observed (Boyd et al., 2004) with phytoplankton assemblages dominated b cyanobacteria (Bradford-Grieve et al., 1997) and diatoms (Boyd et al., 1999). +Figure 3. A coccolithophorid bloom in the coastal waters of north-east Tasmania, Australia. Phot taken in October 2004. Image courtesy of CSIRO, Australia. +© 2016 United Nation + +Declines in austral spring bloom biomass and growth rates of chlorophyll a along th south-eastern Australian region have been suggested to be associated with a long term decrease in dissolved silicate concentrations. This decrease is thought to b driven by increased intensity in the EAC (Thompson et al., 2009) associated wit decadal climate variability (see Section 3). Range expansion of some species has als been reported (Hallegraeff, 2010). The drivers of these expansions have not bee established and may be associated with eutrophication, ballast water translocatio or oceanographic changes associated with a changing climate (see also Section 3). +Further east in the waters of the PCC, marine ecosystem dynamics are driven b intra-seasonal, annual and inter-annual changes in the upwelling systems that typif the region (Alheit and Niquen, 2004; Montecino and Lange, 2009). Productivity i highest in inshore areas of high upwelling. Coastal upwelling regions off Peru ar mainly composed of early successional stages of small diatoms (5-30 nm) with hig re-production rates, whereas in later successional stages, they are characterized b larger species (Tarazona et al., 2003). Small phytoplankton, including nano- an picoplankton, have been reported to account for a large proportion (> 60 per cent of the primary production and chlorophyll a concentration in the coastal water between 18°S and 30°S. (Escribano et al., 2003). +South of ~30°S, where upwelling is seasonal, coastal surface chlorophyll concentrations demonstrate a maximum in the austral summer. Further offshore concentrations are out of phase with upwelling events, demonstrating a winte maximum potentially associated with offshore advection of productivity away fro coastal regions by eddy systems (Morales et al., 2007). Assemblages are diatom- an silico-flagellate-dominated; similar assemblages are observed offshore associate with coastally derived filaments and eddy systems. Assemblages demonstrate littl variability throughout the year. The northern Coquimbo upwelling system, despit being an area of persistent upwelling, demonstrates lower production than the mor southern Antofagasta and Concepcién Shelf areas where production values hav been reported to be some of the highest in the ocean (Daneri et al., 2000) Abundances vary considerably, both temporally and spatially, in response to hig variability in upwelling systems and associated coastally derived filaments and edd systems (Daneri et al., 2000; Morales et al., 2007). Such variability makes describin trends in productivity associated with climate variability (such as ENSO) difficult ove shorter time scales (Daneri et al., 2000). +2.2 Zooplankton communities +Within coastal mangrove and seagrass systems in the tropics and sub-tropics, th composition of zooplankton communities is principally controlled by diel changes i tidal flows and seasonal changes in salinities, influenced by the seasonal outflow o freshwater from estuaries or seasonal changes in rainfall in coastal lagoon system (Grindley, 1984; Duggan et al., 2008). Estimates of the biomass of zooplankton i inshore and estuarine systems tend to be much higher than adjacent coastal region — tropical Australian mangrove and seagrass habitats have been recorded as having zooplankton biomass an order of magnitude higher than adjacent embayment (Robertson et al., 1988). Similar spatial gradients in abundance have been recorded +© 2016 United Nation + +elsewhere in the subtropical western Pacific Ocean (Kluge, 1992; Champalbert, 1993 Le Borgne et al., 1997; Carassou et al., 2010). +Within coral reef systems, abundances of zooplankton can vary in relation to th structure of reef/lagoon systems. Enclosed and semi-enclosed atolls (e.g., th Tuamoto archipelago in French Polynesia) have higher densities of zooplankto species than lagoon systems that are more open and have regular exchange o waters with adjacent open oceans (e.g., Uvea lagoon in New Caledonia and the Grea Barrier Reef lagoon in Australia; Le Borgne et al., 1997; Niquil et al., 1998). +Composition of zooplankton in tropical and subtropical coastal regions can vary o scales of metres; assemblages in mangrove forests, mangrove streams, coral mound and sandy floor areas vary distinctly (Jacoby and Greenwood, 1988; Robertson et al. 1988). Mangrove systems have been observed to contain higher amounts o meroplankton species than seagrass habitats, which are more similar to habitat further offshore in bay and lagoon areas (Robertson et al., 1988). Reef systems hav been observed to comprise a mix of resident, swarming and demersal species, mos of which associate with benthic communities during the day, ascending into th water column during the night. The resident demersal component of zooplankto communities on reef systems can be 5-20 times more abundant than pelagi communities (Alldredge and King, 1977; Roman et al., 1990). In the western Pacifi Ocean, cyclopoid copepods, such as Oithona spp., and calanoid copepods, such a Parvocalanus spp., have been recorded as being numerically the most abundant tax across all habitats (Robertson and Howard, 1978; Saisho, 1985; Jacoby an Greenwood, 1988; Robertson et al., 1988; Roman et al., 1990; Kluge, 1992 Robertson and Blaber, 1993; Le Borgne et al., 1997; McKinnon and Klumpp, 1998 Duggan et al., 2008). Abundances of zooplankton in the tropical coastal waters o northern Peru are some of the highest recorded in the eastern Pacific Ocean and ar associated with high primary production resulting from coastal upwelling across th region (Fernandez-Alamo and Farber-Lorda, 2006). +Zooplankton communities in tropical and subtropical habitats demonstrate hig variability across tidal to seasonal time scales (Jacoby and Greenwood, 1988 Hamner et al., 2007). The biomass of most communities tends to be highest in th austral summer in the western Pacific Ocean and is associated with peaks in primar productivity (see Section 2.1) and seasonal spawning of invertebrate and vertebrat plankton predators. Not all species demonstrate peaks in abundance during th austral summer; some species demonstrate a peak in the austral winter (Jacoby an Greenwood, 1988). In the eastern Pacific Ocean, increased zooplankton in coasta upwelling regions occurs after winter wind-driven production with peaks in October December (Fernandez-Alamo and Farber-Lorda, 2006). +Inter-annually, zooplankton community structure and abundances in tropical an sub-tropical habitats vary in association with rainfall, associated terrestrial run-of and turbulence, water temperatures, adjacent offshore upwelling in the wester Pacific Ocean (Robertson et al., 1988; McKinnon and Thorrold, 1993) and inter annual variability in upwelling in the eastern Pacific Ocean associated with ENSO Although clear patterns associated with ENSO cycles are not yet established (Alam and Bouchon, 1987; Ferndndez-Alamo and Farber-Lorda, 2006), zooplankto abundances have been observed to be higher during “cold” decades, particularly in +© 2016 United Nation + +the 1960s, than more recent “warm” decades and have been associated with regim shifts in fish communities in the region (see Section 2.4; Figure 4; Ayon et al., 2004) Similar shifts in the size distribution of zooplankton have also been observed in th eastern Pacific Ocean with smaller zooplankton dominating during warmer, lowe upwelling conditions (Ayon et al., 2011). +86 Wa4Wa2"W80"W78'W TEW 74° W725W B6*W B4"W82"WB0'W78-W 76°W 74° WT2"W 86"W 84°W82"W80°W 78°W 76°W74-WT2W 86 W84“W 62°W80'W78'W 76 7a W72 4 rs a ~ +Summer 60 ‘Summer 70's Winter 70' 25 +es Ps es ps s sf h 10's rae | 10's hs 3 o 12s 12s os I7 Ho 4s 14s eet Voor 1 o 16S 16S a e ce oe +ws ws Pa, | ies +20's 20's 2 85° We4°W EZ WE0'W75'W 76°W74"W72"W BW 84"WA2"WAO"W78'W76'W74'W72"W Be was war waow Tew Tew74wT2W ea wea war weoW7eWrewTeWwT2 86°'W84"W B2"W80"W 78°W TE°W74"W72W B6°W 84°WE2°W B0°W78°W 76° 74°W72"W B6°W 84°W 82°80" 78°W 76°W74°W72°W BBW 84"W B2°W80"W 78'°W 7E°W74°W72°W +48 #8 t } 4s ar 48 sai 4s +winter@0s [ 7 Summer 90's ( hidelit es } 6s ie } 6s | > Ls es = e 2 FE c ss es ie es Ose : es e hs § eA 10s 1's el os ae Hs | tos o os +12s 12S fas 12°S 12S 2s +1s 1s om 14°S ws ws +18s . 16'S 16's 168s ies +a> } . +18°3 18°S 188 | 18s 18s +20S 20°S 20°S 20°s 2 95° We4"W B2"WE0"W78"W 78°W74°W72W 96°W 84° W 2" WEO-W7E'W 76°W74W 720 BG-wae"We2"WEOW78W76°W74W72W ae wea Waawaorw7eW 76W74W72W +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Spatial and temporal variability in zooplankton biomass in the tropical and subtropica coastal waters of the eastern South Pacific Ocean. Reproduced from Ayon et al., 2004. +Zooplankton communities in temperate waters of the South Pacific Ocean, similarl to those in the tropics and sub-tropics, are dominated by copepod species (Tranter 1962; Bradford, 1972; Escribano et al., 2007). Swarming gelatinous species, such a salps, can also dominate; increased abundance of salps is associated with declines i copepod abundances (Tranter, 1962). In the western South Pacific Ocean assemblages and abundances are spatially and temporally highly variable, reflectin high variability in the physical features and primary productivity of the EAC. Edd systems associated with the EAC can contain distinct abundances and assemblage of taxa in comparison to adjacent waters and other eddies, which evolve, becomin less distinct as the eddy ages (Griffiths and Brandt, 1983; McWilliam and Phillips 1983; Tranter et al., 1983; Young, 1989). Further south, the shelf waters off south eastern Australia are dominated by the euphausid Nyctiphanes australis; peaks i abundance occur in the austral autumn months in association with seasona upwelling onto shelf regions and resulting peaks in primary production (Young et al. 1996). The temperate zooplankton communities of east New Zealand waters are als typified by N. australis, gelatinous zooplankton and copepod species (Jillet, 1971 Jillet, 1976; Bradford, 1972). Peaks in abundance vary between species, but mos species have been observed to demonstrate peaks in abundance in the late austral +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +winter/early spring (Bradford, 1972). Shifts in the composition of zooplankto communities from predominantly cold water species to more warm water specie have been reported from the shelf waters off south-eastern Australia and have bee associated with large shifts in regional oceanography (Johnson et al., 2011). +In the eastern South Pacific Ocean, temperate zooplankton communities ar dominated by copepods, euphausids and gelatinous zooplankton (Escribano et al. 2007). Community composition in coastal and shelf regions off Peru tends t correspond with large oceanographic features throughout the region; coasta upwelled waters are comprised of copepod species and meroplanktonic larvae Waters further offshore are largely comprised of large holopankters, such a euphausids, copepods, siphonophores and chaetognaths (Tarazona et al., 2003 Fernandez-Alamo and Farber-Lorda, 2006; Ayon et al., 2011). In the coastal region of central Chile, where assemblages are influenced by subantarctic waters, copepod dominate offshore shelf regions, whereas euphausids dominate the fjord regio (Escribano et al., 2003). Abundances of zooplankton in the region are both strongl and positively associated with the vertical distribution of the oxygen minima zone Abundances of gelatinous zooplankton have been observed to peak in the austra winter and spring: copepods demonstrate a peak in the austral spring and summer i association with seasonal upwelling conditions. Euphausids, dominated by th endemic Euphausia mucronata, demonstrate little seasonal variability in abundance (Gonzalez and Marin, 1998; Escribano et al., 2007). Little inter-annual variability i species assemblages and abundances has been observed in the region, althoug shifts in species assemblages of zooplankton in coastal Chilean waters have bee associated with ENSO phase. Species alternate between copepods and euphausid during upwelling events associated with La Nifia and cyclopoid copepods durin warmer events associated with El Nifio (Hidalgo and Escribano, 2001). +2.3 Benthic communities +Benthic communities across the South Pacific Ocean occupy a diverse range o habitats, including estuaries, mangroves, rocky intertidals, seagrass beds, kel forests, soft bottoms (ranging from sandy to muddy), coral reefs and rocky reefs, an form one of the richest assemblages of species in the marine environmen (Snelgrove, 1999). Many species are subject to recreational, artisanal an commercial fisheries. These include bivalves (e.g., giant clams, scallops) echinoderm (e.g., sea Cucumbers, sea urchins) and gastropods (e.g., Trochus, abalone). Benthi fish and macro-invertebrates are discussed in Section 2.4. +Given the diversity of benthic community habitats across the South Pacific Ocean few have been sampled comprehensively. Most assessments have focused o classification and documentation of the sediments or plants forming the basis of habitat type or on individual species, rather than on benthic community assemblage (e.g., Kennelly, 1987; Heap et al., 2005; Fisher et al, 2011; Waycott et al, 2009) Because of a lack of assessments, surveys often discover previously undescribe species that may only be documented once in a survey (Snelgrove, 1999; Williams e al., 2010). Establishing trends in benthic communities in most regions is at presen difficult, in large part due to the sparse data available across all habitat types and the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +high variability in faunal assemblages associated with each habitat (e.g., Waycott e al., 2005). +Coral reef communities are one of the better documented benthic communitie throughout the South Pacific Ocean. Although 75 per cent of the world’s coral reef are found in the Indo-Pacific region, few long-term trends have been documente for these communities (Bruno and Selig, 2007). Densities of species in coral ree communities exhibit considerable variability spatially across multiple scales an reflect larval dispersion, recruitment success, competition for substrate and loca environmental conditions. Community structure within reef communities tends t follow a nutrient gradient and is also associated with proximity to inner lagoon o outer open-ocean regions. +Coral reef assemblages attenuate gradually in diversity with increasing distance fro the Coral Triangle; 60 genera of reef-building (hermatypic) corals have been reporte at 9°S in comparison to 18 genera at 30°S (Wells, 1955; Veron, et al. 1974; Bellwoo and Hughes, 2001). Eastern South Pacific coral reefs are low in diversity; however most species within these communities are unique (Glynn and Ault, 2000). In area where water temperatures seasonally drop to below 18°C, hermatypic coral become sparse: coral reef communities give way to rocky reef and soft substrat communities (Veron, 1974). Factors suggested to be associated with attenuation o coral reef communities include water temperature, aragonite saturation, ligh availability, larval dispersal and recruitment, and competition with other species including macroalgae (Harriott and Banks, 2002). +Overall, coral communities across the South Pacific Ocean are considered to b generally healthy (Burke et al., 2011), although coral cover is gradually declinin (Bruno and Selig, 2007). Exposure and resilience to disturbance vary depending o reef type and location; major drivers of changes in species densities, assemblage and spatial distributions are associated with natural phenomena such as storms an cyclones, outbreaks of natural predators (e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish) and seasona local coral bleaching events (Chin et al., 2011; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2011). Cora reef communities in the eastern South Pacific Ocean recorded the earliest mas bleaching and mortality of any region; widespread losses are linked to high ocea temperature anomalies that occur during El Nifio events (Glynn and Ault, 2000 Burke et al., 2011). +Coral cover from reefs in the Indo-Pacific region has been declining relativel uniformly since records began in the 1960s and 1970s; yearly estimates of los average 1 — 2 per cent over the last 20 years (Bruno and Selig, 2007). Hard cora cover on the Great Barrier Reef has declined from 28.0 per cent in 1985 to 13.8 pe cent in 2012; the rate of decline is increasing in recent years (De’ath et al., 2012 Figure 5). Declines have been most severe on reefs south of 20°S, particularly sinc 2006, and on areas of inshore reefs which have been documented to have decline by 34 per cent since 2005 (GBRMPA, 2014). Tropical cyclones, coral predation by th crown-of-thorns starfish and coral bleaching have accounted for 48 per cent, 42 pe cent and 10 per cent, respectively, of declines observed; elevated loads of nutrients sediments and pollutants via terrestrial run-off affect reef resilience and th potential for recovery (De’ath et al., 2012; Wiedenmann et al., 2013). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + + Great Barner Nosth w Centre Sout Reet ~ +Coral cover (per cent +S & 8&8 a S +2005 1 +2005 +201 985 4 +2000 199 199 200 2010 +Figure 5. Estimates of hard coral cover across the Great Barrier Reef 1986 — 2012, based on dat collected from 214 reefs. Dashed lines represent the standard error. Taken from Great Barrier Ree Marine Park Authority (2014) (modified from De’ath et al. (2012). +Local declines in species densities, assemblages and spatial distributions ar increasingly being observed, particularly in areas close to population centres wher over-fishing, pollution from terrestrial run-off and sewage, and damage from coasta developments are occurring (see Section 3). Bleaching events are becoming mor widespread, increasing in intensity and frequency as surface waters of the Sout Pacific Ocean warm with long-term climate change (Burke et al., 2011; Chin et al. 2011; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2011). Recovery from bleaching events is possible i local factors which affect reef systems, such as coastal runoff and overfishing, ar minimized (Figure 6); however, as marine conditions alter with climate change, th ability of coral reefs to recover from bleaching events is expected to decline (se section 3.1; De’ath et al., 2012). +Monitoring of approximately 30 intertidal seagrass meadows along the central an southern coast of the Great Barrier Reef suggests that their overall abundance reproductive effort and nutrient status have all declined. Although shallow subtida seagrass meadows are less extensively monitored, many sites also show signs o declines in abundance. Causes for these declines include cyclones and poor wate quality (GBRMPA, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Bleachin === Cyclone —® Corals —#- Turf —# Macroalgae +Cover (%) +Figure 6. Variation in coral, turf and macroalgal cover at the Tiahura outer reef sector, Frenc Polynesia, 1991 — 2006, in relation to coral bleaching and cyclone events. Dotted lines indicate th standard deviation. Taken from Adjeroud et al., 2009; with permission of Springer. +Across temperate regions, benthic communities of rocky intertidal and rocky ree habitats are reasonably well documented, although studies are often local and onl include assessments of a few sites. In the western South Pacific Ocean, subtida coastlines are typified by patches of common kelp, ascidians and crustose corallin algae barrens, which are often associated with the sea urchin Centrostephanu rodgersii (Connell and Irving, 2008). Other herbivores common in these habitat include limpets and topshells (Underwood et al., 1991). Community assemblage vary with depth; sponges, ascidians and red algae are more abundant in deepe sheltered areas (Underwood et al., 1991). In protected areas where removal o urchin predators is restricted and predator populations are provided with th opportunity to increase, sea urchin barrens demonstrate a decline and macroalga forests are more extensive (Babcock et al., 1999; Shears and Babcock, 2003; Barret et al., 2009). This suggests that removal of urchin predators (e.g., via fishing) ca have widespread effects on community structure in subtidal habitats (Connell an Irving, 2008). Declines in the density of giant kelp beds and increased densities of se urchins and urchin barrens have also been associated with increased southwar larval advection of urchin larvae following shifts in large oceanographic feature throughout the south-eastern Australian region (Johnson et al., 2011). Commercia and recreational fishing practices have been associated with declines in benthi communities. Oyster reef communities in south-eastern Australia have been largel destroyed by fishing and mining practices: over 60 per cent are considered +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +functionally extinct, and of the remaining, 90 per cent of the original area of the ree is lost (Beck et al., 2011). The flow-on impacts of such reductions include reduce habitat and food sources for other species and reduced water-filtering capacity resulting in a reduction in overall water quality (Beck et al., 2011). +Estuarine and coastal soft-sediment benthic communities have been routinel monitored, mostly by councils and unitary authorities, at over 70 sites in Ne Zealand for up to 25 years (see http://geodata.govt.nz/geonetwork_memp). Tim series established demonstrate a wide variety of trends and cycles, and it is difficul to draw overall conclusions. For example, Mahurangi Harbour, which has predominantly rural catchment, has demonstrated a declining trend in specie sensitive to increased sediment loading (Halliday et al., 2013), whereas Manuka Harbour, adjacent to New Zealand’s largest city, has demonstrated no declinin trends that might indicate that the habitat is becoming degraded (Greenfield et al. 2013). New Zealand is developing a Marine Environmental Monitoring Programme t coordinate and report on the diverse monitoring being conducted. +In temperate regions of the eastern South Pacific Ocean, rocky intertida communities are dominated by mussel beds, corticated algae and herbivorou gastropods in shallow regions and kelps, crustose algae, chitons and fissurellids i deeper regions (Broitman et al., 2001). Carnivorous gastropods and crustaceans als dominate communities. Latitudinal gradients occur in some species; mussel an crustose algae densities decrease with decreasing latitudes, whereas ephemera algae increase with decreasing latitudes (Broitman et al., 2001). Further south recent inventory studies conducted in the relatively easily accessible areas of th Chilean fjord region have documented that over 30 per cent of the sample specimens represent new species; 10 per cent of these are in benthic communitie (Haussermann and Forsterra, 2009). Many of the species documented exhibite unexpected distribution patterns: for example, species thought to be limited to th Peruvian faunal province were discovered far to the south; others, presumed to b subantarctic, were present in northern Chilean fjords, and deep water species wer found in shallow depths of the fjords (e.g., Forsterra et al., 2005). The specie richness of several benthic taxa has been observed to decrease with increasin latitude and then increase again south of 40-45°S. This is possibly associated eithe with an increase in the presence of Antarctic fauna or an increase in habitat with th broadening of the continental shelf south of 40°S (Escribano et al., 2003). +Temporal changes in the density and assemblage of benthic communities have bee observed at two long-term sites in the Chilean fjord region. Within the Comau Fjord mussel banks, meadows of sea whips, sea anemones, large calcified bryozoans an the rare gorgonian Swiftia n. sp. have reduced by at least 50 per cent and in som cases, completely disappeared. Associated decapod species have also experience declines in abundance (Haussermann et al., 2013). Declines in biodiversity in thi fjord are thought to be associated with increased mussel harvesting in the area eutrophication, increased organic sedimentation and the extensive use of chemical in aquaculture operations (Hdaussermann et al., 2013; Forsterra et al., 2014; Mayr e al., 2014). +Further detail on estuaries, mangroves, kelp forests, seagrass and corals can b found respectively, in chapters 44, 48, 47 and 42-43. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +2.4 Fish and macro-invertebrates +Fish and macro-invertebrates occurring in coastal and shelf regions of the Sout Pacific Ocean range from highly resident species (e.g., cardinal fishes, Apogonidae wrasses, Labridae ), species that move relatively small distances, but utilize multipl habitats during their lifespan (e.g., penaeid prawns; yellowfin bream, Acanthopagru australis), pelagic species that roam shelf waters extensively (e.g., Australian salmo or kahawai Arripis spp., white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias), to highly migrator pelagic species that utilize shelf regions periodically or seasonally (bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus; southern bluefin tuna, T. maccoyii). A few species are anadromou (e.g., shorthead and pouch lampreys, Mordaciidae) and some are catadromous (e.g. barramundi, Lates calcarifer; short-finned eel, Anguilla australis). +Time series of indicators of populations are largely limited to species that are th focus of recreational/sport, subsistence and commercial fisheries and are subject t varying degrees of management (Bates et al., 2014). Subsistence fishing tends to b more important in rural areas throughout the South Pacific Ocean and is much large than commercial fishing in these areas (Dalzell et al., 1996; Kulbicki et al., 1997). I the Pacific Islands region, where fish consumption in some countries is at least twic the level needed to supply 50 per cent of the recommended protein requirements 60 — 90 per cent of fish consumed is caught by subsistence fishers (Bell et al., 2009) Across much of the rest of the South Pacific Ocean, and in the shelf areas of th Pacific Island region, commercial fishing is much larger than subsistence o recreational fishing. +Small-scale subsistence and commercial reef fisheries across the Pacific Island regio and coastal commercial fisheries in Ecuador and northern Peru can catch up to 200 300 species (Dalzell et al., 1996; Heileman et al., 2009; FAO, 2010). The primary fis families important to Pacific Island communities are the Acanthuridae (surgeonfish) Scaridae (parrot fish), Lutjanidae (snapper), Lethrinidae (emperor fish) and Balistida (triggerfish; Dalzell et al., 1996; Pratchett et al., 2011). A number of fish species ar also commercially fished for the live reef food and the aquarium trade Macroinvertebrates of importance include sea cucumbers (22 species ar commercially caught across the region for the production of béche-de-mer), trochu (Trochus spp.), green snail (Turbo marmoratus), giant clams (Tridacna spp.) cephalopods (primarily cuttlefish and octopus) and crustaceans (penaeid prawns crabs, lobsters). Commercial pearl oyster aquaculture operations occur in th eastern (Melanesian) part of the Pacific Islands region; two-thirds of all productio occurs in French Polynesia (Dalzell et al., 1996). Species of importance in the easter South Pacific include silverside (Odontesthes regia), flathead grey mullet (Mugi cephalus), lorna drum (Sciaena deliciosa), Peruvian scallop (Argopecten purpuratus) and the cephalopods Loligo gahi and Dosidicus gigas (FAO, 2010). +Reef fish abundances are influenced by the extent and condition of coral cover, an can vary two- to ten-fold over time, largely in association with loss and subsequen recovery of coral reef habitat following storm events (Halford et al., 2004; Kulbicki e al., 2007; Wilson et al., 2008; Brewer et al., 2009). Macro-carnivores, micro herbivores and plankton feeders show some of the highest variability (Kulbicki 1997). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +A large-scale assessment of coral reef fish and invertebrate communities in 17 Pacifi Island countries and territories found that across 63 sites, less than one-third of th sites had resources that were in good condition; most were in average/low or poo condition (Pinca et al., 2009). Herbivores and smaller fish were more abundant i reefs of below average condition, whereas reefs in good condition had highe biomasses of carnivores and greater numbers of larger fish (Pinca et al., 2009). Mor recently an assessment of the status of reef fish assemblages on fished reef estimated that reef fish assemblages around Papua New Guinea were at a poin indicating fisheries collapse (Mac Neil et al., 2015). Declines have also been observe in sea cucumber species, giant clam and Trochus spp. Sea cucumber fisheries i Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu have bee closed due to overfishing (Purcell et al., 2013). Some species of giant clam have bee declared extinct in a number of countries and all giant clam species are now liste under Appendix II of the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which covers species that may become threatened if their trade is no effectively regulated (Pinca et al., 2009). Formal monitoring and regulation of coasta fishery resources is largely lacking throughout the region, particularly for subsistenc fisheries resources (Dalzell et al., 1996; Gillett, 2010). Landings that are reported ar considered to be underestimates; reconstructed catches from coral fisheries i American Samoa have been estimated to be 17-fold greater than those officiall reported (Zeller et al., 2006). +Large components of tropical reef systems along eastern Australia are managed a part of the multiple use Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, some of which is open t commercial, recreational and traditional fishing for a range of fish (for food and th live aquarium trade), crustaceans (penaeid prawns, crabs, lobsters), sea cucumbers trochus, beach or sand worms and live coral. Monitoring of 214 fish populations i the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park since the 1990s indicate high inter-annua variability (Figure 7); population declines are associated with a declining coral cover particularly in southern parts of the park, where coastal development is greates (GBRMPA, 2014). Overall abundance and size of commercially caught species hav declined when compared to historical abundance and size; the fishery for blac teatfish sea cucumber (Holothuria whitmaei) was closed in 1999 (GBRMPA, 2014) lllegal fishing is known to occur in areas closed to fishing and is likely to hav contributed to overall declines in fish populations. Recreational fishing catche throughout the marine park are largely unmonitored; however, in 2010 an estimate 700,000 recreational fishers throughout Queensland caught over 13 million fish approximately half of which were returned to the water (Taylor et al., 2012) Recreational catches appear to have been declining over the last decade. +Temperate fish and macro-invertebrates are also affected by the physical an biological attributes of temperate habitats (De Martini and Roberts, 1990; Curley e al., 2003; Anderson and Millar, 2004). Spatial variability in assemblages has bee associated with type of reef habitat (e.g., urchin barren, kelp forest, sponge habitat) benthic topography and depth (Williams and Bax, 2001; Curley et al., 2003; Hill et al. 2014). Long-term changes in temperate fish assemblages have been observed in +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, No. 14537. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +eastern Australia, associated with fishing, introduced alien species and ongoin changes to the marine environment as a result of climate change and coasta development (Last et al., 2011; State of the Environment Committee, 2011; Bates e al., 2014). +Coastal waters of the tropical eastern Pacific are some of the least explored in th region (Cruz et al., 2003; Zapata and Robertson, 2007); approximately 70 per cent o fish are endemic to the region. The unique oceanographic conditions an heterogeneity of the coastal regions of Chile have resulted in high levels o endemism in many invertebrate groups (Griffiths et al., 2009; Miloslavich et al. 2011). Endemism is also high in the waters of small oceanic islands in the easter South Pacific Ocean; approximately 77 per cent of the fish at Easter Island, 73 pe cent at Salas y Gomez, 72 per cent at Desventuradas and 99 per cent at the Jua Fernandez Archipelago are endemic (National Geographic/Oceana/Armada de Chile 2011, Friedlander et al., 2013; National Geographic/Oceana, 2013). Most of th oceanic islands of the eastern South Pacific are thought to have relatively health biomasses of fish and macro-invertebrates, with the exception of Easter Island where fisheries have been operating for over 800 years (Hunt and Lipo 2011). Withi the last three decades, a dramatic decrease in the marine resources of Easter Islan has been observed; this is largely associated with overexploitation, increasing touris numbers with associated increases in demand for resources, illegal industrial fishin and lack of surveillance and enforcement procedures (Gaymer et al., 2013). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Inshore Mid-shelf Offshore +Cocktown 100 Liza lo ‘B0 — 60 40 meses qe A rT o B0 cam = e % 40 rece Seto eesS e a —— r ™ ™ ——r T +r 0 ‘B0 Anntstian mr 60 * 40 al OTT TT ‘B0 Townsville \ so . 40 : =} 200 pepettpepeeetepeetde o a 40 ~= 20 g r ‘800 = 0 40 20 0 + ‘80 ‘Swans +1 ‘60 40 oS peed idigers a +Capricorn = = See Bunkers BEEESEEESEEE soo +bo RES RARARRR 40 * fi B h Parrotfish eeeeees ea = noe Ra -> Surgeonfish -* Butterflyfis! > Parrot a2838a8 8858 +Figure 7. Time series of the abundance of some coral reef fish species in the Great Barrier Reef Marin Park 1991 — 2003. Taken from Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2014) and adapted fro Australian Institute of Marine Science Long-term Monitoring Program (2008 and 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Shallow reef habitats of the Galapagos archipelago are reported to have undergon major transformation as a result of the severe 1982/1983 El Nifio warming event resulting in local and regional decline in biodiversity, including a number of identifie extinctions (Edgar et al., 2010). Artisanal fishing for lobster and fish species i thought to have magnified the impacts of the El Nifio event; the groupe Mycteroperca olfax is characterized as functionally extinct in the central Galapago region (Ruttenberg, 2001; Okey et al., 2004). Commercial fishing within th Galapagos Islands reserve has been largely banned from the area, except fo artisanal fishing, which has been allowed in the reserve since 1994. The region ha been subject to extensive illegal fishing for sharks, sea cucumber and a range of fis in the region and a lack of controls on or enforcement of management measures fo artisanal fishing and a lack of credible assessment of stocks have resulted in over exploitation (Hearn, 2008; Castrejon et al., 2013). +Coastal regions of Ecuador and northern Peru have been the site of extensive shrim (penaeid prawn) mariculture operations since the 1960s. The establishment of thes operations has been responsible for extensive reduction in mangrove forests an associated fish and invertebrate populations (Bailey, 1988; Primavera, 1997). +A diverse range of fish and macro-invertebrate species are targeted by fisheries i the coastal waters of Chile, including molluscs, gastropods, echinoderms cephalopods and fish. Fisheries catches in general were low prior to the 1980s reflecting low levels of effort and predominantly local consumption of catches During the 1980s, export markets grew and catches increased substantially. Catche of many invertebrate species subsequently declined and have remained at low level since (Thiel et al., 2007). Many species targeted by coastal fisheries demonstrat fluctuations in abundances linked to El Nifio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (e.g., Wolff 1987). +A wide range of fish and macro-invertebrate species are the focus of commercial an recreational fisheries in Australia and New Zealand; most coastal and shelf stocks ar considered to be sustainably fished (e.g., MPI, 2013; Andre et al., 2014). Fo example, of 93 stocks managed at the national level in Australia, 77 (83 per cent were considered as not subject to overfishing, four were considered to be subject t overfishing and 12 were considered as uncertain (Woodhams et al., 2013). In Ne Zealand, 99 of 114 (87 per cent) were considered as not subject to overfishing. Th proportion of assessed stocks experiencing overfishing declined from 25 per cent i 2009 to 13 per cent in 2013 (MPI, 2013). Inshore stocks are the least assessed in Ne Zealand waters, particularly inshore fish species. Species of ongoing concern tend t be long-lived, slow-maturing species which have been subject to a number o decades of fishing, such as southern bluefin tuna, orange roughy (Hoplostethu atlanticus) and school shark (Galeorhinus galeous). Species that are caught in lesse amounts and non-targeted species are not routinely assessed and as a result th status of populations is largely unknown (Woodhams et al., 2013; MPI, 2013). I Australian waters, the grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus) is listed as criticall endangered, the white shark (Carcharadon carcharias), black rockcod (Epinephelu daemelii), and the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) are listed as vulnerable, an orange roughy, gemfish (Rexea solandri), southern bluefin tuna and several shark +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +species, including school shark, have been listed as conservation-dependent unde the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. +Recreational fisheries are subject to variable levels of assessment and monitorin and most are regulated only via size and bag limits. In some areas (e.g., New Sout Wales, Australia) and for some species recreational fishing licenses are required. I Australia, recreational catches of many highly sought-after species are thought to b larger than commercial catches (State of the Environment Committee, 2011) Catches of snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which comprise New Zealand’s larges recreational fishery from the north-east coast of the North Island, were 3,750 t i 2011/12, similar to commercial landings (Hartill et al., 2013). The first reliable an comprehensive assessment of recreational harvest across all stocks in New Zealan was completed in 2013 (Hartill et al., 2013). Populations of commercially exploite fish and macro-invertebrates in the temperate coastal regions of New Zealand ar considered mainly to be in good condition (Mace et al., 2014). +Offshore fisheries resources in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate shelf regions o the western and central South Pacific Ocean largely consist of commercial operation targeting tuna and billfish species, as well as a number of other large pelagic species such as mahi mahi (Coryphaena hippurus), rainbow runner (Elegatis bipinnulata) wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) and Spanish mackerel (Scomberomoru commerson), and small pelagic species, such as flying fish, pilchards and sardines Several shark species are either directly targeted or caught as by-catch. Across th Pacific Island region, pelagic fish species are estimated to contribute on average u to 28 per cent of coastal fisheries production (range 10 — 70 per cent; Pratchett e al., 2011). This proportion is likely to increase as increasing populations lead t further exploitation of pelagic species by coastal populations (Bell et al., 2009). +All of the tuna and billfish species, that comprise the majority of commercial catche in the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) area, excep bigeye tuna, are not considered to be in an overfished state, although recent catche of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) are at level that marginally exceed maximum sustainable yield and catches of swordfish (Xiphia gladius) are at levels that exceed maximum sustainable yield (Hoyle et al., 2012 Davies et al., 2013; Davies et al., 2014; Rice et al., 2014). In the Inter-America Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) area in the eastern Pacific Ocean, all of the mai tuna and billfish species are not considered to be in an overfished state, althoug some uncertainty exists as to whether current catches of skipjack tuna are at level that exceed maximum sustainable yield (IATTC, 2012; IATTC, 2014). Catches o species other than the main tuna and billfish species that comprise the majority o commercial catches are largely unmonitored and so the status of populations an ongoing sustainability of resources is unknown. Recent assessments of shark specie caught in substantial numbers throughout the WCPFC and IATTC areas hav indicated that fishing mortalities are well above those considered to be sustainabl (e.g., Rice and Harley, 2013; IATTC, 2013). Current catches of most small pelagi species throughout the Pacific Island region are considered to be sustainable (Blaber 1990; Pratchett et al., 2011). +Pelagic fisheries in the eastern South Pacific have been responsible fo approximately 10 — 20 per cent of the world landings over the last 50 years (Chavez, +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +2008; Fréon et al., 2008) and are dominated by the anchoveta fishery, whic primarily targets anchovy (Engraulis ringens) and sardine (Sardinops sagax). Jac mackerel (Trachurus murphy), chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) and, in th southern Peru-Chile region, a herring-like sardine (Strangomera bentincki) als sustain important pelagic fisheries. Fisheries across the region also target th common hake (Merluccius gayi), swordfish, tunas, cephalopods, primarily D. gigas and a number of crustaceans. The Chilean fjord region is an important region fo catches of gadiform fishes, such as Patagonian grenadier (Wacruronus magellanicus and the southern hake (Merluccius australis; FAO, 2011). Variability in the populatio size and distributions of anchovies and sardines in the waters of the eastern Sout Pacific Ocean and linkages with environmental variability have been wel documented (e.g., Arntz and Tarazona, 1990; Ayon et al., 2004; Bertrand et al., 2004 Cubillos et al., 2007) and are now recognised to be associated with short-ter dynamics associated with ENSO and longer-term dynamics associated with decada climate variability (Alheit and Nuiquen, 2004; Fréon et al., 2008). The two norther anchovy stocks appear to not be overfished, whereas the southern stock i considered to be depleted and estimated to be at around 8 per cent of virgin stoc biomass (Fish Source, www.fishsource.com, accessed 17 August 2014). Currently n recovery plan is in place for this fishery. Fisheries for sardine are based on fou stocks: northern, central and southern Peru and northern Chile. Stocks between Per and Chile are assessed independently and management measures are not co ordinated between the two countries. +For many other species subject to commercial catches, information on importan biological parameters (larval ecology, spawning, movements) is lacking an consequently, little is known about the effects of inter-annual variability i oceanographic conditions on their population dynamics (Thiel et al., 2007). Artisana fishing, which comprises a significant proportion of the total fishing effort in th region, is largely unreported and is unregulated across the region. Most fisherie throughout the region, other than those mentioned above, are considered to b over-exploited (De Young, 2007). +Further detail on sharks and other elasmobranchs and tuna and billfish can be foun in chapters 40 and 41. +2.5 Other Biota +The South Pacific Ocean contains a diverse assemblage of marine mammals, seabird and marine reptiles, most of which have been subject to some level of direct an indirect harvesting (SPREP, 2012). The region contains the northernmost population of penguins and fur seals, both of which breed on the Galapagos Islands, breedin populations of six of the seven species of sea turtles and populations of the onl sirenian in the family Dugonidae. Although harvesting of many of these species ha been either banned or limited in many countries across the region and protectio measures have been put in place for some species in some countries, many specie interact with commercial fishing operations (e.g., Table 1) and for some, this is substantial source of mortality (Waugh et al., 2012; Reeves et al., 2013; Richard and +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Abraham, 2013; Wallace et al., 2013; Lewison et al., 2014). Populations of specie throughout the region demonstrate varying trends as a result. +Overall, global populations of sea turtles are considered to have declined (Wallace e al., 2011) with those that occur in the South Pacific Ocean demonstrating varyin trends. Two distinct genetic stocks of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) occur within th Great Barrier Reef Marine Park which experience different pressures an demonstrate differing population trajectories. The southern stock has demonstrate a consistent increase in population size, whereas the northern stock may be in th early stage of decline (GRMPA, 2014). The loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta population is increasing after substantial decline, whereas the hawksbill turtl (Eretmochelys imbricata) population has declined and the flatback turtle (Natato depressus) population has remained stable (GRMPA, 2014). Little is known of th current population status of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea), which ar known to nest in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu in th western South Pacific Ocean, but regionally they are considered to be in declin (Dutton et al., 2007). In the eastern Pacific Ocean, leatherback, green and hawksbil turtles nest along the coast in Ecuador, with vagrant nesting sites occurring in Peru Large numbers are caught in small-scale fisheries off the coasts of Ecuador and Per (Alfaro-Shigueto et al., 2011). +Table 1. Fisheries interactions with species of conservation concern 2006 — 2012. Reproduced fro Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2014) using data from Queensland Department o Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013). +SPECIES COMMERCIAL FISHERY GEAR TYP Otter trawl | Net Line Po Green sawfish Narrow sawfish ° Leafy seadragon Unspecified seahorse Unspecified seasnake . ° Estuarine crocodile Unspecified crocodile ° Flatback turtle Green turtle ° Hawksbill turtle ° Loggerhead turtle . Unspecified marine turtle . ° Seabird: gannets and | boobies +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Dugong e +Offshore bottlenose dolphin ° Humpback whale ° Minke whale . +International protection and management of saltwater crocodile populations i Australia and Papua New Guinea after periods of commercial harvesting hav resulted in increases in populations to pre-exploitation levels (Thorbjarnarson, 1999 Tisdell and Swarna Nantha, 2005). Few data on the population abundances of se snake species are available, despite substantial numbers being caught in fishin operations (e.g., Milton 2001; Wassenberg et al., 2001). What data have bee collected indicate population declines (Goiran and Shine, 2013). +Most large cetaceans occurring in coastal and shelf regions throughout the Sout Pacific Ocean are seasonal visitors, spending large periods of time in offshore region (e.g., Birtles et al., 2002; Hucke-Gaete et al., 2004; Olavarria et al., 2007). Of thos species that historically have been subject to widespread commercial harvesting some populations have been documented to be increasing, while the status o others in the South Pacific Ocean region is still uncertain (e.g., Baker and Clapham 2004; Branch et al., 2007; Magera et al., 2013). Smaller coastal cetacean species although largely lacking in population data, are considered to demonstrate varyin trends: some are relatively stable and others are decreasing (e.g., Gerrodette an Forcada, 2005; Parra et al., 2006; Currey et al., 2009). Dugong (Dugong dugon populations across the western South Pacific are considered to be declining although estimates of abundance are lacking for most countries (Marsh et al., 1995 Marsh et al., 1999; Marsh et al., 2002). Fisheries for the species throughout th region are considered to be unsustainable (Marsh et al., 1997; Garrigue et al., 2008) Most pinniped populations, although substantially reduced due to commercia exploitation during the 1800s, are considered in some areas to be increasing a varying rates in temperate regions, whereas in others they may be decreasing (e.g. Kirkwood et al., 2010; Robertson and Chilvers, 2011). Seabirds throughout the regio demonstrate varying trends; most species that forage in offshore regions ar considered to be decreasing (e.g., Majluf et al. 2002; Baker and Wise, 2005). +Further details on marine mammals, marine reptiles and seabirds can be found i chapters 37-39. +3. Major pressures +3.1 Climate change and oceanographic drivers +Changes to ocean environments occurring as a result of long-term changes to th global climate are likely to be highly variable across the South Pacific Ocean. Ocea temperatures have risen across most of the South Pacific Ocean over the last centur and are expected to continue to rise into the future (IPCC 2014). Inter-comparison of +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +climate models used to explore future changes to the global climate under emissio scenarios (see Taylor et al., 2012) has identified numerous biases in ocea parameters, both within and across models. These biases are particularly evident i the tropical Pacific Ocean and are associated with difficulties in simulating sea surface temperatures, precipitation and salinity (Sen Gupta et al., 2009; Ganachau et al., 2011). Use of a multi-model mean derived from models used in inter comparisons considerably reduces these biases, although certain regions still retai sizeable biases, indicating systematic biases across models (Sen Gupta et al., 2009) In particular, the eastern tropical Pacific cold tongue is placed too far west and th South Pacific Convergence Zone is too elongated towards the east, resulting in biase in precipitation and ocean surface salinity, which has implications for projections o climate relating to a number of Pacific Islands. Along the Chilean shelf edge problems with the representation of local atmospheric processes and upwelling lea to biases in cloud formation and radiative heat transfer, with flow-on impacts o ocean salinity (Randall et al., 2007; Sen Gupta et al., 2009; Brown et al. 2013Ganachaud et al. 2013). The resolution at which most climate models are ru does not take into account processes occurring in the near-coastal ocean, s pressures and associated projections derived from climate models are extrapolate from observations made offshore (Rhein et al., 2013). This is particularly problemati for projections relating to islands in the South Pacific Ocean and also for mesoscal and submesoscale processes that are important for delivering nutrients to the photi zone (Ganachaud et al., 2011). Bearing in mind the biases and the resolutions o current models, a summary of observed and projected changes to the South Pacifi Ocean are presented here. +Projections of surface temperatures are robust at a large scale and suggest warming rate of the surface ocean during the 21% century that is approximatel seven times that observed in the 20" century (Sen Gupta et al., 2015). Within th South Pacific Ocean, the western tropical Pacific Ocean is projected to warm and th region associated with the EAC and its extensions is projected to undergo enhance warming (Cravatte et al., 2009; Ganachaud et al. 2013.). Intensification of south easterly trade winds in the eastern South Pacific Ocean region will result i weakened warming (Sen Gupta et al., 2015). +Observations of surface salinity within the subtropical gyre in the South Pacifi Ocean have demonstrated an increasing trend, particularly in the east, whereas i the equatorial WWP, surface waters have freshened (Durak and Wijffels, 2010) Model projections suggest an increase in rainfall across tropical latitudes i association with increased evaporation and enhanced convection, which will hav implications for ocean salinity in these regions. The area of the WWP in the tropica western Pacific Ocean is projected to continue to freshen and the area of relativel fresher water is projected to move east (Cravatte et al., 2009; Ganachaud et al 2013). At mid-latitudes, rainfall is projected to decrease, particularly over the centra and eastern Pacific Ocean, which will result in increasing surface salinity (Ganachau et al., 2011). +Changes in wind stress forcing over the past two decades has resulted in changes i circulation in the South Pacific Ocean (Rhein et al., 2013). The southern limb of th South Pacific subtropical gyre and the subtropical cells have intensified in response +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +to intensification of Southern Hemisphere westerlies. In addition, the gyre and cell have moved poleward (Roemmich et al., 2007; Rhein et al., 2013). This has als resulted in a southward expansion of the EAC into the Tasman Sea (Ridgway, 2007 Hill et al., 2008). These wind-driven changes are most likely due to inter-annual t decadal variability (i.e., intensification of the Southern Annular Mode); time serie are currently not substantial enough to determine longer-term trends (Ganachaud e al., 2011; Rhein et al., 2013). Interactions between large scale oceanographic an atmospheric processes and island topography are expected to have local effects o the waters surrounding islands in the South Pacific Ocean; however, local projection of confidence are scarce (Ganachaud et al., 2011). +The combined effect of changes to surface temperature and salinity will result i changes to the stability of the water column and the level of stratification. The leve of stratification of the water column affects the potential for vertical exchange o ocean properties, such as oxygen or nutrients, which has flow-on effects for primar productivity (Ganachaud et al. 2011; 2013). Surface warming of the tropical Sout Pacific, in combination with freshening in the WWP, have resulted in an increase i stratification over the upper 200 m (Cravatte et al., 2009). Stratification is projecte to continue being most pronounced in the WWP and the South Pacific Convergenc Zone (Ganachaud et al., 2011; 2013). In conjunction, the annual maximum depth o the mixed layer is projected to shoal across most of the tropical South Pacific Ocea (Ganachaud et al. 2013). Although the mixed layer depth is expected to shoal, in th eastern South Pacific Ocean this is not expected to affect primary production. This i because nitrate concentrations due to upwelling processes are still likely to excee levels at which the supply of iron currently limits phytoplankton growth (Le Borgn et al., 2011). Within the western South Pacific Ocean, use of high-resolution ocea models has suggested that projected increased mixing due to changes in current (which are not fully resolved in lower-resolution models), will result in increase subsurface primary production. This is expected to result in close to no change i overall net primary production throughout the region (Matear et al., 2015). +Oxygen concentrations in the tropical South Pacific Ocean thermocline hav decreased over the past 50 years in association with changes in oxygen solubilit (resulting from warming), ventilation and circulation. This has resulted in a majo westward expansion of oxygen minimum waters in the eastern Pacific Ocea (Stramma et al., 2008). Recent observations for the period 1976-2000 have show that dissolved oxygen concentrations have declined at a faster rate in the coasta ocean than in the open ocean and have also occurred at a faster rate than in th period 1951 — 1975 (Gilbert et al., 2010). Projected changes to surface temperature and stratification are likely to result in a decreased transfer of oxygen from th atmosphere, resulting in lower concentration of oxygen in waters above th thermocline across the tropics (Ganachaud et al., 2011). Existing oxygen minimu waters in the eastern South Pacific Ocean are projected to intensify (Ganachaud e al., 2011), although uncertainty in model projections limits projections associate with the evolution of oxygen concentrations in and around oxygen minimum zone (Ciais et al., 2013). Outside the tropics, trends in oxygen concentrations are les obvious (Keeling et al., 2010), but it is expected that warming of the ocean will resul in declines in dissolved oxygen in the ocean interior (Rhein et al., 2013). In coastal +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +regions, because hypoxia is largely driven by eutrophication and is therefor controlled by the flow of nutrients from terrestrial origins, any increase in nutrien run-off associated with increasing agriculture or industrialization of coastal region will also result in increasing coastal water deoxygenation (Rabalais et al., 2010; Ciai et al., 2013; see also section 3.2). +Observations of carbon concentration in the ocean demonstrate considerabl variability associated with seasonal, interannual (associated with ENSO) and decada (associated with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation) changes in wind and circulatio (Rhein et al., 2013). Taking into account this variability, trends in surface ocea carbon dioxide have increased, resulting in a decrease in surface pH. This decreas varies regionally: the subtropical South Pacific Ocean demonstrates the smalles reduction in pH (Rhein et al., 2013). Continued increased storage of carbon dioxide i the ocean will result in further decreases in the pH of the ocean; surface ocean pH i projected to decrease by 0.06 — 0.32 depending on the emission scenario used i projections (Ciais et al., 2013). Generally, projected changes to pH are greatest at th ocean surface; surface waters are projected to become seasonally corrosive t aragonite at higher latitudes in one to three decades. In the subtropics, however, th greatest changes to pH are projected to occur at 200 — 300 m where lowe carbonate buffering capacity results in lower pH, although carbon dioxid concentration might be similar to that at the surface (Orr, 2011). The horizo separating shallower waters supersaturated with aragonite from deeper under saturated waters will shoal, resulting in a decline in the global volume of ocean wit supersaturated waters (Steinacher et al., 2009). In areas of freshwater input (e.g. around river mouths), reduction in pH and the aragonite saturation state will b exacerbated (Ciais et al., 2013). Overall, projected decreases in pH will be greater a higher latitudes than at lower latitudes (Le Borgne et al., 2011). +Taking into account inter-annual fluctuations associated with ENSO, time series o global sea level measurements demonstrate that mean sea level has risen at a rat of 1.7 mm yr* over the last century in association with ocean warming an redistribution of water between continents, ice sheets and the ocean (Church an White, 2011; Church et al., 2013). This rate has increased over the last two decade (to a mean rate of 3.2 mm yr’), but it is unclear whether or not this reflects decada variability or an increase in the long-term trend (Church et al., 2013). In the wester Pacific Ocean, sea level has risen up to three times the rate of global sea level ove the last two decades, largely in association with intensified trade winds which ma be related to the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (Merrifield et al., 2012). Increases i mean sea level have resulted in an increase in sea-level extremes. Short-term driver of sea level (e.g., tides) are not projected to change substantially, whereas longer term drivers (e.g., ice melt, thermal expansion of the ocean) are projected t continue. Over the next century the rate of global mean sea-level rise is expected t increase to 4.4 — 7.4 mm yr“ depending on the emission scenario used, noting tha the rate of regional sea level rise can differ from the global average by more tha 100 per cent as a result of climate variability (Church et al., 2013). In the Sout Pacific Ocean, coastlines are projected to experience an increase in sea level fro approximately 0.3 m to over 0.8 m by 2100 depending on the emission scenario use and noting that projections of land-ice melt have large uncertainties. These +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +uncertainties result in considerable variability in projected patterns of sea-leve change between climate models (Church et al., 2013). +At present little evidence exists of any trend or long-term change in tropical or extra tropical storm frequency or intensity in the South Pacific Ocean (Rhein et al., 2013) Increases in observed sea-level extremes have primarily been associated with a increase in mean sea level rather than the level of storminess (Church et al., 2013 Rhein et al., 2013). Across the South Pacific Ocean, the monsoon area is projected t expand over the central and eastern tropical Pacific and the strength of monsoo systems is projected to increase. Monsoon seasons are also likely to lengthen and s precipitation throughout tropical regions is projected to increase (Christensen et al. 2013). However, because the South Pacific Convergence Zone is projected to mov to the northeast, precipitation over many South Pacific islands is projected t decrease. Projections of tropical cyclones suggest that although the global frequenc of cyclones is likely to remain the same, their intensity is likely to increase and poleward shift in storm tracks is likely, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere Regional projections are not yet well quantified; many climate models fail t simulate observed temporal and spatial variations in tropical cyclone frequenc (Walsh et al., 2012). As a result, projections of the frequency and intensity o cyclones at the level of ocean basins are highly uncertain and confidence i projections is low (Christensen et al., 2013). +The potential impacts of changes to the physical and chemical structure of the Sout Pacific Ocean and on the biodiversity of the region will depend on the capacity o organisms to adapt to these changes over the time scales at which they ar occurring. As waters warm, some species are expected to alter their distribution an already evidence exists that some species have extended their distribution poleward in line with warming trends in the South Pacific Ocean (Sorte et al., 2010 Last et al., 2011). The introduction of new species into regions via expansion of thei distribution has the potential to alter marine communities and it is likely that at leas some marine communities will undergo major changes to their community structur (Hughes et al., 2003). Conversely, other species may demonstrate range contractio as range edges become thermally unsuitable and the time scales at which change are occurring exceed the adaptive ability of species (e.g., Smale and Wernberg 2013). For example, it is likely that the latitudinal and bathymetric range of kel communities will become restricted. Although other species might replace thes climatically sensitive species, reductions in kelp production will have importan consequences for the communities that rely on them and other near-shore habitat that depend on the export of kelp detritus (Harley et al., 2006). +Bleaching events as a result of thermal stress induced by higher ocean temperatures in combination with a reduced ability of corals to calcify due to ocean acidification are expected to result in steep declines in coral cover across the South Pacific Ocea over the next decades, even under good management (Figure 8; Hughes et al., 2003 Bell et al., 2013). Already evidence exists that corals within the Great Barrier Reef ar calcifying at lower rates than those prior to 1990 (De’ath et al., 2009). This will hav flow-on effects for benthic organisms and fish and macro-invertebrate population associated with reef communities. The differing abilities of coral species to migrat in response to climate change and their genetic ability to adapt to warmer waters +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +will, however, result in changes to community structure beyond the immediat effect of selective mortality caused by severe bleaching (Hughes et al., 2003). +Altered temperatures may decouple population processes of taxonomic groups tha are reliant on the population processes of (and) other group(s). For example, th breeding processes of many marine species are timed to coincide with peaks i forage-species populations, whose timing is often driven by temperature. If th timing of the two is altered so that they no longer match, this will likely affec population recruitment (e.g., Philippart et al., 2003). +4 4 3 _ 3 = 2 & 2 15 “ee 10 (-65%) “*e (-75%)*e o . . (> -90%Y 2010 2035 2050 2100 +Year +Figure 8. Projected changes in live coral cover across the Pacific Island region to 2100 based o projected changes in sea-surface temperature and aragonite saturation under the IPCC SRES A emissions scenario and current trends in coral decline of 1 — 2 per cent with strong (solid line) an weak (dashed line) management scenarios. Taken from Bell et al. (2013). +Because phytoplankton have differing sensitivities to carbon dioxide concentration and utilise carbon in differing ways, changes in carbon dioxide concentrations wil not only change the activity of individual phytoplankton species, but will also tend t favour some species over others. Increasing ocean carbon dioxide is therefore likel to result in shifts in phytoplankton community structure, which will in turn influenc the community structure of higher trophic organisms reliant on phytoplankton fo food (Hays et al., 2005). Furthermore, phytoplankton and zooplankton species tha depend on current saturation levels of aragonite to build robust shells and skeleton (e.g., coccolithophorids, pteropod molluscs, gastropods) are expected to be mos affected by ocean acidification. Reduced capacity to build shells and skeletons wil make such organisms more fragile and vulnerable to predation and, in some cases may result in the disappearance of these organisms from food webs (e.g., Colema et al., 2014). This is likely to have unpredictable and cascading effects on marin food webs. Higher ocean carbon dioxide concentrations may have physiologica impacts on a range of species, altering the metabolism and growth rates of som species and affecting the sensory systems of fish (Poloczanska et al., 2007; Munda et al., 2009; Munday et al., 2010; Appelhans et al., 2014). +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Altered precipitation and increased storm intensity will affect the dynamics o coastal marine ecosystems through fluctuations in wave height and intensity salinity, turbidity and nutrients. In regions where precipitation is expected t decrease, such as many Pacific Islands, these ecosystems will experience highe salinity environments, whereas those in regions where precipitation is expected t increase, such as eastern Australia, will experience fresher environments. Mangrove seagrass and coral reef communities will be particularly prone to these changes (se Fabricus, 2005; Harley et al., 2006; Polaczanska et al., 2007). +3.2 Social and economic drivers +The South Pacific Ocean is a highly diverse region, featuring considerable variation i the social, economic, cultural and infrastructural composition of the countries an territories located within its bounds. Although climate change is considered to b one of the largest threats to marine environments over the long term, managemen of social and economic stressors on marine environments can be considered to b the most significant challenge over the short term (Bell et al., 2009; Center for Ocea Solutions, 2009; Brander et al., 2010). Coastal habitats have increasingly come unde pressure as human populations grow. Pacific Island regions have been increasing a >3 per cent in the last two decades (Figure 9); urban areas are growing at twice th national growth rate (SPREP, 2012). The economic performance by countrie throughout the South Pacific Ocean varies, and in some Pacific Island countries poo economic performance has resulted in per capita incomes stagnating (McIntyre 2005). As a result of poor economic performance and growing inequalities, poverty i a growing problem in some countries. The majority of Pacific Island countries hav relatively limited opportunities for development and are highly dependent o overseas development assistance (McIntyre 2005). Agriculture and fisheries are th mainstay of many of the economies of South Pacific Ocean countries, and suppor both subsistence livelihoods and commercial production. Logging and mining ar significant in countries such as Australia, Chile, Ecuador, Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia France), Papua New Guinea, Peru and the Solomon Islands (Observatory of Economi Complexity, www.atlas.media.mit.edu, accessed 25 August 2014). Tourism is a important economic sector throughout the region and is growing in importance i the Pacific Islands (SPREP, 2012). +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +@Polynesi BMicronesia +GReet of Melanesia +OPapuaNiew Guinea +Number of peopl {in millions) +1970 1975 1980 1965 1990 1995 2000 2005 2011 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 +Year +Figure 9. Observed and projected increase in Pacific Island populations. Taken from SPREP (2012). +Major pressures on coastal and shelf environments associated with social an economic drivers can be grouped into three broad categories: (i) habitat loss o conversion as a result of coastal development, destructive fisheries, deforestatio and extraction of resources; (ii) habitat degradation as a result of various forms o pollution, increased salinization of estuarine areas and introduction of alien species and (iii) overfishing and exploitation as a result of increasing demand at local regional and global scales, poor fisheries management and a breakdown o traditional regulation systems (Table 2; UNEP, 2006a; UNEP, 2006b; Center fo Ocean Solutions, 2009; UNEP, 2012). Many of these pressures have risen indirectl from larger changes to global populations, economies, industry and technologies. +Nearshore development associated with urbanization, growing populations an tourism replaces vegetated landscapes with hard surfaces and converts marin habitats into new land (e.g., Maragos, 1993; Table 2). Modification of shoreline alters currents and sediment delivery, often inducing erosion and receding beaches Increased development is often also coupled with increasing land-based pollutio (e.g., Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2013; Table 2). The extent o land-use planning varies across the South Pacific Ocean, resulting in varyin management of habitat conversion, construction activities and pollution. Many o the Pacific Islands are charting a new path from subsistence and traditiona management systems to market-based economies (Center for Ocean Solutions 2009). In many regions this has led to the slow breakdown of traditional land- an marine tenure systems, resulting in unregulated development and exploitation o coastal regions (Table 2; see also section 2.4 in regard to overexploitation of coasta fisheries). The unique natural environments of many islands in the South Pacifi Ocean and the desire to experience these environments can end up contributing t the reason these environments are under threat. Unregulated coastal touris development can result in the destruction of highly regarded environments (Tabl 2); the Galapagos Islands World Heritage Site was placed on the List of World +© 2016 United Nations +L, +3 + +Heritage in Danger in 2007 largely as a result of unregulated tourism developmen and overexploitation of marine resources (see section 5.1). +Poor management of watersheds often leads to degradation of estuaries and coasta environments (Table 2). Agricultural and grazing practices that destroy natura riparian habitats can result in floods and burial of natural estuarine and coasta habitats under silt and enriched sediment (e.g., Fabricus, 2005). Interruption o natural water flow via extraction for agriculture or power restricts water an nutrient flow into estuarine environments, reducing flushing and dilution of pollutio (fertilizers, pesticides, sewage, debris, chemicals, and stormwater run-off), causin siltation and, in extreme cases, closure of estuary mouths, and increasing th salinization and toxicity of estuary areas. Agricultural practices often result i excessive nutrient loading of estuarine and coastal environments, causing thes areas to become eutrophied, resulting in algal blooms and dead zones. Land-base sedimentation, combined with nutrient inputs, is a major water-quality threat t many of the coastal environments of the western and central South Pacific (e.g. Maragos and Cook, 1995; Hughes et al., 2003; Orth et al., 2006; Center for Ocea Solutions, 2009; GBRMPA, 2014). Higher nutrient concentrations associated wit run-off from coastal urbanized areas have been documented to drive shifts i phytoplankton community composition and abundance (Jacquet et al., 2006). +Port development, such as infilling, dredging, channelling, and installation of harbou works including seawalls and groins, often results in alterations to estuaries an embayments (Table 2). Alterations to soft bottom habitats in these areas ofte create conditions for new assemblages of species, and facilitate range expansions o invasive species (Ruiz and Crooks, 2001). Furthermore, the movement of ships an other transport vehicles into these areas from around the globe has enabled th spread of many marine species (Table 2). Introduction of invasive species facilitate by shipping (via fouling, boring, nestling into the hull, anchor chain, and ballas water) has been reported extensively across the South Pacific Ocean; alien specie are reported from most countries and territories in the region (Carlton, 1987; Bax e al., 2003; Hewitt et al., 2004; Ministry of the Environment, 2004; Sakuma, 2004 Mourgues, 2005; Gabrie et al., 2007; Ministry of Environment Conservation an Meteorology, 2008; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2013). In th south-east region of Australia, invasive species such as starfish, sea urchins plankton, algae, molluscs, crustaceans and worms have had major impacts o coastal marine environments. Port Phillip Bay, the site of the Port of Melbourne, ha been described as one of the most invaded marine ecosystems in the Souther Hemisphere: more than 150 alien species are reported from the embayment (Bax e al., 2003). Another site of equal note is the Derwent River estuary in Tasmania (Stat of the Environment Committee, 2011). In New Zealand, invasive species have bee detected in virtually all coastal habitat types (Hewitt et al., 2004). +Coastal aquaculture operations, although bringing important socio-economi benefits to countries, can result in modification of coastlines and benthic habitat and pollution of coastal habitats (Table 2). Shrimp and salmonid aquaculture in th coastal regions of Ecuador, Peru and Chile contributes significantly to the economie of each country; Chile is one of the main producers of salmonids in the world (D Young, 2007). After lengthy periods of sustained growth, aquaculture operations in +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Ecuador have resulted in the destruction of large tracts of mangrove forest an coastal wetlands (Bailey, 1988; Martinez-Porchas and Martinez-Cordova, 2012) Operations in Chile have caused significant loss of benthic biodiversity and loca changes in the physical and chemical properties of sediments have occurred in area with salmonid farms (Buschmann et al., 2006). Pulses in dinoflagellate densities hav increased and it is suggested that escaped farmed fish may have an impact on nativ species, although their survival in the wild appears low. In addition, the abundanc of omnivorous diving and carrion-feeding marine birds in areas of aquacultur operations has increased two - fivefold (Buschmann et al., 2006). +Table 2. Social and economic drivers of change in coastal and shelf ecosystems of the South Pacific +Ocean. Modified from UNEP (2006b). +DIRECT DRIVERS +INDIRECT DRIVERS +Habitat loss or conversion +Coastal development (ports, | Population growth; transport and energy +urbanization, tourism-related | demands; poor urban planning and industrial +development, industrial | development policy; tourism demand; +development, civil engineering | environmental refugees and __ internal +works) migration +Destructive fishing practices | Shift to market economies; on-going demand +(dynamite, cyanide, bottom | for live food fish, aquarium species; +trawling) increasing competition associated wit diminishing resources +Coastal deforestation Lack of alternative materials; increasin competition associated with diminishin resources; global commons perceptions +Mining (coral, sand, minerals, | Lack of alternative materials; global +dredging) commons perceptions +Aquaculture-related habitat | International demand for luxury items +conversion (including new markets); regional demand fo food; demand for fishmeal in aquacultur and agriculture; decline in wild stocks o decreased access to fisheries (or inability t compete with larger-scale fisheries) +Habitat degradation +Eutrophication from land-based | Population growth; urbanization; lack of +sources (agricultural waste, sewage fertilizers) +infrastructure (stormwater, sewage systems) lack of sewage treatment; unregulate agricultural development and management loss of natural catchments (wetlands, etc.) +Pollution: toxins and pathogens fro land-based sources +Increasing pesticide and fertiliser use; lack o regulations associated with use; lack o awareness of impacts; unregulated industries +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +DIRECT DRIVERS INDIRECT DRIVER Pollution: dumping and dredge spoil | Lack of alternative disposal methods decreasing terrestrial options; increasing +regulation and enforcement of terrestria disposal; lack of awareness of impacts +Pollution: shipping-related +Increased ship-based trade; substandar shipping, pollution and violation of marin safety regulations; flags of convenience +Increased salinization of estuarie due to reduced freshwater flows +Increased and unregulated agricultura development; increased demand fo electricity and water +Introduction of alien species +Lack of regulations on the discharge o ballast; increased aquaculture-relate escapes; lack of agreements and policies o deliberate introductions +Overexploitation +Directed take of low-value species a volumes exceeding sustainable levels +Population growth; demand for subsistenc and markets; globalization of trade networks increased demand for aquaculture feed industrialization of fisheries; improved fishing +technologies; poor management an enforcement; breakdown of _ traditiona regulation systems; +introduction/maintenance of subsidies +Directed take of high-value specie for luxury markets at volume exceeding sustainable levels +Demand for speciality foods, medicines aquarium fish, globalization of trad networks, lack of awareness of or concer about impacts +Directed take of commercial species decreasing availability fo subsistence and artisanal use +Population growth, globalization of trad networks, industrialization of fisheries improved fishing technologies; — poo management and enforcement; breakdow of traditional social systems introduction/maintenance of subsidies +Incidental take or by-catch +Poor management and enforcement; lack o awareness of or concern about impacts +4. Major ecosystem services +Coastal and shelf ecosystems provide a diverse range of services to marine an terrestrial environments and benefits to human society (Table 4). Globally, coastal +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +and shelf marine habitats are estimated to provide over 14 trillion United State dollars’ worth of ecosystem goods (e.g., food and raw materials) and services (e.g. disturbance regulation and nutrient cycling) per year (Costanza et al., 1997) Valuable natural resources, such as fisheries, oil, deep sea mineral deposits an pharmaceutical constituents, are abundant throughout coastal, shelf and offshor waters of the South Pacific Ocean. Inshore regions provide coastal protection an artisanal fisheries, aquaculture, and tourism provide significant income for loca communities (SPREP, 2012). The natural environment of coastal and inshore region is an integral part of the culture, tradition, history and way of life for man communities. These resources are therefore essential to the livelihoods o communities throughout the South Pacific Ocean, as well as being desirable for th global community. On-going use of coastal ecosystems and associated declines in th health of these ecosystems have flow-on effects on the benefits and ecosyste services these provide to the environment and to the communities that rely o them. +4.1 Services to ecosystem being lost +Loss of coastal ecosystem biodiversity has been identified as affecting three primar ecosystem services: provision of nursery habitats, filtering and detoxification service and maintenance of trophic stability (Worm et al., 2006). Estuaries, salt marshes mangroves, lagoons, seagrass meadows and kelp forests serve as nurseries for man marine species, provide interconnectivity of habitats for the life stages of som species and provide essential food resources across multiple trophic levels (Figur 10; Robertson and Blaber, 1993; Dayton et al., 1998; Orth et al., 2006; UNEP, 2006b) Mangroves, seagrass meadows and coral reefs provide protective services for th coastline, binding sediments and dissipating wave action (Moberg and Folke, 1999) Mangroves, via their ability to trap water, control the chemistry of estuarine wate and the flow rates of mangrove creeks, both of which are important for water column biota survival and dispersal (Robertson and Blaber, 1993). Mangrove forest and seagrass meadows are both an atmospheric carbon dioxide sink and an essentia source of oceanic carbon, providing an essential supply of organic matter in marin environments (Suchanek et al., 1985; Duarte et al., 2005; Duke et al., 2007). Cora reefs are nitrogen fixers in otherwise nutrient-poor environments (Sorokin, 1993 and the release of excess nitrogen by coral reef systems is important for th productivity of adjacent communities (Sorokin, 1990). Reduction of thes communities imperils dependent fauna with their complex habitat linkages, an endangers physical benefits like the buffering of seagrass beds and coral reefs b mangroves against the impacts of river-borne siltation (Duke et al., 2007) an protection by coral reefs against the impacts of currents, waves and storms (Mober and Folke, 1999). +Many coastal marine habitats contain species that regulate ecosystem processes an functions through grazing and predation (Moberg and Folke, 1999). These processe operate across all trophic levels and disruption at any one trophic level can hav flow-on effects across other trophic levels. For example, reduction in herbivorou and predatory reef fish in coral reef communities, as a result of overfishing in th South Pacific Ocean, has been found to result in alterations to community structure. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Alterations include increases in coral-eating starfish densities, leading to a decline i reef-building corals and an increase in non-reef-building species, such as filamentou algae (Hughes et al., 2003; Dulvy et al., 2004). Once algae become abundant, cora recovery is suppressed unless herbivores return to reduce algal cover, and corals ca then recruit. Recent research on coral communities in Fiji has demonstrated however, that chemical cues emitted by algae in degraded reefs repulse cora recruits, resulting in coral juveniles actively avoiding recruiting to these areas (Dixso et al., 2014). Declines in coral cover have flow-on effects for ecosystem processes such as reef building, primary and secondary production, which then in turn affec higher trophic levels, and reduce ecosystem functioning. +Table 4. Examples of the services coastal and shelf ecosystems provide. Taken from UNEP (2006b) SERVICE n uw g I a Luli sd a << Ww i) = Ww zw a w e n xr & ogee s w due to poor land management. += Large urchin grazing events. +High water temperature, combine with low light. +have high primary production. +ee Seagrasses promote trophic transfer and cross-habitat utilization. +jy Seagrasses and associated algae +Eutrophication resulting i x phytoplankton blooms, reducing light. +7 _ Tropical seagrasses provide food fo dugongs, manatees, and turtles. +Dredging and boating effects. Introduced species displacing seagrass. +v +Figure 10. Conceptual depiction of major mechanisms of seagrass and related key ecosystem service loss for (a) tropical and (b) temperate seagrass ecosystems. Taken from Orth et al., 2006. +Many costal ecosystems provide communities with materials essential fo construction and fuel. Mangroves provide timber, fibre and fuel, coral reefs provid lime and other building materials, and sand mining occurs in many coastal region across the South Pacific Ocean. Shelf regions provide oil and gas and various othe minerals. Over-exploitation and reduction of such finite resources will requir identification of alternatives and adaptive strategies to ensure transfer to alternativ economies. Logging has been identified as the most pressing issue facing th Solomon Islands: current rates are unsustainably high. Maintenance of unsustainabl high rates of logging will result in serious impacts on the country’s economy whe the revenue stream collapses and on the population when building resources are n longer available and watersheds deteriorate (Ministry of Environment Conservatio and Meteorology, 2008). Subsequent run-off of sediments from cleared areas wil have further impacts on coastal reef environments and associated food resources Construction of causeways on South Tarawa, Kiribati Islands, which block th migration pathways of several species of fish that are the focus of subsistenc fisheries, has been associated with the collapse of their populations. Coastal erosio as a result of infrastructure development, overcrowding and overexploitation of th physical resources of the coastal zone of South Tarawa has resulted in the loss o houses, roads and agricultural land (Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultura Development, 2004). +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +5. Areas of special conservation significance and associated issues of th South Pacific +5.1 World Heritage Sites +Two of the largest World Heritage sites are in the South Pacific Ocean — the Phoeni Islands Protected Area and the Great Barrier Reef. Whereas the Phoenix Island Protected Area is comprised of largely oceanic, deep water ecosystems, the Grea Barrier Reef is entirely shelf-based. Other World Heritage sites located in the Sout Pacific Ocean with protected marine components include the Lord Howe Islan Group in Australia, East Rennell in the Solomon Islands, the lagoons of Ne Caledonia and the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador. +The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system (34 million hectares) extending 2,000 kilometres along the eastern Australian coast. It comprises ove 2,500 individual reefs and 900 islands. Declared in 1981, it was one of the first Worl Heritage sites. It is home to over 400 types of coral and is one of the richest areas i the world for animal biodiversity. The diversity of species and habitats, and thei interconnectivity, make the Great Barrier Reef one of the richest and most comple natural ecosystems on earth. Key threats affecting the site include coasta development, development of ports and liquefied natural gas facilities, extrem weather events, grounding of ships, water quality and oil and gas (UNESCO, 2014a) The 2014 Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report (GBRMPA, 2014) concludes that: “Eve with the recent management initiatives to reduce threats and improve resilience, th overall outlook for the Great Barrier Reef is poor, has worsened since 2009 and i expected to further deteriorate in the future.” Serious declines in the condition o the Great Barrier Reef, including coral recruitment and reef building across larg parts of the reef, have been observed and the report concludes that a ‘business a usual’ approach to managing the reef is not an option (GBRMPA, 2014; UNESC 2014a). +The Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) was declared in 2010; at 40.8 millio hectares, it is the world’s largest World Heritage Site. It consists of eight oceani coral atolls, most of which are uninhabited, two submerged reefs and fourtee identified seamounts. Its isolation and low population density have helped the are remain comparatively undisturbed and it provides important habitat for migrator and pelagic/planktonic species. It is an important breeding area for marine an seabird species and is considered a sentinel of the impacts of climate change o coral reef health (Anon., 2009). Key threats affecting the site include illegal fishin and overfishing by licensed and unlicensed vessels and degradation of seamounts. phased zoning scheme has been proposed to ensure the site’s long-ter conservation. The first phase has been implemented by designating approximatel 3.1 per cent of the total area of the site as a “no take” zone. As of 1 January 2015 the closure of the exclusive economic zone of the PIPA to fishing came into effect Implementation of the second phase will involve increasing no-take areas to 25 pe cent of the site and reducing offshore fishing effort for tunas. However, thi implementation relies on the establishment of a trust fund which will only become +© 2016 United Nations +3 + +Operative once its capital reaches a level which will compensate the Kiribat government for losses in distant-water fishing nation license fees associated with th reduction in fishing effort. Currently, no timelines are set for reducing fishing effor (UNESCO, 2012). +The Lord Howe Island Group, declared a World Heritage site in 1982, spans 146,30 hectares and contains the world’s most southerly true coral reef. The small land are within the site provides an important breeding ground for many seabirds and it marine system demonstrates a rare example of a transition zone between algal an coral reefs. Marine assemblages consist of cohabiting tropical and temperate specie and endemism is high. Key threats affecting the site include invasive plants an animals, climate change, tourism and fishing (Anon., 2003). +The East Rennell World Heritage Site, declared in 1998, comprises the southern thir of the world’s largest raised coral atoll, Rennell Island, the southernmost island i the Solomon Islands, whose marine area extends three nautical miles to sea. Coasta waters around the island provide important habitat for migratory an pelagic/planktonic species and it is an important site for speciation processes especially with respect to bird species. Key threats affecting the site include logging invasive species, overexploitation of marine resources, climate change an management of the site. These threats have resulted in the site being placed on th List of World Heritage in Danger. A state-of-conservation assessment for the remova of the site from the List of World Heritage in Danger is currently underway (UNESC 2014b). +The lagoons of New Caledonia were declared a World Heritage Site in 2008; at 1.5 million hectares, they comprise the third-largest reef system in the world. Ree systems within the site contain the most diverse concentration of reef structures i the world, ranging from barrier offshore reefs and coral islands to near-shor reticulate reefs. It contains intact ecosystems with top predators and a larg diversity and abundance of large fish (Anon., 2008). Key threats affecting the sit include mining, fishing and aquaculture, tourism and climate change. One of th main management issues for the site is a lack of capacity and resources for some o the existing co-management committees tasked with managing the site in enforcin fisheries and water-quality regulations and responding to incursions (UNESCO 2011). +The Galapagos Islands were designated a World Heritage Site in 1978. They ar renowned for their unique species and inspiration for the theory of evolution b natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin in the mid-1800s. The archipelago o 19 islands lies at the confluence of three ocean currents and is highly influenced b ENSO, generating one of the richest and most diverse marine ecosystems in th world. The direct dependence on the marine environment by much of the island’ wildlife (e.g., seabirds, marine iguanas, sea lions) intricately links terrestrial an marine environments in the site. Lack of management of commercial, sport an illegal fishing, leading to overfishing of the marine environment, a lack of quarantin measures enabling alien species invasions, and unsustainable and uncontrolle tourism development contributed to the islands being placed on the List of Worl Heritage in Danger in 2007. Following strengthened quarantine, fishing and touris management and governance of the islands, the site was removed from this list in +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +2010. Key threats affecting the site include changes in the identity, social cohesio and nature of the local population and community, illegal activities, tourism, visitor and recreation and the related infrastructure and management activities, system and plans (UNESCO, 2014c). +5.2 Large Marine Ecosystems and Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas +The South Pacific Ocean contains five Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs), three alon the eastern coastline of Australia (the north-east Australian shelf/Great Barrier Reef the east-central Australian shelf and the south-east Australian shelf), one on th New Zealand shelf and one incorporating the Humboldt Current. The definition o these areas is based on four ecological criteria: (i) bathymetry; (ii) hydrography; (iii productivity; and (iv) trophic relationships and definitions. These criteria provide framework to focus on marine science, policy, law, economics and governance on common strategy for assessing managing, recovering and sustaining marin resources and their environments (Sherman and Alexander, 1986). The approac uses five modules to measure and provide indicators of changing states within th ecosystem of each LME, including productivity, fish and fisheries, pollution an ecosystem health, socio-economics and governance. Because a lot of these factor have been discussed in previous sections of this chapter, details of each LME will no be provided again here. +The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 developed under the Convention o Biological Diversity*, provides a framework for reducing biodiversity loss an maintaining ecosystem services. It is centred around 20 targets, the Aich Biodiversity Targets, organized under five strategic goals and the identification o marine areas in need of protection and within which the targets can be best focuse known as Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs). Identificatio of these areas is based on seven scientific criteria, including (i) uniqueness or rarity (ii) special importance for life-history stages of species; (ii) importance fo threatened, endangered or declining species and/or habitats; (iv) vulnerability fragility, sensitivity, or slow recovery; (v) biological productivity; (vi) biologica diversity; and (vii) naturalness (Secades et al., 2014). To date, 26 EBSAs have bee identified from the western South Pacific Ocean and 13 identified from the easter South Pacific Ocean (Table 3). +Table 3. Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) identified by the Convention o Biological Diversity in the South Pacific Ocean. +1. | Phoenix Islands | 14. | Vatu-i-ra/Lomaiciti | 27 | Equatorial high productivity zone (east) +2. | Ua Puakaoa | 15. | South Tasman Sea | 28 | Galapagos archipelag Seamounts and western extension +3. | Seamounts — of | 16. | Equatorial high- | 29 | Carnegie Ridge - +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619 +© 2016 United Nation + +West Norfolk productivity zone Equatorial Fron Ridge (west 4. | Remetau 17. | Central Louisville | 30 | Gulf of Guayaqui Group: south- Seamount chai west Carolin Islands an northern Ne Guine 5. | Kadavu and the | 18. | Western South | 31 | Humboldt Curren southern —_ Lau Pacific high upwelling system in Per region aragonit saturation stat zon 6. | Kermadec- 19. | Clipperton fracture | 32 | Permanent upwellin Tonga-Louisville zone petrel cores and importan junction foraging areas seabird areas of th Humboldt Current — i Per 7. | Monowai 20. | Northern Lord | 33 | Northern Chile Humbold Seamount Howe Ridge petrel Current upwelling syste foraging are 8. | New Britain | 21. | Northern New | 34 | Central Chile Humbold Trench region Zealand/South Fiji Current upwelling syste basi 9. |New Hebrides | 22. | Taveuni and | 35 | Southern Chile Humbold Trench region Ringgold Islands Current upwelling syste 10. | Rarotonga 23. | Manihiki Plateau 36 | Salas y G6mez and Nazc outer reef Ridg slope 11. | Samoan 24. | Niue Island and /| 37 | Juan Fernandez Ridg archipelago Beveridge Reef seamount 12. | Suwarrow 25. | Palau southwest 38 | West Wind Drif National Park Convergenc 13. | South of | 26. | Tongan 39 | Grey petrel’s feedin Tuvalu/Wallis archipelago area in the South Eas and Pacific Ris Futuna/north o Fiji Plateau +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +6. Factors for sustainability +The conservation and sustainable use of marine ecosystems is a goal articulate under a number of national and international policies and the development plans o countries in the South Pacific Ocean. It is becoming evident that the extent to whic marine ecosystems can absorb recurring natural and anthropogenic perturbation and continue to regenerate without continued degradation will requir improvements to current resource management (Hughes et al., 2005). Furthermore current resource management and supporting marine policy will need to incorporat multi-scale ecological and social information in order to sustain delivery o ecosystem services and benefits. With this in mind, coastal and ocean manager confront a growing diversity of challenges in balancing environmental and socio economic needs throughout the South Pacific Ocean. +6.1 Ecosystem-based management and integrated coastal zone management +Ecosystem-based management (EBM) approaches are broadly accepted a cornerstones to effective marine conservation and resource management (Levin e al., 2009). Ideally frameworks for EBM should consider multiple external influences value ecosystem services, integrate natural and social science into decision-making be adaptive, identify and strive to balance diverse environmental and socioeconomi objectives, and make trade-offs transparent. Integrated coastal zone managemen (ICZM) can be used within an EBM framework to address the ecological and huma complexity of interconnected systems. Development of ICZM, in principle, shoul incorporate an integrated, adaptive approach for coastal management tha addresses all aspects of the coastal and neighbouring ocean zone, including land coastal interactions, climate change, geographical and political boundaries, in a effort to achieve long-term sustainable use and reduce conflicts. It requires th careful balancing of a wide range of ecological, social, cultural, governance, an economic concerns. Although some examples exist of the implementation of ICZ throughout the South Pacific Ocean (e.g., see National Resource Managemen Ministerial Council, 2006; Department of Conservation, 2010; section 6.2), for man countries, comprehensive coastal management remains a challenge. +Within the Pacific Islands region, a Framework for a Pacific Oceanscape has bee developed and endorsed by 23 countries and territories within the region. Thi framework, finalised in 2012, draws on the Pacific Islands Regional Oceans Policy an has been designed to address six strategic priorities associated with marine resourc conservation, habitat protection and fisheries management (Pratt and Govan, 2010) These priorities will be met via the development of terrestrial and marine protecte areas, identification of risks and mitigation strategies for climate change and th provision of research and leadership capacity development throughout the regio (Pratt and Govan, 2010). +Uptake of EBM approaches to resources and, in particular, to commercial fisherie has also been slow and although such an approach may have been adopted at policy level, practical implementation is largely lacking (Garcia et al., 2003; Smith et +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +al., 2007). Traditional management of fisheries, which is still conducted by mos national and international management agencies throughout the South Pacifi Ocean, concentrates on individual fish populations strictly in demographic terms i.e., accounting for the input of individuals as population growth or immigration an the output in terms of natural and fishing mortality. Fish populations, however, ar also affected by variability in external factors, such as predator and prey abundance and variability in their bio-physical environment. At the same time, changes in th abundance of populations will affect all the surrounding ecosystems of which fishe are part. Federal, state and territorial fisheries management agencies in Australi have adopted ecosystem-based fisheries management as the approach to futur management (Smith et al., 2007). Tools to facilitate this approach have largely bee developed and implemented for most Commonwealth fisheries and are in variou stages of development for state and territory fisheries. +6.2 Marine management areas +The establishment of representative systems and networks of marine managemen areas is regarded internationally and nationally as one of the most effectiv mechanisms for protecting biodiversity and a tool for resource sustainability Protected areas, including national parks, managed resource protected areas, locall managed marine areas, marine reserves, protected seascapes, and _ habita management areas, occur in varying degrees in the coastal and offshore regions o countries and territories throughout the South Pacific Ocean (see also section 5.1) Co-ordinated networks of protected or managed areas providing for protection o ecosystems representative of regions are largely lacking, with the exception of Peru’ Guano Islands, Islets and Capes National Reserve System (RNSIIPG), an enforcement is an issue for many marine management areas. Australia’s Nationa Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA) has been developed fo Australian marine waters, but is currently under review and yet to be implemented Community-based management areas throughout the Pacific Islands and territorie have shown some level of success, largely because those that benefit fro sustainable resource use are those directly involved in managing those resources However, managers of community-based management areas are often not equippe to ensure that management is effective. Across many communities, knowledg about the long-term effects of current use of marine resources, sustainability issues and the requirements for management, research, and monitoring is poor. The nee to strengthen education has been identified by a number of countries. Framework for the identification and implementation of marine protected areas at regiona scales are also being developed under the Convention on Biological Diversity® (se section 5.2) and the Framework for a Pacific Oceanscape (see section 6.1). Recen research has demonstrated that in areas where full protection of marine regions i untenable because of dependence of communities on marine resources, even simpl forms of fisheries restrictions can have substantive positive effects on functiona groups (MacNeil et al. 2015). +3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619. +© 2016 United Nations +4 + +6.3 Integration of climate change adaptation and mitigation into marine policy planning and management +Over the long term, one the largest threats to coastal and marine systems within th South Pacific Ocean is climate change. Responding to the environmental and socio economic consequences of climate change in order to maintain ecosystem service requires coordinated and integrated efforts in incorporating adaptation an mitigation options into marine policy, planning and management. Internationa efforts at coordinated adaptation and mitigation planning have occurred, largel through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, either vi National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) in the case of least develope countries, or National Communications for Annex | countries (see www.unfcc.int). A present, however, examples of the implementation of climate change adaptatio actions are limited, even though acceptance is widespread of the need fo adaptation and for significant investments in adaptation planning. Factors affectin implementation include local adaptive capacity, inabilities and inefficiencies in th application of existing resources, and limited institutional support and integration particularly between and across governments (Christensen et al., 2007; Noble et al. 2014). In order to overcome this, adaptation assessments may need to link mor directly to particular decisions and tailor information to local contexts to facilitat the decision-making process (Noble et al., 2014). Key components in the integratio of adaptation and mitigation options should include (i) stakeholder participation i decision making; (ii) capacity development; (iii) communication, education an public awareness; (iv) development of alternative income-generating activities; (v monitoring; (vi) addressing uncertainty and (vii) analysis of trade-offs (UNEP, 2006b) Without ensuring that adaptation options are integrated into coastal zon management, it is likely that ecosystem services will not be maintained into th future (Bell et al., 2013). +Acknowledgements +We thank Alex Sen Gupta for providing Figure 1. Neville Barrett, Camille Mellin an Peter Thompson are thanked for providing useful comments on the chapter. +References +Adjeroud, M., Michonneau, F., Edmunds, P.J., Chancerelle, Y., Lison de Loma, T. Penin, L., Thibaut, L., Vidal-Dupiol, J., Salvat, B., Galzin, R. (2009). Recurren disturbances, recovery trajectories, and resilience of coral assemblages on South Central Pacific reef. 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Introduction +The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean in the world. It is mostly surrounded by a ri of developing countries and island States, one of which is the fourth largest island in th world, Madagascar. The Indian Ocean is bound by Asia to the north, by Africa to th west, Australia to the east and Antarctica to the south. It has two major seas, the Re Sea between the Arabian Peninsula and Africa, and the Arabian Sea to the west of India and the largest bay, the Bay of Bengal, to the east of India. Following the FAO statistica fishing areas, the Indian Ocean is divided into two major parts: the Western India Ocean (WIO) and Eastern Indian Ocean (EIO) (FAO, 1990-2015). +In terms of the oceanographic physical environment of the Indian Ocean, the majo epipelagic atmospheric and ocean currents in relation to other global features are a depicted in Figure 1. The detailed seasonal characteristics of the reversing wind system of the monsoon are shown in Figure 2. The system is important in the distribution o global heat, salinity and biogeochemical cycling of carbon and inorganic elements (Waji et al., 2006). There are basically two monsoonal seasons, but it is common to have third inter-monsoonal season: North East Monsoon (NEM), from February to May South West Monsoon (SWM) from June to October and an Inter-Monsoon Season (IMS from November to January. +‘The members of the Group of Experts would like to thank Cosmas Munga, Melchzedeck Osore, and Nin Wambiji for their substantive input to this chapter. +© 2016 United Nation + +> Warm curren Cold current +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Map to show the epipelagic water masses and current patterns in the Indian Ocean in relation t other global circulations in the world oceans (Source: Pierrot-Bults and Angel 2013). +It is noted that: +(a) From a wide geographical perspective, most of the major ocean area is under sampled with regard to both coastal and oceanic environments. The oceanic area are particularly unsampled and therefore the biological diversity is still incompletel described for most ecosystems; +(b) In terms of human scientific capacity, there is an extreme lack of taxonomists an therefore most of the species are still undescribed or are simply unknown; +(c) Much of the area has largely been studied using satellite technology, so observation are based on remote sensing and therefore driving forces at species and communit level are relatively vague or unknown; there is a need to undertake ground trut sampling to support satellite data; +(d) Most studies are based on isolated collections in localized areas and are no continuous, making it difficult to discern possible trends; +(e) Coastal and offshore ocean sampling are rarely synchronized in space and time increasing data gaps in data collection At regional scales most of the sampling methods are not standardized making th data difficult to compare and a weak basis for describing status and trends o creating baselines for benchmarking. There is a need to form regiona multidisciplinary research teams to address these needs. Such teams could creat the necessary synergy to share research capacity in terms of both human skills an infrastructure, standardize research methodologies, synchronize samplin programmes and plans, establish sampling stations for continuous sampling an data generation for long-term research data requirements, and create databases. +(E +YS +2016 United Nation + +20E = 40 OEE 100°E_— 120° 30°N : | 30°N + Persian Gulf +15°N | 15°N +Equ Equ +COCmenmnaneneenconana p> +SECC +Indonesia Throughflow |- 1 5S +15°S +30°S 30° Southern Ocean ST 45°S 45° 20°E 40°E 60°E 80°E 100°E =: 1120°E +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Major features of the surface circulation in the Indian Ocean [after Schott and McCreary, 2001 Wajih et al., 2006]. The SEC (South Equatorial Current), SECC (South Equatorial CounterCurrent), and ST (Subtropical Front) are present throughout the year. Surface currents during the Northeast Monsoo include the NMC (Northeast Monsoon Current), SC (Somali Current), and EICC (East Indian Counte Current). Surface currents during the Southwest Monsoon include the SWMC (Southwest Monsoo Current) and SJ (Somali Jet). (Source: Bates et al., 2006). +2. Indian Ocean Biodiversity +The Indian Ocean covers about 30 per cent of the total global ocean area and bein predominantly a tropical ocean, accounts for a significant part of tropical coasta biodiversity and deep-sea oceanic biodiversity in various marine ecosystems. It account for 30 per cent of the total global coral reef cover, 40,000km* mangrove cover, beside supporting various types of biodiversity found in its various ecosystems (Table 1). Ther has been progress in addressing marine and coastal biodiversity since the major survey undertaken in the first International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) (1960-1965) abou 50 years ago (http://www. incois.gov.in/portal/iioe/aboutus.jsp). The present review o Indian Ocean biodiversity will address the long-term status, trends and research gaps i relation to: +(a) Marine fisheries including tuna, focusing on their exploitation and specie diversity over wide geographic coverage; +© 2016 United Nation + +(b) Threatened megafauna species, particularly: marine mammals, marin reptiles and seabirds, focusing on describing the status and trends includin their associated drivers and general abundances and what dominant tax groups exist; +(c) Description of phytoplankton production, zooplankton and bentho structures focusing on their abundance and diversity, including the drivers o change and possible effects of climate change; identifying hot spots fo primary production in both coastal and deep sea over various time an geographical scales and major influences of seasonality. +Table 1: Types and area cover of marine ecosystems in the Indian Ocean (Source: Wafar et al., 2011) +ECOSYSTEM Area (i millio km’) +Open ocean +Oligotrophic 19.6 +Transitional 23.8 +Equatorial divergence 18.9 +Coastal +Upwelling zones 7.9 +Other neritic waters 5.3 +Other +Coral reefs 0.2 +Mangroves 0.04 +Sandy and rocky beaches 0.004 +Estuaries - +Hypersaline water bodies/lagoons <0.005 +3. Fish Biodiversity +This section mostly presents information on marine capture fisheries, as reported by th FAO and the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC). +2016 United Nations + +3.1 Marine Finfish +The contribution of coastal and marine capture fisheries (finfish, shellfish and molluscs from the Indian Ocean (average of 11.01 million tons annually) to the global landings i third after the Pacific Ocean (average of 48.3 million tons annually) and the Atlanti Ocean (average of 11.03 million tons annually) based on the 2003, 2011 and 2012 FA estimates (FAO, 2014). This chapter describes the coastal and marine fisheries finfis production excluding tuna in the Indian Ocean, focusing on the status and trends i exploited species, long-term species surveys and different kinds of diversity indices ove the FAO statistical areas of the EIO and the WIO. These areas have recorded increasin overall catch trends since 1950 (Figure 3) however, incidences of reduced catches hav been reported in inshore areas. This increase in catches may be due to expansion o fishing to new areas or species, and the improved recording of fish landing statistic over time. The EIO and WIO together contributed 28 per cent of the total global marin catches of finfish, shellfish and molluscs in 2011 (FAO, 2014). +——EastemIndianOcean ——WestemIndianOcean © Overall IndianOcean +3500000 +3000000 +2500000 +2000000 +1500000 +1000000 +Total finfish landings (tons) +500000. +Figure 3. Long term trends in total finfish landings excluding tuna in the ElO, WIO and overall Indian Ocea (data source: FishstatJ - FAO Fishery and Aquaculture Global Statistics). +The EIO total finfish catches except tuna (Figure 3) are based on fish statistics fro Australia and India. On the other hand, catches from the WIO are based on statistic from Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mayotte (France), Mozambique, Seychelles, Sout Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania. Although finfish total catches seem to b higher in the WIO, the EIO has recorded a higher growth rate in the overall catche (finfish, shellfish and molluscs), with a 17 per cent increase from 2007 to 2011, no totalling 7.2 million tons (FAO, 2014). The Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea regions hav seen total catches increase steadily with no signs of the catch levelling off. The highes catches both in the EIO and WIO are made up of the category “marine fishes nei", tha is, "marine fish that are not identified" (Figure 4). This is a cause for concern as regards +© 2016 United Nation + +the need for monitoring stock status and trends. In the EIO alone, this categor “marine fishes nei” makes up about 42 per cent of the catches (FAO, 2014). A group o small pelagic fish categorized as “clupeoids nei” also support high landings, as d sharks, rays and skates in the ElO. The decline in fish catches in the EIO, especiall within Australia’s exclusive economic zone, can be partly explained by a reduction i effort and catches following structural adjustment to reduce overcapacity and ministerial direction in 2005 aimed at ceasing overfishing and allowing overfishe stocks to rebuild (FAO, 2014). +50000 45000 400000 Australia +50000 +600000 #5000000 Indi 400000 "g 300000 200000 © 1000000 +finfish species +m +Figure 4. Top twenty highest landed finfish species except tuna from the Eastern Indian Ocean based o total catches from 1950-2010 data in Australia and India (data source: Fishstat) - FAO Fishery an Aquaculture Global Statistics). +The WIO shows a similar scenario, in which the largest catches are made up of th category “marine fishes nei” followed by the small pelagic “Indian oil sardine” ponyfishes, and sharks, rays and skates. Total landings in the WIO reached a peak of 4. million tons in 2006, but then declined slightly, with 4.2 million tons in 2011 (FAO 2014). A recent assessment has shown that the narrow-barred Spanish mackere (Scomberomorus commerson) is overfished, and this species is among the 20 mos highly landed (FAO, 2014; Figure. 6) in the WIO. Long term catch data in the India Ocean, especially the WIO, are often not detailed enough for stock assessment and +2016 United Nation + +species composition purposes, a situation aggravated by the lack of adequate resource to conduct scientific studies, monitoring and enforcement (McClanahan and Mangi 2004). However, the Southwest Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission (SWIOFC) conducte stock assessments for 140 species in 2010 based on best available data and informatio (FAO, 2014). Overall, 75 per cent of fish stocks were estimated to be fully fished o under-fished, and 25 per cent fished at unsustainable levels. There are many othe species in the Indian Ocean where the level of exploitation is unknown or is extremel difficult to determine. Long-term trend analysis by individual fish taxa indicates tha catches of sharks, rays and skates together started to decline or level off from the mid 1990s in both the ElO and WIO (Figure 5a). In the late 1990s, a similar trend is observe with the narrow-barred Spanish mackerel in the WIO (Figure 5b). +——EastemIndianOcean ‘Wester IndianOcean a +120000 5 +100000 4 +30000 4 +60000 + +Totallandings (t) +40000 5 +20000 + +95 95 95 95 96 96 96 97 97 97 93 98 98 93 99 99 99 00 200 200 2010 +v +20000 +15000 +Totallandings (t) +10000 + +5000 +986 939 99 995 99 00 2004 200 2010 +Figure 5. Long-term trends in total landings of (a) sharks, rays and skates in EIO and WIO, and (b) narrow barred Spanish mackerel in the WIO. +Fish species diversity studies in the Indian Ocean, especially in the WIO are biased t coral reef areas. Fish diversity in relation to coral reefs in the region covering about 20 sites situated in Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mayotte (France) Mozambique, Reunion (France), Seychelles, South Africa and the United Republic o Tanzania was studied (McClanahan et al., 2011). This study found that the region from +© 2016 United Nation + +southern Kenya to northern Mozambique across to northern eastern Madagascar an the Mascarene Islands and the Mozambique-South Africa border are areas wit moderate to high fish diversity. The WIO fish fauna is one of the richest marine fis faunas in the world, with some 3,200 species or about 20 per cent of the world marin fish fauna. Despite considerable effort by ichthyologists over the past two centuries, th taxonomy of WIO fishes is ongoing. Of the 329 new marine species described betwee the years 2002 and 2012, 140 were from the WIO (http://www.saiab.ac.za/coastal fishes-of-the-western-indianocean.htm). +Long-term fish species surveys are scanty in the Indian Ocean. The South African lin fishery however, has been monitored since the late 1900’s. This fishery is multispecie targeting over 200 species with about 50 being economically important. Due t concerns of overfishing, management measures were first introduced in the 1940s Stock assessment of the line fishery has been based on both fishery dependent an independent data, as well as data from marine protected areas. Since 1985, the Sout African line fishery has been one of the largest spatially referenced marine line fisher data sets. After the introduction of management measures, monitoring results hav indicated that, generally, the over-exploited line fish stocks are now slowly recoverin except for Polysteganus undulosus which has remained significantly reduced (SWIOFC 2012). +This chapter has identified key gaps in relation to the Indian Ocean fisheries, as follows: +-Total catch statistics data is mostly still poor in terms of temporal and spatia coverage, and catches are in many cases estimates of actual catches. This i attributed to lack of human and financial capacity as well as remoteness of som of the fish landing sites; +-Lack of a comprehensive species’ composition data. To date, the largest proportio of catches is categorized as “unidentified”. This is attributed mainly to th inadequate knowledge in fish taxonomy in the region; +-Long-term research surveys in the region are rare due to lack of professiona expertise, infrastructure and financial capacity. Most of the research survey are short term and sporadic depending on availability of donor funding. Th International Indian Ocean Expedition, if regularly implemented could be th best source of long-term research survey data. +-The impacts of fishing gears on target fisheries, by-catches and habitats are hardl studied, and bottom contacting fishing gears are used indiscriminately in th region, resulting in biodiversity losses. +3.2 Tuna Species +Tuna and tuna-like species form the most important resources of the offshore pelagi fishery. In the Indian Ocean, both the EIO and the WIO, at least seven different tun species, including tuna-like species, have been reported in the landing statistics. The +© 2016 United Nation + +four main commercially fished tuna species in the Indian Ocean are: albacore (Thunnu alalunga), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) and bigey tuna (T. obesus). The other species are: frigate and bullet tunas (Auxis sp.), kawakaw (Euthynnus affinis), southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii), and tuna-like species Since 2010, after three years (2007-09) during which piracy negatively affected fishin in the WIO, tuna catches have recovered. During the 2007-2009 period, total tun catches decreased by 30 per cent as piracy deterred fishing operations (FAO, 2014) Among the 23 major fish species in the global marine capture fisheries, skipjack tun ranked third with increasing landings of 2.2 million tons in 2003, 2.6 million tons i 2011, and 2.8 million tons in 2012 (FAO, 2014). The yellowfin tuna was ranked eighth however with variable landings of 1.5, 1.2 and 1.4 million tons in 2003, 2011 and 201 respectively. +In the last 5 decades, total landings of tuna and tuna-like species in the Indian Ocea have been increasing (Figure 6). This is especially evident in the WIO region, whos global contribution in total tuna landings is 30 per cent. The increasing trend of tota tuna and tuna-like landings in the ElO region is not pronounced as landings hav remained just about 20 000 tons annually for a long time between 1982 and 2010 During this period, a total of 7 tuna species and tuna-like species were recorded in th Indian Ocean (Figure 7). The contribution of tuna and tuna-like landings for the WI region in the last 5 decades came from India, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mayott (France), Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania On the other hand, landings for the ElO during the same period were reported fro Australia, India, Madagascar and Seychelles. +Totellandings ——W1Olandings ——EIO landing 250000 +200000. +150000 +100000 +Total tunalandings (tons) +50000 +195 195 195 1956 +Figure 6. Long term trends in total tuna and tuna-like landings in the ElIO, WIO and overall Indian Ocea (data source: FishstatJ - FAO Fishery and Aquaculture Global Statistics). +The landing statistics of tuna and tuna-like species in the last 5 decades in the India Ocean show a great variation in terms of species percent composition of total landings +© 2016 United Nation + +(Figure 7). In this period, skipjacks, kawakawa and yellowfin tuna contributed th highest percent composition of 29 per cent, 24 per cent and 23 per cent respectively The lowest percent composition was made up of albacore (0.4 per cent), tuna-lik fishes nei (2 per cent), and bigeye tuna (4 per cent). The species frigate and bulle tunas, and southern bluefin tuna contributed intermediate percent composition o about 9 per cent each. +Albacore Tuna-like fishes net Bigeye Frigate and bullet —,_ Southern bluefin a rw tin |§ = Kaw eve kipj och | 60 pe cent of total settling organic carbon), and fisheries production (Muller-Karger et al. 2005). They are also exceptionally dynamic systems with ecosystem structures tha can oscillate slowly or shift abruptly, but rarely remain static (Levin et al., 2014). +1.1.1 Status of and trends for biodiversity +In the well-studied North Atlantic, local macrofaunal (300 m-3 cm) species diversit on the continental slope exceeds that of the adjacent continental shelf, an estimates of bathyal diversity in other parts of the world ocean are comparably hig (Rex and Etter, 2010), but local environmental conditions drive regional differences e.g., the Gulf of Mexico, the Norwegian and Mediterranean Seas (Narayanaswamy e al., 2013), the Eastern. Pacific and the Arabian Sea (Levin et al., 2001). Mos researchers agree that habitat heterogeneity on different spatial scales drives hig diversity along the margins (Narayanaswamy et al., 2013) and that margins ofte exhibit upwelling and increased production that enhances biodiversity. Nonetheless excess food availability can reduce diversity. +Depth-related species diversity gradients in macrofauna often peak unimodally a mid-bathyal depths of about 1500-2000 m (Rex and Etter, 2010), although shallowe peaks in diversity have been observed in Arctic waters (Narayanaswamy et al., 2005 2010; Svavarsson, 1997; Yasuhara et al., 2012b) for bivalves, polychaetes, gastropod and cumaceans (Rex, 1981), as well as for the entire macrofauna (Etter an Mullineaux, 2000; Levin et al., 2001) and some meiofauna (Yasuhara et al., 2012b (32 um-1000 um). Even regions with very low diversity can host highly specialize species (e.g., OMZs) and contribute to overall margin diversity (Gooday et al., 2010). +© 2016 United Nation + +Thus, throughout their depth gradient, continental margin slope areas exhibit th highest macrofaunal diversity and offer a potentially important refuge against futur climate change, as mobile organisms could migrate upslope or downslope in searc of suitable conditions (Rodriguez-Lazaro and Cronin, 1999; Yasuhara et al., 2008 2009). +The diversity of meiofauna (32 [m-1,000 um) exceeds that of the macrofauna an their diversity generally increases with depth; however, groups such as foraminifer and ostracods exhibit unimodal peaks in diversity (Yasuhara et al., 2012b) Meiofaunal diversity may decline or increase with increasing bathyal depth (Narayanaswamy et al., 2013), generally driven by food availability and intensity an regularity of disturbance regimes, as well as by temperature and _ loca environmental conditions (Corliss et al., 2009; Yasuhara et al., 2012a; 2009; 2012b 2014). +Russian and Scandinavian deep-sea expeditions described peak benthic megafauna (>3 cm) diversity at mid-bathyal depths as early as the 1950s and 1960s, despit observing much lower megafaunal than meio- and macrofaunal diversit (Vinogradova, 1959). Sponges, cnidarians, crustaceans (decapods and isopods) an echinoderms (echinoids, asteroids, crinoids, holothurians) all display this pattern however later studies confirmed the pattern for some megafaunal invertebrates, bu showed a decline or even increase in diversity with increasing depth for some taxa Evidence to date suggests lower species richness in deep-sea bacterial communitie than in coastal benthic environments, with the caveat that deep-sea environment remain underexplored (Zinger et al., 2011). However, the presence of extrem environments in the deep sea which have high phylogenetic diversity promises a ric source of bacterial diversity and genetic innovation (Sogin et al., 2006). +Several faunal groups also exhibit latitudinal gradients in species diversit (Narayanaswamy et al., 2010; Rex and Etter, 2010; Yasuhara et al., 2009): diversity o crustaceans, molluscs and foraminifera declines poleward (Gage et al., 2004; Rex e al., 2000), whilst others such as nematodes respond to phytodetrital inpu (Lambshead et al., 2000). Latitudinal gradients have also been identified in bacteri (Fuhrman et al., 2008; Sul et al., 2013) but recent modelling indicates peak bacteria richness in temperate areas in winter (Ladau et al., 2013). The effect of seasons o macro-ecological patterns in the microbial ocean warrants continued investigation t test the mechanisms that underlie latitudinal patterns in different fauna. +Broad-scale depth and latitudinal patterns in benthic diversity are modifie regionally by a variety of environmental factors operating at different scales. Fo example, OMZs strongly affect diversity where they impinge on the seafloor. OMZ typically occur between 200 m and 1000 m, often at major carbon burial sites alon the continental margins where high productivity results in high carbon fluxes to th seafloor and low oxygen. The organic-rich sediments of these regions often suppor mats of large sulphide-oxidizing bacteria (Thioploca, Beggiatoa, Thiomargarita), an high-density, low-diversity metazoan assemblages. Protists are also well represente in OMZs such as the Cariaco Basin, where representatives of all major protista clades occur (Edgcomb et al., 2011). Depressed diversity near OMZs centres favour taxa that can tolerate hypoxia, such as nematodes (Cook et al., 2000; Levin, 2003 and certain annelids and foraminifera (Levin, 2003). Other taxa that cannot tolerate +© 2016 United Nation + +low-oxygen conditions may aggregate at the OMZs fringes where food is ofte abundant. +1.1.2 Major pressures +Multiple anthropogenic influences affect deep-sea habitats located close to lan (e.g., canyons, fjords, upper slopes when continental shelves are very narrow) including organic matter loading (see Chapter 20), mine tailings disposal (Kvassne and Iversen, 2013; Kvassnes et al., 2009), litter (Pham et al., 2014), bottom trawlin (Pusceddu et al., 2014) and overfishing (Clark et al., 2007), enhanced or decrease terrestrial input, oil and gas exploitation (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011) and, potentiall in future, deep-sea mining (see Chapter 23). Fishing on margins can also hav indirect ecological effects at deeper depths (Bailey et al., 2009). These anthropogeni influences can modify deep-margin habitats through physical smothering an disturbance, sediment resuspension, organic loading, and toxic contamination an plume formation, with concomitant losses in biodiversity, declining energy flow bac to higher trophic levels, and impacts on physiology from exposure to toxi compounds (e.g., hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heav metals) (see Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011 for review). +2.2. Abys 2.2.1 Status and trends for biodiversity +The abyss (~3-6 km water depth) encompasses the largest area on Earth. Its vas areas of seafloor plains and rolling hills are generally covered in fine sediments wit hard substrates associated with manganese nodules, rock outcrops and topographi highs (e.g. seamounts). The absence of jin situ primary production in thi comparatively stable habitat (apart from scant occurrence of chemosynthesis a hydrothermal vents and cold seeps; cf. Chapter 45) characterize an ecosyste adapted to a limiting and variable rain of particulate detrital material that sinks fro euphotic zones. Nonetheless, the abyss supports higher levels of alpha and bet diversity of meiofauna, macrofauna and megafauna than was recognized onl decades ago (Rex and Etter, 2010). The prevalence of environmental DNA preserve in the deep sea biases estimates of richness, at least in the microbial domain, addin a challenge to biodiversity study in the abyss using molecular methods (Pawlowski e al., 2011). +Despite poorly known biodiversity patterns at regional to global scales (especiall regarding species ranges and connectivity), some regions, such as the abyssa Southern Ocean (Brandt et al., 2007; Griffiths, 2010) and the Pacific equatorial abyss are likely to represent major reservoirs of biodiversity (Smith et al., 2008). +2.2.2 Major pressures +The food-limited nature of abyssal ecosystems, and reliance on particulate organi carbon (POC) flux from above, suggest that all groups, from microbes to megafauna will be highly sensitive to changes in phytoplankton productivity and communit structure, and especially to changes in the quantity and quality of the export flu (Billett et al., 2010; Ruhl et al., 2008; Ruhl and Smith, 2004; Smith et al., 2008; Smith +© 2016 United Nation + +et al.,2013). Climate warming in some broad areas may increase ocean stratification reduce primary production, and shift the dominant phytoplankton communit structure from diatoms to picoplankton, and reduce export efficiency, driving bioti changes over major regions of the abyss, such as the equatorial Pacific (Smith et al. 2008). However the effects of climate change, including ocean warming, o biodiversity are likely to vary regionally and among species groups in ways that ar poorly resolved with current models and knowledge of ecosystem dynamics in th deep sea. In the future, deep sea mining may also become a pressure on abyssa areas of the deep sea, and potential effects are addressed in Chapter 21. +2.3 Hada 2.3.1 The Hadal zone +The Hadal zone, comprising ocean floor deeper than 6000 m, encompasse 3,437,930 km2, or less than 1 per cent of total ocean area (Harris et al., 2014) an represents 45 per cent of its depth and related gradients. Over 80 separate basins o depressions in the sea floor comprise the hadal zone, dominated by 7 great trenche (>6500 m) around the margins of the Pacific Ocean, five of which extend to over 1 km depth: the Japan-Kuril-Kamchatka, Kermadec, Tonga, Mariana, and Philippin trenches. The Arctic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea lack hadal depths. Thes trenches are often at the intersection of tectonic plates, exposing them as potentia epicentres of severe earthquakes which can directly cause local and catastrophi disturbance to the trench fauna. +2.3.2 Status and trends for biodiversity +Although the hadal zone contains a wide range of macro- and megafaunal tax (cnidarians, polychaetes, bivalves, gastropods, amphipods, decapods, echiurids holothurians, asteroids, echinoids, sipunculids, ophiuroids and fishes (Beliaev, 1989 Wolff, 1970), all trenches occur below the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD) reducing the numbers of calcified protozoan and metazoan species found ther (Jamieson, 2011). Chemosynthetic seep biota, including vesicomyid and thyasiri clams, occur in hadal depths in the Japan Trench; the deepest known methane seep and associated communities are found at 7,434 m in this area (Fujikura et al., 1999 Watanabe et al., 2010). Cold seep communities also commonly occur in trench areas such as the Aleutian and Kuril Trenches (Juniper and Sibuet, 1987; Ogawa et al. 1996; Suess et al., 1998). Benthic foraminifera are among the most widespread tax at hadal depths and include calcareous, large agglutinated, and organic walle species (Beliaev, 1989; Gooday et al., 2008). Abundant metazoan meiofaunal taxa such as nematodes, at hadal depths (Gambi et al., 2003; Itoh et al., 2011; Kitahash et al., 2013; Tietjen, 1989; Vanhove et al., 2004) may exceed those found at bathya depths by 10-fold (Danovaro et al., 2002); small numbers of ostracods, halacarids cumaceans, kinorhynchs, and meiofaunal-sized bivalves are also found ther (Vanhove et al., 2004). Nematode and copepod communities in trenches diffe greatly from those found at bathyal and abyssal depths (Gambi et al., 2003; Kitahash et al., 2013), driven by opportunistic taxa and meiofaunal dwarfism in trenc systems (Danovaro et al., 2002; Gambi et al., 2003). +© 2016 United Nation + +Although not yet well quantified, and the mechanisms remain to be discerned higher densities of fauna (Jamieson et al., 2009) and respiration have been found a trench axis points than would be expected from a purely vertical rain of POC flu (Glud et al., 2013).The exact number of species in trenches is not known, but the fe quantitative studies made so far suggest that diversity is lower compared to diversit at abyssal depths (Grassle, 1989). Reasons for the lower diversity levels are not wel understood but the high pressure, relatively high food supply and organic matte accumulation, relatively elevated temperature (due to adiabatic heating), or combination thereof may attenuate trench diversity. +Sampling to date suggests that hadal basins are populated by a higher proportion o endemic species compared to much shallower waters, species that can survive th extreme hydrostatic pressure and, in some instances, remoteness from surface foo supply (Wolff, 1970). Physiological and other evidence suggests that fishes canno survive at depths greater than 8000 m (Yancey et al., 2014); the deepest hadal fish the liparids (snail-fish), are unique to each trench system. Decapod crustaceans hav been observed only to 8200 m (Gallo et al., in revision). +At depths over 8000 m, scavenging amphipod crustaceans dominate the mobil megafauna, along with potential predators, including penaeid shrimp, princaxeli amphipods and ulmarid jellyfish, as observed in the New Britain Trench and th Sirena Deep (Mariana Trench). Comparison of scavenging and epibenthic/demersa biota suggests that density, diversity, and incidence of demersal (near bottom lifestyles all increase with greater food supply (Blankenship and Levin, 2007 Blankenship et al., 2006). +Wide separation between trenches in the northern and southern hemispheres an between the different oceans has likely facilitated speciation to result in distinc assemblages of fauna in each hadal basin (Fujii et al., 2013). Some 75 per cent of th species in Pacific Ocean trenches may be endemic to each trench. Despite thei remoteness from the surface, many hadal trenches are close to land and receiv organic inputs from terrestrial and coastal sources, yielding higher mega-, macro and meio-faunal densities than expected for greater depths (Danovaro et al., 2003 Danovaro et al., 2002; Jamieson, 2011; Jumars and Hessler, 1976; Vanhove et al. 2004). +2.3.3. Major pressures +The proximity of some trenches to land also increases their vulnerability to huma activity in terms of dumping of materials and effluents, as well as from disaste debris, run off from land and pollution from ships. Some of these items, includin anthropogenic litter, have been observed down to 7,200 m depth (George an Higgins, 1979). Evidence for the vulnerability of trench fauna is also provided by th levels of the radioisotope *“Cs detected in sediments in the Japan Trench, fou months after the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear disaster (Oguri et al., 2013). +2.3.4 Knowledge gaps +Trenches are arguably the most difficult deep-sea environments to access an current facilities are very limited worldwide, and consequently knowledge of thei biodiversity is particularly incomplete. +© 2016 United Nation + +In general, biodiversity patterns of non-nematode meiofauna and non-foraminifera protists are especially poorly known in the deep sea. +Most information about biodiversity in the deep sea is for the predominant soft substrate habitats. However, hard substrates abound in the deep sea in nearly al settings, and organisms that cannot be seen in a photograph or video image are har to sample and study quantitatively. Thus knowledge of small-taxon biodiversity i best developed for deep-sea sediments. +Beyond cataloguing diversity, even in those systems we have characterized, almos nothing is known about the ranges of species, connectivity patterns or resilience o assemblages and their sensitivity to climate stressors or direct human disturbance There is also currently a lack of appropriate tools to adequately evaluate huma benefits that are derived from the deep sea (Jobstvogt et al., 2014a; 2014b; Thurbe et al., 2014). +Pelagic realm +3.1 Status and trends for biodiversity +Between the deep-sea bottom and the sunlit surface waters are the open waters o the deep pelagic or “midwater” environment. This huge volume of water is the leas explored environment on our planet (Webb et al., 2010). The deep pelagic realm i very diffuse, with generally low apparent abundances of inhabitants, although recen observations from submersibles indicate that some species may concentrate int narrow depth bands (Herring, 2002). +The major physical characteristics structuring the pelagic ecosystems are depth an pressure, temperature, and the penetration of sunlight. Below the surface zone (o epipelagic, down to about 200 m), the deep layer where sunlight penetrates wit insufficient intensity to support primary production, is called the mesopelagic zone In some geographic areas, microbial degradation of organic matter sinking from th surface zone results in low oxygen concentrations in the mesopelagic, called OMZ (Robinson et al., 2010). This mesopelagic zone is a particularly important habitat fo fauna controlling the depth of CO, sequestration (Giering et al., 2014). +Below the depth to which sunlight can penetrate (about 1,000 m) is the largest laye of the deep pelagic realm and by far the largest ecosystem on our planet, th bathypelagic region. This comprises almost 75 per cent of the volume of the ocea and is mostly remote from the influence of the bottom and its communities Temperatures there are usually just a few degrees Celsius above zero. The boundar layer where both physical and biological interactions with the bottom occur is calle ‘benthopelagic’. +The transitions between the various vertical layers are gradients, not fixed surfaces hence ecological distinctions among the zones are somewhat blurred across th transitions. Recent surveys have shown a great deal of connectivity between th major pelagic depth zones (Sutton, 2013). The abundance and biomass of organism generally varies among these layers from a maximum near the surface, decreasing +© 2016 United Nation + +through the mesopelagic, to very low levels in the bathypelagic, increasin somewhat in the benthopelagic (Angel, 1997; Haedrich, 1996). Although abundance are low, because such a huge volume of the ocean is bathypelagic, even species tha are rarely encountered may have very large total population numbers (Herring 2002). +The life cycles of deep-sea animals often involve shifts in vertical distribution amon developmental stages. Even more spectacular are the daily vertical migrations o many mesopelagic species (Benoit-Bird and Au, 2006; Hays, 2003). This vertica migration may increase physical mixing of the ocean water and also contributes to "biological pump" that drives the movement of carbon compounds and nutrient from the surface waters into the deep ocean (Robinson et al., 2010). +Sampling the deep pelagic biome shares the logistical difficulties of other deep-se sampling, compounded by the extremely large volume and temporal variability o the environment and the widely dispersed populations of its inhabitants. Ne species continue to be discovered regularly. Whereas scientific information on th composition of mesopelagic assemblages is rapidly improving, very little is known o the structure of the deeper lower bathyal and abyssal pelagic zones. +Possibly because of high mobility and transport by ocean current, the overal diversity of species seems to be less than that found in other ecosystems (Angel 1997). However, the number of distinct major evolutionary groups (i.e., phyla classes, etc.) found in the deep pelagic is high. +Studies of microbes and their roles in the deep pelagic ecosystems are just beginnin to reveal the great diversity of such organisms. The species richness of deep ocea bacteria surpasses that of the surface open ocean (Zinger et al., 2011). +As is true in other pelagic systems, crustaceans make up a large percentage of th deep zooplankton in both abundance and numbers of species. These crustacean include numerous and diverse copepods, amphipods, ostracods and other majo groups. Some groups, like arrow worms, are almost all pelagic and are important i deep waters. Large gelatinous animals, including comb jellies, jellyfishes, colonia siphonophores, salps and pyrosomes, are extremely important in deep pelagi ecosystems (Robison, 2004). +The strong swimmers of the deep pelagic, the “nekton”, include many species o fishes and some sharks, crustaceans (shrimps, krill, and other shrimplike animals) and cephalopods (including squids, “dumbo” and other octopods, and “vampir squids”) (Hoving et al., 2014). In terms of global fish abundance, deep pelagic fishe are by far the numerically dominant constituents; the genus Cyclothone alon outnumbers all coastal fishes combined and is likely to be the most abundan vertebrate on earth. Furthermore, at an estimated ~1,000 million tons, mesopelagi fishes dominate the world’s total fish biomass and constitute a major component o the global carbon cycle. Acoustic surveys now suggest that an accurate figure o mesopelagic fish biomass may be an order of magnitude higher (10,000 - 15,00 million tons; Irigoien et al., 2014; Kaartvedt et al., 2012; Koslow, 2009). Whe bathypelagic fish biomass is included, deep pelagic fish biomass is likely to be th overwhelming majority of fish biomass on Earth (Sutton, 2013). The deep pelagi fauna is also important prey for mammals (toothed whales and elephant seals) and +© 2016 United Nation + +even birds (emperor penguins) and reptiles (leatherback sea turtles). The amount o deep-sea squids consumed by sperm whales alone annually has been estimated t exceed the total landings of fisheries worldwide (Rodhouse and Nigmatullin, 1996). +Horizontal patterns exist in the global distribution of deep pelagic organisms However, the faunal boundaries of deep pelagic assemblages are less distinct tha those of near-surface or benthic assemblages (Pierrot-Bults and Angel, 2012) Generally, the low-latitude oligotrophic regimes that make up the majority of th global ocean house more species than higher-latitude regimes (Hopkins et al., 1996) Some major oceanic frontal boundaries, such as the polar and subpolar fronts extend down into deep waters and appear to form biogeographic boundaries although the distinctness of those boundaries may decrease with increasing depth. +The dark environment also means that production of light by bioluminescence i almost universal among deep pelagic organisms. Some animals produce the ligh independently, whereas others are symbiotic with luminescent bacteria. +3.2 Major pressures +A fundamental biological characteristic throughout the deep pelagic biome is tha little or no primary production occurs and deep pelagic organisms are dependent o food produced elsewhere. Therefore, changes in surface productivity will b reflected in changes in the deep midwater. When midwater animals migrate into th surface waters at night, they are subjected to predation by near-surface species Shifts in the abundance of those predators will affect the populations of th migrators and, indirectly, the deeper species that interact with the vertical migrator at their deeper daytime depths. Either or both of these effects may be caused b global climate change, fishing pressure and the impact of pollutants in surfac waters (Robinson et al., 2010; Robison, 2009). +Climate change will likely increase stratification caused by warming of surface water and expanded OMZs resulting from the interaction of shifts in productivity wit increased stratification. If the so-called conveyor-belt of global circulation weakens transport of oxygen by the production of deep water will affect the entire deep sea The biomass of mesopelagic fishes in the California Current, for instance, ha declined dramatically during recent decades of reduced midwater oxyge concentrations (Koslow et al., 2011). Furthermore, increases in carbon dioxid resulting in acidification may affect diverse deep pelagic animals, includin pteropods (swimming snails) and crustaceans which use calcium carbonate to buil their exoskeletons, fishes that need it for internal skeletons, and cephalopods fo their balance organs. Acidification also changes how oxygen is transported in th blood of animals and those living in areas of low oxygen concentration ma therefore be less capable of survival and reproduction (Rosa and Seibel, 2008). +Few fisheries currently target deep pelagic species, but fisheries do affect th ecosystem. Whaling reduced worldwide populations of sperm whales and pilo whales to a small fraction of historical levels (Roman et al., 2014). Similarly, fisherie for surface predators such as sharks, tunas and billfishes, and on seamounts, reduce +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +predation pressure, particularly on vertical migrators like squids and lantern fishe (Zeidberg and Robison, 2007). +Increasing extraction of deep-sea hydrocarbon resources increases the likelihood o accidental deep release of oil and methane (Mengerink et al., 2014), as well as th deep use of dispersants to minimize apparent effects of such spills at the surfac (See Chapter 21). +Deep sea mining and some forms of renewable energy production may also affec the pelagic realm of the deep ocean (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011), and potentia effects are addressed in Chapters 23 and 22 respectively. +3.3 Knowledge gaps +Any summary of deep pelagic ecosystems emphasizes how little is known, especiall relative to coastal systems. Sampling has been intensively conducted in only a fe geographic areas, using selective methods, each of which illuminates only a fractio of the biodiversity. Sampling at lower bathyal or abyssal depths has been limited and virtually nothing is known about pelagic fauna associated with deep trenches There is also limited knowledge of the performance of conservation an management measures developed for coastal and shelf marine ecosystems whe applied in deep ocean systems characterized by large spatial scales and variable bu sometimes vertically and/or horizontally high-mobility organisms, and incomplet knowledge of ecosystem structure and processes. +Special areas typical for the open ocean deep sea +4.1 Ocean ridges +The Mid-Ocean Ridge system is a continuous single feature on the earth’s surfac extending ca. 50,000 km around the planet; it defines the axis along which ne oceanic crust is generated at tectonic plate boundaries (Heezen, 1969). The ridge se floor is elevated above the surrounding abyssal plains, reaching the sea surface a mid-ocean islands, such as Iceland, the Azores and Ascension Island in the Atlanti Ocean, Easter Island and Galapagos in the Pacific Ocean. Typically there is a centra axial rift valley bounded by ridges on both sides. A series of sediment-covere terraces slope down on the two sides of the ridge axis to the abyssal plains. Th global ridge system, including associated island slopes, seamounts and knolls represents a vast area of mid-ocean habitat at bathyal depths, accessible to faun normally associated with narrow strips of suitable habitat on the continental slopes The ocean ridges sub-divide the major ocean basins, but fracture zones at interval permit movement of deep water and abyssal organisms between the two sides o the ridge. +Much attention has been directed to the importance of Mid-Ocean Ridges as sites o the hydrothermal vents and their unique fauna found close to the geothermall active ridge axis (German et al., 2011). However, the total area of hydrotherma vents is small and the dominant fauna on the mid-ocean ridges is made up of typical +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +bathyal species known from adjacent continental margins (See Chapter 45). Th biomass of benthic fauna and demersal fishes on the ridges is generally similar t that found at corresponding depths on the nearest continental slopes (Priede et al. 2013). New species, potentially endemic to mid-ocean ridges, have been discovere (Priede et al., 2012). But these are likely to be found elsewhere as exploration of th deep sea progresses. The island slopes and summits of seamounts associated wit ocean ridges are important areas for fisheries; evidence suggests that biodiversity including large pelagic predators, is enhanced around such features (Morato et al. 2010; Morato et al., 2008). Chapter 51 considers the biodiversity of these mid-ocea ridges, and its threats, in greater detail. +4.2 Polar deep sea +Polar marine ecosystems differ in many ways from other marine ecosystems on th planet (see Chapters 36G and 36H). +4.3 Arctic +Arctic deep-sea areas have generally been poorly studied; although several studie over the past two decades have greatly advanced our knowledge of its marin diversity and deep-sea processes. They indicate that the Arctic deep sea is a oligotrophic area, featuring steep gradients in benthic biomass with increasing dept that are primarily driven by food availability (Bluhm et al., 2005, 2011). +The Arctic deep basins comprise ~50 per cent of the Arctic Ocean seafloor and diffe from those of the North Atlantic, as the Arctic Sea is relatively young in age, semi isolated from the world’s oceans, and largely ice-covered. Moreover, the high Arcti experiences more pronounced seasonality in light, and hence in primary production than lower latitudes. +The history and semi-isolation of the Arctic basin play a major role in its biodiversit patterns (Golikov and Scarlato, 1990). Originally an embayment of the North Pacific the Arctic deep sea was influenced by Pacific fauna until ~80 million years ago, whe the deep-water connection closed (Marincovich Jr. et al., 1990). Exchange with th deep Atlantic began ~40 Ma ago, coinciding with a strong cooling period (Savin et al. 1975). Although some Arctic shelf and deep-sea fauna were removed by Pleistocen glaciations, other shelf fauna in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic found refuge in th deep sea and are considered the ancestral fauna at least for some of the recen Arctic deep-sea fauna (Nesis, 1984). The bottom of the Arctic basin is filled wit water originating from the North Atlantic (Rudels et al., 1994); the sediments ar primarily silt and clay whilst the ridges and plateaus have a higher sand fractio (Stein et al., 1994). Exceptions include ice-rafted dropstones, enhancing diversity b providing isolated hard substrata and enhanced habitat heterogeneity for benthi fauna (Hasemann et al., 2013; Oschmann, 1990). Considerable inputs of refractor terrestrial organic matter from the large Russian and North American river characterize the organic component of sediments along the slopes, and in the basin (Stein and Macdonald, 2004). The only present-day deep-water connection to th Arctic is via the Fram Strait (~2,500m), providing immigrating species access via the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +high water flux through this gateway. Submarine ridges within the Arctic for physical barriers, but current evidence suggests that these do not for biogeographic barriers (Deubel, 2000; Kosobokova et al., 2011; Vinogradova, 1997). +Bluhm et al. (2011) conservatively estimated the number of benthic invertebrat taxa in the Arctic deep sea to be ~1,125. As in other soft-sediment habitats foraminiferans and nematodes generally dominate the meiofauna, wherea annelids, crustaceans and bivalves dominate the macrofauna, and echinoderm dominate the megafauna. The degree of endemism at the level of both genera an species is far lower than in the Antarctic, which has a similarly harsh environment Just over 700 benthic species were catalogued from the central basin a decade ag (Sirenko, 2001). The latitudinal species-diversity gradient has been observed in th Arctic Ocean (Yasuhara et al., 2012b) and the peak of the unimodal species-diversit depth gradient occurs at much shallower depths compared to other oceans (Clarke 2003; Svavarsson, 1997; Yasuhara et al., 2012b). +The Arctic, is populated by species that have experienced selection pressure fo generalism and high vagility (Jansson and Dynesius, 2002), and should have inheren resilience in the face of climate change. +In a warmer future Arctic with less sea ice altered algal abundance and compositio will affect zooplankton community structure (Caron and Hutchins, 2012) an subsequently the flux of particulate organic matter to the seafloor (Wohlers et al. 2009), where the changing quantity and quality of this matter will impact benthi communities (Jones et al., 2014; Kortsch et al., 2012). +4.4 Antarctic +The Southern Ocean comprises three major deep ocean basins, i.e., the Pacific Indian and Atlantic Basins, separated by submarine ridges and the Scotia Arc islan chain. Oceanographically, the Southern Ocean is a major driver of global ocea circulation and plays a vital role in interacting with the deep water circulation in eac of the major oceans. +Chapter 36H describes the general dynamics of the Southern Ocean, includin seasonal changes. The winter sea-ice formation creates cold, dense, salty water tha sinks to the seafloor and forms very dense Antarctic Bottom Water (Bullister et al. 2013). This in turn pushes the ocean’s nutrient-rich, deep water closer to th surface, generating areas of high primary productivity in Antarctic waters, similar t areas of upwelling elsewhere in the world. +The remote Southern Ocean is home to a diverse and rich community of life tha thrives in an environment dominated by glaciations and strong currents (Griffiths 2010). However, although relatively little is known about the deep-sea fauna, o about the complex interactions between the highly seasonally variable physica environment and the species that inhabit the Southern Ocean, but our knowledge o Southern Ocean deep-sea fauna and biogeography is increasing rapidly (Griffiths 2010; Kaiser et al., 2013). The range of ecosystems found in each of the marin realms can vary greatly within a small geographic area (e.g. Grange and Smith, 2013) or in other cases remain relatively constant across vast areas of the Southern Ocean. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The region also contains many completely un-sampled areas for which nothing i known (e.g., Amundsen Sea, Western Weddell Sea, Eastern Ross Sea). These area include the majority of the intertidal zone, areas under the floating ice shelves, an the greater benthic part of the deep sea. However, several characteristic features o Southern Ocean ecosystems include circumpolar distributions and eurybathy o many species (Kaiser et al., 2013). +Both pelagic and benthic communities tend to show a high degree of patchiness i both diversity and abundance. The benthic populations show a decrease in biomas with increasing depth (Arntz et al., 1994), with notable differences in areas o disturbance due to anchor ice and icebergs in the shallows (Smale et al., 2008) and i highly productive deep fjord ecosystems (Grange and Smith, 2013). Hard and sof sediments from the region are known to be capable of supporting both extremes o diversity and biomass. In some cases, levels of biomass are far higher than those i equivalent habitats in temperate or tropical regions. A major international study le by Brandt revealed comparably high levels of biodiversity (higher than in the Arctic) thereby challenging suggestions that deep-sea diversity is depressed in the Souther Ocean (Brandt et al., 2007). Understanding of large-scale diversity distributions i improving (Brandt and Ebbe, 2009; Kaiser et al., 2013). For example, depth-diversit gradients of several taxa are known to be unimodal with a shallow peak comparabl to those of the Arctic Ocean (Brandt et al., 2007; Brandt and Ebbe, 2009). +Longline fishing continues in the Southern Ocean, where the Commission for th Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has been implementin conservation measures for toothfish, icefish and krill fisheries, and has closed almos all of the regulatory area to bottom trawling since the 1980s (Reid et al., 2010 Hanchet et al., 2015). Climate change, is also a significant potential threat to th Antarctic marine communities (Griffiths, 2010; Smith et al., 2012), for reasons simila to those presented for the Arctic. +4.5 Seamounts +Seamounts are important topographic features of the open ocean. Although they ar small in area relative to the vast expanse of the abyssal plains, accounting for <5 pe cent of the seafloor (Yesson et al., 2011), three important characteristics distinguis them from the surrounding deep-sea habitat (Figure 36F.1; see Chapter 34). First they are “islands” of shallow sea floor, and provide a range of depths for differen communities. Second, bare rock surfaces can be common, enabling sessile organism to attach to the rock, in contrast to the majority of the ocean sea floor, which i covered with fine unconsolidated sediments. Third, the physical structure of som seamounts drives the formation of localised hydrographic features and current flow that can keep species and production processes concentrated over the seamount even increasing the local deep pelagic biomass. They are a sufficiently importan part of marine deep-sea biodiversity that seamounts are fully treated in Chapter 5 of this Assessment. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +4.6 Organic falls +The decay of large sources of organic matter (e.g., whales, wood, jellyfish) that ‘fall from surface or midwater provide a concentrated source of food on the deep se floor directly, and indirectly through the decay of the organic matter, can yiel hydrogen sulphide and methane. An array of scavenging species (hagfish amphipods, ophiuroids, and crabs) is adapted to rapidly finding and consumin organic matter on the deep seabed. In addition, lipid-rich whale bones and woo support specialized taxa that have evolutionarily adapted to consume the substrat via symbionts (Smith and Baco, 2003; Smith et al., 2015). At least 30 species o polychaetes in the genus Osedax colonize and degrade whale bones, with the aid o heterotrophic symbionts in the group Oceanspirales (Goffredi et al., 2005; Rouse e al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015). Osedax and other taxa colonizing whale falls exhibi biogeographic separation, succession during the life of the whale fall (Smith an Baco, 2003; Braby et al., 2007; Glover et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2015), Adipicola an other deep-sea mussels also harbour chemoautotrophic endosymbionts and coloniz sulphide-rich whale remains (Fujiwara et al., 2007; Thubaut et al., 2013). Similarly members of the bivalve genus Xylophaga colonize and consume wood in the dee sea, with symbionts that aid cellulose degradation and nitrogen fixation. Th activities of these ‘keystone’ species, in conjunction with microbial decay, transfor the environment and facilitate colonization by a high diversity of other taxa, fo example >100 species thus far found only on deep-sea whale falls (Smith et al. 2015). Human impacts have likely already affected these organic-fall ecosystems. Fo example, 20th century whaling drastically reduced the flux of whale carcasses to th deep seafloor (Roman et al., 2014; Smith, 2006; Smith et al., 2015). +Numerous areas throughout the world’s oceans have experienced large jellyfis population expansions. Although numerous studies have sought to identify th driving forces behind and the impacts of live jellyfish on marine ecosystems (Purcell 2012; Purcell et al., 2007), very few have focused on the environmenta consequences from the deposition of jellyfish carcasses (from natural die-off events) Recently it has become apparent that jellyfish carcasses have very high sinkin speeds (1,500 m d-1, Lebrato et al., 2013a; 2013b). Thus, jellyfish blooms may affec seafloor habitats through the sedimentation of jellyfish carcasses (but also of macro zooplankton, see Smith et al. (2014)), the smothering of extensive areas of seafloo and reducing oxygen flux into seafloor sediments leading to hypoxic/anoxi conditions. Jelly falls may also be actively consumed by typical deep-sea scavengers enhancing food-flux into deep-sea food webs (Sweetman et al., 2014). Jellyfish fall have so far been observed in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans (Billett et al. 2006; Lebrato and Jones, 2009; Yamamoto et al., 2008; Lebrato et al., 2013a; 2013b Sweetman and Chapman, (2011), and are reviewed in Lebrato et al. (2012). +4.7 Methane seeps +Continental margins host a vast array of geomorphic environments associated wit methane seepage and other types of seeps. Many support assemblages reliant o chemosynthesis fuelled by methane and sulphide oxidation (Levin and Sibuet, 2012; +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Sibuet and Olu, 1998). Their specialized biodiversity features are assessed in Chapte 45. +Major ecosystem services being affected by the pressures +Despite its apparent remoteness and inhospitability, the deep ocean and seafloo play a crucial role in human social and economic wellbeing through the ecosyste goods and services they provide (Armstrong et al., 2012; Thurber et al., 2014; va den Hove and Moreau, 2007) (Table 1). Whilst some services, such as deep-se fisheries, oil and gas energy resources, potential CO2 storage, and mineral resource directly benefit humans, other services support the processes that drive deep-se and global ecosystem functioning. Despite its inaccessibility to most people, th deep sea nonetheless supports important cultural and existence values. The dee sea acts as a sink for anthropogenic CO2, provides habitat, regenerates nutrients, is site of primary (including chemosynthetic) and secondary biomass production, a well as providing other biodiversity-related functions and services, including thos the deep water and benthic assemblages provide (Irigoien et al., 2014). +Ocean warming and acidification associated with climate change already affect th deep sea, reaching abyssal depths in some areas (Osterhus and Gammelsrgd, 1999) Ongoing global climatic changes driven by increasing anthropogenic emissions an subsequent biogeochemical changes portend further impacts for all ocean areas including the deep-sea and open ocean (Mora et al., 2013b). Data from pre anthropocene times indicates millennial-scale climate variability on deep-se biodiversity (Cronin and Raymo, 1997; Cronin et al., 1999; Hunt et al., 2005 Wollenburg et al., 2007; Yasuhara and Cronin, 2008; Yasuhara et al., 2012a; 2009), a well as decadal-centennial climate events (Yasuhara et al., 2008; 2014). The potentia impacts of climate change on the ocean are addressed in Part Il of th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5" Assessment Report, Workin Group II Chapters 6 and 30. Consistent with the mandate of this Assessment, the are only briefly summarized here. +Some impacts of climate change will be direct. For example, altered distributions an health of open-ocean and deep-sea fisheries are expected to result from warming induced latitudinal or depth shifts (Brander, 2010); deoxygenation will induce habita compression (Prince and Goodyear, 2006; Stramma et al., 2012; Koslow et al., 2011) and acidification will stress organismal function and thus organismal distribution Climate change-related stressors are also likely to act in concert, and effects could b cumulative (Rosa and Seibel, 2008). Shifts in bottom-up, competitive, or top-dow forcing will produce complex and indirect effects on the services described above Acidification-slowed growth of carbonate skeletons, delayed development unde hypoxic conditions, and increased respiratory demands with declining foo availability illustrate how climate change could exacerbate anthropogenic impact and compromise deep-sea ecosystem structure and function and ultimately benefit to human welfare. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The most important ecosystem service of the deep pelagic region is arguably th “biological pump”, in which biological processes, such as the daily vertical migration package and accelerate the transport of carbon compounds, nutrients, and othe materials out of surface waters and into the deep sea. However, the microbia diversity and processes of the deep-pelagic realm are not sufficiently known t predict confidently how the biological pump ecosystem service will respond t perturbations. +Deep-sea exploitation +6.1 Deep-sea fisheries +Deep-sea fishing has a long history, but it did not become an important activity unti the mid-twentieth century, when technological advancement allowed th construction of large and powerful vessels, and the development of line and traw gear that could be deployed to continental slope depths. FAO (2009) acknowledge that deep-sea fisheries often exploit species which have relatively slower growt rates, reach sexual maturity later and reproduce at lower rates than shelf and coasta species. +Deep-sea fish species were the basis of major commercial fisheries in the 1970s t early 2000s (Japp and Wilkinson, 2007) but started to decline as aggregations wer fished out, and realisation grew about the low productivity, and hence low yields, o these species (Clark, 2001; Sissenwine and Mace, 2007) and impacts of some o these fisheries on seafloor structure and benthos (Clark and Dunn 2012). Globall the main commercial deep-sea fish species at present number about 20, comprisin alfonsino, toothfish, redfish, slickheads, cardinalfish, scabbardfish, armourhead orange roughy, oreos, roundnose and rough-headed grenadiers, blue ling and moras The current commercial catch of these main deep-sea species is about 150,000 tons and has been similar over the last five years, although the proportional species mi has changed. The ecosystem effects of these fisheries are discussed in Chapter 11 o this Assessment and in Chapter 51 relative to the seamounts which are centres fo many of these fisheries. +6.2 Deep gas and oil reserves +The oil and gas industry has been active in the open ocean since the 1970s. Ove 10,000 hydrocarbon wells have been drilled globally; at least 1,000 are routinel drilled in water depths >200 m, and as deep as 2,896 m in the Gulf of Mexico. Th scale of the exploration and development of hydrocarbon reserves and the ecosystem effects are discussed in Chapter 21. +6.3 Minerals +Great interest exists in exploiting the deep sea for its various reserves of minerals which include polymetallic nodules, seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits, +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +mineral-rich sediments and cobalt-rich crusts. Currently no commercial minin projects have started, although several projects are in the exploratory or permittin phase. From those exploratory studies and related research some knowledge o potential ecosystem effects is accumulating. +Experimental studies to assess the potential impact of mining polymetallic nodules i the abyss have indicated that seafloor communities may take many decades befor showing signs of recovery from disturbance (Bluhm, 2001; Miljutin et al., 2011), an may never recover if they rely directly on the nodules for habitat. +The recovery of communities at active hydrothermal vents where SMS deposits ma be exploited may be relatively rapid, because vent sites undergo natura disturbances which have seen some communities appear to recover fro catastrophic volcanic activity within a few years (Tunnicliffe et al., 1997). However the rates of recovery of benthic communities are likely to vary among sites. +Other potential mining activities include exploiting mineral-rich sediments. Fo example in some deep marine sediments, phosphorite occurs as “nodules” (2 t >150 mm in diameter), in a mud or sand matrix, which can extend beneath th seafloor sediment surface to tens of centimetres depth. +No mining has yet been authorized for such deposits but could result in the remova of large volumes of both the phosphorite nodules and the surrounding sof sediments, together with associated faunal communities and generate larg sediment plumes. In addition, cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts are promisin sources of cobalt and rare minerals required to sustain growing human populatio demands and emerging high and green technologies (Hein et al., 2013). Condition favouring their formation are found in abrupt topography, especially on the flank and summits of oceanic seamounts and ridges at depths of 800-2500 m, where th most Cobalt-rich deposits are known to concentrate, in habitats dominated b suspension-feeding sessile organisms (mostly cold-water corals and sponges) an comparatively rich biological communities (Clark, 2013; Clark et al., 2011 Fukushima, 2007; Schlacher et al. 2013). Interest in cobalt-rich crust resources i growing, although mining for cobalt-rich crusts has not yet started, and technologica challenges mean it may develop later than for polymetallic nodule or SMS resources Further information on these mining activities is found in Chapter 23, and th seamount and seep/vent habitats in Chapters 51 and 45, respectively. +Special conservation/management issues and sustainability for the future +7.1 Special habitats (VMEs, EBSAs, MPAs) and conservation measures +The United Nations General Assembly has adopted a number of resolutions tha called for the identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs from significant adverse impacts of bottom fishing (for example 61/105 of 2006) which has facilitated the development of the 2008 International Guidelines for th Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in the High Seas (FAO, 2009). The concept an developments of VMEs and their protection is addressed in Chapter 11. Also in the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +2000s, in response to the call in the World Summit on Sustainable Developmen (WSSD) for greater protection of the open ocean, the Conference of Parties to th Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) developed and adopted criteria for th description of ecologically or biologically significant areas (EBSAs) in open-ocea waters and deep-sea habitats. The application of the EBSA criteria is a scientific an technical exercise, and areas that are described as meeting the criteria may receiv protection through a variety of means, according to the choices of States an competent intergovernmental organizations (decision X/29 of the CBD COP10) Expert reviews have concluded that both approaches can be complementary i achieving effective sustainable management in the deep sea (Rice et al., 2014; Dun et al., 2014). +7.2 Protection of the marine environment in the Area +With regard to deep-sea mining the International Seabed Authority (ISA), establishe in 1994, is required to take the necessary measures ensure that the marin environment is protected from harmful effects from activities in the Area under it jurisdiction. Such measures may include assessing potential environmental impact of deep-sea activities (exploration and possible mining) and setting standards fo environmental data collection, establishment of environmental baselines, an monitoring programmes (ISA, 2000, 2007 2013). +7.3 Deep-ocean observatories-ocean networks +Deep-sea observatories are becoming increasingly important in monitoring deep-se ecosystems and the environmental changes that will affect them. The first long-ter and real-time deep-sea observatory was deployed in 1993 at a methane seep site a 1,174 m depth in Sagami Bay, Japan (JAMSTEC, Japan), and is still operating. Severa internationally organized projects have been initiated to achieve global integratio of deep-sea observatories (e.g., Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS, NSF); FixO (Fixed Point Open Ocean Observatories, European Union Framework Programme 7) largely based on existing observing networks (e.g., Porcupine Abyssal Plain in th North Atlantic, (NOC, UK), Hausgarten Site in the transition between the Nort Atlantic and the Arctic (AWI, Germany), Ocean Network Canada with the Neptun Observatory on Canada’s west coast) and aiming at achieving multidisciplinar integration, including physics, climate, biogeochemistry, biodiversity an ecosystems, geophysics with integration across sectors, and economics an sociology. Whilst moving towards a global strategy to obtain maximum efficiency one of the major goals of deep-sea observatory initiatives is to better understan and predict the effects of climate change on the linked ocean-atmosphere system and on marine ecosystems, biodiversity and community structure, In terms o biodiversity and ecosystems, several objectives need addressing: exploration an observation; prediction of future biological resources; understanding the functionin of deep-sea ecosystems; and understanding the roles of relationships betwee ecosystems and the services they provide. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Figure 1. Deep-sea habitats. Top left: coral garden in the Whittard Canyon, NE Atlantic at approx. 50 metres depth (2010; image courtesy of Jeroen Ingels); top right: A sea anemone, Boloceroide daphneae, on cobalt crust covering a seamount off Hawaii, 1000 metres depth (image courtesy o Chris Kelly, HURL); bottom left: An orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) aggregation at 890 metre depth near the summit of a small seamount (termed "Morgue") off the east coast of New Zealan (image courtesy of Malcolm Clark); bottom right: A reef-like coverage by stony corals (Solenosmili variabilis) together with prominent orange brisingid seastars on the summit of a small seamoun (termed "Ghoul") feature at 950 metres off the east coast of New Zealand (image courtesy o Malcolm Clark). +References +Angel, M.V. (1997). Pelagic Biodiversity. In: Ormond, R.F.G., Gage, J.D., an Angel, M.V., editors. Marine biodiversity: patterns and processes. 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Proceedings o the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105(5) 1556-1560. +Yasuhara, M., Hunt, G., Cronin, T.M., and Okahashi, H. (2009). Temporal latitudinal gradient dynamics and tropical instability of deep-sea species diversity Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States o America 106(51): 21717-21720. +© 2016 United Nations 3 + +Yasuhara, M., Hunt, G., Cronin, T.M., Hokanishi, N., Kawahata, H., Tsujimoto, A., an Ishitake, M., (2012a). Climatic forcing of Quaternary deep-sea benthi communities in the North Pacific Ocean. Paleobiology 38: 162-179. +Yasuhara, M., Hunt, G., van Dijken, G., Arrigo, K.R., Cronin, T.M., and Wollenburg, J.E. +(2012b). Patterns and controlling factors of species diversity in the Arcti Ocean. Journal of Biogeography 39: 2081-2088. +Yasuhara, M., Okahashi, H., Cronin, T.M., Rasmussen, T.L., and Hunt, G. (2014) Deep-sea biodiversity response to deglacial and Holocene abrupt climat changes in the North Atlantic Ocean. Global Ecology and Biogeography Doi:10.1111/geb.12178. +Yesson, C., Clark, M.R., Taylor, M., and Rogers, A.D. (2011). The global distribution o seamounts based on 30-second bathymetry data. Deep Sea Research |. 58 442-453. Doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.02.004. +Zeidberg, L.D., and Robison, B.H. (2007). Invasive range expansion by the Humbold squid, Dosidicus gigas, in the eastern North Pacific. Proceedings of the Nationa Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 12948-12950. +Zinger, L., Amaral-Zettler, L.A., Fuhrman, J.A., Horner-Devine, M.C., Huse, S.M. Welch, D.B.M, Martiny, J.B.H., Sogin, M., Boetius, A., and Ramette, A. (2011) Global patterns of bacterial beta-diversity in seafloor and seawate ecosystems. PLoS ONE 6(9): e24570. +© 2016 United Nations +3 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36F.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36F.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36G.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36G.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..a05a198197dfcd604db4624b16e9285f2d7bab79 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36G.txt @@ -0,0 +1,549 @@ +Chapter 36G. Arctic Ocean +Contributors: Lis Lindal Jorgensen, Philippe Archambault, Claire Armstrong Andrey Dolgov, Evan Edinger, Tony Gaston, Jon Hildebrand, Dieter Piepenburg Walker Smith, Cecilie von Quillfeldt, Michael Vecchione, Jake Rice (Lead member) +Referees: Arne Bjgrge, Charles Hannah. +1. Introduction +1.1 State +The Central Arctic Ocean and the marginal seas such as the Chukchi, East Siberian Laptev, Kara, White, Greenland, Beaufort, and Bering Seas, Baffin Bay and th Canadian Archipelago (Figure 1) are among the least-known basins and bodies o water in the world ocean, because of their remoteness, hostile weather, and th multi-year (i.e., perennial) or seasonal ice cover. Even the well-studied Barents an Norwegian Seas are partly ice covered during winter and information during thi period is sparse or lacking. The Arctic has warmed at twice the global rate, with sea ice loss accelerating (Figure 2, ACIA, 2004; Stroeve et al., 2012, Chapter 46 in thi report), especially along the coasts of Russia, Alaska, and the Canadian Archipelag (Post et al., 2013). Changes in ice cover, ocean warming, altered salt stratification alterations in water circulation and fronts, and shifts in advection patterns show tha oceans within the Arctic are subjected to significant change, and may face even mor change in future (Wassmann, 2011 and references within). The Central Arctic Ocea and the marginal seas are home to a diverse array of algae and animals, some iconi (e.g., polar bear), some obscure, and many yet to be discovered. Physica characteristics of the Arctic, important for structuring biodiversity, include extrem seasonality resulting in short growing seasons and annual to multi-annual ice cover The Central Arctic Ocean has a deep central basin (>4000 m depth) surrounded b the most extensive shelves of all the world’s oceans, and is characterized b extensive (albeit declining) ice cover for much of the year. This offers a vast numbe of different habitats created by the shape of the seabed, latitude, history o glaciations, proximity to the coastline and rivers, oceanic currents, and both th seabed and the ice as a substrate. Barriers for dispersal, such as the ice plug in th Canadian High Arctic, effectively separate stocks of some marine mammals (Dyke e al., 1996). Polynyas, which are open water areas surrounded by ice, provid important foraging and refuge areas and contribute to Arctic biodiversity Differences in ice cover, mixing between warm- and cold-water currents, or current with different nutrient content, create a mosaic of nutrient-poor areas which i reflected in species diversity (ABA, 2014, Figure 3). Despite this heterogeneity, th Arctic is less diverse than lower-latitude areas for several taxa, including mammal and birds, but equal to, or higher than those areas for bottom animals (Renaud et al. 2009; Piepenburg et al., 2011), marine crustaceans and phytoplankton (algae +© 2016 United Nation + +plankton) (Archambault et al., 2010). The marine areas in the Arctic support specie of algae, plankton, nekton, fish, benthos, mammals, and birds (see sections below but also thousands of species of fungi, endoparasites and microorganisms (Figure 3 see also ABA 2014 for more information). Due to mixing of sub-Arctic and Arcti fauna, the biodiversity is high in the vicinity of the Arctic Gateways of the Nort Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (ABA, 2014). The Red List of the International Union fo Conservation of Nature (IUCN) includes 13 Arctic or seasonal mammalian inhabitant and 21 Arctic or Arctic-breeding seabirds as threatened species (IUCN, 2012), an eight targeted fish stocks and five Arctic fish species are evaluated according to th IUCN red list criteria (Christiansen et al., 2014, http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical documents/categories-and-criteria). Humans in the Arctic lead lives based o traditional hunting, fishing and gathering of marine resources or commercial fishin and other economic and recreational activities. Along the coast and on islands, th marine environment plays a central role in food, housing, settlement patterns, an cultural practices and boundaries. +1.2 Trends and Pressures +Climatically, ecologically, culturally and economically, the Arctic is changing, wit implications throughout the region (ABA, 2014). Primary producers, such as sea-ic algae and sub-ice phytoplankton, have lost over 2 million km? of Arctic ice since th end of the last century (Figure 2, Kinnard et al., 2011), representing a loss of habitat The largest changes will take place in the northern sections of today’s seasonal ic zones, which will expand and eventually cover the entire Arctic Ocean while th multi-year ice will be declining (Wassmann, 2011). The seasonal timing of the ice algal bloom, driven by light penetration through thinning sea ice, is critical t reproduction of some zooplankton, and the subsequent algal bloom is critical for th survival of zooplankton offspring (Sgreide et al., 2010). The annual zoo- an phytoplanktonic pulses of productivity fuel the Arctic marine food web (Darnis et al. 2012) affecting zooplankton production and the Arctic cod that feed on them (Ji e al., 2013), as well as their seabird and marine mammalian predators (Post et al. 2013). It also affects the underlying benthic communities such as bivalves, crabs, se urchins, which are in turn key prey for seabottom feeding specialists, such as divin sea ducks, bearded seals, walrus, and gray whales (Grebmeier and Barry, 2007) Vertebrate species are also directly affected and walrus and polar bears are movin their habitats from the diminishing sea ice to land (Fischbach et al., 2009). Arcti warming and sea-ice loss will facilitate invasion by new species, hosts, harmfu microorganisms, and diseases (Post et al., 2013). +As sea ice retreats (see also chapter 46) and living commercial resources migrat northward, shipping (AMSA, 2009), fishing, petroleum activities, tourists, an consequently the risks of oil spills, noise, pollution and disturbances follow. Thes risks are often found where fish and marine mammals are abundant (AMSA llc 2013). Some of the largest populations of seabirds in the northern hemisphere ar intersected by major shipping routes. Boreal fish stocks may move into unexploite parts of the Arctic, depending on the sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the affecte species (Hollowed et al. 2013). New Arctic and sub-Arctic species have recently bee reported from the Canadian Beaufort Sea and harvested Atlantic species have +© 2016 United Nation + +moved poleward into Arctic Seas. These patterns likely represent both altere distributions resulting from climate change and previously occurring but unsample species. (Mueter et al., 2013). As targeted boreal stocks move into as ye unexploited parts of the seas, Arctic fish species turn up as unprecedented by-catc and could be vulnerable to large-scale industrial fisheries (Christiansen et al., 2014 ABA 2014). Bottom-dwelling fisheries harvest near the seabed and they reshap bottom morphology and impoverish, perturb and change the functional compositio of benthic communities (Puig et al., 2012). Cold-water coral, sponges and sea pens which form a more complex habitat, are protected species (Fuller et al. 2008, FA 2009) and areas potentially inhabited by these vulnerable taxonomic groups ar mainly found north of 802N in the Barents Sea, the Greenland Sea, and North o Greenland (Jg@rgensen et al, 2015; Jorgensen et al 2013; Boertmann and Mosbec 2011; Tendal et al 2013; Klitgaard and Tendal, 2004). Bans on industrial fisheries i the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas are currently in place in the US (http://alaskafisheries.noaa.gov), along with restrictions on new commercial fishin Operations in the Canadian Beaufort (http://news.gc.ca/web/article en.do?mthd=index&crtr.page=1&nid=894639) and "protected areas"@ (those region with reduced or strictly controlled fishing) are debated for the Arctic region (Barr and Price, 2012). Competition for use of marine space might increase in the Arctic together with increased demand for products from the sea (food, minerals recreation, etc). Climate-induced changes in the severity of storms and intensity o extreme events might pose challenges to the exploitation of resources in the Arctic Arctic oil and gas fields provide a substantial part of the world’s supply at present and many fields have yet to be developed. There might be a threat of oil spills an introduction of invasive species (AMAP, 2009). Contaminants are present i organisms at the base of the food web, and they accumulate from one level of th food web (trophic level) to the next (AMAP, 2011). In addition to coastal wav erosion and changes in wildlife movement patterns and cycles, managers also fac increases in ocean acidity due to increased CO, concentrations. The oceans withi the Arctic are especially vulnerable to ocean acidification and Arctic marin ecosystems are highly likely to undergo significant change due to ocean acidificatio (AMAP 2013). The suite of stressors experienced by species living in the Arctic toda is novel, making past periods of climate change an imperfect analogue for th challenges now facing biodiversity in the Arctic (ABA 2014). Global climate chang threatens to alter the population dynamics of many species for which rates o demographic change and estimates of population size are imprecise or lacking. Ther is an urgent need to continuously monitor their distribution and occurrence a significant changes occur in the ecosystem. At present, scientists are unable t provide valid answers to questions about safe and sustainable operations. Th availability of solid interdisciplinary baseline data is rare but crucial, and it is clea that ongoing and future changes can only be detected through long-term monitorin of key species, communities and processes, providing adequate seasonal coverage i key regions of the Arctic, utilizing new technologies, and making existing historica data accessible to the international research community. Up-to-date knowledge i needed and gaps in knowledge and key mechanisms driving change must b identified in order to secure Arctic biodiversity. +© 2016 United Nation + +jee CRT OTT nih +(CAnRGTA ATA, +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +BerinsSed +Calittl air: +Cr ISA SCITA hukehl Str) +Cee aed +1AnCnie Sed +Greentan nh +Norwegia Rta) +Bathymetric and topographic tint (Meters above and belo Mean Sea Level) +Figure 1. The deep Central Arctic Ocean and the marginal seas such as the Chukchi, East Siberian, +Laptev, Kara, White, Greenland, Beaufort, Barents, Norwegian and Bering Seas, Baffin Bay and th Canadian Archipelago. Blue arrows show freshwater inflow, red arrows water circulation. (adapte from CAFF 2013, Arctic Biodiversity Assessment, figure 14.1). +© 2016 United Nation + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Sea ice acts as an air conditioner for the planet, reflecting energy from the Sun. O September 17, the Arctic Sea ice reached its minimum extent for 2014 — at 1.94 million square mile (5.02 million square kilometres) the sixth lowest extent of the satellite record. With warme temperatures and thinner, less resilient ice, the Arctic sea ice is on a downward trend. The red line i the still image indicates the average ice extent over the 30 year period between 1981 and 2011 NASA/Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio, 2014. Printed with permission from NASA’s Eart Science News Team patrick.lynch@nasa.gov. +© 2016 United Nation + +0-11 >110-27 >270-52 >520-89 >890-140 >1400-220 >2200-350 >3500-530 >5300-800 >8000-12000 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. Pan-Arctic map showing the number of marine species from the OBIS database in a gridde view of hexagonal cells (OBIS, 2015). +2. Primary producers +General information on primary producers +Primary producers (algae) in Arctic marine waters are dominated by small, solitar photosynthetic cells containing different types of pigments, and reproducing by th formation of spores and gametes (Daniéls et al., 2013). They consist of numerou heterogeneous and evolutionarily different groups (Adl et al., 2012) and include bot single-celled organisms (microalgae) and multicellular organisms (macroalgae). I addition, the prokaryotic Cyanobacteria also occur throughout the ocean Microalgae occur as solitary cells or form colonies with different shape an structure. The size varies between 0.2 and 200 um, a few up to 400 pm (pico: < 2um nano: 2-20 um, micro: 20-200 um). Macroalgae are seaweeds that are visible to th naked eye, take a wide range of forms, and range from simple crusts, foliose an filamentous forms with simple branching structures, to more complex forms wit highly specialized structures for light capture, reproduction, support, flotation, and +© 2016 United Nation + +attachment (Diaz-Pulido and McCook, 2008). +2.1 Introduction +Arctic microalgae can be divided by function (e.g., ice algae and phytoplankton) Phytoplankton live suspended in the upper layer of the water column, but ice alga live attached to ice crystals, in the interstitial water between crystals, or associate with the under-surface of the ice (Horner et al., 1988). +2.2 Status +The study of phytoplankton, ice algae and macroalgae of Arctic seas dates back mor than one hundred years (e.g., Ehrenberg, 1841; Cleve, 1873; Kjellmann, 1883 Rosenvinge, 1898). Early studies concentrated on diversity and on temporal change in species composition or distribution relative to oceanographic structure, and wer of local or regional character. Poulin et al. (2010) reported 2,016 taxa with 1,87 phytoplankton and 1,027 sympagic (ice algae) taxa in Arctic waters. Daniéls et al (2013) concluded that few biodiversity assessments of benthic microalgae exis across the Arctic, but estimate ca. 215 seaweed species. Most of the algal species i the Arctic are cold water or temperate species, although some are distribute globally and a few are warm water species (Hasle and Syvertsen, 1996; vo Quillfeldt, 1996). The species composition in different Arctic areas is ofte comparable, which is likely to be due to advection (horizontal transportation) of cell by the currents in the Arctic (Carmack and Swift, 1990; Abelmann, 1992). Difference occur on a smaller scale, often as a result of local environmental conditions (Cota e al., 1991; von Quillfeldt, 2000). Prominent forcing factors on species diversity in th Arctic include the extreme seasonality of light, combined with sea-ice distributio (Bluhm et al., 2011), but the result (increase/decrease) depends on season an locality. However, a suite of environmental variables (e.g., nutrients, light, wate stratification, salinity, temperature) determines abundance, biomass and taxonomi composition over time (Poulin et al., 2010). Many species have a wide environmenta tolerance (Degerlund and Eilertsen, 2009). +The composition of the phytoplankton varies seasonally (von Quillfeldt, 2000; Lovejo et al., 2002; Ratkova and Wassmann, 2002; Wassmann et al., 2006; Sukhanova et al. 2009). Most species can be characterized as winter, spring, summer or autumn species but a few are seasonally independent. Several decades ago, few Arctic areas had bee sampled during winter, but the importance of flagellates during winter had bee suggested (Schandelmeier and Alexander, 1981; Horner and Schrader, 1982; Rey 1986). Recently the importance of extremely small (< 20 um) forms in Arctic water throughout the year has been confirmed (e.g., Vors, 1993; Lovejoy and Potvin, 2011 Niemi et al., 2011; Sorensen et al., 2012; Terrado et al., 2012; Kilias et al., 2013). +Ice communities are widespread throughout the Arctic (e.g., Apollonio, 1965 Meguro et al., 1967; Grainger, 1977; Hsiao, 1980; Horner et al.,1988, Horner e al.,1992, Syvertsen 1991), but the different types of communities are characterize by specific species (von Quillfeldt, 1997; Gradinger, 1999; Melnikov et al.. 2002 Zheng et al., 2011). Solitary diatoms (a type of microalga) are common in interstitial +© 2016 United Nation + +communities or sometimes in older ice, whereas the majority of colonial algae except for Melosira arctica, are most common in sub-ice communities of one-year old ice and in more offshore areas (Dunbar and Acreman, 1980; De Séve and Dunbar 1990; von Quillfeldt, 1996; von Quillfeldt et al., 2003). Irradiance is the mos important factor in determining abundance of ice algae. Snow depth and ic thickness control light in sea ice and thereby algal abundance, as does the ic structure (Gosselin et al., 1997; Robineau et al., 1997; Krembs et al., 2000). Ice alga are distributed throughout the ice during winter and become concentrated at th bottom in spring as a result of brine drainage and active migration of cells throug brine channels (Hsiao, 1980; Horner, 1985). Furthermore, a south-north spatia gradient similar to the seasonally dependent gradient in the species composition i often observed. The oldest and most specialized ice community occurs in the fa north (Syvertsen, 1991). +Luning (1990) divided Arctic seaweeds into flora with a distinct vegetation structure many species are distributed throughout the Arctic, and a few are found only withi the Arctic Basin. Macroalgal (multi celled algae attached to the seabed) diversit decreases with increasing latitude and from the Atlantic to the Pacific secto (Pedersen, 2011). Temperature is a primary factor in macroalgal distribution (LUning 1990). Wulff et al. (2011) emphasized that macroalgae can be of either Atlantic o Pacific origin, but more macroalgae are of Pacific origin than previously thought Substratum characteristics are important for the distribution of benthic alga (Zacher et al., 2011.) Along the Russian Arctic coast are areas where a sof substratum prevails and macroalgae are absent (Lining, 1990). Areas exposed t mechanical effects of sea ice or icebergs will also be devoid of macroalgae (Gutt 2001; Wulff et al., 2011). The Arctic is also strongly affected by marked changes i surface salinity due to melting of sea ice and freshwater input from rivers. Thus macroalgae must be able to withstand large variations in salinity over the year Fricke et al. (2008) described the succession of macroalgal communities in the Arcti and the effect of disturbances on communities of different ages and their change with depth. +2.3 Trends +Daniéls et al. (2013) comment that it is difficult to estimate trends in Arcti phytoplankton, sea-ice algae and benthic algae due to the relatively poor knowledg of algal distributions prior to the period of rapid environmental changes. Baselin data are generally lacking, and it is challenging to distinguish between natura variations and changes in assemblages due to anthropogenic modification. The hig variability in the number of single-celled algae across the Arctic can be related t sampling effort in time and space, rather than actual differences, and a strong bia towards large cells (Poulin et al., 2010) and sampling in coastal areas has bee observed. Knowledge of the biodiversity improved recently as a result of improve sampling techniques, advanced microscopic and molecular methods, electroni databases and gene libraries, and increased international cooperation (Daniéls et al. 2013), as well as increased sampling in the central basins (e.g., Melnikov, 1997 Katsuki et al., 2009; Joo et al., 2012; Tonkes, 2012). +© 2016 United Nation + +Some surveys indicate that climate-mediated changes appear to be occurring, bu geographical differences are also found. For example, less sea ice and an increase i atmospheric low-pressure systems that generate stronger winds (and deeper mixing o the upper ocean), as well as a warming and freshening of the surface layer are likel to favour smaller species (Sakshaug, 2004; Li et al., 2009; Tremblay et al., 2012) However, Terrado et al. (2012) found that some small-celled phytoplankton specie were specifically adapted to colder waters, and are likely to be vulnerable to ongoin effects of surface-layer warming. Altered discharge rates of rivers and accompanyin changes of composition will also affect the composition of the phytoplankto (Kraberg et al., 2013). Emiliania huxleyi, a prymnesiophyte, has become increasingl important: blooms of this species have occurred in the Atlantic, presumably related t changing climate conditions (Sagen and Dalpadado, 2004; Hegseth and Sundfjord 2008). The reappearance of the North Pacific planktotic diatom Neodenticula semina may also be a consequence of regional climate warming (Poulin et al., 2010). Harriso et al. (2013) predict that northward movement of Atlantic waters will replace cold water phytoplankton with temperate species and shift transition zones farthe north. Increased amounts of annual sea ice relative to multi-year ice will influenc ice-algal composition (Poulin et al., 2010). Warming could alter benthic alga distribution and favour invasion by temperate species (Campana et al., 2009) Models suggest that some macroalgal species will shift northwards and that th geographic changes will be most pronounced in the southern Arctic and th southern temperate provinces (Jueterbock et al., 2013). Reduced sea-ice cover an retreating glaciers will continue to alter light, salinity, sedimentation and disturbanc processes (Campana et al., 2009). +3. Zooplankton +General information on zooplankton +Plankton are animals drifting in the sea. Many are microscopic, but some (such a jellyfish, medusa and comb jellies) are visible with the naked eye. Multicellula zooplankton, such as the copepods are called the ocean’s “grass and grazers”. I addition to copepods, amphipods, another group of small crustaceans are important Larvaceans are solitary, free-swimming tunicates and live in the pelagic zone. The are transparent, planktonic animals with a tail. Chaetognaths (arrow worms) ar transparent dart-shaped animals, while pteropod molluscs are pelagic snails. +3.1 Status +The zooplankton community structure in coastal and continental shelf waters of th Arctic is largely controlled by proximity to rivers and the areas of influx from the +© 2016 United Nations + +Atlantic and Pacific. This community has been studied in a few restricted areas (e.g. Walkusz et al., 2010), but it has not been comprehensively reviewed. Many specie known from the Atlantic and Pacific and reported from the neritic (shallow marin environment extending from mean low water down to 200m depths) Arctic ar found only as advanced developmental stages, and therefore probably are non reproductive expatriates. However, evidence is increasing that some North Atlanti species are reproducing in the polar Arctic. +Kosobokova et al. (2011) recently reviewed what is known about multicellula zooplankton in the central Arctic based largely on depth-stratified net collection from multiple projects during 1975-2007. They reported 174 oceanic species, o which 70 per cent were crustaceans. Although large copepods are very important i this assemblage, including Calanus species (Copepod) typical of the North Atlantic, a well as Arctic endemics (prevalent in or limited to a particular region), th abundance of this fauna is strongly dominated by small copepods. In addition t copepods, amphipods are important crustaceans, again including Arctic endemics, a well as Atlantic species; other important taxonomic groups include larvacean (pelagic tunicates), chaetognaths (arrow worms), and pteropod molluscs (pelagi snails) (Gradinger et al., 2010). Relative to the westerlies and trade-wind regions polar systems are relatively enriched with copepods and pteropods, and reduced i species with jelly-like bodies (Longhurst, 2007). +Despite “Thorson’s Rule” that the proportion of species with planktonic larva decreases at high latitudes, many benthic invertebrates of the Arctic, North Atlantic and North Pacific develop through planktonic stages. These species contribut seasonally to the diversity of the endemic assemblage, as well as to the many non native species carried by currents into the Arctic from the Atlantic and Pacifi Oceans, at times reaching abundances similar to those of the holoplankton (Hopcrof et al., 2010). +Vertical stratification of the zooplankton community in the central Arctic basins i strongly influenced by water-mass distribution and advective input of low-salinit surface water and layering of Pacific and Atlantic intrusions at mid-depths. Wherea the surface waters and waters below the surface layer are considered to be “well characterized” (Gradinger et al., 2010), the large percentage of species in the ver deep waters of the bathypelagic (i.e, open waters >1000 m depth) zone that ar either new to science or previously unknown from the Arctic indicate that muc remains to be learned about the truly deep pelagic fauna. The evidence to dat indicates that little difference among the deep basins exists in the bathypelagi (depth generally between 1000-4000 m) zooplankton. +In-situ observations by remotely operated vehicles, as well as net collections, hav shown that gelatinous megaplankton can be important in the central Arctic (Raskof et al., 2010). This assemblage is dominated by “true” jellyfishes (medusae) an other, similar forms. Similarly to the net-collected mesozooplankton (planktoni animals in the size range 0.2-20 mm), the vertical structure of this assemblage i strongly associated with the vertical distribution of water masses. The overal abundance of gelatinous megaplankton, especially medusae, decreased dramaticall over shallow slope, ridge and plateau areas relative to that found in the centra basin, whereas the abundance of ctenophores (comb jellies), which are typically +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +present in the surface layer, remained high in these shallower areas (Raskoff et al. 2010). +In addition to water-mass dynamics, vertical distribution of zooplankton is strongl linked to the penetration of solar radiation and the availability of food. Although th seasonal irradiance signal is extreme in the Arctic, diel variability exists and may ac as a physiological cue for diel vertical migration (Rabindranath et al., 2011) However, the major irradiance patterns in the Arctic are seasonal, with continuou darkness in winter and 24-h photoperiods in summer. In winter, many species resid deeper in the water column for a diapause, or resting, phase in their life cycle Winter diapause is not universal; some species are reproductively active under th winter ice (Hirche and Kosobokova, 2011). Additional variability in summer result from breakup of sea ice. When present, ice cover strongly limits irradianc penetration and the seasonal melt further controls both the phytoplankton bloo and the release of ice algae, important factors for the timing of zooplankton life cycle events and their vertical distribution. In deeper water the vertical linkag between phytoplankton and zooplankton becomes progressively weaker (Longhurs and Harrison, 1989). +Kosobokova et al. (2011) categorized 6 per cent of Arctic zooplankton species as ice associated (“cryopelagic’). Gradinger et al. (2010) listed 39 invertebrate species a being ice-associated, although the division between cryopelagic and cryobenthic (o sympagic) is not clear. The association between the animals and the sea ice can b based on physical substrate or on the food web based on ice algae (Hop et al., 2011) Furthermore, the association may extend throughout the life cycle or just include portion (e.g., dependence of a larval copepod stage on ice algae). +Where polynyas maintain open-water conditions in areas surrounded by solid ic cover, the zooplankton community is more similar to the open-water communit rather than that found under ice. The pelagic food web of the polynya contributes t transfer of resources to the benthos (Deibel and Daly, 2007). +3.2 Trends and pressures +Limited long-term comparisons within the central Arctic indicate that specie inventories, other than newly discovered species, seem to be unchanged. Wherea Pacific species on the shelves are probably non-reproducing populations transporte from native waters of the North Pacific, at least some species typical of the Atlanti are found on Arctic shelves and seem to be reproducing successfully. Recen evidence (e.g., Kraft et al., 2013) indicates increasing reproductive success of Atlanti species. Therefore although the diversity inventory has not changed, physiologica effects related to climate change appear to be shifting functions in the ecosystem This “Atlantification” could have several possible results affecting the pelagic foo web and transfer of energy to the benthos, in addition to the structure of th zooplankton community. Examples of such possible effects include differences i lipid-storage dynamics and timing of zooplankton reproduction relative to blooms o primary producers failing to provide adequate food to Arctic predators o zooplankton and changes in the production of “marine snow” (including faecal +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +pellets, moults, discarded mucus-feeding structures), which is important fo transport of surface productivity necessary to feed the deep benthic communities. +3.3 Climate Change and Oceanographic Drivers Affecting Zooplankton. +Climate-induced changes in the timing and extent of sea-ice melt and breakup coul have far-reaching effects on zooplankton structure and function within the pelagi food web, including coupling with the benthos and air-breathing vertebrates. Th end of dormancy and initiation of feeding for lipid storage to fuel reproduction in th large Arctic copepods is linked to the ice-edge bloom. Because lipid dynamics diffe in North Atlantic congeners, the “Atlantification” of the Arctic may be favoured b early and extensive breakup of the ice. The Atlantic species, which do not build u lipid reserves extensively prior to spawning, as do the Arctic endemics, may no provide adequate food for predators. +Increased ultra-violet (UV) radiation may have extensive effects on epipelagi species. This UV radiation can have substantial impacts on all plankton and can b lethal for zooplankton, especially eggs. Acidification can have a variety of effects especially on species for which calcification is important, either for formation o exoskeletons (e.g., molluscs and crustaceans) or of sensory organs (e.g., otoliths o fish larvae and statoliths of cephalopods). Particular sensitivity can be expected i the abundant pteropod (swimming snail) species Limacina helicina, in which th aragonitic shell is even more vulnerable to dissolution than are calcite structure (see ocean acidification in chapter 5). Climate change impacts in the Arctic ar expected to be significant and to be expressed earlier than in other oceanic realm due to the modification of the ice cover currently being observed (Stammerjohn e al., 2012). +4. Benthos +General information on the Benthos +The benthos, an important component of the ocean system, is the scientific term fo the community of organisms that inhabit the seabed, ranging from the tidal coasta zone to the abyssal depths of the deep sea. The seabed environment includes a grea variety of physically diverse habitats that differ from each other in terms of dept (intertidal to abyssal), temperature, light availability, and type of substratu (ranging from hard through soft, muddy bottoms). It encompasses organisms from wide variety of taxa, sizes, life forms and ecological niches. Benthic animals seaweeds (phytobenthos, incl. microalgae, macroalgae, seagrass), bacteria an protists (microbenthos), account for 98 per cent of the marine biodiversity in term of species; the remaining 2 per cent are pelagic. Furthermore, some benthic faun live in the sediment (endobenthos or infauna), attached to the seafloor (epibentho or epifauna) or living above it (suprabenthos). Hyperbenthic (or suprabenthic animals do not live directly on or in the seabed but very close above the seafloor in +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +the near-bottom part of the water column. The benthic fauna are typically classifie into size categories. Microbenthic organisms are bacteria and protists smaller tha 0.1 mm. Meiobenthos consists of tiny benthic organisms that are less than 0.5 m but greater than 0.1 mm in size, mostly inhabiting the interstitial space between th sediment grains. By far the best-studied is the macrobenthos, encompassing form larger than 0.5 mm that are visible to the naked eye, mostly polychaete worms bivalves, crustaceans, anthozoans, echinoderms, sponges, and ascidians. Finally, th term megabenthos has been operationally defined as including large, often mobil benthic animals, mostly fish and crustaceans that are big enough to be visible i seabed images or to be caught by towed sampling gear. +4.1 Status +The current knowledge on the biodiversity of the benthic fauna in coastal, shelf an deep-sea regions has been summarized in three papers (Weslawski et al., 2011 Piepenburg et al., 2011; Bluhm et al., 2011a). These large-scale studies wer conducted as contributions to the Arctic Ocean Diversity (ArcOD) projec (http://www.arcodiv.org; Bluhm et al., 2011b), which in turn was part of the Censu of Marine Life (http://www.coml.org; Snelgrove, 2010) and the International Pola Year 2007/2008. It aimed at coordinating research efforts examining the diversity i each of the three major realms (sea ice, water column, and sea floor) of Arcti marine ecosystems to consolidate what is known and fill gaps in our knowledge. +4.2 Coasts +Weslaswski et al. (2011) reviewed the pattern of occurrence and recent changes i the distribution of macrobenthic organisms in fjords and coastal (nearshore) Arcti waters. In addition, likely future changes were hypothesized. The biodiversit patterns observed were demonstrated to differ among regions and habitat types The North Atlantic Current along Scandinavia to Svalbard and the Bering Strait wa shown to be a major area of biotic advection, where larvae and adult invertebrate are transported from the sub-Arctic areas to Arctic areas. There, increase temperature associated with increased advection in recent decades has favoured th immigration of more boreal-sub Arctic species, increasing the local biodiversity whe local cold-water species may be suppressed. On the opposite side, in the Canadia Archipelago, the Nares Strait (between Greenland and Ellesmere Island), Lancaste Sound, Barrow Strait and M’Clure Strait are conduits for cold Arctic water flowing t the North Atlantic. Other large coastal areas, such as the Siberian shores, wer shown to be little influenced by advected waters. +4.3 Shelf seas (30 to 500 m) +The knowledge of Arctic shelf seas has increased in the past decade, but benthi diversity was investigated at regional scales only. Piepenburg et al. (2011) presente a first pan-Arctic account of the species diversity of the macro- and megabenthi fauna inhabiting Arctic shelves. It was based on an analysis of 25 published and +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +unpublished species-level data sets, together encompassing 14 of the 19 marin Arctic shelf regions and comprising 2,636 species, including 847 Arthropoda, 66 Annelida (669 if we include the new species described by Olivier et al., 2013), 39 Mollusca, 228 Echinodermata, and 501 species of other phyla. Furthermore, gros estimates of the expected species numbers of the major four phyla were compute on a regional scale. Some areas, such as the Canadian Archipelagos, we have no compiled because of the lack of data. Extrapolating to the entire fauna and stud area leads to a conservative estimate: 3,900-4,700 macro- and megabenthic specie can be expected to occur on the Arctic shelves. These numbers are smaller tha analogous estimates for the Antarctic shelf, but the difference is on the order o about two and thus is less pronounced than previously assumed. On a global scale the Arctic shelves are apparently characterized by intermediate numbers of macro and megabenthic species. This preliminary pan-Arctic inventory provided an urgentl needed assessment of current diversity patterns that will be used by futur investigations for evaluating the effects of climate change and anthropogeni activities in the Arctic. +4.4 Central Arctic Ocean +Bluhm et al. (2011a) compiled a benthic species inventory of 1,125 taxa from variou sources for the central Arctic deeper than 500 m, and bounded towards the Atlanti by the Fram Strait. An additional 115 taxa were added from the Greenland—Iceland Norwegian Seas (GIN). The inventory was dominated by taxa of Arthropoda (366) Foraminifera (197), Annelida (194), and Nematoda (140). A large overlap in taxa wit Arctic shelf species supported previous findings that part of the deep-sea faun originates from shelf species. Macrofaunal abundance, meiofaunal abundance an macrofaunal biomass decreased significantly with water depth. Species evennes increased with depth and latitude. No mid-depth peak in species richness wa observed. Multivariate analysis of the Eurasian, Amerasian and GIN Seas polychaet occurrences revealed a strong Atlantic influence, the absence of modern Pacifi fauna, and the lack of a barrier effect by mid-Arctic ridges. Regional differences ar apparently moderate on the species level and minor on the family level, althoug the analysis was confounded by a lack of methodological standardization an inconsistent taxonomic resolution. Bluhm et al. (2011a) concluded that mor consistent methods to observe temporal trends should be used in future efforts t help fill the largest sampling gaps (e.g., eastern Canada Basin, depths >3,000 m megafauna). This is necessary to be able to adequately address how ocean warming and the shrinking of the perennial ice cover, will alter deep-sea communities. Th findings of Boetius et al. (2013) indicated that the benthic-pelagic coupling is mor intense in the Arctic deep sea than expected and suggested strong alteration of thi area in the future. +4.5 Trends and pressures +In a recent manuscript, Wassmann et al. (2011) reviewed the evidence reported i the scientific literature as of mid-2009 on whether — and how - climate change ha already caused clearly discernible changes in marine Arctic ecosystems. In general, +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +they found that most reports concerned marine mammals, particularly polar bears and fish, whereas the number of well-documented changes in planktonic an benthic systems was surprisingly low. Quantitative data on abundance an distribution are still generally lacking, and particularly few footprints of climat change have been reported from particularly remote and difficult-to-access regions such as the wide Siberian shelf and the central Arctic Ocean, due to the limite research effort made in these environments. Wassmann et al. (2011) concluded tha despite the alarming nature of climate change and its strong potential effects in th Arctic Ocean, the amount of reliable data on — as well as the research effor evaluating — the impacts of climate change in this region is rather limited. However during a 30-year period (1980-2010), featuring a gradually increasing seawate temperature and decreasing sea-ice cover in Svalbard, Kortsch et al. (2012 documented rapid and extensive structural changes in the rocky-botto communities of two Arctic fjords. They observed a reorganization of the benthi communities, led by an abrupt increase in macroalgal cover. +Because data on the effects of climate change on Arctic benthic fauna are limited, i is not yet possible to make sound predictions on trends and pressures on quantitative level. However, some reports exist on general trends related to climate change effects. Based on the available evidence of recent and on-going changes i Arctic systems, Wassmann et al. (2011) forecast that the ecological responses t climate change will encompass range shifts and changes in abundance growth/condition, behaviour/phenology, as well as community/regime shifts, all o which will inevitably have a strong influence on regional and temporal patterns i diversity. In their attempt to predict possible changes in the diversity patterns o coastal benthic fauna in response to climate change, Weslawski et al. (2011 hypothesized that, in areas that are little influenced by advected waters, such as th Siberian shores and the coasts of the Canadian Archipelago, the local Arcti communities are exposed to increasing ocean temperature, decreasing salinity and reduction in ice cover, with unpredictable effects on biodiversity. On the one hand benthic species in Arctic fjords are exposed to increasing siltation from glacia meltwater and to decreasing salinities, which together may lead to habita homogeneization and a subsequent decrease in biodiversity. On the other hand, th innermost basins of Arctic fjords are able to maintain pockets of very cold, dense saline water and thus may act as refugia for cold-water species. +Furthermore, all the current and anticipated climate-related changes in the Arcti are accompanied by an increase of anthropogenic activities, such as fisheries. Thes are known to impact marine ecosystems worldwide and have become an importan environmental issue (Pauly et al. 1998; Link et al. 2010; Zhou et al. 2010). Particularl bottom trawling is assumed to be one of the most destructive fishing methods causing severe damage to seafloor structure and benthic communities due to th passage of fishing gears and frequent by-catch (Jones 1992; Tillin et al. 2006 Thurstan et al. 2010). Using trawls is only feasible in largely ice-free areas, which ar becoming more abundant. Trawling has recurrently been demonstrated to severel modify benthic communities (Watling and Norse 1998; Collie et al. 2000) and fis habitats (Auster 1998; Kaiser et al.,1999, Collie et al. 2000; Lindholm et al.,2001 Thrush et al., 2002; Moritz et al., 2015), primarily because of the reduction of +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +bottom complexity through the smoothening of sediments and removal of biogeni structures (Collie et al., 1997; Collie et al., 2000; Thrush et al., 1995; Thrush et al. 1998; Hall-Spencer and Moore, 2000). A number of field studies (Auster et al., 1995 Tupper and Boutillier, 1995a; Tupper and Boutillier, 1995b; Kaiser et al., 1999 Lindholm et al., 1999; Anderson and Gregory, 2000; Linehan, 2001; Stoner an Titgen, 2003) have related habitat complexity to survival of juvenile fishes. Cold water corals, sponges and sea pens form biogenic structures that provide comple habitats for a diverse associated fauna. Although they are protected marine specie (Fuller et al., 2008; FAO 2009), they are most vulnerable to the first passing of trawls Areas protected from bottom trawling due to ice cover, thus remaining pristine an potentially inhabited by these vulnerable taxonomic groups, are mainly found nort of 802 N in the Barents Sea, the Greenland Sea, and off northern Greenlan (Jorgensen et al, accepted; Jorgensen et al., 2013; Boertmann and Mosbech, 2011 Tendal et al., 2013; Klitgaard and Tendal, 2004). Exploratory trawling fisheries will b carried out in a number of areas of the Canadian Arctic, such as Hudson Strait an northern Hudson Bay. Furthermore, there are shrimp pot fisheries, which are les damaging to benthic habitats, in Baffin Bay. There are currently no commercia fisheries in the Beaufort Sea. The United States has adopted a precautionar approach and placed a moratorium on fishing in the United States EEZ of the Arcti Ocean until further scientific information is available (Wilson and Ormseth, 2009). similar strategy was recently adopted in the western Canadian Arctic with the signin of the Beaufort Sea Integrated Fisheries Management Framewor (http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=894639), which outlines an agreemen between the Government of Canada and Inuvialuit to co-manage marine mamma and fish resources in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. +5. Nekton (including demersal and holopelagic vertebrates and invertebrates) +General information on the Nekton +The nekton includes the bony fishes and the cartilaginous fishes (sharks and skate) Demersal fish species live and feed on or near the bottom, while pelagic fish live i open water. Brackish areas are usually inhabited by freshwater and anadromou fishes (whitefish, char, etc.). Cephalopod (a molluscan group consisting of, fo example, octopus, squid, and cuttlefish) and shrimp species are also part of th nekton. +5.1 Status +Arctic fishes include two main groups — typically marine species which are confine to the marine environment, and anadromous species (fish migrating from salt wate to spawn in fresh water such as salmonids and coregonids) which occur i freshwater and coastal areas, such as bays, inlets and estuaries, ascending rivers +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +from the sea for breeding. Depending on how widely the Arctic region is defined total fish diversity ranges from 242 to 633 marine fish species (from 106 families and 18-49 freshwater species that occur in marine/brackish waters (Chernova, 2011 Mecklenburg et al., 2011; Christiansen et al., 2013). Marine species comprise 88-9 per cent of total fish diversity. Species numbers in the Arctic are rather low, for bot marine and freshwater species compared to the total number of fish species globall (approximately 16 and 12 thousand, respectively); 92 per cent of Arctic species ar bony fishes; cartilaginous fishes (sharks and skate) comprise only 8 per cent. Mos Arctic species are teleost (fishes with bony skeletons) fishes (92 per cent) cartilaginous (having a skeleton composed either entirely or mainly of cartilage fishes (sharks and skates) comprise only 8 per cent (Lynghammar et al., 2013). +Fish diversity declines from the Arctic gateway regions near the Atlantic and Pacifi Oceans, such as the Norwegian and Barents Seas (Atlantic) and Bering and Chukch Seas (Pacific) to the farthest and most strictly Arctic seas. This diversity gradient i driven primarily by the presence of many boreal species in the Arctic gateway seas such species cannot reproduce under the consistently colder conditions of the hig Arctic. This spatial pattern holds in both the Eurasian and North American shelf sea (Karamushko, 2012; Christensen and Reist, 2013; Coad and Reist, 2004). +From a zoogeographic point of view, only 10.6 per cent of the bony fishes ar considered as being strictly Arctic, and able to reproduce in waters below 0°C whereas 72.2 per cent are boreal or Arctic-boreal species. Demersal fish specie prevail in the group of strictly Arctic species (which includes 64 species or 14 pe cent of the global marine fish fauna) (Chernova, 2011; Christensen and Reist, 2013). +Species composition and structure of fish communities vary in different depth zone and regions. Coastal brackish areas are usually inhabited by freshwater an anadromous fishes (whitefish, char, etc.). Fjords provide important habitats fo fishes in some areas of the Arctic Seas, particularly along steep, bedrock-dominate coasts, such as are found in Greenland, Spitsbergen/Svalbard, Northern Norway, an the eastern parts of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Fjord fish faunas tend to b dominated numerically by the cryopelagic (of cold, deep oceanic waters) specie (polar cod, Arctic cod), and by anadromous species. Fjord fish faunas include a wid cross-section of Arctic bottom-living (demersal) fishes (Christiansen et al., 2012) including diverse sculpins (Cottidae) and eelpouts (Zoarcidae) on sills and along fjor walls, as found in rocky areas of the continental shelves, and flatfish (Pleuronectidae on sand and mud bottoms in fjord basins (Haedrich and Gagnon, 1991). +Fish communities of shelf seas are composed of common abundant pelagic (herring capelin, polar cod, etc.) and demersal (gadoids, flatfish, sculpins, eelpouts, etc. fishes. +Fish species composition in deeper waters in the Arctic Basin, as well as in man parts of the outer shelf regions, remains poorly investigated. Species richness i lower compared to coastal areas and especially shelf seas; the most abundant fishe are cryopelagic (e.g., polar cod, Arctic cod) (Andriashev et al., 1980; Melnikov an Chernova, 2013) or deepwater (e.g., snailfish) (Tsinovsky and Melnikov, 1980) fish Cryopelagic species, which are ecologically dependent on sea ice, including th circumpolar polar cod Boreogadus and the ice cod Arctogadus, are important prey +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +species for many larger fish and marine mammals. Although the most abundan species are widely distributed in the Arctic and adjacent waters, the demersal faun of the Arctic pseudo-abyss (the zone from 200 to 500-1,000 m in different parts o the ocean; characterized by a mixture of fauna) is represented mainly by endemi species (Chernova, 2011). +Commercial fisheries in the Arctic are located mainly in shelf seas where borea species dominate. The most important areas are the Norwegian and Barents Sea i the Northeast Atlantic, Baffin Bay in the Northwest Atlantic, and in the Bering Sea i Pacific (Christiansen et al., 2014). In total 59 stocks are target species and 60 stock are by-catch species taken by fisheries in Arctic and sub-Arctic areas. Most of th targeted species (50) are boreal species, six species are Arcto-boreal and thre species are Arctic. The dominant families exploited in fisheries are herrin (Clupeidae), capelin (Osmeridae), cod (Gadidae), flatfish (Pleuronectidae), an rockfish (called redfish in the Atlantic, Scorpaenidae). Wolf-fish (Anarhichadidae, a endemic Holarctic marine family) and grenadiers (Macrouridae) are important targe species in the Eurasian Arctic, but in North America the effects of fisheries on thes fish are dominantly through bycatch. High-latitude species in both families ar considered to be endangered (Kearley, 2012). The landlocked Atlantic cod (Gadu morhua), found in meromictic (stratified lakes that consist of two layers that do no completely mix) Arctic lakes (Hardie and Hutchings, 2011), is considered to be o special concern. +The diversity of invertebrate nekton is much less than that of the fish, although som species are important prey for high-level predators (Gardiner and Dick, 2010). Non are cryopelagic or estuarine, although some may be found in fjords. Nesis (2001 considered only seven cephalopod (a molluscan group consisting of, for example octopus, squid, and cuttlefish) species to be resident in the Arctic. Although Arcti records of many other cephalopod species were added by Gardiner and Dick (2010 and Golikov et al. (2012), the only species that may be Arctic endemics are poorl known benthic octopods in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. Even fewer shrimp specie are known from the Arctic and almost all have been reported from the Nort Atlantic, North Pacific, or both. One species, Hymenodora glacialis, is a majo component of the pelagic biomass in the deep basins (Auel and Hagen, 2002). +5.2 Trends and pressures +Fisheries affect mainly the traditional marine target fish in the shelf seas located i the narrow Arctic to boreal regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (e.g., th Barents Sea and Bering Sea), and their effects are generally lower in other seas (e.g. the Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea). But with further warming, fisheries areas ar expected to shift into previously unfished Arctic regions where they will affec strictly Arctic fish communities (Christiansen et al., 2014). In coastal areas a fe species, predominantly freshwater and anadromous, are harvested by indigenou peoples, but these catches are generally much lower than those of commercia fisheries. Furthermore, fisheries for anadromous species rarely involve mobile gear which poses the greatest risk of causing extensive habitat damage in previously +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +unfished areas if used in ways that contact habitat features (e.g., Anderson an Clarke, 2003; Rice et al., 2006). +Under continuous ocean warming conditions, shifts of native species and ne appearances of warm-water species may result in changes to fish communit structure and subsequently to trophic pathways, depending on the sensitivity an adaptive capacity of the affected species (Hollowed et al. 2013). Higher wate temperatures may cause an increase in the abundance and proportion of borea species in the Arctic community. The deep Central Basin will probably be affecte less than the shallower shelf seas of the Arctic, as most abundant boreal species ar demersal or neritic (the relatively shallow part of the ocean above the drop-off o the continental shelf, approximately 200 m in depth) and such species are not likel to be found in areas deeper than 800-1000 m (Dolgov and Karsakov, 2011). +Occasional appearances of new species have been observed in the Arctic fo decades, but these are apparently becoming more frequent. In 1950s, pink salmo was introduced from the Pacific to the Barents and White Seas (Atlas of Russia freshwater fishes, 2002). Norwegian pollock Theragra finnmarchica has been know in the Barents Sea since the 1950s (Christiansen et al., 2005; Privalikhin and Norvillo 2010), but it is now considered to be a junior synonym of the Pacific walleye polloc Gadus chalcogrammus (Ursvik et al., 2007; Byrkjedal et al., 2008), reflecting th possibility of recent connections between Pacific and Atlantic waters across th Arctic. Range expansion of boreal species into the Arctic as ocean temperatures rise has been observed both in the Eurasian Arctic (Christiansen et al. 2013) and in th North American Arctic, specifically in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (Mueter et al. 2013) If commercial fishing activities expand northward following these species, mor bycatch may occur of endemic Arctic fish species that were previously unexploite and relatively unperturbed. In southern Newfoundland and Norwegian fjords mesopelagic fish, especially the Myctophid (Lanternfish) Benthosema glaciale an the sternoptychid (small deep-sea ray-finned fish of the stomiiform famil Sternoptychidae) Maurolicus muelleri, are important elements. These cold-wate fish, in places very abundant on the high seas, are very likely to move from the sub Arctic to the full Arctic as ice retreats. +Although some high-latitude areas have high planktonic productivity and high fis production, e.g., the Barents Sea and Bering Sea, many strictly Arctic Seas hav limited primary productivity due to ice cover, lack of nutrient replenishment, etc Most Arctic fish, similar to deep-sea fish, have adapted to these low-productivit conditions with life-history characteristics that cause them to be readily overfished either as directly targeted species or as by-catch (Koslow et al., 2000; Roberts, 2002 Baker et al., 2009). The risk of rapid overexploitation is high for Arctic fis populations, as it already seems to be for Greenland halibut (Reinhardtiu hippoglossoides) in the Western Atlantic. By contrast, the Barents Sea stock ha grown over the last decade, when the fishery was closed completely at first but late reopened at a low intensity. +As with many other groups, evidence exists that invertebrate nekton species ar spreading into the Arctic from lower latitudes, especially the North Atlantic. Indeed Hamilton et al. (2003) reported that fisheries in western Greenland have shifted t the northern shrimp, Pandalis borealis, a North Atlantic species also fished in the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Barents Sea (Standal, 2003). Furthermore, the presence of foraging schools o ommastrephid squid (Golikov et al., 2012) could indicate an important shift in th pelagic food web of the Arctic. +6. Mammals +General information on the marine mammals +Seals, together with toothed (killer whales, sperm whales, dolphins) and balee (bowheads, blue whale) whales are part of the marine mammals. +6.1 Status +Thirty-five species of marine mammals are known to be present in Arctic waters Seven of these (narwhal, beluga, bowhead whale, ringed seal, bearded seal, walrus and polar bear) inhabit the Arctic year-round and are dependent upon sea ice for a least part of the year. Four additional species (spotted seal, ribbon seal, harp seal and hooded seal) use sea ice for pupping in the winter and spring, but range widel in open waters of the Arctic and sub-Arctic the rest of the year. These eleven specie of marine mammals are ice-dependent for at least some of their annual cycle; thei reproduction, moulting, resting and/or feeding behaviour are closely linked to th presence of sea ice. +Another 24 marine mammal species occur in low Arctic waters or seasonally migrat to the Arctic to feed, including four species of pinnipeds, nineteen species o cetaceans, and a carnivore, the sea otter. The northern fur seal and Steller sea lio are found in the Okhotsk and Bering Seas; the gray seal is found in the Atlanti Arctic, and the harbour seal in Arctic waters of both the Atlantic and Pacific Nineteen species of cetaceans use Arctic waters seasonally, including: the Nort Pacific right whale and gray whale that are confined to the Pacific Arctic; the Nort Atlantic right whale in Arctic waters near Greenland; the blue whale, fin whale, se whale, minke whale, and humpback whale in both Pacific and Atlantic Arctic water during summer; the sperm whale in low Arctic waters; Baird’s beaked whale Stejneger’s beaked whale and Cuvier’s beaked whale in the low Arctic waters of th Pacific; and the northern bottlenose whale in the low Arctic waters of the Atlantic Delphinids that are present in the Arctic during summer include: killer whale, white beaked dolphin, long-finned pilot whale and Atlantic white-sided dolphin. Dall’ porpoise occur in low Arctic waters of the Pacific, and harbour porpoise in lo Arctic waters of both the Atlantic and Pacific. These species occur in Arctic water primarily to feed, based on the high seasonal productivity. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +6.2 Trends +There is a history spanning several centuries of commercial whaling and sea hunting in the Arctic. In some cases, over-harvesting has reduced Arctic marin mammal populations to low numbers and contracted their ranges. Two of the thre hooded seal populations were subjected to intense commercial hunting over th past two centuries. In the East Greenland Sea a substantial decrease in hooded sea abundance took place between the 1940s and 1980s (ICES, 2008), and recen surveys suggest that a downward trend continues. Regulation of commercia harvests has led to stabilization or recovery of some other marine mamma populations. All bowhead whale populations were severely depleted b commercial whaling, which began in the Atlantic in the 17" century (Ross, 1993) The global bowhead population now appears to be increasing, and the Bering Chukchi-Beaufort subpopulation has recovered to close to its pre-whaling level Indigenous harvesting of Arctic marine mammals also has a long history, an indigenous peoples have strong cultural and economic ties to marine mammals. I most cases the subsistence harvest is not a factor affecting marine mamma populations; however, a sharp decline of the Cook Inlet beluga population occurre in the 1990s and is attributed to subsistence overharvesting (Mahoney and Shelden 2000); and they remain critically endangered. +Assessing Arctic marine mammal populations is challenging because of the difficult of working in this region and the large seasonal ranges of many of these animals Documenting changes in the abundance and distribution of marine mammal requires study on long time-scales. For the eleven ice-dependent marine mamma species, population trends are discussed here to illustrate the state of ou knowledge. Trends in abundance are unavailable for most beluga sub-populations but three subpopulations are known to be declining: the Cook Inlet (Hobbs et al. 2012), the eastern Hudson Bay (Gosselin et al., 2009), and the White Sea (Burdin e al., 2009). Although population estimates are available for most narwhal stock (Heide-Jgrgensen et al., 2010; Richard et al., 2010), they are not adequate t establish population trends. The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort population of bowhea whales has increased since the late 1970s (George et al., 2004), and bowhea whales in West Greenland have increased since 2000 (Wiig et al., 2011), wherea trends in the bowhead subpopulations in the Svalbard-Barents Sea and the Sea o Okhotsk are unknown. Population trends for ringed seals are unknown, yet ringe seal density estimates in western Hudson Bay show an approximate 10-year cycle o fluctuation (Ferguson and Young, 2011). Walrus populations in West Greenland an the North Water have been in steady decline, whereas the population in Eas Greenland has been increasing (Witting and Born, 2005). Walrus numbers a Svalbard have increased slowly during 1993-2006 (Lydersen et al., 2008). Pacifi Walrus populations recovered from a depleted state to historical high levels in th 1980s (Fay et al., 1997). Data are insufficient to estimate trends for spotted seals ribbon seals and bearded seals. Harp seal birth rates in the White Sea stock hav experienced significant declines since 2004 (Chernook and Boltnev, 2008). Recen models (ICES, 2008) revealed that since about 1970, the population of harp seals i East Greenland increased in size from its earlier depleted state. There was moderate increase in the NW Atlantic hooded seal population between the mid- +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +1980s and 2005 (Hammill and Stenson, 2007), but the NE Atlantic hooded sea population has declined by 85-90 per cent over the last 40-60 years (igard et al. 2010). For nineteen polar bear subpopulations, seven are declining, four are stable one is increasing, and insufficient data are available to determine a trend for seve subpopulations (Obbard et al., 2010). The sea otter is believed to have undergone population decline exceeding 50 per cent over the past 30 years (Estes et al., 2005). +6.3 Pressures +Reductions in sea ice represent an on-going threat to marine mammals in the Arctic Recent sea ice declines are well documented (Stroeve et al., 2012), and modellin predicts that the Arctic may be ice-free in summer within three decades (Wang an Overland, 2012). These reductions in sea ice are forcing ice-dependent marin mammals, such as polar bears, seals and walrus, to modify their feeding reproduction and resting behaviour and locations. Pacific walrus have begun haulin out on land in the summer due to loss of annual Arctic sea ice and the summe retreat of the pack ice beyond the continental shelf (Garlich-Miller et al., 2011) Early sea-ice melt and longer open-water periods cause increased primar production in the Arctic (Arrigo and van Dijken, 2011), but are likely to decreas nutrient fluxes to the seafloor. As a result, walrus, bearded seals, and other marin mammals specializing in benthic feeding may experience reductions in pre availability (Bluhm and Gradinger, 2008). +The Arctic is also experiencing more human maritime activity, primarily related t hydrocarbon and mineral development and the opening of shipping routes. Thes changes bring risks for marine mammals of direct mortality, displacement fro critical habitats, noise disturbance, and increased exposure to hunting. Arcti marine mammals also have high levels of contaminants (Norstrom and Muir, 1994) notably organo-chlorines (an organic compound containing at least one covalentl bounded atom of chlorine) and heavy metals, as a result of the presence of thes substances in the Arctic food web. Little evidence exists of demographic effects i wild marine mammals, but the need is growing to understand the origins o pollutants, and to coordinate efforts to reduce them at their source. +7. Marine birds +General information on the marine birds +Marine birds are adapted for the marine environment. Most species nest in colonies Many undertake long annual migrations. Ducks, goose, auks (such as guillemots) loon, gulls, scoters, jaegers/skuas, terns, are all part of the marine birds. +© 2016 United Nations + +7.1 Status +Arctic waters are host in summer to many millions of marine birds which come t nest. Unlike many animal groups, marine birds are more diverse and abundant i cold seas than they are in warm ones (Gaston, 2004). In the Northern Hemisphere the highest breeding densities of seabirds occur in Arctic waters (Cairns et al., 2008) Forty-four species of seabirds, ten sea ducks (eiders and scoters) and one marin goose (brant) are listed by Ganter and Gaston (2013) as breeding in the Arctic, o which 23 species of seabirds, seven sea ducks and the brant occur in the high Arctic with most being endemic to the region. The majority of Arctic marine birds ar members of the order Charadriiformes (34 species), including four endemic genera all containing only one immediately subordinate taxon (little auk, ivory gull, Sabine’ gull, Ross’s gull). Nineteen species are circumpolar, breeding in Canada, Alaska an over most of the Russian Arctic, whereas 11 occur only in the Atlantic basin (Eas Canada-Svalbard) and 14 in the Pacific basin (East Siberia-Yukon). Four species of se ducks, one loon, one gull and one auk are considered to be vulnerable, near threatened or endangered by Birdlife/IUCN (IUCN, 2012). +Most Arctic marine birds are migrants, occurring in Arctic waters only in summer and moving to boreal or warmer waters, or in some cases to the Souther Hemisphere, in winter (Newton, 2007). Only two species of gull (Ross’s and ivory) two auks (black guillemot and thick-billed murre/Brunnich’s guillemot) and the fou species of eider occur in Arctic waters throughout the year. The extent of migrator behaviour means that the population sizes and trends of many Arctic marine bird are potentially affected by events on their wintering ranges outside the Arcti (Ganter and Gaston, 2013). +Scoters, jaegers/skuas, some terns and some gulls occur mainly in terrestrial o freshwater habitats while breeding, but make use of marine waters while in passage and, in the case of scoters, while moulting. Other marine birds, although feeding a sea, must all visit land to breed, so that all have a presence in the coastal zone i summer. The vast majority feed in shelf waters, although some may also feed awa from the continental shelf. The most numerous birds making use of Arctic marin waters in summer are the northern fulmar, black-legged kittiwake, thick-bille murre, and little auk, all of which have world populations centred in the Arctic an numbering more than 10 million individuals (Ganter and Gaston, 2013). All thes species make use of pelagic habitats. The number of seabirds making use of th central Arctic Ocean is small, although this is a major post-breeding dispersal area fo Ross’s Gull (Hjort et al., 1997). +Some Arctic marine bird populations provide valuable subsistence resources in th Arctic. Eiders, or their eggs and down, are harvested throughout the region and the are important for traditional food and lifestyle, not only in many Arctic communities but also in SE Canada and the Baltic region (Merkel and Barry, 2008). In som countries, especially Iceland, down-feather collection constitutes a significan commercial industry (Bédard et al., 2008). Auks are also harvested by native people in Alaska and Canada. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +7.2 Trends +Most Arctic seabird populations for which reliable information is available hav shown negative trends in recent years. These current trends are superimposed on situation where several important populations were substantially depressed b anthropogenic mortality, compared with numbers in the first half of the 20" centur (Ganter and Gaston, 2013). +Some evidence exists for the recent northward spread of predominantly temperat or low Arctic species: e.g., glaucous-winged gull (Winker et al., 2002) in the Berin Sea, horned puffin in the Beaufort Sea (Moline et al., 2008), great skua in Svalbar (Anker-Nilssen et al., 2000; Krasnov and Lorentsen, 2000) and lesser black-backe gull in Greenland (Boertmann, 2008). At the same time, evidence exists of a retrea for at least one high Arctic species: the range of the ivory gull has contracted i Canada; most colonies in the southern part of the Canadian range are deserted whereas numbers have remained stable farther north (Environment Canada, 2010) Southern colonies of ivory gull are also decreasing in Greenland (Gilg et al., 2009b). +Black-legged kittiwake, an abundant species throughout circumpolar Arctic waters has shown significant population declines throughout almost the entire Atlanti sector of the Arctic, especially around the Barents Sea (Barrett et al., 2006), i Iceland (Gardarsson, 2006) and in West Greenland (Labansen et al., 2010). Thick billed murre populations have shown downward trends over much of their range i the past thirty years. The population of thick-billed murres in central West Greenlan is much lower than it was in the early 20" century, as a result of heavy harvesting o adults at colonies (Evans and Kampp, 1991; Kampp et al., 1994) and shows no sign o recovery (K. Kampp and F. Merkel, pers. comm.). Similarly, numbers in Novay Zemlya are considerably lower than in the early 20" century: down from two millio to one million birds (Bakken and Pokrovskaya, 2000). In Svalbard, numbers of thick billed murres were thought to be stable up to the 1990s, but they have sinc decreased, especially in the southern part of the archipelago (CAFF Circumpola Seabird Working Group, unpubl.). In Iceland, numbers of thick-billed murre decreased at 7 per cent per year between 1983 and 1985 and 2005-2008, wherea numbers of common murres and Atlantic puffins decreased between 1999-200 after modest increases earlier (Gardarsson, 2006; Gardarsson, 2009). +7.3 Pressures +Eider populations declined in the 1980s and 1990s in Alaska, Canada, Greenland an Russia; in some cases because of human disturbances, excessive harvest of eggs an birds, together with severe climatic events (Robertson and Gilchrist, 1998; Suyda et al., 2000; Merkel 2004a). The current trend of common eider populations varies but at least some populations in Alaska, Canada and Greenland are now recoverin with improved harvest management (Chaulk et al., 2005; Gilliland et al., 2009 Merkel, 2010). Breeding populations in the Barents Sea region appear stabl (Bustnes and Tertitski, 2000). A recent outbreak (2005-present) of avian cholera i the East Canadian Arctic reversed a population increase and reduced the populatio of a large colony by 30 per cent in just three years (Buttler, 2009). Bycatch in +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +fisheries gillnets is also a significant problem in some areas (Bustnes and Tertitski 2000; Merkel, 2004b; Merkel, 2011) and may be a more widespread concern. +Some recent changes in the status of Arctic seabirds have been linked with climat changes, mostly ascribed to causes operating through the food chain (Durant et al. 2004; Durant et al., 2006; Sandvik et al., 2005; Irons et al., 2008), but direct effect have been documented in a few cases: White et al. (2011) showed that expansion o the great cormorant population in central West Greenland may be related t increased sea-surface temperature. Several potential causes of the decline of ivor gulls in Canada have been identified: mortality from hunting of adults in Greenlan (Stenhouse et al., 2004), high levels of mercury in eggs (Braune et al., 2006) an changes in ice conditions (Gilchrist et al., 2008; Environment Canada, 2010). I Hudson Bay in recent years a combination of warm summer weather and earlie emergence by mosquitoes caused the death or reproductive failure among thick billed murres (Gaston et al., 2002). In addition, polar bears, coming ashore earlie than usual, ate many eggs, chicks and adults of murres and common eiders, leadin to complete reproductive failure at some colonies (Gaston and Elliott, 2013; Iverso et al., 2014). Such mortality has increased sharply over the past three decades. +Substantial research has been carried out on concentrations and trends o contaminants in Arctic marine birds, especially organohaline compounds and heav metals (Braune et al., 2001; Helgason et al., 2008; Letcher et al., 2010). Very hig levels of mercury have been found in the eggs of ivory gulls from Canada (Braune e al., 2006) and high levels of organohaline compounds in those from Svalbar (Miljeteig et al., 2009). High organohaline concentrations occur also in glaucous gull from Svalbard (Bustnes et al., 2003; Bustnes et al., 2004), perhaps causing mortalit in some cases (Gabrielsen et al., 1995; Sagerup et al., 2009). These species scaveng marine mammal carcasses, which places them high up the food chain and henc they become subjected to an increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxi chemical, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chai (biomagnifications). As a result of biomagnification, organisms at the top of the foo chain generally suffer greater harm from a persistent toxin or pollutant than those a lower levels. The extension of offshore oil and gas exploitation and transport in an through Arctic waters poses a potential threat to all marine birds (Meltofte et al. 2013), especially auks and sea ducks, which are among the birds most vulnerable t mortality from oil spills (Clark, 1984). These two groups, along with cormorants, ar also very susceptible to drowning in gill nets (Tasker et al., 2000). If, as expected, general retreat of Arctic sea ice allows an extension of hydrocarbon exploitation shipping and fisheries in Arctic waters, then special care will be required t safeguard populations of these birds. Moreover, changes in the timing of the open water season are affecting the timing of seasonal events in marine ecosystems, an this is affecting the optimal timing of breeding for marine birds, especially in lo Arctic areas (Gaston et al., 2009). Changes in the distributions of predators an parasites have also been noted, and these may have important consequences fo Arctic seabirds (Gaston and Elliott, 2013). Because of the number of Arctic endemi marine bird taxa, the decline of Arctic marine birds presages a significant loss o global biodiversity. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +8. Socioeconomic Aspects +8.1 Biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Arctic +Biodiversity, whether it is functional, genetic or species-based, plays a role i fundamental processes of nature, i.e., so-called ecosystem processes o intermediate ecosystem services’, which feed into all final ecosystem services whether these are provisioning, regulating or cultural services. These latter service contribute directly to human wellbeing, and these benefits can often be valued i economic terms. +Although the ecosystem processes/intermediate services of biodiversity may b essential for most final services, their values as such cannot be added to the value o benefits from final services, as this would imply a double counting. However, it i important to ascertain the significance of biodiversity as an intermediate service i order to ensure that human actions do not limit these services to such a degree tha a loss in final services occurs, and that the value of this loss exceeds the value fro the human actions that led to them. And despite the remote nature of the Arctic ecosystem processes related to biodiversity taking place there may provid important services far removed in space and time. +Biodiversity may also be a final service and, for example, it may be included i cultural services, in the sense that humans value biodiversity directly. The Arctic is sparsely populated part of the world, but indigenous and commercial uses related t Arctic biodiversity are nevertheless present. Furthermore, humans who may neve set foot in the Arctic may value the existence of Arctic biodiversity, hence th services in the Arctic may have greater importance than what immediately meet the eye. +In the following we focus on ecosystem services from Arctic biodiversity bein affected by climate change pressures, where these involve services to the ecosyste (i.e., ecosystem processes or intermediate services) and services to human (provisioning, regulating or cultural services). +8.2 Services to ecosystems being affected +Climate change will make species of boreal ecosystems move into what are now sub Arctic areas, transforming these into boreal ecosystems, whereas sub-Arcti ecosystems will move into more Arctic areas. Consequently, Arctic ecosystems wil remain in smaller and possibly more fragmented areas such as cold, dense, salin water basins (inner fjords and the abyss) and may thus act as important refugia fo cold-water species. +* The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) coined the expression Supporting services, which wa later referred to as Ecosystem processes or Intermediate services by the UK National Ecosyste Assessment (2011) and others. +© 2016 United Nation + +In a spatial context, Arctic biodiversity will therefore decline. In some areas, Arcti biodiversity will disappear, but species of boreal ecosystems will increasingly mov northwards, increasing boreal biodiversity in these areas. However, the absolut biodiversity may increase, decrease or remain unchanged, due to the combination o extinction and immigration. Increased biodiversity may especially be the case in th shallow marginal seas of the Arctic, but also in a presumed interim period, wher both Arctic and boreal species co-exist. This may temporally affect ecosyste processes/intermediate services. The biodiversity dynamics depend on a number o factors, such as immigration, extinctions, possible hybridization, competitiv pressures and new pathogens/parasites, as well as human pressures (harvesting bycatch of Arctic species in targeted harvests of boreal species, bioaccumulation o pollution, stress from ship traffic and oil exploitation, harvesting of eggs and birds ocean acidification). +As the ice cover declines, the Arctic biodiversity comes under pressure, and som ecosystem services may be lost due to smaller and possibly fragmented suitabl areas. This is particularly the case for species that have parts of their life cycle history strategy dependent on ice (e.g., seals nursing on ice). A loss of ecosyste processes/intermediate services involving failures in reproduction, predator-pre interactions and habitat composition is then likely. +8.3 Services to humans being affected +On current sub-Arctic shelf areas, where boreal species will become mor prominent, ecosystem services, such as those related to fisheries, may increase. Thi may be advantageous for human coastal communities, indigenous and otherwise, b increasing or securing values connected to benefits of cultural and provisionin services from fisheries. Off-shelf areas may not give increased ecosystem services despite ice-cover decline, due to stratification inhibiting the mixing of the wate masses and thereby limiting the nutrients needed for productive ecosystem (Wassmann, 2011). However, great uncertainty remains regarding these futur processes. +Ice decline will have consequences for Arctic biodiversity. This is particularly the cas for species that spend part of their life cycle on land and part on ice (e.g., pola bears, seals and walrus). These species supply provisioning and cultural services fo commercial and indigenous users in the Arctic, and cultural services for peopl worldwide due to existence values. +IPCC (2014) identifies a number of climatic change effects that are expected to affec directly the way of life of Arctic indigenous peoples. The indirect effects via marin biodiversity change are more uncertain. Yet as mentioned above, both positiv effects regarding fisheries and negative effects in relation to marine mammals ma be possible. Where, how, what, and when changes may arise are unsure, and poin towards significant knowledge gaps with regard to socio-economic consequences o climate change for indigenous peoples. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +8.4 Management +The loss or reduction of services from Arctic ecosystems points to the need t protect the remaining Arctic and Arctic ice areas against activities that might reduc biodiversity (pollution, diseases/parasites, physical and vocal stress); e.g., securin protection in relation to activities of exploitation (fish, oil, minerals, tourism) in ic areas, and transport routes through the Arctic and Arctic ice. +The final service losses likewise point to the need for adaptive and ecosystem base management efforts to limit negative effects of existing and potential human use This involves sustainable management of current use of resources, and restriction on aggregating anthropogenic effects in relation to vulnerable Arctic ecosystems an species. It is clear that we will discover and develop ecosystem services in the futur that we are not aware of today. Option values related to these services, for exampl from bioprospecting, underline the need to secure ecosystem services for the future. +References +Introduction +Andersson, A.J., Mackenzie, F.T. (2012). Revisiting four scientific debates in ocea acidification research. Biogeosciences 9: 893-905. +Andersson, A.J., Gledhill, D. (2013). Ocean acidification and coral reefs: effects o breakdown, dissolution, and net ecosystem calcification. Annual Reviews o Marine Science 5, 321-48. +ABA (2014). Arctic Biodiversity Assessment, full Scientific Report. The Conservatio of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF). 673 pp http://www.arcticbiodiversity.is/the-report +ACIA (2004). Impacts of a Warming Arctic. Cambridge University Press. p 14 http://www.amap.no/arctic-climate-impact-assessment-acia +AMAP (2009). Oil and gas activities in the Arctic: effects and potential effects. 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US NOAA http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/marine_fish.html. Dec 6, 2013. +Nesis, K.N. (2001). West-Arctic and East-Arctic distributional ranges of cephalopods Sarsia 86:1-11. +Privalikhin, A.M., Norvillo, G.V. (2010) On the finding of a rare species— Norwegia pollock Theragra finnmarchica Koefoed, 1956 (Gadidae)—in the Barents Sea Journal of Ichthyology 50:143-147. +Rice, J. (2006). Impacts of mobile bottom gears on seafloor habitats, species, an communities: a review and synthesis of selected international reviews. DF CSAS Research Document 2006/057, Ottawa, Canada, iii+35 p. +Roberts, C.M. (2002). Deep impact: the rising toll of fishing in the deep sea. Trends i Ecology and Evolution 5: 242-245. +Standal, D. (2003). Fishing the last frontier—controversies in the regulations o shrimp trawling in the high Arctic. Marine Policy 27:375-388. +Tsinovsky, V.D., Melnikov, I.A. (1980) On occurrence of Liparis koefoedi (Liparidae Osteichtyes) in the waters of the Central Arctic Basin. In: Vinogradov, M.E. Melnikov, I.A. (Eds.) Biology of the Central Arctic Basin. Moscow, Nauk Publishing, p 211-214 (In Russian). +Ursvik, A., Breines, R., Christiansen, J.S., Fevolden, S.-E., Coucheron, D.H., Johansen S.D. (2007) A mitogenomic approach to the taxonomy of pollocks: Theragr chalcogramma and T. finnmarchica represent one single species. BM Evolutionary Biology 7:86. +Marine birds +Anker-Nilssen, T., Bakken, V., Strgm, H., Golovkin, A.N., Bianki, V.V., Tatarinkova, I.P (2000). The status of marine birds breeding in the Barents Sea region. Nors Polarinstitutt, Norway. +Bakken, V., Pokrovskaya, |.V. (2000). Thick-billed Murre, in: Anker-Nilssen, T. Bakken, V., Strgm, H., Golovkin, A.N., Bianki, V.V., Tatarinkova, I.P. (Eds.), Th status of marine birds breeding in the Barents Sea region. Nors Polarinstitutt, Tromsg, Norway, pp. 119-124. +Barrett, R.T., Lorentsen, S.H., Anker-Nilsson, T. (2006). The status of breedin seabirds in mainland Norway. 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Evidence of recent population recovery in common eider breeding in western Greenland. Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 1869 1874. +Merkel, F.R. (2011). Gillnet bycatch of seabirds in Southwest Greenland, 2003-2008 Technical Report No. 85, Pinngortitaleriffik, Greenland Institute of Natura Resources. +Merkel, F.R., Barry, T. (Eds.) (2008). Seabird harvest in the Arctic. Circumpola Seabird Group (CBird), CAFF Technical Report No. 16. +Miljeteig, C., Strom, H., Gavrilo, M.V., Volkov, A., Jenssen, B.M., Gabrielsen, G.W (2009). High Levels of Contaminants in Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea egg from the Russian and Norwegian Arctic. Environmental Science an Technology 43, 5521-5528. +Moline, M.A., Karnovsky, N.J., Brown, Z., Divoky, G.J., Frazer, T.K., Jacoby, C.A. et al (2008). High latitude changes in ice dynamics and their impact on polar +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +marine ecosystems. Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 1134, 267 313. +Newton, I. (2007). The migration ecology of birds. Academic Press, London. +Robertson, G.J. & Gilchrist, H.G. (1998). Evidence of population declines amon Common Eiders breeding in the Belcher Islands, Northwest Territories. Arcti 51, 378-385. +Sagerup, K., Helgason, L.B., Polder, A., Strom, H., Josefsen, T.D., Skare, J.U. Gabrielsen, G.W. (2009). Persistent organic pollutants and mercury in dea and dying glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus) at Bjgrngya (Svalbard). Scienc of the Total Environment 407, 6009-6016. +Sandvik, H., Erikstad, K.E., Barrett, R.T., Yoccoz, N.G. (2005). The effect of climate o adult survival in five species of North Atlantic seabirds. Journal of Anima Ecology 74, 817-831. +Stenhouse, I.J., Robertson, G.J., Gilchrist, H.G. (2004). Recoveries and survival rate o Ivory gulls banded in Nunavut. Waterbirds 27, 486-492. +Suydam, R.S., Dickson, D.L., Fadely, J.B. & Quakenbush, L.T. (2000). Populatio declines of King and Common Eiders of the Beaufort Sea. The Condor 102 219-222. +Tasker, M.L., Camphuysen, C.J., Cooper, J., Garthe, S., Montevecchi, W.A. Blaber, S.J. (2000). The impacts of fishing on marine birds. ICES Journal o Marine Science 57, 531-547. +White, C.R., Boertmann, D., Grémillet, D., Butler, P.J., Green, J.A., Martin, G.R (2011). The relationship between sea surface temperature and populatio change of Great Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo breeding near Disko Bay Greenland. International Journal of Avian Science, DOI: 10.1111/j.1474 919X.2010.01068.x +Winker, K., Gibson, D.D., Sowls, A.L., Lawhead, B.E., Martin, P.D., Hoberg, E.P. Causey, D. (2002). The birds of St. Matthew Island, Bering Sea. Wilso Bulletin 114, 491-509. +Marine Mammals +Arrigo, K.R. and van Dijken, G.L. (2011). Secular trends in Arctic Ocean net primar production. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans (1978-2012), 116(C9). +Bluhm, B.A. and Gradinger, R. (2008). Regional variability in food availability fo Arctic marine mammals. Ecological Applications, 18(sp2), S77-S96. +Burdin, A., Filatova, O. & Hoyt, E. (2009). Marine mammals of Russia: a guidebook Kirov, Moscow. +Chernook, V.I. and Boltnev, A.I. (2008). Regular instrumental aerial surveys detect sharp drop in the birthrates of the harp seal in the White Sea. Marin Mammals of the Holarctic 4: 100-104. +Estes, J.A., Tinker, M.T., Doroff, A.M. and Burn, D.M. (2005), Continuing sea otter +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +population declines in the Aleutian Archipelago. Marine Mammal Science 21: 169-172. +Fay, F.H., Eberhardt, L.L., Kelly, B.P., Burns, J.J. and Quakenbush, L.T. (1997). Statu of the Pacific walrus population, 1950-1989. Marine Mammal Science 13 537-565. +Ferguson, S.H. and Young, B.G. (2011). Aerial survey estimates of hauled-out ringe seal (Pusa hispida) density in western Hudson Bay, June 2009 and 2010 Science Advisory Report 2011/029, Department of Fisheries and Ocean Canada, Ottawa. +Garlich-Miller, J.L., MacCracken, J.G., Snyder, J., Meehan, R., Myers, M.J. Wilder, J.M., Lance, E. and Matz, A. (2011). Status review of the Pacific walru (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Marine Mammals Management, Unite States Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage. +George, J.C., Zeh, J., Suydam, R. and Clark, C. (2004). Abundance and populatio trend (1978-2001) of western Arctic bowhead whales surveyed near Barrow Alaska. Marine Mammal Science 20: 755-773. +Gosselin, J. F., Lesage, V. and Hammill, M.O. (2009). Abundance indices of beluga i James Bay, eastern Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in 2008. Research Documen 2009/006. Science Advisory Secretariat, Department of Fisheries and Ocean Canada, Ottawa. +Hammill, M.O. and Stenson, G.B. (2007). Application of the precautionary approac and conservation reference points to the management of Atlantic seals. ICE Journal of Marine Sciences 64: 701-706. +Heide-Jgrgensen, M.P., Laidre, K.L., Burt, M.L., Borchers, D.L., Hansen, R.G. Rasmussen, M. and Fossette, S. (2010). Abundance of narwhals (Wonodo monoceros) in Greenland. Journal of Mammalogy 91(5): 1135-1151. +Hobbs, R. C., Sims, C.L. and Shelden, K.E.W. (2012). Estimated abundance of beluga in Cook Inlet, Alaska, from aerial surveys conducted in June 2012. NMFS NMML Unpublished Report. 7 pp. +ICES (2008). Report of the Joint ICES/NAFO Working Group on Harp and Hoode Seals, 27-30 August 2008,Troms@, Norway. ICES Report CM 2008/ACOM 17 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Copenhagen. +Lydersen, C., Aars, J. and Kovacs, K.M. (2008). Estimating the number of walruses i Svalbard based on aerial surveys and behavioural data from satellit telemetry. Arctic 61: 119-128. +Mahoney, Barbara A. and Shelden, Kim E.W. (2000). Harvest History of Belugas Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Marine Fisheries Review, 62(3) pp. 124-133. +Norstrom R. J. and Muir, D.C.G. (1994) Chlorinated hydrocarbon contaminants i arctic marine mammals. The Science of the Total Environment 154:107-128. +Obbard, M.E., Thiemann, G.W., Peacock, E. and DeBruyn, T.D. (eds.) (2010) Proceedings of the 15th Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear +© 2016 United Nations 4 + +Specialist Group, 29 June - 3 July 2009, Copenhagen, Denmark. Occasiona Paper No. 43 of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, IUCN, Gland. +@igard,T.A., Haug,T. and Nilssen, K.T. (2010). Estimation of pup production o hooded seals and harp seals in the Greenland Sea in 2007: Reducin uncertainty using generalized additive models. Journal of the Northwes Atlantic Fishery Science. 42: 103-123. +Richard, P.R., Laake, J.L., Hobbs, R.C., Heide-Jargensen, M.P., Asselin, N.C. an Cleator H. (2010). Baffin Bay narwhal population distribution and numbers aerial surveys in the Canadian High Arctic, 2002-2004. Arctic 63: 85-99. +Ross, W.G. (1993). Commercial whaling in the North Atlantic sector. pp. 511-61. In Burns, J.J. Montague, J.J. and Cowles, C.J. (eds.) Special Publication. No. 2 The Bowhead Whale. 1st. Edn. Society of Marine Mammalogy, Lawrence, KS 787pp. +Stroeve, J.C., Serreze, M.C., Holland, M.M., Kay, J.E., Malanik, J. and Barrett, A.P (2012). The Arctic’s rapidly shrinking sea ice cover: a research synthesis Climatic Change 110: 1005-1027. +Wang, M. and Overland, J.E. (2012). A sea ice free summer Arctic within 30 years: A update from CMIP5 models. Geophysical Research Letters 39: L18501 doi:10.1029/2012GK052868 +Wiig, @., Bachmann, L., Heide-Jgrgensen, M.P., Lindqvist, C., Laidre, K.L., Postma, L. Dueck, L., Palsbgll, P.J., Bachmann, L. (2011). Recaptures of genotype bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in eastern Canada and wes Greenland. Endangered Species Research 14: 235-242. +Witting, L. and Born, E. (2005). An assessment of Greenland walrus populations. /CE Journal of Marine Sciences 62: 266-285. +Socioeconomic Aspects +Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being Synthesis. Washington, DC, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Island Press. +UK National Ecosystem Assessment (2011). The UK National Ecosystem Assessment Synthesis of the Key Findings. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. +© 2016 United Nations 4 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36G.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36G.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36H.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36H.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6726b674eb6d48b3e57d2e4ee61c93c7a235976c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36H.txt @@ -0,0 +1,445 @@ +Chapter 36H. Southern Ocean +Contributors: Viviana Alder, Maurizio Azzaro, Rodrigo Hucke-Gaete, Renzo Mosetti José Luis Orgeira, Liliana Quartino, Andrea Raya Rey, Laura Schejter, Michae Vecchione, +Enrique R. Marschoff (Lead member) +The Southern Ocean is the common denomination given to the southern extrema o the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, extending southwards to the Antarcti Continent. Its main oceanographic feature, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is the world’s only global current, flowing eastwards around Antarctica in a close circulation with its flow unimpeded by continents. The ACC is today the largest ocea current, and the major means of exchange of water between oceans; it is believed t be the cause of the development of Antarctic continental glaciation by reducin meridional heat transport across the Southern Ocean (e.g., Kennett, 1977; Barker e al., 2007). The formation of eddies in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has significant role in the distribution of plankton and in the warming observed in th Southern Ocean. +As with the ACC, the westward-flowing Antarctic Coastal Current, or East Wind Drif (EWD), is wind-driven. These two current systems are connected by a series of gyre and retroflections (e.g., gyres in the Prydz Bay region, in the Weddell Sea, in th Bellingshausen Sea) (Figure 1). +© 2016 United Nation + +1,06 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. From Turner et al. (eds.), 2009. Schematic map of major currents south of 2029S (F = Front; = Current; G = Gyre) (Rintoul et al., 2001); showing (i) the Polar Front and Sub-Antarctic Front, whic are the major fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current; (ii) other regional currents; (iii) the Weddel and Ross Sea Gyres; and (iv) depths shallower than 3,500m shaded (all from Rintoul et al, 2001). I orange are shown (a) the cyclonic circulation west of the Kerguelen Plateau, (b) the Australian Antarctic Gyre (south of Australia), (c) the slope current, and the (d) cyclonic circulation in th Bellingshausen Sea, as suggested by recent modelling studies (Wang and Meredith, 2008), an observations — e.g., the eastern Weddell Gyre - Prydz Bay Gyre (Smith et al., 1984), westward flo through Princess Elizabeth Trough (Heywood et al., 1999), and circulation east of Kerguelen Platea (McCartney and Donohue, 2007). +The circumpolarity of the circulation is the principal factor determining th development of circumpolar frontal zones associated with this system of current (Orsi et al., 1995). The biogeographical importance of these fronts was recognize practically from the beginning of Antarctic research (Tate Regan, 1914); thei approximate positions are shown in Figure 2. +© 2016 United Nation + +te tee Lo) +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. From Turner et al. (eds.), 2009. South (left) to north (right) section through the overturnin circulation in the Southern Ocean. South-flowing products of deep convection in the North Atlanti are converted into upper-layer mode and intermediate waters and deeper bottom waters an returned northward. Marked are the positions of the main fronts (PF — Polar Front; SAF — Sub Antarctic Front; and STF — Subtropical Front), and water masses (AABW -— Antarctic Bottom Water LCDW and UCDW, Lower and Upper Circumpolar Deep Waters; NADW — North Atlantic Deep Water AAIW - Antarctic Intermediate Water and SAMW - Sub- Antarctic Mode Water) (from Speer et al. 2000, ©American Meteorological Society. Used with permission.). Note that as well as water movin north to south or vice-versa, it is also generally moving eastward (i.e., towards the observer in th case of this cross-section), except along the coast where coastal currents move water westward (awa from the observer). +The ACC is usually considered to be the northern border of the Southern Ocean. A the ACC links the ocean basins of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, the water carried in the ACC contain a mix of waters originating in different parts of the world Water flows away from the ACC, to the north and to the south, where it becomes primary source for the Antarctic Bottom Water. In the ACC the three ocean exchange heat, salinity and nutrients, playing an important role in the regulation o temperature and flow of the global conveyor belt. Along its course in the ACC, th water exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere while cooling; th resulting dense water sinks and transfers heat and gases into the deep ocean. Thes exchanges create water masses with different properties and distribution pattern which are responsible for water properties in all the world’s oceans (Figure 3); se Turner et al. (eds.) (2009) for further information. +© 2016 United Nation + +Pacific-indonesia Throughflow +PACIFIC +Figure 3. Model of the global ocean circulation, emphasizing the central role played by the Souther Ocean. NADW = North Atlantic Deep Water; CDW = Circumpolar Deep Water; AABW = Antarcti Bottom Water. Units are in Sverdrups (1 Sv = 10° x m® of water per second). The two primar overturning cells are the Upper Cell (red and yellow), and the Lower Cell (blue, green, yellow). Th bottom water of the Lower Cell (blue) wells up and joins with the southward-flowing deep wate (green or yellow), which connects with the upper cell (yellow and red). This demonstrates the globa link between Southern Ocean convection and bottom water formation and convective processes i the Northern Hemisphere. From Lumpkin and Speer (2007; ©American Meteorological Society. Use with permission.) in Turner et al. (eds.), 2009. +About 50 per cent of the Southern Ocean is covered by ice in winter, decreasing t 10 per cent in summer. Ice cover has important effects both on climate and on th biota (e.g., Ainley et al., 2003). It is a defining structure in polar ecosystems Antarctic sea ice is inhabited by prokaryotes, protists, algae, crustacea, worm (Schnack-Schiel et al., 1998), fish eggs and larvae (Vacchi et al., 2012), birds and seal (Ainley and DeMaster, 1990). +Overall, the Antarctic sea-ice cover has been increasing in the satellite records fro 1978 to 2010 (Parkinson and Cavalieri, 2012; see Chapter 47), but modelling predict a reduction of 33 per cent by the end of this century. This masks dramatic regiona trends; declines in sea ice in the Bellingshausen Sea region have been matched b opposing increases in the Ross Sea (Maksym et al., 2012). Besides the seasonal se ice, large portions of coastal waters are covered by permanent ice shelves. Ic shelves derive from land ice where glaciers or whole ice sheets flow towards th coastline and over the ocean surface (Trathan et al., 2013). Ice cover defines thre biogeographic zones (Tréguer and Jacques, 1992): the northernmost part of the ACC permanently ice free with high nutrient concentrations but low primary productivity +© 2016 United Nation + +(see below); the region that is covered seasonally, where the movements of the ic margin significantly affect the cycle of primary production and zooplankto aggregations, and the sea below ice shelves where the fauna develop under uniqu oligotrophic conditions (Gutt et al., 2010). Of particular interest are the regions o contact between the sea-ice cover and the shelf ice, where regions of highl productive open-water areas develop (Comiso and Gordon, 1996; Smith and Comiso 2008). +The present characteristics of the Antarctic were established at the time of th separation between Antarctica and South America, allowing the unimpeded flow o the ACC (Barker et al., 2007; Turner et al. (eds.), 2009) and the development of th Polar Front. Uncertainty exists with regard to the date of the opening, but it is widel accepted that it occurred about 34 million years ago in the Eocene/Oligocene limi (Barker et al., 2007). +From that time onwards, the oceans south of the Polar Front have been part of single system comprising the basins of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans an isolated from other shelf areas in the Southern Hemisphere. The Antarctic marin environment experienced a slow transition from warm water conditions to th present cold water system (from 15°C to 1.87°C) (Turner et al. (eds.), 2009). Th result of evolution under these conditions is a highly specialized marine biota wit high Antarctic endemism and little tolerance for warming (Bilyk and DeVries, 2011). +1. Primary Production +Research on Antarctic primary productivity started around 1840, the age of th pioneering expeditions to Antarctica. For some 100 years, most studies were of qualitative nature and largely focused on net phytoplankton (>20 um: diatoms dinoflagellates, silicoflagellates, etc). The results of these investigations showed tha phytoplankton distribution was linked to seasonality and latitude, with a fast an early growth in northern sectors and a southward shift of growth maxima as summe progresses. +A period of change started around 1950 with the development and application o new methods which involved a faster collection of quantitative data associated wit the amount of biomass produced per unit of space and time. Such methods enable estimating, for example, chlorophyll-a concentration as a proxy for actua phytoplankton biomass and primary productivity, and assimilation of dissolve inorganic carbon by phytoplankton as a proxy for the rate of photosyntheti production of organic matter in the euphotic zone. To date, these methods are th most widely used for estimating in situ primary productivity in Antarctic ecosystem at all scales, and at a global level as well. +More sophisticated techniques and equipment developed during the 1980s enable quantifying fragile cells that are difficult to preserve. These improvement represented a substantial progress in the knowledge of newly identified tax contributing to phytoplankton biomass, such as flagellates, and of some groups capability of alternating their trophic strategies following the fluctuations of certain +© 2016 United Nation + +environmental variables, such as nutrient and/or prey availability and_ light Phytoplanktonic communities comprise at least three main size classes of algae picoplankton (<2 um), nanoplankton (2-20 um) and microplankton (>20 um). Bloom of microplanktonic and nanoplanktonic algae (e.g., diatoms, dinoflagellates, colonia and flagellated Phaeocystis cells) are mostly detected during the summer within th marginal ice zone (e.g., Buma et al., 1992; Olguin and Alder, 2011). However, littl knowledge exists about the importance of mixotrophic groups, such as flagellate and dinoflagellates, as food for primary consumers (some of commercia importance) and their contribution to phytoplanktonic biomass (and chlorophyll- levels) and primary productivity. +Finally, from 1990 on, many investigations on productivity have been largely base on data provided by satellites equipped with colour scanners. At present, ocea color remote sensing is our most effective tool for understanding ocean ecology an biogeochemistry at basin-to-global scales (Figure 4). Many of the algorithms used i satellite data processing and a number of predictive mathematical models employe at different ecological levels (fisheries, CO2 dynamics, etc.) are based on in sit measurements which yield differing results depending on the methods used and ar a cause of much current debate (Strutton et al., 2012). +At any scale, light and nutrients are the most crucial resources for phytoplankto growth. In addition, diverse physical, chemical and biological variables act a conditioning factors for phytoplankton development and biomass levels. Fo example, temperature, water column stability, advection, grazing, sinking, botto topography, offshore distance, etc., usually lead to temporal and spatial variations i primary producers at different scales and also in primary productivity levels. +The overall distribution of phytoplankton biomass and primary production i associated with the position of frontal zones and water circulation resulting from th cyclonic circulation linked to the topography. This general scheme of distribution ha been known since the first reports on Antarctic phytoplankton (Hardy and Gunther 1935; Balech, 1968; El-Sayed, 1968a; 1968b; 1970). High local variability i superimposed on this general pattern as demonstrated by satellite informatio showing spots of very high chlorophyll concentration within areas of generally lo concentration (El-Sayed and Hofmann, 1986). +Knox (2007) reviewed the levels reached by phytoplankton, chlorophyll and primar productivity in distinct Antarctic areas and showed the strong variability associate with different processes and sectors. In the case of Antarctic phytoplankton variability is generally attributed to (a) extreme seasonal variability in solar radiation (b) availability of iron (Fe), which is considered as a key limiting factor in the dee and open waters of the Southern Ocean, and (c) the extent, duration, an seasonality of sea ice and glacial discharge, which influence the life cycles of mos Antarctic organisms (Ducklow et al., 2013). The annual retreat and melting of sea ic in spring causes the stratification of the upper ocean layer, thus activating th development of important phytoplankton blooms. The magnitude of these blooms i related to the winter extent of ice cover, which acts as a barrier to wind mixin (Ducklow et al., 2012; 2013). +© 2016 United Nation + +Antarctic continental shelf regions have an annual productivity that ranges from 1 g Cm’ to 200 g C m’; the greatest rates occur in the Ross Sea and the wester Antarctic Peninsula, but elevated productivity is found in nearly all coastal polynya (Catalano et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2010). +Large variability in primary productivity was observed along a twelve-year tim series (1995-2006; Palmer Long-Term Ecological Research). The average dail integrated primary productivity varied by an order of magnitude, from 250 Cm~“d to 1100 mgCm~*d™, with an average of 745mgCm~ d™. A marked onshore offshore gradient from 1000 C m*d™ to 100 mg C m’d™ was found along the shel with higher production rates inshore. Inter-annual regional variability ranged fro 248 C m*d™ to 1788 mg C md“ (Vernet et al., 2008). +Satellite (SeaWiF) measurements of chlorophyll concentrations in the Souther Ocean from October 1997 through September 1998 reveal: (a) low-mean values (0. mg m*- 0.4 mg m’); (b) phytoplankton blooms and highest chlorophyl concentrations (>1.0 mg m’) located in three areas: coastal waters above th continental shelf, the seasonally retreating sea ice, and the vicinity of the majo fronts; (c) the SeaWiFS global chlorophyll algorithm works better than the Coasta Zone Color Scanner (CZCS); (d) based on the production model of Behrenfeld an Falkowski (1997), annual primary production south of 50°S was estimated in 2.9 Gt yr-2 (Moore and Abbott, 2000). +© 2016 United Nation + +0.1 0.25 0.5 1 chlorophyll [mg m~] +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. From Strutton et al. (2012). Austral summer ocean pigment concentrations from the Coasta Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS). The data are available at 4 km and 9 km (this image) spatial resolution The northern and southern solid lines represent the subtropical front and the polar front respectively. +Marine food webs depend on primary productivity, which also contributes to th sequestration of carbon in the oceanic reservoir. In this region the models an observations for the global balance of CO2 differ most in magnitude (Gruber et al. 2009). This disagreement highlights the importance of obtaining better estimates o all terms in the oceanic carbon budget, including primary productivity (Strutton e al., 2012). +In the seasonally ice-covered region, microalgae grow on sea ice. Their production i greatly exceeded by phytoplankton production in open waters, but their ecologica role is significant. They constitute an important environment that provides refuge t cells and spores that will later seed blooms in open water (Lizotte, 2001) and provid food for ice-associated grazers, such as developmental stages of krill. +© 2016 United Nation + +2. Zooplankton and Nekton +Multicellular animals in the water column are generally divided by size an swimming ability. This distinction is not always clear, however; some activ swimmers may be quite small, whereas some large animals may be such poo swimmers that they are little more than drifters. Zooplankton species range fro microscopic animals so small that the water is for them a very viscous environment to large (sometimes very large) but slow-moving gelatinous animals from severa evolutionary lineages. In addition to animals that are planktonic throughout their lif cycles, zooplankton sometimes include eggs and larvae or, for some species spawning stages of bottom-living (benthic) animals. The nekton include generall larger animals with swimming ability adequate to overcome movement by currents e.g., primarily fish, shrimp, and cephalopods. The term nekton also encompasse diving air-breathers, including marine mammals, birds (e.g., penguins) and, in mor temperate regions, reptiles; the first two groups are addressed in separate section of this chapter. +Important for understanding zooplankton and especially for nekton is the distinctio between the swimming animals that live on or closely associated with the botto (i.e., demersal and benthopelagic) and those that spend their lives higher up in th water column and are not dependent on the bottom (pelagic). A further distinctio in polar regions involves the species that are dependent, at least at some stage i their life, on sea ice (cryopelagic). +The overlap between the zooplankton and nekton that occurs in the smallest nekto (=micronekton) and large plankton (=megaplankton) is particularly important in th Southern Ocean. A unique characteristic of pelagic marine ecosystems is th alternating dominance as keystone grazers in the food webs by species from tw very different evolutionary and ecological groups (Atkinson et al., 2004). These tw groups are euphausiids, primarily the Antarctic Krill (Euphausia superba), and salp (especially Salpa thompsoni). The former are actively swimming shrimplik crustaceans, the adults of which dominate the micronekton community, whereas th latter form “blooms” and colonial chains of gelatinous megaplankton. +Good reviews of current knowledge about zooplankton and nekton in the Souther Ocean have recently been published. These include several chapters in Knox (2007) products of the Census of Antarctic Marine Life (Gutt et al., 2010; DeBroyer et al (ed.), 2011; Schiaparelli and Hopcroft (eds.), 2011 and papers within that volume) and recent summaries of national research programmes, particularly around th Antarctic Peninsula (e.g., Ducklow et al., 2007; Steinberg et al., 2012) and in the Ros Sea (Faranda et al. (eds.), 2000). +Because of their swarming behaviour, krill form large patches of extremely hig abundance and biomass, which are targeted by many Antarctic predators, includin fish, squid, birds and mammals (Knox, 2007). The patches are also targeted fo harvesting by humans (Nicol et al., 2012). The commercial potential of krill has, i turn, stimulated studies of zooplankton and micronekton assemblages and pelagi ecology more generally around Antarctica, especially near the Peninsula and in th Ross Sea. +© 2016 United Nation + +Salps, which are megaplankton with jelly-like bodies, are chordates more closel related to vertebrates than to true jellyfish. They have complex life cycles, includin both sexual and asexual (budding) reproduction and alternating generations o solitary individuals and chain-like colonial aggregates. Because they are capable o asexual reproduction, population abundance can respond rapidly to favourabl conditions, resulting in a “bloom” (i.e., very high abundance). +Because a developmental stage of krill is dependent on ice algae and therefore o the amount of sea-ice habitat during that stage in the krill life cycle, alternatio between high abundances of krill and salps is related to the amount of sea ice durin the previous winter (Loeb et al., 1997). This alternation has very importan implications for food webs in the Southern Ocean, especially pelagic food webs, bu for benthic food webs as well. Krill are the preferred prey of many mid-leve Antarctic predators (Knox, 2007). Although many of them can also feed on salps, th food quality obtained from salps compared with the energy expended in feeding i much less than for krill. Therefore, krill swarms are very important to maintai population levels for many species in the Southern Ocean. +Other than salps and krill, the numerically dominant group of zooplankton is th copepod crustaceans. Copepods are also the most diverse group of zooplankton with more than 70 species in the upper 100 m of the water column. Anothe important crustacean group is the amphipods, which may be free-swimming o associated as predators or commensals with gelatinous megaplankton. +Other important zooplankton groups, sometimes abundant although not diverse include pteropod mollusks, pelagic polychaete worms, chaetognaths (arrow worms) larvaceans, and ostracods. +Because many Antarctic species develop directly in large eggs rather than as larva hatching from many small eggs, benthic species that spend their early life history i the water column (meroplankton) make up a less important component of th zooplankton in the Southern Ocean than elsewhere, although larvae may b seasonally abundant in some coastal areas. +Among the nektonic fish, cephalopods, and shrimp, the fish are clearly dominant i diversity, abundance and biomass. Only about 300 fish species are found south o the South Polar Front; of these, sligthly over 100 species are considered to b endemic to the Southern Ocean (Knox, 2007). Most of these fish species are closel associated with the bottom (demersal). The common demersal fish are dominate by a unique evolutionary group, the suborder Notothenioidei, referred to a Antarctic blennies or southern cod-icefish. +The few species of shrimp (Caridea, <10 species) are primarily demersal. Thre species have been reported locally in high abundances (Gorny et al., 1992). Souther Ocean cephalopods include both pelagic squid and demersal octopods. The forme includes a few species each in at least nine families. Although rarely collected i large numbers, squid are important prey for many fish, birds and mammals indicating that current sampling methods are not representative. Some attain larg sizes, including Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, one of the largest known invertebrates. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The octopods include one finned (Cirrrata) species that can be locally very abundan (Vecchione et al., 1998) and a surprising diversity of incirrate species. Whereas th incirrate fauna were long thought to comprise a few variable species, carefu examination of both morphology and DNA sequences has shown the species t number at least two dozen, including one very large species, Megaleledone setebo (the giant Antarctic octopus). One genus, Pareledone, is especially diverse and is a example of both circumpolar distributions and “ring evolution” of cryptic specie around the Antarctic continent (Allcock et al., 2011). The incirrate octopods hav also been shown to be both an evolutionary source of species for the world’s dee oceans (Strugnell et al., 2008) and to have colonized the Southern Ocean from dee oceans elsewhere (Strugnell et al., 2011). +In general, both zooplankton and nekton include some nearshore species that ar circumpolar and others for which distribution appears to be regionally limited. Som of the former, however, might include complexes of cryptic species with limite distributions. The regional patterns are strongest closest to shore. For both full pelagic and demersal animals, a gradient exists from coastal through continenta shelf and slope to fully oceanic assemblages. Also, species interactions occur acros the Polar Front where some subpolar zooplankton and nekton species intrude int polar waters and the ranges of some Southern Ocean species extend into lowe latitudes. +In spite of the extreme polar light regime, pelagic animals of the Southern Ocea undertake vertical migrations as are well known from other oceans. Daily variabilit in light intensity penetrates into the upper waters and diel vertical migrations b pelagic zooplankton and nekton follow this signal. Of course the seasonal variabilit in light is extreme, resulting from both the angle of solar incidence and seasona expansion and contraction of sea ice. This seasonal variability results in extensiv changes in the vertical distribution of many pelagic species, usually manifested b different life-history stages occupying different depths in the water (ontogeni vertical migration). In addition to the importance (e.g., role in the food web development through life-history stages, etc.) of these vertical migrations to th individual species, they are also important in understanding the flow of biomass nutrients, carbon, etc., between the surface and deeper waters and ultimately to th benthic environment. +Another important association for pelagic animals in the Southern Ocean is with ice in the form of sea ice and icebergs. As mentioned above, some stages of som species, notably krill, are dependent on the protection of the physical ice structur and on the food that grows on sea ice (Thomas and Dieckmann, 2003). Furthermore it has recently been demonstrated that drifting icebergs are “hotspots” of pelagi productivity and biomass (Smith et al., 2007; Vernet et al., 2012). As regard prokaryotic assemblages, a very high abundance has been reported for the botto layer of sea ice (Archer et al., 1996; Delille and Rosiers, 1996) and the platelet ic (Guglielmo et al., 2000; Riaux-Gobin et al., 2000). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +3. Microbes +The microbial community plays a pivotal role in the pelagic food web of the Souther Ocean; it controls many processes, including primary production, turnover o biogenic elements, degradation of organic matter and mineralization of xenobiotic and pollutants (Azam et al., 1991; Azzaro et al., 2006; Fuhrman and Azam, 1980; Karl 1993; Manganelli et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2010; Yakimov et al., 2003). Prokaryoti abundance and activity shift significantly over the annual cycle as sea ice melts an phytoplankton blooms develop (Ducklow et al., 2001; Pearce et al., 2007). Microbia food chains develop even in regions where large euphausiids are abundant. Thes chains involve small metazoans and predominate in the northern open water (Atkinson et al., 2012) with multiple trophic levels (copepods, chaetognaths amphipods, myctophids, fish and birds) in contrast with the classical short chain o diatoms — krill — vertebrates. Marine microbes exhibit a diversity which also depend on the timing, location and sampling method (Pearce 2008; Murray et al., 1998) research devoted to this group is increasing, using genetic and molecular approache in Antarctic surface (Murray and Grzymski, 2007) and deep waters (Moreira et al. 2004). Studies on diversity of bacterioplankton suggest that the diversity seems t rival that found in other ocean systems, although many polar phylotypes host distinct biogeographic signal (Pommier et al., 2005). The Archaea (DeLong et al. 1994) have a distinct seasonal cycle in which Marine Group I. the Crenarchaeota, ar abundant in late winter in surface Antarctic waters (Murray et al., 1998; Church e al., 2003; Murray and Grzymski, 2007). Southern Ocean environmental genomi studies focusing on identifying organisms and metabolic capabilities of the microbia community are limited (Béja et al., 2002; Grzymski et al., 2006). Grzymski et al (2012) found that the most noteworthy change in the bacterioplanktonic communit in nearshore surface waters of the Antarctic Peninsula was the presence o chemolithoautotrophic organisms in winter and their virtual absence in summe when incident solar irradiance is at a maximum and primary productivity is high. I chemolithoautotrophy is widespread in the Southern Ocean in winter, this proces may be a previously unidentified carbon sink. Research trends point to microbia diversity in marine invertebrates (Webster et al., 2004; Webster and Bourne, 2007 Riesenfeld et al., 2008). +4. Benthos +Antarctic shelves are very deep, a process that developed from the glaciation tha began with the isolation of the Southern Oceans because of the weight of th continent’s massive ice sheet. Due to the isostatic depression of the Antarcti continent by the extant ice sheets, the features of Antarctic continental margins ar distinct from those of the rest of the ocean and the continental shelf break occurs a a depth of ca. 1,000 m compared to about 200 m and less elsewhere in the worl (Smith et al., 2010). Such evidence implies that (a) the continental margins tend t be narrow and often have deep canyons, (b) essentially no organic matter is derive from continental sources, and (c) the only significant effects of the continent are to +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +provide mineral material to the continental shelves via ice-rafted debris and glacia meltwater to restricted coastal environments. More than 95 per cent of the shelve are at depths outside the reach of photosynthetically active radiation (Turner et al (eds.), 2009). Some 33 per cent of the continental shelves are covered by the floatin ice shelves. +The shelf benthic fauna are dominated by sessile particle feeders with high biomas and low productivity. Many species are long-lived, have low metabolic rates, lack th pelagic larval phase and need longer development time. Benthic communities cove a full range from an extremely high biomass of several kg wet-weight m~* t extremely low biomass, abundances and metabolic processes below ice shelve (Azam et al., 1979). +Knowledge of the benthic fauna has developed from historical surveys, individua national projects and cooperative projects, such as the European Polarstern Stud (EPOS), Ecology of the Antarctic Sea Ice Zone (EASIZ), Evolution in the Antarcti (EVOLANTA), Census of Antarctic Marine Life (CAML), Latitudinal Gradient Projec (LGP), Food for Benthos on the Antarctic Continental Shelf (FOODBANCS), Antarcti Benthos (BENTANTAR), and the Antarctic benthic DEEP-sea biodiversity: colonizatio history and recent community patterns (ANDEEP), but regionally many gaps i survey data remain (Griffiths et al., 2009). Some 4,000 species have been describe (White, 1984; Arntz et al., 1997; Clarke and Johnston, 2003), of an estimated tota macrofauna of more than 17,000 species (Gutt et al., 2004); the deep bentho remains largely unsampled (Brandt et al., 2004). +Close to the shoreline, benthic communities are strongly affected by ice scouring This phenomenon provokes a continuous recolonization of benthos. Iceberg impact are catastrophic events eliminating up to 96 per cent of the biomass of th community (Smale et al., 2008), interfering with community development in thos areas where ice scouring becomes chronic (Dayton et al., 1974; McCook an Chapman, 1993; Barnes, 1995; Pugh and Davenport, 1997). In essence, long-live species are selected against by this process which results in widely differen community structures among areas with different scouring histories. +Benthic communities are marked by the absence of crabs and sharks and by a limite diversity of skates and finfish; skeleton-breaking predation is limited. Slow-movin invertebrates are present at high trophic levels. These characteristics, together wit dense ophiuroid and crinoid populations, resemble the worldwide Palaeozoic fauna assemblages (Aronson and Blake, 2001). Detritivores, feeding on deposited organi material, include the infauna (mainly mollusks) and vagrant deposit feeders such a holothurians (Gutt, 2007). +At regional and local levels, patchiness is high, due to differences in environmenta conditions, food supply and disturbances; but at very coarse spatial resolution benthic assemblages are typical of the Antarctic with circumpolar distribution (Turner et al. (eds.), 2009). +Below the depth scoured by drifting ice, the invertebrate benthic fauna typicall comprise a dense community of sessile species (e.g., sponges, ascidians, gorgonians anemones, corals, bryozoans, crinoids) in a three-dimensional pattern (Arntz et al. 1994, 1997; Gutt, 2000) with an associated mobile fauna (echinoids, pycnogonids, +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +isopods, amphipods, polychaetes, etc.) developing complex relations amon different species (Figure 5). +Figure 5. From Mintenbeck et al. 2012. (A) Trematomus cf. nicolai hiding inside a sponge; (B Pogonophryne sp. on top of a sponge (ANT XXVII-3 in 2011, western Weddell Sea). Photos: OToma Lundalv, University of Gothenburg. +The highly seasonal primary production in the Antarctic results in a seasonal flux o organic material deposited in the sediment. This provides an abundant persisten food supply for detritivores which might be resuspended as a result of water mixin or ice scouring. This was identified as a “food bank” by Mincks et al. (2005) an Mincks and Smith (2007). +Macroalgae are common elements of nearshore hard-substratum communities i Antarctic and Sub Antarctic regions (Wulff et al., 2011). The areas with har substrata (e.g., rocks and boulders) are particularly suitable for macroalga colonization (Quartino et al., 2013). Macroalgae occur in a distinct vertical zonation mainly between the intertidal and the subtidal zone, down to 30 m depth. The lowe distribution is related to their capacity to survive under low light conditions. Th South Atlantic Ocean is a nutrient-replete system where nutrients rarely becom limiting for macroalgae (Zacher et al., 2009). +Macroalgal communities play a key role in the coastal ecosystem. They ar important primary producers, constituting food supply for benthic organisms, suc as amphipods, gastropods, annelids and fish (Barrera-Oro, 2002), and represent significant contribution to the particulate and dissolved organic matter for th coastal food web (Iken et al., 2011). Furthermore, macroalgae provide habitat an structural refuges (Barrera-Oro, 2002; Huang et al., 2007). Macroalgal coastal carbo production seems to be an important food source for the benthic Antarcti communities. If not grazed, macroalgae die and decompose, returning particulat organic matter and mineral nutrients to the system (Quartino and Boraso, 2008). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +The sublittoral rocky shores are colonized by macroalgae; the deeper macroalga assemblages are dominated by canopies of large brown algae from the Orde Desmarestiales (Desmarestia anceps, D. menziessi and Himantothallus grandifolius) which replace ecologically the role of the Order Laminariales (i.e., the kel Macrocystis pyrifera) in temperate waters (Wulff et al., 2011). +The strong isolation of the benthic seaweed flora of the South Atlantic Ocean ha resulted in a high degree of endemism in Antarctica. Thirty-five per cent of al seaweed species are endemic to the Antarctic region. Within the Heterokontophyt (brown and golden algae) 44 per cent of the species are endemic, within th Rhodophyta (red algae) 36 per cent and within the Chlorophyta (green algae) 18 pe cent; and the number of endemic species is continuously increasing (Wiencke an Amsler, 2012). The northern distribution of endemic Antarctic species is ofte limited by the temperature demands for growth. The southern-most location o open water where macroalgae occur is the Ross Sea, Antarctica (Wiencke an Clayton 2002). +5. Fish +The Antarctic ichthyofauna is small in size and less diverse than might be expected given the size and age of the Antarctic marine ecosystem (Eastman, 1995). Th knowledge of Antarctic fish began in the nineteenth century through zoogeographi and taxonomic descriptions. Fish fauna in the Antarctic is dominated by the Suborde Notothenioidei; approximately 66 per cent of the Antarctic species and 95 per cen in numbers belong to this Suborder. They live from tide pools (genus Harpagifer) t great depths (genus Bathydraco). Conversely, Antarctic habitats dominate within th Suborder: from about 100 species of notothenioids, 92 are Antarctic, 12 are found i Patagonia, 4 in New Zealand, 2 in Tasmania and 1 from Saint Paul and Amsterda Islands. In Antarctica, the Notothenioidei are represented by six families Bovichtidae, Nototheniidae, Harpagiferidae, Artedidraconidae, Bathydraconidae an Channichthyidae (Kock, 1992). The family Chaennichthydae (ice-fish) is exceptiona because it has a colorless blood due to lack of haemoglobin (Kock, 2005); only on species lives outside the Antarctic (Champsocephalus esox, Calvo et al., 1999). +Notothenioids lack a swim bladder and have antifreeze glycoproteins in their bloo (Matschiner et al., 2011). They have developed a wide range of feeding strategies which allow them to utilize food resources in a variety of habitats (Grohsler, 1994) This diversification has been supported by a trend towards pelagization of demersa species (Nybelin, 1947), which might be related to the abundance of available foo in the water column, such as krill, in zones of the Southern Ocean. Thus, fish ar main predators of benthos, zooplankton and nekton in the water column, includin krill, copepods, hyperiid amphipods, squid and fish. +Besides the Notothenioids, demersal fish of the families Zoarcidae, Liparidae Muraenolepidae, Macrouridae, Moridae, Achiropsettidae, etc. are represented wit significant numbers of species endemic to the Southern Ocean. Chondrichthyes +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +(sharks and rays) are also found with bottom dwelling (e.g. Somniosus antarcticus Amblyraja spp. and Bathyraja spp.) and mesopelagic species (e.g. Lamna nasus). +The Southern Ocean lacks the epipelagic fish typically found in surface waters o other oceans. The few species of mesopelagic fish, living in the open ocean down t depths of about 1000 m, are members of cosmopolitan families. Typically antarctic i the nothotheniid Pleurogramma antarctica. Closely related with ice are the specie Trematomus borchgrevinki, +T. amphitreta, and Pagothenia brachysoma. A recent revision of Southern Ocea fish, their diversity and biogeography can be found in Duhamel et al. 2014. +The environmental factors related to fish distribution can only be described i general terms. On the deep Antarctic shelves (500 m deep on average in th Antarctic, against some 200 m deep worldwide) lying in the area of seasonal ice an the islands in the Scotia arc, the fish fauna are dominated by the familie Notothenidae and Channichthydae. In the high Antarctic, although the biomass an numbers are smaller, the diversity and endemism are the highest (Kock, 1992) (e.g. genera Trematomus, Pleuragramma, Aethotaxis and Pagothenia). +Pelagic fish include occasional species like Lampris spp., Lamna nasus and Thunnu maccoyii, and, in general, species also found in waters north of the Polar Front About 85 per cent of the shelf fish fauna are endemic to the Antarctic against only 2 per cent of the deep sea fish. The vertical distribution of mesopelagic fish is relate to the Antarctic surface water (Lubimova et al., 1983). +High energetic costs are associated with pelagic feeding, which may hamper th development of shark species in the southern basins. On the other hand, th benthos is a seasonally stable resource, but most of the benthic epifauna are no very suitable for utilization by fish (Kock, 1992). +The mesopelagic fish fauna are mainly composed of Myctophidae (the dominan group) and Gonostomatidae (Kozlov, 1995); the distribution is mainly circumpola and always related to the Antarctic surface water (Lubimova et al., 1983). This wate mass drifts northwards and sinks at the Polar Front. Gymnoscopelus nicholsi, foun in surface waters down to 700 m near the subtropical convergence, reaches mor than 2000 m depth; they are prey of other fish, squid, fur seals and penguin (Sabourenkov, 1991). Pleuragramma antarcticum is the nototheniid present in th mesopelagic over the shelves. +Inshore, the ecological role of demersal fish is more important than that of krill There, demersal fish are major consumers of benthos and also feed on zooplankto (mainly krill in summer). They are links between lower and upper levels of the foo web and are common prey of other fish, birds and seals. Offshore, pelagic fish (e.g. myctophids, Pleuragramma antarcticum) play an important role in the energy flo from macrozooplankton to higher trophic levels (Barrera-Oro, 2002). As kril predators, fish play an important role in the Southern Ocean ecosystems (Kock et al. 2012). Nototheniids and Channichthyids are relevant predators of krill an myctophids (Kock et al., 2012); the latter also prey on all development stages of krill. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +6. Higher-order predators +Many sub-Antarctic species of birds, pinnipeds and cetaceans occur in northern ice free waters of the Southern Ocean, and move south in the summer as the pack ic recedes (see chapter 36B). Oceanic fronts present sharp discontinuities in th properties of surface water and food availability; it is well known that predator associate with fronts where they find favourable feeding conditions and are critica for the distribution of seabirds and marine mammals (Bost et al., 2009). +Numerous species of seabirds have been recorded in the Southern Ocean; most ar vagrant with only 16 of them nesting in the Antarctic continent (Clements, 2000 Woehler et al., 2001; Harris et al., 2011; Coria et al., 2011; Santora and Veit, 2013 Joiris and Dochy, 2013; Ropert-Coudert et al., 2014). Vagrant species forage withi the productive Southern Ocean waters during summer and come mainly from sub Antarctic islands, although some, such as the Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea, fl thousands of kilometres from very distant places (Egevang et al., 2010). community of seabirds with very stable composition is found in the pack ice; it i probably the most unvarying of any seabird assemblage in the Southern Hemispher (Ribic and Ainley, 1988). Penguins (Adélie and Emperor) are the typical species together with snow and Antarctic petrels and, in summer, the South Polar skua an Wilson and storm petrels. +Penguins are the dominant component of the seabird communities in the Souther Ocean in terms both of biomass and prey consumption (Croxall and Lishman, 1987) Nine out of the 18 penguin species inhabit the Southern Ocean; their distribution are reflected in their diets and adaptations to the particular environmenta conditions found in their respective ranges, as summarized by Ratcliffe and Tratha (2011): +- Emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) are inhabitants of the high Antarctic; thi is the only species that breeds on the land-fast ice along the Antarctic coast durin winter. When foraging during winter, emperor penguins have to travel to the edg of the fast ice to feed (Wienecke and Robertson 1997; Zimmer et al., 2008). +- King penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) feed close to the Polar Front in summer predominantly on myctophids (Krefftichthys anderssoni and Electrona carlsbergi). | winter the birds move closer to the ice edge. +- Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) breed on the Antarctic continent and nearb islands, but their breeding season is in summer, roughly from October to March, an their foraging activity is heavily dependent on sea-ice conditions (Ainley, 2002). Thei diet is dominated by euphausiid crustaceans and fish (e.g., Coria et al., 1995 Libertelli et al., 2003). Foraging is mainly confined to pack ice, and seasona variations in the distribution of this ice cause marked seasonal and spatial variation in foraging ranges, migration routes and wintering areas. +- Chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) have a diet comprised almost entirely o Euphausia superba; diet and reproductive success are dependent on ice condition (Rombola et al., 2003; 2006). Chinstrap penguins tend to forage in open water an avoid areas of pack ice (Ainley et al., 1992). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +- Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) have a diet comprised of a wide range o crustacean and fish taxa, with crustaceans typically less important than for othe Pygoscelis or Eudyptes spp. breeding at the same sites. +- Royal penguins (Eudyptes schlegeli) are found only on Macquarie Island an macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) are found at all other localities. Thei diet comprises mostly euphausiid crustaceans and myctophid fish throughout thei biogeographic range, with small contributions by amphipods and squid. +Among flying seabirds, the families that are best represented in the Antarctic marin avifauna are Procellariiformes, including albatrosses (Diomedeidae), petrels, prion and shearwaters (Procellariidae), storm petrels (Hydrobatidae) and diving petrel (Pelecanoididae). The order Suliformes is represented by cormorant (Phalacrocoracidae) and the order Charadriiformes by skuas (Stercorariidae) and, t a lesser extent, the gulls and terns (Laridae). Most of the Procellariiformes trave hundreds or thousands of kilometres from the colony during the breeding season t feed on patchily distributed resources and they migrate even further during the non breeding period (Phillips et al., 2008). +Antarctic marine mammals can be defined as those species whose populations rel on the Southern Ocean as a critical habitat for a part or all of their life history, eithe through the provision of habitat for breeding and/or through the provision of major food source (Boyd, 2009). The Southern Ocean accounts for about 10 per cen of the world’s oceans, but is estimated to support 80 per cent of the world’ pinniped biomass (Laws, 1977) and is a critical feeding ground for several cetaceans particularly the highly migratory baleen whales (Mackintosh, 1965). Man subfamilies and genera are missing in the Southern Ocean. In spite of the specie richness of the family Otariidae (sea lions and fur seals) in the South Atlantic, India and Pacific Oceans, only Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) are found sout of the Polar Front in island rookeries and open waters; sometimes they reach th boundary of the pack ice during the austral summer, and some 50 per cent of th population migrates north during winter. This species feeds mainly on krill, with fis and squid found in their diet in proportions that vary with area and season. +True seals (family Phocidae) are represented by five species. The elephant sea (Mirounga leonina), also found north of the Polar Front in open waters, is seldo found in the pack-ice area and also migrates to the north in winter. The remainin seal species are more or less associated with the pack ice: the leopard seal (Hydrurg leptonix) preys on krill (about half of its diet), seabirds (mainly penguins), other seal and fish. The Weddell seal’s (Leptonychotes weddellii) diet is practically all fish and small proportion of krill. The crabeater seal is the most abundant marine mammal i the world (Lobodon carcinophaga) and is a pack-ice inhabitant feeding mostly o krill. Finally, the Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii) is very scarce and little is known o its diet. +A main ecological distinction exists between seals: those breeding in shore colonie (fur and elephant seals) and those breeding on the pack ice (leopard, Weddell crabeater and Ross seals). The difference is a key element in our ability to estimat population sizes: ice-breeding seals can only be studied through large-scale survey and it is very difficult to sample the same population year after year; shore colonies +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +offer easier conditions (Southwell et al., 2012). Crabeater seal numbers wer estimated from the Antarctic Pack Ice Seals (APIS) International Programme at 1 million individuals, albeit with large confidence intervals and this is likely to be a overestimate (Southwell et al., 2012). Populations of the other three species ar much smaller. +Cetaceans in the Southern Ocean are represented by six species of baleen whale blue (Balaenoptera musculus), fin (Balaenoptera physalus), sei (Balaenopter borealis), humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), Antarctic minke (Balaenopter bonaerensis) and southern right whales (Eubalaena australis). Among these, th Antarctic blue whale was depleted close to extinction by the whaling industry (fro 239,000 (95 per cent confidence interval; 202,000-311,000) to a low of 360 (150 840) in 1973) (Branch et al., 2004). Current estimates suggest that some population are recovering, but that others are not (e.g., those seldom sighted in the Antarcti Peninsula region); others, such as the southern right whale and especially th humpback whale, are both increasing in numbers (Branch, 2011). +At least nine species of odontocetes are found: sperm whale (Physete macrocephalus), southern bottlenose (Hyperoodon planifrons), Arnoux’s (Berardiu arnuxii), Cuvier’s (Ziphius cavirostris) and strap-toothed (Mesoplodon layardii beaked whales, long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), orca (Orcinus orca) hourglass dolphin (Lagenorhynchus cruciger) and the spectacled porpoise (Phocoen dioptrica)) (Brownell, 1974; Laws, 1977; Jefferson et al., 2008). Female sperm whale do not reach the Southern Ocean, and only large adult males reach the pack ice. +All in all, cetaceans in the Southern Ocean represent a little less than one-fifth of th world’s cetacean species in spite of the large diversity of this family (86 species) Those species that sustain a large biomass are related to the direct plankton foo chain (diatoms-krill-vertebrates) which has on average one trophic level less and i more efficient in terms of the transfer of energy and mass _ than those that includ squid or fish as intermediate steps (Boyd, 2009). +7. Pressures and Trends +By-catch, habitat loss, introduced species, human disturbance, pollution and climat change pose severe, albeit of different intensity, threats for seabirds at sea and i colonies in the Southern Ocean and along the Antarctic continent (Micol an Jouventin, 2001; Croxall et al., 2002; Weimerskirch et al., 2003; Jenouvrier et al. 2005). Population trends are variable between species and colonies within a specie (Woehler et al., 2001). Significant decreases in populations are evident for thos species known to be caught on longline fisheries (albatrosses, Southern giant petre and Procellaria spp.: Woehler et al., 2001; Tuck et al., 2003). Penguin populatio trends vary in terms of degree and direction among species and geographical area (Forcada et al., 2006; Lynch et al., 2010; Trivelpiece et al., 2011; Coria et al., 2011) Burrowing petrel species are poorly known, in particular their abundance and trend (Woehler et al., 2001). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +8. Harvesting of living resources +Early exploration of the Southern Ocean was driven by the potential of harvesting it nekton — first mammals, then finfish, and finally krill. The discovery of islands lyin south of the Antarctic Polar Front rapidly led to the initiation of massive sealin expeditions from various nations during the early 1800s. The outcome of thes intensive sealing activities was the near-extermination of fur seals in Antarctic an Sub-Antarctic Islands by the mid-19" century. Combined with the hunting of fu seals, a rather less relentless pursuit of elephant seals (Wirounga leonina) followe for the production of an oil equivalent to whale oil (Bonner, 1984). In 1812, a ne method to process seal skins was introduced in London factories, increasing th value of southern pelts. Despite efforts to regulate the catches, Patagonian seal were depleted below commercial levels by 1825, and the Antarctic exploration an harvesting finally resulted in severe depletion and loss of commercial value of sea colonies by 1840. Around 1870, technological improvements led to the growth o pelagic whaling with the development of faster, steam-powered catching vessels and whaling in the Southern Ocean entered a new era in the early years of the 20 century, which saw the industrialization of whale exploitation. In 1904, the firs shore station was built at Grytviken. In 1912, about 11,000 whales were kille annually to be processed at six Antarctic shore stations, a level deemed to b unsustainable (Suarez, 1927). Over the following decades (1904-1960s), more than million large whales were caught, reducing their populations to less than 35 per cen of their initial numbers and 16 per cent of their original biomass (Laws, 1977 Clapham et al.,1999). +The ensuing extraction of other resources followed the same pattern as in othe parts of the world; from the highest trophic levels down the trophic web (Kock 2007; Ainley and Pauly, 2014). The impacts of the reduction to less than 20 per cen of their original size of several fish stocks by 1980, stocks which are not experiencin significant recovery despite management actions by the Convention for th Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) (Ainley and Blight 2008; Marschoff et al., 2012) are still felt in spite of significant harvest reduction (including fisheries closures in large areas). Species’ relationships might be altered b harvesting: for example, evidence exists that the decrease in demersal fish in th fishing area was followed by a long-term increase in populations of benthic octopod (Vecchione et al., 2009). +Although the targets and intensity of harvesting have shifted over the years, th ecosystem effects continue. Removal of large predators, such as seals and especiall whales, reduces predation pressure on species in the mid-level of the food web including fish and squid. Some of the large predators (e.g., baleen whales, fur an crabeater seals) feed directly on krill, whereas others (e.g., toothed whales) feed o krill predators. Therefore, the ecosystem effects of sealing, whaling and fishing ar potentially complex and were initially related to the “whale reduction” or “kril surplus” hypothesis (Sladen, 1964), in which the outcome from the dramati exploitation of whale stocks was a presumed excess of food (krill) which was bein redistributed throughout the system. Although sealing has ceased and historica levels of whaling have been reduced (a reduced harvest of baleen whales continues), +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +impacts from the reduced levels of these top-level species arguably still reverberat through the pelagic ecosystem. +The reduction of whaling brought about increased harvesting of fish. Rapid reductio of the target fish stocks was a major reason for the adoption of the CCAMLR, whic implemented international fisheries and ecosystem research and resulted in moratorium on bottom fishing for notothenioids. Kock and Jones (2007) reviewe the fisheries data for the primary fishing area around the Antarctic Peninsula. The found that populations of several fish species declined as a result of the fisher primarily targeting mackerel icefish, Champsocephalus gunnari, and marble notothenia, Notothenia rossii. Since the CCAMLR moratorium was implemented i 1989-90 for the South Shetland area, populations of several fish species hav recovered, but not of the two main target species. The observed recovery i Notothenia rossii in the South Shetland Islands shelf is taking longer than th objective set by CCAMLR of two or three decades and Gobionotothen gibberifron remains at low levels (Barrera-Oro and Marschoff, 2007). +Finfish fishing was conducted by bottom trawling until 1985, when regulation of by catch of depleted finfish species moved the Champsocephalus gunnari fishery t introduce midwater trawls. Since 2008, fisheries where the fishing gear interact with the bottom (e.g., longlining and demersal trawling) are subject to mitigatio measures to protect Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems, for example the position where substantial amounts of VME indicator species are encountered are closed t fishing (see CCAMLR — Conservation Measures at www.ccamlr.org). Further, marin reserves have been established by France and Australia (Welsford et al. 2011 Falguier and Marteau 2011) and in South Orkney Islands where fishing is restricted. +Antarctic fur seals may have recovered (and may even have become overpopulate on South Orkneys during the late 1990s (Hodgson et al., 1998)) after being severel depleted, but some breeding rookeries have reached carrying capacity well belo historical records (Hucke-Gaete et al., 2004). Trends in the ice-breeding seals ar difficult to establish (Southwell et al., 2012). In other circumstances it might becom impossible to determine the causes behind the observed population trends. Fo example, it is difficult (if not impossible) to disentangle the effects of climate change recovery of seals, and variations in krill availability on the population trend observed for pack-ice seals (Trathan et al., 2012). However, recent evidenc suggests that climate change might actually be responsible for the declining trend i Antarctic fur seals, where food stress provoked by climate variation has significantl reduced female longevity, juvenile and adult survival, fecundity and pup birt weight, among other symptoms, since 2003, after a three-decade monitorin programme of biometric, life history and genetic aspects (Forcada and Hoffman 2014). +A decrease in density of krill (Euphausia superba) and a correlated increase in sal abundance has been suggested from the analysis of net samples (Atkinson et al. 2004). Krill decrease has also been inferred by stable isotope studies in kril predators (e.g., Huang et al., 2011). +The regulation of Antarctic fisheries under CCAMLR operates in the framework of th Antarctic Treaty System. Since its inception (1980), CCAMLR requires the application +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +of the ecosystem approach, aiming to limit the changes induced by the fisheries t those reversible in two to three decades. Catch limits and inter alia, fishing method and data collection requirements are established by a Comission, based on th assessments and advice provided by the Scientific Committee. To date, no method of catch allocation among members are in place. Several of the 25 Commissio Members and 11 acceding do not participate in harvesting. However, th management developed along 30 years has proved to be effective in the sense tha this organization is highly regarded in terms of the achievement of conservatio objectives (Cullis-Suzuki and Pauly, 2010). +The krill fishery is the largest in the Southern Ocean. Recent annual catch ha exceeded 200,000 tons. The fishery developed on a relatively small scale in th 1970s, but rapidly increased during the 1980s to a peak of >500,000 tons/year (Nico et al., 2012). This is actually much less than the precautionary catch limit set b CCAMLR at a total of over 8.6 million tons. Therefore, krill are considered to b “underexploited”, but the fishery is expanding and management methods to tak into account ecosystem considerations are under development (e.g., CCAMLR, 2013 paragraph 5.5; SC-CAMLR, 2013, paragraphs 3.11 to 3.27). A trigger level (a level tha cannot be exceeded until more advanced management procedures are in place) o 620,000 tons throughout the main fishing ground is being applied by CCAMLR However, ecosystem effects of the removal of large numbers of krill remain to b determined, especially when considered in light of climate change. +9. Climate change +In addition to harvesting, the other major pressure on Antarctic biota is the changin climate. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) produced comprehensive Antarctic Climate Impact Assessment (Turner et al. (eds.), 2009). Th following discussion is largely based on this report. +For the past 50 years the Antarctic marine ecosystem has been affected by climat change, especially on the western side of the Peninsula, with its warming water an declining sea ice. Westerly winds around the continent have increased by 20 pe cent since the 1970s and surface air temperature has increased over the Antarcti Peninsula. Information from ice cores suggest that warming started around 1800 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current temperature increased by approximately 0.5° between 300 m to 1000 m. Boning et al. (2008) analyzed historical and recent dat from drifting buoys, finding that the wind-driven Antarctic Circumpolar Current ha not augmented its transport, but reported warming and freshening of the current o a hemispherical scale extending below 1000 m, meaning that transport an meridional overturning are insensitive to changes in wind stress. Although th response of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the carbon sink to wind-stres changes is under debate, it has been suggested (Hallberg and Gnanadesikan, 2006 Meredith and Hogg, 2006) that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current’s response to a increase in wind is a change in eddy activity rather than a change in transport. Give the importance of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and its system of eddies in +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +structuring the pelagic ecosystem, the consequences of these changes cannot b foreseen. +Ship observations suggest that the extent of sea ice was greater in the first half o the twentieth century, but satellite measurements from 1979 to 2006show positive trend of around 1 per cent per decade. The greatest increase, at around 4. per cent per decade, occurred in the Ross Sea; the reduction in sea-ice cove affected the Bellingshausen sea. +The pelagic ecosystem was affected by the consequences of the regional sea-ic reduction. Krill population has not increased after the near-extinction of some whal stocks. Although predation by seals and birds increased, the total bird and sea biomass remains only a fraction of that of the former whale population (Flores et al. 2012). The krill stock, of which 150 million tons were being eaten by whales, woul have been an estimated three times larger in the pre-whaling time. Commensurat primary production would be around that estimated for the North Sea, not leavin much for other grazers and copepods. This means that phytoplankton als decreased, but the details of the phenomenon are still unclear. +Sea bird monitoring in the Scotia Sea has shown a significant decline in th abundance of krill predators, such as the cape petrel, Daption capense, the souther fulmar, Fulmarus glacialoides, and Wilson’s storm petrel, Oceanites oceanicus; othe species with generalist diets have increased their number: the Antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata, and the Black-browed Albatross, Thalassarche melanophri (Orgeira and Montalti, 1998). Other non-Antarctic species, such as the white chinned petrel, Procellaria aequinoctialis, have extended their pelagic ranges furthe south, (Montalti et al., 1999). +At least a conceptual model of the structure and functioning of the ecosystem i necessary to understand these phenomena. /n-situ iron fertilization experiment demonstrated that iron, as a micronutrient, may limit phytoplankton growth even i presence of large concentrations of nitrate and phosphate. In the whale feedin grounds, krill stocks were close to, if not at, the carrying capacity of the ecosyste prior to whaling; this is consistent with the frequent observations in the 1930s of kril swarms at the surface, an observation now seldom made from tourist or scientifi vessels. +Estimates of krill abundance derived from the analysis of net samples indicate decline of up to 81 per cent in the krill stock (Atkinson et al., 2004) and an increase i salp populations, suggesting the replacement of krill by salps and of the typical shor food chain of diatoms-krill-higher predators by the longer food chain implied in th microbial food webs to which salps are better adapted. The actual dimension o these changes is currently under debate, because of the large difficulties associate with the analysis of the simultaneous effects of whale depletion, sea-ice retreat a one of the most important recruitment sites of krill (the western Antarcti Peninsula), iron-limited phytoplankton growth, and more complex ecologica phenomena (Ainley et al., 2007; Nicol et al., 2007). The lower rate of recycling of iro in the microbial planktonic food web when compared to the short diatom-krill predators “chain of the giants” may also contribute to the reduction in iron. Large +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +predators also contribute to iron recycling while accumulating blubber and excretin nutrients in surface waters; a significant proportion of plankton biomass is degrade below the euphotic zone. Thus the productive “chain of the giants” may hav maintained itself via recycling the nutrients at a rate compatible with the growth o phytoplankton. +With the decline in sea ice, more phytoplankon blooms should be supplying food t benthic organisms on the shelf. A resulting increase in phytodetritus on the shel may cause a decline in suspension feeders adapted to limited food supplies, and t their associated fauna. The positive correlation between the extent and duration o sea-ice cover over krill reproduction and survival (Loeb et al., 1997), the negativ trends of sea-ice extent (Stammerjohn et al., 2008) and the overall decrease in kril biomass over the last decades (Siegel and Loeb 1995; Atkinson et al., 2004) would b expected to have profound implications for the Southern Ocean food web and is th most relevant issue affecting krill-dependent fauna particularly. When ice shelve collapse, the changes from a unique ice-shelf-covered ecosystem to a typica Antarctic shelf ecosystem, with high primary production during a short summer, ar likely to be among the largest ecosystem changes on the planet, a process tha seems to develop faster than was previously thought (Gutt et al., 2013). +Another expected impact of climate change is the change in pH levels, with seawate becoming more acid. It seems likely that the skeletons of planktonic pteropoda an of cold water corals will become thinner. Hatching rates of krill eggs are als demonstrated to be negatively affected by the level of ocean acidification projecte for the end of the century and beyond (Kawaguchi et al., 2013). The Southern Ocea is at higher risk from this than other oceans, because it has low saturation levels o CaCO3. +10. Invasive species +The slow rates of growth and endemism of Antarctic species may lead to th establishment of non-indigenous species, probably restricted by their ow physiological limits. The incomplete taxonomic knowledge of the Antarctic biota wil make it difficult to recognize whether a particular specimen is the result of a natura southern distribution limit or an invasive species. Examples include: the occasiona findings of anomuran and brachyuran larvae in the South Shetland Islands (Thatj and Fuentes, 2003); Euphausia superba in Chilean fjords; Antarctic diatoms i Tasmania, etc. (Clarke et al., 2005). +There is concern that several factors associated with ocean warming and increase vessel activity (scientific expeditions, tourism, fisheries, etc.) in the Antarctic increas the risk of the introduction of alien species and even pathogens (Kerry and Riddle 2009). In the crab-eater population of the Antarctic Peninsula, one-third of th population carries antibodies to the canine distemper (Bengtson et al., 1991) attributed to contagion from sled dogs, which were removed from the Antarcti Treaty Area. The introduction of non-native living organisms is banned, except i accordance with a permit. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +11. Contamination +At the local level, contaminants from coastal stations are introduced through wast water, dump sites and particulates from the activity of stations and ships. Persisten organic pollutants (POPs) have been found in water, sediments and organisms in th vicinity of several stations (e.g., UNEP, 2002; Bargagli, 2005). Since 1991, th Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty’ has imposed sever restrictions and regulations on disposal and treatment of wastes and emissions fro stations and tourism vessels. Thus, locally originated contamination is not expecte to become a significant problem. +Global contamination reaches Antarctica through the global circulation of th oceans. Persistent pollutants are transported and biomagnified, these include DD (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and other organophospates. While DDT has bee little used since the 1970s a possible source of DDT maintaining high levels i penguin populations is glacier ablation (Geisz et al., 2008). Anthropogeni radionuclides stemming from above-ground nuclear bomb testing are also presen throughout Antarctica, including evidence of the Chernobyl nuclear accident (Dibb e al., 1990), and have even been used to provide dating controls within long-live biological systems (Clarke, 2008). Snow samples enabled the reconstruction of lea pollution of Antarctica that started as early as the 1880s, related to non-ferrou metal production activities in South America, South Africa and Australia and coal powered ships that crossed Cape Horn en route between the Atlantic and Pacifi Oceans. Lead pollution declined in the 1920s, correlated with the opening of th Panama Canal in 1914, and decreased from the mid-1980s because of lead-fre modern cars. Antarctica is significantly contaminated with other metals, such as Cr Cu, Zn, Ag, Bi and U, as a consequence of long-distance transport from th surrounding continents. +References +Ainley, D.G. and DeMaster, D.P. (1990). The upper trophic levels in polar marin ecosystems. In Smith, W.O. Jr. (ed.), Polar Oceanography, Part B: Chemistry biology, and geology, pp. 599-630. Academic Press, San Diego, California. +Ainley, D.G., Ribic, C.A. and Fraser, W.R. (1992). Does prey preference affect habita choice in Antarctic seabirds. 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Pola Biology, 31, 229-243. +© 2016 United Nations +4 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36H.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_36H.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_37.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_37.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..91b48b10f81d63bac5ed1d31b1808f71fff5f334 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_37.txt @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ +Chapter 37. Marine Mammals +Contributors: Tim D. Smith (Convenor), John Bannister, Ellen Hines, Randall Reeves Lorenzo Rojas-Bracho, Peter Shaughnessy, Jake Rice (Lead Member and Editor fo Part VI) +1. Introduction +Marine mammals occupy a wide range of marine and some freshwater habitat around the world. They have been used by humans for millennia for food and t obtain other products. Marine mammals consist of cetaceans (whales, dolphins an porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and walruses), sirenians (dugongs an manatees), mustelids (sea otters and marine otters) and the polar bear — 130 o more species in total, including several that range into fresh water and some tha exclusively occupy rivers and lakes. Human interactions, both direct and indirect have negatively affected most marine mammal species at least to some degree Historically, industrial harvesting greatly reduced the abundance of man populations. Although the intensity of such exploitation has declined in recen decades for many species, humans continue to use certain species of marin mammals in some places for food, skins, fur, ivory and increasingly as bait fo fisheries. In addition, human activities continue to reduce the availability and qualit of marine mammal habitats and cause substantial numbers of marine mammals t die incidentally as a result of entanglement or entrapment in fishing gear and fro being struck by vessels. Mitigation of ongoing and future threats to marin mammals from human activities requires improved knowledge of those huma activities and of the animals’ ecology, behaviour and habitat use. +1.1 Changes in Biological Diversity +Globally, certain species of marine mammals have become extinct over the las several centuries, i.e., Steller's sea cow, the Japanese sea lion, the Caribbean mon seal. The Yangtze River dolphin (baiji) is also likely to have become extinct althoug there has been one unconfirmed sighting in 2005. In addition, many population have been reduced to remnant status, such that they no longer play a significant rol in the ecosystem, i.e., they are functionally extinct. For example, right whales hav essentially disappeared from the eastern North Atlantic, and walruses are gone fro their former strongholds in south-eastern Canada (Gulf of St. Lawrence and Sabl Island). The loss of marine mammal diversity due to actual and functional extinction has had significant effects on marine ecosystems at varying scales from local t ocean-basin-wide (Estes et al., 2006). +1.2 Magnitude of changes +Besides the above-mentioned extinctions and extirpations, the numerical abundance +© 2016 United Nation + +(and biomass) of many other marine mammal populations has been greatly reduced All of the commercially valuable great whales were depleted by whaling. A goo example is the world's largest animal, the blue whale. Within the 20" century mor than 360,000 Antarctic blue whales were taken, leaving a remnant population of onl hundreds of animals and a current abundance of roughly 5 per cent of origina numbers (Branch et al., 2007). Some populations of virtually all types of marin mammals have been depleted to low levels; for example, southern and norther hemisphere populations of fur seals and elephant seals were all depleted b harvesting for either their fur or their oil (Busch, 1985). Similarly, many population of sirenians and sea otters have been reduced to small fractions of historic levels. +Although the abundance of almost all populations of marine mammals has bee reduced by human activities, a number of them have recovered since they wer protected from deliberate exploitation. Eastern Pacific gray whales, norther elephant seals, eastern Steller sea lions, humpback whales and some populations o right whales provide some of the most clear-cut examples. Certain populations o those species, however, have not recovered and remain at small fractions of histori levels (e.g., western Pacific gray whales, Arabian Sea humpback whales, wester Steller sea lions, North Atlantic right whales, and southern right whales in som areas). +2. Population trends or conservation status +2.1. Aggregated at global scale +Because of the great diversity of marine mammal species and their habitats, it i difficult to characterize their conservation status and population trends in th aggregate or at a global scale. Many of the marine species suffered major decline over the past several hundred years as a result of commercial hunting. Massiv changes in human demography and economy have unquestionably affected th environmental carrying capacity, particularly in coastal regions, and as a result les suitable habitat (including forage base) is available to support marine mamma populations. These changes make ‘full’ recovery unfeasible for some species. +2.2... Major taxonomic and/or geographic subdivision 2.2.1. Large whales +Commercial exploitation began as long ago as the 10" century, and by the late 19 century intensive whaling had caused severe depletion, and even near-extinction, o some species and populations. Industrial mechanized whaling in the 20" century le to further major declines. Some populations of large whales have been recovering i recent decades: for example, humpback whales globally, blue whales in some region and southern hemisphere right whales when treated as a single group (Figure 1, fro IWC, 2013a). At the same time, many populations have failed to recover to anywher near their original abundance. For example, right whales are effectively extirpate from the eastern North Atlantic, and are only barely surviving in the eastern North +© 2016 United Nation + +Pacific the eastern South Pacific, and around New Zealand (Jackson et al., 2011) 2.2.2. Pelagic dolphins and porpoises +Pelagic (off-shore) dolphins are generally less susceptible to human interactions tha many marine mammals because they are relatively small, of little commercia importance, wide-ranging (some species are also extremely numerous) and live fa from most human activities. There are potential interactions with military activity and clear interactions with fishing gear in the eastern tropical Pacific. Several dolphi species in that region have been significantly affected by humans because they hav symbiotic relationships with other pelagic animals that are of commercial interest notably yellowfin tuna. Purse seine fishermen learned to chase and encircle thes dolphins to facilitate the capture of tuna, and in the past large numbers of dolphin drowned in the nets. This mortality greatly reduced the abundance of several dolphi species in the latter half of the 20" century. Due to international efforts, fishin methods have changed and the by-catch has been reduced significantly (Hedley 2010, NMFS, undated). +2.2.3. Coastal and Estuarine dolphins and porpoises +Coastal dolphins and porpoises are hunted for food and bait by a number of States Furthermore, they often die accidentally in fishing gear in coastal commercial an artisanal fisheries. This has contributed to declines in abundance, at times to critica levels. For example, vaquitas in the Gulf of California (Mexico) declined by 57 pe cent from 1997-2008, and continue to decline (Gerrodette et al., 2011). In Ne Zealand, the Maui dolphin (a subspecies of Hector’s dolphin) has declined to very lo levels (Currey et al., 2012; Hamner et al., 2012). In both cases, there have bee management interventions aimed at minimizing direct mortalities an entanglements. However, under current levels of direct mortalities an entanglements, these trends are expected to continue, with both the vaquita and th Maui dolphin at risk of becoming extinct within the next few decades (CIRVA 2014). +Several species of small cetaceans live in estuaries and in large rivers, often in clos proximity to humans, and are threatened by artisanal fisheries, pollution, and coasta development. Two species of South American river dolphins are relativel widespread and at least locally common in Amazonia and Orinoquia: the tucuxi an the boto (Trujillo et al., 2010). The endemic blind river dolphins of the South Asia subcontinent still inhabit large portions of the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra an Karnaphuli rivers. Although they are locally common in a few places, their number and ranges have declined markedly over the past century. Three relict populations o 100 or fewer Irrawaddy dolphins persist in the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River o Myanmar, the Mahakam River of eastern Borneo, Indonesia, and the Mekong River o Cambodia and Laos. All three populations are at high risk of extirpation from variety of human activities (Kreb et al., 2010). The baiji (Lipotes vexillifer), endemic t the Yangtze River, (China), is likely to have become extinct in the early 21* centur (Turvey et al., 2007), and the Yangtze population of narrow-ridged finless porpois (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis) is declining rapidly, probably due t mortality in fishing gear, vessel strikes and habitat degradation (Wang et al., 2013). +© 2016 United Nation + +2.2.4. Pinnipeds +Populations of many species of commercially exploited pinnipeds were greatl reduced in abundance from the 18" to the 20" century. They were targeted mainl for the oil from their insulating blubber and for their fur. Some species, such as th Caribbean monk seal and the Japanese sea lion, were driven to extinction, an others, such as the Mediterranean monk seal, as well as fur seals in many areas, wer reduced to very low numbers. The hooded seal in the Greenland Sea has bee hunted down to 10-15 per cent of its original population. However, some regiona and ocean-basin-wide pinniped populations have been recovering, such as the har seal in Canada and grey and common seals in the United Kingdom of Great Britai and Northern Ireland. In some cases they have been recolonizing habitat where the had long been absent, for example, the New Zealand fur seal has expanded int former habitats in New Zealand and Australia (Shaughnessy et al., 2014). In othe cases populations have increased to historical levels, such as the Antarctic krill-eatin seals (Kovacs et al., 2012). +2.2.5. Sirenians +Manatees and dugongs are the only totally aquatic herbivorous mammals, feedin primarily on submerged vegetation. Sirenians have a global range in about 90 tropica and subtropical countries. They have been and continue to be hunted, trapped, an netted for food, and human activities of many kinds have modified or otherwis degraded their habitat. Overall, populations have been greatly reduced in terms o both abundance and range. One species discovered in 1741, Steller's sea cow, wa hunted to extinction in less than a quarter of a century after its discovery. Th present status varies regionally (Marsh et al. 2014, Hines et al. 2014). +2.2.6. Mustelids +Two species of mustelids are truly marine: the sea otter (Enhydra lutris), along th Pacific coast of North America and East Asia, and the marine otter (Lontra felina) along the Pacific coast of South America. Both species are very coastal and they hav been extensively exploited for their pelts. The sea otter has recovered substantially i many areas of its original distribution, whereas the marine otter has not, as i continued to be harvested through much of the 20" century. Its contracted range i fragmented due to various kinds of human interaction (IUCN, 2015). +2.2.7. Polar bears +Polar bears are endemic to high latitudes of the northern hemisphere. They have circumpolar distribution and depend on both sea ice (for hunting pinnipeds and fo denning and reproduction in some areas) and land (for hunting hauled-out pinniped such as walruses, as well as for denning and reproduction). Most populations hav been subjected to extensive killing, at least historically, mainly for meat, hides, an sport, and to protect human life and property. Commercial hunting is no prohibited, although substantial numbers of bears are killed every year (legally) b aboriginal people in Alaska (United States of America), Canada and Greenlan (Denmark). The main long-term and range-wide threat to polar bears is the projecte loss of sea ice habitat associated with climate change. Sea ice provides essentia breeding habitat for ringed seals, the principal prey of polar bears, and the bears rely +© 2016 United Nation + +on ice as a hunting platform to gain access to the seals. Limited access to food lead to mobilization of fat reserves and the release of hazardous substances stored in fat which are transported by the blood circulation to vital organs such as liver and brain High levels of contaminants have been associated with negative health effects (e.g enzyme activation, hormonal disturbance and weakened immune systems) in pola bears in Svalbard (Norway), Greenland (Denmark), and Hudson Bay, Canad (Atkinsson et al 1996). +2.3 Special Conservation Status Issue 2.3.1 Sources of conservation information +International Whaling Commission: The conservation issues associated with larg whales and, to a lesser extent, small cetaceans are addressed in the reports of th Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission. Besides directe hunting, these reports increasingly have addressed other topics of concern, includin habitat degradation, ship strikes, climate change, fisheries by-catch, nois disturbance, and ecological interactions. The status of many of the great whales is +summarized at www.iwc.int/status#species. +International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): The IUCN Red List is a authoritative and regularly updated source of conservation information for all specie and subspecies of marine mammals and for many threatened subpopulations. Thi information is easily accessible (www.redlist.org). The authority for listin determinations resides within the relevant Specialist Groups (SG) of the IUCN Specie Survival Commission: the Pinniped SG, Cetacean SG, Sirenian SG, Otter SG and Pola Bear SG. +National and regional sources: In addition to the international sources o conservation information, some nations undertake research in support o management. Information obtained from such research is often available online Major sources include Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. Th United States National Marine Fisheries Service and Fish and Wildlife Service provid updated Stock Assessment Reports on marine mammals under their respectiv jurisdictions (www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/sars www.fws.gov/alaska/fisheries/mmm/stock/stock.htm). The United Sates Marin Mammal Commission also provides much information on marine mammal scienc and conservation (www.mmc.gov). In Canada, the Department of Fisheries an Oceans publishes information on population and ecosystem status (www.isdm gdsi.gc.ca/csas-sccs). In addition, the Committee on the Status of Endangere Wildlife in Canada posts status reports on all marine mammal species of concern i Canada (www.sararegistry.gc.ca). Australia provides information on cetaceans pinnipeds and dugongs that occur in areas within national jurisdictio (www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-species). New Zealand undertake its own assessments (Hitchmough, 2010). In addition, a regional body in the Nort Atlantic, the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission, provides information o marine mammals in that region (www.nammco.no). +2.3.2. Potential value of management methods +© 2016 United Nation + +Regulation of directed and indirect takes: The most obvious approach t management of human activities that result in the killing of marine mammals is t control directed (i.e. deliberate) takes. Numerous examples demonstrate th effectiveness of this approach, such as the strong recoveries of some severel depleted populations following protection from whaling, sealing, or other forms o deliberate exploitation. The status of marine mammal populations, especially i relation to the effects of directed takes, is usually measured in terms of the size o populations relative to historical levels. The likelihood of population recovery afte takes are controlled depends on the survival of a viable nucleus of individuals in th population at the time of protection. Furthermore, suitable habitat, including foo resources, needs to exist to support recovery. +In some cases, especially when a population has been reduced to low levels, it is als necessary to manage sources of incidental (i.e. unintentional) mortality, injury, an disturbance due to other human activities. This can include requiring the use of les wasteful fishing practices and less by-catch-prone fishing gear and the regulation o ship traffic to reduce the incidence of vessel strikes. Techniques to reduce by-catc include the use of acoustic deterrents, gear modifications, time-area closures, an gear switching, for example, from gillnets to hook-and-line or traps/pots (i.e. Knowlton and Kraus, 2001; Read et al., 2006). Some of these approaches have bee the subject of considerable research (www.bycatch.org). Other anthropogeni threats may also need to be addressed, including reduction of noise fro anthropogenic sources, and reduction of contamination by toxic substance (including oil) and of marine debris (including discarded or derelict fishing gear, an plastics of all sorts) (see chapter 25. The effects of tourism, for example whale an pinniped watching, in modifying behaviour through close approach, particularly t breeding and nursery areas, may also need to be addressed (Higham et al., 2014). I any event, successful marine mammal management requires selecting an implementing suitable methods of enforcement. +Marine Protected Areas: Protecting marine mammals in specific areas (e.g., feeding breeding, and resting areas) can sometimes be effective for addressing certai threats (Gormley et al., 2012). Understanding the life history of the species, th degree of localization of the threats and the needs and interests of local huma populations is critical to the design of area management. Effective protectio depends on devising plans that consider local community needs, as well a establishing effective control and monitoring. Furthermore, marine mammals tend t be highly mobile, and some species migrate across multiple ecosystems and eve entire ocean basins, so protection may be needed in more than one area. There i considerable interest in spatial management to protect and conserve marin mammals through the establishment of parks, reserves and sanctuaries (e.g., Reeves 2000; Marsh and Morales-Vela, 2012; and see www.icmmpa.org). +© 2016 United Nation + +3. Key pressures linked to trends +3.1. Direct Removals +There are various types of directed takes, including commercial harvests, scientifi sampling, captive display, and subsistence. Some of these are under managemen while others are unauthorized and unmanaged. The nature of direct removals varie among major marine mammal groups. +There is a very long-standing, but relatively small (811 whales over four centuries) capture of northern bottle-nosed whales in the Faeroe Islands (Denmark), recorde from at least the sixteenth century (Bloch et al., 1996). Coastal dolphins continue t be taken not only in the Solomon Islands (Oremus et al., 2013), but also in a large scale drive fishery in Japan. Dolphins are hunted with harpoons in various countrie for human consumption or for bait, especially in shark fisheries (IWC, 2013b). Th consumption of by-catch as well as deliberately taken cetaceans and sirenians is growing concern in Africa, Asia, and some parts of Latin America (Clapham and Va Waerebeek, 2007). In the Arctic, narwhals and belugas continue to be hunted b aboriginal people in Canada, Greenland (Denmark), the Russian Federation and th United States. Marine mammals are also harassed and sometimes deliberately kille around aquaculture facilities in many parts of the world. +Whales are taken by several States for commercial, aboriginal and scientific purposes The nature and regulation of these takes are described by the International Whalin Commission (www.iwc.int). Cetaceans occasionally strand on the shore in larg groups: so-called mass strandings. The cause of this behaviour is poorly understood but it has occurred for millions of years (Pyenson et al., 2014). Unless a populatio has been depleted by other causes, mass strandings are unlikely to be a major threa in themselves. +Pinnipeds — including walruses and numerous seal species — are hunted in large part of the Arctic and sub-Arctic, primarily for subsistence. A few commercial hunts fo pinnipeds continue, including those for Cape fur seals in Namibia, harp and hoode seals in Canada, and harp seals in Norway and the Russian Federation. Becaus pinnipeds often interact directly with fishing operations, sometimes fishermen an aquaculturists exert pressure to limit or reduce pinniped populations by commercia hunting or culling. +For manatees and dugongs, commercial hunting no longer occurs, but harvesting fo meat and for dugong tusks continues in many areas. Although often illegal, there i little enforcement in most areas. The largest aboriginal hunts of dugongs persist i Australia and the western Pacific (Dobbs et al., 2012). In Australia, both Aborigina and Torres Strait Islander people continue their traditional subsistence hunting o dugongs, but commercial hunting of dugong is prohibited. +3.2. Fisheries Interactions +While the effects of fisheries on marine mammals from entanglement and by-catc are well known (see section 2.3.2.1), the effects of marine mammals on fish +© 2016 United Nation + +populations and the effects of fisheries on the prey base of marine mammals are les clear. The diet of most marine mammals includes fish and the possibility is ofte raised that some marine mammals are competing with fisheries or impeding th recovery of depleted fish stocks. Although some cetaceans, such as sperm whales killer whales, pilot whales, and false killer whales, are known to depredate fishin operations, the significance of such depredation on fish populations and fish catche is not always clear. +Similarly, the effects of pinniped predation on valuable fish populations remai uncertain. For example, in the north-eastern Pacific sea lions feed on smal populations of endangered salmon during spawning migration in rivers, especially i connection with dams (NMFS 1999). On the other hand, the significance of som other interactions is less clear (NMFS, 1999). Cape fur seals prey on tw commercially fished species of hake off the west coast of South Africa (Punt et al. 1995) and grey seals prey on cod populations off the east coast of Canada (Fisherie and Oceans Canada, 2010). Population modelling studies of these fisher interactions suggest that seal culls are likely to have small if any effects on fish catc rates. Indeed, the effect of Cape fur seal predation may be overshadowed b predation of one hake species on the other. This suggests the need for furthe ecosystem-level research to clarify complex foraging relationships and interaction before conclusions are drawn, as discussed in section 4.1. (Yodzis, 2001; Gerber et al. 2009; Morisette et al., 2010). The biological and economic significance of marin mammal interactions varies with the fisheries and fish species involved. The areas o conflict are geographically limited and fishery interactions do not appear to be global problem (Kaschner and Pauly, 2004). +3.3. Habitat Alteration 3.3.1 Disturbance +Many human activities generate underwater noise, including ship movements military exercises involving the use of sonar or explosives, offshore oil and ga exploration and pile driving associated with construction of renewable energ facilities. Potential effects of such noise on marine mammals include direct acousti injury, interference with foraging and communication, and food-web disruption Disturbances are more likely to be significant for populations that have also bee affected by other factors, such as harvesting or bycatch. Among the effects o disturbance that have been confirmed are the tendency of some whales to modif their movement patterns to avoid fixed-point noise sources, as for bowhead whale near an offshore oil production facility (McDonald et al., 2012), and the mortality o deep-diving cetaceans exposed to naval sonar (Cox et al., 2006; FahIman et al., 2014 Ketten, 2014). +Offshore oil and gas development creates unique problems related to oil spills whether at drill sites or during shipping. For depleted species, the additiona mortality from ship strikes have been shown to be significant and vessel spee controls are demonstrably effective at reducing such strikes, as for right whales in th western North Atlantic (Laist et al., 2001; Laist et al., 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +3.3.2. Coastal and riverine development +Development in coastal and freshwater areas affects marine mammals in a variety o ways. Residential and urban development can make pinniped haul-out habita inaccessible or hazardous. However, some species have shown remarkabl adaptability to human-modified beach environments. For example, in the Unite States, California sea lions regularly haul out on piers and even on moored yachts i San Francisco. Although monk seals are extremely sensitive to disturbance in som areas, in Hawaii they sometimes rest and even nurse pups on crowded bathin beaches. In such cases, the animals seem capable of co-existing with the huma presence as long as they are not molested. +Coastal habitats used by whales and dolphins make them vulnerable to increasingl intensive aquaculture operations of many types (Hucke-Gaete et al., 2013). A well studied case is salmon farming in southern Chile, which operates in concentrate areas using open-cage net pens, moorings and anchoring, external supplementar feeding (rich in nutrients) and a_ significant quantity of chemical product (antimicrobials and pesticides) (Buschmann et al., 1996). However, there ar differences globally in fish-farm design and operation, so general conclusions ar difficult. +The construction of dams, barrages, and other structures in rivers and estuaries ha led to fragmentation of dolphin and manatee populations in Asia and South America making such populations more vulnerable to various threat factors, includin entrapment in canals and mortality in flood-control gates. Runoff from agricultura fields, livestock feedlots, factories, and city streets contributes to chemical an biological contamination of freshwater, estuarine and coastal food webs, with ofte uncertain but likely negative effects on marine mammal health. For example, se otter deaths in California (United States), have been linked to protozoan parasite known to breed in domestic cats (Johnson et al., 2009) and toxoplasmosis has bee identified in Hector’s dolphins (Roe et al. 2013). +3.3.3. Climate change +Climate change, both natural and human-induced, has the potential to affect the spatia distribution, reproductive success, foraging, and health of marine mammals (Leaper e al., 2006; Burek et al., 2008). The direction of such effects, negative or positive, is likel to be variable, with some species suffering from the loss of habitat and others able t take advantage of new habitat. MacLeod (2009) predicted that the ranges of mos cetacean species (88 per cent) would be affected by changes in water temperatur resulting from global climate change. This author predicted that the effects would b unfavourable for about half (47 per cent) of cetacean species. Little is known about th ability of most marine mammals to adapt to rapid environmental change. For exampl ice seals and polar bears, which are dependent on sea ice (Ferguson, et al. 2006), may b especially vulnerable to predicted climate change effects on ice habitat. Foraging habita of right whales, which are dependent on small zooplankton, may change with increasin water temperature (Torres et al., 2013). Other species with more generalized diets an the ability to thrive in multiple types of habitat, such as bottlenose dolphins, may b more resilient (e.g., Heide-Jgrgensen, 2009; Salvadeo et al., 2010). The overall effects o sea-level rise have been studied for northern elephant seals (Funayama et al., 2012) an Hawaiian monk seals (Baker, Littman and Johnston, 2006). +© 2016 United Nation + +4. Major ecosystem services provided by marine mammals +4.1. Services to the ecosystem +Marine mammals can affect their ecosystems in several ways. Some species, such a sea otters, dugongs and walruses, structure their foraging habitat (e.g. Estes an Duggins, 1995). Depletion of these animals can result in major habitat changes; fo example, kelp beds thrive when sea urchins are suppressed by sea otter predation Other species, such as killer whales and leopard seals, play key roles as high-orde predators, and their absence can affect prey resources of other marine mammal, bir or fish populations (Estes et al., 1998; Williams et al., 2004). Additionally, som species, such as sperm whales and blue whales, may have a large effect on nutrien recycling, with nutrient transport from deep ocean feeding areas to the surfac (Lavery et al., 2010; Lavery et al., 2014). These ecosystem-level effects ar understood for only a few species, but they can be critical for maintaining divers and productive ecosystems (Bowen, 1997; Roman and McCarthy, 2010). +4.2. Direct services to humans including economic and livelihood services +The economic value of products obtained from marine mammals — meat, oil, ivory fur, and many others — has been large, and this has contributed to these animals extreme depletion and in a few instances led to their extinction (Steller’s sea cow Caribbean monk seal). Many groups of people continue to benefit from huntin marine mammals, including in some instances from selling products in internationa markets (e.g., narwhal and walrus ivory and seal skins). Aboriginal people in th Arctic and sub-Arctic continue to consume products from cetaceans and pinniped on a regular basis. Local people in Amazonia, northern Australia, and West Afric continue to harvest sirenians for food. In Nunavut and the Northwest Territories i Canada, regulated polar bear sport hunts provide income to Inuit who serve a guides and are required to use dog teams and sleds to pursue the animals. +In contrast, many people benefit from non-consumptive or low-consumptive uses o marine mammals, especially through whale-, dolphin-, and seal-watching touris (see chapter 27). In addition, many people enjoy seeing marine mammals in the wil on their own. However, such activities can negatively affect small localize populations, for example bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay, Australia (Bejder et al 2006). Additionally, public display of captive marine mammals can make people mor aware and appreciative of them, but it is extremely controversial, in part because th capture of marine mammals from the wild for display in captivity could threate small wild populations (Fisher and Reeves, 2005). +© 2016 United Nation + +5. Conservation responses and factors for sustainability +Like most large animals, marine mammals have limited capacity to reproduce an increase their numbers. Therefore, factors that can result in either low recruitmen (e.g. impairment of reproduction by chemical contaminants such as organochlorine in food webs; (Dierauf and Gulland, 2001) or human-induced mortality rates highe than replacement (e.g. hunting or by-catch) need to be addressed to achiev conservation goals. Harmful algal blooms, ocean acidification, and expansion o hypoxia zones are among the most intractable factors affecting marine mamma populations. Conservation requires understanding of the organisms and their habita requirements, and a balancing of human needs and desires with the natura productivity and the carrying capacity of the environment. The identification of ke limiting factors is a first step toward developing management measures that can hel populations to recover. +For the most part, population recoveries are regarded as successes, although in som cases they have led to unanticipated conflicts. One such conflict is with fisherme who have become accustomed to low levels of marine mammal abundance. Fo example, the recovery of numbers and range of sea otters has increased competitio with fisheries for high-value molluscs in Alaska (United States) and the eastern Nort Pacific. Similarly, as mentioned above, sea lions prey on endangered fish, such a salmon and sturgeon, and recovering grey seals in Europe have had negative effect on seabird nesting habitat. Growing pinniped populations have also led to increase interactions with recreational fishers, vessel owners, and marina managers. +The conservation of marine mammals, like conservation more generally, should b understood as a dynamic and continuing process. Consequences of managemen actions need to be anticipated and unforeseen consequences addressed as the arise. Especially in the case of animals like marine mammals, that are widel distributed and rarely occur within the jurisdiction of only one State, multilatera approaches are essential. For example, the global ban on large-scale pelagic drift ne fishing on the high seas imposed by the United Nations in 1994 was a major step i limiting the by-catch of several marine mammal (and seabird) species that wer especially vulnerable to entanglement. Other international instruments, such a Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and th International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, have helped limit th damage caused by over-exploitation of the great whales. +With a broad understanding of the many aspects of both conservation and use o marine mammals and their roles in marine ecosystems, it should be possible t address at least some of the issues arising from human interactions. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +No. of whales +60,000 + 8 +40,00 30,00 20,000 +13,61 10,000 +Catches +——_—_—_ ——- 1770 1790 1810 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 201 Year +Figure 1. Catches (solid dark line) and estimated population size for southern right whales from 177 to 2010, assuming a maximum annual net rate of increase of 6 per cent (grey line) and 7 percen (dotted line), culminating in an estimated population size of 13,600 in 2010 (IWC, 2013a). +References +Atkinson, S.N., Nelson, R.A., Ramsay, M.A., (1996). Changes in the body compositio of fasting polar bears (Ursus maritimus): The effect of relative fatness o protein conservation. Physiological Zoology 69, 304-316. +Baker, J. D., Littnan, C. L., Johnston, D.W. (2006). Potential effects of sea level rise o the terrestrial habitats of endangered and endemic megafauna in th Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Endangered Species Research 4:1-10. +Bejder, L., Samuels, A., Whitehead, H., Gales, N., Mann, J., Connor, R.C. Heithaus, M.R., Watson-Capps, J., Flaherty, C. and Krutzen, M. (2006). Declin in Relative Abundance of Bottlenose Dolphins Exposed to Long-Ter Disturbance. Conservation Biology, 20: 1791-1798. +Bloch, D., Desportes, G., Zachariassen, M. and Christensen, |. (1996). The norther bottlenose whale in the Faroe Islands, 1584-1993, Journal of Zoology, 239/1 123-140. +Bowen, W.D. (1997). Role of Marine Mammals in Aquatic Ecosystems. Marin Ecology Progress Series Vol 158:267-274. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Branch, T.A., Stafford, K.M., Palacios, D.M., Allison, C., Bannister, J.L. and man others (2007). Past and present distribution, densities and movements o blue whales Balaenoptera musculus in the southern hemisphere an northern Indian Ocean. Mammal Review 37: 116-175. +Burek, K.A., Gulland, M.D. and O'Hara, T.M. (2008). Effects of climate change o Arctic marine mammal health. Ecological Applications 18:S126-S134. +Busch, B.C. (1985). The War against the Seals: A History of the North American Sea Fishery. McGill University Press. +Buschmann, A.H., Lopez, D.A., Medina A. (1996). 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How man-mad interference might cause gas bubble emboli in deep diving whales. Frontier in Physiology 5:13. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Ferguson, S.H., Stirling, |. and McLoughlin, P. (2005). Climate change and ringed sea (Phoca hispida) recruitment in western Hudson Bay. Marine Mamma Science, 21: 121-135. +Fisher, S.J. and Reeves, R.R. (2005). The global trade in live cetaceans: implication for conservation. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 8(4): 315 340. +Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2010). Impacts of grey seals on fish populations i eastern Canada; summary. Science Advisory Report 2010/071. Available a www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas-sccs/Publications/SAR-AS/2010/2010_071 eng.html. Consulted 23 December 2013. +Funayama, K., Hines, E., Davis, J., and Allen, S. (2012). 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Estimating the abundance and effective population size of Maui’ dolphins using microsatellite genotypes in 2010-11, with retrospectiv matching to 2001-07. Department of Conservation, Auckland, 44pp. +Hedley, C. (2010). The 1998 Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservatio Program: Recent Developments in the Tuna-Dolphin Controversy in th Eastern Pacific Ocean. Ocean Development & International Law 32:1. +Heide-Jgrgensen, M.P., lversen, M., Hjort Nielsen, M., Lockyer, C., Stern, H. an Ribergaard, M.H. (2011). Harbour porpoises respond to climate change Ecology and Evolution 1(4): 579-585. doi: 10.1002/ece3.51. +Higham, J., Bejder, L. and Williams, R. (eds.). (2014). Whale-watching: Sustainabl Tourism and Ecological Management. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK, 387 pages. +Hines, E., Ponnampalam, L., Jamal, F., Jackson-Ricketts, J., and Whitty, T. (2014) Report of the 3rd Workshop on the Biology and Conservation of Cetacean and Dugongs of South-East Asia. UNEP/CMS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany. +Hitchmough, R. (2010). Conservation status of New Zealand marine mammal (suborders Cetacea and Pinnipedia), 2009, New Zealand Journal of Marin and Freshwater Researc (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2010.482970). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Hucke-Gaete, R., Haro, D., Torres-Florez, J. P., Montecinos, Y., Viddi, F.A., Bedrifiana L., and Ruiz, J. (2013). A historical feeding ground for humpback whales in th Eastern South Pacific revisited: the case of northern Patagonia, Chile. Aquati Conservation: Marine & Freshwater Ecosystems 23: 858-867. DOI 10.1002/aqc.2343. +IUCN (2015). International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Red List under th species Enhydra lutris and Lontra felin (http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/7750/0 and /12303/0 accessed 12 Jul 2015). +IWC (2013a). Report of the IWC Workshop on the Assessment of Southern Righ Whales. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 14 (Supplement) 439-462. +IWC (2013b). 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Mortality and serious injury of northern righ whales (Eubalaena glacialis) in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Journal o Cetacean Research and Management 2: 193-201. +Kovacs, K.M., Aguilar, A., Aurioles Gamboa, D., Burkanov, V., Campagna, C., Gales, N. Gelatt, T. and Goldsworthy, S. (2012). Global threats to pinnipeds. Marin Mammal Science 28(2): 414-436. +Kreb, D., Reeves, R.R., Thomas, P.O., Braulik, G. and Smith, B.D. (Eds.). (2010) Establishing protected areas for Asian freshwater cetaceans: Freshwate cetaceans as flagship species for integrated river conservation management Samarinda, 19-24 October 2009. Final Workshop Report, Yayasan Konservas RASI, Samarinda, Indonesia. +Laist, D.W., Knowlton, A.E., Mead, J.G., Collet A.S. and Podesta, M. (2001). Collision between ships and whales. Marine Mammal Science 17:35-75. +Laist, D.W., Knowlton, A.E., and Pendleton, D. (2014). Effectiveness of mandator vessel speed limits for protecting North Atlantic right whales. Endangere Species Research 23:133-147. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Lavery, T.J., Roudnew, B., Gill, Semout, J., Seuront, L., Johnson, G., Mitchell, J.G. an Smetacek, V. (2010). Iron defecation by sperm whales stimulates carbo export in the Southern Ocean. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Vol. 277 no. 1699: 3527-3531. +Lavery, Trish J., Roudnew, B., Seymour, J., Mitchell, J.G., Smetacek, V. and Nicol, S (2014). Whales sustain fisheries: Blue whales stimulate primary production i the Southern Ocean. Marine Mammal Science 30(3): 888-904. +Leaper, R., Cooke, J., Trathan, P., Reid, K., Rowntree, V. and Payne R., (2006). Globa climate change drives southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) populatio dynamics. Biology Letters 2: 289-292. +McDonald, T.L., Richardson, W.J., Greene, C.R. Jr., Blackwell, $.B., Nations, C.S. Nielson, R.M. and Streever, B. (2012). Detecting changes in the distribution o calling bowhead whales exposed to fluctuating anthropogenic sounds Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 12: 91-106. +MacLeod, C.D. (2009). Global climate change, range changes and potentia implications for the conservation of marine cetaceans: a review an synthesis. Endangered Species Research 7: 125-136, doi: 10.3354/esr00197. +Marsh, H., O’Shea, T.J. and Reynolds, J.E. Ill, (2012). Ecology and conservation of th sirenia. Cambridge University Press. +Marsh, H. and Morales-Vela B. (2012). Guidelines for developing protected areas fo sirenians. In Hines, E., Reynolds, J., Mignucci-Giannoni, A, Aragones, L.V., an M. Marmontel (eds.) Sirenian Conservation: Issues and Strategies i Developing Countries. The University Press of Florida. +Morissette, L., Kaschner, K., and Gerber, L.R. (2010). ‘Whales eat fish’? Demystifyin the myth in the Caribbean marine ecosystem. Fish and Fisheries 11:388-204. +NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service), (1999). Report to Congress: Impacts o California sea lions and Pacific harbor seals on salmonids and West Coas ecosystems. USDOC/NOAA.NMEFS. NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service) (undated). ETP Cetacean Assessment https://swfsc.noaa.gov/textblock.aspx? Division=PRD&ParentMenuld=228&i =1408), accessed 19 April 2015. +Oremus, M., Leqata, J. and Baker, C.S. (2013). The resumption of traditional drive hunts of dolphins in the Solomon Islands in early 2013. IWC Scientifi Committee Meeting Document. SC/65a/SMO08. +Punt, A.E. and Butterworth, D.S. (1995). The effects of future consumption by th Cape fur seal on catches and catch rates of the Cape hakes. 4. Modelling th biological interaction between Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillu and the Cape hakes Merluccius capensis and M. paradoxus. South Africa Journal of Marine Science 16: 255-285. +Pyenson N.D. et al. (2014). Repeated mass strandings of Miocene marine mammal from Atacama Region of Chile point to sudden death at sea. Proceedings o the Royal Society of London B 281:20133316 http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3316. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Read A.J., Drinke, P. and Northridge, S. (2006). Bycatch of Marine Mammals in U.S and Global Fisheries. Conservation Biology 20 (1): 163-169. +Reeves, R.R. (2000). The Value of Sanctuaries, Parks, and Reserves (Protected Areas as Tools for Conserving Marine Mammals. Final report for MMC contrac 774465385. 50 pp. Available from the Marine Mammal Commission Bethesda, Maryland. +Roe, W.D., Howe, L., Baker, E.J., Burrows, L. and Hunter, S.A. (2013). An atypica genotype of Toxoplasma gondii as a cause of mortality in Hector’s dolphi (Cephalorhynchus hectori). Veterinary Parasitology 192: 67-74. +Roman, J. and McCarthy, J.J. (2010). The whale pump: marine mammals enhanc primary productivity in a coastal basin. PLoS ONE 5, e13255. +Salvadeo, C.J., Lluch-Belda, D., Gomez-Gallardo, D.A., Urban-Ramirez J. an MacLeod, C.D. (2010). Climate change and a poleward shift in the distributio of the Pacific white-sided dolphin in the northeastern Pacific. Endang Specie Research11: 13-19, doi: 10.3354/esr00252. +Shaughnessy, P.D., Goldsworthy, S.D., and Mackay, A.I. (2014). Status and trends i abundance of New Zealand fur seal populations in South Australia. Sout Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences), Adelaide SARDI Publication No. F2014/000338-1. SARDI Research Report Series No 781. 33 pp. +Torres, L.G., Smith, T.D. Sutton, P., MacDiarmid, A., Bannister, J. and Miyashita, T (2013). From exploitation to conservation: habitat models using whaling dat predict distribution patterns and threat exposure of an endangered whale Diversity and Distributions 19: 1138-1152. +Trujillo, F., Crespo, E., Van Damme, P.A. and J.S. Usma (eds). (2010). The Action Pla for South American River Dolphins 2010 — 2020. WWF, Fundaci6n Omacha WDS, WDCS, Solamac. Bogota, D.C., Colombia. 249 pp. Available at www.iucn-csg.org/index.php/downloads/. +Turvey, S.T., Pitman, R.L., Taylor, B.L., Barlow, J., Akamatsu, T. and others. (2007) First human-caused extinction of a cetacean species? Biology Letters 3:537 540. +Wang, D., Turvey, S.T., Zhao, X. & Mei, Z. (2013). Neophocaena asiaeorientalis ssp asiaeorientalis. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Versio 2013.2. . Downloaded on 09 February 2014. +Williams, T.M., Estes, J.A., Doak, D.F. and Springer, A.M. (2004). Killer appetites assessing the role of predators in ecological communities. Ecology 85:3373 3384. www.dx.doi.org/10.1890/03-0696 +Yodzis, P. (2001). Must top predators be culled for the sake of fisheries? Trends i Ecology & Evolution 16: 78-84. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_37.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_37.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_38.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_38.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c916548dd51bbab1d267b55c41cd46b1b96a8cd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_38.txt @@ -0,0 +1,209 @@ +Chapter 38. Seabirds +Contributors: Ben Lascelles (Convenor), Jake Rice (Lead Member and Editor of Par VI), Mayumi Sato, Marguerite Tarzia, Ross McLeod Wanless* +1. Introduction +Seabirds are the most threatened bird group and their status has deteriorated faste over recent decades. Globally 28 per cent are threatened (5 per cent are in th highest category of Critically Endangered) and a further 10 per cent are Nea Threatened. Of particular concern are those species whose small range or populatio is combined with decline (64 species). Pelagic species are disproportionatel represented in comparison with coastal species; those listed under the Agreemen on the Conservation of Albatross and Petrels” have fared worst of all. +Declines have been caused by ten primary pressures. At sea these include: incidenta bycatch (in longline, gillnet and trawl fisheries); pollution (oil spills, marine debris)) overfishing; energy production and mining. On land, invasive alien species problematic native species (e.g. those that have become super-abundant), huma disturbance, infrastructural, commercial and residential development, hunting an trapping have driven declines. Climate change and severe weather affect seabirds o land and at sea. +Given their imperilled conservation status, many seabirds have been highlighted fo special conservation status and action under a range of international, regional an national agreements and mechanisms. Data on distribution, abundance, behaviou and pressures can be used to inform the design of effective management regimes fo seabirds. Management decisions can be guided by: (1) where the key areas are, (2 when these areas are used, (3) what variables explain seabird presence in a give area, (4) the threat status of species in a given area, (5) what pressures may b adversely affecting the species, associated habitats and processes, (6) wha management actions are needed to address these threats, and (7) how an management intervention can best be monitored to assess its effectiveness. +Seabirds provide many ecosystems services and their role as potential indicators o marine conditions is widely acknowledged. Many studies use aspects of seabir biology and ecology, especially productivity and population trends, to infe relationships with and/or effects on and/or correlate with aspects of the marin environment, particularly food availability. +* The writing team thanks Esteban Frere for his substantial contribution to this chapter * United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2258, No. 40228 © United Nations 201 + +2. Population trends or conservation status +2.1 Aggregated at global scale +Croxall et al. (2012) reviewed 346 seabird species and found that overall, seabird are more threatened than other comparable groups of birds and their status ha deteriorated faster over recent decades. In terms of the categories used in th International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, globally 9 species (28 per cent) are threatened, with17 species (5 per cent) in the highes category of Critically Endangered) and a further 10 per cent Near Threatened. Onl four species, all storm petrels, are regarded as Data Deficient; three species ar considered Extinct, and two other species are Possibly Extinct. Of the 132 threatene and Near Threatened seabird species 70 (53 per cent) qualify by virtue of their ver small population and/or range. 66 species (50 per cent) qualify by virtue of havin undergone rapid population decline. Of particular concern are those with both smal range and/or population as well as having undergone decline (64 species; 48 pe cent); this includes six species of penguins, 17 of gadfly petrels and eight o cormorants. Pelagic species are disproportionately represented in all categories i comparison with coastal species (Figure 1). 57 species (17 per cent) are increasing for many, such as the 17 gull species, this is doubtless due to their abilities to exploi close links with human activities. +100 @Data Deficien 75% Extinc &Critically Endangere 50% mEndangere OVulnerabl 25 Near Threatene 0% @Least Concer Pelagic (199) Coastal resident Coastal non-breedin (109) visitor (38) +Figure 1. Proportion of species in each IUCN Red List category for pelagic species, coastal resident and coastal non-breeding visitors. Figures give number of species (for totals >5). Source: Croxall et al. 2012. +A broader, but less sensitive, measure of overall trends is provided by the Red Lis Index (Butchart et al., 2004; 2007), which measures trends in extinction risk (base on the movement of species through IUCN Red List categories owing to genuin improvement or deterioration in status) and is virtually the only trend indicato currently available for seabirds on a worldwide and/or regional basis. It show (Figure 2) that, over the last 20 years, seabirds have had a substantially poorer +© United Nations 201 + +conservation status than non-seabirds and that they have deteriorated faster ove this period. Pelagic species are more threatened and have deteriorated faster tha coastal species, and this difference is particularly pronounced for the albatrosses an large petrels that are covered by the 2004 Agreement on the Conservation o Albatross and Petrels ([ACAP] BirdLife International, 2012). +1. 0.9 —+— All bird . —+— All seabird s x § 0.8 —+— ACAP.-listed specie 2 £ B 5 33 0. o x a 2 0. 0. 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 201 Year +Figure 2. Red List Index of species survival for all bird species (n=9,853 non-Data Deficient specie extant in 1988), all seabirds (n=339) and ACAP (Agreement on Conservation of Albatross and Petrels) isted species (n=29). Values for the latter are projected to 2012 based on data from the 2012 IUC Red List to be published later this year. RLI values relate to the proportion of species expected t remain extant in the near future without additional conservation action. An RLI value of 1.0 equate to all species being categorized as of Least Concern, and hence that none are expected to becom extinct in the near future. An RLI value of zero indicates that all species have become Extinct. Se Butchart et al 2004 for further explanation. Source: BirdLife International 2012. +For major taxonomic and/or geographic subdivisions +100% _ 75% mE 50% BCR +om | av Se PP SF O MS +ON i Vv O ee ee g 2 ee mL SFP“ we a w s FF FF SF SF S & s &* x se ® ‘ e SLT CK SK +Figure 3. Percentage of species in each IUCN Red List category for the major seabird families. Figure give number of species. Source: Croxall et al., 2012. +© United Nations 201 + +Reviewing the pattern taxonomically (Figure 3) reveals that, of the main familie (which together account for 87 per cent of species), the most threatened are th albatrosses/petrels (Diomedeidae/Procellariiformes and penguin (Sphenisciformes).Together these (represent nearly one half (43 per cent) of al seabirds and contain many pelagic species. Conservation of Diomedeidae benefit considerably from ACAP. Within Procellariiformes the genera Pterodroma an Pseudobulweria are the next most threatened and a special internet forum ha recently been established to promote priority conservation action for them: Gadfl Petrel Conservation Group; www.gadflypetrel.ning.com. +2.2 Special conservation status issues +Given their imperilled conservation status, many seabirds have been highlighted fo special conservation status and action under a range of international, regional an national agreements and mechanisms. However, because seabirds are highly mobil and migrate, they are exposed to vagaries of differing levels of protection acros international (and non-governmental) regions. Those agreements and mechanism currently most actively undertaking work include ACAP (30 species), EU Bird Directive (all seabirds in the EU), the Convention for the Protection of the Marin Environment of the North-East Atlantic? (OSPAR Convention) (9 species), th Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds* (8 species), East Asian-Australasian Flyway Partnership (39 species), the Convention fo the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution® (Barcelona Convention (14 species), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS; 20 seabird species are listed on Annex |; 50 on Annex II), the Convention o the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats’ (Bern Convention) (ove 30 species), Helsinki Commission (HELCOM; 11 species), the Convention on th Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution® (Bucharest Convention) (2 species) Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR; species), Convention for Arctic Flora and Fauna (3 species), Migratory Bird Treaty Ac (139 species), North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (1 species) Trilateral Committee for Wildlife and Ecosystem Conservation and Management ( species), and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wil Fauna and Flora? (CITES) (6 species). Other agreements that have this remit but ar not yet active include the Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management an Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region’ (Nairobi Convention) (47 species), the Regional Convention for the Conservation of +3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2354, No. 42279. +* Ibid., vol. 2365, No. 42632. +* Ibid., vol. 1102, No. 16908. +* Ibid., vol. 1651, No. 28395. +” Ibid., vol. 1284, No. 21159. +* Ibid., vol. 1764, No. 30674. +* Ibid., vol. 993, No. 14537. +*© http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/The_Convention/index.as © United Nations 201 + +the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment” (Jeddah Convention) (lists not ye provided by contracting parties), the Convention for Cooperation in the Protection Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of th Atlantic Coast of the West, Central and Southern Africa Region’ (Abidja Convention) (considering adding a species list), and the Convention for th Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbea Region (WCR)*? (Cartagena Convention) (5 species). In addition to the abov agreements, Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs) have als begun to adopt strategies that address incidental seabird bycatch. Level of regulatio varies across RFMOs but includes combinations of the use of one or more bycatc mitigation measures in certain areas, data collection through observer programme and use of monitoring, surveillance and compliance measures. +3. Key pressures linked to trends +The majority of seabirds are highly migratory species that require a variety of marin and terrestrial habitats during different seasons and life stages (Lascelles et al, 2014) Many seabirds are long-lived and slow reproducing. These characteristics make the particularly vulnerable to a wide range of pressures, where even quite smal increases in mortality can lead to significant population declines. In addition, man seabirds have highly specialised diets, being reliant on just a few prey species, th abundance and distribution of which can alter dramatically in response to abrup environmental changes. +Croxall et al. (2012) found that globally, of the top 10 pressures on threatene seabirds (Figure 4), invasive species typically acting at the breeding site potentiall affect 73 species (75 per cent) of all threatened seabird species and nearly twice a many as any other single threat, although in some cases the threat is of a potentia future impact. The remaining pressures are fairly evenly divided between: (a) thos acting mainly at the breeding site, namely problematic native species (e.g. those tha have become superabundant - 31 species, 32 per cent), human disturbance (2 species, 27 per cent), infrastructural, commercial, and residential development (1 species, 14 per cent) and (b) those acting mainly at sea in relation to foraging moulting or migration areas/aggregations, namely, bycatch in longline, gillnet an trawl fisheries (40 species, 41 per cent), pollution (30 species, 31 per cent) overfishing and/or inappropriate spatial management of fisheries (10 species, 10 pe cent). Hunting and trapping (23 species, 24 per cent) and energy production an mining (10 species, 10 per cent) affect both domains, the former more at breedin sites, the latter more in relation to foraging areas, flight paths and flyways. Climat change and severe weather (39 species, 40 per cent), as currently assessed, largel reflect adverse weather and flooding at breeding sites. However, the impact of sea +™ http://www.persga.org/Documents/Doc_62_20090211112825.pd ?-http://abidjanconvention.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100&Itemid=200 ang=en +3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1506, No. 25974. +© United Nations 201 + +level rise is clearly an important driver of change that is increasingly affectin seabirds in many ways, albeit mainly in the medium to long term (i.e., at time frame mostly outside those of relevance to IUCN Red List criteria). The relative importanc of threats is largely similar when only those of high impact are considered, althoug bycatch becomes almost as significant as the effects of invasive alien species (Croxal et al., 2012). + ~ +80 5 +g Threat impact +B 604 UOLow +a +mHigh/medium +B 404 +2 +> BEE Ee ee O b) 60 +wo +2 +8 40 +oO +B +5 +| 7 " += +Zz 4 la La c) +3 +g +ao +z +& +8 +3S +z +c a ¢ o > —_—-= S § Ss So of & = 2 2 25 .? 3 a2 £ a3 = Ge fe £8: 522 2 = g = f € £5 +2G > a 8 E 3S E2 S see 0c = 20 a = Qe a 35 s SES 255 4 Go oF ao xls > Zeo uge fo $° oe 2s 3 = S86 £ g é ao ag = “eu a 6 & 23 © ¢ += = +Oo +Figure 4: threats to threatened (a) seabirds (n=346 species); (b) pelagic seabirds (n=197 species); (c coastal seabirds (n=146 species). Source: Croxall et al., 2012. +Commercial fisheries are the most serious at-sea pressure facing the world’ seabirds, affecting both adult and juvenile birds. Despite data gaps, each yea incidental bycatch in longline fisheries is estimated to kill 160,000-320,000 seabird from 70 species, although there is evidence of substantially reduced bycatch in some +© United Nations 201 + +key fisheries where the pressure has been managed (Anderson et al., 2011). Severa papers have reviewed seabird bycatch rates in both demersal (bottom) and pelagi (upper water column) longline fisheries in various regions (e.g., Brothers, 1991; Dun and Steel, 2001; BirdLife International, 2007; Steven et al., 2007; Bugoni et al., 2008 Rivera et al., 2008; Waugh et al., 2008; Kirby et al., 2009, Waugh et al., 2012), an two assessments have been made on a global scale (Nel and Taylor, 2003; Anderso et al., 2011). The fleets identified as having the highest levels of seabird bycatc include the Spanish hake fleet in the Gran Sol area, the Japanese pelagic tuna fleet i the North Pacific, the Namibian hake fleet and the Nordic demersal fleets (Anderso et al., 2011). The impacts of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing (IUU) o seabirds have been estimated in the thousands of individuals each year south of 30 S but are inherently difficult to assess here and elsewhere (Anderson et al., 2011). +Since 1992 a global moratorium has been imposed on the use of all large-scal pelagic drift-net fishing on the high seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed sea (General Assembly resolution 46/215). Gillnet fisheries (both set and drift nets) are however, still permitted to operate within a State’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Although many data gaps remain, hampering assessment, a review of existing dat shows that gillnets are responsible for the incidental capture of large numbers o birds, sharks and marine mammals (e.g., Northridge, 1991; Hall, 1998; Tasker et al. 2000; Johnson et al., 2005; Rogan and Mackey, 2007; Zydelis et al., 2013). Amongs birds, the pursuit-diving species, such as divers (loons), grebes, seaducks, auks an cormorants, are the most vulnerable to entanglement (Piatt and Nettleship, 1987 Zydelis et al., 2009). The most recent global review estimated incidental bycatch i gillnet fisheries at 400,000 seabirds from 150 coastal and diving species each yea (Zydelis et al., 2013). The highest bycatch has been reported in the Northwes Pacific, Iceland and the Baltic Sea (Zydelis et al., 2013). +Although seabird bycatch in long-line fishing has been known since the 1980s, th threat posed by trawl fisheries has also become apparent in recent years (Bartle 1991; Weimerskirch et al., 2000; Sullivan et al., 2006). No global review of the impac of trawl fishing on seabirds has been undertaken, but a number of regional an national levels studies highlight the significance of the problem (Gonzalez-Zevallos e al., 2007; Petersen et al., 2008; Yorio et al., 2010) with tens of thousands of 40 large species of seabird thought to be killed each year. Trawling can also alter benthi habitats which may have indirect impacts on seabirds via the effect this has o forage fish species (see, for example, Chapter 36A). +Fisheries may compete with seabirds for their prey items, and overfishing of bot forage species and predatory species that help aggregate food sources for seabird have been cited as a reason for the decline in several species (e.g., Becker an Beissinger, 2006; Camphuysen, 2005). Cury et al. (2011) assessed prey abundanc and breeding success for 14 bird species within the Atlantic, Pacific, and Souther Oceans and found that when less than one third of the maximum prey biomass wa available to seabirds, their productivity was adversely affected. +© United Nations 201 + +Climate change and severe weather driven by habitat shifts and alterations, storm and flooding, and temperature extremes are already affecting some seabird species Species’ sensitivity and adaptive capacity depend on a suite of taxon-specifi biological and ecological traits; as well as the degree to which they are exposed t changes in climate (Foden et al. 2013). Known negative impacts may include loss o habitat, decreased marine productivity causing shifts in location of prey, and shifts i range and migration routes due to changes in winds, ocean currents and sea surfac temperature (e.g. Forcada and Trathan, 2009; Hazen et al., 2012; Sydeman et al. 2012). +Pollution in various forms is a widespread problem adversely affecting man seabirds. Oil spills, from both offshore facilities and shipping tankers, can caus mortalities that lead to population-level impacts, particularly when they occur withi the most sensitive sites. Single spills have been recorded as killing up to a quarter o a million birds (Garcia et al., 2003) and causing the loss of 7 per cent of regiona populations of certain species (Piatt and Ford, 1996). Since its advent, plastic in th form of solid waste materials has become ubiquitous in all oceans of the world an entanglement and ingestion of this material by seabirds is now a widesprea problem, affecting at least 100 species (Laist, 1997, Provencher et al. 2014). +Attraction to artificial sources of light has been recorded in at least 21 species o Procellariiformes, as well as in several other seabird groups, and has a detrimenta effect on some globally threatened populations (Reed et al., 1985), notabl shearwater (e.g. Day et al. 2003) and Pterodroma (e.g. Ainley et al. 1997; Le Corre e al. 2002;) species around their breeding colonies. Light-induced seabird collisions a sea, either with fishing vessels (such as those emitting light to catch squid) or wit marine oil platforms, are difficult to quantify, occurring episodically particularly i low-visibility conditions and probably exacerbated by seabirds’ attraction to brigh lights and flares (Ronconi et al 2014). However, up to tens of thousands of seabird have been observed in a single collision event (Montevecchi, 2006). +Impacts from shipping may include water and air pollution, disturbance, an collision. The level of impact may increase in the future as ship traffic increases particularly in sensitive areas such as the Arctic, where key seabird habitats an potential shipping routes may overlap, and further exacerbate impacts fro predicted climate change (Humphries and Huettman 2014). +4. Major ecosystem services provided by the species group and impacts o pressures on provision of these services +4.1 Services to ecosystems +The role of seabirds as potential indicators of marine conditions is widel acknowledged (e.g., Boyd et al., 2006; Piatt et al., 2007; Parsons et al., 2008). Man studies use aspects of seabird biology and ecology, especially productivity an population trends, to infer relationships with and/or effects on and/or correlate wit aspects of the marine environment, particularly food availability. +© United Nations 201 + +Seabirds play a key role in nutrient cycling via the shaping of the plant community i their terrestrial and coastal breeding habitat. Seabirds transport allochthonou nutrients (i.e., fixed nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements), mainly via thei guano, to seabird colonies (i.e., cross-ecosystem subsidies). They also shape plan communities in their breeding habitat by creating physical disturbance, dispersin seeds, and bioturbating the soil with their burrowing (Ellis, 2005; Bancroft et al. 2005). These functions provided by seabirds increase productivity and diversity i terrestrial and coastal ecosystems surrounding seabird colonies (Powell et al., 1991 Bosman et al., 1986; Brimble et al., 2009). +4.2 Direct services to humans including economic and livelihood services +Seabirds contribute several provisioning (e.g., protein, guano) services, play a important cultural role in many countries (e.g., for the Maori of New Zealand and th Tsimshian of Alaska), and feature in Greek, Hawaiian and Christian mythology Seabird breeding colonies are increasingly used as a means to generate touris income. +Seabird guano has excellent properties as a natural fertilizer enriching bot terrestrial (Havik et al. 2014) and marine (Gagnon et al. 2013) environments. I consists of nitrogen-rich ammonium oxalate and urate, phosphates, as well as som earth salts and impurities. It typically contains 8 to 16 per cent nitrogen (the majorit of which is uric acid), 8 to 12 per cent equivalent phosphoric acid, and 2 to 3 per cen equivalent potash. Archaeological evidence suggests that Andean peoples hav collected seabird guano for well over 1,500 years (Collar et al., 2007). A harves boom in the nineteenth century, called the “white gold rush”, saw tens of thousand of workers extracting guano from the Peruvian seabird breeding islands and loadin thousands of tons onto each ship. Other harvested guano islands were located in th Caribbean, atolls in the Central Pacific, and off the coast of Namibia, South Africa Oman, Patagonia, and Baja California (Skaggs, 1994). This unsustainable harves resulted in massive deposits of guano, in some cases more than 50 m deep, bein severely depleted. Many areas of the industry collapsed, although some Peruvia islands are still managed for guano on a rotational system (Méndez, 1987). +Harvesting of seabird adults, chicks, eggs, and feathers have been importan activities for some coastal communities for many centuries, but have also drive seabird declines. Bones were used to make fishing hooks and musical instrument and to engrave tattoos; feathers featured prominently in the millinery trade and ar still used in some countries for local arts and handicrafts, e.g., to make cloaks an hair adornments (Spennemann, 1998). The meat and eggs still form key sources o protein. Harvest methods have changed over time to include more efficient tools making the seabirds more exposed to excessive harvesting. Declines in a number o species have been attributed to over-exploitation. Harvesting quotas exist in som areas, such as in the Seychelles (limited to 20 per cent of Sooty Tern eggs each year) New Zealand (limited to 13 per cent of Sooty Shearwater chicks each year (Newma et al., 2009), and the United Kingdom (limited to 2,000 Northern Gannet each year) © United Nations 201 + +However, unregulated harvesting is a substantial problem in the entire Arctic regio (2 million adults and countless eggs of several species of Alcidae are taken each yea (Merkel, 2008)), the Tuamotus and the Marquesas (egg collection), Peru (Wave Albatross and Humboldt Penguin), Madagascar (egg collection), Jamaica (eg collection (Haynes, 1987)) and Indonesia. +For centuries fishers have used seabirds as a visual guide to locate fishing areas. The remain important for artisanal operations (such as in Hawaii, Comoros, Madagasca and Tanzania), which search for flocks of seabirds in order to find fish. Withou seabirds, these livelihoods (e.g., catching small skipjack and juvenile yellow-fin tuna could disappear or be substantially adversely affected. +Viewing seabirds is an increasingly popular pastime for many tourists; man spectacular breeding colonies are accessible to visitors and revenues generate contribute substantially to local economies (Steven et al., 2013). For example, i Australia, the Phillip Island Little Penguin colony receives half a million visitors a year spending 35 million Australian dollars (Marsden Jacob Associates, 2008). A singl African Penguin colony in South Africa generates United States dollars 2 million/yr i tourist revenue (Lewis et al., 2012). In New Zealand, nature-based tourism relyin primarily on the Yellow-eyed Penguin returned 100 million dollars annually to th Dunedin economy, hence a single breeding pair could be worth 60,000 dollars/y (Tisdell, 2008). The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) estimated tha four of its seabird reserves in the UK (one each in England, Northern Ireland Scotland and Wales) together generated around 1.5million dollars/yr for the loca economies (RSPB 2010). Tourism in the Galapagos is thought to generate over 6 million dollars each year; seabirds are a prime reason for visiting. Pelagic trips t view seabirds at sea have also become popular, particularly in Europe, Nort America and the Southern Ocean. The value of these trips has not been quantified t any degree, but is likely to be significant; for example, 80,000 dollars was spent on single pelagic trip off South Africa (Turpie and Ryan, 1999). +5. Conservation responses and factors for sustainability +Data on seabird distribution, abundance, behaviour and pressures can be used t inform the design of effective management regimes (Lascelles et al 2012) Management decisions can be guided by: (1) where the key areas are, (2) whe these areas are used, (3) what variables explain seabird presence in a given area, (4 the threat status of species in a given area, (5) what pressures may be adversel affecting the species, associated habitats and processes, (6) what managemen actions are needed to address these threats, and (7) how any managemen intervention can best be monitored to assess its effectiveness. +Depending on the species, the priority actions needed may involve: (a) formal an effective protection of the most important sites. For site protection to be effective, i should ensure that areas are large enough to capture critical behaviour (such as ke breeding sites, the marine areas around them used for maintenance and more +© United Nations 2016 +1 + +distant feeding and aggregation sites), consider temporal and spatial variations, an have adequate regulation to minimise effects of any pressures. Where national regional and global networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are bein developed, inclusion of key sites in those networks would contribute substantially t the necessary site protection; (b) removal or control of invasive, and especiall predatory, alien species from areas used for seabird breeding, feeding and/o aggregation, as part of habitat and species recovery initiatives; and (c) reduction o bycatch to levels that do not pose a threat of species decline. For many uncommo species or species of low productivity, this likely can only be achieved when bycatc is reduced to near zero. Other, more generic actions, such as education an awareness-raising and accompanying stakeholder involvement, are also hig priorities, as are some more species-specific activities, such as harvest management species reintroductions and species recovery. Although it is relativel straightforward to derive these generic recommendations for conservation action, i can be costly and difficult to implement them effectively and at a sufficient scale t make a difference to the conservation status of seabird species. However, progres has been achieved in recent years in terms of the three highest priority actions, bu despite these successes, problems will continue without further action. +Where simple seabird mitigation measures have been implemented, there i evidence of substantially reduced bycatch in some key fisheries where the pressur has been managed (e.g. Anderson et al., 2011), including a greater than 95 per cen reduction in some areas (Maree et al., 2014). The main tuna RFMOs now hav voluntary or binding regulations in place that require the use of a combination o mitigation techniques in different geographies, though their effectiveness may b hampered by a lack of monitoring and/or enforcement. +Key sites for seabirds have begun to be protected in several countries, primaril covering selected breeding sites on land, though marine designation for seabirds ha also advanced, with new MPAs in Europe, the Antarctic and the Americas in recen years. Where eradications and/or controls of invasive alien species have bee undertaken, recoveries of seabird populations have been rapid and dramatic (e. Pitman et al., 2005), and a great number of larger islands are now being tackled Translocations of some species to new locations have also proved an effectiv conservation strategy for several species (e.g. Carlile et al., 2003; Madeiros 2004). +Actions that are implementing an ecosystem approach to capture fisherie management are discussed in Part IV of this assessment; many of those measures including better management of selectivity of fishing gear and including ecosyste feeding requirements in setting fishery harvest limits, will contribute to improvin the conservation status of seabirds if implemented effectively. +© United Nations 2016 +1 + +References +Ainley, D.G., Podolsky, R., DeForest, L. and Spencer, G. (1997) New insights into th status of the Hawaiian petrel on Kauai. Colon. Waterbirds 20: 24-30. +Anderson, O.R.J., Small, C.J., Croxall, J.P., Dunn, E.K., Sullivan, B.J., Yates, O., an Black, A. (2011). Global seabird bycatch in longline fisheries. 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(2009) Estimating regional population size and annual harvest intensity of the soot shearwater in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 36: 307-323. +Northridge, S. (1991). Driftnet fisheries and their impacts on non-target species: worldwide review. Rome: FAO (FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 320). +Parsons, M., Mitchell, |., Butler, A., Ratcliffe, N., Frederiksen, M., Foste, S., an Reid, J.B. (2008). Seabirds as indicators of the marine environment. /CE Journal of Marine Science 65: 1520-1526. +Petersen, S.L., Nel, D.C., Ryan, P.G., and Underhill, L.G. (2008). Understanding an mitigating vulnerable bycatch in southern African trawl and longline fisheries WWE South Africa Report Series, 2008/Marine/002. +Piatt, J.F., and Nettleship, D.N. (1987). Incidental catch of marine birds and mammal in fishing nets off Newfoundland, Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin 18:344 349. +Piatt, J.F., Ford, R.G. (1996). How many seabirds were killed by the Exxon Valdez oi spill? 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The Great Guano Rush: Entrepreneurs and American Oversea Expansion. New York: St. Martin's. ISBN 0312103166. +Spennemann, D.H.R. (1998). Excessive exploitation of Central Pacific seabir populations at the turn of the 20th Century. Marine Ornithology 26: 49-57. +Steven, R., Castley, J.G., and Buckley, R. (2013). Tourism revenue as a conservatio tool for threatened birds in protected areas. PLoS ONE 8(5): e62598 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062598. +Sullivan, B.J., Reid, T.A., and Bugoni, L. (2006). Seabird mortality on factory trawler in the Falkland Islands and beyond. Biological Conservation 131: 495-504. +Sydeman, W.J., Thompson, S.A., Kitaysky, A. (2012). Seabirds and climate change roadmap for the future. Marine Ecology Progress Series 454: 107-117. +© United Nations 2016 1 + +Tasker, M.L., Camphuysen, C.J., Cooper, J., Garthe, S., Montevecchi, W.A., an Blaber, S.J.M. (2000). The impacts of fishing on marine birds. /CES Journal o Marine Science 57: 531-547. +Tisdell, C. (2008). 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Polar Biology 23: 236-249. +Yorio, P., Quintana, F., Dell’arciprete, P., and Gonzalez-zevallos, D. (2010). Spatia overlap between foraging seabirds and trawl fisheries: implications for th effectiveness of a marine protected area at Golfo San Jorge, Argentina. Bir Conservation International 20: 320-334. +Zydelis, R., Bellebaum, J., Osterblom, H., Vetemaa, M., Schirmeister, B., Stipniece, A. Dagys, M., van Eerden, M., and Garthe, S. (2009). Bycatch in gillne fisheries—an overlooked threat to waterbird populations. Biologica Conservation 142: 1269-1281. +Zydelis, R., Small, C., French, G. (2013). The incidental catch of seabirds in gillne fisheries: A global review. Biological Conservation 162: 76-88. +© United Nations 2016 1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_38.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_38.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_39.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_39.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..8cdf84870259b395a98a4f1cf9b106c6f2745252 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_39.txt @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ +Chapter 39. Marine Reptiles +Contributors: Bryan P. Wallace (convenor), Peter H. Dutton, Maria Angela Marcovaldi Vimoksalehi Lukoschek, Jake Rice (Lead Member and Editor Part VI Biodiversity) +1. Assessment Frameworks +Although several other frameworks assess marine turtle status at global and sub-globa scales, in this chapter we focus on results from the International Union for th Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments and the IUCN Marine Turtl Specialist Group’s conservation priorities portfolio (Wallace et al., 2011) because thes are the most comprehensive and widely recognized assessment frameworks at present For a comprehensive summary of other assessment frameworks for marine turtles please see Chapter 35. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the two above mentioned IUCN assessments with regard to marine turtles, and we also presen available information on the conservation status of sea snakes and marine iguanas. +2. Status Assessments +2.1 IUCN Red List +The primary global assessment framework for marine turtle species is the IUCN Red Lis of Threatened Species™ (www.iucnredlist.org). The universally applicable criteria an guidelines of the Red List make it the most widely used and accepted framework fo assessing the conservation status of species worldwide. +The IUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG), one of the IUCN/Species Surviva Commission’s specialist groups, is responsible for conducting regular Red Lis assessments of each marine turtle species on a global scale. However, because marin turtle population traits and trajectories can vary geographically, the global extinctio risk assessment framework represented by the Red List does not adequately assess th conservation status of spatially and biologically distinct marine turtle populations (se Seminoff and Shanker, 2008 for review). +2.2 Subpopulation or regional assessments +To address the challenges presented by the mismatched scales of global Red Lis assessments and regional/population-level variation in status, the MTSG developed a alternative assessment framework and a new approach to Red List assessments tha better characterize variation in status and trends of individual populations (Wallace e al., 2010; Wallace et al., 2011; see next section). This new approach centres on assessing +© 2016 United Nation + +marine turtle subpopulations, as well as the global population (i.e., species), using Re List guidelines, which results in official Red List categories for subpopulations in additio to the single global listing. This working group first developed regional managemen units (RMUs) (i.e., spatially explicit population segments defined by biogeographica data of marine turtle species) as the framework for defining biologically meaningfu population segments for assessments (Wallace et al., 2010). RMUs are functionall equivalent to IUCN subpopulations, thus providing the appropriate demographic unit fo Red List assessments. Next, the group developed a flexible yet robust framework fo assessing population viability and degree of threats that could be applied to an subpopulation in any region (Wallace et al., 2011). Population viability criteria include abundance, recent and long-term trends, rookery vulnerability, as well as geneti diversity, and threats included by-catch (i.e., incidental capture in fishing gear), huma consumption of turtles or turtle products, coastal development, pollution an pathogens, and climate change. The final product was a “conservation prioritie portfolio” for all subpopulations globally. It includes identification of critical data needs as well as risk and threats criteria by subpopulation, and reflects the wide variety o conservation objectives held by different stakeholders, depending on institutional o regional priorities. +3. Conservation Status of Marine Reptiles +3.1 Marine Turtles +Currently, global Red List categories for marine turtle species are: Vulnerabl (leatherback, Dermochelys coriacea; olive ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea), Endangere (loggerhead, Caretta caretta; green turtle, Chelonia mydas), Critically Endangere (Kemp’s_ ridley, Lepidochelys kempii; hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata), an DataDeficient (flatback, Natator depressus). +However, as mentioned above, the MTSG is actively appraising Red List assessments t include all subpopulations, as well as the global listing for each marine turtle species. I 2013, the MTSG completed the first complete suite of subpopulation assessments—i addition to the global listing—for any marine turtle species (Wallace et al., 2013a). Th updated Red List assessments for leatherback turtles changed the global status for thi species from Critically Endangered to Vulnerable—due to new data becoming availabl and to one large and increasing subpopulation (Northwest Atlantic Ocean)—and adde new listings for each of the seven leatherback subpopulations, which ranged fro Critically Endangered (East Pacific Ocean; West Pacific Ocean; Southwest Atlantic Ocean Southwest Indian Ocean) to Least Concern (Northwest Atlantic Ocean) to Data-Deficien (Southeast Atlantic Ocean; Northeast Indian Ocean) (Wallace et al., 2013a). Update global and subpopulation assessments are expected to be completed in 2016-2018. +© 2016 United Nation + +3.2 MTSG’s conservation priorities portfolio +Marine turtle Red List assessments have been and will continue to be informed by th MTSG’s conservation priorities portfolio (Wallace et al., 2011), the results of which ar presented briefly here. +Average values of population risk and threats criteria across marine turtl subpopulations assessed by Wallace et al. (2011) are presented in Table 1. Globally long-term population trends are declining on average across marine turtl subpopulations, but are stable or perhaps even increasing in recent years (Table 1). I general, population viability criteria tend to cluster around moderate values acros subpopulations. +At ocean-basin scales (i.e., Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacifi Ocean), subpopulations in the Pacific Ocean had the highest average risk (i.e. population viability) score, whereas subpopulations in the Atlantic Ocean (as well as i the Mediterranean Sea) had the highest average risk and threats score (Table 2). India Ocean subpopulations had the highest average data uncertainty scores for both risk an threats (Table 1), as well as the most populations assessed as “critical data needs (Table 3). +One-third of all marine turtle subpopulations were assessed as “high risk-hig threats”—i.e. low, declining abundance and low diversity simultaneously under hig threats—which could be considered as the world’s most endangered population (Wallace et al., 2011). Between 20 and 30 per cent of subpopulations in each ocea basin were “high risk-high threats” (Table 3). More than half of £. imbricat subpopulations and roughly 40 per cent of C. caretta and D. coriacea subpopulation were categorized as High Risk-High Threats (Fig. 1). +One-fifth of marine turtle subpopulations globally were categorized as “low risk-lo threats”—i.e., high and stable or increasing abundance, high diversity whil experiencing low to moderate threats—a pattern that was reflected at the ocean-basi scale as well (Table 2). These included five C. mydas subpopulations, three E. imbricat subpopulations, two D. coriacea subpopulations, and one each for C. caretta and L olivacea (Fig. 1). +These results illustrate both the large degree of variation and level of uncertainty in th conservation status of marine turtles within and among species and regions, as well a the importance of flexible assessment frameworks capable of reflecting these sources o variation. +3.3 Sea snakes +Elapid sea snakes comprise two evolutionary lineages: live-bearing true sea snakes (a least 63 species) and egg-laying amphibious sea kraits (genus Laticauda - 8 species) True sea snakes are further divided into two monophyletic groups, the Aipysurus grou (> 10 species in two genera, predominantly associated with coral reefs) and the +© 2016 United Nation + +Hydrophis group (> 50 species in ten nominal genera, mostly associated with inter-reefa habitats) (Lukoschek and Keogh, 2006). Marine elapids are found throughout the India and Pacific Oceans, but do not occur in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean or Caribbea Seas. Highest species richness occurs in Southeast Asia and northern Australia (Elfes e al., 2013). Marine snakes are poorly studied: new species continue to be described, an revisions to taxonomic status and geographic ranges are not uncommon, resulting i changes in the numbers of recognized species and complicating assessments of thei conservation status. +In 2009, the first Red List global marine assessment of extinction risk was conducted fo 67 of the 71 elapid sea snake species recognized at the time (Elfes et al., 2013). Si species were classified in one of the threatened categories (Critically Endangered Endangered or Vulnerable) and four species were classified as Near Threatened. Th three most threatened species were Aipysurus congeners, two of which were Criticall Endangered (A. apraefrontalis and A. foliosquama) and one Endangered (A. fuscus). A the time of the Red List Assessments, these three species were regarded as bein endemic to a small number of reefs in the Timor Sea, where they had undergon catastrophic population declines since the mid-1990s (Lukoschek et al., 2013) However, recent sightings of at least one of these three species on coastal reefs i Western Australia suggest that further research is needed to confirm their tru geographic ranges (Lukoschek et al., 2013). Of the eight species of Laticauda, two wer classified as Vulnerable and three as Near Threatened (Elfes et al., 2013). Bot Vulnerable species of Laticauda were small-range endemics (L. crockeri restricted t Lake Te-Nggano in the Solomon Islands; L. schistorhyncha to Niue), as were two of th three Near Threatened species (L. frontalis occurring only in Vanuatu and the Loyalt Islands; L. guineai restricted to Southern New Guinea). The third Near Threatene species, L. semifasciata, had undergone significant historical declines in the Philippine due to harvest for skin and food. Hydrophis semperi (endemic to Lake Taal in th Philippines, was classified as Vulnerable, and Hydrophis pacificus (endemic to North-eas Australian waters) was classified Near Threatened. Of the remaining 57 species, 3 were classified as of Least Concern and 23 as Data-Deficient (Elfes et al., 2013). Severa species classified as Data-Deficient are known only from a few museum specimen collected many years ago and may not be valid species. At the same time, some specie listed as Data-Deficient may, in fact, be threatened and clarification of threat status fo Data-Deficient species is needed (Elfes et al., 2013). +3.4 Marine iguanas +Marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) are the world’s only marine lizard species and are endemic to the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). Ten subpopulations occur o separate islands within the archipelago, but the status of most of these subpopulation is unknown. Marine iguanas occupy rocky coastal areas and intertidal areas, and forag on marine algae in nearshore waters (Nelson et al. 2004). Although abundanc estimates are unavailable for seven of the subpopulations, abundance estimates of +© 2016 United Nation + +three subpopulations range between 1,000-2,000 individuals (Rabida Island), 4,000 10,000 (Marchena Island), and 15,000-30,000 (Santa Fe Island) (Nelson et al. 2004). Du to their restricted distribution and area of occupancy, marine iguanas are classified a Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List (Nelson et al. 2004). +4. Threats to Marine Reptiles Globally +4.1 Marine Turtles +Dutton and Squires (2011) highlight the need for a holistic conservation approach tha addresses all sources of mortality and deals with the trans-boundary nature of thes multiple threats. Decades of over-harvest of eggs on nesting beaches have drive historic declines of some breeding populations, rendering them more vulnerable t impacts from fisheries by-catch and other threats. According to Wallace et al. (2011) fisheries by-catch was scored as the highest threat across marine turtle subpopulations followed by human consumption and coastal development (Table 1). Climate chang was scored as Data-Deficient in two-thirds of all RMUs, whereas pollution an pathogens were scored as Data-Deficient in more than half of all RMUs (Table 1). +A recent global assessment of fisheries by-catch impacts documented th Mediterranean Sea, Northwest and Southwest Atlantic, and East Pacific Oceans a regions with particularly high by-catch threats to marine turtle subpopulations (Wallac et al., 2013b). This assessment also highlighted the disproportionately large impact tha by-catch in small-scale fisheries in coastal areas can have on marine turtle populations Efforts to reduce turtle by-catch have included changes in gear configuration and/o fishing method, time-area closures, and enforcement of by-catch quotas, but by-catc reduction has only been successful when tailored to local environmental factors an characteristics of fishing gear and methods (Lewison et al., 2013). At a global scale, th FAO has adopted guidelines to reduce sea turtle mortality in fishing operations an encourages States to adopt and implement sea turtle by-catch reduction measure according to the those guidelines. Human consumption of marine turtles and turtl products has occurred as traditional and subsistence use, as well as commercially around the world for centuries. The full magnitude of the effects of this huma consumption on marine turtle populations has not been quantified, but unsustainabl rates of consumption have contributed to declines in abundance in several places (e.g. C. mydas, D. coriacea, L. olivacea in the East Pacific Ocean, Abreu-Grobois et al., 2008 Seminoff and Wallace, 2012; £. imbricata in the Wider Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Wes Pacific; Mortimer and Donnelly, 2008). Consumption of turtles and turtle products ha been reduced in recent decades due to top-down enforcement of national an international regulations against trade and use of turtle products (e.g., Convention o International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), nationa endangered species laws), but both legal and illegal turtle harvest continues in man countries (Humber et al., 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +Although climate change has been suggested as a major potential threat to marin turtles globally—e.g., possible skewing of sex ratios (which are controlled b temperature), habitat alteration related to increased frequency and severity of storm affecting nesting beaches, among other effects (Hamann et al. 2013)—specific impact have not been quantified widely to date (Wallace et al., 2011). Increased beach san and air temperatures and decreased precipitation might negatively affect hatchlin production from nesting beaches, and fluctuating oceanographic conditions might alte migratory routes and foraging areas (Hawkes et al., 2009). More quantitative analyses o potential impacts to marine turtles related to climate change are warranted. +4.2 Sea Snakes +Sea snakes are a diverse group of meso-predators with varying habitat and pre requirements that range on a spectrum from being generalists to highly specialised Some species of true sea snakes occur predominantly in inter-tidal and estuarin habitats, others are restricted to coral reefs, and others occur in reefal, inter-reefal an estuarine habitats. Egg-laying amphibious sea kraits require intact coral reefs fo feeding, as well as intertidal and terrestrial sites for nesting and resting. In terms o diet, generalist species feed on a variety of small fish, eels, squid, and crustaceans whereas dietary specialists, such as Emydocephalus spp., exclusively forage on eggs o small reef fish, and most sea kraits forage exclusively on eels. Range extents also var enormously, with some species having extensive ranges (Persian Gulf to Australia), an others being restricted to a single island or inland lake, or a handful of coral reefs. Th differing ecologies, diets and geographic ranges mean that potential threatenin processes vary among species and among geographically disparate populations of th same species. +Globally sea snakes are taken as by-catch, particularly in trawl fisheries in inter-reefa and/or estuarine habitats. Most information about the nature and extent of sea snak by-catch comes from northern and eastern Australia, and indicates that specie composition and abundance vary spatially, temporally and between fisheries (Courtne et al., 2009). For example, trawl fisheries on Queensland’s east coast catch > 100,00 sea snakes from 12 species annually, of which approximately 25 per cent die; however 59 per cent of all sea snake catches and ~85 per cent of deaths occur in just one fishery due to the spatial overlap of habitats between the red-spot king prawns, Melicertu longistylus, being harvested and reef-associated sea snakes (Courtney et al., 2009) Nonetheless, risk assessments for Australia’s Northern Trawl Fishery indicated that n sea snake species was at risk under the existing fishing effort (Milton et al., 2008). Whil the use of by-catch reduction devices (BRDs), which are placed the regulation 12 meshes from the codend drawstring, did not reduce sea snake by-catch (Milton et al. 2008), the use of some BRDs placed closer to the drawstring (<70 meshes) has bee shown to reduce the number of snakes taken by 40-85 per cent without significan prawn loss (Milton et al., 2008). +© 2016 United Nation + +In Southeast Asia, many reptile species are heavily harvested for the commercial food medicine and leather trades; however, very limited information exists about the exten to which marine snakes are targeted and about potential impacts (Auliya, 2011). T some extent, this lack of information probably reflects the fact that to date no sea snak species has been CITES-listed. One anecdotal account of a tannery in West Malaysi indicates that over 6,000 spine-bellied sea snakes (Lapemis curtus) were harvested pe month (Auliya, 2011), suggesting that the impact might be high if this account i representative of other locations. Nonetheless, L. curtus has a large geographic range, i a voracious generalist predator (feeding on a variety of small fish, eels, squid crustaceans) and typically occurs in large numbers in many habitat types, so it may b able to sustain heavy harvests (Auliya, 2011). +The three most threatened sea snake species are endemic to coral reefs in the Timo Sea, including Ashmore Reef, a renowned sea snake biodiversity hotspot. Specie diversity at Ashmore Reef has declined from at least nine species in 1973 and 1994 t just two species in 2010 (Lukoschek et al., 2013) and abundances have declined > 90 pe cent from the estimated standing stock of > 40,000 snakes in the mid-1990s (Guinea an Whiting, 2005; Lukoschek et al., 2013). In addition to the three threatened species fro the genus Aipysurus, two species that disappeared (Aipysurus duboisii, endemic t Australasia, and Emydocephalus annulatus, also in the Aipysurus group), typically occu on coral reefs, suggesting that their declines might be due to loss or degradation of ree habitats. Reef-associated sea snakes shelter and forage under ledges and within the ree matrix, where they might be affected by reductions in coral cover, diversity and habita complexity following coral bleaching events. A mass bleaching event in 2003 cause widespread coral mortality at Ashmore Reef; however, the most pronounced sea snak declines occurred between the mid-1990s and 2002 (Lukoschek et al., 2013), precedin the 2003 coral loss. The cause of these declines is unknown (Lukoschek et al., 2013) Widespread bleaching associated with the 1998 El Nifio event affected many Australia reefs, including Scott Reef in the Timor Sea, but Ashmore Reef experienced minima coral loss in 1998 (Lukoschek et al., 2013). Moreover, two additional species tha disappeared from Ashmore Reef (Hydrophis coggeri and Acalyptophis peroni) wer predominantly associated with soft-sediment habitats. Illegal harvesting on Timor Se reefs targets invertebrates and sharks, but there is no evidence that sea snakes hav ever been taken (Lukoschek et al., 2013). Moreover, Ashmore Reef was declared National Nature Reserve (IUCN Category 1a) in 1983 and a National Parks or Custom presence, maintained for much of the year since 1986, has limited illegal fishing a Ashmore Reef (Lukoschek et al., 2013). Similar declines of Aipysurus group species hav occurred on protected reefs in New Caledonia (Goiran and Shine, 2013) and th southern Great Barrier Reef (Lukoschek et al., 2007a). Possible reasons for thes apparently enigmatic declines of sea snakes include reproductive failure due to the sub lethal or lethal effects of increased sea surface temperatures, disease, and pollution however, compared with other marine vertebrates, limited research has bee conducted quantifying the extent to which these processes affect sea snakes. There ha been no research into the effects of ocean acidification on sea snakes. +© 2016 United Nation + +Sea snakes tend to have highly patchy or aggregated distributions throughout thei ranges. Genetics research on species from the Aipysurus group (Lukoschek et al., 2007b Lukoschek et al., 2008; Lukoschek and Shine, 2012) suggests that dispersal (gene flow between geographically disparate populations is limited and that local populatio declines or extinctions are unlikely to be reversed by dispersal over ecological time scales relevant for conservation (Lukoschek et al., 2013). +4.3 Marine Iguanas +Periods of extremely high water temperatures and poor nutrient availability associate with El Nifio events cause declines in food resources available to marine iguanas dramatic (60-90 per cent) population declines related to El Nifio have been documente (Vitousek et al. 2007). Introduced predators could also negatively affect marine iguan populations on some islands (Nelson et al. 2004). Increased stress responses and relate changes in immune function have been documented in marine iguanas subject t consistent presence of tourists, which could pose a significant sub-lethal threat particularly when compounded by periods of low resource availability (French et al 2010). +5. Assessment and Conservation Needs +In general, an urgent need remains for enhanced monitoring and reporting of marin reptile population status and trends, as well as of threats to marine reptiles globally. Fo example, insufficient information was available to assess recent and long-term trend for roughly 25-30 per cent of all subpopulations, and threats such as climate change als remain poorly quantified (Wallace et al., 2011). Significant efforts to quantif fundamental marine reptile demographic rates and processes (NRC, 2010) are stil required to improve assessments of marine reptile status at global, regional, and loca scales. Understanding biogeographical factors that influence the biology and ecology o marine reptiles, as well as the anthropogenic pressures on marine reptile species an populations, will improve status assessments and inform conservation strategies. +© 2016 United Nation + +Table 1. Average values of population risk and threats criteria across marine turtle subpopulations. Score range from 1 (high abundance, increasing trends, high diversity, low threats) to 3 (low abundance declining trends, low diversity, high threats). +RISK SCORES +mean +No. subpop’n scored +THREATS SCORES +mean +No. subpop’n scored +long-term +population rookery +size recent trend trend vulnerabilit 1.95 1.81 2.47 1.72 +58 43 38 57 +fisheries by- human coastal pollution and +catch consumption development pathogen 2.21 2.08 1.93 1.70 +56 57 53 25 +geneti diversity +1.90 +58 +climat change +2.20 +20 +Table 2. Average risk and threats scores (and accompanying data uncertainty indices) of subpopulation that occur in each ocean basin. +average averag risk score average threats score +average data threats data +ocean basin risk score uncertainty score uncertainty +Atlantic/Med +(n=19) 1.81 0.26 2.16 0.35 +Indian (n=18) 1.92 0.78 2.08 0.68 +Pacific (n=21) 2.03 0.32 1.96 0.48 +© 2016 United Nations + +Table 3. Categories in which RMUs occurred in each basin (including critical data needs RMUs) Categories: HR-HT=High Risk-High Threats; HR-LT=High Risk-Low Threats; LR-LT=Low Risk-Low Threats; LR HT=Low Risk-High Threats. * One RMU (C. mydas, northeast Indian Ocean) was scored critical data need only. +Categorie ocean basin critical dataneeds =HR-HT HR-LT LR-LT LR-HT Tota Atlantic/Me (n=19) 1 5 2 3 9 1 Indian (n=18) * 8 6 3 4 4 17 Pacific (n=21) 3 8 4 5 4 2 Total 12 21 9 12 15 57* +© 2016 United Nation + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Conservation status of marine turtles: Four conservation priority categories are displayed: (red high risk — high threat, (yellow) high risk — low threat, (green) low risk — low threat, (blue) low risk — hig threat. Panels: (A) loggerheads (Caretta caretta), (B) green turtles (Chelonia mydas), (C) leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea, (D) hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata), (E) Kemp’s ridleys (Lepidochelys kempii) (F) olive ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea), (G) flatbacks (Natator depressus). Subpopulations were classifie as having critical data needs (outlined in red) if the data uncertainty indices for both risk and threats > (denoting high uncertainty). Hatched areas represent spatial overlaps between subpopulations. Th brown area in panel B highlights an overlap of four subpopulations, and the grey area in panel represents the C. mydas Northeast Indian Ocean subpopulation, which had excessive data-deficien scores and was not included in overall calculations and categorization. Figure from Wallace et al. (2011 PLoS ONE 6(9): €24510. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024510. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +References +Abreu-Grobois, F.A., Plotkin, P.T., (assessors) (2007). IUCN Red List Status Assessment o the olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) |\UCN/SSC-Marine Turtl Specialist Group. 39 p. +Auliya, M. (2011). Lapemis curtus (SERPENTES: ELAPIDAE) harvested in West Malaysia IUCN/SSC Sea Snake Specialist Group Newsletter, 1, 6-8. +Courtney. A.J., Schemel, B.L., Wallace, R., Campbell, M.J., Mayer, D.G., Young, B. (2009) Reducing the impact of Queensland's trawl fisheries on protected sea snakes, pp 1-123. Queensland Primary Industries and Fisheries, Brisbane. +Dutton, P.H. and Squires, D. (2011). A Holistic Strategy for Pacific Sea Turtl Conservation, in Dutton, P.H., Squires, D. and Mahfuzuddin, A., (Eds.) Conservation and Sustainable Management of Sea Turtles in the Pacific Ocean University of Hawaii Press, 481pp. +Elfes, C., Livingstone, S.R., Lane, A., Lukoschek, V., Sanders, K.L., Courtney, A.J. Gatus, J.L., Guinea, M., Lobo, A.S., Milton, D., Rasmussen, A.R., Read, M. White, M.-D., Sanciangco, J., Alcala, A., Heawole, H., Karns, D.R., Seminoff, J.A. Voris, H.K., Carpenter, K.E., Murphy, J.C. (2013). Fascinating and forgotten: th conservation status of the world’s sea snakes. Herpetological Conservation an Biology, 8:37-52. +French, S.S., DeNardo, D.F., Greives, T.J., Strand, C.R., and Demas, G.E. (2010). Huma disturbance alters endocrine and immune responses in the Galapagos marin iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus). Hormones and Behavior 58: 792-798. +Goiran, C., Shine, R. (2013) Decline in sea snake abundance on a protected coral ree system in the New Caledonian Lagoon. Coral Reefs, 32, 281-284. +Guinea, M.L., Whiting, S.D. (2005) Insights into the distribution and abundance of se snakes at Ashmore Reef. The Beagle, Supplement 1, 199-205. +Hamann, M., Fuentes, M.M.P.B., Ban, N.C., Mocellin, V.J.L. (2013). Climate change an marine turtles. Pp 353-397. in Wyneken, J., Lohmann, K.J., Musick, J.A. (eds.) The Biology of Sea Turtles Volume III, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. +Hawkes, L.A., Broderick, A.C., Godfrey, M.H., and Godley, B.J. (2009) Climate change an marine turtles. Endangered Species Research, 7: 137-154. +Humber, F, Godley, B.J., Broderick, A.C. (2014) So excellent a fishe: a global overview o legal marine turtle fisheries. Diversity and Distributions 20(5): 579-590. DOI 10.1111/ddi.12183. +Lewison, R.L., Wallace, B.P., Alfaro-Shigueto, J., Mangel, J., Maxwell, S., Hazen, E. (2013) Fisheries by-catch of marine turtles: lessons learned from decades of research +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +and conservation. In: Wyneken, J. Musick, J.A. (eds.). The Biology of Sea Turtles Vol. 3. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp 329-352. +Lukoschek, V., Keogh, J.S. (2006). Molecular phylogeny of sea snakes reveals a rapidl diverged adaptive radiation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 89: 523-39. +Lukoschek, V., Heatwole, H., Grech, A., Burns, G., Marsh, H. (2007a). Distribution of tw species of sea snakes, Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus, in th southern Great Barrier Reef: metapopulation dynamics, marine protected area and conservation. Coral Reefs, 26, 291-307. +Lukoschek, V., Waycott, M., Marsh, H. (2007b). Phylogeographic structure of the oliv sea snake, Aipysurus laevis (Hydrophiinae) indicates recent Pleistocene rang expansion but low contemporary gene flow. Molecular Ecology, 16, 3406-3422. +Lukoschek ,V., Waycott, M., Keogh, J.S. (2008). Relative information content o polymorphic microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA for inferring dispersal an population genetic structure in the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis. Molecula Ecology, 17, 3062-3077. +Lukoschek, V., Shine, R. (2012). Sea snakes rarely venture far from home. Ecology an Evolution, 2, 1113-1121. +Lukoschek, V., Beger, M., Ceccarelli, D.M., Richards, Z., Pratchett, M.S. (2013). Enigmati declines of Australia’s sea snakes from a biodiversity hotspot. Biologica Conservation, 166:191-202. +Milton, D.A. & CSIRO (2008). Marine and Atmospheric Research & Fisheries Researc and Development Corporation (Australia). Assessing data poor resources developing a management strategy for byproduct species in the Northern Praw Fishery. CSIRO Division of Marine and Atmospheric Research, Celveland, Qld Australia. +Mortimer, J.A., Donnelly, M. (assessors) (2008). Marine Turtle Specialist Group 200 IUCN Red List Status Assessment, Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), 12 pages. +National Research Council (NRC) (2010). Assessment of Sea-Turtle Status and Trends Integrating Demography and Abundance. National Academies Press Washington, D.C. +Nelson, K., Snell, H. and Wikelski, M. (2004). Amblyrhynchus cristatus. In: The IUCN Re List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. www.redlist.org. Downloaded on 1 April 2015. +Seminoff, J., Shanker, K. (2008). Marine turtles and IUCN Red Listing: A review of th process, the pitfalls, and novel assessment approaches. Journal of Experimenta Marine Biology and Ecology, 356:52-68. +Seminoff, J.A., Wallace, B.P. (2012). Sea Turtles of the Eastern Pacific: Advances i Research and Conservation. University of Arizona Press. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Vitousek, M.N., Rubenstein, D.R., and Wikelski, M. (2007). The evolution of foragin behavior in the Galapagos marine iguana: natural and sexual selection on bod size drives ecological, morphological, and behavioral specialization. In: Lizar Ecology: The Evolutionary Consequences of Foraging Mode. S.M. Reilly, L.D McBrayer, and D.P. Miles (eds.). Cambridge University Press. +Wallace, B.P., DiMatteo, A.D., Hurley, B.J., Finkbeiner, E.M., Bolten, B.A., et al. (2010) Regional Management Units for marine turtles: A novel framework fo prioritizing conservation and research across multiple scales. PLloS ONE 5(12) e15465. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015465. +Wallace, B.P., DiMatteo, A.D., Bolten, A.B., Chaloupka, M.Y., Hutchinson, B.J. (2011) Global conservation priorities for marine turtles. PLoS ONE 6(9): e24510 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024510. +Wallace, B.P., Tiwari, M. and Girondot, M. (2013a). Dermochelys coriacea. In: |UC 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2 . Downloaded on 30 April 2014. Downloaded on 30 April 2014. +Wallace, B. P., Kot, C. Y., DiMatteo, A. D., Lee, T., Crowder, L. B., and Lewison, R. L (2013b). Impacts of fisheries by-catch on marine turtle populations worldwide toward conservation and research priorities. Ecosphere 4(3):40 doi.org/10.1890/ES12-00388.1. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_39.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_39.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_40.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_40.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6da039eb8fdc55b7502606e93e81364ed236321d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_40.txt @@ -0,0 +1,176 @@ +Chapter 40. Sharks and Other Elasmobranchs +Contributors: Steven E. Campana and Francesco Ferretti, Andrew Rosenberg (Lea member) +Sharks and rays are among the most endangered group of marine animals and includ many species for which there is little information on abundance and distribution. Ther are no global abundance trends for elasmobranchs as a group, and very few robus regional trend indicators. Population-level stock assessments, which provide the mos reliable index of abundance, are available for only about 10 per cent of 1,08 chondrichthyan species (FAO 2012; Worm et al., 2013; Dulvy et al., 2014; Cortés et al 2012). Almost all of these assessments report a depleted and/or over-exploite population. In light of the scarcity of time series of absolute abundance indicators, th conservation status of elasmobranchs as a group is most commonly based on trends i reported landings, trajectories of standardized catch rates or indices of current status. +1. Global catches and trends +Global landings of sharks, rays and chimaeras (chondrichthyans) as reported to the Foo and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have increased steadily sinc the 1950s, peaking at about 888,000 mt in 2000 before declining (Figure 1). In 2012 landings were 14 per cent lower than in 2000. The increasing trend in global catche reflected a combination of fisheries expansions into previously-unexploited regions changes in the species composition of catches, and changes in the way countrie reported landed catch for sharks and rays (e.g. changes in the taxonomic resolution o the reported landings; Ferretti et al. 2010). Historically, many species of sharks and ray had low commercial value, and were not regularly recorded in fisheries statistics. Sinc the 1980s, sharks became an alternative resource for some fisheries as many fish stock collapsed and demand for shark fins in Asian markets strongly increased. The resultin increased fishing pressure on elasmobranchs and reports of severely deplete populations attracted the attention of management agencies, which increasingl reported shark statistics. +Although it has been assumed that the recent decline in reported landings may reflec better management for the species (FAO 2010), a recent analysis of the FA chondrichthyan landings disaggregated by countries (Davidson et al. 2015) evaluate the importance of direct and indirect indices of fishing exploitation and measures o fisheries management performance, revealing that the decline is more closely related t fishing pressure and population declines (Eriksson and Clarke 2015, Davidson et al 2015). Yet reported landings continue to be a gross underestimation of actual catche (Dulvy et al. 2014). Catches estimated from the volume of the shark-fin trade suggest +© United Nations 201 + +global shark catches are on the order of 1.7 million mt in recent years (Clarke et al. 2006). More recently, Worm et al. (2013), using various assumptions about reportin rate, discarding and post-release mortality, derived a similar global estimate of 1.4 million mt in 2010, which is twice the figure reported from FAO statistics. Not include in that value would be any post-release mortality of discarded, unfinned catch. Thus actual trends in shark catch and landings are unknown. Similar reporting issue confound shark catch statistics reported by other regional fisheries managemen organizations (RFMOs), such as is the case with blue sharks reported by Internationa Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (Campana et al., 2006). +al —atianti 900: — india — Pacifi Total +6005 +Landings ('000 mt) +3007 +S6 S6 9561 e61 096 1 7961 96 el6 086 ze6 e61 986 8861 0661 7661 e61 9661 2661 0074 +002- 00 007- 8007 o1oz- +10z-4 +ou6 z lb ub +os 9961 8964 +< +ear +Figure 1. Trends in reported landings of elasmobranchs as reported to FAO. The trend line for th Atlantic includes the Mediterranean. +Regional differences in the status of shark and ray populations might reflect differen histories of fishing exploitation (Figure 1). The North-West Pacific, North-East Atlanti and Mediterranean were the areas where industrial fisheries began before the 1950s These three areas, in decreasing order, recorded the highest initial catches per unit shel area. The North Atlantic, Mediterranean, around Australia and New Zealand, and th North Pacific are the regions with the longest history of intensive fishing, but are als among the best-monitored sectors of the world’s oceans, with stock assessment available for some species. The analysis of International Union for the Conservation o Nature (IUCN) Red List species indicated that these regions (as a group) were somewha less likely to have a higher proportion of threatened species (<20 per cent) than wer the less populated Indian, central Pacific and south and central Atlantic Oceans (>20 pe cent) (Dulvy et al., 2014). Unassessed fisheries in the central Pacific and central an southern Atlantic were also likeliest to be characterized by low relative biomass on the +© United Nations 201 + +basis of time series of catch and fisheries development, and species life histories trait (Costello et al., 2012); this is indicative of overfishing. +1.1 Conservation status +A comprehensive analysis of 1,041 chondrichthyan species on the IUCN Red Lis (www.redlist.org) reported that 17 per cent of the species were considered threatene with extinction (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable, Dulvy et al., 2014) Moreover, just 241 species (23 per cent of the total) were considered to be safe fro extinction threats (categorized as Least Concern according to IUCN criteria), which is th lowest fraction of safe species among all vertebrate groups studied by IUCN to date Assessed shark and ray species with large body sizes were considered to be in the mos danger, especially those living in shallow waters that were accessible to fisheries Almost half of the examined species (47 per cent) were considered data-deficient meaning that their conservation could not be assessed for lack of adequate data o abundance and distribution. However, in an independent study, Costello et al. (2012 used a multivariate regression analysis of assessed finfish species to estimate th current population biomass relative to maximum sustainable yield (MSY) in 1,79 unassessed marine fisheries around the world. Chondrichthyans had the lowest relativ biomass values (40 per cent of the MSY (optimal) level) of any fish species or group; thi was considered indicative of considerable over-exploitation (Costello et al., 2012). +2. Drivers of shark decline +2.1 Sharks are intrinsically vulnerable +Most sharks and rays are characterized as having low productivity associated with lo fecundity, a slow growth rate, and a late age at sexual maturation (Musick, 1999). Thes life history characteristics are more similar to those of marine mammals than of th more productive bony fishes (Myers and Worm, 2005), which make them particularl susceptible to fishing pressure (Walker, 1998). Deep-sea sharks appear to b particularly susceptible, due to their very low productivity (Clarke et al., 2003; Forres and Walters, 2009). +However, the similarity of their environmental preferences to several commerciall valuable teleost species can also increase the likelihood of their capture in som fisheries. For example, blue shark catch rates and seasonal distributions tend to co-var with those of swordfish, making the blue sharks difficult to avoid in a swordfish fisher (Bigelow et al., 1999). Similarly, many skates and rays are captured in bottom trawlin for groundfishes such as flounders, and subsequently discarded dead (Enever et al. 2009; Damalas and Vassilopoulou 2011; Graham et al., 2001). +© United Nations 201 + +2.2 Fishing +Mortality due to fishing is almost entirely responsible for the world-wide declines i shark and ray abundance. Although directed shark fishing is still practised in som countries, a much larger proportion of overall shark mortality is associated with by catch in non-shark fisheries (Lewison et al., 2004). +2.2.1 By-catch +Sharks have typically been exploited as a by-catch of commercial fisheries targetin more valuable bony fishes, especially tuna and billfish (ICCAT, 2005) and in traw fisheries exploiting groundfishes and shrimps (Shepherd and Myers, 2005). In man countries, shark by-catch is partially or primarily retained for the fin and/or food trade But even where living sharks are released at sea because they are considered unwante catch, post-release mortality rates can exceed 18 per cent for some species (Campana e al., 2009; Musyl et al., 2011). In the North-West Atlantic, blue shark by-catch from a international pelagic longline fleet outnumbers the target swordfish catch by about 3:1 resulting in an annual post-release blue shark mortality of ~20,000 mt (Campana et al. 2009). Similar calculations of capture and post-release mortality of released sharks using conservative mortality estimates for all shark species, suggest total shar mortalities of non-landed sharks of about 34,000 mt per year (Worm et al., 2013) Discarded skate and ray by-catch of bottom trawl fisheries are ubiquitous and poorl documented, but appear to be responsible for steep declines in abundance, and eve risk of extinction, in some areas (Shepherd and Myers, 2005; McPhie and Campana 2009). +Elasmobranch species living in the high seas appear to be particularly susceptible t undocumented and/or illegal catches. +2.2.2 Historical shark fisheries +At local scales, targeted shark fisheries have developed in multiple regions of the world In the Mediterranean Sea, for example, fishing for sharks constituted an important off season activity for fishing communities relying on harvests of tuna or small pelagi species, such as sardines and anchovies (Ferretti et al., 2008). In the Adriatic Sea, at th beginning of the last century, there were elasmobranch fisheries for angel sharks, skate and dogfishes; some have persisted into recent times (Ferretti et al., 2013; Costantini e al., 2000). In Monterey Bay, United States, between the 1930s and the 1940s, larg numbers of basking sharks stimulated the development of a directed fishery used fo the production of liver oil and other pharmaceutical products (Castro et al., 1999) Similar fisheries developed in the northeast Atlantic for basking and porbeagle shark (Fowler et al., 2004; Sims, 2008). Directed fisheries for the meat of porbeagle shar and/or spiny dogfish still persist in both the North-West Atlantic and the North-Eas Pacific Oceans (Campana et al., 2008; Rago and Sosebee, 2009). +© United Nations 201 + +2.2.3 Shark fishing for fins +In recent decades, an increasing demand for shark fins from the Asian marke stimulated the conversion of many industrial fisheries from bony fishes to shark (Amorim et al., 1998; Aires-da-Silva et al., 2008). For countries in central America and i southeastern Asia, shark finning has become an important source of income (Dell’Apa e al., 2014). +The commercial trade in shark fins has been a primary driver of shark mortality. Wit prices of up to 2,000 United States dollars per kg, and a total estimated market value o about 350 million dollars, the fin trade is a strong motivator for retaining shark by-catc (Worm et al., 2013). The fin trade (which also includes fins of landed sharks) has bee linked to a median annual estimate of 38 (Cl: 26 — 73) million sharks landed, resulting i fishing mortality rates which are unsustainable for some species (Clarke et al., 2006 2013). +Some elasmobranch species are also the target of a lucrative international trade of bod parts, above and beyond that of shark fins, leading to unsustainable mortality rates fo some species. The jaws and teeth of white sharks have been sold for as much as 50,00 US dollars (Fergusson et al. 2009), resulting in the intentional killing of many accidentall caught sharks that might otherwise be released. Sawfishes are critically endangered i most parts of the world, in part because of the high value of their toothed rostr (Harrison and Dulvy, 2014, Dulvy et al. 2014). +2.2.4 Recreational fisheries +Recreational shark fisheries provide an economic value to local communities greatl exceeding the value of commercial fisheries for the same species (Babcock, 2008) Although some recreational shark fisheries have been converted to no-kill, catch-and release fisheries, recreational shark fishing remains a significant source of fishin mortality in regions such as the southeastern United States. Shark tournaments ( specific type of recreational shark fishing) have been conducted for decades in severa countries (Campana et al., 2006; Pradervand et al., 2007), but even shark tournament have converted to catch-and-release in some regions, with rewards given for sharks tha are tagged and released (NOAA, 2013). +2.3 Habitat destruction +Population declines have been linked to habitat destruction in some regions and fo some species, but the linkage is often indirect. Habitat destruction is considered a issue for elasmobranch species living in estuarine or mangrove habitats and in demersa communities exploited by trawl fisheries. For example, in the Adriatic Sea elasmobranch catch rates in an aggregate of five trawl surveys declined by 94 per cen between 1948 and 2005. Exploitation history and spatial gradients in trawl fishin pressure, one of the most destructive forms of fishing in use (Walting and Norse, 1998), +© United Nations 201 + +explained most of the declining patterns in abundance and diversity (Ferretti et al. 2013). +2.4 Pollution +Persistent bioaccumulation of toxins and heavy metals have been documented in shark feeding at high trophic levels, at concentrations which can be toxic to human consumers but their effect on the host shark remains unclear (Storelli and Marcotrigiano, 2001 Mull et al., 2012). +3. Ecosystem effects of shark depletion +3.1 Community changes through predator or competitor release +Sharks are very abundant and diverse in unperturbed ecosystems (Nadon et al., 2012 Ferretti et al., 2010). However, because of their slow population productivity low level of fishing mortality may rapidly deplete these communities, with consequent pervasiv effects on the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems. The overfishing of shark can trigger community changes because of changing interspecific interactions amon shark species and between sharks and other marine animals. The overfishing of larg sharks triggered range expansions of more prolific broad-ranging competitors in coasta and offshore areas (Baum and Myers, 2004; Dudley and Simpfendorfer, 2006; Myers e al., 2007), and increases in small elasmobranchs released from shark predation (van de Elst, 1979; Myers et al., 2007; Ferretti et al., 2010). Sharks are often the sole consumer of small meso-predators, such as small sharks and rays, and of other long-lived marin organisms like turtles, tuna, billfish, and marine mammals, especially during thei juvenile stages. Hence when large predatory sharks are removed, a rapid increase in th numbers of dogfishes, skates and rays or the recovery of historically deplete megafauna populations has been observed in some areas (Ferretti et al., 2010). +Changes in community structure due to shark depletion can also have indirect effects o community structure. Green turtles and dugongs affected by the presence of tige sharks influence the distribution and species composition of seagrass beds throug foraging and excavation (Heithaus et al., 2008; Preen, 1995; Aragones, 2000). In th North Atlantic, decades of overfishing on large sharks along the United States east coas coincided with a generalized increase in small shark and ray populations, and substantial increase in one of these species (the cownose ray) adversely affected th abundance of bay scallops (Myers et al., 2007). Similarly, 50 years of shark netting alon the KwaZulu Natal shore in South Africa triggered a trophic cascade involving smalle sharks and bony fishes (Ferretti et al., 2010). +© United Nations 201 + +3.2 Effect on stability +In addition to inducing trophic cascades, overfishing of sharks can make communitie more prone to perturbations through a reduction in omnivory (Bascompte et al., 2005) In the Caribbean ecosystem, the observed change of many coral reefs from coral- t seaweed-dominated reefs was attributed to the depletion of shark populations and consequent increase in fish consumers, which ultimately depressed herbivore density Analyses of long-term time series of cost per unit effort (CPUE) in the Mediterranea Sea demonstrated that the removal of large predatory sharks from coastal ecosystem destabilized the community by reducing resistance, resilience and reactivity (Britten e al., 2014). +4. Shark management +Historically, shark species have been a low management priority for RFMOs and nationa management bodies (Ferretti et al. 2010; Dulvy et al., 2014). However, this trend i changing as shark and ray species are increasingly representing a larger proportion o protected species relative to other fishes. Regional fisheries management organization such as the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) and ICCAT now require al countries to report all shark catches, while the Commission for the Conservation o Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) prohibits directed fishing on any shar species, other than for scientific research. The Bahamas, Maldives and Palau hav enacted legislation to prohibit shark fishing within areas under national jurisdictio (Dell’Apa et al., 2014; Techera and Klein, 2014), and the great white shark has become protected species in all four countries where it is abundant (Australia, New Zealand South Africa and the United States). +Although sustainable shark fisheries are theoretically possible, most industrial fisherie targeting elasmobranch resources have been characterized by a “boom and bust trajectory of landings, culminating with a strong depletion of exploited population (Castro et al., 1999; Campana et al. 2008). A few such fisheries that are apparentl sustainable are now in place, but they require more conservative benchmarks an perhaps a higher level of enforcement (Walker, 1998; Gedamke et al., 2007). +4.1 Seafood certification +Certification of the sustainability of a fishery (e.g., the Marine Stewardship Council) i intended to provide an indirect economic incentive towards ensuring that the fishe population is not threatened, and certification has been granted for a small number o shark fisheries, such as northwest Atlantic spiny dogfish. However, such certification i usually only possible for directed fisheries; in by-catch fisheries (such as is the case fo most elasmobranchs), alternate conservation and/or recovery actions would have to b taken. +© United Nations 201 + +4.2 By-catch mitigation options +Reduced by-catch of sharks is usually the preferred option, since it results in bot reduced shark mortality and reduced loss of fishing gear and bait (and therefor increased profits) by fishermen. +4.3 Spatial or seasonal closures +In principle, by-catch can be reduced by restricting access to “by-catch hotspots through spatial or seasonal closures, although this approach is complicated by th similar habitat preferences of the target species and the shark by-catch. To this point there is still little evidence of the effectiveness of large sanctuaries for sharks (mainl because of the absence of empirical data), although analyses of shark abundance an distribution along spatial gradients suggest that these might be effective managemen options (Ferretti et al., 2013). +Closure of shark mating and pupping grounds to fishing increases the protection o sensitive life-history stages (i.e., Campana et al., 2008). By-catch can also be reduce through modifications to fishing gear; for example, the introduction of the circle hoo has reduced shark hooking mortality relative to the traditional J hook (Kaplan et al. 2007). However, other attempts to reduce shark catchability through use of rare eart metals and electrical fields have largely been disappointing (Godin et al., 2013). +4.4 Catch and release +Recreational shark fishing is a relatively small source of fishing mortality, despite it public visibility (Campana et al., 2006). Nevertheless, the introduction of catch-and release fishing tournaments has reduced the mortality of some species. +4.5 Better monitoring +Ensuring the survival of a shark population is very challenging if the status of th population is unknown. Improved reporting of all catches and discards, the introductio (or expansion) of scientific observer programmes on commercial fishing vessels, and th inclusion of dead discards and estimates of post-release mortality rates in stoc assessments, would all lead to improved assessments of population status, and thu simplify recovery efforts. +4.6 Fin trade bans and restrictions on finning +The fin trade has been one of the primary drivers of global shark mortality. Bans on fi sales have been adopted by some cities and in some states of the United States on th presumption that sales would decline in the absence of a legal market. Custome education in some Asian markets is also reducing the demand for wedding soup, and +© United Nations 201 + +thus fin sales (Eilperin, 2011). Fisheries regulations requiring that the entire shar carcass be landed, and not just the fins, would also reduce shark mortality, as boa capacity is much more limited by the presence of entire sharks than by the much smalle fins. In some countries there is a fin-to-carcass ratio regulation which requires fishers t land no more than a given percentage of fin weight relative to total landings (Davidso et al., 2015). +4.7. Implementation of international policies +In response to the perception that many of the world’s elasmobranch species ar severely depleted, several international organizations have moved to actively conserv some shark and ray species. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unite Nations (FAO) released an /nternational Plan of Action for the Conservation an Management of Sharks urging immediate action to better document and conserve shar and ray species (FAO 1998). The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Specie of Wild Animals’ (CMS) has listed eight shark species for international conservation an protection (CMS 2014; http://www.cms.int/en/species). Finally, the Shark Specialis Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) provide information and guidance to governments and non-governmental organization associated with the conservation of threatened shark species and populations. The SS released their report on the Global Status of Oceanic Pelagic Sharks and Rays in 2009. A a final step of protection, the international Convention on International Trade i Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora’ (CITES) attempts to protect endangere species through international trade regulations, such as restrictions on import an export. To this point, CITES has listed 18 shark and ray species under their Appendices and Il trade restrictions (CITES 2014; http://checklist.cites.org), which will remain i place until it can be demonstrated that the population is being managed sustainably CITES trade restrictions appear to have tangible effects on the trade of listed shar species, and thus reduce the demand (Wells and Barzdo, 1991). However, it is yet to b seen if CITES listings can be implemented in time to protect species, which have alread reached the brink of extinction (e.g., sawfish). +5. Ecotourism +Ecotourism in the form of shark diving has become a burgeoning industry generatin millions of dollars for local economies worldwide (Musick and Bonfil, 2005; Gallaghe and Hammerschlag, 2011). One estimate suggests that shark ecotourism currentl generates more than 314 million US dollars per year and supports about 10,000 jobs Projections suggest that this figure could double in the next 20 years and thus surpass +* United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1651, No. 28395 2 United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 993, No. 14537. +© United Nations 201 + +the landed value of global shark fisheries (Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2013). Indeed in terms of individual value, sharks in some localities may be worth more alive than i landed and marketed. In the Maldives, it has been estimated that an individual free swimming grey reef shark is worth 33,500 dollars per year compared to 32 dollars fo the same individual sold dead by local fishermen. In the Bahamas, shark divin generates annual revenues of 78 million dollars (Gallagher and Hammerschlag, 2011). I the Maldives (where shark fishing has been banned), ecotourism contributed >30 pe cent of the Maldivian GDP (Gallagher and Hammerschlag, 2011). +References +Aires-da-Silva, A., Hoey, J., and Gallucci, V. (2008). A historical index of abundance fo the blue shark (Prionace glauca) in the western North Atlantic. Fisherie Research 92(1): 41-52. +Amorim, A., Arfelli, C., and Fagundes, L. (1998). Pelagic elasmobranchs caught b longliners off southern Brazil during 1974-97: an overview. Marine an Freshwater Research 49: 621-632. +Aragones, L.V. (2000). A review of the role of the green turtle in tropical seagras ecosystems. In: Pilcher, N., and Ismail, G. (eds.), Sea Turtles of the Indo-Pacific Re- search, Management and Conservation. Academic Press Ltd, London, UK, pp 69-85. +Babcock, E.A. (2008). Recreational Fishing for Pelagic Sharks Worldwide. 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Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 66:2062-2080. +Fowler, S., Raymakers, C. and Grimm, U. (2004). Trade in and Conservation of two Shar Species, Porbeagle (Lamna nasus) and Spiny Dogfish (Squalus acanthias). BfN Skripten 118. +Gallagher, A.J., and Hammerschlag, N. (2011). Global shark currency: the distribution frequency, and economic value of shark ecotourism. Current Issues in Touris 14(8): 797-812. +Gedamke, T., Hoenig, J.M., Musick, J.A., DuPaul, W.D., and Gruber, S.H. (2007). Usin demographic models to determine intrinsic rate of increase and sustainabl fishing for elasmobranchs: pitfalls, advances, and applications. North America Journal of Fisheries Management 27: 605-618. +Godin, A.C., Wimmer, T., Wang, J.H., and Worm, B. (2013). No effect from rare-eart metal deterrent on shark by-catch in a commercial pelagic longline trial. Fisherie Research 143: 131-135. +Graham, K.J., Andrew, N.L. and Hodgson, K.E. (2001). 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Transactions o the American Fisheries Society 136: 392-401. +© United Nations 2016 1 + +Lewison, R.L., Crowder, L.B., Read, A.J., and Freeman, S.A. (2004). Understandin impacts of fisheries by-catch on marine megafauna. Trends in Ecology an Evolution 19: 598-604. +McPhie, R.P. and Campana, S.E. (2009). Reproductive characteristics and populatio decline of four species of skate (Rajidae) off the eastern coast of Canada. Journa of Fisheries Biology 75:223-246. +Mull, C.G., Blasius, M. E., O’Sullivan, J.B. and Lowe, C.G. (2012). Heavy metals, trac elements, and organochlorine contaminants in muscle and liver tissue of juvenil White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, from the Southern California Bight Globa perspectives on the biology and life history of the White Shark. CRC Press, Boc Raton, Florida, 59-75. +Musick, J.A. (1999). Ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals. America Fisheries Society Symposium 23: 1-10. +Musick, J.A. and Bonfil, R., (2005). Management Techniques for Elasmobranch Fisheries Chapter14: Shark utilization. Food and Agriculture Organization, pp. 323-336. +Musyl, M.K., Brill, R.W., Curran, D.S., Fragoso, N.M., McNaughton, L.M., Nielsen, A. Kikkawa, B.S., and Moyes, C.D. (2011). Postrelease survival, vertical an horizontal movements, and thermal habitats of five species of pelagic sharks i the central Pacific Ocean. Fishery Bulletin 109(4): 341-368. +Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. (2005). Extinction, survival or recovery of large predator fishes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: 360, 13-20. +Myers, R.A., Baum, J.K., Shepherd, T., Powers, S.P. and Peterson, C.H. (2007) Cascading Effects of the Loss of Apex Predatory Sharks from a Coastal Ocea Science, 315, 1846-1850. +Nadon, M., Baum, J., Williams, I., McPherson, J., Zgliczynsky, B., Richards, B. Schroeder, R. and Brainard, R. (2012). Re-Creating Missing Population Baseline for Pacific Reef Shark Conservation Biology, 26, 493-503. +NOAA (2013) http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/stories/2013/08/best_fishing_practices_sharks.html. +Pradervand, P., Mann, B.Q., and Bellis, M.F. (2007). Long-term trends in the competitiv shore fishery along the KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa. African Zoology 42(2) 216-236. +Preen, A. (1995). Impacts of dugong foraging on seagrass habitats: observational an experimental evidence for cultivation grazing. Marine Ecology Progress Serie 124: 201-213. +Rago, P.J., and Sosebee, K.A. (2009). The agony of recovery: scientific challenges of spin dogfish recovery programs. In: Gallucci, V.F., McFarlane, G.A., and +© United Nations 2016 1 + +Bargmann, G.G. (eds.), Biology and management of dogfish sharks. America Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 343-372. +Shepherd, T.D., and Myers, R.A. (2005). Direct and indirect fishery effects on smal coastal elasmobranchs in the northern Gulf of Mexico. 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Disturbance of the seabed by mobile fishing gear: comparison to forest clear cutting Conservation Biology, 12, 1180-1197 +Wells, S.M., and Barzdo, J.G. (1991). International trade in marine species: Is CITES useful control mechanism? Coastal Management 19(1):135-154. +Worm, B., Davis, B., Kettemer, L., Ward-Paige, C.A., Chapman, D., Heithaus, M.R. Kessel, S.T., and Gruber, S.H. (2013). Global catches, exploitation rates, an rebuilding options for sharks. Marine Policy 40: 194-204. +© United Nations 2016 +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_40.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_40.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_41.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_41.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..4765333b466637a07075853598d1708d68b78a48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_41.txt @@ -0,0 +1,212 @@ +Chapter 41. Tunas and Billfishes +Contributors: Victor Restrepo, Maria José Juan-Jorda, Bruce B. Collette Flavia Lucena Frédou, Andrew Rosenberg (Lead member) +1. Introduction +Tunas and billfishes are epipelagic marine fishes that live primarily in the upper 20 metres of the ocean and are widely distributed throughout the tropical, subtropical an temperate waters of the world’s oceans (Collette and Nauen 1983; Nakamura 1985) Tunas (Tribe Thunnini, family Scombridae) include five genera (Thunnus, Katsuwonus Euthynnus, Auxis and Allothunnus) with 15 species altogether (Collette et al., 2001) Seven of the 15 species of tunas are commonly known as “principal market tunas” du to their economic importance in the global markets (Majkowski 2007). These includ albacore (Thunnus alalunga), bigeye tuna (T. obesus), Atlantic bluefin tuna (7. thynnus) Pacific bluefin tuna (T. orientalis), southern bluefin tuna (7. maccoyii), yellowfin tuna (T albacares) and skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis). The principal market tunas hav extensive oceanic distributions and are highly migratory. They sustain diverse fisherie worldwide, from highly industrialized commercial fisheries, to small and medium scal artisanal fisheries, and also lucrative recreational fisheries. The non-principal marke tuna species including longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol), blackfin tuna (Thunnu atlanticus), kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis), little tunny (E .alletteratus), black skipjack (E lineatus), bullet tuna (Auxis rochei), frigate tuna (A. thazard) and slender tun (Allothunnus fallai) have in general more coastal distributions, except for the slende tuna which is found worldwide in the Southern Ocean. These species also sustai important small to medium industrial and artisanal fisheries throughout thei distributions (Collette and Nauen, 1983; Majkowski, 2007). +Billfishes are highly migratory fishes that live also primarily in the upper 200 metres o the ocean and have widespread oceanic distributions. They are distinguished by thei elongate spears or swords on their snouts. Some billfish species are targeted b commercial and recreational fisheries world-wide, but generally billfish species ar caught as a by-product of the tuna fisheries (Kitchell et al., 2006). Billfishes include te species in two families (Xiphiidae and Istiophoridae); the monotypic Xiphiida (swordfish, Xiphias gladius) and Istiophoridae containing five genera and nine species blue marlin (Makaira nigricans), sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus), black marli (Istiompax indica), striped marlin (Kajikia audax), white marlin (Kajikia albida), and fou spearfishes, shortbill spearfish (Tetrapturus angustirostris), roundscale spearfis (Tetrapturus georgii), longbill spearfish (Tetrapturus pfluegeri), and Mediterranea spearfish (Tetrapturus belone) (Collette et al., 2006) +Due to the highly migratory nature, widespread distributions, and global economic +© 2016 United Nation + +importance of tunas and billfishes, five Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMOs) are in charge of their management and conservation (hereinafter referred t as tuna RFMOs). The five tuna RFMOs are the International Commission for th Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT, Atlantic Ocean), the Indian Ocean Tun Commission (IOTC, Indian Ocean), the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC Eastern Pacific Ocean), the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC Western Pacific Ocean), and the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefi Tuna (CCSBT, Southern Ocean). +2. Population trends or conservation status +2.1 Aggregated at global scale +Annual catches of tunas and billfishes have risen continuously since the 1950s, reachin at least 6 million tons in 2012 (Figure 1A). In 2012, the total catches of tunas and billfis species combined contributed up to 9.3 per cent of the annual total marine fish catc (FAO, 2014). Although the global increase in catches of all marine fishes reached a pea at the end of the 1980s and has since then stabilized, tuna and billfish catches have no reached a plateau yet. However, a plateau will likely be reached in the short term a many of the world’s most important tuna and billfish fisheries are considered full exploited now with limited room for sustainable growth (Miyake et al., 2010; Juan-Jord et al., 2011; ISSF, 2013a). The current exploitation status of principal-market tuna an billfish populations is summarized according to the latest fisheries stock assessment and biological reference points’ carried out by the five tuna RFMOs. Currently the tun RFMOS have formally assessed a total of 44 stocks (13 species) of tuna and billfis species, including 23 principal market tuna stocks (7 species) and 21 billfish stocks ( species) (Appendix 1). Hereinafter, the term “population” is used instead of “stock” Each tuna RFMO has its own convention objectives ranging from ensuring the long ter conservation and sustainable use of tuna and tuna-like species to, in some cases ensuring the optimum utilization of stocks.” Scientific advisory groups or scienc providers within these tuna RFMOs routinely carry out stock assessments and estimat two common standard biological reference points, B/Busy and F/Fusy, which are used t determine the current exploitation status of the populations. B/Bysy is the ratio of the +* Definitions of the term “reference points” are available at the FAO Term Porta (http://www.fao.org/faoterm/en/) and in ISSF (2013b). +* See Agreement for the Establishment of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (United Nations, Treat Series, vol. 1927, No 32888); Convention between the United States of America and the Republic of Cost Rica for the establishment of an Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (United Nations, Treaty Series vol. 80, No. 1041); Convention for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (United Nations, Treat Series, vol. 1819, No. 31155); Convention for the strengthening of the Inter-American Tropical Tun Commission established by the 1949 Convention between the United States of America and the Republi of Costa Rica; Convention on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in th Western and Central Pacific Ocean (United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2275, No. 40532); Internationa Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 673, No. 9587). +© 2016 United Nation + +current biomass (often measured only for the spawning fraction of the population relative to the biomass that would provide the maximum sustainable yield (MSY). population whose biomass has fallen below Bysy (i.e., B/Busy < 1) is considered to b “overfished” with regards to this target. F/Fysy is the ratio of current fishing mortalit relative to the fishing mortality rate that produces MSY. Overfishing is occurring for population whose fishing mortality exceeds Fiysy (i-e., F/Fusy > 1). +According to the most recent fisheries stock assessments (2010-2014, Appendix 1), 51. per cent of the tuna and billfish populations are not overfished and are not experiencin overfishing (21 populations), 14.6 per cent of populations are not overfished but ar experiencing overfishing (6 populations), 22 per cent of populations are overfished an are experiencing overfishing (9 populations), and 12.2 per cent of populations ar overfished but are not experiencing overfishing anymore (5 populations) (Figure 2A) However, the total catches and abundance differ markedly among tuna and billfis species and populations, around 3 orders of magnitude between the population wit the smallest catches (eastern Pacific sailfish ~300 tons/annually) and the populatio with the largest catches (western and central Pacific skipjack ~1,700,000 tons annually) When accounting for their relative contributions to their total global catches, a differen global picture of the status of these species emerges (Figure 2B). In terms of thei relative contributions to the total catches, 86.2 per cent of the global catch of tuna an billfish comes from healthy populations, for which the biomass is not overfished an whose populations are not experiencing overfishing, 4.5 per cent of the catch come from populations that are not overfished but are experiencing overfishing, 1.4 per cen of the catch comes from populations that are overfished and are experiencin overfishing, and 8 per cent of the catch comes from populations that are overfished an are not experiencing overfishing anymore (Figure 2B). This distinct pattern of globa exploitation status is mostly driven in part by the fact that tropical skipjack and yellowfi tuna populations contribute 68 per cent of the global tuna catches and their population are largely at healthy levels and not experiencing overfishing. In contrast, most of th populations that are overfished and experiencing overfishing are mostly temperat bluefin tuna and billfish populations, whose combined catches make up a relativel small fraction of the total catch. +Although the current exploitation status for the principal market tunas is relatively wel known globally, knowledge of the exploitation status for the non-principal market tun and billfish populations and species is fragmentary and uncertain. Currently, all th populations for all seven species of principal market tunas are formally assessed on regular basis (every 2-4 years depending on the population) by the scientific staff o scientific committees in the five tuna RFMOs, and have management and conservatio measures in place. Not all billfish populations and species have been formally assesse yet, therefore the global picture of their current exploitation status may be biase towards the most commercially productive and resilient species of billfish. Furthermore tuna RFMOs have not yet conducted formal fisheries stock assessments or adopte management and conservation measures for any of the eight non-principal market tun species. Therefore their current exploitation status is unknown or highly uncertain +© 2016 United Nation + +throughout their neritic distributions. There are some exceptions and some species o non-principal market tunas have been assessed locally by national government fisherie agencies or recently by IOTC. For the South Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil Thunnus atlanticus was assessed in the year 2000, concluding the population was as a healthy levels and not experiencing overfishing (Freire, 2009). In the Indian Ocean Thunnus tonggol was assessed for the first time in the year 2013 and 2014 by the IOT Working Party on neritic tunas. The assessments concluded that Thunnus tonggol wa likely subject to overfishing in recent years while not being in an overfished state (IOTC SC17, 2014). Therefore the exploitation status for the majority of non-principal marke tuna populations and species is mostly unknown throughout their ranges, despite th importance of their commercial fisheries for many coastal fishing communities in man developed and developing countries around the world. +2.2 Four major taxonomic and/or geographic subdivisions +Since the 1950s, principal market tunas have made up the majority of the global catche of tunas and billfish combined (Figure 1A). In 2012, the catch of principal market tuna accounted for 80 per cent of the total catch, the catch of non-principal market tuna accounted for 16 per cent and billfish catch accounted for 4 per cent. Among principa market tunas, skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna make up 46 per cent and 22 per cent o the global catch in 2012, followed by bigeye tuna (7 per cent), albacore tuna (4 per cent and the three bluefin tuna species (1 per cent). The increasing trend in the total catch o principal market tunas is mainly due to the increase in catches in tropical tuna specie since the 1950s until today, a trend driven by skipjack tuna, followed by yellowfin tun and then bigeye tuna. By contrast, temperate principal market tuna species, includin albacore tuna and the three bluefin tuna species, show an increasing trend in catch u to the 1970s, and since then the trend has stabilized or shown a decrease. Over two thirds of the world’s tunas and billfishes catches currently come from the Pacific Ocea (69 per cent), 22 per cent come from the Indian Ocean and 9 per cent from the Atlanti Ocean (Figure 1B). Although catches in the Atlantic Ocean have increased only until th early 1980s and since then have declined slightly, in the Pacific and Indian Ocean catches have increased continuously since the 1950s. +Among the non-principal market tuna species, frigate and bullet tunas combined (Auxi rochei and A. thazard) make up 40 per cent of the catch and kawakawa (Euthynnu affinis) makes up 33 per cent of the catch. Among billfishes, swordfish (Xiphias gladius makes up 51 per cent of the catch and Atlantic blue marlin (Wakaira nigricans) make up 17 per cent of the catch. Global catches for non-principal market tunas and billfis have also shown a continuous increase since the 1950s, accelerating in the 1980s, result that is likely to be derived from better reporting of the catch for these species However, it is generally agreed that catch estimates for non-principal market tunas an billfish have been and still are underestimated as the majority of these species are +© 2016 United Nation + +caught by small scale fisheries or as a by-catch? of principal market tuna fisheries. Small scale coastal fisheries targeting both principal market tunas and the smaller non principal market tunas are poorly reported. Similarly, billfish catches, of which th majority come from industrial tuna fisheries as bycatch, have also been commonl poorly reported and monitored (Miyake et al., 2010). +According to the latest tuna RFMO fisheries stock assessments (Appendix 1), the globa picture of the exploitation status of tunas and billfishes indicates that principal marke tuna populations are relatively better managed than billfish populations (Figure 2C) Although 37 per cent of billfish populations (7 of 19 populations) are currentl overfished and experiencing overfishing, 9 per cent of the principal market tunas (2 o 22 populations) are considered to be overfished and experiencing overfishing. Th majority of principal market tunas are at healthy levels with 64 per cent of th populations not overfished and not experiencing overfishing, and 18 per cent of th populations, although overfished, are no longer experiencing overfishing and therefor are on the path to recovery, if fishing mortality continues to be controlled. Th exploitation status of tunas and billfishes also differs among the three major ocean (Figure 2C). In the Atlantic Ocean, the status of only 47 per cent of the populations i currently healthy (not overfished and not experiencing overfishing), in the Indian Ocea the status of half of the populations (50 per cent) is healthy, and in the Pacific Ocea over half of the populations (~56 per cent) is currently healthy and within sustainabl levels. +When accounting for the relative contributions of their catches, principal market tun populations provide the majority of the catches from healthy populations whe compared with billfish species. Although 87 per cent of the total catches of principa market tunas come from healthy populations (not overfished and not experiencin overfishing) and only 0.9 per cent come from unhealthy populations (overfished an experiencing overfishing), 60.8 per cent of the total catches of billfish populations com from healthy populations and 16.1 per cent come from unhealthy populations. Health populations of skipjack in every ocean make up a large portion of the total tuna catches whereas healthy swordfish populations make up the largest portion of the total billfis catches. As previously mentioned, the exploitation status remains unknown for som billfish species and populations, and therefore this global picture might be biase towards the most commercially data-rich billfish species. Among the three oceans, th large majority of tuna and billfish catches in the Indian and Pacific Oceans come fro healthy populations (92.3 and 87.5 per cent, respectively), and in the Atlantic Ocea 66.4 per cent of the catches come from healthy populations. In the Atlantic, currentl 7.9 per cent of the tuna and billfish catches come from unhealthy population (overfished and experiencing overfishing) and 25.7 per cent of catches come fro overfished populations for which overfishing is no longer occurring and therefore migh be on their path to recovery. +3 Definitions of the term “by-catch” are available at the FAO Term Portal and in Gilman et al. (2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +3. Special conservation status issues (CITES, national listing or priority fo Marine Protected Area) +In 2011, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessed for the firs time the global conservation status for all tuna and billfish species using the IUC criteria (Collette et al. 2011). The IUCN conservation assessments provide complementary tool to existing fisheries stock assessment for setting conservatio priorities at the global levels for this group of species and a platform for identifyin species with long-term sustainability issues. The IUCN assessments utilize the IUCN Re List Criteria and all the available species information, including their global distribution ecology, landing trends, biomass trends (mostly derived from fisheries stoc assessments), and impacts of major threats, in order to classify species into the IUC Red List categories. These categories range from Least Concern and Near Threatened, t the three threatened categories (Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered) providing a species ranking in terms of their relative risk of global extinction an conservation needs. +There is also a Data Deficient category where species with insufficient information to b evaluated are placed. Nonetheless, the information used to categorize tuna an billfishes in the IUCN Red List categories vary greatly among species; whereas som species such as Allothunnus fallai and Tetrapturus angustirostris are data poor due t scarce and incomplete landing and biological data against which to apply the IUC criteria, some species such as the majority of the principal market tuna species are dat rich with relatively extensive and highly detailed biological studies and fisheries stoc assessment models for multiple populations throughout their distribution, which make applying the IUCN criteria relatively easy. The IUCN Red List evaluation for the 2 species of tunas and billfishes resulted in 48 per cent (12 of 25 spp.) of species bein listed under the Least Concern category, 12 per cent of tunas and billfishes listed in th Near Threatened category (Thunnus alalunga, T. albacares and Kajikia audax), and 2 per cent (6 spp.) had declined sufficiently in biomass to trigger listing under th Threatened categories. Thunnus maccoyii is listed as Critically Endangered, T. thynnus i Endangered, and 7. obesus, T. orientalis, Kajikia albida and Makaira nigricans ar Vulnerable. Lastly, 16 per cent (4 spp.) of tunas and billfish were listed as Data Deficien (Collette et al., 2011; Collette et al., 2014). +It should be noted that the IUCN criteria sometimes conflict with fisheries managemen objectives (Davies and Baum, 2012). For example, a species whose abundance decline from the unfished level by one-half in a given period of time may be classified in threatened category in the IUCN Red List, but it might be well managed (i.e., no overfished and not experiencing overfishing) from an RFMO perspective. Conversely, species that remains severely overfished for a period of time may be of grave concern t an RFMO but not classified in a threatened category in the IUCN Red List. Nevertheless from a global conservation perspective, the latest IUCN assessments and derived +© 2016 United Nation + +conservation status were largely consistent with the current knowledge about th exploitation status of tuna and billfish populations derived from the RFMO fisherie stock assessments, in that the three longer-lived bluefin tuna species wit geographically restricted spawning sites are more vulnerable to overfishing and are i need of more stringent management and conservation measures than the shorter-live and more resilient tropical tuna species such as skipjack tuna for which spawning occur in multiple broad spawning grounds throughout the tropics (Reglero et al., 2014). +More importantly, the IUCN conservation assessments are a useful tool particularly fo those tuna and billfish species which are commercially exploited but lack forma fisheries population assessment, whose exploitation status is unknown and highl uncertain, and which do not have any management and conservation measures in plac to ensure their long-term sustainability. According to the latest IUCN assessments, th following four IUCN Data Deficient species, Thunnus tonggol, Tetrapturus angustirostris Tetrapturus georgii and Istiompax indica, should be the focus of future managemen and conservation efforts to ensure that their current fishing exploitation, and absence o fishery population assessments and management plans, do not jeopardize the long-ter sustainability of these species. +A proposal to list Atlantic bluefin tuna on the Convention on International Trade i Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was introduced at the fifteent meeting of the Conference of the Parties in March 2010 by Monaco and supported b the United States and several European countries, but the proposal failed. There hav also been several attempts to list several tuna and billfish species under Nationa Listings. In the United States, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the Unite States Department of Commerce National Marine Fisheries Service to list both th eastern and western Atlantic populations of the bluefin tuna as endangered under th United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) (Center for Biological Diversity, 2010) bu the Department rejected the petition, although declaring the Atlantic bluefin to be “ species of interest” after a review (Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Status Review Team, 2011). petition from the Biodiversity Legal Foundation requesting listing of the Atlantic whit marlin (Kajikia albida) as a threatened or endangered species under the ESA was foun to be not warranted at that time by the National Marine Fisheries Service (White Marli Biological Review Team, 2007). In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangere Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) determined in 2011 that the western Atlantic bluefin tun was Endangered (Maguire, 2012). In Brazil, a number of specialists, coordinated by th Brazilian Ministry of Environment (MMA) through the Instituto Chico Mendes d Conservacdo da Biodiversidade (ICMBIO), evaluated the risk of extinction of marin species following IUCN Red list of Threatened Species. Most species have been listed i the same category as the global list, however Xiphias gladius was categorized as Nea Threatened, Makaira nigricans as Endangered, Thunnus alalunga and T. albacares a Least Concern and Auxis rochei and A. thazard as Data Deficient, differently from th global list (ICMBIO. In press). +© 2016 United Nation + +Marine protected areas (MPAs), or time-area closures, a term mostly used by fisherie managers, are one of the many tools available to fishery managers to reduce fishin mortality or redistribute fishing effort to protect a segment of a fish population (e.g spawning adults) or vulnerable fish habitats, among many other applications. Marin protected areas or time-area closures can vary from complete prohibition on fishing o other forms of exploitation “no-take zone” to a continuum of spatial, temporal and use restrictions allowing numerous options and applications. Currently, the role of pelagi MPAs or time-area closures for the conservation and management of tunas an billfishes is a major topic of discussion, given their high mobility, their wide distributions the dynamic physical nature of pelagic habitats, as well as the small number of empirica and theoretical studies showing their effectiveness (Davies et al., 2012; Dueri and Maur 2012). In the last decade, tuna RFMOs have tested and implemented several types o time-area closures, always in combination with other tools to control catch and effort to reduce fishing effort and reduce by-catch of non-target species (Sibert et al. 2012) Past experiences indicate that time-area closures, if used alone, might be ineffective an inefficient to manage tuna species (ISSF, 2012). However, if time-area closures are use in combination with other fishery management tools, closures could have substantia benefits when the objectives are clearly defined and their implementation i accompanied by close evaluation, monitoring and enforcement (ISSF, 2012). +The future success of pelagic MPAs or time-area closures as a fisheries, conservatio and management tool for tuna and billfish species relies on more theoretical modellin and long-term empirical studies to compare and contrast their effectiveness with othe fishery management tools and in combination with these tools. +4. Key pressures linked to trends +Commercial fishing has been identified as the primary pressure driving tuna and billfis population declines and causing the overexploitation of some populations (Collette e al., 2011). Over the last century, industrial fisheries targeting tuna and billfish specie have sequentially expanded from coastal areas to the high seas and now their fisherie cover the majority of the world’s oceans (Miyake et al., 2004). Globally tuna and billfis catches and fishing effort have risen consistently since the 1950s and may not have ye reached a plateau (Juan-Jorda et al., 2011). Currently the global demand for tuna mea is still increasing, and fishing capacity, with the construction of new fishing vessels especially purse seiners, and improved technology, is also increasing (Justel-Rubio an Restrepo, 2014). As concluded by Allen (2010), managing capacity and eliminatin overcapacity where it exists has been identified as one of the major challenge jeopardizing the long-term sustainability of tuna and billfish species. +Climate change is another potential pressure that needs to be accounted for in th biology, economics and management of tuna and billfish species (Mcllgorm, 2010). It i projected that by increasing ocean water temperatures, and altering oceanic circulation +© 2016 United Nation + +patterns and the vertical stratification of the water column, climate change will lead to decrease in primary productivity in the tropics and a likely increase in higher latitude (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007)). Climate change, and th resultant increase in ocean temperatures, is also increasing the extension of areas wit hypoxic waters and oxygen-depleted dead zones (Altieri and Gedan, 2015). +The extension of deep hypoxic bodies of water limits the distribution of tunas an billfishes by compressing their preferred habitat into a narrow surface layer, making thi species more vulnerable to over-exploitation by surface gears (Prince and Goodyear 2006). Thus, climate change might have an effect on tuna and billfish species b changing their physiologies, temporal and spatial horizontal and vertical distribution and abundances within the water column. A growing number of studies are evaluatin the current and future impacts of climate change on the physiology, distribution abundance and reproductive and feeding migrations of these species (Dufour et al. 2010; Mcllgorm, 2010; Muhling et al., 2011; Bell et al., 2013; Dueri et al., 2014). +A study modelling the impacts of climate change on skipjack tuna in the tropical world’ oceans suggests that the spatial distribution and abundance of skipjack tuna ma change substantially with current suitable tropical habitats deteriorating and habita suitability improving at higher latitudes (Dueri et al., 2014). In the Western and Centra Pacific, another modelling study evaluated the effect of climate change on the foo webs, habitat and main fish resources of the region, and found that distribution o skipjack tuna, the major tuna resource of the area, may move further east across th region. This eastward movement of skipjack tuna could benefit some nations b increasing their access to tuna resources and adversely affect other nations which woul lose access to optimum tuna fishing grounds (Bell et al., 2013). +In the Atlantic Ocean, it has been documented that each year North Atlantic albacor tuna and East Atlantic bluefin tuna have arrived progressively earlier in the Bay of Bisca area, a major feeding ground, indicating that these species may be progressivel adapting the timing of their feeding migrations and latitudinal distributions in respons to climate change (Dufour et al., 2010). Another modelling study has also suggested tha climate change might alter the temporal and spatial spawning and migratory activity o the West Atlantic bluefin tuna in the Gulf of Mexico with subsequent effects o population sizes and fisheries (Muhling et al. 2011). The impacts of climate change o tuna and billfish species are raising increasing concerns and need to be furthe understood, in order that governments and tuna RFMOs can respond rapidly to climat change by developing mitigation and adaptation programs. +© 2016 United Nation + +5. Major ecosystem services provided by the species group and impacts o pressures on provision of these services +5.1 Ecosystem services +The impacts of fishing on the abundance of fishes and food web dynamics can hav consequences on the structure, functioning and resilience of marine ecosystem (Heithaus et al., 2008; Baum and Worm, 2009). Consequently, population declines i tuna and billfish species and changes in their food web dynamics may be impairing th ocean’s capacity to generate basic ecosystem processes which are vital to enable th maintenance and delivery of other ecosystem services benefiting human health, welfar and economic activities. To what extent widespread declines in tuna and billfis populations have altered the capacity of the ocean to support vital ecosyste processes, functions and services by altering species interactions and food we dynamics is poorly known (Kitchell et al., 2006; Hunsicker, 2012; IATTC, 2014a). +Tuna and billfish species are large predatory fishes, acting as apex and mesopredator and occupying high trophic levels in the marine food web; their removal could hav ecological consequences for predator-prey interactions through trophic cascadin effects (Baum and Worm, 2009). To fully understand the effects of removing tunas an billfishes from marine ecosystems, and their value in maintaining key ecosyste processes and services, requires better understanding of their unique role as predator and prey, and their interactions and dynamics using modelling and empirica approaches. This requires the collection of accurate information on trophic links an biomass flows through the food web in open marine ecosystems and accounting fo environmental forcing (IATTC, 2014a). +To date, tuna RFMOs have conducted limited research and have a limited track recor for incorporating food-web and ecosystem considerations into the management of tun and billfish fisheries because traditionally their management has focused on achievin MSY for each of their targeted species individually. Consequently, according to de Bruy et al., (2013), tuna RFMOs have implemented limited conservation measures to addres the wide ecological effects of fishing . However, in the last decade tuna RFMOs, an especially IATTC and WCPFC, have increased their research activities to ensure tha ecosystem considerations are part of their agendas (IATTC 2014a). These actions hav mostly focused on monitoring, quantifying and mitigating incidental by-catch, increasin the coverage of the observing programmes and modifying fishing gear technolog (Gilman et al., 2014; IATTC, 2014a). +5.2 Direct services to humans including economic and livelihood services +Tuna and billfish species provide a wide variety of direct ecosystem services to human by supporting food production and creating vital coastal livelihoods, economies an recreational opportunities such as sport fisheries (Gilman et al., 2014). At present more +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +than 80 countries have tuna fisheries, thousands of tuna fishing vessels operate in al the oceans, and tuna fishery capacity is still growing in the Indian and Pacific Ocean (ISSF, 2010). The popularity of tuna meat has increased remarkably around the glob and now tuna meat is considered to be a relatively low-cost source of protein, which i traded as a global “commodity” product (i.e. high volume, low value, low margins (Hamilton et al., 2011). The canning and sashimi industries are the major players in th global trade of tuna, particularly focused on the principal market tuna species. +At the other extreme, in some regions of the world tuna and billfish species stil contribute substantially to the subsistence of many fishing communities by providin the great majority of dietary animal protein (Bell et al., 2009). The global economi activity that tuna fisheries can generate directly and indirectly is remarkable. Every yea at least 2.5 million tons of the global tuna catch is destined for the canning industry an globally around 256 million cases are consumed (3.2 million tons whole roun equivalent), valued at 7.5 billion United States dollars (Hamilton et al., 2011). Therefore ensuring the long-term sustainability of the world’s tuna and billfish fisheries i intrinsically linked with providing food security, vital livelinoods and economic benefit in many regions of the world. +The dependency on healthy and sustainable tuna populations and the direct ecosyste services they provide is particularly strong for countries in the tropical western an central Pacific Ocean which is the most important tuna fishing area in the world. Th tuna catch in the West Pacific Ocean is greater than that of the Atlantic, Indian and Eas Pacific Oceans combined (Miyake et al., 2010). Countries in the tropical west Pacifi Ocean depend heavily on tuna resources for their nutrition, food security, economi development, employment, government revenue, livelihoods, culture and recreatio (Gillett et al., 2001; Gillett, 2004; Gillett, 2009). Pacific States and territories in the wes Pacific Ocean derive a large share of their taxes (up to 40 per cent) and Gross Domesti Product (up to 20 per cent) from fishing licenses sold to distant-water fishing nation and fish processors (Gillett, 2009; Bell et al., 2013). +Tuna and billfish also provide valuable recreational services; these fishes are considere to be valuable sportfishes, which gives them an important status in recreationa fisheries in many regions of the world. Although the global picture of the recreationa catch, effort and economic data for this industry is very fragmentary or unknown, fo those countries with better records, the aggregate impact of the recreational tuna an billfish industry in terms of revenue and employment can be substantial for the loca economies. For example, the total annual aggregate value of the recreational billfis industry in Costa Rica, Mexico, the United States Atlantic coast and Puerto Rico (Unite States) combined ranges between 203 and 340 million United States dollars, creatin vital economic development, employment and recreation in the region (Ditton and Stoll 2003). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +6. Conservation responses and factors for sustainability +Tuna RFMOs face several challenges to ensure the long-term sustainability of tunas an billfishes and associated ecosystems within their Convention areas. Some of the mai challenges have been considered to be: +(a) the existing overcapacity of fishing fleets (b) the equitable allocation of fishing rights among fishing nations; +(c) the possible implementation of the precautionary approach’ and ecosyste approach; +(d) the monitoring of by-catch of vulnerable species; and +(e) the adequacy of financial resources to eliminate illegal, unreported an unregulated fishing and implement effective Monitoring, Control an Surveillance. +Tuna RFMOs have increasingly adopted a series of conservation and managemen measures to specifically address each of these challenges although their success an implementation have been mixed, and more time is needed to fully evaluate thei success. +Tuna RFMOs control the amount of fishing of each stock through a variety of tool including catch limits, time-area closures and other input or output controls Nevertheless, management of fleet capacity remains an issue of special concern especially in the long term, because it tends to increase pressure on resources an management. The open access nature of fisheries, particularly in the high seas, has le to overcapacity of fleets in every tuna RFMO convention area (Allen, 2010; Miyake et al. 2010). Once overcapacity develops, it is difficult to reduce it because the fishing industr will continue operating as long as profits exceed costs (ISSF, 2010b). The IATTC ha adopted a closed vessel registry for its purse seine fleet, a first and key step in managin overcapacity. However, overcapacity in the region remains well above the target (IATTC 2014b). ICCAT, IOTC and WCPFC also have measures to limit capacity for some of thei fisheries, but the problem of overcapacity has not been addressed in the RFMOs as whole. It has been proposed that the establishment of exclusive rights to fish can be formula to prevent overfishing, reduce overcapacity, achieve maximum economi benefits and sustainability in tuna and billfish fisheries, but its application is currentl being debated (Allen, 2010; ISSF, 2010b; Squires et al., 2013). Ultimately, the globa nature of tuna and billfish fisheries and industries might need cooperation among tun RFMOs to manage fleet capacity successfully. +The equitable allocation of fishing rights is another challenge, given that allocating +* Definitions of the term “precautionary approach” are available at the FAO Term Portal and in ISS (2013b). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +fishing access or catch quotas among the different member countries continues to b one of the most contentious matters in the RFMOs decision-making progress, impedin other more timely relevant conservation and management measures from movin forward, according to the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (ISSF, 2013c) Nowadays, tuna RFMO allocation negotiations occur in a decision-making climate that i basically consensus-driven, which can result in overall catch levels being higher tha scientifically-recommended levels. Identifying solutions requires recognizing th complexity and heterogeneity of tuna fisheries and the diverse objectives of RFM member countries (ISSF, 2011). +Endorsing the precautionary and ecosystem approach requires the adoption of harves control rules including limit and target reference points for tunas and billfishes an associated species, a long-standing recommendation of several international FA Agreements and Guidelines over the past 15 years (Caddy and Mahon, 1995) and part o the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservatio and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks.” This is als part of the more modern RFMO Conventions, such as the WCPFC and IATTC. The CCSB has adopted a formal management procedure’ for deciding on Total Allowable Catc levels to rebuild the southern bluefin tuna population to 20 per cent of the unfishe abundance level by 2035. The other RFMOs have not adopted such formulai approaches to decision-making, but all are making progress in adopting population specific limit and target reference points and discussing the use of harvest control rules The adoption of harvest control rules and limit and target reference points is also common requirement of several eco-label certifications, such as the Marin Stewardship Council Management Program. +The fifth aforementioned challenge reflects the paucity of knowledge about the impact of tuna and billfish fisheries on other less productive species such as sharks, on specie interactions and food web dynamics, and on the greater marine ecosystems (Dulvy e al., 2008; Gerrodette et al., 2012; de Bruyn et al. 2013; Gilman et al., 2014; IATTC 2014a). One issue of concern is the widespread use of Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs by industrial purse seine tuna fisheries and its potential impacts on tuna population (especially on very small bigeye), higher levels of bycatch relative to setting nets on free swimming schools, and possible ecosystem impacts (Dagorn et al., 2012; Fonteneau e al., 2013). +RFMOs have increasingly adopted several measures to monitor and regulate the use o FADs, and to increase data reporting requirements specific to FADs. Moreover, ne research initiatives have also been emerging that aim to identify best practices in FA fishing, as well as modification of gears, and new technology to reduce the catch of non target species by FAD fisheries. For example, IATTC, IOTC and ICCAT have adopted +> United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2167, No. 37924 ® See CCSBT (2011). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +measures to require a transition to non-entangling FADs that would reduce unobserve mortality of sharks and other species. Pelagic longline tuna and swordfish fisheries hav higher levels of bycatch of sensitive species such as sharks, turtles and seabirds (Gilman 2011). In addition, mitigation measures in longline fisheries targeting tunas an swordfishes have been developed and adopted by the RFMOs to reduce the by-catch o species like sea birds and sea turtles, although their successful implementation an effectiveness in reducing by-catch levels vary greatly among tuna RFMOs (Small, 2005 Gilman, 2011). +The last challenge encompasses the difficulty of eliminating illegal, unreported an unregulated fishing (IUU) and implementing effective monitoring, control an surveillance (MCS) measures in a context of insufficient financial resources (ISSF, 2013c) Effective MCS is required to successfully implement any conservation and managemen measure in place and combat IUU fishing. MCS measures can be very diverse, fro operating transparent catch documentation schemes, implementing effective at-se observer programs, requiring vessels to acquire unique vessel identifiers, maintainin comprehensive IUU vessel lists, and operating regular reports of transshipments. Th extent to which tuna RFMOs have successfully adopted MCS measures varies greatl (ISSF, 2013c). The compliance mechanisms used by the different tuna RFMOs var considerably (Koehler, 2013). The identification of best practices, successful measure and incentives to promote best practices is a first step forward, which would requir global collaboration among all tuna RFMOs. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Taxonomic groups +1) Bitishes +no 6000 a. principal market tuna oO Cc Katsuwonus pelami 5 | Thunnus albacare Oo 4000 {7 Thunnus obesu Ss a Thunnus alalung 7 Bi tums maccoyii T. orientalis and T. thynnus £ 200 Oo +0 +1950 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 +Yea B +no 6000 Ocean 2 BB Atanti c B oo) Broo oO ifi oS 400 o £200 Oo + 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 +Year +Figure 1. Global catch trends of tuna and billfish species (FAO, 2014). (A) Global aggregated tempora trends of catches by major taxonomic groups. (B) Global aggregated temporal trends of catches b oceans. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +100% 100% + oO + | +75% — +Exploitation status categorie Not overfished & not overfishin Not overfished & overfishin Overtshed & overfishin Overfished & not overfishing +explotation status categor | + | +25% — +Proportion of populations in eac Relative contribution of the total catc per exploitation status categor | +0% — 0% Atlantic Indian Pacifi 100% — + of +6 75% £ e 8 g QS so% g oO + ‘o 53 S g x 25% — +o a +Billfishes Principal market tunas Billfishes Principal market tunas Billfishes Principal market tunas +Figure 2. Global exploitation status of principal market tuna and billfish species according to the lates fisheries stock assessments conducted by tuna RFMOs. (A) Proportion of populations by exploitatio status. (B) Relative contribution of the total catch by exploitation status. (C) Exploitation status by majo taxonomic groups and oceans. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +References +Allen, R. 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Utilization of Vessel Capacity Under Resolutions C-02-03, C-12-06, and C 12-08. Fifteenth Meeting of the Permanent Working Group on Fleet Capacity Lima, Peru, 12-13 July 2014. +ICMBIO. In press. Diagnostico do risco de exting¢do das espécies da fauna brasileira. +IOTC-SC17. 2014. Report of the Seventeenth Session of the IOTC Scientific Committee Seychelles, 8-12 December 2014. |OTC—2014—SC17-R[E]: 357 pp. +Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). Intergovernmental Panel o Climate Change (IPCC), 2007. Summary for policymakers. Cambridge Universit Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, USA. +ISSF (2010). Status of the world fisheries for tuna. Section A -Introduction. Internationa Seafood Sustainability Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA. +ISSF (2010b). Bellagio Framework for Sustainable Tuna Fisheries: Capacity controls rights-based management, and effective MCS. International Seafoo Sustainability Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA. +ISSF (2011). The Cordoba Conference on the Allocation of Property Rights in Global Tun Fisheries. International Seafood Sustainability Foundation, Washington, D.C. USA. +ISSF (2012). Report of the 2012 ISSF Workshop: Review of spatial closures to manag tuna fisheries. [SSF Technical Report 2012-08. International Seafoo Sustainability Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA. +ISSF (2013a). ISSF Tuna Stock Status Update, 2013(3): Status of the world fisheries fo tuna. ISSF Technical Report 2013-04B. International Seafood Sustainabilit Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA. +ISSF (2013b). ISSF Stock Assessment Workshop: Harvest Control Rules and Referenc Points for Tuna RFMOs, San Diego, California, USA, March 6-8, 2013 International Seafood Sustainability Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA. +ISSF (2013c). Status of the world fisheries for tuna: management of tuna stocks an fisheries. [SSF Technical Report 2013-05. International Seafood sustainabl Foundation, Washington, D.C., USA. +Juan-Jorda, M.J., Mosqueira, |., Cooper, A.B. and Dulvy, N.K. (2011). Global populatio trajectories of tunas and their relatives. Proceedings of the National Academy o Science, USA 51: 20650-20655. +Justel-Rubio, A. and Restrepo, V.R., (2014). A Snapshot of the Large-Scale Tropical Tun Purse Seine Fishing Fleets at the Beginning of 2014. ISSF Technical Report 2014 07. International Seafood Sustainability Foundation, McLean, Virginia, USA. +Kitchell, J.F., Martell, S. J.D., Walters, C.J., Jensen, O. P., Kaplan, I.C., Watters, J. Essington, T.E. and Boggs, C.H. (2006). Billfishes in an ecosystem context. Bulleti of Marine Science, 79: 669-682. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Koehler, H. (2013). Promoting Compliance in Tuna RFMOS: A Comprehensive Baselin Survey of the Current Mechanics of Reviewing, Assessing and Addressin Compliance with RFMO Obligations and Measures. /SSF Technical Report 2013 02. International Seafood Sustainability Foundation. +Maguire J.-J. (2012). Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) in Atlantic Canadian waters biology, status, recovery potential, and measures for mitigation. DFO Can. Sci Advis. Sec. Res. Doc. 2012/002, 28 pp. +Majkowski, J. (2007). Global fishery resources of tuna and tuna-like species. FA Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 483. Rome, FAO. pp. 1-54. +Mcllgorm, A. (2010). Economic impacts of climate change on sustainable tuna an billfish management: Insights from the Western Pacific. Progress i Oceanography, 86: 187-191. +Miyake, M.P., Guillotreau, P., Sun, C., Ishimura, G. (2010). Recent developments in th tuna industry: Stocks, fisheries, management, processing, trade and markets FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 536. Rome, FAO. pp. 1-125. +Miyake, M.P., Miyabe, N., Nakano, H. (2004). Historical trends of tuna catches in th world. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 467. Rome, FAO. pp. 74. +Muhling, B.A., Lee, S-K., Lamkin J.T. and Liu Y. (2011). Predicting the effects of climat change on bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) spawning habitat in the Gulf o Mexico. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68: 1051-1062. +Nakamura I. (1985). FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 5. Billfishes of the world: an annotate and illustrated catalogue of marlins, sailfishes, spearfishes, and swordfishe known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis. No 125. Rome, FAO. 65. pp +Prince, E.D. and Goodyear, C.P. (2006). Hypoxia-based habitat compression of tropica pelagic fishes. Fisheries Oceanography, 15: 451-464. +Reglero, P., Tittensor, D.P. Alvarez-Berastegui, D., Aparicio-Gonzdlez, D. and Worm, B (2014). Worldwide distributions of tuna larvae: revisiting hypotheses o environmental requirements for spawning habitats. Marine Ecology Progres Series 591:207-224. +Sibert, J., Senina, |., Lehodey, P. and Hampton, J. (2012). Shifting from marine reserve to maritime zoning for conservation of Pacific bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 109: 18221-18225. +Small, C.J. (2005). Regional Fisheries Management Organizations: their duties an performance in reducing bycatch of albatrosses and other species. Cambridge UK: BirdLife International. +Squires, D., Allen, R. and Restrepo, V. (2013). Right-based management in internationa tuna fisheries. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Techinical Paper. No. 571, Rome FAO pp. 79. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +White Marlin Biological Review Team. (2007). Atlantic white marlin status review Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office, Dec 10. 88 pp. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_41.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_41.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_42.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_42.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..4989055a17a86b75c4003aa84a884e1bab1273e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_42.txt @@ -0,0 +1,275 @@ +Chapter 42. Cold-Water Corals +Contributors: Erik Cordes (Convenor and Lead Author), Sophie Arnaud-Haond Odd-Aksel Bergstad, Ana Paula da Costa Falcdo, Andre Freiwald, J. Murray Roberts Patricio Bernal (Lead Member) +Commentators: Peter Harris (Group of Experts) +1. Inventory and Ecosystem Functions +Globally viewed, cold-water corals cover a wide range of depths (39 - 2000 m) an latitude (70°N — 60°S). In this Chapter, we will focus on the corals found below 200 m the average depth below which photosynthesis does not occur, to avoid overlap wit other chapters. The term “corals” refers to a diverse group of species in the Phylu Cnidaria, including the scleractinian hard corals, octocorals including the sea fans an soft corals, antipatharian black corals, and stylasterid lace corals. Although the majorit of the species-level diversity of scleractinians is in the solitary corals (Cairns, 2007) some of the scleractinian corals may form extensive reef structures, occasionall accumulating into large carbonate mounds, or bioherms. Many of the ecologica patterns discussed in this chapter are derived from the study of these structures, simpl because they have been the focus of the most extensive research in this developin field. However, other types of cold-water corals can also form highly significan structural habitat and these are also discussed. The most representative cold-water framework-building, scleractinian corals are Enallopsammia rostrata, Goniocorell dumosa, Lophelia pertusa (Figure 1) Madrepora oculata, Oculina varicosa an Solenosmilia variabilis (Roberts et al., 2006). The most common and widespread of th large, structure-forming octocorals are found in the genera Corallium, Isidella Paragorgia, Paramuricea, and Primnoa (Watling et al., 2011) (Figure 2). +Cold-water corals (CWC) most commonly occur in continental slope settings, on dee shelves and along the flanks of oceanic banks and seamounts. The majority of CW occur between the depths of 200 to 1000 m, with the bathymetric ranges becomin shallower towards the poles (Roberts et al., 2009). However, there are numerous, dens coral gardens (primarily octocorals and black corals) found on the slopes of seamount and the base of the continental slope to over 3000 m, and some soft corals and sea pen are found on soft substrata down to abyssal depths (Yesson et al., 2012). The shallowes occurrences of typically deep-water species are in high latitudes associated with th rocky slopes and sills of fjords (L. pertusa off of Norway at 37 m depth, Wilson, 1979) o narrow passes between islands (the octocorals Paragorgia arborea and Plumarella spp at 27 m depth in Alaska, (Stone, 2006)). Continental slopes exhibit a variety of specifi topographic irregularities that provide suitable substrate for cold-water coral larvae to +© 2016 United Nation + +settle. In many parts of the world ocean, the shelf edge is incised by gullies an submarine canyons (Harris and Whiteway, 2011; Harris et al., 2014). Some prominen examples are located at the canyon-rich slope of the Gulf of Lion off the coast of Franc (Fabri et al., 2014), the Bay of Biscay under the national jurisdiction of France and Spai (De Mol et al., 2011; Sanchez et al., 2014), the Gully off the coast of Nova Scoti (Mortensen and Buhl-Mortensen, 2005), and the canyons off the eastern United State (Watling and Auster, 2005; Brooke and Ross, 2014). Narrow straits between land-masse may also provide suitable substrate, such as the Straits of Florida (Correa et al., 2012) Gibraltar (De Mol et al., 2012), Sicily (Freiwald et al., 2009), and the Yucatan (Hebbeln e al., 2014). Open-slope CWC mounds are known from the large reefs off the Norwegia coast (Mortensen et al., 2001; Buhl-Mortensen et al., 2014), the Northeast Atlanti along the Rockall and Porcupine Banks (Van der Land et al., 2014), the Southeast coas of the United States (Stetson et al., 1962; Reed et al., 2006), the Gulf of Mexico (Reed e al., 2006; Cordes et al., 2008), Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Viana et al., 1998; Sumid et al., 2004; Pires, 2007; Carranza et al., 2012), and off Mauritania (Colman et al., 2005) These mounds are not randomly distributed over the slope but show a strong affinit with distinct water mass boundaries passing along the slope (Mienis et al., 2007 Arantes et al, 2009; White and Dorschel, 2010). Open-slope coral gardens appear to b common along most of the continental margins of the world (Figure 3, Yesson et al. 2012). Oceanic seamounts represent another important cold-water coral-ric environment (see Chapter 51), such as the Tasmanian seamounts off South Australi (Thresher et al., 2011), the seamount speckled Chatham Rise off the coast of Ne Zealand (Tracey et al., 2011), seamounts of the central Pacific (Rogers et al., 2007), an seamounts of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system (Mortensen et al., 2008). A compilation o framework-forming cold-water coral occurrences is displayed in Figure 4 based on th UNEP-WCMC database (Freiwald et al., 2005) and more recent findings. The curren information on deep-water octocorals suggests that they are ubiquitous alon continental margins and seamounts on hard substrata, as well as occasionally on soft bottom in the case of the sea pens and a few species of bamboo corals. A combinatio of octocorals collections and observations along with a predictive habitat suitabilit model is displayed in Figure 3 (Yesson et al., 2012). +Cold-water corals have been known since the first descriptions in the 18" century an the first deep-water research expeditions of the 19" century (Roberts et al., 2006). Th presence of large reef structures in deep water was not broadly appreciated by th scientific community until the first submersibles were available in the late 20" centur (Cairns, 2007). Using these new tools, a more complete set of distribution records an characterization of the habitat requirements of CWC were developed. Based on thes recent data, the use of habitat modelling has led to the discovery of numerous cold water coral sites and habitats. As an example, scleractinians were discovered on stee submarine cliffs after modelling (Huvenne et al., 2011) and field observation in th Mediterranean (Naumann et al., 2013) and the Bay of Biscay (De Mol et al., 2011 Reveillaud et al., 2008). Similarly, an extensive screening of newly available mapping an visualization technology in the Mediterranean revealed additional and more extensive +© 2016 United Nation + +coral formations than anticipated hitherto (Freiwald et al., 2009). Habitat modelling ha thus far mostly been applied to a few of the most common species at a global an regional scale (Rengstorf et al., 2013; Yesson et al., 2012) at a coarse spatial resolutio (Ross and Howell, 2013). However, models are now being applied at finer resolutio levels in order to guide surveys with the visual tools of remotely-operated and manne submersibles (Georgian et al., 2014). Additional fine-grained and broad-scale habita modelling, specifically incorporating the best available taxonomic identifications (Henr and Roberts, 2014) is still needed to discover additional habitats, and to forecast th fate of CWC facing both direct (fisheries) and indirect (environmental) impacts (Guinott et al., 2006; Clark and Tittensor, 2010). +Cold-water coral reefs, mounds, and gardens support a highly diverse community comprising faunal biomass that is orders of magnitude above that of the surroundin seafloor (Mortensen et al., 1995; Henry and Roberts, 2007; Cordes et al., 2008; Robert et al., 2008; Rowden et al., 2010). In addition to this tightly-associated community, cold water corals may also serve as important spawning, nursery, breeding and feeding area for a multitude of fishes and invertebrates (Koslow et al., 2001; Fossa et al., 2002 Husebo et al., 2002; Colman et al., 2005; Stone, 2006; Ross and Quattrini, 2009; Baillo et al., 2012; Henry et al., 2013), and habitat for transient diel vertical migrators (Davie et al., 2010). The ability to construct massive calcium carbonate frameworks, whic makes both shallow and deep-water coral reefs unique, provides an importan biogeochemical function in both the carbonate system (Doney et al., 2009) and i calcium balance (Moberg and Folke, 1999). CWC skeletons also provide an informatio function (sensu de Groot et al., 2002) through their archiving of paleoclimate signal (Adkins et al., 1998; Williams et al., 2006). Besides this, CWC ecosystems possess a inherent aesthetic value (sensu de Groot et al., 2002) demonstrated through countles films, photographs, and paintings of reefs or reef organisms. +Cold-water corals and the communities they support rely on surface productivity a their primary source of nutrition; either through the slow, relatively steady deposition o particulate organic carbon (POC) in the form of marine snow, which may be enhance by hydrographic mechanisms (e.g. Davies et al., 2009; Kiriakoulakis et al., 2007), o through more active transport of carbon provided by vertical migrators (Mienis et al. 2012). However, L. pertusa has been shown to incorporate everything from dissolve organic carbon (DOC) to POC to algal biomass to small zooplankton (van Oevelen et al. 2009). As in shallow-water systems, corals and sponges of the deep reefs recycle thes nutrients and form both the structural and trophic foundation of the ecosystem. I addition to these ties from shallow to deep water, the transport of nutrients from dee to shallow water is accomplished both by the diel vertical migrations of plankton an small fishes (Davies et al., 2010) as well as by periodic down- and upwelling that ca occur near some of the reefs (Mienis et al., 2007; Davies et al., 2009). Although th mechanisms for deep-to-shallow water transport are well established, the input o deep-water secondary productivity to shallow ecosystems remains unquantified. +© 2016 United Nation + +2. Features and Trends +All geological structures mentioned share some environmental factors that facilitat coral settlement and subsequent growth: provision of current-swept hard substrate and often topographically-guided hydrodynamic settings. It has been suggested tha corals are preferably confined to narrow seawater density (Sigma-theta) envelope (Dullo et al., 2008) in which along-slope larval dispersal propagation may be facilitated Survival and growth may be most closely associated with specific hydrodynamic setting including tidal-driven internal-wave fronts hitting continental slopes and seamount (Mienis et al., 2007; Henry et al., 2014), specific up- and downwelling currents affectin the summits of shallow-water seamounts (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010), and tidal-drive downwelling phenomena on inner shelf settings (Davies et al., 2009; Findlay et al. 2013). These hydrographic transfer processes tend to concentrate or prolong th retention time of nutrients and food that sustain the metabolic demands of th suspension-feeding community. +Another perspective on the occurrence of coral habitat is a combined biogeophysica and hydrochemical analysis of the ambient seawater, a very recent endeavour in the stil young research history of cold-water coral systems (e.g., Findlay et al., 2014; Flogel e al., 2014; Henry et al., 2014; Lunden et al., 2013). These forms of data along with specie presence data were incorporated into global habitat suitability study by Davies an Guinotte (2011) that was conducted on the six major cold-water framework-buildin corals (Enallopsammia rostrata, Goniocorella dumosa, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepor oculata, Oculina varicosa and Solenosmilia variabilis) using the Maximum Entrop modelling approach (MAXENT). This approach uses species-presence data, globa bathymetry 30-arc second grids (1 km? resolution) and incorporates environmental dat from several global databases. Viewed on such a global scale, these corals generall thrive in waters that: (1) are supersaturated with respect to aragonite, (2) occu shallower than 1500 m water depth, (3) contain dissolved oxygen concentrations of > ml I, (4) have a salinity range between 34 and 37 ppt, and (5) show a temperatur range between 5 and 10°C. Laboratory experiments have confirmed many of thes ranges, with L. pertusa being the most commonly studied species. Mediterranean L pertusa and M. oculata colonies survived and grew at 12°C for three weeks, with M oculata showing a greater sensitivity to high temperature (Naumann et al., 2014). Gul of Mexico L. pertusa colonies survived and grew at up to 12°C, but died when expose to 14°C for 8 days (Lunden et al., 2014). Studies of L. pertusa from west of Scotland United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, demonstrated that this specie can maintain respiratory independence and even survive periods of reduced oxyge (Dodds et al., 2007). +However, some remarkable outliers to these trends exist in the Red Sea and the Gulf o Mexico. The Red Sea represents the warmest and most saline deep-sea basin on Earth with temperatures >20°C throughout the water column and salinity in excess of 40 ppt. +© 2016 United Nation + +Recent findings of typically deep-dwelling corals in these habitats shed new light on th persistence of corals in deep waters (Roder et al., 2013; Qurban et al., 2014). Althoug none of the coral species found in the Red Sea are among the most common globall (see above for list), limited framework growth is recorded mainly by Eguchipsammi fistula under food- and oxygen deprived conditions (1.02 — 2.04 ml I’). Coral surviva under such extreme environmental conditions may follow the strategy of metaboli depression (sensu Guppy and Withers, 1999), including depressed aerobic respiratio and calcification rates. However, the high temperatures in combination with hig aragonite saturation values of 3.44-3.61 in the Red Sea may facilitate calcification unde these otherwise adverse conditions (Roder et al., 2013). The cold-water cora communities in the northern Gulf of Mexico belong to the most intensively studied site in waters of the United States (e.g., Cordes et al., 2008). The major framework constructor is L. pertusa and most environmental variables (i.e., temperature, salinit and aragonite saturation state) reflect the ranges known from Atlantic Lophelia site (Davies et al., 2010; Lunden et al., 2013). However, dissolved oxygen values appear t be low, 2.7-2.8 ml I" are typically observed (Davies et al., 2010) and values as low as 1. ml I have been recorded adjacent to coral mounds (Georgian et al., 2014). Cora nubbins from these Gulf of Mexico populations survived and grew in the lab at oxyge levels as low as 2.9 ml I’, but eight-day incubations at lower oxygen concentrations (1. ml |?) caused complete mortality, suggesting that these conditions are short-lived in sit (Lunden et al., 2014). Similarly, low oxygenation levels were found in the newl discovered Lophelia-Enallopsammia coral mounds in the Campeche Bank coral moun province, in the southern Gulf of Mexico (Hebbeln et al., 2014). It is possible that th low oxygen concentrations of the Gulf of Mexico result in lower growth rates observe for L. pertusa on natural (Brooke and Young, 2009) and man-made substrata (Larcom e al., 2014), although this remains to be examined empirically. +There have been numerous recent advances in our knowledge of the oceanographi variables describing coral habitat in the deep sea. However, knowledge gaps still remai when up-scaling from local to regional to global scales. Furthermore, limited capacity t carry out long-term in situ measurements with benthic landers and cabled observatorie persists. This knowledge is of utmost importance to understand the consequences o already perceptible environmental change, such as ocean acidification, spread of oxyge minimum zones, and rising temperatures, on deep-sea ecosystems. +3. Major Pressures Linked to the Trends +Numerous anthropogenic threats to cold-water coral communities exist, the mos significant of which include fisheries, hydrocarbon exploration and extraction, an mining, as well as global ocean change including warming and acidification. An improve understanding of the function of cold-water corals as habitat, feeding grounds an nurseries for many fishes including certain deep-sea fisheries targets has emerged alon with concerns as to the impact of fisheries on these ecosystems (Costello et al., 2005; +© 2016 United Nation + +Grehan et al., 2005; Stone, 2006; Hourigan, 2009; Maynou and Cartes, 2012). Physica impacts from both trawl fisheries and long-lining, now being conducted as deep a 1500-2000 m, are likely to be significant anywhere deep-water fisheries are active, bu have been well-demonstrated in the North Atlantic and Norwegian Seas (Roberts et al. 2000; Fossa et al., 2002; Hall-Spencer et al., 2002, Reed, 2002), on the Australia seamounts (Koslow et al., 2001), off the coast of New Zealand (Probert et al., 1997 Clark and Rowden, 2009), and Southwestern Atlantic slope (Kitahara, 2009). Traw fisheries have the most severe impacts, by removal of large volumes of organisms an of cold-water coral framework from the seafloor and the concomitant destruction of th habitat, but long-lining impacts have also been observed (Heifetz et al., 2009). Recover times from these types of disturbance are likely to require settlement and regrowth o the corals, which based on radiometric dating of cold-water coral species, can requir decades to centuries (Andrews et al., 2002; Prouty et al., 2014) or in the case of th black corals, could require millennia (Roark et al., 2009). Direct evidence of recover times is consistent with these estimates, indicating that there was no apparent recover 5-10 years after the closure of seamount fisheries on the Tasmanian seamounts (Althau et al., 2009). These impacts have also been the most recognized in terms o management efforts, thus far (see below). +Installation of oil and gas offshore facilities and drilling activities (see Chapter 21) have great potential to impact cold-water coral communities. The potential impact should b higher in areas where much of the available substrate is from authigenic carbonate related to natural oil and gas seepage, such as the Gulf of Mexico (Cordes et al., 2008) some locations on the Norwegian margin (Hovland, 2005), and the New Zealand margi (Baco et al., 2010). Most of the typical impacts would be from infrastructure installatio and the deposition of drill tailings that can include high concentrations in barium among other potential toxins (Continental Shelf Associates, 2006). These impacts ar typically confined to a few hundred metres, but can have been shown to extend over kilometres in some cases (Continental Shelf Associates, 2006). The most glaring exampl of oil and gas industry impacts in the deep sea is the Deepwater Horizon disaster in 201 in the Gulf of Mexico. Material conclusively linked to the spill was discovered o octocoral colonies (primarily Paramuricea biscaya) approximately 11 km away from th site of the drilling rig (White et al., 2012a). These colonies suffered tissue loss and man have continued to decline in health since the spill (Hsing et al., 2013). Subsequen surveys detected at least two additional sites, extending the impacts to 26 km from th site of the well, and from 1,370 m to 1,950 m water depth (Fisher et al., 2014). One o the primary lessons learned from this tragic incident is that there is an urgent need fo improved baseline surveys in deep waters prior to industrial activity. Offshore energ industry activity in the form of wind and wave energy is also increasing (see Chapter 22) and physical structure placed on the seafloor, including pipelines and cables, could hav an impact on cold-water corals if the appropriate surveys are not completed prior t installation. +Mining activities have increased in the deep sea in recent years. This activity has mainl focused on massive seafloor sulphide deposits near hydrothermal vents, cobalt-rich +© 2016 United Nation + +crusts on seamounts, and also on polymetallic nodules on the abyssal plain (Ramirez Llodra et al., 2011). These forms of mining would involve removal of a large area of th seafloor surface, and complete removal of any associated communities, along with th generation of large sediment and tailing plumes that may impact filter feedin communities at a distance from the mining activity (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). On th seamounts of the Kermadec Arc, some which have already been leased for mining, cold water coral communities consisted of scleractinian, schizopathid, stylasterid, primnoid and isidid corals primarily associated with inactive areas away from hydrotherma venting (Boschen et al., 2015). Deep-sea corals are often found on the hard substrata i inactive vent fields, and may be subject to significant impacts from their removal due t their long life spans and low recruitment rates. +Global climate change is affecting every community type on Earth, and its effects ar already being felt in the deep sea. Ocean warming has been recorded in numerou deep-water habitats, but is particularly significant in marginal seas, which are home t many of the world’s cold-water coral reefs. In particular, there is evidence that th Mediterranean has warmed by at least 0.1°C between 1950 and 2000 (Rixen et al. 2005), and this change has been shown to impact the deep-sea communities ther (Danovaro et al., 2004). Cold-water corals are highly sensitive to warming water because of their upper thermal limits, and the temperature excursions around thi general upward trend are likely to be much higher. +Ocean acidification is another pervasive threat (see Chapter 5). Continued additions o CO, into the atmosphere exacerbate the problem as the oceans absorb approximatel 26 per cent of the CO) from the atmosphere (Le Quere et al., 2009). Because th carbonate saturation state in seawater is temperature-dependent, it is much lower i cold waters and therefore cold-water corals lie much closer to the saturation horizo (the depth below which the saturation state is below 1 and carbonate minerals wil dissolve) than shallow-water corals. As ocean acidification proceeds, the saturatio horizon will become shallower, thus exposing more cold-water corals to undersaturate conditions (Guinotte et al., 2006). Solitary corals of the South Pacific are already facin saturation states below 1 (Thresher et al., 2011), and small reef frameworks constructe by Solenosmilia variabilis grow in periodically undersaturated waters on Northeas Atlantic (Henry and Roberts 2014; Henry et al., 2014) and New Zealand seamount (Bostock et al., 2015). The Lophelia reefs of the Gulf of Mexico lie very close to th saturation horizon, at a minimum saturation state of approximately 1.2 (Lunden et al. 2013). Since these recent studies represent the baseline for the deep-water carbonat system, the extent to which anthropogenic CO contributes to these low values remain unclear. +Other possible effects of global climate change include deoxygenation and changes i sea-surface productivity. Declines in oxygen availability are primarily linked to increasin water temperature, but also to synergistic effects of pollution and agricultural runoff which are most significant in shallow water. However, because some cold-water coral live at oxygen-minimum zone depths (Davies et al., 2010; Georgian et al., 2014), eve small changes in oxygen concentration could be significant. Because cold-water corals +© 2016 United Nation + +live below the photic zone and rely for their nutrition on primary productivit transferred from the surface waters to depth, changes in surface productivity coul have significant negative impacts. In particular, the increased stratification of surfac waters above the thermocline will lead to decreased productivity in high latitude spring bloom and upwelling ecosystems (Falkowski et al., 1998). This includes the Nort Atlantic, where the most extensive examples of the known cold-water coral reefs exist. +Through in situ habitat characterization as well as by experimental approaches, it ha become clear that acidification and the expansion of oxygen minimum zones, togethe with rising temperatures, will affect the average metabolism and physiology of mos scleractinians (Gori et al., 2013; Lartaud et al., 2014; McCulloch et al., 2012; Naumann e al., 2013). However, whether such changes will result in range shifts, massive extinction (as suggested by Tittensor et al., 2010), or if species possess the resources to cope wit variations through phenotypic plasticity or adaptive genetic changes, is still largel unknown. The solitary coral Desmophyllum dianthus and colonial scleractinia Dendrophyllia cornigera have shown resistance to high temperature in aquari (Naumann et al., 2013). The L. pertusa colonies from the North Atlantic an Mediterranean have shown the ability to acclimatize to ocean acidification in long-ter experiments (Form and Riebesell, 2012; Maier et al., 2012). In other experiments certain genotypes of L. pertusa from the Gulf of Mexico were able to calcify a saturation states as low as 1.0, suggesting a possible genetic basis to their sensitivity t ocean acidification (Lunden et al., 2014). However, to date no long-term studie combining acidification with temperature stress have been produced and long-ter effects on bare skeletal structure are unknown. In addition, some cold-water cora species seem to be resilient to some of these processes, and may hold some of th answers for coral survival in future global climate-change scenarios. Regardless, th projected shoaling of the aragonite saturation horizon (Orr et al., 2005) threatens th future integrity of deep-water scleractinian reef structures world-wide (Guinotte et al. 2006). +The ability of these organisms to keep up with the pace of ocean change and dispers into a new environment or to recolonize depleted areas depends on the capacity fo mid- or long-distance dispersal. This capacity has been demonstrated for L. pertusa b isotope reconstruction and genetic analysis (Henry et al., 2014), supporting th hypothesis of a post-glacial recolonization of the Atlantic by refugees in th Mediterranean (De Mol et al., 2002; De Mol et al., 2005; Frank et al., 2009). +Overall, L. pertusa shows a pattern of relative homogeneity within regions (e.g. th North Atlantic), and modest but significant differentiation among regions, both for th Western Atlantic (e.g. Gulf of Mexico vs. Southeast United States vs. North Atlantic Morrison et al., 2011), as well as along Eastern Atlantic margins from the Bay of Bisca to Iceland for both L. pertusa and M. oculata (Becheler, 2013). Previous studies on th Eastern Atlantic margin had shown less extensive connectivity, possibly reflecting th peculiar position of fjord populations in Sweden and Norway (Le Goff-Vitry et al., 2004) Preliminary studies on D. dianthus suggest a lack of barrier to large-scale dispersa (Addamo et al., 2012), although bathymetric barriers to gene flow are evident (Miller et +© 2016 United Nation + +al., 2011). Bathymetric barriers to dispersal are also apparent in the phylogeneti community structure of deep-water octocoral assemblages in the Gulf of Mexic (Quattrini et al., 2014). +Finally, the distribution of genetic polymorphism among populations of octocorallian and antipatharians across seamounts of the Pacific spanning 1700 km also showed n evidence for strong endemism, supporting the ability for large scale dispersal of th species studied (Thoma et al., 2009). It is only recently that the embryonic and larva biology of Lophelia pertusa has been described (Brooke and Jarnegren, 2013). Th settlement and benthic juvenile stages have not been observed. Knowledge on th possible effects of ocean acidification on coral reproduction so far comes from tropica corals but it is reasonable to believe that there are many similarities (Albright, 2011). +Altogether, the present state of knowledge of genetic connectivity of deep-water coral suggests that the potential exists for some species to disperse and colonize across larg distances in response to major environmental changes, and some species have a mor limited dispersal capacity. However, more studies need to be conducted at a fine spatial scale using specific genetic markers (e.g. Dahl et al., 2012) to improve th understanding of the impact of environmental changes on connectivity and persistenc at the local scale. These different degrees of differentiation among and within ocea basins indicate the need for regional-scale conservation strategies. +4. Implications for Services to Ecosystems and Humanity +Impacts on cold-water corals and the structures they form would have significan implications for the functioning of the surrounding deep sea and wider oceani ecosystems. The linkages from shallow to deep water, and back again, implicate cold water corals as key components of the broader oceanic ecosystem. The physica structures created by cold-water corals support fisheries through the direct provision o habitat, refuge, or nursery grounds, which is likely to lead to increases in commerciall significant fish populations. These effects are most pronounced where cold-water coral are known to be highly abundant, such as on the North Atlantic, North Pacific, an Australian and New Zealand seamounts. +The ecosystem services provided go beyond the direct provision of substrate and shelte (see review by Foley et al., 2010). The complex habitat formed by cold-water coral increases the heterogeneity of the continental margin, promoting higher diversit (Cordes et al., 2010). As in other ecosystems (e.g. Tilman et al., 1997), increase diversity mostly promotes higher levels of ecosystem function, including carbon cycling This specific ecosystem service may be important in relatively oligotrophic regions suc as the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean where cold-water corals-enhance nutrient cycling and remineralization would generate nutrients that may be transporte back to the surface. Recent findings from reefs off Norway demonstrated their +© 2016 United Nation + +significant role in carbon cycling, raising additional concerns as to the impact of thei disappearance on global biochemical cycles (White et al., 2012b). +Cold-water corals also hold genetic resources that may provide services to humanity either directly or through their function as biodiversity hotspots in the deep sea (Arriet et al., 2010). Taxa such as cnidarians, sponges, and molluscs have been shown t harbour the highest abundance of natural marine products of interest for biotechnolog development (Molinski et al., 2009; Rocha et al., 2011). As an example, the anti-AID drug AZT was developed from an extract of a sponge from a shallow Caribbean reef (d la Calle, 2009). At least half, and likely far more, of the diversity of corals and sponge lies in deep, cold waters (Cairns, 2007; Hogg et al., 2010), and therefore, thes understudied and often unknown species have the highest potential for ne discoveries. With this potential comes a management concern, especially as some of th potential genetic resources (see also chapter 29) harboured within the genomes of cold water corals and sponges lie in areas beyond national jurisdiction (Bruckner, 2002; de l Calle, 2009). +5. Conservation Responses +Raised awareness of the susceptibility of cold-water coral communities to impacts o human activities in recent decades has resulted in national and international actions t protect cold-water corals and facilitate recovery of coral areas adversely affected in th past. In some areas where significant damage was documented, e.g. along th continental shelf off Norway (Fossa et al., 2002) and on seamounts in Australia and Ne Zealand (Koslow et al., 2001), national legislation was introduced and _ specifi management measures were implemented. A growing number of protected areas an fisheries closures in areas within national jurisdiction in the Atlantic and North Pacifi have followed, and in some countries, e.g. Norway, it is illegal to deliberately fish i coral areas even if the area is not formally closed as a protected area. +Since the mid-2000s a series of United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution (e.g. 61/105, 64/72, 66/68) on sustainable fisheries have called for a number o measures, including the implementation of the International Guidelines for th Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in the High Seas (FAO, 2009), and action to avoi significant adverse impacts of fisheries on vulnerable marine ecosystems,’ including e.g cold water corals.* These resolutions focus in particular on areas beyond national +*The International Guidelines for the Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in the High Seas describ vulnerable marine ecosystems and list characteristics to be used as criteria in the identification of suc ecosystems. +* The Annex to the Guidelines refers to “certain coldwater corals” as part of examples of species groups communities and habitat forming species that are documented or considered sensitive and potentiall vulnerable to deep-sea fisheries in the high seas, and which may contribute to forming vulnerable marin ecosystems. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +jurisdiction. Some of the protective efforts, including fisheries closures, within EEZ predate the UNGA resolutions, but the resolutions stimulated further action. Suc actions run in parallel with efforts to create networks of marine protected areas in area within national jurisdiction, partly motivated by the need to protect corals. +In response to the measures called for by the General Assembly, seamounts an continental slope habitats with a documented or assumed coral presence have no been set aside as marine reserves or fisheries closures by competent authorities. Thes areas are protected partly through area-based management tools (for example, b Australia, New Zealand and the United States within areas under their respectiv national jurisdictions) and partly by regional fisheries management organizations an arrangements (RFMO/As) in the high seas of the North and South-eastern Atlantic. I the north-eastern Atlantic, substantial areas have been protected within nationa jurisdictions of European Union Member States, as well as of Iceland and Norway Beyond areas of national jurisdiction, RFMOs/As with competence to regulate botto fisheries (for example, the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (www.nafo.int) an the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (www.neafc.org)) have closed a range o seamounts and seabed areas to bottom fishing. Within their regulatory areas, thes RFMOs have also restricted fishing to a limited agreed set of sub-areas outside th “existing fishing areas”, and have created strict rules and impact assessmen requirements for these sub-areas. These measures are intended not only to protec known areas with significant concentrations of cold-water coral, but also essentially t reduce the incentive for exploratory bottom fishing outside existing fishing areas Similar rules apply in the southeast Atlantic high seas implemented by the South Eas Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO, www.seafo.org) which closed selected ridg sections and seamounts to fishing, and restricted fisheries to certain subareas. In th Mediterranean, the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM www.gfcm.org) implemented fisheries restriction zones in specific coral sites. +The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR http://www.ccamlr.org/) banned bottom trawl fishing within the CCAMLR Conventio area. Bottom fishing regulations and area closures aim to facilitate responsible fisherie and to prevent adverse impacts on bottom-associated vulnerable marine communitie as defined by FAO (2009). Marine protected areas in this area are being considered bu only one MPA has been established thus far. +Currently little information exists to assess the impacts on target or by-catch species b deep-sea fishing on seamounts in the Indian Ocean. The Southern Indian Ocea Deepsea Fishers Association declared a number of seamounts in the Southern India Ocean as voluntary areas closed to fishing. The entry into force in 2012 of the Souther Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement? (SIOFA), a new regional fisheries managemen arrangement for the region, may lead to better documentation and regulation o seamount fisheries. +3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2835, No. 49647. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +In the North Pacific, the United States designated Habitat Areas of Particular Concer (HAPCs) that contain Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) and closed subareas of the shelf an upper slope from California to the Aleutian Islands to bottom trawling. Additional area of L. pertusa habitat have recently been designated as HAPCs off the southeast coast o the United States. Canada also has a strategy to develop and implement furthe measures. In areas beyond national jurisdiction in the North and South Pacific respectively, States which participated in the negotiations to establish the North Pacifi Fisheries Commission (NPFC) and the South Pacific Fisheries Management Organizatio (SPRFMO) introduced measures similar to those adopted by the Atlantic RFMOs. +Within areas under national jurisdiction of the United States in the Gulf of Mexico mitigation areas are established around mapped seafloor seismic anomalies that ofte coincide with hardgrounds that may support cold-water coral communities. Althoug these measures may prevent most direct impacts from infrastructure, the persisten threat of deep-water fishing, accidental loss of gear, and catastrophic oil spills remains concern. +A continued challenge is to assess the effectiveness of current and new protectiv measures and to develop management in areas that need greater attention, such a those for which no RFMOs exist. The fisheries sector is often perceived as representin the major threat to cold-water corals, but a growing challenge is to avoid advers impacts from other industries moving into areas containing known coral habitats, e.g mining, oil and gas industries, and renewable energy industries operating unde different management regimes. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Figure 1. Examples of dense cold-water Lophelia pertusa reef frameworks, including provision of fis habitat. (a) and (b) from 400-500 m depth in the Viosca Knolls region of the Gulf of Mexico. (c) and (d from 600 to 800 m depth on the Logachev coral carbonate mounds on the Rockall Bank in the Northeas Atlantic. +All photos are property of the contributors to this chapter and should also be attributed to: +(a) and (b): Ecosystem Impacts of Oil and Gas Inputs to the Gulf (ECOGIG), a consortium funded by th Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI), and the Ocean Exploration Trust; (c) and (d): Roberts, J.M. Changing Oceans Expedition 2012, funded by UK Ocean Acidification programme (NERC, DECC, Defra). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Figure 2. Octocoral gardens from different depths within the Gulf of Mexico. (a): A 2m tall Leiopathe glaberrima black coral colony from 200 m depth. (b): A diverse community of Stichopathes sp. blac corals, keratoisid bamboo corals, and other octocorals from 500 m depth. (c): Large, habitat-formin Paramuricea sp. colonies from 1000 m depth. (d): A diverse community of octocorals including Iridogorgi sp., keratoisid bamboo corals, Paramuricea biscaya, and Corallium sp. from 2000 m depth. +All photos are property of the contributors to this chapter, and should also be attributed to: (a) and (b) The Lophelia || project, funded by the United States Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (US BOEM) an the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research (NOA OER); (c) and (d): Ecosystem Impacts of Oil and Gas Inputs to the Gulf (ECOGIG), a consortium funded b the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI), and the Ocean Exploration Trust. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +180°W 120°W ow o° 60°E 120° 180 a +60° N09 +30°S o 30° 0 NOE +‘S208 +5209 +o 180°W 120°W cow o COE 120°E 180° ++ Observations © 1 Suborder predicted ™ 7 Suborders predicted +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3. Global octocoral distribution. Direct observations and collections are noted by "x" while th shading represents the habitat suitability probability for the presence of one order (lighter orange) or al nine orders (darker orange) Adapted from Yesson et al., 2012. +Re} iT ewe} Enallopsammia spp. Oculina spp. Other scleractinian +®..Madrepora spp Goniocorella dumosa Solenosmilia variabilis Rell +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 4. Global distribution of the major framework-forming cold-water corals. Source: Freiwald et al. 2005, and more recent published data, n = 7213 entries. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +References +Addamo, A.M., Reimer, J.D., Taviani, M., Freiwald, A., and Machordom, A. (2012) Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1794) in the Scleractinian Phylogeny and It Intraspecific Diversity. 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Camilli, R., Demopoulos, A., German, C.R., Brooks, J.M., Roberts, H.H., Shedd, W. Reddy, C.M., Fisher, C.R. (2012)a. Impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on deep-water coral community in the Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of the Nationa Academy of Sciences 109, 20303-20308. +White, M., Dorschel, B. (2010). The importance of the permanent thermocline to th cold water coral carbonate mound distribution in the NE Atlantic. Earth an Planetary Science Letters 296, 395-402. +White, M., Wolff, G.A., Lundalv, T., et al. (2012)b. Cold-water coral ecosystem (Tisle Reef, Norwegian Shelf) may be a hotspot for carbon cycling. Marine Ecolog Progress Series 465, 11-23. +Williams, B., Risk, M.J., Ross, S.W., Sulak, K.J. (2006). Deepwater Antipatharians: proxie of environmental change. Geology 34, 773-776. +© 2016 United Nations 2 + +Wilson, J.B. (1979). The distribution of the coral Lophelia pertusa (L.) [L. prolifer (Pallas)] in the north-east Atlantic. Journal of the Marine Biological Association o the United Kingdom 59, 149-164. +Yesson, C., Taylor, M.L., Tittensor, D.P., Davies, A.J., Guinotte, J., Baco, A., Black, J. Hall-Spencer, J.M., Rogers, A.D. (2012). Global habitat suitability of cold-wate octocorals. Journal of Biogeography 39, 1278-1292. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_42.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_42.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_43.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_43.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..cac5ac5e17e95158220f2517c6e876d3cc294796 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_43.txt @@ -0,0 +1,492 @@ +Chapter 43. Tropical and Sub-Tropical Coral Reefs +Writing team: Clive Wilkinson (convenor), Bernard Salvat, C. Mark Eakin, Angeliqu Brathwaite, Ronaldo Francini-Filho, Nicole Webster, Beatrice Padovani Ferreira (Co-Lea member), Peter Harris (Co-Lead member) +1. Introduction +Many activities and businesses are judged on three criteria, the triple bottom line economic evaluation; social responsibility; and environmental conservation. Coral reef make major contributions towards “people, planet, profit”; they are economicall beneficial to many countries, especially small island developing States (SIDS), in th provision of food, materials and income from tourism and fisheries; coastal and islan societies are often largely or nearly completely dependent on adjacent coral reefs, wit cultures developed around those reefs; and reefs contain the largest reservoirs o biodiversity in the world. Moreover, these reefs constitute a very special ecosystem forming a link between humans on the land and the ocean around them. +Of the 193 Member States of the United Nations, 79 States (41 per cent) have cora reefs in their maritime zones, including a large number of SIDS. These reefs ar estimated to cover 249,713 km? (Burke et al., 2011a) to 284,300 km? (Spalding et al. 2001), with an additional 600,000 km? of sandy lagoons. Reefs and nearby seagrass an mangrove ecosystems are of major importance for 275 million people who depend o associated fisheries as their major source of animal protein (UNSG, 2011) and play a rol in social stability, especially within a subsistence economy which is often declining i sustainability. Of these 79 States, more than 30 SIDS have coral reefs that provide th major source of food, coastal protection, and a limited amount of rock and sand; an valuable income from tourism; the continual provision of these ecosystem services i dependent on actions focused on sustaining and conserving healthy, productive cora reef ecosystems. +Coral reefs around the world have been in a state of continual decline over the past 10 years, and especially over the past 50 years. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network which has reported since 1998 in the “Status of Coral Reefs of the World” serie assessed that approximately 19 per cent of the world’s coral reefs were severel damaged with no immediate prospects of recovery, and 35 per cent of the remainin coral reefs were under imminent risk of degradation from direct human pressure (assessment by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network; Wilkinson, 2008; with 37 contributing authors from 96 States and territories). Similar estimates of large-scal degradation have been reported both before and since (Burke et al., 2002; Burke an Maidens, 2004; Bruno and Selig, 2007; Bellwood et al., 2004; Obura et al., 2008). A more +© 2016 United Nation + +recent study by the World Resources Institute in the “Reefs at Risk Revisited” repor (Burke et al., 2011a) calculated that more than 60 per cent of the world’s coral reefs ar under immediate threat. Indeed the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chang (IPCC (2014)) report suggests that “coral reefs are one of the most vulnerable ecosyste on Earth” and will be functionally extinct by 2050, without adaptation (worst cas scenario), or by 2100 with biological adaptation of the whole ecosystem. Presently th level of threats varies considerably in different geographical regions; reefs of the Pacifi Ocean are least threatened, but those throughout Asia and the wider Caribbean an Atlantic regions are under greater threats. +\" +Coral reefs developed throughout millions of years under a wide range of “natur stresses, such as storms, variations in sea level, volcanic and tectonic plate activity However recent anthropogenic stresses are overwhelming the natural ree resistance/resilience and recovery mechanisms, resulting in major losses and declines i the reefs and their biological resources in many regions. The major threats are overfishing and destructive fishing practices; pollution and increased sedimentation habitat destruction; increases in diseases and predation; and especially impacts o climate change and ocean acidification (OA). This chapter highlights the threats to th world’s coral reefs, lists their current status and reports conservation actions that so fa have been successful to ensure that reefs continue to provide ecosystem services t several billion people around the world. +Coastal protection and reef fisheries are of utmost socioeconomic importance fo coastal communities; and reefs constitute the basis of many cultures. In addition, the are a source of rock and sand aggregate for construction but frequently suc exploitation is unsustainable. The economic value of reefs,, only as a source of ra materials, has been estimated at 28 United States dollars per hectare (Costanza et al. 2014; see also Chapter 7). Reefs underpin the reef-based tourism industry and harbou biodiversity as natural capital. +1.1 Cultural +Since humans began to inhabit coral reef areas, they developed strong cultural link with this ecosystem, both with the habitats and also with many species. Such cultura themes associated with reef ecosystems developed through popular beliefs and th ecosystem services essential to their livelihoods. More importantly for many people, th coral reefs constituted and sustained the land on which they lived. Some of the huma communities in South East Asia, which had settled near coral reef waters, migrate outwards during the Holocene and progressively colonized islands throughout th Pacific Ocean. Many Pacific communities developed strong cultural affinities toward the reefs and many of these remain active and recognized by local and nationa governments. +© 2016 United Nation + +1.2 Coastal protection +Reefs and mangrove forests provide coastal protection for land resources and huma infrastructure, especially where large areas of shallow reef flats are adjacent to th shore and reefs have a distinct crest. This is a continual service, which is especiall important during storms and cyclones. This service also includes some attenuation o tsunami waves, as was the case during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (Wilkinson et al. 2006). Coastal protection provided by coral reefs is valued at 10.7 billion dollars (Tabl 1), which can be considered as a natural alternative to the cost of building seawall along coasts that are otherwise protected from ocean swell and storm waves b offshore barrier reef systems. +Table 1. Annual net global benefits from coral reef-related ecosystem services in dollars assessed in 2010 with two important States included for emphasis. Values are expressed in millions of United States dollar as net benefits, including costs (from Burke et al., 2011b). +Region & Total Tourism Reef Fisheries Shoreline Protectio Global 29 000 11500 6 800 10 70 Indonesia 2014 127 1500 38 Philippines 1283 133 750 400 +1.3 Fisheries and food +About 275 million people worldwide depend directly on ecosystem services provided b coral reefs and associated ecosystems (Newton et al., 2007; Cinner et al., 2008). This i particularly crucial for SIDS and coastal developing countries (Burke et al., 2011a; se also Chapter 15). Estimates of the value of all goods, services, and livelihoods associate with coral reefs (including tourism, fisheries and protection) exceed 30 billion dollar (Cesar et al., 2003). Fisheries in the tropics feed millions of people (Whittingham et al. 2003); but the importance of reefs extends far beyond economically measurable values as the identity of many coastal peoples is linked to reefs through their socio-cultura practices (Johannes, 1981; Cinner et al., 2008; Kittinger et al., 2012). +1.4 Rock and sand +Coral reefs produce large amounts of exploitable sand and rock (Reid et al., 2005), whic are valuable for many coastal communities, especially those living on coral islands wit no other sources of these materials. The use of coral blocks taken off the reef fo building construction was sustainable when human populations were lower. However with increasing demand from growing populations, the practice became unsustainabl in some areas, and excessive harvesting of coral rock and sand exposed shorelines t increased erosion, resulting in damage to adjacent communities. The reef flat around +© 2016 United Nations + +the main island of the Maldives, Malé, was so seriously mined over centuries that th shoreline protection was virtually lost, such that in 1987 storm waves penetrate throughout the city causing massive saltwater damage, including contamination of th groundwater system. Replacement concrete tetrapod seawalls cost more than 1 million dollars per km in the 1990s; the cost would be much higher now (Talbot an Wilkinson, 2001). Such problems create economic dilemmas for governments, as it ma be cheaper to mine fringing reefs and sand flats, rather than take the material from lan or remote coral structures. This will be exacerbated with climate change-related sea level rise. Mining also occurs at deeper areas. Large-scale mining projects are predicte for eastern Brazil to explore one of the largest rhodolith beds (i.e., nodules of calcareou coralline algae) in the world (Amado-Filho et al., 2012), aimed at extractin micronutrients and correcting soil acidity for sugar cane plantations. +1.5 Recreation and tourism +Reef-related tourism generates 11.5 billion dollars per year in revenue for the globa economy (Table 1). Tourism and recreation in Australia’s Great Barrier Reef alon sustain 69,000 jobs and are valued at either 4.4 billion dollars per year (Deloitte Acces Economics, 2013) or 11.5 to 15.5 billion dollars (Stoeckl et al. 2014) depending on th methods employed. Reefs contribute about 1 billion dollars per year to the economy o Hawaii, United States of America (Bishop et al., 2011). In 2000-2001, the artificial an natural reefs off southeast Florida supported almost 28 million person-days o recreational diving, fishing and viewing activities. These activities generated about 4. billion dollars in local sales, almost 2 billion dollars in local income, and sustained 70,40 full and part-time jobs (Johns, et al., 2001). In Belize, coral reef- and mangrove associated tourism contributed an estimated 150 - 196 million dollars to the nationa economy in 2007. Belize is an example of many small developing countries wher tourists provide a large proportion of foreign currency earnings. Reef-based tourism i especially sensitive to reef condition, and thus the sector is particularly vulnerable t degradation (Cooper et al., 2008). +1.6 Biodiversity +Coral reefs are the largest reservoirs of biodiversity on earth: they host 32 of 3 recognised phyla and approximately one-third of all marine biodiversity (Spalding et al. 2001; Groombridge and Jenkins, 2002; Roberts et al., 2002; Bouchet, 2006). The centr of global coral reef biodiversity is the “Coral Triangle” (CT), including eastern Indonesi and Malaysia, the Philippines, Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Island (Figure 1). There are more than 550 species of hard corals in the CT area; the diversit decreases away from this focus to the West and to the East, such that less than half thi number of species are found in French Polynesia (France), the Hawaiian Islands (Unite States), and the East African coast. Reef biodiversity in the Caribbean and Atlantic regio is also lower; only 65 different coral species are recorded on all these reefs. +© 2016 United Nation + +Ne N “ +7 +<50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. The diversity of hard coral species is greatest within Southeast Asia and the West Pacific declining diversity radiates out from this area, which is called the Coral Triangle. Much lower diversity o corals is found in the Atlantic and wider Caribbean (from Veron et al., (2015). +2. Major threats +Modern coral reefs have developed since the end of the last ice age (the Pleistocene when global sea level rose approximately 120 m to just above current levels about 6,50 years ago (Woodroffe and Webster, 2014). Coral reef growth has continued throughou this period, especially during relatively stable sea level (the Holocene); until recently th major stressors were local natural damage, e.g., storms, earthquakes, extreme lo tides. +The current serious and further deteriorating status of coral reefs around the world i directly due to damaging stresses that arose during the Anthropocene (Bradbury an Seymour, 2009; Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014); effectively since the mid-18" century, an particularly since 1950, when human pressures ramped up to destructive levels Assessments of coral reefs cited above and anecdotal reports (Sale and Szmant, 2012 indicate that most reefs were largely “pristine” until direct and indirect huma pressures and the advent of “new technology” started affecting many reefs commencing in the 1970s. This “new technology” permitted far more extensiv resource exploitation over far greater areas and to greater depths. This technolog (discussed below) includes monofilament lines and nets, and boats with motors Problems with catchment management, in the face of deforestation for agricultura purposes, have also affected coral reefs, especially coastal reefs off Africa, Australia an South America (Wilkinson and Brodie, 2011). +The degradation of many coral reefs around the world is both directly and incidentall due to increasing anthropogenic pressures arising from increasing population pressure on reefs and their resources, especially through increased economic capacity to use +© 2016 United Nations + +these resources. The major threats include extractive activities, pollution sedimentation, physical destruction, and the effects of anthropogenic climate change Such stressors often interact synergistically with natural stressors, such as storms (Tabl 2). Carpenter and 38 other authors (Carpenter et al., 2008) have estimated that 33 pe cent of all reef-building corals could become extinct due to damage from local threat combined with climate change impacts. +Table 2. Natural and anthropogenic stresses divided into three direct damage categories and one group o organizational factors [summarised from Wilkinson and Salvat, 2012]. +1. Natural factors +not readily amenable to conservation measures +i. Catastrophic geological: earthquake tsunami, volcano, meteors +Potential for rare, but major local damage to coral reefs, especially in Indonesia an South-West Pacific (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu) +ii. Meteorological and climatic: tropica storms, floods, droughts, extremes o heat and cold +Severe storms smash coral reefs or bury them under sediments following floods Temperature extremes cause coral bleaching and death. +iii. Extreme low tides +Exposes coral reefs leading to widespread mortality e.g., Red Sea +2. Direct human pressures +major target for conservation measures +i. Exploitation: overfishing, bom fishing and trawler damag (exacerbated by global marke pressures) +Harvesting of fishes and invertebrates beyond sustainable yields, includes damagin practices (bomb, cyanide fishing); boat scour and anchor damage to reefs +ii. Sedimentation increases: logging farming, development +Excess sediment and mud on coral reefs from poor land use, deforestation, dredging reduces photosynthesis; and associated with disease; +iii. Nutrient and chemical pollution +Organic and inorganic chemicals in sediments, untreated sewage, agriculture, anima husbandry and industry wastes; includes complex organics and heavy metals. Turbidit reduces light, promotes growth of competing algae on corals. Herbicides kill alga associated with coral reefs. +iv. Development of coastal areas +Removal or burial of coral reefs for urban, industrial, transport and touris developments (e.g., airports); mining reef rock and sand beyond sustainable limits +3. Global change threats +need major global focus; local conservation can assist by increasin reef resilience and raising awareness; +i. Elevated sea-surface temperatures +Bleaching in corals, i.e., loss of photosynthetic zooxanthellae either temporary or lethal stimulates algal blooms on reefs; increases disease susceptibility; reduces larval survival. +ii. Increased storms, wider climati fluctuations +Stronger storms will smash or bury coral reefs; increased rain increases sediment flows can reduce thermal stress locally. +iii. Rising CO2 dissolved in seawate with increasing ocean acidification +Increased CO2 in seawater increases acidity, which decreases calcification in corals an other organisms and reef cementation and increases erosion (including bioerosion) higher CO, may increase algal productivity; +iv. Diseases, plagues and invasiv species +Intensity and frequency of coral diseases and plagues of predators correlated with globa climate change, especially higher temperatures. +4. Governance, awareness political will +major target for conservation measures +i. Rising poverty, increasin populations, alienation from land an sea +More poor, dispossessed people use coral resources for subsistence and habitation. +ii. Poor management capacity and lac of resources +Few trained personnel for coastal management, raising awareness, enforcement an monitoring; lack of funds and logistics for conservation, e.g., smaller countries. +© 2016 United Nations + +iii. Poor political will and poor oceans Political ignorance, indifference, inertia; corruption and low transparency in governance +governance at global and regional levels all impede decision-making and waste resources iv. Uncoordinated global and regional Inadequate coordination among multilateral environmental agreements an conservation arrangements international donors results in overlapping meeting and reporting requirements which +exhaust conservation capacity in smaller countries. +Table 3. A numerical compilation of anthropogenic threats to coral reefs summarized in the graphics in +the first map of Burke et al. (2011a), shows that threats are greatest in Southeast and East Asia, wit almost 50 percent of reefs at High to Very High threat levels, whereas threats in the wider Pacific an around Australia are much less. Predicted climate change damage, however, will affect all reefs in th world in the next two to three decades. Methodological details are in Burke et al., 2011a Region Low | Medium | High% | Very Hig % % Southeast and East Asia 6 47 28 2 Indian Ocean 34 32 21 1 Caribbean and Atlantic 25 44 18 1 Middle East 35 44 13 Pacific 52 28 15 Australia 86 13 1 World — all areas 39 34 17 1 2.1 Overfishin The major traditional use for coral reefs is extractive exploitation of tropical fisheries +resources. For many centuries, these resources, particularly fishes and also turtles algae, molluscs, crustaceans and echinoids, served as the major animal protein sourc for many coastal and island communities throughout all oceans. These resources ar socially and economically important in sustaining livelihoods of traditional coasta communities, especially through ensuring their food security. However the rate an ease of exploitation has increased, such that in many areas it has reached unsustainabl levels and is seriously damaging the ecological integrity of coral reefs. The rate and eas of exploitation has increased in recent decades with the introduction of aluminiu boats and motors, monofilament lines and nets, metal hooks, dive masks and spear guns (now frequently used with underwater lights to catch sleeping fish at night) an use of compressed air (SCUBA and hookah gear). Habitat-damaging practices, such a use of explosives, cyanide or other poisons, also pose a serious threat (Johannes an Riepen, 1995). External markets have driven the increase in the exploitation rate an extension, especially in Asia, to support the tourist demand (see live reef-fish trad below) and also in the wider Caribbean and South America for fresh reef seafood an for export of conch and lobster to the United States. Rapid economic growth throughou Asia has stimulated the lucrative live reef food-fish trade, which is expanding rapidly, +© 2016 United Nations + +with reef fish taken largely through the use of cyanide and other destructive practices This trade particularly targets large attractive edible fish, such that one species, th humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) is now listed on the International Union fo Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List as “Endangered” and several groupers particularly larger species, are listed as “Near Threatened” (Sadovy et al., 2013). Thi trade is so valuable that industrial-scale fishing across the Indo-West Pacific target mass fish-spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Domeier, 2005). Reef fish spawnin aggregations have also been drastically reduced across the Caribbean by artisana fishers. A notable example is the Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), once of grea commercial importance and now listed as “Endangered” and commercially extinc across much of its range in the Caribbean (Sadovy, 1999). More than a quarter of globa records of fish aggregations show a declining trend in numbers of fish aggregating, and per cent are documented as having disappeared entirely (Status Report - Worlds Fis Aggregations 2014; Russell et al., 2014). +Another particularly destructive form of industrial scale fishing is via muro ami (driv net) fishing, observed to operate predominantly from the southern Philippines (Jenning and Polunin, 1996). This practice has been banned from many areas; however, illega fishing with this method still occurs. +A detailed assessment by the Secretariat for the Pacific Community of current an predicted coral reef fisheries resources in 49 island States reported that catch rates i 55 per cent of them are unsustainable and unlikely to be able to provide food securit into the future (Figure 2; Bell et al., 2011b in Bell et al., 2011a). The human populatio of Oceania has increased fourfold since the middle of the last century. A larg proportion of this population is still based on a subsistence economy. The extra fis stocks required will have to come from pelagic species, such as tuna, or throug aquaculture, as reef fisheries are declining alarmingly due to over-exploitation especially through the use of “modern” technology (Figure from Bell et al., 2011). +Data from more than 300 coral reefs in the wider Caribbean show a three to six per cen decline in total fish populations per year over a 50-year period (Paddack et al., 2009) This is in parallel to the decline in mean coral cover from 50 per cent to 10 per cent ove a 25-year period (Gardner et al., 2003), and a major loss of reef structural complexit over a 30-year period (Jackson et al., 2014). Large-bodied herbivorous fish from th family Scaridae (parrotfish) play key ecological roles and favour coral health an abundance by controlling overgrowth by algae (Bellwood et al., 2004). A recent large scale synthesis of peer-reviewed and unpublished data indicates that overfishing o coral reef herbivorous fish is a worldwide problem that deserves urgent attentio (Edwards et al., 2013). +Similar declines in reef fish stocks in the Indian Ocean due to over-exploitation ar documented (McClanahan et al., 2008; McClanahan et al., 2011), matching reports fro the Pacific (Dalzell and Adams, 1996; Zeller et al., 2006). +© 2016 United Nation + +Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia +c 4 1.0 1. om Zt 10 08 0 sg 2 8 0.6 0 ‘e BE 4 i 0.4 [J 0 a 2 0.2 0 0 0 2010 2030 2010 2030 2010 203 o 3 b z* e@ e ao i 175,000 275,000 30,000 40,000 40,000 45,00 2010 2030 2010 2030 2010 2030 +Figure 2. Current and predicted rates of population (upper diagrams), and the fish stocks needed for foo security (lower diagrams) in urban (dark colour) and more remote (pale colour) areas of Melanesia Micronesia and Polynesia between 2010 and 2030. Note that the scale bar for Melanesia is 10 times large than the other regions (source: SPC and Bell et al., 2011b in Bell et al., 20114). +Many coral reef fishes periodically and predictably aggregate to spawn, making the vulnerable to fishing. The problem for management of fishing on these aggregations i particularly challenging because little is known about aggregating fish behaviour and th impacts of fishing, although clear evidence exists of serious declines in several species Although information on the level of management and monitoring is limited, it appear that 35 per cent have some form of management in place such as marine protecte areas, seasonal protection from fishing and/or sale, or fisheries harvest controls, an about 25 per cent have some form of monitoring, such as fish counts (Russell et al. 2014). Multiple management measures are needed for those species, however it is clea that whenever uncontrolled exploitation continues it may lead to major depletions fo both fish populations and fisheries and livelihoods they support. (De Michelson et al. 2008; Russell et al., 2014) +2.2 Pollution and sedimentation +Water quality (including elevated nutrient, sediment and contaminant concentrations) i a significant environmental driver for the health of coral reefs. Coral reefs ar threatened by a wide range of chemical pollution pressures that are likely to increas with further industrial development and land use (see chapter 20 for more detail). Trac metal contaminants are accumulating in fish, with a clear link to coastal contamination +© 2016 United Nation + +from mining in New Caledonia (France), while contamination by persistent organi pollutants (POPs) occurs across the whole lagoon region (Briand et al., 2014). Millions o tons of dust are transported in the atmosphere each year from Africa and Asia to th Caribbean. This is a significant input source of trace metals, organic contaminants an potential microbial pathogens in the reef ecosystem which is likely to adversely affec the health of corals (Garrison et al., 2003). +Excess nutrients result in poor water quality and eutrophication. Reefs exposed to poo water quality show significant increases in macroalgal cover and reduced coral richnes and recruitment (De'ath and Fabricius, 2010; Fabricius et al., 2012; Vega Thurber et al. 2014). In the mid-1990s, global models of coral reef pollution estimated that 22 per cen of all reefs were classified as being at high (12 per cent) or medium (10 per cent) ris from pollution and soil erosion (Bryant et al., 1998). On the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) central and southern rivers are reported to deliver five- to nine-fold higher nutrient an sediment loads compared with pre-European settlement, largely due to changes in land use practices, including land clearing, fertilization and urbanization (Kroon et al., 2012) Flood events that deliver high nutrient and sediment loads via river runoff are no directly affecting up to 15 per cent of GBR reefs (De'ath and Fabricius, 2010; Kroon e al., 2012). +Pressures related to elevated sediments include sedimentation, total suspended solid and light attenuation. All of these can damage coral reef species via smothering, shadin and blocking of the filter-feeding systems. Specific assessments of sediment stress hav been experimentally examined in only 10 per cent of all known reef-building corals these studies indicate sediment thresholds and also identify response and adaptatio mechanisms that corals employ to cope with excess sediments (Erftemeijer et al., 2012) Reduced coral recruitment success and reef overgrowth by microalgae are significan effects of increased sedimentation on coral reefs. In addition, chronic effects fro increased sediment loads include reduced reef calcification, shallower photosyntheti compensation points, changes in the community structure of corals, and reduce species richness. This decreased diversity and increased simplification of ree ecosystems with increasing sediment exposure may compromise their ability t maintain critical ecosystem functions (Fabricius, 2005). The impacts of dredging o coral reefs are primarily linked to the intensity, duration and frequency of exposure t increased total suspended solids and sedimentation (Erftemeijer et al., 2012) an whether the sediments include particulate organic matter or dissolved inorgani nutrients (Fabricius, 2005). Total suspended sediment thresholds reported for coral ree systems range from <10 mg L™ to >100 mg L™ while the maximum sedimentation rate tolerated by corals range from <10 mg cm” d™ to >400 mg cm™ d™ (Erftemeijer et al. 2012). +Pesticides including herbicides have been widely studied in tropical systems. Mos pesticides have no natural sources; concentrations detected in the nearshore lagoon o the GBR are positively correlated with low salinity associated with river runoff. Th composition and concentration of pesticides entering the marine environment typically +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +mirror agricultural use in the catchments adjacent to the GBR (Kennedy et al., 2012 Lewis et al., 2009) and on reefs of French Polynesia (France) (Salvat et al., 2012). +Herbicides that inhibit photosystem II in plants are highly persistent in marin environments and are regularly detected in coral reef systems (Schaffelke et al., 2013) with concentrations of herbicides periodically exceeding regulatory guidelines for th GBR during flood plume events (Lewis et al., 2012). These concentrations are known t deleteriously affect corals (Jones and Kerswell, 2003; Negri et al., 2005), microalga (Bengtson Nash et al., 2005; Magnusson et al., 2008), crustose coralline algae (Negri e al., 2011), foraminifera (van Dam et al., 2012), and seagrass ( Haynes et al., 2000; Gao e al., 2011). +The sensitivity of a coral reef to poor water quality largely depends on the pre-existin health of the ecosystem, overall reef resilience and the baseline conditions that the ree normally experiences. For example, the proportion of reefs at risk is highest in countrie and entities with widespread land clearing (Burke et al., 2002). It is important tha recent research shows that reducing runoff of nutrients, sediments and pesticides fro the land will at least partially offset increasing stress and deleterious effects fro climate factors for coral reefs (Schaffelke et al., 2013). +2.3 Diseases and predators +Coral disease is reported as one of the most prominent drivers of recent coral ree declines (Aronson and Precht, 2006; Bruckner and Hill, 2009; Rogers, 2009; Sokolow 2009; Weil and Crdquer, 2009). In particular, the Caribbean has been designated as “coral disease hotspot” due to the rapid spread, high prevalence, and virulence o diseases associated with corals and other reef organisms (Harvell et al., 2002; Weil e al., 2002). Although the Caribbean is home to only eight per cent of the world’s cora reefs, approximately 66 per cent of all coral diseases are found across 38 Caribbea States and territories (Green and Bruckner, 2000). Disease is also reported as the majo factor behind a 25-year decline in Caribbean coral reefs, with mean coral cover declinin from 50 per cent to only 10 per cent across the entire Caribbean region (Gardner et al. 2003). Disease has also reshaped the community structure of many Caribbean reef over the last few decades, including: (i) the virtual elimination of Acroporid corals b White Band Disease in the 1980s (Gladfelter, 1982; Ritchie and Smith, 1998; Aronso and Precht, 2001; Bythell et al. 2001; Kline and Vollmer, 2011); (ii) the loss of man Acropora palmata by White Pox in the late 1990s (Sutherland et al., 2011); and (iii) th mass mortality of the keystone grazer species, Diadema antillarum, by an unidentifie disease in the early 1980s (Hughes et al., 1985). The loss of this sea urchin, coupled wit declines in herbivorous fish strongly contributed to overgrowth of reefs by macroalga (Lessios, 1984; Hunte and Younglao, 1988; Hughes, 1994; Jackson et al., 2001), believe to be a contributing factor to coral disease (Nugues et al., 2004). +Coral diseases have now been documented within all major reef systems and ocea basins (Ruiz-Moreno et al., 2012). Indo-Pacific coral reefs are home to 75 per cent of the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +world’s coral reefs and at least 10 identified coral diseases (~30 per cent of known cora diseases; Willis et al., 2004). It is unclear whether coral disease will have the sam impact on Indo-Pacific reefs as it has in the Caribbean due to fundamental differences i their coral reef communities (Wilson et al., 2014). A higher level of diversity an functional redundancy in herbivorous fishes and coral communities, slower macroalga growth, and less dependence on fragmentation as a reproductive mode, may protec Indo-Pacific reefs from dramatic phase-shifts (Roff and Mumby, 2012). +The recent and rapid increase in disease occurrence worldwide is correlated wit increasing environmental stressors that have local and global impacts e.g., elevate seawater temperatures, nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, and fish farmin (Sutherland et al., 2004; Sato et al., 2009; Pollock et al., 2014; Vega Thurber et al., 2014 Randall and vanWoesik, 2015). Research is only now starting to determine how disease are contracted and/or spread from one colony to another. Changes in the coral associated microbial community and subsequent disease severity are often correlate with bleaching stress in warm summer or winter months (Willis et al., 2004; Bourne e al., 2008; McClanahan et al., 2009, Heron et al., 2010). A significant relationship wa shown between the frequency of warm temperature anomalies and white syndrom outbreaks during six years across 48 reefs in the GBR (Bruno et al., 2007). Whit syndrome was described as either an additional emergent disease, or a group o diseases, among Pacific reef-building corals. Proliferation of disease during the hotte months or during mild winters may be correlated with a greater virulence of cora pathogens at higher temperatures (Miller et al., 2006; Harvell et al., 2007; Heron et al. 2010). Additional anthropogenic factors that are considered to influence disease event include nutrient enrichment from fertilizers (Bruno et al., 2003), sewage pollutio (Sutherland et al., 2011), fish farming (Garren et al., 2009), and increased macroalga abundance as a result of overfishing and disease outbreaks (Nugues et al., 2004). +Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS; Acanthaster planci) were not considered a majo problem until the last 40 years or so. Population outbreaks in the 1970s devastate large parts of the GBR and similar outbreaks were reported on other reefs of the Indo Pacific (COTS do not occur in the wider Caribbean). These outbreaks subsided and mos reefs recovered their previous coral cover. However, repeated damaging outbreaks hav occurred since, such that COTS are reported as the major destructive factors on reefs i French Polynesia (France) (Adjeroud et al., 2009; Kayal et al., 2012), Fiji, Japan, and part of the Red Sea (Wilkinson, 2008); and COTS contributed 42 per cent of the recen damage to the GBR, alongside storms (48 per cent) and climate change-related damag (10 per cent) (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 2014; De’ath et al., 2012). +Previous population outbreaks of COTS are reported from the Red Sea around Egypt, i Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, and in Southeast and East Asia, especially i China, Japan and the Philippines, and in the Pacific in Fiji, French Polynesia (France) Guam (United States) and Majuro Atoll (Marshall Islands). In the past, these plague caused massive losses (often in the vicinity of 90 per cent) of the living coral cove (Wilkinson, 2002). Similar outbreaks are reported of the coral-eating mollusc (Drupell cornus) on reefs in western Australia and southern China. After apparently abating, +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +major outbreaks have occurred simultaneously with mass coral bleaching in 2005 an 2006. +Four widely supported but not mutually exclusive theories to explain COTS outbreak are: (a) fluctuations in COTS populations are a natural phenomenon; (b) removal o natural predators (such as large molluscs and some fishes) of the COTS has allowe populations to expand; (c) human-induced increases in the nutrients flowing to the se have resulted in an increase in planktonic food for larvae of the COTS which leads to a increase in the number of adult starfish causing outbreaks (Fabricius et al., 2010); an (d) increased COTS larval survival as ocean temperatures increase (Uthicke et al., 2014). +2.4 Natural stresses (cyclones, tsunami) +Although many reefs lie outside the zone of frequent tropical cyclones and hurricane (approximately between 7°N and 7°S latitude), storms regularly damage coral reef outside this latitudinal zone (Figure 3). Storm damage is exacerbated by storm surge an both reduce the ability of coral reefs to return to their mean pre-disturbance state o condition by slowing coral recruitment, growth, and reducing fitness (Nystrém et al. 2000). The combination of tropical storms with other stressors has caused successiv and substantial losses of corals worldwide (Harmelin-Vivien, 1994; Done, 1992; Miller e al., 2002; Fabricius et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2008a). However, tropical storms als benefit reefs when the storms are sufficiently distant to not inflict damage, but clos enough to cool waters through enhanced wave-induced vertical mixing and to reduc bleaching risk (Szmant and Miller, 2005; Manzello et al., 2007; Carrigan and Puotinen 2014). A recent modelling study predicted that Caribbean coral reefs with intac herbivore fish and urchin populations would likely maintain their community structur and function under any expected level of tropical cyclone activity, as long as othe stressors, such as local pollution and thermal bleaching, are minimal (Edwards et al. 2010). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Tracks and Intensity of All Tropical Storms +So] Gs lL )1l2 1) 3) Eee ee +Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity Scale +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 3: These plots of tropical cyclones (and typhoons) over the past 100 years illustrate that damagin storms are rare within a band between 7° North and South of the Equator, such that a large proportion o the high biodiversity reefs in Indo-Pacific are rarely damaged by damaging storms (courtesy of NASA, USA 2008). There are predictions that under increasing climate change, the damaging strength of cyclones wil increase with more category 4 and 5 storms, but the number of storms may not change (Wilkinson an Souter, 2008). +2.5 Climate change effects and predictions +The most recent report of the IPCC (2014) stated that “Coral reefs are one of the mos vulnerable marine ecosystems (high confidence) and more than half of the world’s reef are under medium or high risk of degradation”. The effects of anthropogenic climat change on coral reefs include: (a) thermal stress causing coral bleaching; (b) stor damage to reefs; (c) sea-level rise; and (d) acidification causing reduced coral accretio and increased erosion. +2.5.1 Thermal stress and coral bleaching +Coral bleaching was a relatively unknown phenomenon until the early 1980s, when series of local bleaching events occurred principally in the eastern tropical Pacific an wider Caribbean regions, but was also noticed in the Indo-Pacific. Coral bleaching refers t the expulsion of symbiotic algae, the zooxanthellae, in response to stress. Corals can +© 2016 United Nation + +withstand mild to moderate bleaching but severe, prolonged or repeated bleaching ca lead to colony mortality. Corals’ physiological processes are optimized to the warmes temperatures they normally experience, so an increase of only 1 -2°C above the norma local seasonal maximum can induce bleaching (Fitt and Warner, 1995). Although mos coral species are susceptible to bleaching, thermal tolerance varies amongst taxa an along geographic gradients (Marshall and Baird, 2000; McClanahan et al., 2007). Bleachin is best predicted by using an index of accumulated thermal stress above a locall established threshold (Atwood et al., 1992; Eakin et al., 2009). Many heat-stressed and/o bleached corals subsequently die from coral diseases (reviewed in Burge et al., 2014). +The strong El Nifio - La Nifia events of 1998 brought a global focus on coral bleachin when approximately 16 per cent of the world’s coral reefs in almost all tropical ocea basins were massively damaged and lost most of their corals (Wilkinson, 2000). Risin temperatures have accelerated bleaching and mass mortality during the past 25 year (Brown, 1997a; Eakin et al., 2009), when coral bleaching was documented throughou various parts of the world (Eakin et al., 2009; Eakin et al., 2010; Wilkinson and Souter 2008; Williams and Bunkley-Williams, 1990). A global analysis of threats to coral reef shows that this widespread threat has significantly damaged most coral reefs aroun the world (Burke et al., 20114). +Although some recovery occurred in the Caribbean from the 1987 (Fitt et al., 1993) an the 1995 bleaching events, bleaching in 1998 and 2005 caused high coral mortality a many reefs with little evidence of recovery (Eakin et al., 2010; Goreau et al., 2000 Wilkinson and Souter, 2008). The subsequent strongest recovery was on reefs that wer highly protected from anthropogenic pressure. This led to recognition of the importanc of maintaining resilience in coral reef ecosystems (Nystrém et al., 2000; Hughes et al. 2007; Anthony et al., 2014). An example of reef resilience was observed on the remot Scott Reef off western Australia, when the reef was severely damaged during the 1997 98 El Nifio. However, the herbivore fish population grew rapidly to control alga overgrowth, allowing many new coral recruits to restore most of the lost coral cove after 12 years (Gilmour et al., 2013). Additionally, certain factors such as reef depth an structural complexity were shown to increase reef resilience after the 1998 bleaching i the Seychelles (Graham et al., 2015). +A comparison of the recent and accelerating thermal stress events with the slo recovery rate of most reefs (Baker et al., 2008), suggests the temperature increase ha exceeded the balance between event recurrence and recovery rate. It appears tha some coral species are less sensitive to short-term temperature anomalies than others although there are significant geographic variations (McClanahan et al, 2007) and som corals may have already adapted or acclimatised to warming (Guest et al., 2012), albei not quickly enough to prevent major losses (Logan et al., 2013). Some heritabl epigenetic adaptation to frequent heat stress may occur in some species of lagoona corals (Palumbi et al., 2014; Eakin, 2014). However, adaptation potential may be limite in species where larval survival has been shown to decline at high temperatures (Randal and Szmant, 2009a; 2009b). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Climate models are able to predict the potential consequences of future warming o corals, including the future frequency of thermal events exceeding the bleachin threshold for a given area (map 3.3 in Burke et al., 2011a). In the absence of adaptation there are predictions that many of the world’s coral reefs will experience annua bleaching by mid-century (Donner et al., 2005; Donner, 2009; Logan et al., 2013; va Hooidonk et al., 2013a). +2.5.2 Storm damage to reefs +One consequence of global climate change will be an increase in the frequency of mor damaging Category 4 and 5 tropical cyclones; however the number of tropical storms i not predicted to increase. Such intense Category 4 and 5 tropical cyclones (hurricanes will significantly damage coral reefs and the communities that depend upon them in th wider Caribbean, where evidence is already available (Salvat and Wilkinson, 2011) whereas in other regions, the evidence is less clear (IPCC, 2013). +Corals have withstood and recovered from tropical cyclones for millennia; a seriousl damaged reef will normally recover in 15 to 20 years, provided there are no othe disturbances during that period (Salvat and Wilkinson, 2011). However, in the last 10 years the combination of natural and anthropogenic stresses (bleaching, sedimentation eutrophication, ocean acidification) has reduced the ability of many coral reefs t recover from storm damage by slowing coral recruitment and growth, and reducin fitness (Nystrom et al., 2000). +2.5.3 Sea-level rise +If CO, emissions continue to increase at current rates (exceeding Representativ Concentration Pathways RCP 8.5), sea level is predicted to rise 0.5-1.0 m by 2100 (IPCC 2013), and the impacts on coral reefs will vary depending on local conditions. Coral may be able to colonise reef flats as sea levels rise, and oceanic reefs will not b adversely affected but may benefit from new space to grow upwards. Rates of ree growth at many sites kept up with rising sea levels after the last ice age (about 20 m yr’ Dullo, 2005, Montaggioni et al., 2005; and up to 40 mm yr* Camoin et al., 2012) bu reefs are now are accreting more slowly (Perry et al., 2013). However, reefs adjacent t coasts may be affected by increased wave action in lagoons, and flooding of pollute coastal plains will increase erosion of coastal sediments (Adey et al., 1977; Lighty et al. 1978), increase sediment transport (Hopley and Kinsey, 1988), and increase turbidit (Storlazzi et al., 2011). This will reduce the ability of corals and reefs to keep up wit rising sea level. Simultaneously, increasing ocean acidification will decrease coral ree accretion. Finally, as sea level rises, some coastal systems may undergo landwar retreat, and others will experience coastal squeeze as eroding shorelines approach hard immobile, structures. These may be either natural or man-made; the latter ar increasing by coastal hardening to protect human infrastructure. Coastal squeeze ma shrink habitats, affecting the survivability of a variety of organisms (Jackson an Mcllvenny, 2011). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +2.5.4 Ocean acidification +The first detailed prediction of the potential for increasing ocean acidification to damag coral reefs was made in 1992 at the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium (Buddemeie 1993). Experimental studies confirmed these predictions of damage to coral calcificatio in the 1990s (Gattuso et al., 1998; Gattuso et al., 1999). The IPCC (2014) repor determined that under medium- to high-emission scenarios (RCP4.5, 6.0 and 8.5), ocea acidification poses substantial risks to coral reefs through its effects on the physiology behaviour, and population dynamics of individual species from phytoplankton t animals (medium to high confidence, IPCC, 2014). Also the lowering of pH will favour th dissolution of the calcareous matrix of coral reefs. These effects will be additive o synergistic with damage from rising sea-surface temperatures. Further experiments wit increased concentrations of CO, in seawater have shown decreased calcification rate by corals and other calcium carbonate-secreting organisms (Barker and Elderfield, 2002 Doney et al., 2009; Riebesell et al., 2000; see also Chapter 7). A doubling of curren atmospheric CO, concentrations reduced calcification by 11 per cent to 37 per cent i many corals (Langdon et al., 2003; Marubini et al., 2003; Langdon and Atkinson, 2005) However, some corals show either limited or no response when provided with elevate nutrients (Holcomb et al., 2010; Chauvin et al., 2011). This suggests that nutrient enriched corals may use more dissolved inorganic carbon to maintain calcification rates. +Ocean acidification also reduces calcification and skeletal growth in post-settlement an juvenile corals (Albright et al., 2008; Albright et al., 2010; Cohen et al., 2009; Kurihara 2008; Suwa et al., 2010). Fertilization success during spawning and subsequen settlement of Acropora palmata were significantly reduced at increased CO, levels +(Albright et al., 2010); and larvae of Acropora digitifera showed reduced metabolis and suppressed metamorphosis (Nakamura et al., 2011). No effect was observed i Porites astreoides larvae (Albright et al., 2008). +Reefs found in naturally acidic waters are poorly cemented, unstable, and fragil (Manzello et al., 2008) and show rapid rates of bioerosion (Eakin, 1996; 2001; Glynn 1988; Reaka-Kudla et al., 1996). Similarly, in “natural experiments” where coral i reduced or absent around volcanic seeps of CO) near Papua New Guinea (Fabricius e al., 2011) and Italy (Rudofo-Metalpa et al., 2011), coral calcification is reduced an species composition changes along the pH gradient. Bioerosion by filamentous erodin algae (Tribollet et al., 2009) and boring sponges (Fang et al. 2013; Wisshak et al., 2012 are enhanced under acidified conditions. Other experiments show there may b declines in the growth of crustose coralline algae (Jokiel et al., 2008; Kuffner et al. 2007). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +3. Social and economic considerations. +Economic valuation of coral reefs is a relatively recent process (Cesar, 1996; Cesar et al. 2003) to demonstrate the importance of reef ecosystem services and encourage greate conservation efforts. However, there is a potential critical error in that high-value, short term economic gains that result from development activities can occur at the expens of longer-term benefits. Economic valuation provides more complete information o the economic consequences of decisions that lead to degradation and loss of natura resources, as well as the short- and long-term costs and benefits of environmenta protection. Many studies have assessed the value of ecosystem services provided b coral reefs, at local to global scales. The focus is predominantly on tourism and reef related fisheries; because these are widely studied and direct-use data are more readil available. It is more difficult to estimate indirect-use values, such as shorelin protection, and most difficult with controversial methods to estimate non-use values such as cultural, biodiversity and heritage values. The annual net global benefits fro coral reefs have been estimated at 29 billion dollars +(11.5 billion dollars tourism; 6.8 billion dollars fisheries; 10.7 billion dollars shorelin protection) (Burke et al., 2011a). This emphasizes that tourism and fisheries ar especially important as direct money earners for coral-reef communities and thei countries. But such an evaluation is for current values and does not take into account al future consequences of changes, such as cultural aspects, community livelihoods, an social and political stability in coral reef communities and their countries, which, i disrupted, will result in other cascading damage. A specific example is the reporte value of the GBR to the Australian economy. The total estimated value varies betwee 4.4 and 15.5 billion dollars, comprising 84 per cent for tourism, 4.6 per cent for othe recreational activities, 2.6 per cent for fisheries, and 1.5 per cent for scientific researc and management with employment estimated at 69,000 people (Deloitte, 2013; Stoeck et al. 2014)). +4. Management and conservation. +Calls for increased protection of the marine environment from many organizations an in conventions have specifically addressed the need to protect coral reefs. This include developing and facilitating the use of diverse approaches and tools, including th ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishmen of marine protected areas (MPAs) consistent with international law and based o scientific information, and the establishment of representative networks and time/are closures. Among the Aichi Biodiversity Targets adopted at the 10™ Meeting of th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2010 was Targe 10: “By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerabl ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +maintain their integrity and functioning”. The United Nations General Assembly ha supported these calls (amongst others) in “The Future We Want” (resolution 66/288 with specific mentions in paragraph 177 and subsequent paragraphs on SIDS. +According to the World Resources Institute, an estimated 2,679 MPAs that coincide wit coral reef areas exist worldwide, encompassing approximately 27 per cent of th world’s coral reefs (Burke et al., 2011a). Nevertheless global protection of coral reefs i considered by Burke et al. (2011a) to provide effective protection for only 6 per cent o coral reefs, due to shortcomings in planning, management and enforcement o regulations. The benefits of MPAs for achieving targets of conservation of coral ree areas, however, have been reported widely in the scientific literature, in particular whe extractive activities are not allowed, as in the no-take areas or marine reserve (Lubchenco et al., 2003; Halpern 2003). +The designs of MPAs range from small units to networks of no-take areas (NTMRs) an large scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs). The first major MPA was the Great Barrie Reef Marine Park in 1975 with 20,679 km’ of coral reefs. It now has established no-tak areas that protect 33.5 per cent of coral reefs (6,928 km’), to form a network of no-tak areas. +Since 2004, ten LSMPAs were established in the Pacific and Indian Oceans in area within national jurisdiction, and two-thirds of them were declared as marine reserve representing more than 80 per cent of the worldwide MPA coverage (Leenhardt et al. 2013; Table 3). +Table 3. Large Marine Protected Areas that have been established to include significant areas of cora reefs. +Name of Marine Protected Area Country Date | Area km Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument United States 2014 2,025,38 Le Parc Naturel de la Mer de Corail (Natural Park of the France 2014 1,291,00 Coral Sea) (New Caledonia) +Cook Islands Marine Park Cook Islands 2012 1,065,00 Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve Australia 2011 989,84 Kermadec Benthic Protection Area New Zealand 2007 620,50 Chagos Marine Protected Area United 2010 545,000 +Kingdom’ +* In its award of 18 March 2015 in the matter of the Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration (Mauritiu v. United Kingdom), the Arbitral Tribunal established under Annex VII to the United Nations Conventio on the Law of the Sea, found, inter alia, that, as a result of undertakings given by the United Kingdom i 1965 and repeated thereafter, Mauritius holds legally binding rights (i) to fish in the waters surroundin the Chagos Archipelago, (ii) to the eventual return of the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius when no longe needed for defence purposes, and (iii) to the preservation of the benefit of any minerals or oil discovere in or near the Chagos Archipelago pending its eventual return. The Tribunal held that in declaring the +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Phoenix Islands Protected Area Kiribati 2008 408,250 +Papahanaumokuakea (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands) United States 2006 362,100 +Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Australia 1975 344,400 +Those areas face major logistical and economic challenges of implementing, managin and monitoring (Leehardt et al., 2103). +Emslie et al. (2015) showed that expanding NTMR networks had clear benefits fo fishery target, but not non-target, species. During the study, a cyclone cause widespread degradation, but target species biomass was retained within NTMRs, wit greater recovery potential for adjacent areas. +MPAs, even with no-take management, cannot be assured of full protection to reefs Reefs inside MPAs may still be affected by pollution and sedimentation. In these cases catchment management has been shown to be effective in promoting reef recover (many examples in Wilkinson and Brodie, 2011). +Another mechanism targeted at conserving vulnerable species, including those on cora reefs, has been through the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Specie and Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), listing them in Appendices II and _ Il (http://www.cites.org/). +5. Integrated assessment of the status of the habitat. +Reefs in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean and along the East coast of Africa are the mos threatened, and this is correlated with high levels of human exploitation of, an dependence on, coral reef resources. In the wider Caribbean, live coral cover ha declined by 80 per cent between 1976 and 2001 (Gardner et al., 2003). Further decline following mass coral bleaching linked to climate change occurred in 2005 (Wilkinson an Souter, 2008; Eakin et al., 2010). According to Burke et al. (2011a), coral reefs aroun Australia were less degraded, although a year later De’ath et al. (2012) reported a los of 50 per cent of initial coral cover occurred over the 1985-2012 period on the GBR especially for the central and southern sections where more anthropogeni disturbances occur. In the Central Pacific, far from continents and with low huma pressure, reefs are much less threatened and are in better condition and more resilien to natural destructive effects (Salvat et al., 2008; Burke et al., 2011a; Chin et al., 2011) On a regional basis, and based mainly on material from Wilkinson (2008), the conditio of reefs is summarized as follows: +Marine Protected Area, the United Kingdom failed to give due regard to these rights and had breached it obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +5.1 Indian Ocean +During the first half of 1998, the most severe El Nifio event ever recorded resulted in th loss of more than 90 per cent of live coral cover throughout large parts of the India Ocean. Damage was particularly severe in the Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, Seychelle and Kenya. Prior to 1998, reefs adjacent to large human populations along the coast o East Africa, India and Sri Lanka had already suffered serious damage from excessive an destructive fishing, nutrient pollution, increased sediment input from land and direc development over the reefs, including coral mining. +Reefs on remote islands and in the Red Sea were generally in good health prior to 1998 Since 1998, coral recovery has been minimal in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, wit recovery often reversed by more bleaching. Throughout the Arabian Peninsula region massive coastal development and dredging to create oil industrial sites and residentia and tourist complexes has occurred. Many reefs in the Red Sea continue to be healthy although COTS (crown-of-thorns starfish) have caused damage, and expanding touris in the Northern Red Sea is accelerating some coral losses. +Along the coastline of Eastern Africa, a mix of reef recovery and reef degradation i observed as management efforts are directed at controlling the effects of rapidl growing populations and at involving local communities in coastal management. Al States are increasing their networks of marine protected areas and States are improvin management capacity and legislation. +Reefs of the southwestern islands in the Indian Ocean continue to recover afte devastation in 1998. Some reefs of the Seychelles and Comoros have regained abou half or more of their lost coral cover but recovery has been poor on reefs damaged b human activities. Recovery rates in the Seychelles varied, in part, due to factors tha have now been shown to increase reef resilience — depth and structural complexit (Graham et al., 2015). +The reef decline in South Asia continues, as large human populations further impac coral reefs, adding to the damage that occurred in 1998. Recovery has been observe in the reefs of the western Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, the Lakshadweep Island (India) and off northwest Sri Lanka, with seemingly locally extinct corals making majo recoveries, e.g., some reefs have gone from less than five per cent coral cover to 70 pe cent in 10 years. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami caused significant ree damage at some sites, but many are recovering. In Sri Lanka, bleaching was reported i 2010, fisheries continue to be the biggest chronic impact, and pollution has increase tremendously in the coastal waters of Colombo. Although fisheries management area have been declared, lack of enforcement is still hindering effectiveness. +5.2 Southeast and Northeast Asia +The reef areas of Southeast Asia contain the highest concentration of biodiversity an also the largest concentrations of human populations. Overfishing, increasing +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +sedimentation and urban and industrial pollution from rapid economic development ar accelerating reef degradation and more than 50 per cent of the region’s mangrove have been lost. +Coral reefs in Northeast Asia have shown an overall decline since 2004; most reefs ar coming under significant levels of human pressures, as well as bleaching and COT stress. In China, coastal development and overfishing has destroyed 80 per cent of cora cover over the past 30 years (Hughes et al., 2013). A few reefs with high coral cove remain, such as Dongsha Atoll between Taiwan Province of China and the mainland o China. Increased coral reef monitoring and research, including the establishment of regional database, is occurring in Japan; Hong Kong, China; Taiwan Province of China and Hainan Island (China), and the region is stimulating more awareness an cooperation by having held the Asia Pacific Coral Reef Symposium in 2006, 2010 an 2014. Awareness of the need for coral reef conservation is rising rapidly in mos countries. +5.3. Australia and Papua New Guinea +Australian reefs continue to be relatively stable due to several management measures Since 2004, no major bleaching events have occurred, although two significant cyclone have resulted in major damage to some reefs. Particular features are the effectiv partnerships between coral reef science and management. The future outlook for th GBR is regarded as poor, especially in the southern half of the area, wher anthropogenic stresses are strongest. Climate-change impacts are considered to be th greatest long-term threat to the whole GBR system (GBRMPA 2014). +In Papua New Guinea, capacity-building for reef management is being conducted vi large NGOs working with local communities. Papua New Guinea still has vast areas o healthy and biologically diverse coral reefs, but human pressures are increasing. +5.4 Wider Pacific +The coral reefs of the Pacific remain the most healthy and intact, compared to reef elsewhere. Many of these reefs grow on seamounts in deep oceans far removed fro land-sourced pollution. Moreover, the human populations are not concentrated as the are in Asia and the Caribbean. In the broader Micronesian region, reefs are recoverin well after major coral bleaching in 1998, when, coral mortality was as high as 90 pe cent on many reefs around Palau. The Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands Palau, Guam (United States) and Northern Mariana Islands (United States) seek t conserve 30 per cent of their marine resources by 2020 through the designation of mor protected areas (www.themicronesiachallenge.org/). +Climate-related coral bleaching continues to be the greatest threat to the reefs of th southwestern Pacific; human impacts, although growing, are not (yet) resulting in majo reef loss on large scales. The University of the South Pacific and the CRISP (Coral Reef +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Initiatives for the South Pacific) programme (www.crisponline.net) focused on buildin more capacity for monitoring and conservation, with the Locally Managed Marine Are network developed in Fiji leading the way in the establishment of community-manage MPAs. It is noted that periodically harvested reserves (modelled on the traditiona Qoliqoli or rahui system of management) have significantly higher target fish biomas than other fished areas. Outbreaks of COTS have re-appeared in Fiji, starting in th Mamanucas (2006-10), then moving to the Coral Coast and Beqa (2009-12). Currentl active outbreaks exist in Taveuni and the lower Lomai Viti Islands. Large reef areas o New Caledonia (France) have gained World Heritage listing in recognition of the larg extent and high biodiversity content of the reefs and adjacent ecosystems. +Climate change impacts, tropical cyclones and COTS have also caused major ree damage in the Southeast Pacific (Polynesia). The reefs have remained relatively stabl since the 1998 bleaching event, although COTS are still present in some sites, especiall in French Polynesia (France). Reef awareness and conservation activities have graduall increased. Many coral reefs surround uninhabited islands; climate-change bleaching an ocean acidification are at present the only major future threats. Thus, many Pacific reef are considered to be ideal targets for the creation of “reservoir” protected areas t conserve species threatened with over-exploitation or other human stresses. Kiribat has recognized this with the declaration of the Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) which is also a World Heritage site. +The United States Pacific islands are regarded as globally important reservoirs o virtually pristine coral reefs. Thus the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were declared t be the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument and in 2014 more islands wer included in the enormous Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Management is increasing around the main Hawaiian Islands, but overfishing an sediment pollution continue as major threats. The depletion of aquarium species i being addressed through the establishment of industry-recognised MPAs. +Warm water corals are limited to the northern region of New Zealand with the situatio in Kermadec Ridge being unique with warm- and cold-water corals present. The warm water (hermatypic) zooxanthellate stony corals are at or near their southernmost limi at shallow depths around the various Kermadec Islands, with Pocillopora and Tubinari genera prevalent. Of the 17 hermatypic species, 16 are found on the Australian Grea Barrier Reef; but these corals do not form coral reefs (Brook 1999). Ahermatypic coral without zooxanthellae occur in deeper waters along the ridge, including black gorgonian, scleractinian, and stylasterid corals. +5.5 The Wider Caribbean +These reefs suffered massive losses from coral diseases since the mid-1980s and mor recently during the major climate-related events of 2005, when all regions of the Wide Caribbean were affected by record coral bleaching and tropical cyclone (hurricane damage. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +Reefs of the United States Caribbean are the focus of increased scientific an conservation efforts and results are variable: some improvements but also major cora reef losses are observed. The reefs immediately adjacent to the Florida protected area (Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary) are showing minimal recovery, if any, a pollution and excessive tourism threats impede many years of management efforts More remote reefs, like the Tortugas and Flower Garden Banks, are healthier, bu Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are threatened by overfishing, pollutio from the land, and these threats are all compounded by coral bleaching and disease. +Reefs in the Northern Caribbean and Western Atlantic were also severely damaged i 2005 including those under strong conservation efforts. A wide disparity exists in th economic status of the States and territories in the region. Some wealthier territories such as Bermuda (United Kingdom) and the Cayman Islands (United Kingdom), ar applying considerable reef management programmes. Some encouraging signs of cora recovery after major losses in the 1980s and 1990s are found, especially aroun Jamaica, but unusually frequent and intense tropical cyclones are affecting ree recovery. A ban on using fish traps has been followed by significant increases in fis populations, accompanied by coral cover increases, especially in Bermuda (Unite Kingdom). +The 2005 coral bleaching event caused major damage in the Lesser Antilles, where cora cover was reduced by about 50 per cent on many reefs. Recovery has been slow or non existent in reefs under high human pressures. Algal cover has increased and cora diseases have been particularly prevalent since 2005. Most of these small island depend heavily on their coral reefs for tourism income and fisheries, and this awarenes is increasing calls for reef conservation, such as the Caribbean Challeng (http://www.caribbeanchallengeinitiative.org/), as well as local initiatives. Reefs of th Netherlands Antilles harbour some of the highest coral cover seen throughout the wide Caribbean. +Reef status along the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef and Central America has similarl declined, after a long series of losses that started in the 1980s. Bleaching and especiall tropical cyclones in 2005 caused considerable destruction around Cozumel (Mexico) The trend is for decreasing coral cover, averaging around 11 per cent since 2004, an some reefs have lost more than 50 per cent coral cover. Major programmes hav considerably raised capacity and improved management of MPAs, but sedimentatio and overfishing continue to impede reef recovery. While fisheries regulations like th 2009 ban on the take of parrotfish have helped, MPAs in Belize have not bee adequately managed, such that the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System was listed a World Heritage in Danger in 2014. +The main drivers of coral decline in the Southern Tropical Americas are pollution sedimentation and overfishing. Coastal reefs have been historically affected b sedimentation due to deforestation of the Atlantic forests (Macedo and Maida, 2011) Coral bleaching associated with the El Nifio phenomenon is affecting both coastal and +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +oceanic systems, in varying degrees of intensity (Ferreira et al., 2013; Kelmo and Attrill 2013). Coastal reefs in the region are particularly affected by pollution an sedimentation (Bruce et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2013). Overfishing of key large-bodie herbivorous fish is a worrying trend (Francini-Filho and Moura, 2008; Ferreira et al. 2012). An important threat to coral reefs in Brazil is the invasion and rapid spread of th sun coral Tubastraea coccinea and Tubastraea tagusensis (Silva et al., 2014). Disease were first recorded in 2005, and now represent an increasing threat (Francini-Filho e al., 2008). Comparison with reports from earlier surveys indicate dramatic declines i costal reefs during the last 50 years (Ferreira and Maida, 2006), with signs of stability i coral cover (Francini-Filho et al., 2013) or disturbance followed by recovery (Kelmo an Attrill, 2013) in the last two decades. Recent trends include the Brazilian Coral Ree National Action Plan and regulation of fisheries over reef fish species considered a threatened (MMA, 2014). +6. Gaps in scientific knowledge +One long-lasting difficulty with monitoring the state of marine ecosystems is the lack o long-standing databases. Although coral reefs have been monitored for decades withi countries in many parts of the world, in other regions monitoring is more recent, o interrupted, or collected with a wide range of methods that preclude standardization Coral reefs are iconic ecosystems and around the world national governments an voluntary organizations have been engaged in coral reef monitoring. The Internationa Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)* has specifically assisted many countries with assessment an monitoring of their coral reefs by supporting the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Other networks for monitoring, awareness and protection are also organized by NGOs the largest is Reef Check, operating in 90 countries since 1998 (www.reefcheck.org). +A study published by Wilson et al. (2010) canvassed the opinions of 33 experts t identify crucial knowledge gaps in current understanding of climate-change impacts o coral reef fishes. Out of 153 gaps reported by the experts, 42 per cent related to habita associations and community dynamics of fish, reflecting the established effects an immediate concerns pertinent to climate change-induced coral loss and habita degradation (i.e., how does coral mortality influence the capacity of a wide range of fis populations to persist?). +Existing maps of the spatial distribution of coral reefs largely are based on satellit images and aerial photographs. Submerged coral reefs (also known as mesophotic cora reefs) that occur below a water depth of around 30 m cannot easily be detected usin satellites or aerial photography, even in clear waters. Consequently, their spatial +2 The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (http://www.icriforum.org/gcrmn) is assisted by th International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), an informal partnership between 34 States and a range o organizations, governmental and non-governmental, that also establishes committees to deal with severa coral reef conservation- and management-related issues. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +distribution and even their existence are unknown in most reef provinces. For thi reason, deeper reefs have been underestimated in analyses of the available area o coral habitat and are not included in assessments for conservation measures, despit recent evidence that these areas may be significant (Locker et al., 2010; Bridge et al. 2013). A recent study suggests that the area of submerged reefs in the GBR may b equal to that of near-surface reefs (Harris et al., 2013). Understanding the extent o submerged reefs is therefore important, because they can support large and divers coral communities (Bridge et al., 2012) and hence may provide vital refugia for coral and associated species from a range of environmental disturbances (Riegl and Piller 2003; Bongaerts et al., 2010). +The scientific consensus is that threats associated with climate change (bleaching, ocea acidification, stronger storms etc.) pose the greatest threat to the medium- to long-ter existence of coral reefs around the world. What is unknown is whether reefs can an will respond to these threats with greater resilience. Reefs contain very high biodiversit and have progressed through major climate change events in the geological past; ho will they be able to respond in the next decades to rapid climate changes? There ar early indications that some corals can adapt to warmer temperatures and grow in mor acidic water, but it is predicted that many corals and other reef organisms do not hav that capacity. The adaptation potentials of coral reef organisms are areas for mor targeted research which will significantly increase our ability to reliably predict ho reefs will fare into the future. +7. Final remarks +There are strong economic, cultural, biodiversity and natural-heritage reasons t conserve tropical and sub-tropical coral reefs and to ensure that their goods an ecosystem services continue to be provided to user communities and the world at large There are three levels at which these pressures come together and emphasise th knowledge and capacity-building gaps in this field: +7.1 At the level of the local community +Coral reefs will not be able to continue to provide the goods and ecosystem services o which local communities have relied for generations, unless: +(i) The fishing techniques that are adopted are focused on maintaining sustainable fishery, and destructive fishing practices (such as dynamiting) cease; +(ii) Populations of breeding fish and invertebrates, including spawning aggregations are conserved; +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +(iii) The pollution of coastal waters by harmful substances (heavy metals an persistent organic pollutants) is prevented, and amounts of inputs of sediment an nutrients are kept at levels that do not damage the reefs (see chapter 20); +(iv) Any development in coastal areas is kept to levels and forms that are consisten with the continued health of the reefs. +Without the active involvement of the coastal communities that have the necessar knowledge and skills, there are likely to be serious difficulties in achieving these goals. +7.2 At the national level +In many of the countries that are the guardians of tropical and sub-tropical coral reefs there are significant gaps in the knowledge and skills needed for the relevant authoritie to play their part in sustaining the reefs. In particular, where marine protected area are an appropriate method of delivering some of the goals, there are gaps at bot national and local levels in capacities for the scientific identification of such areas, fo the development of management plans for them, and in enforcing the regulations tha may be required. +7.3. At regional and supra-regional levels +The conservation of specific local areas can frequently only be achieved as part of network of such areas, since the ocean is a dynamic ecosystem and biota are commonl mobile in their early life-stages. Given the interactions among many forms of huma activity in the ocean and between them and local ecosystems, management method that do not take account of those interactions will be ineffective in delivering sustainable future for tropical and sub-tropical reefs. Integrated management method on a large scale can only be achieved where there is a widespread social understandin and knowledge of the pressures (such as climate change, acidification, fisheries, seabe mining (see Van Dover et al., 2012; Boschen et al., 2013), pollution and coasta development), the scales on which they operate and their interactions. All this implie that, without efforts to promote understanding of the ocean and without cooperation a the appropriate national, regional and (in some cases) global level between the relevan regulatory authorities, the pressures described in this chapter will persistentl undermine the continued delivery by tropical and sub-tropical coral reefs of the good and ecosystem services on which local communities, countries and the world have bee relying. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + +References +Adjeroud, M., Michonneau, F., Edmunds, P.J., Chancerelle, Y., Lison de Loma, T. Penin, L., Thibaut, L., Vidal-Dupiol, J., Salvat, B., Galzin, R. (2009). 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(2014) Climat change as an unexpected co-factor promoting coral eating seastar (Acanthaste planci) outbreaks. Scientific Reports 5:8402, DOI: 10.1038/srep08402. +Van Ael, E., Covaci, A., Blust, R. and Bervoets, L. (2012). Persistent organic pollutants i the Scheldt estuary: environmental distribution and bioaccumulation Environmental International 48, 17-27. +van Dam, J.W., Negri, A.P., Mueller, J.F. and Uthicke, S. (2012). Symbiont-specifi responses in foraminifera to the herbicide diuron. Marine Pollution Bulletin 65 373-383. +Van Hooidonk R., Maynard J.A., Manzello D. and Planes S. (2013). Opposite latitudina gradients in projected ocean acidification and bleaching impacts on coral reefs Global Change Biology, 20(1): 103-112. doi: 10.1111/gcb.12394. +Vega Thurber, R.L., Burkepile, D.E., Fuchs, C., Shantz, A.A., McMinds, R., Zaneveld, J.R. (2014). Chronic nutrient enrichment increases prevalence and severity of cora disease and bleaching. 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Marin Geology 352, 248-267. +© 2016 United Nations +4 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_43.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_43.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_44.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_44.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5ea3a34bfcd34e5d0836e2551e14637ebe83ae19 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_44.txt @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +Chapter 44. Estuaries and Deltas +Contributors: Peter Harris (Convenor), José Muelbert, Pablo Muniz, Kedong Yin, Kawse Ahmed, Regina Folorunsho, Margarita Caso, Claudia Camara Vale, John Machiwa Beatrice Ferreira (Lead member), Patricio Bernal and Jake Rice (co-lead members an editors for Part VI Biodiversity) +1. Introduction. +Estuaries and deltas are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world (abou 60 per cent of the world's population live along estuaries and the coast) making the the most perturbed parts of the world ocean (Kennish, 2002; Small and Cohen, 2004) Of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located beside estuaries. They are adversel affected by invasive species, sedimentation (from soil erosion caused by deforestation overgrazing, and other poor farming practices), overfishing, drainage and filling o wetlands, eutrophication due to excessive nutrients from fertilizer, sewage and anima (including aquaculture) wastes, pollutants including heavy metals (see Chapter 20) polychlorinated biphenyls, radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs an diking or damming for flood control or water diversion. Estuaries and deltas provid protected harbours used as ports that are associated with introduced marine pests They are foci of human attention, attracting potentially incompatible uses by societ such as heavy industry, urbanization and recreation; they are affected by global sea level rise and climate change (Crossland et al., 2005). Estuaries and deltas “form major transition zone with steep gradients in energy and physicochemical properties a the interface between land and sea” (Jennerjahn and Mitchell, 2013). +More than 50 per cent of large river systems are affected by dams, based on a globa synthesis on river fragmentation and flow regulation (Nilsson et al., 2005), with obviou consequences for the estuaries and deltas at their coastal termini. The mean age of rive water at river mouths has increased from about two weeks to over one month on global scale and to more than one year in extreme cases (VOrdsmarty et al., 2003). Ove the last few centuries, the global annual sediment flux into the coastal zone ha increased by 2.3x10°tons due to human-induced soil erosion and decreased b 3.7x 10° tons due to retention in reservoirs, the net effect being a reduction o sediment input by 1.4x10°tons (Syvitski etal., 2005). A major environmenta consequence of river sediment starvation is erosion of the coast and attendant loss o habitat. +© 2016 United Nation + +2. Major threatening processes. +Processes affecting the health and condition of estuaries and deltas may be classifie into three broad categories that can interact: +(a) “Short-term” pressures associated with the near-term effects of huma expansion (e.g., coastal development, land-based inputs of nutrients, over-fishing aquaculture, and maritime operations); +(b) “Medium- to long-term” pressures associated with anthropogenic climat change (e.g., sea-level rise, increases in atmospheric heat and CO, fluxes into th oceans, a strengthening global hydrological cycle, and the increasing magnitude o tropical cyclones); and +(c) Extreme natural events. +A list of processes and impacts is given in Table 1 (see Chapter 44 Appendix, onlin only). +3. Social and economic considerations. +Estuaries are tourist attractions and provide a centrepiece for development (a harbou view). Estuaries and deltas provide natural harbours that are used for transport an industry as the ideal location of major port facilities. They have ecological importanc to a diverse biota, including economic importance to commercial and subsistenc fisheries. People value estuaries for recreation, scientific knowledge, education aesthetics, and traditional practices. Boating, fishing, swimming, surfing, and bir watching are just a few of the numerous recreational activities people enjoy in estuarie and deltas. Their unique habitats make them valuable laboratories for scientists an students. Considering the sum of human activities that depend upon the existence o estuaries and deltas and their ecosystem services (e.g., Barbier et al., 2011), their tota economic value to society is vast (Costanza et al., 1997; Costanza et al., 2014). Costanz et al. (1997) estimated their value at approximately 4.1 trillion United States dollar (equal to 6.1 trillion dollars in 2014 dollars). +Some indications of the social and economic value of functioning estuarine and deltai ecosystems can be found from examples where human activities have impaired suc functions. Economic losses due to anthropogenic changes in river discharge are on example. The down-stream consequences of dam-building are often not full considered when the decision is taken to build a dam on a river system. The economi losses from reduced fisheries landings, due to the reduction in nutrients entering th Indian Ocean at the Sofala Bank fishery (Arthurton, 2002), following alteration to th Zambezi River freshwater flows, has been estimated at between 10 and 20 millio dollars (Turpie, 2006). In an extreme case, the Colorado River, prior to the completion +© 2016 United Nation + +of the Hoover Dam in 1935, delivered a combination of nutrient-rich water and silt t the historic Delta, comprised over 2.5 million acres of wetlands, habitat for an estimate 400 species of plants and wildlife and home to some 20,000 Cocopah Indians (Glenn e al., 2001). All of the freshwater discharge was impounded behind dams by 1963; th wetlands dried up, affecting many dependent species. In 2014, an experimental releas of 130 million m? of water allowed the restoration of the Colorado Delta to begin although it will take many years to restore even part of the original wetland area (Witze 2014). +Some of the first and most severe impacts of climate change will come through greate storm surges caused by a combination of higher sea levels and stronger storms in som areas. In the absence of storm surge, a 20-80 cm rise in mean sea level will place 7 — 30 million additional people at risk of being flooded each year (Geneva Reports, 2009, No 2, 138 pp. www.genevaassociation.org). Increases in storm surge will increase thes numbers substantially. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Developmen (OECD) estimates that, in the absence of adaptation, the population in 136 major por cities exposed to storm surges could increase from 40 million in 2005 to ~150 million i the 2070s, with exposed assets rising from 3,000 billion dollars to 35,000 billion dollar (Nicholls et al., 2008). By 2050, sea-level rise in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta coul directly affect more than three million people and Bangladesh could lose nearly one quarter of the land area it had in 1989 by the end of this century, in a worst-cas scenario (Ericson et al., 2005). As a proportion of GDP, economic losses from floodin are much higher for developing countries than for developed countries (Ramcharan 2007). Financial losses from weather events are currently doubling every 12 years at a annual rate of 6 per cent (UNEP, 2006). In the Sacramento Delta in San Francisco Bay California, United States, global sea-level rise places about 500,000 acres of agricultura lands in the inner Delta at significant risk of flooding in the first half of the 21* century Total losses for the wider area—including multiplier effects—could reach 1,800 jobs pe year, 130 million dollars in value added, and nearly 14 million dollars in state and loca tax receipts (Medellin-Azuara et al., 2012). These examples provide some context fo the potential impacts of water abstraction and global warming and sea-level rise o ecosystem services upon which estuarine- and deltaic-based societies and economie depend. +4. Management and conservation. +Healthy estuaries and deltas maintain water quality that benefits both people an marine life. They provide a natural buffer between the land and ocean, absorbin floodwaters and storm surges. Estuaries and deltas help maintain biodiversity b providing a diverse range of unique habitats, including mangrove forests, salt marshes mud flats and seagrass beds, which are critical for the survival of many species. Man species of commercially important fish and shellfish use estuarine and deltaic habitats +© 2016 United Nation + +as nurseries to spawn and allow juveniles to grow. Maintaining such ecosystem service is commonly declared as a management goal and is the focus of conservation efforts. +In considering the management of estuaries and deltas, the question of the number o estuaries and deltas on earth arises, given that an inventory of any asset is prerequisite to its management. The number of estuaries and deltas, in turn, i dependent upon scale and definition of what constitutes an estuary or delta. In thei estimate of river sediment discharge based on a 30 minute (55.56 km) grid, Syvitski et al (2005) identified 4,464 river basins > 100 km? in area that are not covered by ice sheet of the Antarctica, Greenland and portions of the Canadian Archipelago and have positive discharge to the ocean/sea. Given that every estuary or delta is associated wit a river that discharges into the ocean/sea, and noting this size limit on catchment area therefore about 4,464 estuaries and deltas are found on earth. +A search on the IUCN Protected Areas database (http://protectedplanet.net) fo “estuaries” yielded 275 results, of which 156 are in Europe (including 107 in the U alone), 79 are in the Americas (including 53 in the USA), 19 are in Oceania, 11 in Asi and 10 in Africa. A similar search conducted for “deltas” found 210 results, of which 12 are in Europe (including 35 in Greece), 51 are in the Americas, 17 in Asia, 12 in Afric and three in Oceania. In terms of level of protection, only five out of 275 estuaries an 12 out of 210 deltas are in IUCN category la (Strict Nature Reserve) or Ib (Wildernes Area), with over 50 per cent in categories IV (Habitat/Species Management Area) and (Protected Landscape/ Seascape). However, these figures may not capture all estuarie or deltas under protection since in the exact word “estuary” or “delta” must b contained in the place name for the search to recognize the location as containing a estuary or delta; so a place that is named as a “bay” or other term would not b counted. Furthermore, the protection of the marine habitat may not be effective if th catchment itself is not well managed. Nevertheless, the figures give some broa indication of the level of protection afforded to estuaries and deltas on earth. +5. Integrated assessment of the status of the habitat. +In order to produce a global, integrated assessment of estuary and delta condition, literature search was carried out for papers and reports that have provided a assessment on estuarine and coastal habitats. Studies that reported on the condition o individual estuaries or groups of estuaries within a broad area were included. Wher possible, the results given in the reports were converted into a report card score on scale of 1 to 4 (Very Good, Good, Poor, Very Poor) and the date of assessment recorde (the criteria used to identify the condition category are given in Appendix, online only) In addition, a trend for overall condition was extracted (declining, stable or improving and the timeframe over which the trend was observed was recorded. The raw data ar recorded in a table (Appendix, online only). +© 2016 United Nation + +Based on published assessments for 103 areas, the global condition of estuaries an deltas (Figure 1) is Poor overall (mean score of 2.07 out of 4). The publishe assessments gave a Very Poor rating in 31 areas, a Poor rating in 32 areas, Good in 3 areas and a Very Good rating in only eight areas (Table 2 in Appendix, online only) These results are biased by the fact that many studies are carried out in affected area and hence the scores are skewed (i.e., the overall “Poor” rating is influenced by th many studies that are conducted on affected systems). On the other hand, many of th available assessments are based on only a few measured variables (typically related t water quality or fisheries) and they do not give an overall (integrated) picture of th health and condition of estuarine ecosystems. This factor can influence the outcome o a non-integrated assessment for systems in which the impact is not measured by th parameters used. +@ Very Goo @ Goo © Poor +@ Very Poo ” Improvin » Declinin — Stable +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Estuarine and deltaic condition assessments based on reports for 100 regions (listed i Appendix). +For example, one of the six Very Good ratings (Table 2 in Appendix) was assigned b UKTAG (2008) for Estuaries and Lochs in Scotland based on the winter mean of dissolve inorganic nitrogen over a six-year period (2001-2006). However, the ecology of at leas one of these Scottish lochs (the Firth of Clyde) has been described by Thurstan an Roberts (2010) as “a marine ecosystem nearing the endpoint of overfishing, a tim when no species remain that are capable of sustaining commercial catches”. Hence whereas the water quality in this estuary may be rated as very good, the ecosystem ha been significantly affected by over-fishing to the extent that an integrated assessmen would likely give a rating of Very Poor for this estuary. Such cases serve to elevate th global score of “Poor” such that it is unrealistically positive. +© 2016 United Nation + +Seventy-five studies reported a trend in terms of improving, stable or declinin condition (Table 2 in Appendix). Out of those 75 studies, 46 (62 per cent) reported tha conditions are declining, 19 (24 per cent) reported conditions were stable and ten (1 per cent) reported an improvement. On no continent does the number of estuarie showing an improving condition exceed the number of assessments of declinin condition. Europe has the greatest number of studies that reported improvin conditions (five), but only one area was reported to be in a “very good” condition Africa, Australia and the South Pacific had no studies where conditions were improving Asia (Japan) Australia and Africa each had one area where the condition was assessed a very good and stable. +6. Gaps in scientific knowledge +Out of the 101 areas assessed, only some are the subject of integrated assessments tha include multiple aspects of estuarine environment, including habitats, catchmen management, species, ecological processes, physical and chemical processes an socioeconomic aspects. Very few (about 10) areas had assessments that included al aspects of estuarine environments, to provide “fully integrated” assessments. There ar 41 areas where assessments included at least three different aspects, producin partially integrated assessments. Another 25 areas had assessments concerned onl with some aspect of estuarine water or sediment quality. Thus a critical gap in scientifi knowledge is the availability of fully integrated environmental assessments for estuarie and deltas. +Out of the many possible aspects of the environment that could be assessed, wate quality and biological aspects are most common, whereas socioeconomic aspects ar assessed the least often, which is thus a knowledge gap. One other aspect of conditio assessment is the trend (improving, stable or declining) that was assessed in 74 out o 103 areas. The assessment of trends is a critical piece of information for decision makers, but which is missing in about 26 per cent of assessments. Furthermore, th time interval over which the trend is measured varies between studies, from one year t other arbitrary periods of human impact (as much as a century or longer). Thus th comparison of trends is confounded by differences in the time spans they relate to international agreement on standards for reporting condition trends is needed t overcome this problem. +© 2016 United Nation + +References +Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C. and Silliman, B.R. (2011) The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monograph 81, 169-193.Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M. Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G. Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem service and natural capital. Nature 387, 253-260. +Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S., Kubiszewski, I. Farber, S. and Turner, R. (2014). Changes in the global value of ecosyste services. Global Environmental Change 26: 152-158. +Crossland, C., Baird, D., Ducrotoy, J.-P., Lindeboom, H., Buddemeier, R., Dennison, W. Maxwell, B., Smith, S. and Swaney, D. (2005). The Coastal Zone - A Domain o Global Interactions, in: Crossland, C., Kremer, H., Lindeboom, H., Marshal Crossland, J., Le Tissier, M.A. (Eds.), Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene. Springer Berlin, pp. 1-37. +Ericson, J.P., Vorosmarty, C.J., Dingman, S.L., Ward, L.G. and Meybeck, M. (2005) Effective sea-level rise and deltas: Causes of change and human dimensio implications. Global Planetary Change 50, 63-82. +Glenn, E.P., Zamora-Arroyo, F., Nagler, P.L., Briggs, M., Shaw, W. and Flessa, K. (2001) Ecology and conservation biology of the Colorado River Delta, Mexico. Journal o Arid Environments 49, 5-15. +Jennerjahn, T.C. and Mitchell, S.B. (2013). Pressures, stresses, shocks and trends i estuarine ecosystems: an introduction and synthesis. Estuarine, Coastal an Shelf Science 130, 1-8. +Kennish, M.J. (2002). Environmental threats and environmental future of estuaries Environmental Conservation 29, 78-107. +Medellin-Azuara, J., Hanak, E., Howitt, R. and Lund, J. (2012). Transitions for the Delt Economy. Public Policy Institute of California, San Francisco http://www. ppic.org/content/pubs/report/R_112EHR.pdf +Nicholls, R.J., Hanson, S., Herweijer, C., Patmore, N., Hallegatte, S., Corfee-Morlot, J. Chateau, J. and Muir-Wood, R. (2008). Ranking Port Cities with High Exposur and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes. OECD Publishing, OECD Environmen Working Papers, 1. +Nicholls, R.J., Wong, P.P., Burkett, V.R., Codignotto, J.O., Hay, J.E., McLean, R.F. Ragoonaden, S. and Woodroffe, C.D. (2007). Coastal systems and low-lying areas Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution o Working Group II, in: Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden P.J., Hanson, C.E. (Eds.). Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental +© 2016 United Nation + +Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 315 356. +Nilin, J., Moreira, L.B., Aguiar, J.E., Marins, R., Moledo de Souza Abessa, D. Monteiro da Cruz Lotufo, T. and Costa-Lotufo, L.c.V. (2013). Sediment qualit assessment in a tropical estuary: The case of Ceara River, Northeastern Brazil Marine Environmental Research 91, 89-96. +Nova Scotia, (2009). Coastal Water Quality: The 2009 State Of Nova Scotia’s Coas Report. http://www.novascotia.ca/coast/documents/state-of-the coast/WEB_CWQ. pdf +Ramcharan, R. (2007). Does the exchange rate regime matter for real shocks? Evidenc from windstorms and earthquakes. Journal of International Economics 73, 31-47. +Ramesh, R., Purvaja, R., Lakshmi, A., Newton, A., Kremer, H.H., Weichselgartner, J (2009). South Asia Basins: LOICZ Global Change Assessment and Synthesis o River Catchment: Coastal Sea Interaction and Human Dimensions, Land-Ocea Interactions in the Coastal Zone, |GBP/IHDP Core Project, LOICZ Research Studies No. 32. GKSS Research Center, Geesthacht, p. 121. +Richardson, C.J., Hussain, N.A. (2006). Restoring the Garden of Eden: An Ecologica Assessment of the Marshes of Iraq. Bioscience 56, 477-489. +San Francisco Estuary Partnership (2011). The State of San Francisco Bay 201 http://www. bay.org/assets/The%20State%200f%20San%20Francisco%20Bay,% 02011.pdf +Seitzinger, S.P., Kroeze, C., Bouwman, A.F., Caraco, N., Dentener, F., Styles, R.V. (2002) Global patterns of dissolved inorganic and particulate nitrogen inputs to coasta systems: Recent conditions and future projections. Estuaries 25, 640-655. +Sigmon, C.L.T., Caton, L., Coffeen, G. and Miller, S. (2006). Coastal Environmenta Monitoring and Assessment Program. The Condition of Oregon’s Estuaries i 1999, a Statistical Summary. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality Laboratory Division, p. 131. +Simboura, N. and Zenetos, A., Pancucci-Papadopoulou, M.A. (2014). Benthic communit indicators over a long period of monitoring (2000 - 2012) of the Saronikos Gulf Greece, Eastern Mediterranean. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 1 13. +Small, C. and Cohen, J.E. (2004). Continental Physiography, Climate, and the Globa Distribution of Human Population1. Current Anthropology 45 (2). +SOA (2010). Bulletin of Marine Environmental Status of China for the year of 2010, Stat Oceanic Administration of the People’s Republic of China, web site http://www.soa.gov.cn/zwgk/hygb/zghyhjzlgb/201211/t20121107_5527.html +© 2016 United Nation + +Syvitski, J.P.M., Vordsmarty, C.J., Kettner, A.J. and Green, P. (2005). Impact of human on the flux of terrestrial sediment to the global coastal ocean. Science 308, 376 380. +Thurstan, R.H. and Roberts, C.M. (2010). Ecological Meltdown in the Firth of Clyde Scotland: Two Centuries of Change in a Coastal Marine Ecosystem. PLoS ONE 5 e11767. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011767 +Toyama Prefecture, (2009). Status of water pollution, FY2007 (in Japanese) http://www.pref.toyama.jp/cms_sec/1706/kj00007252-006-01.html +Toyama Prefecture, (2014). Status of water pollution, FY2012 (in Japanese) http://www.pref.toyama.jp/cms_sec/1706/kj00007252-011-01.html +Turpie, J.K. (2004). South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004 Technical Report. Volume 3: Estuary Component. Pretoria: South African Nationa Biodiversity Institute http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/pssa/articles/includes/NSBA%20V0l%203%20Estuar %20Component%20Draft%200ct%2004.pdf +UKTAG, (2008). UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water Framework Directive, U Environmental Standards and Conditions (Phase 2). UK Water Framewor Directive, p. 84. +UNEP, (2006). UNEP Finance Initiative — “Adaptation and vulnerability to climate change the role of the finance sector” CEO Briefing. UNEP, Geneva. +UNEP, (2011). Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland. UNEP Report Job No. DEP/1337/GE, DJ Environmental, UK. +V6rdsmarty, C.J., Meybeck, M., Fekete, B.Z., Sharma, K., Green, P. and Syvitski, J.P.M (2003). Anthropogenic sediment retention: major global impact from registere river impoundments. Global and Planetary Change 39, 169-190. +Witze, A. (2014). Water returns to arid Colorado River delta. Nature 507, 286-287. +© 2016 United Nation + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_44.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_44.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_45.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_45.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..83480b07285e37e752d5e09010abba4c34dfc0a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_45.txt @@ -0,0 +1,237 @@ +Chapter 45. Hydrothermal Vents and Cold Seeps +Contributors: Nadine Le Bris (Convenor), Sophie Arnaud-Haond, Stace Beaulieu Erik Cordes, Ana Hilario, Alex Rogers, Saskia van de Gaever (lead member) Hiromi Watanabe +Commentators: Francoise Gaill, Wonchoel Lee, Ricardo Serrao-Santos +The chapter contains some material (identified by a footnote) originally prepared fo Chapter 36F (Open Ocean Deep Sea). The contributors to that chapter wer Jeroen Ingels, Malcolm R. Clark, Michael Vecchione, Jose Angel A. Perez, Lisa A. Levin Imants G. Priede, Tracey Sutton, Ashley A. Rowden, Craig R. Smith, Moriaki Yasuhara Andrew K. Sweetman, Thomas Soltwedel, Ricardo Santos Bhavani E. Narayanaswamy, Henry A. Ruhl, Katsunori Fujikura, Linda Amaral Zettler Daniel O B Jones, Andrew R. Gates, and Paul Snelgrove. +1. Inventory +Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps constitute energy hotspots on the seafloor tha sustain some of the most unusual ecosystems on Earth. Occurring in divers geological settings, these environments share high concentrations of reduce chemicals (e.g., methane, sulphide, hydrogen, iron II) that drive primary productio by chemosynthetic microbes (Orcutt et al. 2011). Their biota are characterized by high level of endemism with common specific lineages at the family, genus and eve species level, as well as the prevalence of symbioses between invertebrates an bacteria (Dubilier et al., 2008; Kiel, 2009). +Hydrothermal vents are located at mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs and back-ar spreading centres or on volcanic hotspots (e.g., Hawaiian archipelago), wher magmatic heat sources drive the hydrothermal circulation. Venting systems can als be located well away from spreading centres, where they are driven by exothermic mineral-fluid reactions (Kelley, 2005) or remanent lithospheric heat (Wheat et al. 2004). Of the 521 vent fields known (as of 2009), 245 are visually confirmed, th other being inferred active by other cues such as tracer anomalies (e.g. temperature particles, dissolved manganese or methane) in the water column (Beaulieu et al. 2013) (Figure 1). +Sediment-hosted seeps occur at both passive continental margins and subductio zones, where they are often supported by subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs. Th migration of hydrocarbon-rich seep fluids is driven by a _ variety o geophysical processes, such as plate subduction, salt diapirism, gravity compressio or the dissociation of methane hydrates. The systematic survey of continenta margins has revealed an increasing number of cold seeps worldwide (Foucher et al. 2009; Talukder, 2012). However, no recent global inventory of cold seeps is available. +© 2016 United Nation + +Both vent and seep ecosystems are made up of a mosaic of habitats covering wid ranges of potential physico-chemical constraints for organisms (e.g., in temperature salinity, pH, and oxygen, CO2, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and other inorgani volatiles, hydrocarbon and metal contents) (Fisher et al., 2007; Levin and Sibuet 2012; Takai and Nakamura, 2010). Some regions (e.g., Mariana Arc or Costa Ric margin) host both types of ecosystems, forming a continuum of habitats tha supports species with affinities for vents or seeps (Watanabe et al., 2010; Levin et al. 2012). Habitats indirectly related to hydrothermal venting include inactive sulphid deposits and hydrothermal sediments (German and Von Damm, 2004). Similarly cold-water corals growing on the carbonate precipitated from the microbia oxidation of methane are among the seep-related habitats, although they typicall occur long after seepage activity has ceased (Cordes et al., 2008; Wheeler an Stadnitskaya, 2011). +0 30% GOE 90" 120 _150°E _180"_150°;W_120'W 90'W _60'W_30;W_ InterRidge Vents Database Ver. 2.1 +LEGEN Vent field activity +re symbols +rien deme +Corhemes +Tectonic settin 0 Meccean i LD. dewscano +Racear Oren come +o mer Semmes +— Ridge & Transform +—- Trench +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Global map from InterRidge database (http://vents-data.interridge.org/maps) displayin visually confirmed and inferred hydrothermal vents fields. Credits: Beaulieu, S., Joyce, K., Cook, J. an Soule, S.A. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (2015); funding from Woods Hole Oceanographi Institution, U.S. National Science Foundation #1202977, and InterRidge. Data sources: InterRidg Vents Database, Version 2.1, release date 8 November 2011; University of Texas PLATES Project plat boundary shapefiles. +2. Features of trends in extent or quality +Chemosynthetic ecosystems in the deep sea were first discovered 40 years ago usin towed camera systems and manned submersibles; hydrothermal vents in 1977 fo diffuse vents on the Galapagos Spreading Center (Corliss et al. 1979), and in 1979 fo black smokers on the East Pacific Rise (Spiess et al., 1980), and cold seeps at the base +© 2016 United Nation + +of the Florida escarpment in the Gulf of Mexico in 1984 (Paull et al., 1984) Compared to other deep-sea settings, the exploration of vent and seep habitats i thus recent (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). In the last decade, high-resolution seafloo mapping technologies using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and autonomou underwater vehicles (AUVs) have yet enhanced the capacity to explore the dee seabed. +Since the last global compilation (Baker and German, 2004), the known number o active hydrothermal vent fields has almost doubled, with an increasing proportion o new discoveries being in arc and back-arc settings, as a result of increasin exploration efforts (Beaulieu et al., 2013). These exploration efforts hav emphasized the highly heterogeneous and patchy distribution of habitats associate with diffuse and focused-flow vents, hosting diverse microbial and fauna communities. +A large spatial and temporal variability of vent fluid temperature and chemica properties over mid-ocean ridges and arc and back-arc settings has been described in relation to different geological substrate, hydrothermal activity, volcanic o tectonic instability (e.g. eruptions) (German and Von Damm, 2004; Charlou et al. 2010). This variability generates strong environmental constraints o chemosynthetic primary producers (Amend et al., 2011; Le Bris and Duperron, 2010 Takai and Nakamura, 2010) and dominant fauna including vent-endemic species o tubeworms, mussels, gastropods, clams, shrimp or crabs (Desbruyéres et al., 2001 Fisher et al., 2007; Watanabe et al., 2010). +Common features are shared among vent and seep ecosystems. At seeps, microbia consortia oxidizing methane and their end-product (e.g., sulphide) sustain abundan microbial populations exhibiting diverse metabolic pathways. These microbe produce large amounts of organic matter, fuelling high invertebrate biomass. Man forms of symbiosis between chemosynthetic bacteria and host-invertebrates hav adapted specifically to the energy-rich environmental conditions of vent and see environments (Dubilier et al., 2008). +Within methane seeps and other types of seeps, different seepage intensities creat distinct habitats dominated by chemosynthetic bacterial mats, and endemic an non-endemic species of tubeworms, mussels, gastropods, clams, shrimp or crabs and supporting numerous associated invertebrate species. Faunal biodiversity i generally low within each seep habitat (Levin, 2005) but the vast array o geomorphic and biogenic habitats, each with highly adapted species, contribute significantly to beta diversity in the deep-sea (Cordes et al., 2010). Extensive trophi niche partitioning of microbes by heterotrophs also contributes to biodiversity a seeps (Levin et al., 2013). Methane seep sediments share many species wit surrounding margin sediments (Levin et al., 2010), and numerous families an genera with hydrothermal vents and organic falls (Bernardino et al., 2012 )*. +* Text originally prepared for Chapter 36F (Open Ocean Deep Sea) +© 2016 United Nation + +Despite recent global efforts, biological inventories are still largely incomplete. A the end of the Census of Marine Life programme (CoML, Crist et al., 2010), th ChEssBase dedicated to chemosynthetic ecosystems reported 700 hydrotherma vent species and 600 species from cold seeps (Ramirez-Llodra and Blanco, 2005 German et al., 2011). Around 200 new species were reported between 2002-201 (i.e., 25 species/year), most of them belonging to mega and macrofauna. Muc remains to be described, particularly in the meiofauna. Currently, vent faun constitute between 7 and 11 biogeographic provinces, including new discoveries i the Arctic and Southern Oceans (Bachraty et al., 2009; Moalic et al., 2012; Rogers e al., 2012). Each newly identified vent or seep contains a diversity of unidentifie species and these biogeographic patterns should be considered as preliminar (German et al., 2011). Furthermore, new types of chemosynthetic ecosystems ar still being discovered, such as serpentinite-hosted ecosystems found on continenta margins, ridges and trenches (Ohara et al., 2012; Kelley, 2005). +Few vent and seep areas have repeated observations over more than ten years fro which temporal trends can be described (Glover et al., 2010). Recolonization o habitats impacted by volcanic eruptions was repeatedly documented on the 9°50’ vent field of the fast-spreading East Pacific Rise (Shank et al., 1998) and ove different locations of the intermediate-spreading Juan de Fuca Ridge (Tunnicliffe e al., 1997). The resilience capacity of vent communities, however, cannot b generalized from the re-establishment of microbial communities and few dominan fauna species adapted to these highly unstable systems. Even on those areas persistent effects on larvae patterns have been documented over years after a eruption suggesting long-lasting impacts on community recovery (Mills et al., 2013) Volcanic activity is furthermore much less frequent at slow or ultra-slow spreadin ridges (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge), resulting in a much lower frequency of natura perturbations, and in the absence of knowledge about the potential response o their specific communities to major disturbance. Succession at cold seeps, includin later stages of deep-water coral colonization, may proceed over centuries t millennia with slow-growing and long-lived species that should be considere particularly vulnerable to disturbance (Cordes et al., 2009). +Life histories of key species and their links with resource and habitat variability hav just started to be described (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010). Important biodiversit components supporting ecosystem functions also remain under-studied. I particular, a much lower number of studies dealt with meiofaunal organisms ( 1mm) from vent and seep sites than with macrofauna (Vanreusel et al., 2010) Following the massive molecular inventories allowed by New Generation Sequencing we are just now getting glimpses into the diversity of microbes in both vent and see environments. That diversity appears higher by orders of magnitude than thos hitherto revealed with classical sequencing and cloning tools. Insufficient knowledg of the drivers of ecosystem and community dynamics at vent and seeps make anticipating any trends in their ecological status problematic or even elusive in context of multiple pressures. +© 2016 United Nation + +3. Major pressures linked to the trends +The deep sea is being seen as a new frontier for hydrocarbon and mineral resourc extraction, as a response to increasing demand for raw materials for emerging high technology industries and worldwide urbanization. As a consequence, vent and see ecosystems, so far preserved from direct impacts of human activities, are confronte with increasing pressures (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011; Santos et al., 2012). +Offshore oil extraction increasingly occurs in waters as deep as 3000 m an exploration for oil and gas now predominantly occurs in deep water (> 450m) o ultra-deep water (> 1500m depth), where typical seep ecosystems are found Seafloor installations can directly affect cold seep communities in their impact area if visual surveys and Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are not complete prior to drilling. In addition, an increasing threat exists of large-scale impacts fro accidental spills, such as the 2010 Deepwater Horizon blowout in the Gulf of Mexico which was the largest accidental release of oil into the ocean in human histor (McNutt et al., 2012) with a significant impact on surrounding deep-seabed habitat (Montagna et al., 2013; Fisher et al., 2014). +Further pressures on cold seep communities may arise from the combined effects o increasing demand for energy and technological progress in the exploitation of ne types of energy resources. This type of development is shown by th world’s first marine methane hydrate production test in the Nankai Trough in 2013 Sequestration of CO, in deep-sea sedimentary disposal sites and igneous rock (Goldberg et al., 2008) should also be considered a potential threat specific to thes communities (IPCC, 2005). +The increased demand for metals is promoting deep-sea mineral resourc exploration both within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and in the Area (as define in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea), raising the issue o potential impacts on vent ecosystems (Van Dover, 2012). In 2011, the granting of mining lease to exploit sulphide minerals for gold, copper and zinc in the EEZ o Papua New Guinea will shortly turn the deep-sea mining industry into a reality Additionally, in the last five years, the International Seabed Authority has grante two new exploration permits for polymetallic sulphide deposits and two others ar about to be signed for sites on the Atlantic and Indian mid-ocean ridge (http://www.isa.org.jm/en/scientific/exploration/contractors). +Significant threats are anticipated on the largely unknown communities associate with active hydrothermal deposits and the typical vent communities that can occu in close proximity to these areas (ISA, 2011). Inactive areas, which no longer had an detectable fluid venting with temperature anomaly as defined in the InterRidg Vents Database, have been mostly described so far in the vicinity of active areas wit typical vent communities. These active areas where venting fluid is warmer tha ambient, are inclusive of low-temperature diffuse flow and will require systemati exploration surveys and dedicated impact studies. Communities from inactive area furthermore still need to be described. It is, for example, unclear whether the encompass species assemblages closely related to deep seabed areas out of an hydrothermal influence, or whether they host specific fauna adapted to the local +© 2016 United Nation + +metal-rich substrate or to the proximity of highly productive chemosyntheti ecosystem at local to regional scale. Furthermore, despite the absence of hig temperature associated with black smokers, some of these inferred ‘inactive’ area may display diffuse flow vents, that are much more difficult to detect from wate column surveys. +Indirect pressures on vent and seep ecosystems resulting from global anthropogeni forcing, including pollution and climate change, are not well constrained. Thes systems are less sensitive to changes in photosynthetic primary production tha other deep-sea ecosystems, but potential threats also exist. Changes in water-mas circulation could affect larval dispersal, potentially reducing the capacity for species populations to maintain themselves across fragmented habitats (Adams et al., 2011) The extension of hypoxia or anoxia on continental margins and in semi-enclosed sea could also profoundly alter the functioning of these ecosystems because of the hig oxygen demand of chemosynthetic activity (Childress and Girguis, 2011). Warming i already affecting the deep ocean waters, especially at high latitudes (e.g., Arctic) an in enclosed seas (e.g., Mediterranean) hosting vent and seep ecosystems (Glover e al., 2010). Cold seep ecosystems could be affected, through direct impacts on th activity of fauna and the microbial consortia or major disturbances, such as land slides and gas extrusion caused by hydrate destabilization. +These ecosystems occupy fairly small areas of the seabed (typically km-scale) an may be more vulnerable to common deep-sea pressures such as deep-sea fishing o waste dumping. Deep-sea fishing on seamounts flanks and margins down to at leas 1500m depth are part of the existing pressure on cold seep, even though rarel documented so far (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). This pressure is potentially exerte on vent communities occurring at those depths on mid-ocean ridge flanks or volcani arc and back-arc seamount chains. Even activities such as scientific research o bioprospecting can pose a threat to the integrity of these unique communities an their endemic species (Baker et al., 2010). Impacts of ecotourism on ven environments should also be accounted, since this is a growing activity. +4. Implications for services to ecosystems and humanity +Chemosynthetic communities are functionally distinct from other marin communities, with capacity to form very high biomasses relative to other deep-se ecosystems, though many questions remain open about their distribution, diversity functioning and environmental features that limit the ability to estimate associate ecosystem services (Armstrong et al., 2012). +Nevertheless, deep-sea vents and seeps represent one of the most physically an chemically diverse biomes on Earth and have a strong potential for discovery of ne species of eukaryotes and prokaryotes (Takai and Nakamura, 2011). Their specialize phyla are adapted to a range of environmental constraints. Archaea that live a extremes in pressure, temperature and pH are particularly attractive to industria sectors (UNU-IAS, 2005). The hydrothermal vent and cold seep animals have evolve traits that allow them to not only tolerate extreme environmental conditions, but in +© 2016 United Nation + +some cases to accumulate and transport chemicals toxic to most other marin species (Childress and Fisher, 1992; Le Bris and Gaill, 2007). +This makes these ecosystems a vast genomic repository of unique value to screen fo highly specific metabolic pathways and processes. The vent and seep biota thu constitute a unique pool of potential for the provision of new biomaterials medicines and genetic resources that has already led to a number of patents (Gjerde 2006; Arrieta et al., 2010; Thornburg et al., 2010). This great potential value t humankind is accounted for in the public awareness of potential threats an acceptability of deep-sea conservation programmes (Jobstvogt et al., 2014). +Chemosynthetic ecosystems are linked with adjacent deep-sea ecosystems throug dispersing larvae and juveniles, and through the export of local productivity t mobile fauna and surrounding deep-sea corals and other filter-feeding communities but the quantitative importance of their chemosynthetic production at the regiona scale still remains to be appraised. At the global scale, a significant role of see ecosystems is recognized in the regulation of methane fluxes, oxygen consumptio and carbon storage from anaerobic methane oxidation by microbial consortia i sediments (Boetius and Wenzhofer, 2013). Recent evidence shows tha hydrothermal vent plumes sustain microbial communities with potentia connections to zooplankton communities and biogeochemical fluxes in the dee ocean (Dick et al., 2013). The biological stabilization of metal (e.g., iron, copper from hydrothermal vents under dissolved or colloidal organic complexes for long range export in the water column has been documented recently (Wu et al., 2011 Hawkes et al., 2013). Recent assessments of these iron sources indicate thei significance for deep-water budgets at oceanic scales and underscore the possibilit for fertilizing surface waters through vertical mixing in particular regional setting (Tagliabue et al., 2010) and supporting long-range organic carbon transport t abyssal oceanic areas (German et al., 2015). +Because of their unique biodiversity and ecological functions in the Earth’ biosphere, their geophysically-driven primary production sustained b chemosynthesis, their significance in global element cycles (i.e., iron), and thei potential for natural products, vent and seep areas hold important (yet largel unknown) implications for services to ecosystems and humanity As such, they wil benefit from protection from adverse impacts caused by human activities Furthermore, beyond the requirement to maintain biodiversity for futur generations, cultural ecosystem services such as generation of scientific knowledg and inspiration for citizens to learn about the natural world and for new generation to enter scientific careers, and tourism, should also be recognized in an assessmen of their economic value (Jobstvogt et al., 2014). +5. Conservation responses +Action to protect vents and seeps has taken place at national and international level through the development of informal or voluntary protection plans or codes o conduct and formal protection measures under State or international law. An +© 2016 United Nation + +example of informal measures is the adoption by the scientific community of th InterRidge Statement of Commitment to Responsible Research Practices (Devey e al., 2007). The marine mining industry has also produced the International Marin Minerals Society Code for Environmental Management of Marine Mining (IMMS 2011), which outlines principles and best practice for use by industry, regulator agencies, scientists and other interested parties (Boschen et al., 2013). The OSPA Commission recommended strengthening the protection of hydrotherma vents/fields occurring on oceanic ridges as a threatened and/or declining habitat i order to recover the habitat, to improve its status and ensure its effectiv conservation in Region V of the OSPAR maritime area (OSPAR, 2014). +Formal protection measures for hydrothermal vent ecosystems have bee undertaken mainly within the EEZs of States (Table 1). The Rainbow hydrotherma vent field was proposed to be included in the Azores Marine Park by the Portugues Government at an OSPAR meeting considering these questions, even though it lie outside the EEZ (Ribeiro, 2010; Calado et al., 2011). Portugal proceeded with thi area as a Marine Protected Area on the understanding that the area is located on it extended continental shelf. It is also notable that some areas protected from botto fishing also contain chemosynthetic ecosystems (e.g., on several souther hemisphere ridges), although this protection does not apply to other activities, suc as mining. +The Strategic Plan for conservation of Biodiversity 2011-2020 adopted by th Conference of the Parties at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) establishe a target stating that 10 per cent of marine areas are conserved through systems o protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (Aich Biodiversity Target 117). In decision IX/20, the Conference of the Parties adopted th scientific criteria for identifying Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Area (EBSAs) in need of protection in areas beyond national jurisdiction, and the scientifi guidance for designing representative networks of marine protected areas. Becaus of their unique biodiversity, ecological properties and potential services, vent an seep areas meet the scientific and technical criteria defined for EBSA (Clark et al. 2014; Dunn et al., 2014; CBD scientific criteria for ecologically or biologicall significant areas annex |, decision IX/20). As emphasized by decision X/29 of th Conference of the Parties, the identification of EBSAs and the selection o conservation and management measures is a matter for States and competen intergovernmental organizations, in accordance with international law, including th United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (CBD COP decision X/29, para. 26 2010). +Scientists have called for the development of a cohesive network of such protecte areas in which management of marine mining activities would be extremely ris averse, and often mining would be prohibited (Boschen et al.. 2013; Van Dover et al., +? Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 states “By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, an 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity an ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologicall representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-base conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes”. +© 2016 United Nation + +2012). It is important to note that, in the context of vents and seeps, natura variability is acknowledged to underlie many of the changes that are happening Knowledge gaps concerning the ecological dynamics and responses to combine pressures, therefore, currently make it difficult to devise effective conservatio measures. In any case, implementation of such measures would require actions a the national, regional and (in some cases) global level to be coordinated with eac other. +At present, in the absence of any formal framework for general coordination voluntary cooperation among the International Seabed Authority (ISA) and RFMOs i taking place. Without further efforts to promote cooperation between the relevan sectoral regulatory authorities and to close gaps in knowledge, both th effectiveness of on-going conservation measures and the development of mor wide-ranging protection for vents and seeps are likely to be put at risk. +Table 1. Summary of vent and seep ecosystems protected to date under national or international la (Santos et al., 2012; Calado et al., 2011; ISA, 2011; USFWS, 2012; NTL 2009-G40 ; New Zealand ENMS +circular 2007; Gouvernement de Nouvelle Calédonie) +Ocean region Name of site Type of chemosynthetic | Depth & location Legal framewor ecosyste North East Pacific Endeavour Five vent fields 2250m depth, 250km Protected under the +hydrothermal vent MPA +including black smokers +SW of Vancouver Islan in Canadian EEZ. +Canadia Government’s Ocea Act. +North East Pacific +Guaymas Basi Hydrothermal Vent Sanctuary +Hydrothermal vent located in a sedimente seabed. +Gulf of California depth of ~2500m Within Mexican EEZ. +Protected unde Mexican State Law. +North East Pacific +Eastern Pacific Ris Hydrothermal Vent Sanctuary +Hydrothermal vent located on the Eas Pacific Rise +East Pacific Rise, dept of ~2800m, in Mexica EEZ. +Protected unde Mexican State Law. +North West Pacific +Mariana Trenc National Monument +Hydrothermal vents CO, vents, sulphur lake. +Located around thre northernmost Marian Islands & Marian Trench 10m - 1650 depth. +Protected under U Law followin Presidentia Proclamation. +South West Pacific +Several deep-se benthic protectio areas +Hydrothermal vents +Northern to mid Kermadec arc +New Zealand +West Pacific +Parc naturel de l mer de Corai (nature park of th Coral Sea) +Hydrothermal vent an coold seeps (suspected) +Up to 7919 m encompassing th whole French EE around New Caledonia +Protected under Ne Caledonia Government +Gulf of Mexico +Numerous individua sites hosting ‘high densities benthi communities’ +Hydrocarbon seeps an associated deep-se corals +400 - 3300 m, in US EEZ +US Legal Framework Bureau of Ocea Energy Managemen Notice to Lessees +North Atlantic +The Azore Hydrothermal Ven MPA +Seven hydrotherma vent fields includin Lucky Strike, Mene Gwen, Rainbow an Banco Dom Joao d Castro. 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Bennett, S.A., Clarke, A. Dinley, R.J.J., Graham, A.G.C., Green, D.R.H., Hawkes J.A., Hepburn, L., Hilario, A., Huvenne, V.A.I., Marsh, L., Ramirez-Llodra, E., Reid, W.D.K, Roterman, C.N., Sweeting, C.J., Thatje, S., Zwirglmaier, K. (2012) The Discovery of New Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Communities in th Southern Ocean and Implications for Biogeography. PLoS Biology 10(1) e1001234. +Ribeiro, M.C. (2010). The “Rainbow”: The First National Marine Protected Are Proposed Under the High Seas. International Journal of Marine and Coasta Law 25, 183-207. doi:10.1163/157180910X12665776638669. +Santos, R.S., Morato, T. and Barriga, F.J.A.S. (2012). Increasing Pressure at th Bottom of the Ocean [Chapter 5]: 69-81 [doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-1321-5_5] In: A. Mendonga, A. Cunha & R. Chakrabarti (Eds.). Natural Resources Sustainability and Humanity: A Comprehensive View. Springer: xvi+199pp. +Shank, T.M., Fornari, D.J., Von Damm, K.L., Lilley M.D., Haymon, R.M. and Lutz, R.A. (1998). Temporal and spatial patterns of biological community developmen at the nascent deep-sea hydrothermal vents (9°50'N, East Pacific Rise). Deep Sea Research II, 45, 465-515. +Spiess, F.N., MacDonald, K.C., Atwater, T. et al., (1980). East Pacific Rise - hot spring and geophysical experiments. Science, 207, 1421-1433. +Tagliabue, A., Bopp, L., Dutay, J.-C., Bowie, A.R., Chever, F., Jean-Baptiste, P. Bucciarelli, E., Lannuzel, D., Remenyi, T., Sarthou, G., Aumont, O., Gehlen, M. Jeandel, C. (2010). Hydrothermal contribution to the oceanic dissolved iro inventory. Nature Geoscience 3, 252-256. doi:10.1038/nge0818. +Takai, K., Nakamura, K. (2010). Compositional, Physiological and Metaboli Variability in Microbial Communities Associated with Geochemically Diverse Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Fluids, in: Barton, L.L., Mandl, M., Loy, A. (Eds.) Geomicrobiology: Molecular and Environmental Perspective. Springe Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 251-283. +Takai, K., Nakamura, K. (2011). Archaeal diversity and community development in +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Current Opinion in Microbiology 14, 282-291 doi:10.1016/j.mib.2011.04.013. +Talukder, A.R. (2012). Review of submarine cold seep plumbing systems: leakage t seepage and venting: Seeps plumbing system. Terra Nova 24, 255-272. +Thornburg, C.C., Zabriskie, T.M. and McPhail, K.L. (2010). Deep-Sea Hydrotherma Vents: Potential Hot Spots for Natural Products Discovery? Journal of Natura Products, 73(3), 489-499. +Thomson, R.E., Gordon, R.L. and Dolling, A.G. (1991). An intense acoustic scatterin layer at the top of a mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal plume. Journal o Geophysical Research 36:4839-4844. dx.doi.org/10.1029/90JC02692. +Tunnicliffe, V., Embley, R.W., Holden, J.F., Butterfield, D.A., Massoth, G.J., an Juniper, S.K., (1997). Biological colonization of new hydrothermal vent following an eruption on Juan de Fuca Ridge. Deep Sea Research Part ! Oceanographic Research Papers, 44(9), 1627-1644. +UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/13/INF/14 (2013). Report of the expert workshop on ecologica criteria and biogeographic classification systems for marine areas in needs o protection. +UNU-IAS Report (2005). Bioprospecting of Genetic Resources in the Deep Seabed Scientific, Legal and Policy Aspects. Tokyo, UNU/IAS, 76 pages. +USFWS (2012). Marianas Trench Marine National Monument Factsheet. Available at http://www.fws.gov/marianastrenchmarinemonument/. +Van Dover, C.L., Smith, C.R., Ardron, J. Dunn, D., Gjerde, K., Levin, L., Smith, S., Th Dinard Workshop Contributors. (2012). Designating networks o chemosynthetic ecosystem reserves in the deep sea. Marine Policy 36: 378 381. +Van Dover, C., Aronson, J., Pendleton, L., Smith, S., Arnaud-Haond, S., Moreno Mateos, D., Barbier, E., Billett, D., Bowers, K., Danovaro, R., Edwards, A. Kellert, S., Morato, T., Pollard, E., Rogers, A., Warner, R. (2014). Ecologica restoration in the deep sea: desiderata. Marine Policy 44: 98-106. +Vanreusel, A., De Groote, A., Gollner, S., Bright, M., (2010). Ecology an Biogeography of Free-Living Nematodes Associated with Chemosyntheti Environments in the Deep Sea: A Review. PLoS ONE 5, e12449 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012449. +Watanabe, H., Fujikura, K., Kojima, S., Miyazaki, J.-I., Fujiwara, Y. (2010). Japan: Vent and Seeps in Close Proximity. In: Kiel, S. (Ed.). The Vent and Seep Biota Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 379-401. +Wheat, C.G., Mottl, M.J., Fisher, A.T., Kadko, D., Davis, E.E., and Baker, E., (2004) Heat flow through a basaltic outcrop on a sedimented young ridge flank Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, doi:10.1029/2004GC000700. +Wu, J., Wells, M.L., Rember, R., (2011). Dissolved iron anomaly in the deep tropical subtropical Pacific: Evidence for long-range transport of hydrothermal iron Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 75, 460-468. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Wheeler, A.J. & Stadnitskaya, A. (2011). Benthic deep-sea carbonates: reefs an seeps. In: Heiko Hiineke & Thierry Mulder (eds). Deep-Sea Sediments Amsterdam: Elsevier. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_45.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_45.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_46.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_46.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9141b0db77158711cdf96d7b39c89fea70a69a8d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_46.txt @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +Chapter 46. High-Latitude Ice and the Biodiversity Dependent on it +Contributors: Jake Rice and Enrique Marschoff (Co-Lead members) +1. Description of the ice systems and their biodiversity +1.1 Annual ice and multi-year ice +The high-latitude ocean areas are ice-covered for much or all of the year. Multi-year ic and annual ice have different physical and chemical properties that make them als differ in terms of their ecological communities. The multi-year ice, in particular, i globally unique, and supports unique communities of ice algae and species of large invertebrates, fish, birds and mammals wholly or largely dependent on the multi-yea ice and on multi-year and annual ice margins. Sea ice is a technical term that refers t floating ice formed by the freezing of seawater. This chapter uses “high-latitude ice” a a more generic term for a variety of critically important high-latitude marine habitats which include ice shelves, pack ice, sea ice, and the highly mobile ice edge. These form of high-latitude ice complement and modify other types of habitats, including extensiv shallow ocean shelves and towering coastal cliffs (CAFF, 2013. Meltofte, 2013). +The Arctic Ocean is unique in that it contains a deep ocean basin, which until recentl was almost completely covered in multi-year ice (chapter 36H). No other area in th world has such an ice-dominated deep ocean. The Southern Ocean is unique in that i contains both icebergs (floating freshwater ice) calved from glaciers and ice shelves an sea ice. Also there is no limit to the northwards extension of the winter pack ice. Thu seasonal variations are much larger in the Antarctic (Ropelewski 1983). Thre biogeographic regions have been recognised in the Antarctic, defined by differences i ice cover (Treguer and Jaques, 1992): ice-free, seasonally or permanently covered b high-latitude ice. +1.2 Biodiversity associated with the ice +The high-latitude ice-covered ecosystems host globally significant arrays of biodiversity and the size and nature of these ecosystems make them of critical importance to th biological, chemical and physical balance of the globe (ACIA 2005). Biodiversity in thes systems presents remarkable adaptations to survive both extreme cold and highl variable climatic conditions. Iconic ice-adapted species such as polar bear, narwhal walrus, seals, penguins and seabirds have adapted to different ice conditions, includin extreme examples such as the emperor penguin living among thousands of lesse known species that are adapted to greater or lesser degrees to exploit the habitat created by high-latitude ice (Meltofte, 2013; De Broyer et al. (eds.) 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +1.2.1 Primary production and lower trophic level communities +These high-latitude seas are relatively low in biological productivity, and ice alga communities, unique to these latitudes, play a particularly important role in syste dynamics. Ice algae are estimated to contribute to more than 50 per cent of the primar production in the permanently ice covered central Arctic (Gosselin et al. 1997, Sakshau 2004). Ice algae can be divided into communities on the surface, interior and bottom o the ice (Horner et al. 1992). In addition to microalgae, bacteria are an importan component of the ice-algal community, but many other groups of organisms (e.g archaea, fungi, ciliates, kinetoplastids, choanoflagellates, amoebae, heliozoans foraminiferans and some protists that belong to no known group) also occur in ic communities (Lizotte 2003). Poulin et al. (2010) reported a total of 1027 sympagic tax in the Arctic Ocean. Many of the dominant ice algae are diatoms that sink and are eate by different benthic organisms or broken down by bacteria (Boetius et al., 2013), thu creating a link between ice and bottom ecosystems. In the Southern Ocean, th distribution of primary productivity is associated with frontal zones, areas of broken se ice, and with the divergences linked to the bottom topography, with high horizonta variability at the local scale while the vertical distribution is more regular. Chlorophyl concentration is practically nil below 250 m with maxima around 50 m. This genera pattern is highly modified in coastal areas (El-Sayed, 1970). +The primary productivity in the Antarctic is much lower than might be expected give the nutrient concentrations observed. Early in Antarctic research the factors regulatin the distribution of primary producers have been discussed (Hart, 1934). In coasta waters nutrients might reach very high values (El-Sayed 1985, Holm-Hansen 1985) an phytoplankton blooms have been observed to deplete these high concentration (Nelson and Smith 1986, Bienatti et al. 1977). +The marginal ice zone (MIZ), at and near the ice edge, is a highly productive area fo phytoplankton (Sakshaug & Holm-Hansen, 1984, Sakshaug & Skjoldal 1989). Stabl water masses due to ice melt coupled with high nutrient availability and light result i an intense phytoplankton bloom. As water masses become stratified due to surfac heating, nutrient flow from below is inhibited. Consequently, the bloom in marginal ic areas starts earlier than in adjacent areas never experiencing high-latitude ice. Th bloom follows the ice edge as it retreats in the spring. This “spring bloom” can occur i autumn in the areas of maximum ice retreat (Falk-Petersen et al. 2008). The ice-edg bloom is likely to weaken with time over the season (Wassmann et al. 2006). +Arctic planktonic herbivores, such as Calanus hyperboreus, are able to utilize the vas area of the Arctic Ocean and to feed and store lipids for over-wintering until the su disappears in October (Falk-Petersen et al. 2008). In the Antarctic the same pattern o seasonal feeding expended in reproductive processes and lipid storage is followed by suite of herbivores (De Broyer et al. (eds.) 2014) such as euphausiids (i.e. Euphausi superba, Thysanoessa macrura), copepods and salps (i.e. Calanus_ simillimus C.propinquus, C. acutus, Salpa thompsoni). +© 2016 United Nation + +Around the annual ice, in general there are steep gradients in temperature, salinity, ligh and nutrient concentrations creating different habitats throughout the ice, the 0.2 m o the lower ice surface having the most favourable conditions for growth among th interior communities (Arrigo 2003). However, with respect to biomass and contributio to primary production, the sub-ice community is the most important in annual ice. I addition there are seasonal trends and inter-annual variations in species composition biomass and production as a result of several factors, including light, age and origin o the ice (e.g., distance to land and water depth). Thus, there is a high spatia heterogeneity when larger areas are considered. +Sea-ice algae start their growth ahead of phytoplankton. An extended growth season i the Arctic areas forms ice algal communities that are grazed actively by both ice faun and zooplankton and may be an important component of the diet of some specie during the winter. Ice algae contribute 4-26 percent of total primary production i seasonally ice-covered waters (Gosselin et al. 1997, Sakshaug 2004). Apherusa glacial i probably the most numerous amphipod species in the central Arctic Ocean. Onisimu glacialis may be common in some areas. In the Antarctic sea ice the calanoid copepod are dominant while larvae of E. superba benefit from ice for overwintering; to date n species fully dependent on high-latitude ice has been identified (Arndt & Swadling 2006). +1.2.2 Macrofauna +The ice structure and surfaces include a number of larger invertebrates that also ar believed to live their entire life connected to the multi-year ice (e.g. nematode worms rotifers and other small soft-bodied animals within the ice and amphipodes on th underside), Some of these dominate the biomass of macroinvertebrates (Arndt Swadling 2006) and are the important food items for high-latitude fish. Antarcti euphausiid larvae spend the winter in close association with icebergs or sea ice. Th permanent pack-ice zone of the Southern Ocean represents the habitat for a highl confined community of seabirds, the most unvarying of any seabird assemblage in th Southern Hemisphere (Ribic and Ainley, 1988). It is composed of Adélie and Empero penguins, Snow and Antarctic petrels, with the addition during the summer of Sout Polar skua and Wilson’s storm-petrel. +In the Arctic, Polar bears Ursus maritimus are highly dependent on high-latitude ice an are therefore particularly vulnerable to changes in ice extent, duration and thickness Three ice-associated cetacean species also reside year-round in the Arctic, mostl connected to the marginal ice zone, including the Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus that is assessed as highly endangered in part of its range. The reproduction of som Antarctic seal species is also linked to extent of ice (e.g. Lobodon carcinophagus Leptonychotes weddellii) while others are temporarily associated to ice for rest an refuge. Penguin species also use icebergs or sea ice during foraging trips and follow th ice border in winter. Permanent ice shelves strongly modify the habitats and the se bottom fauna below the shelves (Gutt et al. 2013, Lipps et al., 1977; Lipps et al., 1979 Post et al., 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +2. Changes to these systems and their biodiversity +2.1 Changes in the ice structures +These high-latitude ecosystems are undergoing change at a more rapid rate than othe places on the globe, threatening the existence of ecosystems such as multi-year high latitude ice. In the past 100 years, average Arctic temperatures have increased at twic the average global rate (IPCC 2007). Recent changes in Arctic and Antarctic sea-ic cover, driven by climate change including rising temperatures and winds (Stammerjoh et al., 2012), have affected the timing of ice break-up in spring and freeze-up in autumn as well as the extent and type of ice present in different areas at specific dates. Overall multi-year ice is rapidly being replaced by first-year ice. The extent of Arctic ice i shrinking in all seasons, but especially in the summer. In some regions of the Antarcti ice shelves are rapidly disappearing, while the maximum extension of winter ice appear to increase (Turner et al., 2009, pg. 130). +In the Arctic Ocean multi-year ice changed from covering more than two-thirds of th Arctic Ocean to less than one-third in less than a decade. For instance, multi-year ic now occupies only part of the deep areas of the Arctic Ocean beyond areas within th national jurisdiction of Canada and is projected to be virtually ice-free in summer withi 30 years, with multi-year ice persisting mainly between islands of Canada and in th narrow straits between Canada and Greenland, Denmark (Meltofte, 2013). Simila projections of a largely ice-free Arctic Ocean in summer have been made from th Arctic-Pacific interface as well (Overland and Wand 2013). The multi-year ice tha remains is also much younger than previously as the oldest multi-year ice classes hav declined more than other classes (AMAP 2011), and even if conditions changed to allo the return of the lost/declined ice cover, it would take many years to return to the stat of just a few decades ago. +2.2 Changes in biodiversity +A change in timing and duration of the ice edge bloom increases the probability of “mismatch” in productivity, which may have severe consequences for zooplankton tha are dependent on this bloom today, with potential cascading effects throughout th ecosystem. However, the timing of ice formation and melt also influences th distribution and intensity of the primary production in the water column. Such primar production is likely to increase in areas with less ice but may then become limited b nutrient availability, including trace nutrients such as iron. +Boreal species of algae, invertebrates, fish, mammals (Kaschner et al., 2011) and bird are expanding into these higher latitudes, while some ice-adapted species are losin habitat along the edges of their ranges. Changes are too rapid for evolutionar adaptation, so species with inborn capacity to adjust their physiology or behaviour will +© 2016 United Nation + +fare better. Species with limited distribution, specialized feeding or breedin requirements, and/or high reliance on high-latitude ice for part of their life cycle ar particularly vulnerable (Meltofte, 2013. In the Antarctic, seal and penguin specie dependent on ice distribution seem to be likely to respond to changes in extrem events, as had happened in some years of anomalous El Nifio — Southern oscillatio events. Significant declines in ice — even at the regional or local scales — may lead to th replacement of antarctic by subantarctic species (Turner et al., 2009, pg. xxv). +Krill plays a central role in the trophic structure of Antarctic ecosystems. Its abundanc and distribution depend on the coupling of reproductive events and oceanic circulation It is not clear to what extent its population declined and which are the factors involve (Ainley et al., 2005; 2007). The decrease in krill abundance and the increase in salp abundance are thought to be related with changes in ice cover (Loeb et al., 1997). +There are indications that populations of Pleuragramma antarcticum, a key fish specie of the trophic web, and whose reproduction is closely associated to high-latitude ice declined at some localities, to be replaced by myctophids, a new food item for predator (Turner et al. 2009, pg. 360). +3. Implications and risks +Reduced high-latitude ice, especially a shift towards less multi-year ice, will affect th species composition in these waters. With decreasing ice cover, the effects on the ic fauna will be strongest at the edges of the multi-year high latitude ice. Seasonal/annual ic has to be colonized every year, as opposed to multiyear ice. In addition, multi-year ice ha ice specialists that do not occur in younger ice (von Quillfeldt et al. 2009). The previousl very low biological production of the deep basins may also change in this region as light temperature and storminess increase and currents shift. In addition, wind-driven mixin of the ocean is more efficient over open water and over the thinner, more-mobile seasonal ice than over multi-year ice, with the potential to also increase productivity. +Due to low reproductive rates and long lifetime, it has been predicted that the pola bears will not be able to adapt to the current fast warming of the Arctic and becom extirpated from most of their range within the next 100 years (Gorbunov and Belikov 2008; Schliebe et al., 2008). Other Arctic ice dependent species such as ringed sea (Kovacs et al. 2008), possibly narwhal, Ross gull (Blomquist & Elander, 1981, Hjort et al. 1997) and ivory gull (Gilg et al., 2010) are also expected to decrease as high-latitude ice especially multi-year ice, decreases. +The reduction in ice cover in the Arctic is creating the potential for increased utilizatio of natural resources, including fish stocks, including in the central portion of the Arcti Ocean beyond national jurisdiction (Lin et al. 2012, Arctic Nations 2013). Among non renewable natural resources, the Arctic is estimated to contain a quarter of the world’ remaining oil and gas reserves, the development of which is expected to increase. +© 2016 United Nation + +Already, 10 per cent of the world’s oil and 25 percent of the world’s natural gas i produced in the Arctic, with the majority coming from the Russian Federation (AMA 2007, see also chapter 21 of this Assessment). +In the Antarctic, the sea-ice cover is predicted to decrease by 33 per cent in this centur (Turner et al., 2009, pg. 384) as well as coastal ice shelves. This would imply a significan stress for marine organisms but no species might be singled out as candidate fo extinction in this period. Signy Island and some sites at the West Antarctic Peninsul have witnessed an explosion of the fur-seal numbers that may be related to decrease ice cover resulting in increasing areas available for resting and moulting, but which ma also be related to population increases; the growing seal population in Signy Island ha had deleterious impacts on the local terrestrial vegetation (Turner et al., 2009, pg. 360). +Figure 1. Multi-year Arctic sea-ice 1983 — 2010 (taken from Maslanik et al. 2011). +© 2016 United Nation + +References +Ainley, D.G., Clarke E.D., Arrigo, K., Fraser, W.R., Kato, A., Barton, K.J., and Wilson, P.R (2005). Decadal-scale changes in the climate and biota of the Pacific sector o the Southern Ocean, 1950s to the 1990s. Antarctic Science 17: 171-182. +Ainley, D.G., Ballard, G., Ackley, S., Blight, L., Eastman, J.T.,Emslie, S.D., Lescroel, A. Olmastroni, S., Townsend, S.E., Tynan, C.T., Wilson, P., and Woehler, E. 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Current an Future Patterns of Global Marine Mammal Biodiversity. PLoS ONE 6(5): e19653 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019653. +© 2016 United Nation + +Kovacs, K., Lowry, L., Harkoénen, T. (2008). Pusa hispida. In: IUCN (2011). IUCN Red List o Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org. Accesse on 31 August 2011. +Lin, L., Liao, Y., Zhang, J., Zheng, S., Xiang, P. (2012). Composition and distribution of fis species collected during the fourth Chinese National Arctic Research Expeditio in 2010. Polar Biology 23: 116-127. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1085.2012.00116. +Lipps, J.H., Krebs, W.N., and Temnikow, N.K. (1977). Microbiota under Antarctic ic shelves. Nature, 265, 232. +Lipps, J.H., Ronan, T.E. and DeLaca, T.E. (1979). Life below the Ross ice shelf, Antarctica Science, 203(4379), 447-449. +Meltofte, H. (ed.) (2013). Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: status and trends i biodiversity. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Akureyri. +Post, A.L., Galton-Fenzi, B.K., Riddle, M.J., Herraiz-Borreguero, L., O’Brien, P.E. Hemer, M.A., McMinn, A., Rasch, D. and Craven, M. (2014). Moder sedimentation, circulation and life beneath the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica Continental Shelf Research 74: 77-87. +Lizotte, M.P. (2003). The microbiology of sea ice. In: Thomas, D.N., and Dieckmann, G.S. editors. Sea ice: An introduction to its physics, chemistry, biology and geology 184-210. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. +Loeb, V., Siegel, V., Holm-Hansen, O., Hewitt, R., Fraser, W., Trivelpiece, W., an Trivelpiece, S. (1997). Effects of sea-ice extent and krill or salp dominance on th Antarctic food web. Nature 387: 897-900. +Maslanik, J., Stroeve, J., Fowler, C. and Emery, W. (2011). Distribution and trends i Arctic sea ice age through spring 2011. Geophysical Research Letters 38: L13502 doi:10.1029/2011GL047735. +Nelson, D.M. and Smith, W.O. (1986). Phytoplankton dynamics off the western Ross se ice edge. Deep Sea Research 33:1389-1412. +Overland, J.E. and Wang, M. (2013). When will the summer Arctic be nearly sea ice free Geophysical Research Letters 40(10), doi: 10.1002/grl.50316, 2097-2101. +Poulin, M., Daugbjerg, N., Gradinger, R., Ilyash, L., Ratkova, T., and von Quillfeldt, C.H (2010). The pan-Arctic biodiversity of marine pelagic and sea-ice unicellula eukaryotes: A first-attempt assessment Marine Biodiversity. Marine Biodiversit 41: 13-28. +Ribic, C.A., and Ainley, D.G. (1988). Constancy of seabird species assemblages: a exploratory look. Biological Oceanography 6: 175-202. +Ropelewski, C.F. (1983). Spatial and temporal variations in Antarctic sea-ice (1973-82) Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology 22: 470-3. +© 2016 United Nation + +Sakshaug, E., and Holm-Hansen, O. (1984). Factors governing pelagic production in pola oceans. In: Holm-Hansen, O., Bolis, L., and Gilles, R. (eds.). Marine phytoplankto and productivity, 1-18. Springer, Berlin. +Sakshaug, E., and Skjoldal, H.R. (1989). Life at the ice edge. Ambio 18: 60-67. +Sakshaug, E. (2004). Primary and secondary production in the Arctic Sea. In: Stein, R. and Macdonald, R.W., (eds.). The organic carbon cycle in the Arctic Ocean, 57-81 Springer, Berlin. +Schliebe, S., Wiig, @., Derocher, A.E., Lunn, N. (2008). Ursus maritimus. In: IUCN 2011 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. www. iucnredlist.or Downloaded on 31 August 2011. +Stammerjohn, S., Massom, R., Rind, D., Martinson, D. (2012). Regions of rapid sea ic change: An inter-hemispheric seasonal comparison Geophysical Research Letter 39. +Tréguer, P., and Jacques, G. (1992). Dynamics of nutrients and phytoplankton, and fluxe of carbon, nitrogen and silicon in the Antarctic Ocean. Polar Biology 12:149-162. +Turner, J., Bindschadler, R.A., Convey, P., Di Prisco, G., Fahrbach, E., Gutt, J. Hodgson, D.A., Mayewski, P.A., and Summerhayes, C.P. (eds.) (2009). Antarcti Climate Change and the Environment. Cambridge, SCAR, 526 pp. +von Quillfeldt, C.H., Hegseth, E.N., Johnsen, G., Sakshaug, E., and Syvertsen, E.E. (2009) Ice algae. In: Sakshaug, E., Johnsen, G., and Kovacs, K., eds. Ecosystem Barent Sea. Tapir Academic Press, Trondheim, Norway, 285-302. +Wassmann, P., Reigstad, M., Haug, T., Rudels, B., Carroll, M.L., Hop, H. Gabrielsen, G.W., Falk-Petersen, S., Denisenko, S.G., Arashkevich, E., Slagstad, D. and Pavlova, O. (2006a). Food webs and carbon flux in the Barents Sea. Progres in Oceanography 71(2-4), 232-287. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_46.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_46.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_47.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_47.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b5dacbb0d4c409ed05796ee29002a9a2f33c4af6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_47.txt @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +Chapter 47. Kelp Forests and Seagrass Meadows +Contributors: John A. West, Hilconida P. Calumpong, Georg Martin (Lead member) Hilconida P. Calumpong, Saskia van Gaever (Co-lead members) +1. Introduction +Kelp forests and seagrass meadows form shallow benthic marine habitats. Wherea kelp forests are limited to temperate areas (see Figure 47.1), seagrasses are foun throughout all climatic zones (den Hartog 1970; Phillips and Mefiez 1988), except in th Polar Regions (see Figure 47.2a). Both provide food and habitat to many economicall exploited species, have high productivity (see Chapter 6 for values) and thus, play significant role in ecological balance. Apart from goods (e.g. associated fisheries, food phycocolloids) produced by these two ecosystems, kelps and seagrasses also provid many ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and climate regulation (Rave 1997, Thom 1996; Beer and Koch 1996; Fourqurean et al., 2012), nutrient cyclin (Fenchel, 1970; Robertson and Mann 1980; Suchanek et al., 1985; Wahbeh an Mahasneh, 1985; Wood et al., 1969), sediment stabilization and shoreline protectio (Barbier et al., 2013), habitat and nursery functions (Duggins et al., 1990; Heck et al. 2003), especially for high value organisms such as crabs, shrimps, clams, flounder, spin lobster (Kikuchi and Peres, 1977; Tegner and Dayton, 2000). The values of these service vary across geographic regions and cultural groups (see Barbier et al., 2011; Costanza e al., 1997; Cullen-Unsworth, 2014). +The kelp forest is characterized by about 30 species of large brown seaweeds belongin to the order Laminariales (Steneck et al., 2002). Together with its associated animal and other seaweeds, it is considered to be among one of the economically importan ecosystems, especially for peoples who have traditionally used them for food, chemical such as alkali and iodine (Robinson, 2011), and fertilizer and animal feed supplement (Stephenson, 1968). Currently, kelps are still harvested mainly for food and as source o the phycocolloid alginate, which has many uses in industry (see Chapter 14). The brow seaweeds, which are composed primarily of kelps, contribute about half of the tota world seaweed production from aquaculture of about 6.8 million tons a year (average over a 10-year period between 2003-2012; data from FAO). +The kelp forest is structured like any forest, with different species forming layers o tiers, and large canopy species reaching heights to 45 metres (Steneck et al., 2002) Dominant species differ across regions (see Figure 47.1). Although kelps are no considered to be taxonomically diverse, because most genera are composed of only on species, they support economically important fisheries, such as abalone, lobster, an cod (Steneck et al. 2002). Some host marine mammals, such as sea otters, harbour seal and other pinnipeds (Tegner and Dayton, 2000). Species like the rockfish (Sebastes spp.) +© 2016 United Nation + +use kelp habitats during some or most of their life histories (Duggins et al., 1990 Eckman et al., 2003). +Seagrasses are a group of about 72 species of flowering plants in six families (Short e al., 2011) adapted to living and reproducing in the marine environment. They are no true grasses but are named for their close morphological resemblance to terrestria grasses. They form underwater meadows at depths reached primarily by sunlight in th red wavelength part of the spectrum. In addition, they have unusually high ligh requirements, approaching 25 per cent of incident radiation for some species (Denniso et al., 1993). Tropical seagrasses tend to have deep lower limits as a result of clea water (and hence, greater light penetration) while most temperate seagrasses ar limited to considerably shallower depths. Hence, only a few species grow below 20 m o depth, such as some Halophila species which have been reported to occur at 40 (Philipps and Mefiez, 1988) and Posidonia at 45 m (Pergent et al., 2010). Seagrasses ar not presently harvested commercially but they are critical food sources for larg herbivores that are specialized for eating seagrass such as manatees, dugongs, gree turtles (Philipps and Mefiez, 1988) birds, particularly Brant geese (Branta bernicia) a they require temperate eelgrass beds as a primary food source (Baldwin and Lovvorn 1994), and certain commercial fish species such as rabbitfish, and for many othe species that feed on the epiphytes and epifauna (Moncreiff and Sullivan, 2001). +Macrocysti Nereocystis +Macrocysti Lessonia +Macrocystis Macrocysti Lessonia Ecklonia Macrocysti . Laminaria Ecklonia +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Map showing the approximate location of kelp forests and their dominant species. Modifie from: Steneck et al., 2002 extracted fro http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png. +© 2016 United Nation + +No. of seagrass species (per 10km grid) |_| 1-2 (NN) 3-7 EN 8-12 MJ 13-20 + e < 3 ripe * y i : Ste + q oe o 2 s { ep s- “R - i 6 No. of seagrass species declining (per 10km grid) [I 0 ]1-2 3-4 5-9 +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Map showing (a) worldwide distribution and species richness of seagrass meadows; and (b number of species having declining population trends (sensu IUCN) from Short et al. (2011). Numbers o the map refer to Bioregions. 1-Temperate North Atlantic; 2-Tropical Atlantic; 3- Mediterranean; 4 Temperate North Pacific; 5-Tropical Indo-Pacific; 6-Temperate Southern Oceans. +2. Population trends and pressures +The harvest of kelps for food and industry is the major pressure on the kelp populatio worldwide (Vasquez and Santelices, 1990; Millar, 2007; see also Chapter 14). This ha resulted in changes in the kelp community structure and habitat well described b McLaughlin et al. (2006) in Chapter 14, and in more recent studies conducted by Estes +© 2016 United Nation + +2011, Ling et al., 2015; Rocha et al., 2015; Russell and Connell, 2014; Steneck et al. 2013. +Apart from overexploitation, kelp population and distribution worldwide are reported t be affected by a variety of factors. Connell et al. (2008) reported on a wholesale loss o canopy-forming kelp forests (up to 70 per cent) on the Adelaide metropolitan coast o South Australia where urbanization occurred. Overfishing of high value predators ofte causes explosions in herbivore populations, such as sea urchins, that feed on kelps resulting in massive reduction of kelp cover and consequently affecting other trophi levels (see Connell et al., 2011; Moy and Christie, 2012; and also Chapter 14). Stenec et al. (2002) reported this threat to kelp beds to be highest roughly in the 40-60 latitude range in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Other mechanisms o kelp forest decline are mechanical damage from destructive fishing gears and boa propellers, pollution, nutrient availability, diseases and parasites, and climatic changes. +Kelp die-off along the coasts of Europe has been reported (Raybaud et al., 2013; Brodi et al., 2014), e.g. in Norway (Moy and Christie, 2012), as well as off the coast of Australi (Smale and Wernberg, 2013; Wernberg et al., 2013). In addition, changes in th distribution of species have been reported in the polar North Atlantic (Miller et al. 2009), and off the coasts of southern England of the United Kingdom (Brodie et al. 2014; Pereira et al., 2011), South Africa (Bolton et al., 2012) and Australia (Connell et al. 2008; Millar 2007; Russell 2011; Smale and Wernberg, 2013; Wernberg et al. 2011;Wernberg et al., 2013) due to increased seawater temperatures. In 2011, the hig biodiversity Indian Ocean region of Western Australia experienced a heat wave, whic raised seawater temperatures by 2-4°C, causing a significant decline in the canopy forming brown macroalgae Scytothalia and Ecklonia radiata, which are important i stabilizing habitats. Scytothalia had a 100-km southward retraction from_ it northernmost limit (Smale and Wernberg, 2013; Wernberg et al., 2013). A simila pattern of southern retraction by other temperate macroalgae caused by seawate warming is evident along the Pacific Ocean coast of eastern Australia (Wernberg et al. 2011). Kelps are most affected by rising water temperature, because sexua reproduction (gamete formation) in most kelps will not occur above 20°C (Dayton, 1985 Dayton et al., 1999). This has been found to be amplified negatively by synergisti interactions between nutrient enrichment and heavy metals, the presence o competitors, low light and increasing temperature and competition with mat-formin seaweeds (Strain et al., 2014). +Seagrass beds are reported to be among the most threatened ecosystems on earth wit an estimated disappearance rate of 110 km’ per year since 1980; the rates of declin accelerating from a median of 0.9 per cent per year before 1940 to 7 per cent year - since 1990 (Waycott et al. 2009). According to their assessment, 29 per cent of th known areal extent has disappeared since seagrass areas were initially recorded in 1879 For example, in the Baltic Sea, where only one main seagrass species (Zostera marina exists, seagrass meadows have significantly declined (Bostrom et al. 2014). In terms o species, Short et al. (2011) reported that 22 of 72 species (31 per cent) of the world’ total number of species have declining populations, 29 species (40 per cent) have stable +© 2016 United Nation + +populations, five species (seven per cent) have an increasing population (see Figur 47.2b), and the status of 16 species (22 per cent) is unknown. Two of the species wit increasing population (Halophila stipulacea and Zostera japonica) have been reported t have recently expanded across the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Short et al. 2007 Willette and Ambrose 2009). Reported areas of highest decline (80-100 per cent of al species) are in: (a) in China-Korea-Japan region, where the decline is associated wit heavy coastal development and extensive coastal reclamation, (b) southeast Asia (on species) due to aquaculture, fisheries and heavy watershed siltation, (c) Australia (thre species), and (d) the Mediterranean (four/five species). Declines in Australia and th Mediterranean are primarily attributed to mechanical damage from propellers and shi grounding, degraded water quality, and competition with introduced species such a Caulerpa (Williams and Smith 2007). Short et al. (2011, Table 4, p. 1969) rated coasta development as representing the highest threat (93 per cent of the species affected) degraded water quality (53 per cent), mechanical damage (44 per cent), aquaculture (3 per cent), fisheries (38 per cent), excess siltation/sedimentation (36 per cent) competition (7 per cent), and disease (2 per cent). +As for kelps, overfishing of top predators often results in an increase in herbivores, suc as sea urchins, that leave barren ‘halos’ in seagrass beds. Another reported cause o population decline is the “wasting disease” that wiped out the seagrass meadows in th Pacific Northwest and on both sides of the North Atlantic in the 1930s, due to a marin slime mould (Labyrinthula) infestation (Rasmussen, 1977); this organism reappeared i New Hampshire and Maine in 1986 (Short et al., 1986). The effects of climate change o seagrasses are just beginning to be studied (Chust et al., 2013; Valle at al., 2014). Of th 72 species, 15 or 24 per cent (Short et al., 2011), are currently classified under th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria as Threatene (Endangered or Vulnerable) or Near Threatened. +3. Ecological, economic, and social implications +Ecologically, the loss of these two ecosystems will reduce the amount of “blue” carbo stored in submerged marine habitats and thus, increase impacts and changes worldwid on weather patterns, directly putting coastal residents, their livelihoods and foo production at risk (see Nelleman et al., 2009; Byrnes, et al., 2011; see also Chapter 6). +Losses of kelp and seagrass beds will affect populations of large marine herbivores, suc as manatees, dugongs and green turtles, thus further undermining their already poo conservation status. Short et al. (2011) reported that 115 marine species that live i seagrass beds, including some invertebrates, fishes, sea turtles, and marine mammals are listed by IUCN as threatened. In addition, reef and mangrove ecosystem biodiversity will be affected by the loss of seagrass habitats since many fish an invertebrate species found in coral reefs and mangroves have been reported to spen their juvenile stages in seagrass beds (Dolar, 1991; Orth, 2006). +© 2016 United Nation + +Furthermore, the loss of seagrass beds and kelp forests will deprive commerciall important fish (such as rabbit fish and cod) and invertebrate species (such as abalon and lobster) of food, habitat and nursery areas, thus undermining their growth an reproductive success and reducing the chances of the stocks either being maintained o being brought back to pre-depletion levels (Orth et al., 2006). This will affect catches o fishers and threaten food security. +Kelp forest losses will reduce the supply of commercially important alginates an fucoidan, thus raising their prices or making them less readily available for ne applications (see further Chapter 14). Also, loss of kelp may have an adverse effect o the number of coastal residents whose livelihoods depend on kelp harvesting. +4. Management and conservation responses +Many strategies have been employed in the management of kelps and seagras meadows. These include: protection through declaration of sanctuaries and protecte areas,’ regulation of harvesting through permitting system for kelps (Leschin-Hoar 2014), regulation of fishing methods destructive to kelps and seagrasses, such as trawl and seines; transplantation and restoration of seagrass beds (Calumpong and Fonseca 2001; Fonseca et al., 1998), and systematic monitoring (www.seagrassnet.org). +5. Information and knowledge gaps +The biology and population dynamics of some kelp and seagrass species are stil unstudied. Nine of 72 seagrass species are designated by IUCN as Data Deficient due t lack of information about them, while population trends of 16 species remain unknow (Short et al., 2011). Data on relative impacts of anthropogenic factors as well a interactions with climatic changes are lacking (Larkum et al., 2006; Chust et al., 2013 Doney et al., 2009; Duarte, 2002; Grech et al., 2012; Roleda et al., 2012; Valle et al. 2014). Active research is being conducted in the areas of economic valuation o ecosystem services provided by these two ecosystems. +1 +See http://www.westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov/habitat/habitat_types/kelp_forest_info/kelp_forest_habitat_t pes.html; http://www.pcouncil.org/habitat-and-communities/habitat/ https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/public-seagrass-compilation-for-west-coast-essential-fish-habitat-efh environmental-impact-stat; http://www.marinecadastre.gov/news/uses/seagrasses-distribution/. +© 2016 United Nation + +References +Baldwin, J.R., Lovvorn, J.R. (1994). Expansion of seagrass habitat by the exotic Zoster japonica, and its use by babbling ducks and brant in Boundary Bay, Britis Columbia. 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Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, an Systematics 38: 327-359. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Wood, E.J., Odum, W.E., Zeiman, J.C. (1969). Influence of Seagrasses on the Productivit of Coastal Lagoons. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México: Mexico, pp 495-502. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_47.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_47.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_48.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_48.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e2c786436796ac4726353ce25368f88488bbaded --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_48.txt @@ -0,0 +1,197 @@ +Chapter 48. Mangroves +Contributors: Mona Webber (Convenor), Hilconida Calumpong (Co-Lead Member) Beatrice Ferreira (Co-Lead Member), Elise Granek, Sean Green (Lead Member), Reniso Ruwa (Co-Lead Member) Mario Soares +Commentator: James Kairo +1. Definition and significance +Mangroves dominate the intertidal zone of sheltered (muddy) coastlines of tropical sub-tropical and warm temperate oceans. The word ‘mangrove’ is used to refer to bot a specific vegetation type and the unique habitat (also called tidal forest, swamp wetland, or mangal) in which it exists (Tomlinson 1986; Saenger, 2003; Duke et al., 2007 Spalding et al., 2010). Mangrove areas often include salt flats, which are mostl observed in arid regions or areas with well-defined dry seasons, and where th frequency of tidal flooding decreases progressively toward the more landward zones o the forest leading to an accumulation of salts. In such mangrove areas, a continuum o features may be observed, which, as described by Woodroffe et al. (1992), may include (a) mudflats in the zone below mean sea level; (b) mangrove forests in the zon between mean sea level and the level of higher neap tides; and (c) salt flats in the zon above the level of higher neap tides. These transition zones and their tidal positions var globally as they are dependent on many factors (e.g. climate, topography an hydrology). Mangrove trees, along with other floral inhabitants of the mangrove area such as shrubs, ferns and palms, are highly adapted with aerial roots, viviparous seed and salt exclusion/excretion mechanisms (Tomlinson, 1986; Hogarth, 2007), thus copin with periodic immersion and exposure by the tide, fluctuating salinity, low oxyge concentrations in the water and sediments, and sometimes high temperature (Hogarth, 2007). Mangroves have been used by coastal inhabitants for centuries wit the earliest reports from 10,000 - 20,000 years ago (Allen, 1987; Luther and Greenburg 2009). Mangroves continue to be of tremendous value to humanity through a range o ecosystem services. Several reviews are dedicated to mangrove forests, addressin their global distribution (area covered and biomass), ecology, biology and value/use (Dittmar et al., 2006; FAO, 2007; Walters et al., 2008; Ellison, 2008; Costanza et al. 2008; Spalding et al., 2010; Giri et al., 2011; Horwitz et al., 2012; Mclvor et al., 2012 Hutchinson et al., 2014). +© 2016 United Nation + +2. Spatial patterns and inventory +Mangrove distribution correlates with air and sea surface temperatures, such that the extend to ~30°N, but to 28°S on the Atlantic coast (Soares et al., 2012), and in the Indo West Pacific (IWP), to 38°45’S to Australia and New Zealand (Hogarth, 2007). Th latitudinal distribution of mangroves is limited by key climate variables such as aridit and frequency of extreme cold weather events (Osland et al., 2013, Saintilan et al. 2014). The distribution and structural development within areas with suitabl temperatures is further limited by rainfall or freshwater availability (Osland et al., 2014 Alongi 2015) The area covered by mangroves (between 137,760 and 152,000 km?) an the number of countries in which they exist (118 to 124) have been the focus of man studies (FAO, 2007; Alongi, 2008; Spalding et al., 2010; Giri et al., 2011). The accuracy o these ranges is affected by the different methods (with varying spatial resolutions) use for area surveys and the exclusion of some countries with small mangrove stands (FAO 2007; Giri et al., 2011). However, what is more generally accepted is that mangrov coverage is extremely low, accounting for less than 1 per cent of tropical forests and 0. per cent of global forest areas (FAO, 2007; Spalding et al., 2010, Van Lavieren et al. 2012). Mangrove area has declined globally over the last 30 years (1980 — 2010) (Polidoro et al., 2010; Donato et al. 2011) and this decline continues in many regions. +Uncertainty also surrounds the number of mangrove species found globally. Spalding e al. (2010) reported 73 mangrove species (inclusive of hybrids), of which 38 were calle ‘core species’, , also called ‘foundation species’, indicating those which typify mangrove and dominate in most areas (Ellison et al., 2005, Osland et al., 2014. Polidoro et al (2010) listed a similar number of species (70), which did not include hybrids, but use the criteria of “anatomical and physiological adaptations to saline, hypoxic soils”. Thu their list included both ‘true’ mangroves and mangrove ‘associates’, classifications b Tomlinson (1986) and Hogarth (2007). Tomlinson (1986) lists the criteria of ‘true o strict’ mangroves as: (i) occurring in the mangrove environment and not extending int terrestrial communities; (ii) having a major role in the structure of the community; (iii possessing morphological specialization that adapts them to their environment; (iv possessing physiological mechanisms for salt exclusion; and (v) having taxonomi isolation from terrestrial relatives, at least at the generic level. +© 2016 United Nation + +4 “a = , Nit ( ' Is OP d g Py +[ Mangroves +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. The global range of mangroves is demarcated in red (Giri et al., 2011). Used with permissio from UNEP-WCMC. +It has been argued that ignoring the distinction between ‘true’ mangroves an mangrove ‘associates’ may lead to cryptic ecological degradation, as the latter ma include species, such as Acrostichum aureum, which can totally replace mangrove tree in some regions, with an accompanying change in mangrove functionality (Dahdouh Guebas et al., 2005), but without change in areal extent. This idea is controversial and i made more problematic by the inclusion by some of beach grass and scrub vegetation i the category of ‘mangrove associates’. It is also difficult to resolve the issue of the exac number of mangrove species recognized worldwide due to taxonomic inconsistencie caused by the use (or not) of the most recent phylogenetic listings. Angiosper phylogeny listings are constantly updated, most recently with the APGIII (2009) Addressing issues with mangrove taxonomy would enhance our ability to track globa species extinctions (Polidoro et al., 2010). Furthermore, it would be useful to bas species identification on molecular attributes (not just morphological descriptions) which could address many controversies surrounding use of terms like ‘mangrov associates’ or ‘mangrove hybrids’. +Globally, the IWP and the Atlantic, East Pacific (AEP) have different mangrove specie groups (Hogarth, 2007; Spalding et al., 2010). The IWP region has over 90 per cent o species and 57 per cent of global area coverage; the AEP has less than 10 per cent o species and 43 per cent of global area coverage. Fifteen countries account for 75 pe cent of global mangrove area (Giri et al., 2011) and these countries are distribute across both regions. Indonesia in the WP accounts for 22.6 per cent of global mangrov area, and Brazil in the AEP has 8.5 per cent (Spalding et al., 2010). Brazil has the larges continuous mangrove forest (6,516 km7), which lies between Maranhao and Para i northern Brazil. In the IWP, the Sundarbans, located in India and Bangladesh, extend 8 km inland and cover an area of 6,502 km? (Spalding et al., 2010). These regions have no +© 2016 United Nation + +true mangrove species in common, except for Rhizophora mangle/R. samoensis (Duk and Allen, 2006). Acrostichum aureum, which is classified by some as a mangrov ‘associate’, is also found in both regions. The genera Rhizophora and Avicennia ar unique in having worldwide distribution (Duke et al., 2002). +3. Rate of loss/changes and major pressures +Despite widespread knowledge of their value, mangroves are being lost globally at mean rate of 1-2 per cent per year (Duke et al., 2007; FAO, 2007), and rates of loss ma be as high as 8 per cent per year in some developing countries (Polidoro et al., 2010) Between 20 and 35 per cent of mangroves have been lost since 1980 (FAO, 2007 Polidoro et al., 2010), which is greater than losses of tropical rain forests or coral reef (Valiela et al., 2001). Spalding et al. (2010) report losses of over 20 per cent in al regions except Australia over a 25-year period (1980-2005). However, their assessment of loss indicate that the global rate of loss has been declining over the last thre decades (1.04 per cent in the 1980s; 0.72 per cent in the 1990s and 0.66 per cent in th five year period up to 2005 (Spalding et al., 2010). This could be an indication o increasing resilience of the remaining mangroves or the result of effective conservatio and restoration/rehabilitation efforts. +Unfortunately, in some regions, responses to mangrove loss and mitigation remai inadequate, along with the realization that it is more economical to conserve than t restore mangroves (Ramsar Secretariat, 2001; Gilman et al., 2008; Webber et al., 2014) Particular species of mangroves or specific geographic areas have been identified a being more threatened by extinction than others (Polidoro et al., 2011). Although th primary threats to all mangroves are destruction through conversion of mangrov habitat and over-exploitation of resources, pressures that result in loss of area an ecosystem function vary somewhat across regions (Vaiela et al., 2001). Two areas hav shown the greatest per cent loss between 1980 and 2005: the Indo-Malay-Philippin Archipelago (IMPA) with 30 per cent reduction, and the Caribbean, with 24-28 per cen reduction in mangrove area (McKee et al., 2007b; Gilman et al., 2008; Polidoro et al. 2010). The major pressure resulting in losses in the IMPA is conversion of mangrov habitat for shrimp aquaculture; while in the Caribbean numerous pressures caus habitat loss, including coastal and urban development, solid waste disposal, extractio of fuel-wood, as well as conversion to aquaculture and agriculture (Polidoro et al. 2010). +Climate change, particularly sea level rise, is considered a threat to mangrove habita and functionality in all regions (McLeod and Salm, 2006; Gilman et al., 2008; Va Lavieren et al., 2012; Ellison and Zouh, 2012). Mangrove areas most vulnerable to se level rise are believed to be those of low-relief carbonate islands with a low rate o sediment supply and little available upland space (Schleupner, 2008) as well as those i arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid regions (Osland et al., 2014). Mangroves on wet, +© 2016 United Nation + +macrotidal coastlines (>4 m tidal amplitude) with significant riverine inputs, are believe to be least vulnerable (Ellison and Zouh, 2012). While there are varying opinions on th nature and level effects on mangroves from climate change drivers, it is widely agree that the vulnerability of mangrove forests is increased by occupation and urbanizatio of the coastal zone, including the conversion of mangrove area to other land use (Soares, 2009). +Some of the other effects of climate change (e.g., increased precipitation, temperatur and atmospheric CO2 concentration) may actually increase mangrove productivit (Gilman et al., 2007) and the ability of mangroves to keep pace with sea level ris (Henzel et al. 2006; McKee et al., 2007a; Langley et al., 2009; McKee, 2011; Krauss et al. 2014) because elevated CO> increases productivity and biotic controls of soil elevation Increased temperatures are correlated with mangrove range expansion (Osland et al 2013), due to the reduction in intensity, duration and frequency of extreme cold weather events that are expected to support mangrove poleward migration. The genu Avicenna has already proliferated at or near their polar limit at the expense of sal marshes (Saintilan et al., 2014). Mangroves may therefore be more resilient to climat change than was previously thought (Alongi, 2007) and certainly the effects will var greatly depending on local conditions (e.g., geomorphology and shoreline stability) Indeed, the role of mangroves in carbon sequestration and mitigation of climate chang effects (Siikamaki et al., 2012) is such that there may be net global economic gains fro their protection, especially when all other economic and ecological uses are factored i to the calculation. Mangroves have high rates of atmospheric carbon capture an storage, (Mcleod et al., 2011; Van Lavieren et al., 2012). Their productivity an substantial below- and above-ground biomass, although varying with geomorpholog and coastal conditions, can yield sequestration rates of over 174 gCm” yr” (Alongi 2012), making them prime targets for not just conservation but active reforestation an restoration. Although mangroves account for a small percentage of the earth’s fores cover (Donato et al., 2011; Giri et al., 2011) and hence only 1% of global fores sequestration (Alongi, 2012), they account for 14% of carbon sequestration by th global ocean. +4. Implications for services to the marine ecosystem and humanity +Mangroves provide a suite of regulating, supporting, provisioning and cultura ecosystem services from which humanity benefits (MEA, 2005; Haines-Young an Postchin, 2010; Van Lavieren et al., 2012). Supporting and regulating ecosystem service provided by mangroves include: (i) habitat for a wide range of organisms (Nagelkerke et al., 2000; Granek et al. 2009) including juvenile reef fishes that are essentia components of coral reef ecosystems and, in many cases, are important food fish i their own right (Robertson and Duke, 1987; Laegdsgaard and Johnson, 1995; Mumby e al., 2004; Manson et al., 2005); (ii) carbon sequestration (Fujimoto, 2004; Lal, 2005 Donato et al. 2011; Alongi, 2012; 2014); (iii) climate regulation (Mcleod et al., 2011); (iv) +© 2016 United Nation + +shoreline stabilization and coastal protection (Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2005; Wells e al., 2006, 2005; Alongi, 2008; Barbier et al., 2008; Koch et al., 2009), water filtratio (Alongi et al., 2003) and pollution regulation (Harbison, 1986; Primavera, 2005 Primavera et al., 2007). Mangroves also provide a suite of provisioning ecosyste services, including: (i) fisheries production (Nagelkerken et al., 2000; Dorenbosch et al. 2004; 2005); (ii) aquaculture production (Minh et al., 2001); (iii) pharmaceutica generation (Goodbody, 2003; Abeysinghe, 2010); (iv) production of timber an fuelwood (the latter being important in the Caribbean and Pacific) (Lugo, 2002; Walters 2005; Walters et al., 2008). Finally, mangroves provide cultural services that include: (i recreation and tourism (Bennett and Reynolds, 1992; Thomas et al., 1994; Brohman 1996); (ii) educational opportunities (Bacon and Alleng, 1992; Field, 1999); (iii) aestheti and cultural values (e.g., Field, 1999; Ronnback, 1999). The provision of these services i reduced or lost when mangrove habitat is degraded or transformed; this loss of service frequently declines in a non-linear fashion such that beyond a certain threshold (whic varies spatially, temporally, and by species), mangroves are no longer able to provid significant coastal protection or fisheries benefits (Barbier et al., 2008; Koch et al. 2009). +Mangrove management is not currently practiced on a global scale. However, there ar examples of intensive management of large forests in Asia (Spading et al., 2010). Man such forests are managed for commercial purposes but it would be useful to conside management in light of the tradeoffs among ecosystem services. Because provisionin services are easiest to quantify and assign an economic value, mangroves are frequentl managed for one or a few provisioning services at the cost of managing for the full suit of services mangrove ecosystems provide. For example, mangrove ecosystems may b converted to produce aquaculture services; such management can contribute to th decline of other supporting and regulating services, such as pollution regulation an shoreline stabilization. When mangrove management focuses on maximization of on ecosystem service to the detriment of others, some individuals (e.g., aquacultur operators) gain, while others (e.g., coastal residents requiring shoreline protection often lose. Policies and management of the coastal region that focus on preserving th functional diversity of mangrove ecosystems (multiple services), including th associated salt flats, enhance the possibility of having the highest number o beneficiaries. Whether state management or community-based management will b most effective may be context-dependent and worth consideration (Sudtongkong an Webb, 2008). +5. Conservation responses +The dramatic decline in global mangrove cover (Giri et al., 2011) and the on-goin removal of mangrove habitat have led both governmental and non-governmenta organizations to take actions to protect mangroves. Worldwide, commercia organizations have exerted, and continue to exert, strong pressures to modify policies +© 2016 United Nation + +that conserve mangroves (Brazil offers one example among many other countrie (Glazer, 2004)), yet progress is being made through legislation, new partnership between governments and local communities, and the REDD+ programme (Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) in developing countries Mangrove conservation measures range from traditional approaches including creatio of designated areas protected from clearing and legislation restricting or prohibitin clearing, to conservation, education and restoration projects on local, national, regional or international scales. These often involve local communities and organizations a stewards of mangrove ecosystems and may allow sustainable harvest within the projec areas (Lugo et al. 2014). +5.1 Conservation through conventions and protected areas +Multiple international conventions and programs protect mangrove habitats. Th Convention on Wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat (Ramsar convention), an international treaty whereby member countries commit t maintaining the ecological characteristics of their “Wetlands of Internationa Importance”, protects mangrove forests at 278 Ramsar mangrove sites in 68 countrie (numbers as of 2014). World Heritage sites, UNESCO-designated sites of cultural an natural heritage of outstanding value to humanity, include 26 Sites that protec mangrove habitat within their boundaries and UNESCO Man and the Biospher Programme sites, many of which include mangrove habitat. +Establishing terrestrial and marine protected areas, including national parks and marin reserves is often used as a management tool to protect mangrove habitat. Examples o national parks that protect mangroves include Mangroves National Park in th Democratic Republic of Congo; Parc Marin de Moheli, Comoros, Kakadu National Park Australia; Bastimientos Island National Park, Panama; Kiunga Biosphere Reserve, Kenya Everglades National Park, United States of America; Sirinat National Park, Thailand Subterranean National Park, Philippines; among others. Despite these efforts, Giri et al (2011) report that only 6.9 per cent of the world’s mangroves fall within existin protected areas networks (IUCN I- Category IV in the IUCN Protected areas managemen categories). +5.2 Conservation through legislation +In some countries, states, or regions, mangroves are protected through legislatio limiting or prohibiting mangrove clearing. Legislation may be national, such as Brazil’ Federal Forestry Code (Brazil, 2012), which has been interpreted to prohibit the use o any components of mangrove trees or plants. Other legislation exists at more localize scales, , such as The Mangrove Trimming and Preservation Act enacted in 1996 in the +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 996, No. 14583. +© 2016 United Nation + +state of Florida, (United States of America), to regulate trimming, disturbance o removal of mangroves in the state. +5.3 Conservation through management, education and restoration projects +The decline in global mangrove cover, combined with the highly recognized ecologica and ecosystem services values of mangroves, have given rise to a number of non governmental organizations engaged in education about and conservation an restoration of mangroves. These include organizations with projects around the world such as the Mangrove Action Project, Western Indian Ocean (WIO) Mangrove Network the Mangrove Alliance, and Mangrove Watch, as well as domestic organizations including Honko, a mangrove conservation and education organization in Madagascar and the Mangrove Forest Conservation Society of Nigeria, among others. Som countries such as Cuba and Ecuador have invested significant resources and are testin new approaches to mangrove conservation through engagement of local communitie in natural resource governance (Gravez et al. 2013; Lugo et al. 2014). +Restoration projects have met with mixed and limited success with many documente efforts resulting in large failure rates in achieving successful mangrove restoration These failures highlight the importance of considering factors that can doom mangrov restoration including poor site and species selection and failure to utilize advances i the recent science of mangrove restoration (Lewis 2005, Lewis and Brown 2014). Fo example, the use of biotechnological interventions to produce improved mangrov plantlets (e.g., faster growing plants) could improve the success rate of restoration. I would be useful to have better training at all levels on the concepts and application o mangrove restoration (Lewis and Brown 2014). +5.4 Emerging conservation strategies +The movement to implement “Blue Carbon Solutions” (the carbon sequestered b coastal vegetation, namely mangroves, sea-grasses and salt marsh grasses- McLeod e al., 2011) to reduce atmospheric CO, has led to the consideration of tools such a payment for ecosystem services (PES) and REDD-+ schemes to improve conservatio outcomes for mangroves (Alongi, 2011; Locatelli et al., 2014). Such approaches ma provide novel strategies for mangrove conservation in countries that lack sufficien resources for conservation and management. +Although raising financial resources for whole ecosystem conservation has historicall been beneficial, new risks arise from this approach in the emerging paradigm o conservation through commodification of ecosystem functions, such as those related t carbon storage (McAfee, 1999; Igoe and Brockington, 2007; Kosoy and Corbera, 2010 Corbera, 2012). The emerging commodification paradigm, challenges an old ethical an inter-generational argument that nature needs to be managed and protected for th survival of ecosystems and species; it would be useful for mangrove conservation and +© 2016 United Nation + +restoration efforts to consider the risks of trading preservation of ecosystems for thei intrinsic value and the emerging paradigm of prioritizing some elements of nature tha are economically useful, at the potential cost of other values that are less economicall valuable or are useful only to certain groups. In this process of assigning a monetar value to an ecosystem service, cultural and social values, such as those held b communities that live near and depend directly on the forests and that possess a dee cultural connection with the system, may be strongly devalued. In this way, powe asymmetries in the valuation process may further fuel socio-environmental conflict involving those interested in carbon and the communities interested in the maintenanc of the diversity of functions and services, including cultural values, as recently describe by Beymer-Farris and Bassett (2012) for the mangrove forests in Tanzania. However Ecuador’s Mangrove Ecosystem Concessions program provides an example of ho government agencies can engage local stakeholders by simultaneously providin resource rights and bestowing management responsibilities on those users (Gravez et al 2013). +As indicated above, although threatened by sea level rise, mangroves have the potentia to keep pace with rising sea level if conditions allow them to modify their surfac elevation or to adapt through landward migration (Cahoon and Hensel, 2006; Alongi 2008; Gilman et al., 2008; Soares, 2009, McKee, 2011). It would be useful for mangrov conservation and management efforts to take into account external sediment supply benthic mats, tree density and root structure, storm impacts, and hydrological factor such as river levels, groundwater inputs and rainfall (Mclvor et al., 2012), as well a consider the maintenance and restoration of system resilience (e.g., its capacity t adapt and migrate landward). +6. Capacity building gaps +Capacity building is the process by which individuals, organizations, institutions an societies develop abilities (individually and collectively) to perform functions, solv problems and set and achieve objectives (UNDP, 1997). Capacity building is therefor facilitated through the provision of technical support activities, including coaching training, specific technical assistance, and resource networking. +Local, regional, national and international initiatives for capacity building in mangrov conservation and sustainable use as a management tool to protect mangrove habita are widespread around the world, including those led by the United Nations Universit (UNU), UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), Mangrove Action Projec (MAP), Mangrove Alliance, Mangroves for the Future (MFF), Mangrove Watch, WI Mangrove Network and The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) Examples of initiatives specific to different regions include, International Union for th Conservation of Nature - IUCN’s Pacific mangrove initiative (PMI), the United Nation Environment Programme’s Integrated Coastal Management, with special emphasis on +© 2016 United Nation + +the sustainable management of mangrove forests in Guatemala, Honduras an Nicaragua, the Satoyama Initiative in Benin, and Mangrove Action Project (MPA)-Asia i Thailand, among others. +Although several initiatives are concerned with capacity building, capacity building wil be more effective if it is integrated and follows a set of basic assumptions about trainin and knowledge base. Increased effectiveness can be achieved through: (i) trainin related to conservation and sustainable use of mangrove forests and their resources; (ii raising awareness among as many stakeholders as possible (especially policy-makers) (iii) political empowerment of stakeholders; (iv) cooperation within and betwee governments, institutions, organizations and agencies that are engaged in thes activities; (v) identification and development of innovative proposals; (vi) maintainin systems for the reduction and resolution of conflicts; (viii) ensuring that programme include measures to address threats from climate change and human activities. +Specific ideas for capacity building include: use of standardized methods for mangrov species distribution and area surveys (Manson et al., 2012) and development of capacit in the use of base-maps on digital terrain models. These would display areas wher mangroves are mostly at risk from submersion due to sea level rise. Capacity to conduc surveys and geographical information systems (GIS) mapping in all regions would b useful, along with the development of capacity for “climate-smart conservation (Hansen et al., 2010), which would involve strategies for promoting mangrov adaptation to sea level rise. It would be useful for nations to develop the capacity t better identify and evaluate potential barriers for landward migration in response to se level rise and have more accurate information regarding the location of landwar migration corridors as well as improved strategies for ensuring that these migratio corridors are present in the future. It would also be useful to know specifically ho other drivers of change (e.g., urbanization, other coastal land uses) may affect th potential for landward migration of mangroves in response to sea level rise. +7. Gaps in scientific knowledge +Comprehensive and comparable data on mangrove species and area distribution fro all countries with mangroves would be useful. Lack of information on the current statu of mangrove species for the documentation of the various types of mangrove losses i each region has been identified as an important knowledge gap. This could improve range of conservation and management strategies, along with predictions of habitat los and species extinctions (Polidoro et al., 2010; Spalding et al., 2010). Other areas o considerations in filling the gaps are: determination of the average changes in th emission or sequestration of greenhouse gases from mangrove forests as a result o human activity; accurate and consistent valuation of mangrove goods and services, an vulnerability mapping. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +References +Abeysinghe, P.D. (2010). 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The Loss o Species: Mangrove Extinction Risk and Geographic Areas of Global Concern. PLo ONE 5, 1-10. +Primavera, J.H. (2005). Mangroves, fishponds and the quest for sustainability. Scienc 310: 57-59. +Primavera, J.H., Altamirano, J.P., Lebata, M.J.H.L., de los Reyes Jr., A.A., and Pitogo, C.L (2007). Mangroves and shrimp pond culture effluents in Aklan, Panay Is., Centra Philippines. Bulletin of Marine Sciences 80: 795-804. +Ramsar Secretariat (2001). Wetland Values and Functions: Climate Change Mitigation Gland, Switzerland. Available from http://www.ramsar.org/cda/ramsar/display/main/main.jsp?zn=ramsar&cp=1 26-253%5E22199_4000_0__. Accessed: 13 August, 2013. +Robertson, A.L. and Duke, N.C. (1987). Mangroves as nursery sites: comparisons of th abundance and species composition of fish and crustaceans in mangroves an other nearshore habitats in tropical Australia. Marine Biology 96, 193-205. +Ronnback, P. (1999). The ecological basis for economic value of seafood productio supported by mangrove ecosystems. Ecological Economics 29: 235-252. +Saenger, P. (2003). Mangrove ecology, siviculture and conservation. Kluwer Academi Publishers, Dordrecht. +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Saintilan, N., Wilson, N., Rogers, K., Rajkaran, A. and Krauss, K.W. (2014) Mangrov expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits. Global chang biology 20: 147-157. +Sathirathai, S. and Barbier, E.B. (2001). Valuing mangrove conservation in souther Thailand. Contemporary Economic Policy 19: 109-122. +Schleupner, C. (2008) Evaluation of coastal squeeze and its consequences for th Caribbean island Martinique. Ocean & Coastal Management 51: 383-390. +Siikamakia, J., Sanchirico, J.N. and Jardine, S.L. (2012). Global economic potential fo reducing carbon dioxide emissions from mangrove loss. PNAS 109: 14369-14374. +Soares, M.L.G. (2009). A conceptual model for the responses of mangrove forests to se level rise. Journal of Coastal Research S! 56: 267-271. +Soares, M.L.G., Estrada, G.C.D., Fernandez, V. and Tognella, M.M.P. (2012). Souther limit of the Western South Atlantic mangroves: assessment of the potentia effects of global warming from a biogeographical perspective. Estuarine, Coasta and Shelf Science 101: 44-53. +Spalding, M., Kainuma, M. and Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas of Mangroves. ITTO, ISME FAO, UNEP-WCMC, UNESCO-MAB and UNU-INWEH. Earthscan Publishers Ltd London. +Sudtongkong, C. and Webb, E.L. (2008). Outcomes of state-vs. community-base mangrove management in southern Thailand. Ecology and Society 13: 27. +Thomas, G. and Fernandez, T.V. (1994). Mangrove and tourism: management strategies Biodiversity and Conservation 2: 359-375. +Tomlinson, P.B. (1986). The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press, NY. +UNDP (1997). Capacity development resources book. New York. United Nation Development Programme. +Valiela, |., Bowen, J.L. and York, J.K. (2001). Mangrove Forests: one of the world’ threatened major tropical environments. Bioscience 51: 807-815. +Van Lavieren, H., Spalding, M., Alongi, D., Kainuma, M., Clusener-Godt, M. and Adeel, Z (2012). Securing the future of mangroves. A Policy Brief. UNU-INWEH, UNESCO MAB with ISME, ITTO, FAO, UNEP-WCMC and TNC. pp. 53. +Walters, B.B. (2005). Patterns of local wood use and cutting of Philippine mangrov forests. Economic Botany 59: 66-76. +Walters, B.B., Ronnback, P., Kovacs, J., Crona, B., Hussain, S., Badola, R., Primavera, J. Barbier, E., and Dahdouh-Guebas, F. (2008). Ethnobiology, socio-economics an management of mangrove forests: a review. Aquatic Botany 89: 220-236. +Webber, M., Webber, D. and Trench, C. (2014). Agroecology for sustainable coasta ecosystems: A case for mangrove forest restoration, in: Benkeblia, N. (Ed) +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +Agroecology, Ecosystems and Sustainability. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis group Boca Raton. +Wells, S., Ravilious, C. and Corcoran, E. (2006). In the front line: shoreline protection an other ecosystem services from mangroves and coral reefs (No. 24) UNEP/Earthprint. +Woodroffe, C., Robertson, A. and Alongi, D. (1992). Mangrove sediments an geomorphology. In: Robertson, A.I. and Alongi, D.M. (eds.). Tropical mangrov ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_48.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_48.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_49.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_49.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b138711abc04b83b6b4ec077d5eb2f84bdedfebe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_49.txt @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +Chapter 49. Salt Marshes +Contributors: J. S. Weis, K. E. A. Segarra, Patricio Bernal (Lead member) +1. Inventory +Salt marshes are intertidal, coastal ecosystems that are regularly flooded with salt o brackish water and dominated by salt-tolerant grasses, herbs, and low shrubs. The occur in middle and high latitudes worldwide and are largely replaced by mangroves i the subtropics and tropics (see Chapter 48). They are found on every continent excep Antarctica (Figure 1). In areas of relatively little sediment delivery, salt marshes ar highly organic and often peat-based. In contrast, salt marshes in areas of high sedimen delivery, such as sheltered estuaries (see Chapter 44), are often well-developed wit inorganic substrates. +2. Features of trends in extent +Salt marshes are among the most productive temperate ecosystems in the world Contemporary salt marshes developed within the last 8,000 years in low-energy, coasta locations in response to rising sea levels (Milliman and Emery, 1968; Redfield 1967) Their ecology and global importance has been described in classic literature such a Chapman (1960), Ranwell (1972), Doody (2008) and Adam (1990). The physical stresse of salinity and flooding generate zones of salt-tolerant emergent vegetation, includin such genera as Carex, Spartina, Juncus, Salicornia, Halimone, Puccinellia, and Phragmites Marsh grasses contribute to the accumulation of organic matter and trapping o inorganic sediment. Salt marsh sustainability is mainly controlled by the relationshi between marsh vertical accretion (due to sediment accretion, peat accumulation belowground decomposition, subsidence) and sea level rise (frequency and duration o tidal flooding - Gagliano et al., 1981; Cahoon and Reed, 1995; Hatton et al., 1983 DeLaune et al., 1983). Other facts that impact their development and structure are tidal wave and current action, erosion, freshwater influx, nutrient supply, and topograph (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Less than 50 per cent of the world’s original wetland remain (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993) and current loss is estimated at 1-2 per cent pe year (Bridgham et al., 2006) making wetlands one of the fastest disappearin ecosystems worldwide. Salt marsh loss coincides with a general historical degradation o estuarine ecosystems (Lotze et al., 2006). Just upstream from salt marshes are brackis marshes with lower salinity regimes, which are also highly productive, subject to th same stresses, and of equally great conservation concern. +© 2016 United Nation + +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Salt Marshes (in orange). Source: UNEP-WCMC, 2015. +3. Major pressures linked to the trends +Over 60 per cent of the globe’s population lives on or near the coast, and coasta populations are increasing at twice the average rate (UNEP, 2006a; Nicholls et al., 1999) making coastlines highly vulnerable to human activities. Salt and brackish marshes formerly viewed as useless wastelands, were filled in for urban or agricultura development. Reclamation of land for agriculture by converting marshland to uplan was historically a common practice. Coastal cities worldwide have expanded ont former salt marshes and used marshes for waste disposal sites. Airoldi and Beck (2007 estimate that countries in Europe have lost over 50 per cent of their salt marsh an seagrass areas to coastal development. Estuarine pollution from organic, inorganic, an toxic substances is a worldwide problem. Marshes have been drained, diked, ditched grazed and harvested. They have been sprayed for mosquito control, and have bee invaded by a range of non-native species that have altered their ecology. As on example, Massachusetts, United States of America, has lost 41 per cent of its sal marshes since the 1770s, with a loss of 81 per cent in Boston (Bromberg and Bertness 2005; Figure 2). +Key threats to salt marshes are land reclamation, coastal development, dredging, sea level rise (SLR), hydromodification, alteration of processes (e.g. sediment delivery freshwater input) and eutrophication. Accelerated SLR is the largest climate-relate threat to salt marshes. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts with +© 2016 United Nation + +medium confidence a SLR of 0.26-0.98 m by 2100 (Church et al., 2013). Nicholls et al (1999) predict that 1 m SLR will eliminate 46 per cent of the world’s coastal wetlands Some salt marshes can keep pace with SLR, but others, especially those cut off fro their sediment delivery via levees and seawalls cannot (Day et al., 1995). Nutrien pollution, which destabilizes below-ground biomass and increase decomposition, i likely to exacerbate salt marsh loss due to SLR (Turner et al., 2009; Deegan et al., 2012) Subsidence, which contributes to relative SLR in some regions, is an additional stressor The impact of SLR will depend upon accretion and subsidence rates and other processe that influence the marshes ability to grow vertically and/or to migrate inland. “Coasta squeeze” describes the limitation of marshes to extend landward due to boundarie (Pethick, 2001) such as paved areas, seawalls, and bulkheads from coastal development. +1777 - 1999 : GB Salt Marsh i a Urban | os +0 5 10 15 20 25 Kilometers +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 2. Salt marsh loss in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, between 1777 and 1999 (Bromberg an Bertness, 2005). +4. Implications for services to ecosystems and humanity +Salt marshes play a large role in the aquatic food web and the cycling of nutrients i coastal waters. They serve as critical habitat for various life stages of coastal fisherie that account for a large percentage of the world’s fish catch (UNEP, 2006b). Over half o the commercial fish species of the East coast of the United States utilize salt marshes a some time of their lives (Beck et al., 2001). In addition to providing habitat for juvenil fishes, crabs, and shrimps, marshes support populations of some small forage fishes, +© 2016 United Nation + +which come up on the marsh surface at high tide to feed on invertebrates (Shenker an Dean, 1979; Zimmerman et al., 2000). Many migratory shore birds and ducks use sal marshes as stopovers during migrations and some birds winter in the marsh. Wadin birds, such as egrets and herons, feed in salt marshes during the summer. Continue marsh loss could therefore dramatically alter estuarine food webs. +SLR is increasing the vulnerability of coastal populations to coastal erosion, flooding, an storms (IPCC, 2007). Salt marshes serve as natural barriers to these coastal hazards They serve as shoreline stabilizers because they attenuate wave energy and hel prevent erosion (Costanza et al., 2008, Gedan et al., 2011, Moller et al., 2014; se Chapter 26). They also slow and store floodwaters, reducing storm impacts on coasta communities (Cobell et al., 2013). While wetlands do not provide complete protectio against coastal hazards, even small salt marshes can provide significant shorelin protection (Gedan et al., 2011). Their preservation and restoration may significantl decrease the economic impact and human losses of extreme events such as hurricane and tsunamis (Gedan et al., 2011). +Salt marshes remove sediment, nutrients, microbes, and contaminants from runoff an riverine discharge (Gedan et al., 2009), acting as sponges absorbing much of the runof after major storms and reducing flooding. They sequester pollutants from the water tha drains down from the land, protecting nearby estuarine areas and coastal waters fro harmful effects. They play a major role in the global carbon cycle and represent a majo portion of the terrestrial biological carbon pool. They store excess carbon in thei sediments, preventing it from re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere and contributing t global warming. Salt marshes are thus an important component of the world’s “blu carbon” (McLeod et al., 2011) and currently are being incorporated into global carbo markets. Chmura et al. (2003) estimated that tidal wetlands sequester 10 times th amount of carbon sequestered by peatlands. Salt marshes also provide excellen tourism, education, and recreation services, as well as research opportunities. +It is clear that salt marshes provide enormous benefits to society in the form o "ecosystem services". In this regard, coastal wetlands (which include salt marshes) ar among the highest valued coastal ecosystems (Costanza et al., 2014). The seriou reduction in salt marsh area reduces their capacity to provide these critical ecosyste services (Gedan et al., 2009; Craft et al., 2009). +5. Conservation Responses and Conclusions +As society has become aware of the environmental and economic values of salt marshes efforts have commenced to slow their loss and even to restore degraded marshes These are mostly local initiatives. Concerned individuals and dedicated groups bot within and outside government are mobilizing to stop and even reverse the trends Restoration may involve reconnecting areas to the estuary by excavating channels tha had filled in, relying on the tidal flow to allow the marsh to restore itself. Other +© 2016 United Nation + +restoration projects involve removing unwanted invasive vegetation, changing th marsh elevation, and planting the desired species. Monitoring of such projects woul need to be done for years after restoration to see if methods are successful or nee modification, and to learn how much time it takes before the restored marsh acquire the biodiversity and ecosystem function of a natural marsh (Craft et al., 1999; Zedle and Lindig-Cisneros, 2000; Rozas et al., 2005). Restoration of coastal marshes is no also included among strategies for climate adaptation planning (Arkema et al., 2013 Barbier, 2014) and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions (Olander et al., 2012) highlighting the multiple benefits that may be derived from salt marsh conservation. +Some international legal instruments and policy frameworks, such as the Convention o Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat’ (Ramsa Convention), the Convention on Biological Diversity”, and Agenda 21 adopted by th 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, promote th conservation and wise use of wetlands and support economic valuation to suppor conservation. Economic valuation can be used to evaluate and compare developmen uses vis-a-vis conservation uses. Although some estimates have been made (Costanza e al., 1997, Minello et al., 2012), placing a monetary amount on these services is difficul and controversial. Many benefits are non-monetary, which makes comparisons difficul in decision-making (Barbier et al., 2011). Improving the assessment and valuation of sal marsh services could assist current conservation methods. +These important vegetated, intertidal habitats and the ecosystem services they provide such as fisheries, sequestration of pollutants, and protection from flooding and stor surge, are under threat due to natural and anthropogenic forces. Efforts would b needed worldwide to preserve the remaining salt marshes and restore some of thos that have been destroyed or impaired. +References +Adam, P. (1990). Saltmarsh Ecology. Cambridge University Press 461 pp. +Airoldi, L. and Beck, M.W. (2007). Loss, status, and trends for coastal marine habitats o Europe. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 45: 345-405. +Arkema, K.K., Guannel, G., Verutes, G., Wood, S.A., Guerry, A, Ruckelshaus, M. Kareiva, P., Lacayo, M. and Silver, J.M. (2013). Coastal habitats shield people an property from sea level rise and storms. Nature Climate Change 3: 913-918. +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 996, No. 14583 * United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2226, No. 30619. +© 2016 United Nation + +Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C., Silliman, B.R. (2011). Th value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs 81 169-193. +Barbier, E.B. (2014). A global strategy for protecting vulnerable coastal populations Science 345: 1250-1251. +Beck, M.W. et al. (2001). The identification, conservation, and management of estuarin and marine nurseries for fish and invertebrates. BioScience 51: 633-641. +Bridgham, S.D., Megonigal, J.P., Keller, J.K., Bliss, N.B., and Trettin, C. (2006). The carbo balance of North American wetlands. Wetlands 26: 889-916. +Bromberg, K.D. and Bertness, M.D. (2005). Reconstructing New England salt mars losses using historical maps. Estuaries 28: 823-832. +Cahoon, D.R. and Reed, D.R. (1995). Relationships among marsh surface topography hydroperiod, and soil accretion in a deteriorating Louisiana salt marsh. Journal o Coastal Research 11(2): 357-369. +Chapman, V.J. (1960). Salt Marshes and Salt Deserts of the World Leonard Hill (Books Ltd. 392 pp. +Chmura, G.L., Anisfeld, S.C., Cahoon, D.R., Lynch, J.C. (2003). Global carbo sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 17(4) 1-11. +Church, J.A., et al. (2013). Sea Level Change. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physica Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group | to the Fifth Assessment Report o the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., et al., eds.] Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. +Cobell, Z., Zhao, H., Roberts, H.J., Clark, F.R. and Zou, S. (2013). Surge and wav modeling for the Louisiana 2013 Master Plan. Journal of Coastal Research 67: 88 108. +Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K. Naeem, S., Neill, R.V.O., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. and van den Belt, M (1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Natur 387: 253-260. +Costanza, R., Perez-Maqueo, O., Martinez, M.L., Sutton, P., Anderson, S.J. and Mulder, K (2008). The value of coastal wetlands for hurricane protection. Ambio 37: 241 248. +Craft, C.B., Reader, J., Sacco, J.N. and Broome, S.W. (1999). Twenty-five years o ecosystem development of constructed Spartina Alterniflora (Loisel) marshes Ecological Applications 9: 1405-1419. +Craft, C., Clough, J., Enman, J., Joye, S., Park, R., Pennings, S., Guo, H. an Machmuller, M. (2008). Forecasting the effects of accelerated sea-level rise on +© 2016 United Nation + +tidal marsh ecosystem services. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7: 73 78. +Day Jr., J.W., Pont, D., Hensel, P.F. and Ibafiez, C. (1995). Impacts of sea-level rise o deltas in the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean: The importance of pulsin events to sustainability. Estuaries 18(4): 636-647. +Deegan, L.A., Johnson, D.S., Warren, R.S., Peterson, B.J., Fleeger, J.W., Fagherazzi, S. an Wollheim, W.M. (2012). Coastal eutrophication as a driver of salt marsh loss Nature 490: 388-392. +DeLaune, R.D., Baumann, R.H., Gosselink. J.G. (1983). Relationships among vertica accretion, coastal submergence, and erosion in a Louisiana Gulf Coast Marsh Journal of Sedimentary Research 53(1): 147-157. +Doody, J.P. (2008). Saltmarsh Conservation, Management, and Restoration. Springer 21 pp Gagliano, S.M.K., Meyer-Arendt, J. and Wicker, K.M. (1981). Land loss in the Mississippi +River deltaic plain. Transactions — Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societie 31: 295-300. +Gedan, K. B., Silliman, B.R. and Bertness, M.D. (2009). Centuries of human-drive change in salt marsh ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science 1: 117-141. +Gedan, K.B., Kirwan, M.L., Wolanski, E., Barbier, E.B. and Silliman, B.R. (2011). Th present and future role of coastal wetland vegetation in protecting shorelines answering recent challenges to the paradigm. Climatic Change 106: 7-29. +Hatton, R.S., DeLaune, R.D. and Patrick, Jr. W.H. (1983). Sedimentation, accretion, an subsidence in marshes of Barataria Basin, Louisiana. Limnology an Oceanography (3): 494-502. +IPCC (ed.) (2007). Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Cambridge Universit Press, New York. +Lotze, H.K., Lenihan, H.S. Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R.G., Kay, M.C. Kidwell, S.M., Kirby, M.X., Peterson, C.H. and Jackson, J.B. (2006). Depletion degradation, and recovery potential of estuaries and coastal seas. Science 312 1806-1809. +McLeod, E., Chmura, G.L., Bouillon, S., Salm, R., Bjark, M., Duarte, C.M., Lovelock, C.E. Schlesinger, W.H. and Silliman, B.R. (2011). A blueprint for blue carbon: Towar an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats i sequestering CO, . Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9: 552-560. +Milliman, J.D. and Emery, K.O. (1968). Sea levels during the past 35,000 years. Scienc 162: 1121-1123. +© 2016 United Nation + +Minello, T.J., Rozas, L.P., Caldwell, P.A. and Liese, C. (2012). A comparison of salt mars construction costs with the value of exported shrimp production. Wetlands 32 791-799. +Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. (2007). Wetlands, 4" Ed. +Moller, |., Kudella, M., Ruprecht, F., Spencer, T., Paul, M., van Wesenbeeck, R. Wolters, G., Jensen, K., Bouma, T.J., Miranda-Lange, M. and Schimmels, S. (2014) Wave attenuation over coastal salt marshes under storm surge conditions Nature Geoscience 7: 727-731. +Nellemann, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. M., Valdés, L., De Young, C., Fonseca, L. Grimsditch, G. (Eds.). (2009). Blue Carbon. A Rapid Response Assessment. Unite Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, www.grida.no +Nicholls, R.J., Hoozemans, F.M.J., Marchand, M. (1999). Increasing flood risk an wetland losses due to global sea-level rise: regional and global analyses. Globa Environmental Change 9: S69-87. +Olander, L.P., Cooley D.M. and Galik, C.S. (2012). The potential role for management o U.S. public lands in greenhouse gas mitigation and climate policy. Environmenta Management 49: 522-533. +Pethick, J. (2001). Coastal management and sea-level rise. Catena 42: 307-322 Ranwell, D.S. (1972). Ecology of Salt Marshes and Sand Dunes. Chapman and Hall 200 pp. +Reed, D.J. (1995). The response of coastal marshes to sea-level rise: survival o submergence? Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 20: 39-48. +Redfield, A.C. (1972). Development of a New England salt marsh. Ecological Monograph 42: 201-237. +Rozas, L.P., Calswell, P. and Minello, T.J. (2005). The fishery value of salt mars restoration projects. Journal of Coastal Research 40: 37-50. +Shenker, J.M. and Dean, J.M. (1979). The utilization of an interintertidal salt marsh cree by larval and juvenile fishes: Abundance, diversity and temporal variation Estuaries 2(3): 154-163. +Turner, R.E., Howes, B.L., Teal, J.M., Milan, C.S., Swenson, E.M. an Goehringer-Tonerb, D.D. (2009). Salt marshes and eutrophication: a unsustainable outcome. Limnology and Oceanography 54: 1634-1642. +UNEP [United Nations Environment Programme]. (2006a). Our precious coasts Nellemann, C. and Corcoran, E. (Eds). GRID Arendal Norway. +UNEP (2006b). Marine and coastal ecosystems and human wellbeing: A synthesis repor based on the findings of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. UNEP, Nairobi Kenya. Worm, B. et al. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosyste services. Science 314: 787-790. +© 2016 United Nation + +UNEP-WCMC (2015). Global distribution of saltmarsh (ver. 2.0). Unpublished dataset Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. +Zedler, J.B. and Lindig-Cisneros, R. (2000). Functional equivalency of restored an natural salt marshes. In: Concepts and Controversies in Tidal Marsh Ecology, eds M.P. Weinstein and D.A. Kreeger. Kluwer Acad. Publishers, Dordrecht, th Netherlands, pp 565-582. +Zimmerman, R.J., Minello, T.J. and Rozas, L.P. (2000). Salt marsh linkages to productivit of penaeid shrimps and blue crabs in the northern Gulf of Mexico. In Concept and controversies in tidal marsh ecology, eds. M. P. Weinstein and D. A. Kreeger 293-314. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers. +© 2016 United Nation + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_49.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_49.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_50.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_50.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b5d078d45b520b9c58be0f5716a6d99b1b925511 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_50.txt @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +Chapter 50. Sargasso Sea +Contributors: D. Freestone (convenor), H.S.J. Roe, (principal author), Lorna Innis (Co-Lead Member), D. d’A. Laffoley, K. Morrison, Jake Rice (Lead Member and Edito of Part VI), and T. Trott +1. Inventory +The Sargasso Sea is a fundamentally important area of the open ocean within th North Atlantic Sub-Tropical Gyre, bounded on all sides by clockwise rotating current (Laffoley et al., 2011). +United State of America +The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. +Figure 1. Source: https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=200098. +Named after its iconic Sargassum seaweed, the Sargasso Sea’s importance derive from the interdependent mix of its physical oceanography, its ecosystems, and it role in global-scale ocean and earth system processes. It is a place of legend, with distinct pelagic ecosystem based upon two species of floating Sargassum, th world’s only macroalgae that spend their whole life-cycle in the water colum (holopelagic), which hosts a rich and diverse community, including ten endemi species. Sargassum mats are home to >145 invertebrate species and >127 species o fish; the mats act as important spawning, nursery and feeding areas for fish, turtle and seabirds. In deeper water, the Sargasso Sea is the only known spawning area fo both the European and American Eels (Anguilla anguilla, A. rostrata). Porbeagl Sharks (Lamna nasus) migrate from Canada to the Sargasso Sea, where they ar suspected of pupping in deep water; several other shark species undertake simila migrations and may be using the area as nursery areas. Thirty species of whales +© 2016 United Nation + +occur in the Sargasso Sea and Humpback Whales (Wegaptera novaeangliae) mak regular migrations through the area en route from the Caribbean to the norther North Atlantic. Many other species, including several tuna spp., turtles, rays an swordfish, migrate through the Sargasso Sea: it is truly an ecological crossroads i the Atlantic Ocean, linking its own distinct ecosystem with Africa, the Americas, th Caribbean and Europe. Seamounts and volcanic banks rise up from the sea floor an host diverse and fragile communities of invertebrates and fish, including endemi species and others that are currently undescribed. Many of the species that occur i the Sargasso Sea are endangered or threatened and are listed on the IUCN Red List and/or in the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangere Species of Wild Fauna and Flora’ (CITES) or in the annexes of the 1990 Caribbea Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife? to the Convention fo the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbea Region® (SPAW) (see Laffoley et al., 2011). Laffoley et al. (2011) present a summar of the scientific case for the protection and management of the Sargasso Sea whic maps the area and describes its status, its importance and the threats to it continued existence. +2. Trends +The Sargasso Sea is a globally important area for ocean research and monitoring hosting the world’s longest continuous open-ocean time series of ocea measurements (i.e., Hydrostation S and the associated Bermuda Atlantic Time-serie Study (BATS) arrays) which make it possible to observe trends and changes over tim (Figure 1). These include significant warming of the surface ocean, an increase i salinity in the upper 300 m, and a decrease in surface pH (Figure 2). These data ar critical for our understanding of global processes and the role of the Sargasso Sea i these processes. The annual net primary production in the Sargasso Sea i surprisingly high, due largely to picoplankton, and as such the area plays a key role i the sequestration of carbon in the global ocean. Changes are occurring in bot phytoplankton biomass and primary production in the northern Sargasso Sea, an the possible connections between such changes and any resulting effects in th ecosystem with global climate change is an active area of research (Laffoley et al. 2011). +* United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, No. 14537 * United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1506, No. 25974 3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1506, No. 25974. +© 2016 United Nation + +Hydrostation 'S' Temperature Anomaly at 300m +1960 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 +Hydrostation'S' Salinity Anomaly at 300m +0. 0. £ 0. 0. 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 201 Year +Figure 2. Time-series plots of temperature and salinity anomaly at 300 m (STMW) for Hydrostation ‘S 1955-2011. Anomaly computed by subtracting the long-term mean for this depth. Red line shows one-year central running mean and the observed data are shown as blue dots. Long-term trends fo temperature and salinity are determined as 0.009 % year (p>0.01) and 0.002 year (p<0.01) respectively. Source: Lomas, et al (2011). +3. Pressures +In addition to climate change, the Sargasso Sea is threatened by other huma activities. Overfishing and the side effects of fishing (e.g., by-catch, lost gear) affec pelagic species e.g., blue marlin and western bluefin tuna are estimated to b overexploited; benthic trawling on seamounts has severely reduced stocks o alfonsino and destroyed benthic communities. Ship-related impacts may includ pollution from discharges, introduction of alien species through ballast water underwater noise, collisions with whales, and physical damage to Sargassum mat (Laffoley et al., 2011, 2015 in prep). Surface pollutants, including plastics, accumulat in the central Sargasso Sea, because the encircling currents trap water for periods o 50 years or more. Plastics and debris concentrate in Sargassum mats and in fronta zones where animals also concentrate to feed. Other potential pressures include th continuing commercial interest in harvesting Sargassum, the impact of submarin cables, and seabed mining (see Laffoley et al., 2011). +© 2016 United Nation + +4. Ecosystem Services +The economic importance of the Sargasso Sea is derived from direct exploitation, vi fisheries and tourism, and indirect benefits from ecosystem services. Pendleton e al. (2015), Sumaila et al. (2013), and Laffoley et al. (2011) provide varying estimate of the values of pelagic fisheries, eel fisheries in Canada, Europe and the Unite States of America that depend upon eels that spawn in the Sargasso Sea recreational fishing, reef-associated tourism, and whale and turtle watching. Sumail et al. (2013) also provide estimates of the indirect-use values for the Sargasso Se associated with the open ocean, coral reefs, coastal systems and coastal wetlands The accuracy of many of these estimates is questionable, but all values are large an emphasize the economic importance of the Sargasso Sea and the need to conserv and restore the ecosystem. +Although Sargassum generally is considered a unique feature of the Sargasso Sea, i reality mats of Sargassum have occasionally been seen in many places in the mid North Atlantic and even to wash up on island beaches from time to time. However in 2011 large mats of Sargassum appeared on beaches in many Caribbean areas, th coast of Brazil and even the coast of West Africa. Similar mass strandings occurred i 2014 and are continuing in 2015. The source of the Sargassum is not the Sargass Sea but the north equatorial recirculation region (NERR) south of the Sargasso Se between the north equatorial current and the equator. The causes of these mas blooms and strandings are uncertain but may include nutrient availability from th Amazon and Orinoco Rivers, warmer surface temperatures and changes i circulation associated with climate change (Franks et al 2011-2015 i http://www.usm.edu/gcrl/sargassum/index.php, Johnson et al 2012, Smetacek an Zingone 2013) ). The impact of these mass strandings on local economies is severe affecting tourism and recreation, as the mats are difficult to dispose of and ar unsightly and smelly as they decompose (see chapter 27). +5. Conservation Responses +The importance of the Sargasso Sea is now recognised internationally. In Octobe 2012, the Sargasso Sea was accepted by the Conference of Parties to the Conventio on Biological Diversity as meeting the criteria for an ecologically and biologicall significant area (EBSA) (se https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=200098). Also in 2012, th Bermuda Government declared the Bermuda exclusive economic zone (EEZ) to be marine mammal sanctuary and signed a Sister Sanctuary Agreement with the Unite States’ Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (Bermuda/United States MOA 2012). The overall importance of Sargassum as a habitat for pelagic fish has bee recognised by the United States (National Marine Fisheries Service 2003) and by th International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) (se Laffoley et al., 2011), and in 2012 ICCAT agreed to examine the ecologica importance of the Sargasso Sea for tuna and tuna-like species (ICCAT Resolution 12- +© 2016 United Nation + +12). The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) is also considerin proposals to protect further the seamounts in the Sargasso Sea section of thei regulatory area. On 11 March 2014, five Governments (the Azores, Bermuda Monaco, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Unite States) signed the Hamilton Declaration on Collaboration for the Conservation of th Sargasso Sea, committing themselves to collaborate on conservation in this area, an set up a Sargasso Sea Commission to facilitate this work (Freestone and Morrison 2014). The Sargasso Sea Commission is working with the Convention on th Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals—(CMS 1979) regardin conservation of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and in November 2014 the CM Conference of the Parties added it to Appendix II as a “having a conservation statu which would significantly benefit from international co-operation ...”.. (UNEP/CM 2014). It is also in discussions with the International Maritime Organization (IMO and the Bermudian shipping authorities concerning ways of mitigating shipping risk and it has recently opened a dialogue with the cable-laying industry to develop bes environmental practices (SSC Newsletter, 2015). The United Nations Genera Assembly has taken note of the efforts of the Sargasso Sea Alliance, led by th Government of Bermuda, to raise awareness of the ecological significance of th Sargasso Sea (Resolutions 67/78, 68/70 and 69/245). +References +Angel, M.V. (2011). The Pelagic Ocean Assemblages of the Sargasso Sea Around Bermuda Sargasso Sea Alliance Science Report Series, No. 1, 25pp. +Ardron, J., Halpin, P., Roberts, J., Cleary, J., Moffitt, M. and Donnelly, J. (2011). Where is th Sargasso Sea? A Report Submitted to the Sargasso Sea Alliance. Duke Universit Marine Geospatial Ecology Lab & Marine Conservation Institute. Sargasso Se Alliance Science Report Series, No. 2, 24pp. +Bermuda/USA MOA. (2014). Memorandum of Understanding between the United States o America — Department of Commerce — National Oceanic And Atmospheri Administration — National Ocean Service — Office of Marine Sanctuaries - and th Government of Bermuda — Ministry of the Environment, Planning and Infrastructur Strategy - to Collaborate on International Protection, Conservation an Management of the Humpbacked Whale (http://stellwagen.noaa.gov/sister/pdfs/bermuda_moa12.pdf accessed 10 Jul 2015). +Freestone D. and Morrison K.K. (2014). The Signing of the Hamilton Declaration o Collaboration for the Conservation of the Sargasso Sea: A New Paradigm for Hig Seas Conservation? (2014) 29 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 345 362; Text of the Declaration at 355-362. +Gollock, M. (2011). European eel briefing note for Sargasso Sea Alliance. Sargasso Se Alliance Science Report Series, No. 3, 11pp. +© 2016 United Nation + +Hallett, J. (2011). The Importance of the Sargasso Sea and the Offshore Waters of th Bermudian Exclusive Economic Zone to Bermuda and its People. Sargasso Se Alliance Science Report Series, No. 4, 18pp. +ICCAT (2013). Resolution 12-12; Resolution by ICCAT on the Sargasso Sea. ICCA Compendium Management Recommendations and Resolutions Adopted by ICCA for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas and Tuna-like Species, p. 280, available a http://www. iccat.int/Documents/Recs/ACT_COMP_2013_ENG.pdf. +Johnson, D.R., Ko, D.R., Franks, J.S., Mareno, P, and Snachez-Rubio, G. (2012). The Sargassu Invasion of the Eastern Caribbean and Dynamics of the Equatorial North Atlantic Proceedings of the 65th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 65:102-103. +Laffoley, D.d’A., Gerde, K., and Roe, H.S.J. (2015). A Strategic Assessment of the Risks Pose by Shipping to The Sargasso Sea And Evidence of Impacts. Sargasso Sea Allianc commissioned paper, 26pp. +Laffoley, D.d’A., Roe, H.S.J., Angel, M.V., Ardron, J., Bates, N.R, Boyd, L.L., Brooke, S. Buck, K.N., Carlson, C.A., Causey, B., Conte, M.H., Christiansen, S., Cleary, J. Donnelly, J., Earle, S.A., Edwards, R., Gjerde, K.M., Giovannoni, S.J., Gulick, S. Gollock, M., Hallet, J., Halpin, P., Hanel, R., Hemphill, A., Johnson, R.J., Knap, A.H. Lomas, M.W., McKenna, S.A., Miller, M.J., Miller, P.I., Ming, F.W., Moffitt, R. Nelson, N.B., Parson, L., Peters, A.J., Pitt, J., Rouja, P., Roberts, J., Roberts, J. Seigel, D.A., Siuda, A., Steinberg, D.K., Stevenson, A., Sumaila, V.R., Swartz, W. Trott, T.M., and Vats, V. (2011). The protection and management of the Sargass Sea: The golden floating rainforest of the Atlantic Ocean. Summary Science an Supporting Evidence Case. Sargasso Sea Alliance, 44pp. ISBN#-978-0-9847520-0- available at http://www.sargassoalliance.org/case-for-protection. +Lomas, M.W., Bates, N.R., Buck, K.N. and Knap, A.H. (eds) (2011a). Oceanography of th Sargasso Sea: Overview of Scientific Studies. Sargasso Sea Alliance Science Repor Series, No. 5, 64pp. +Lomas, M.W., Bates, N.R., Buck, K.N. and Knap, A.H. (2011b). Notes on "Microbia Productivity of the Sargasso Sea and How it Compares to Elsewhere," and "The Rol of the Sargasso Sea in Carbon Sequestration — Better than Carbon Neutral? Sargasso Sea Alliance Report Series, No. 6, 10pp. +Miller, M.J., and Hanel, R. (2011). The Sargasso Sea Subtropical Gyre: The Spawning an Larval Development Area of Both Freshwater and Marine Eels. Sargasso Sea Allianc Report Series, No. 7, 20pp. +National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). (2003). “Fisheries of the Caribbean, Gulf o Mexico and South Atlantic; pelagic Sargassum habitat of the south Atlantic regio (Final Rule)” Federal Register 68:192 p 57375 http://www.safmc.net/Portals/6/Library/FMP/Sargassum/SargFMPFinalrule. +Parson, L. and Edwards, R. (2011). The Geology of the Sargasso Sea Alliance Study Area Potential Non-Living Marine Resources and an Overview of the Current Territoria Claims and Coastal States Interests. Sargasso Sea Alliance Science Report Series, No 8, 17pp. +Pendleton, L., Krowicki, F., Strosser, P. and Hallett-Murdoch, J. (2015). Assessing th Economic Contribution of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services in the Sargass Sea. NI R 14-05. Durham, NC: Duke University. +Roberts, J. (2011). Maritime Traffic in the Sargasso Sea: An Analysis of International Shippin Activities and their Potential Environmental Impacts. Report to |UCN/Sargasso Sea +© 2016 United Nation + +Alliance Legal Working Group by Coastal & Ocean Management, Hampshire, UK Sargasso Sea Alliance Science Report Series, No. 9, 45pp. +Siuda, A.N.S. (2011). Summary of Sea Education Association Long-term Sargasso Sea Surfac Net Data. Sargasso Sea Alliance Science Report Series, No. 10, 18pp. +Smetacek,V. and Zingone, A. (2013) Green and golden seaweed tides on the rise. Natur 504, 84-88. doi:10.1038/Nature 12860. +SSC Newsletter (2015). Sargasso Sea Commission Newsletter, March 2015 (http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs169/1109154724045/archive/11203418782 2.html accessed 10 July, 2015). +Stevenson, A. (2011). Humpback Whale Research Project, Bermuda. Sargasso Sea Allianc Science Report Series, No. 11, 11pp. +Sumaila, U.R., Vats, V. and Swartz, W. (2013). Values from the Resources of the Sargasso Sea Sargasso Sea Alliance Science Report Series, No. 12, 24pp. +UNEP/CMS (2014). UNEP/CMS/COP11/Doc.24.1.18.Rev.1. +© 2016 United Nation + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_50.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_50.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_51.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_51.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f7ee349fcfe7c933abca42a3ce9a692931e41a51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_51.txt @@ -0,0 +1,280 @@ +Chapter 51. Biological Communities on Seamounts and Other +Submarine Features Potentially Threatened by Disturbance +Contributors: J. Anthony Koslow, Peter Auster, Odd Aksel Bergstad, J. Murra Roberts, Alex Rogers, Michael Vecchione, Peter Harris, Jake Rice, Patricio Berna (Co-Lead members) +1. Physical, chemical, and ecological characteristics +1.1 Seamounts +Seamounts are predominantly submerged volcanoes, mostly extinct, rising hundreds t thousands of metres above the surrounding seafloor. Some also arise through tectoni uplift. The conventional geological definition includes only features greater than 1000 in height, with the term “knoll” often used to refer to features 100 — 1000 m in heigh (Yesson et al., 2011). However, seamounts and knolls do not appear to differ muc ecologically, and human activity, such as fishing, focuses on both. We therefore includ here all such features with heights > 100 m. +Only 6.5 per cent of the deep seafloor has been mapped, so the global number o seamounts must be estimated, usually from a combination of satellite altimetry an multibeam data as well as extrapolation based on size-frequency relationships o seamounts for smaller features. Estimates have varied widely as a result of difference in methodologies as well as changes in the resolution of data. Yesson et al. (2011 identified 33,452 seamount and guyot features > 1000 m in height and 138,412 knoll (100 — 1000 m), whereas Harris et al. (2014) identified 10,234 seamount and guyo features, based on a stricter definition that restricted seamounts to conical forms Estimates of total abundance range to >100,000 seamounts and to 25 million fo features > 100 m in height (Smith 1991; Wessel et al., 2010). At least half are in th Pacific, with progressively fewer in the Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic Oceans Identified seamounts cover approximately 4.7 per cent of the ocean floor, wit identified knolls covering an additional 16.3 per cent, in total an area approximately th size of Africa and Asia combined, about three-fold larger than all continental shelf area in the world’s oceans (Etnoyer et al., 2010; Yesson et al., 2011). +Seamounts can influence local ocean circulation, amplifying and rectifying flows including tidal currents, particularly near seamount summits, enhancing vertical mixing and creating retention cells known as Taylor columns or cones over some seamounts These effects depend on many factors, including the size (height and diameter) of th seamount relative to the water depth, its latitude, and the character of the flow aroun the seamount (White et al., 2007). +© 2016 United Nation + +Where flows are sufficiently vigorous, they provide a sufficient flow of organic matter t support suspension feeding organisms, such as corals and sponges. Such currents als winnow away the sediment, providing hard substrate necessary for most suspensio feeders to settle and attach. Depending on depth and current regime, the seamoun benthos may be dominated by an invertebrate fauna typical of the surroundin sediment-covered slope or abyssal plain or a more specialized fauna adapted to high energy, hard substrate-dominated deep-water environments. +Seamounts that rise to mesopelagic depths or shallower (< ~1000 m) often have a associated fish fauna adapted to feed on the elevated flux of micronekton an zooplankton, as well as vertical migrators intercepted by the seamounts during thei downward diel migrations (Koslow, 1997; Clark et al., 2010b). More than 70 fish tax have been commercially exploited around seamounts (Rogers 1994), although th number of species that are found only or principally on seamounts is closer to 13 — 1 (Clark et al., 2007, Watson et al., 2007). Some, such as pelagic armorhead, orang roughy, alfonsino, oreos, and others, are found in substantial aggregations aroun seamounts, making them efficient targets for fisheries. +Many seamounts are rugged, topographically complex environments, difficult to sampl with conventional gear, such as nets. Wilson and Kaufmann’s (1987) review reporte only 596 invertebrate species recorded from seamounts to that date, with 72 per cen of these species from studies of only five seamounts. Seamount studies ramped up i the 1990s, initially based on concerns about the impacts of deep-water trawl fishing fo orange roughy and oreos on seamounts. Based on more intensive and comprehensiv sampling, Richer de Forges et al. (2000) reported more than 850 species associated wit cold-water coral and sponge communities on seamounts in the Tasman and Coral Sea of the Southwest Pacific, with potentially high levels of endemism. Seamount studie have since been carried out worldwide, significantly stimulated by collaborative effort such as the Census of Marine Life CenSeam project. A recent review found 1,222 fis species recorded from 184 seamounts (Kvile et al., 2013), approximately doubling th number of seamounts investigated and the number of species recorded from thi environment since Wilson and Kaufmann’s (1987) review. Overall species richness o seamounts cannot yet be estimated, with < 1 per cent of seamounts sampled and only few percent of those intensively studied. The number of species recorded fro seamounts continues to increase roughly in proportion to sampling effort, with n evidence yet of levelling off (Richer de Forges et al., 2000; Stocks and Hart, 2007 Castelin et al., 2011). Due to the limited sampling, the proportion of species endemic t this habitat is controversial. Some seamounts appear to represent biodiversity hotspot (Samadi et al., 2006; McClain et al., 2009), but variability is extensive, and other studie conclude that species richness is comparable on seamounts and nearby slope habitat (Consalvey et al., 2010; Howell et al., 2010; Castelin et al., 2011). +Biogeographically, seamount faunas generally appear related to the faunas of adjacen basins or continental slopes (Wilson et al., 1985; Parin et al., 1997; Mironov et al., 2006) For seamount fishes, which have been the best studied group of organisms biogeographical patterns appear to follow the distribution of dominant water masses, +© 2016 United Nation + +such as Antarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Deep Water (Koslow et al. 1994; Clark et al., 2010a and b). Whereas the dominant genera and families of deep-se demersal and midwater fishes tend to have global distributions, the dominant fis species on seamounts in different ocean basins are often from entirely different genera families, and even orders. This indicates that seamount-associated fishes in differen ocean basins were reproductively isolated and evolved independently. Their simila morphologies and adaptation to the seamount environment is a striking example o convergent evolution (Koslow, 1996). +Seamounts are the source of significant ecosystem services. In addition to thei biodiversity, seamounts often host substantial aggregations of fishes, which have bee subject to commercial fisheries. These include species for which seamounts are thei primary environment as well as a larger number for which seamounts account for smaller proportion of their global catch. Annual landings of primary seamount specie have fluctuated around 100,000 t since the 1990s, dominated by oreosomatids an orange roughy (Clark et al., 2007; Watson et al., 2007). +Seamounts, along with ridges and plateaus, host ferromanganese crusts that contai cobalt, nickel, and rare earth elements used in high-tech industries and which may hav commercial potential, although they are not presently exploited (Hein et al., 2010). +1.2 Ridges and plateaus +One of the more prominent features of the global ocean is the 75,000 km long networ of mid-ocean ridges, defined as “the linked major mid-oceanic mountain systems o global extent” (IHO, 2008), essentially created at plate boundary spreading zones, wher new crust is being formed as tectonic plates move apart. The most prominent is th Mid-Atlantic Ridge that runs down the middle of the Atlantic from the Arctic to th Southern Ocean, where it connects to the more complex system of ridges in the India Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Mid-ocean ridges in the South Pacific comprise 1.8 million km”, the largest area in a single ocean (Harris et al., 2014). Ridge features ma include islands (e.g. the Azores archipelago (Portugal) and Iceland) and seamounts Harris et al (2014) distinguish mid-ocean ridges from other ridge features that ar isolated, elongate, narrow, steep-sided and at least 1000 m in height. These ma overlap with plateaus and seamounts. Hydrothermal vents, which are treated in Chapte 45, are often associated with mid-ocean spreading ridges (Baker and German, 2013). +Studies of ridge features have increased significantly in recent years. Notable amon them are studies of the Nazca and Sala y Gomez ridges in the Southeast Pacific (e.g Parin et al., 1997; Pakhorukov, 2005), the MAR-ECO and ECOMAR studies of the Mid Atlantic Ridge in the North Atlantic (e.g. special issues of Deep-Sea Research II 55 (1) (2008). and 98 Part B (2013), Bergstad et al., 2008; Vecchione et al., 2010; Priede et al. 2013), as well as studies of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the South Atlantic (Perez et al. 2012). +© 2016 United Nation + +Ridges typically contain seamounts and sedimented slopes; not surprisingly, similaritie in the abundance, diversity, and species composition of ridge habitats are found wit both seamounts and continental margins (Priede et al., 2013). Priede et al. (2013) als noted that a deep ridge system, such as the mid-Atlantic Ridge (mostly deeper tha 1000 m), does not appear to significantly enhance oceanic productivity, although i greatly extends the area of available lower bathyal habitat. +Plateaus and banks are geologically not as well defined or as extensive as ridges, bu comprise relatively less steep and comparatively shallow features separated fro continental shelves by deep channels. In terms of shape and size, plateaus are wider an much larger than seamounts. Harris et al. (2014) mapped 184 plateaus in the world’ oceans, comprising 5.1 per cent of the ocean area. They figure most prominently in th Indian and South Pacific Oceans; Challenger, Campbell, and Kerguelen Plateaus an Chatham Rise around New Zealand are the largest such features. Despite being mostl deeper than 200 m, plateaus may be recognised as oceanic shallows or banks becaus they are disconnected from continental shelves and coastal waters. +Plateaus share many diversity characteristics and faunas with nearby continenta shelves and slopes, and ecosystem services from plateaus are also similar to those o shelves. Most plateaus are nearer to land and are considered richer in terms o harvestable resources than oceanic ridges. Both shallow and deep fisheries on plateau and banks are therefore relatively substantial. Indeed, most of the deep-water fisherie being conducted at present are either on upper continental slopes or on slopes o plateaus (Koslow et al., 2000; Watson et al., 2007). In addition to fishing, mining an hydrocarbon exploration/extraction are emerging activities on plateaus and ridge (Rona 2003, Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). +1.3 Submarine canyons +Submarine canyons are defined as “steep-walled sinuous valleys with V-shaped cros sections, axes sloping outward as continuously as river-cut land canyons, and relie comparable to even the largest land canyons” (Shephard, 1963). Recent estimates o their number and extent vary widely, depending on mapping criteria, from 448 to abou 9500 canyons in the global ocean with a total extent ranging from 25,000 to 389,505 k (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010; De Leo et al., 2010; Harris and Whiteway, 2011; Harris e al., 2014). Because they cut across the continental shelf and slope, canyons are th deep-sea environment closest to human occupancy, making them convenient to stud but also rendering them vulnerable to human stressors. +Canyons have been recognized as distinct topographic features for approximately 15 years (Dana 1863 in Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010). However, their rough topograph compared with nearby slope areas has made studying them difficult. Technologica developments of the past few decades, along with international programmes like th Census of Marine Life Continental Margins, or Continental Margin Ecosystem (COMARGE) programme (Menot et al., 2010), and the long-term programme of the +© 2016 United Nation + +Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) in Monterey Canyon have led to renaissance in canyon studies (e.g. Huvenne and Davies, 2013). Whereas most canyon globally have received little or no scientific attention from any discipline, som individual canyons (e.g., Monterey — western North America, “The Gully” — easter North America, Kaikura — New Zealand, Nazaré — western Europe) have been studied b multidisciplinary teams. +With steep walls and depositional environments along their axes, canyons ar geologically complex, including hard substrates and soft sediments, depending on th slope of the walls. Because canyons cut into the ancient sediments of continenta margins, many have hydrocarbon seeps and their associated specialized chemosyntheti communities. They also exhibit complex hydrography, intersecting and diverting along slope and along-shelf currents. The steep bottom topography can intensify these flow by topographic channelling and constriction. Density-driven flows result in episodi cascading down-canyon, transporting shallow waters into the deep sea along wit associated material. The intensified currents can result in higher physical disturbance o the benthos relative to nearby slope areas. +Canyons concentrate both biogenic and anthropogenic material along their deep axe and can transport these materials either onto the shelf or into the deep abyssa environment, depending on local flow conditions. Such material includes organic matte produced in the overlying photic zone, as well as pollutants and other anthropogeni material, either inadvertently discharged or deliberately disposed of. The concentratio of sinking surface productivity enriches benthic communities along the canyon axes an can result in high biomass. Flow may similarly enhance recruitment of early-life-histor stages of both sessile and mobile fauna by local topographic concentration of egg and/or larvae in particular areas (Vetter et al., 2010). +The hard substrates and particulate transport in canyons can support abundant, divers sessile suspension-feeding communities (hard and soft corals, sponges) and associate fauna, whereas areas of sediment accumulation support communities of deposi feeders, scavengers and their predators (De Leo et al., 2010). Canyons are also hotspot of pelagic activity, supporting feeding concentrations of air-breathing marin vertebrates (mammals, birds, turtles), including many protected species. Canyons ar also targeted by longline, trap and trawl fisheries. Some of these fisheries can damag or destroy both hard- and soft-substrate benthic communities, which may include ver long-lived and slow-growing species. As with other bathyal habitats, canyons will b affected by climate change because of changes in circulation, stratification, primar productivity, expansion of oxygen-minimum zones (OMZs), and acidification. Canyon may also serve as conduits to the deep sea for pollution (including trash) or sedimen mobilized by mining or bottom trawling (Ramiriez-Llodra et al., 2011). +© 2016 United Nation + +1.4 Trenches +Trenches are defined as “long, narrow, characteristically very deep and asymmetrica depressions(s) of the seafloor, with relatively steep sides” (IHO, 2008). In addition t featuring steep terrain with typically hard substrates, often narrow terraces and th deepest ocean depths, the trenches have flat floors with accumulated fine sediments Trenches are formed as oceanic plates collide with continental plates; the heavie oceanic plates are subducted, creating a trench. Trenches are generally narrow (<40 k wide), V-shaped in cross-section and are found near and parallel to island-arc system and continental land masses (Jamieson et al., 2010). High current velocities (10-3 cm/sec) have been recorded near the bottom in trenches, as have collapsed walls wit massive sediment slides and inferred turbidity currents (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010) These processes are responsible for the accumulation of sediments and organic matte in the axes of the trenches, similar to what occurs in canyons. +Harris et al. (2014) mapped 56 trenches in the world ocean. Trenches comprise a tota area of about 2 million km’, less than 1 per cent of the total ocean area. About 80 pe cent of all trenches, by area, are found in the North and South Pacific Oceans. Th seafloor of most trenches is at hadal depths (>6000 m) but some trenches, such as th Hellenic Trench in the Mediterranean, are shallower (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010). +Trenches are probably the most poorly-known deep-sea habitat, because of the cos and difficulty of sampling at such depths. The first biological samples from the trenc environment were obtained during the 1948 Swedish Albatross Expedition, which wa soon followed by the Danish Galathea and Soviet Vityaz Expeditions, which sample several trench environments. Bruun (1956) first defined the hadal zone (depths > 600 m) as distinct from the abyss, based on a marked transition in species composition presumably because of the need to adapt to increased pressure. Hadal depths are als below the carbonate and opal compensation depths. Some animal groups wit carbonate or siliceous skeletons are therefore excluded (non-holothurian echinoderm and non-actinarian Cnidaria) or are characterized by decreased skeletal strengt compared to their shallower relatives (gastropods and bivalves). As a result of th discontinuities between trenches and apparent difficulties of dispersion, high levels o endemism exist both within the hadal environment as a whole (56 per cent as estimate by Belyaev (1989)) and within individual trench systems at the species leve (Vinogradova, 1997; Blankenship-Williams and Levin, 2009). The hadal environment i often considered to have low biodiversity, but Blankenship-Williams and Levin (2009 note that trenches contain diverse habitats (e.g. cold seeps and hydrothermal vents steep walls) that have been particularly poorly sampled. +A few broad generalities can summarize what little is known about trench fauna Foraminifera are common even at the very deepest extremes. Patterns of metazoa diversity vary among communities based on substrate and food sources: fine sediment on ledges and the trench axis support infauna, such as macrofaunal polychaetes an meiofaunal nematodes, as well as deposit feeding epifauna dominated by holothurians hard substrates of the walls are characterized by non-calcified sessile fauna like +© 2016 United Nation + +anemones and their mobile benthic associates (e.g., amphipods); communities nea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps are dominated by metazoans dependent o symbiotic chemosynthetic microbes. An assemblage of mobile scavengers is dominate by amphipods, some remarkably large (Jamieson et al., 2013), and fishes such as liparid and macrourids (Jamieson et al., 2009; Fujii et al., 2010). +Because of their extreme depth, trenches have not been subject to commercial activity such as fishing, mining, or energy extraction. However, they have been subject t dumping, such as of pharmaceuticals in the Puerto Rico trench (Ramirez-Llodra et al. 2011). +2. Documented anthropogenic impacts on the deep ocean including their histor (as appropriate) on a regional basis. +2.1 Fishing +A few deep-water artisanal hook and line fisheries around islands and seamount maintained steady landings with few environmental impacts for decades to centurie (e.g. oilfish in the South Pacific and black scabbardfish around Madeira (Koslow 2007 Silva and Pinho, 2007). Modern large-scale fisheries on seamounts, ridges, and othe features with abrupt topographies were initiated after World War Il, fostered b technological developments and distant-water industrial fishing. Gillnets, longlines, an both pelagic and bottom trawls are the primary gears (Gianni, 2004; Clark et al., 2007 Bensch et al., 2009). Bottom trawls have had greatest impact, affecting both targete and non-targeted species including associated benthic communities (Koslow et al., 2001 Clark and Koslow, 2007; Clark and Rowden, 2009). These fisheries have occurred in al oceans except the Arctic. +The first Pacific seamount-associated fisheries were for pelagic species, such a albacore, that aggregated over seamounts in the North Pacific. From 1967 to 1989, demersal seamount trawl fishery targeting aggregations of pelagic armorhead on th Emperor Seamount chain landed about 800,000 tons of armorhead along with abou 80,000 t of alfonsino (Clark et al., 2007). These stocks were depleted and have still no recovered (NPFC, 2014). +Two species of red coral (Corallium spp.) were also depleted sequentially from th Emperor seamounts by a tangle-net fishery between 1965 and 1990 (Clark and Koslo 2007; Koslow, 2007). +Since the mid-1970s, trawl fisheries expanded to seamounts and plateaus in the Sout Pacific, predominantly for orange roughy and oreos, but also for alfonsino, blac cardinalfish, and other species (Clark et al., 2007). A series of these stocks underwen boom-and-bust cycles, mostly in the space of 5 — 10 years and many have not recovere (Clark et al., 2007). Both pelagic and demersal fisheries also occurred on seamounts an ridges in the southeast Pacific, the East Pacific Rise, the Nazca and Sala-y-Gomez Ridges, +© 2016 United Nation + +and the Chilean Rise. Catches were not large nor were they sustainable (Clark et al. 2007). +In the Southern Ocean, seamounts were fished for nototheniids between 1974 an 1991. In the 1990s, the ridges, plateaus, and seamounts around remote sub-Antarcti islands came to be heavily fished for Patagonian toothfish with trawls and longlines Initially much illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing occurred but ha declined significantly since 1996 (Agnew et al., 2009). +Large-scale industrial deep-water fisheries in the North Atlantic date to th development of redfish fisheries in the 1950s using both midwater and demersal trawl over the mid-Atlantic Ridge and on some plateaus. Redfish catches peaked at almos 400,000 tons in the 1950s and have declined considerably but several continue t support some harvest (Koslow et al., 2000; ICES, 2013). Fisheries for roundnos grenadier and Greenland halibut first developed on the upper continental slopes of th Northwest Atlantic in the late 1960s, peaking at over 80,000 tons in 1971 and the rapidly declined and moved to the mid-Atlantic Ridge and Rockall-Hatton Bank in 197 (Troyanovsky and Lisovsky, 1995; Clark et al., 2007). Several other species have bee exploited from the seamounts and ridges of the North Atlantic, including alfonsino orange roughy, deep-water sharks, ling, blue ling, black cardinalfish, tusk, deep-wate crabs and shrimp, and others (Clark et al., 2007; Bensch et al., 2009). From the latte half of the 1990s onwards, declines in catch per unit effort (CPUE) indicated that mos targeted North Atlantic deep-water fisheries were overfished and some severel depleted (Koslow et al., 2000; Large et al., 2003; Large and Bergstad, 2005; Devine et al. 2006; Bensch et al., 2009; Rogers and Gianni, 2010). +In 2003, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) deemed tha most deep-water stocks “were probably outside safe biological limits.” In the las decade fisheries on seamounts and ridges in the Atlantic have declined significantly du to a combination of declining fish populations, significantly altered socioeconomi conditions, and increased regulation by national governments and Regional Fisherie Management Organizations (RFMOs). +Retrospective analyses based on research vessel surveys also indicated that severa target and non-target species in the Northwest Atlantic had declined by >90 per cen between 1978 and 1994 (Devine et al., 2006). Many fishery restrictions wer implemented and recent survey data indicate biomass levels have stabilized in mos surveyed areas (Neat and Burns, 2010). However, recovery for deep-water species wit low productive capacity will probably take decades or longer (Baker et al. 2009; Nea and Burns, 2010). +Seamount fisheries in the South Atlantic have been undertaken at a smaller scale than i the North Atlantic. However, there have been seamount fisheries targeting orang roughy, alfonsino, cardinal fish, armorhead, Patagonian toothfish and deep-sea red crab and some continue to the present day (Rogers and Gianni, 2010; www.seafo.org). +© 2016 United Nation + +Exploratory trawl fishing on seamounts in the Indian Ocean began in the 1970s targetin shallow-water redbait and rubyfish on the Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, th Mozambique Ridge and the Madagascar Ridge (Romanov, 2003; Clark et al., 2007) an continued into the mid-1980s. In the late 1990s, trawlers working on the Southwes Indian Ocean Ridge targeted deep-water species, such as orange roughy, blac cardinalfish, pelagic armorhead, oreosomatids and alfonsino (Clark et al., 2007), but th fishery rapidly collapsed (Gianni, 2004). Fishing has shifted to the many ridges seamounts and plateaus targeting a variety of species of deep-sea fish and crustacean (Clark et al., 2007; Bensch et al., 2009; SWIOFC, 2009). +Overall, deep-water demersal fisheries over the continental slope, ridges, seamounts and plateaus have landed between 800,000 and 1,000,000 t per annum from the mid 1960s to 1990s (Koslow et al., 2000) and annual landings on the order of 100,000 t sinc about 1990 (Clark et al., 2007; Watson et al., 2007). The vast majority of seamount associated demersal fisheries have proven unsustainable, undergoing a boom-and-bus cycle that has usually lasted less than 10 years. Many of the stocks have vulnerable lif histories and are small, remote, and difficult to monitor and manage effectively (Koslow 2007). However, during the last 10-15 years many States and intergovernmenta organizations have recognized the need for enhanced management action to protec vulnerable marine species and habitats to facilitate the recovery of depleted stocks. +2.2 Fishing impacts on seamount benthic habitats +Energetic seamount habitats that support substantial fish aggregations also often hos diverse, productive benthic habitats dominated by corals, sponges, and associated faun (Rogers et al., 2007; Samadi et al., 2007). Demersal trawling on seamounts generall removes benthic habitat as by-catch along with the target species or destroys i converting reefs and other structure-forming species to rubble. See chapter 11 for mor details on the nature of these impacts. The United Nations General Assembly has bee looking into the impact of bottom trawling (e.g. resolutions 61/105, 64/72 and 66/68), although no global assessment has been carried out on the extent of benthic impacts The documented widespread extent of deep-water trawl fisheries has led to pervasiv concern for the conservation of fragile benthic habitats. Moreover, on seamount where trawling has been discontinued, little regeneration is observed even after five t 10 years (Althaus et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2010) and recovery may require centurie to millennia. Because of the close correspondence between the productivity an diversity of seamount benthic habitats, there are likely few diverse seamount habitat within the vertical range of bottom-trawl fishing that remain pristine, and many hav been denuded, their coral and sponge habitats reduced to rubble. +Examples of measures taken by regional fisheries management organizations an arrangements (RFMO/As) to avoid or mitigate fishing impacts on benthic habitat include: +* Reports of the Secretary-General on this issue have been issued as A/61/154, A/64/305 and A/66/307. +© 2016 United Nation + +— Both the North Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) and North East Atlanti Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) in the North Atlantic set quotas for deep-se stocks based on scientific assessments, and have identified and closed to fishin areas that meet the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation (FAO) criteria for vulnerable marine ecosystems. +— The Southeast Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO) has closed selected ridg sections and seamounts to fishing, restricted fisheries to certain subareas, an introduced catch quotas (TACs) for the fishes and deep-water crab targeted o seamounts. +— States which participated in the negotiations for the establishment of the Nort Pacific Fisheries Commission have established interim measures for fisherie management and are working towards stock assessments to modify fishin effort to sustainable levels (Rogers & Gianni, 2010; NPFC, 2014). +— The South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organization has called fo interim conservation measures, including freezing of the fishing footprint an catch based on historical patterns of fishing which have been implemented b some States (SPRFMO, 2014). Efforts are underway by some member States t map vulnerable marine ecosystems and to assess fisheries data in order t estimate stock biomass and sustainable levels of exploitation (SPRFMO, 2014). +— The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resource banned bottom trawl fishing; has restricted remaining fishing opportunities t previously licensed fishing areas or exploratory areas and species specific catc quotas (or total allowable catches (TACs)); and is implementing spatial measure to prevent adverse impacts on bottom-associated vulnerable marin communities. +— The Southern Indian Ocean Deep-sea Fishers Association declared a number o seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean as voluntary closed areas to fishin although levels of compliance amongst non-members are unknown. With th ratification in 2012 of the Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA), new regional fisheries management arrangement for the region is expected t lead to better data collection and regulation of seamount fisheries. +While these actions are progressive, their effectiveness in ensuring the sustainability o exploitation of populations or recovery of vulnerable species and communities is not ye clear (see sections 4-6 below). Indeed whether full closures will result in recovery o vulnerable communities to a former state or a shift to some less desirable communit state remains uncertain given current knowledge. +2.3 Pollution +The deep sea was once considered as being too remote from the point sources o industrial pollution for pollution to be a significant issue. However, key contaminants of +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +concern, including mercury and many halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT, PCBs, an many other pesticides, herbicides, and industrial chemicals) are volatile and enter th ocean predominantly through the atmosphere. These are discussed in Chapter 20. A noted there, concentrations of persistent organic pollutants in deep-sea-dwelling fis may be an order of magnitude higher than in surface-dwelling fish, and the deep sea ha been described as one of the ultimate global sinks for such contaminants. Butyl tin, a antifoulant that causes imposex in mollusks, is reported in elevated concentrations i deep-sea organisms, particularly in the vicinity of shipping lanes (Takahashi et al., 1997) and microplastics are now widely reported in deep-sea sediments (van Cauwenbergh et al., 2013). +2.4 Climate change, including acidification and deoxygenation +Predicted shoaling in the depth of calcium carbonate saturation horizons will expos large areas of seamount, ridge, plateau and slope habitat to undersaturated water (Guinotte et al., 2006). Recent reviews and meta-analyses of the impacts of ocea acidification summarize the present understanding of its effects on cold-water coral (e.g. Wicks and Roberts, 2012), although to date no experimental studies have focuse on seamount species. Studies have highlighted the ability of live cold-water corals t maintain calcification at reduced pH (Maier et al., 2009; Form and Riebesell 2012) bu synergistic effects with increasing temperature and longer-term effects on resourc allocation and reproduction remain unknown. It is becoming clear that deep-wate ecosystems may experience more natural variability in carbonate chemistry than wa previously supposed (Findlay et al., 2013; Findlay et al., 2014) and that calcareou species can persist even in under-saturated conditions on Tasmanian seamount (Thresher et al., 2011). However, undersaturated waters will be corrosive to dead cora skeletons that provide structural habitat for many other species, a factor potentiall explaining the limited scleractinian coral reef framework on the Hebrides Terrac Seamount (Henry et al., 2014). Increased carbon dioxide and reduced pH may als directly affect marine organisms’ physiology, growth, and behaviour (Wicks and Roberts 2012). It is thus necessary to understand their ecosystem-level impacts, such as th effects of acidification on bioerosion of deep-water corals (Wisshak et al., 2012). +Global climate models predict that oxygen concentrations will decline in the deep ocea due to decreased ventilation (a warmer ocean will be a more stratified ocean) an decreased oxygen solubility at warmer temperatures (Sarmiento et al., 1998; Matea and Hirst, 2003; Shaffer et al., 2009). Over the past 20 years, oxygen concentration have declined in regions around the North Pacific Ocean and the tropical Indian, Atlanti and Pacific Oceans which have pronounced OMZs, with concomitant horizontal an vertical expansion of these OMZs (Whitney et al. 2007, Bograd et al., 2008; Stramma e al., 2008; Keeling et al., 2010). Benthic communities are dramatically affected wher OMZs impinge on seamounts, ridges or continental margins, with greatly reduce biomass and biodiversity (Wishner et al., 1990; Levin 2003; Stramma et al., 2010) Deoxygenation may also affect deepwater benthic organisms indirectly through habitat +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +loss and declining food availability. Midwater fishes, the primary food of man deepwater squid and fish species, including orange roughy, declined ~60 per cent durin recent periods of low-oxygen availability in the California Current (Koslow et al., 2011) Palaeoceanographic studies have pointed to the significance of perturbations in oxyge concentration in controlling deep coral occurrence in the Eastern Mediterranean (Fin et al. 2012) and on seamounts (Thiagarajan et al., 2013). Most major marine mas extinction events in the geological past are associated with anoxia and acidificatio (Harnik et al., 2012). +2.5 Mining +There is the possibility of future mining of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on th bare volcanic rock of seamounts, ridges and plateaus found particularly on seamount within the exclusive economic zones of island States in the western equatorial Pacifi (Rona, 2003; see Chapter 23). Significant differences have been found in th communities inhabiting cobalt-crust-hosting seamounts in the northern Pacific an seamounts outside of the cobalt-rich zone (Schlacher et al., 2013). These differences ar not related to species richness but more to the relative abundance of species an community composition in the cobalt-crust rich areas versus non-cobalt rich areas. high level of heterogeneity amongst the seamounts in terms of their biologica communities within the region was also found. Thus, although it is suggested tha mining operations will severely affect a small percentage of available seamount are (Hein et al., 2010), predicting the impacts of such activities will be complicated an precautionary spatial management of mining activities based on scientific informatio will be required. +2.6 Dumping +Although in the past dumping has been a significant issue in the deep sea (Thiel, 2003) it has not been a major issue for most of the habitats treated here, except trenches Pharmaceutical dumping was permitted in the Puerto Rico Trench from 1973-78, wit some 378,000 tons dumped. Impact was noted on the microbial community an invertebrates, and the dumping was halted in early 1980s (reviewed in Ramirez-Llodr et al., 2010). Dumping of radioactive waste in trenches was banned in the 1990s (se Chapter 24). +3. Social and economic considerations, including capacity-building needs. +To date, deep-water fisheries comprise the primary documented direct contribution o seamounts, ridges, canyons, and plateaus to human social and economic wellbeing Estimating this contribution is challenging, and it is certain that other ecosystem +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +services are provided by these ecosystems that have not been specifically identified o in any way valued. +Deep-water fisheries exploiting resources associated with seamounts, ridges, an plateaus are a relatively minor component of global fisheries, comprising about 1 pe cent of total annual landings (Koslow et al., 2000; Gianni, 2004; Clark et al., 2007 Watson et al., 2007; Bensch et al., 2009; Sumaila et al., 2010). High-seas bottom-traw fisheries are carried out predominantly by a few developed countries of Asia, Oceani and Europe: Australia, Denmark (Faroe Islands), Estonia, France, Iceland, Japan, Latvia Lithuania, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Spain and Ukrain (Gianni 2004; Sumaila et al., 2010). These fisheries account for about 2 per cent of th total landings and about 3 per cent of the landed value for these countries’ fisheries Total subsidies (fuel and non-fuel) for the high-seas bottom-trawl fisheries ar estimated to be about 25 per cent of their value and substantially more than their ne profit (Sumaila et al., 2010). Gianni (2004) estimated that high-seas bottom trawlin occupied the equivalent of 100-200 vessels full time out of a total of 3.1 million fishin vessels worldwide. +Deep-water trawling affects the sedentary species on the continental shelf of countries which can extend beyond 200 nautical miles. Many of these are developing countrie which may need capacity-building in this regard (Gianni 2004). Fisheries associated wit seamounts and other submarine topographic features are exceptionally difficult t manage sustainably. Capacity-building is desirable in the areas of stock assessment an sustainable management where such fisheries occur around developing States. This ma require investment in international infrastructure (e.g. fisheries research vessels) that i often unavailable to developing States as well as investment at a national level (e.g fisheries research laboratories and scientists, fisheries ministries). An example of th former is the Nansen Programme that has operated around the Africa Coast and in th Indian Ocean for several decades. +If mining of seamounts proceeds, multi-sectoral management will be needed, i particular the need to balance mining and fishery interests with those of conservation Within areas under national jurisdiction, the agencies that manage mineral resource generally have no authority to manage the exploitation of living marine resources. Th same is true of the International Seabed Authority with regard to the “Area”. +4. Management and conservation of the habitat and its resources. +Several scientific reviews of deep-water fisheries over seamounts, ridges, and othe abrupt topographies in deep waters have called attention to serious deficiencies in thei management and conservation (Koslow et al., 2000; Koslow, 2007 (Chapter 10); Clark e al., 2007; Clark 2009; Rogers and Gianni 2010; Norse et al., 2012). Key contributin factors include the life-history characteristics of many exploited and bycatch species extreme longevity, late maturity, slow growth, and infrequent recruitment events. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +These characteristics lead to low productivity and high vulnerability to over-exploitation Low productivity in itself promotes unsustainable harvest practices based on economi incentives to liquidate a relatively unprofitable resource (Clark, 1973). In addition, man of the stocks are small and aggregated predominantly over isolated features, such a seamounts, making the populations highly vulnerable to serial depletion. The fisherie are carried out predominantly with bottom trawls, which are severely destructive to th fishes’ associated benthic habitats, which are often dominated by structure-formin taxa such as corals and sponges. +Deep-sea fisheries within the EEZs of coastal States are in a varied state includin depleted, overfished and sustainably fished at the present time (e.g. ICES, 2014). Low productivity deep-sea species have tended to fall into the former two categories Management of deep-water fisheries on the high seas, where many of the stocks occur is more complicated and difficult. To address this situation, the United Nations Genera Assembly adopted resolutions 61/105, 64/72 and 66/68 in 2006, 2009 and 2011 respectively, calling on RFMOs and States to manage high-seas deep-water fisherie sustainably through the application of the precautionary approach to fisherie management, and in 2008 the FAO Guidelines for the management of deep-sea fisherie on the high seas were adopted (FAO, 2009; Norse et al., 2012). These resolutions of th General Assembly recommended that impact assessments be carried out prior to th development of new fisheries and steps taken, such as setting aside reserves, o eliminating damaging forms of fishing from sensitive areas, to ensure the conservatio of vulnerable habitat. This approach should be adopted prior to mining development a well. +Because of deep-water fishing impacts on sensitive benthic habitats, many States an RFMOs have set aside portions of such habitats as marine reserves or bottom-fishin closures in the Atlantic and North and South Pacific Oceans (e.g. NAFO, NEAFC an SEAFO; Clark and Dunn, 2012). In general, many of the areas that were protected or ar planned to be protected through area-based management tools by States and b RFMOs are located in areas remote from where commercial activities occur or ar expected to fail to protect those species, communities and habitats most threatene (Devillers et al., 2014). Given the difficulties of surveying deep-water habitats, predictiv habitat models may prove useful to identify areas that might be designated fo protective measures to meet conservation goals (Taranto et al., 2012; Yesson et al. 2012) as recently put forward in SPRFMO (SPRFMO, 2014). +However, Rogers and Gianni (2010) have provided examples of inadequat implementation of the FAO Guidelines. The need to review the efficacy of conservatio measures has been underlined (e.g., the details of move-on rules: Auster et al., 2011). I 2013 and 2014 several RFMOs revised their relevant management measures. Report on actions taken by States and RFMOs in response to United Nations General Assembl resolutions 64/72 and 66/68 are due to be reviewed by the General Assembly in 2016 We believe this is likely to be the case for many deep-water marine reserves, althoug this issue has not been specifically addressed for the deep sea. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +5. Integrated assessment of the status of the habitat. Cross-cutting and emergen conclusions. +The development of deep-water fisheries, particularly those carried out across wid areas with bottom trawls over seamounts, ridges, canyons and plateaus at uppe bathyal depths, have been one of the most transformative human impacts affectin such areas of the global ocean in the latter half of the twentieth century (Ramirez-Llodr et al., 2011). Impacts appear to have been greatest on shallow seamounts, because th depth, biological and physical conditions (e.g. accelerated current flows) support fis resources that can easily be targeted. However, a continuum of physical conditions an biological communities is found on these types of features. All of these communitie have been subject to deep-water fisheries and their impacts. +The vast majority of deep-water fisheries have been carried out unsustainably, or a least without satisfactory assessments of impacts and sustainability. This has led to th serial depletion of dozens of stocks from about a dozen species commercially harveste from these habitats. Severe impacts have been reported for by-catch species, includin other fishes and benthic invertebrates from the diverse coral and sponge communitie found on these communities. The extent of benthic impacts has been described for loca fishing grounds but has not been assessed globally; however, if the impacts of thes regional studies are generalized, we can extrapolate that fishing, and in particular deep water trawling, has caused severe, widespread, long-term destruction of thes environments globally. The time scale for recovery of deep-water reef habitats i unknown but has been estimated to be on the order of centuries to millennia. Althoug progress has been made toward sustainable management and conservation of fis stocks and associated diverse, vulnerable benthic communities, numerous studies sho that progress to date has not been adequate, with fisheries often closed or limited onl after severe depletion has already occurred. +Extractive industries, such as mining and oil and gas development, are generall required to carry out baseline monitoring and assess their environmental impacts prio to development. The General Assembly has called upon States to strengthen th procedures for carrying out assessments on the impacts of bottom fishing activities o vulnerable marine ecosystems and to make the assessments publicly available; not al are currently available. Deep-water fishing has until recently been permitted to procee in areas of highly diverse and vulnerable ecosystems without consideration o environmental impacts (despite the known, highly destructive impacts of thes activities). There is an urgent need, even at this late date, for baseline monitoring o seamount habitats in regions of ongoing and potential fishing activity, and in areas se aside for protection. It is critical that relevant scientific expertise is engaged to develo representative networks of marine protected areas, which may then require th development of conservation measures, such as banning of destructive fishing methods Reviews of existing conservation measures could address whether conservation and +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +management objectives are met. Devillers et al. (2014) consider that high-seas MPA must address conservation needs and not be merely designated in areas remote fro commercial interests. +The impacts of pollution and climate change, including deoxygenation and acidification remain poorly understood but are potentially severe. There is an urgent need fo research to examine how these factors may potentially influence deep-water benthi communities. +Mining of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts from these habitats has been mooted bu remains uncertain. Mining would remove all benthic organisms where crust is remove and potentially affect a larger area through sediment mobilization. The environmenta impact of mining operations would need to be considered carefully, considering th impacts on regional fisheries and benthic communities, and consideration given t setting aside areas for conservation. +6. Gaps in scientific knowledge. +Since 2000, scientific interest in the ecology of seamounts, ridges, and other sensitiv submarine benthic habitats has burgeoned. The development of deep-water fisherie and the need to understand and manage these fisheries and their environmenta impacts stimulated this interest, with support from international programmes like th Census of Marine Life. However, these habitats are vast, as well as difficult an expensive to study and the research to date has been largely exploratory. Even afte more than a decade of scientific activity, it is apparent that these habitats still remai relatively poorly known. Only a few hundred of the 10° — 10’ seamounts have bee sampled, and the rate of discovery of new species still has not levelled off. +Predictive habitat models have recently been developed to indicate where such habitat are likely to occur, but no one has attempted to assess their present status or the globa impact of deep-water trawling, and it is doubtful that the data exist to do so. Thes models remain largely untested; it is urgently necessary to ground-truth them Furthermore, knowledge of deep pelagic ecosystems is especially poor (Webb et al. 2010) and the ecological interactions between the geological features considered her and the overlying water column comprise a substantial gap. +Deep-sea ecosystems associated with seamounts, ridges, and other topographi features are now and will increasingly be subjected to multiple stressors from habita disturbance, pollutants, climate change, acidification and deoxygenation. Studies t date on these impacts have been limited and considered in isolation. The scientifi understanding of how these stressors may interact to affect marine ecosystems remain particularly poorly developed. For example, the widespread destruction of deep-wate benthic communities due to trawling has presumably reduced their ecological an evolutionary resilience as a result of reduced reproductive potential and loss of genetic +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +diversity and ecological connectivity. The synergistic influence of these factors i unknown at present. +Although it is heartening that some seamounts, ridges and other sensitive marin habitats are being protected by fishing closures, Marine Protected Areas and othe actions, little scientific understanding of the efficacy of actions implemented to date an few studies to assess this exist. The connectivity between these habitats remains largel unknown, as are the factors that influence colonization, species succession, resilienc and variability. Comparative studies of seamount, canyon, and continental margi habitats seem to indicate that many species are shared (but see Richer de Forges et al. 2000); however, community structure differs markedly and the factors influencing suc differences remain unknown (McClain et al., 2009). Our starting point in attempting t understand and manage these habitats is, to paraphrase Socrates, that we know almos nothing. +References +Agnew, D.J., Pearce, J., Pramod, G., Peatman, T., Watson, R., Beddington, J.R. Pitcher, T.J. (2009). Estimating the worldwide extent of illegal fishing. PLo ONE 4(2): e4570. +Althaus, F., Williams, A., Schlacher, T.A., Kloser, R.J., Green, M.A., Barker, B.A. Bax, N.J., Brodie, P., Schlacher-Hoenlinger, M.A. (2009). Impacts of botto trawling on deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting. Marin Ecology Progress Series 397: 279-294. +Angel, M.V. (1982). Ocean trench conservation. 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Journal of Biogeography 39(7): 1278-1292. +© 2016 United Nations +2 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_51.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_51.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_52.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_52.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..2f0794e8f0365c2853cfbd588e8911997b7fba6e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_52.txt @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +Chapter 52. Synthesis of Part VI: Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats +Group of Experts: Jake Rice +1. Biodiversity itself +Biodiversity has natural patterns globally, at all levels from phytoplankton to to predators, including fish, marine reptiles, seabirds, and marine mammals. Main factor that underlie these patterns include depth and proximity to coastline, latitude, habita complexity and primary productivity, temperature and substrate (Chapter 34). Thes patterns occur on many scales from meters to full ocean basins; the mosaic structure o seafloor benthic biodiversity is often particularly strong. Some types of species ar particularly widespread and/or have specialized life history characteristics, making the even more vulnerable to threats and pressures than most other species. They receiv special attention in both characterizing the factors that determine their patterns o distribution and in assessing their trends and the associated pressures. +Chapter 35 highlights that although many such patterns are well documented, th ocean’s diversity of species, communities and habitats is far from completely sampled As research continues, new species, new patterns of distribution, and new relationship between components of biodiversity and natural and anthropogenic drivers are bein discovered. The incompleteness of our knowledge of biodiversity and the factors tha affect it means that decision-making about potential impacts will be subject to hig uncertainty, and the application of precaution is appropriate. Nevertheless, a documented below, a central message from Part VI is that detrimental trends i biodiversity on many scales can be at least mitigated, and sometimes eliminated, eve when knowledge is incomplete, if the available knowledge is enough to use in choosin appropriate measures and the capacity for implementation of the measures is available. +1.1 Biodiversity hotspots +Although nearly all parts of the ocean support marine life, biodiversity hotspots exis where the number of species and the abundance and/or concentration of biota ar consistently high relative to adjacent areas. Some are sub-regional, like the cora triangle in the Pacific (Chapter 36D.2.3) and coral reefs in the Caribbean (Chapter 43) cold-water corals in the Mediterranean Sea (Chapter 36A) the deep seas (Chapter 36F and the Sargasso Sea (Chapter 51). Some are more local and associated with specifi physical conditions, such as biodiversity-rich habitat types. This Assessment has severa chapters on these types of special habitats, such as hydrothermal vents (Chapter 45) cold-water (Chapter 42) and warm-water (chapter 43) corals, seamounts and related +© 2016 United Nation + +deep-sea habitats (chapter 51), and the sea-ice zone (Chapter 46), that highlight some o the main factors making an area richer in biodiversity than adjacent areas. Key driver of biodiversity are complex three-dimensional physical structures that create a diversit of physical habitats (e.g., Chapters 42, 43 on corals, 44 on hydrothermal vents, 51 o seamounts) , dynamic oceanographic conditions causing higher bottom-up productivit (e.g., the North Pacific Transition Zone discussed in Chapter 36C, the eastern boundar currents discussed in Chapter 36B.1 [Benguela Current] and 36D.1 [Humboldt Current] and the ice front of the Southern Ocean (Chapter 36H.2.1), as well as the specia seasonality of production in the Southern Ocean benthic communities (Chapte 36H2.4)), effects of land-based inputs extending far out to sea (36B1 [Congo, Plata an Amazon Rivers]) and special vegetation features creating unique and productiv habitats nearshore (e.g., kelp forests, Chapter 47; mangroves, Chapter 48; salt marshes Chapter 49; and offshore (Sargasso Sea, Chapter 50). +2. Bridge to trends and impacts +These habitat-based hotpots are of double concern for the following reasons. A hotspots they support high absolute and relative levels of biodiversity, unique specie adapted to their special features, and often serve as centres for essential life histor processes of species with wider distributions (e.g., lagoons and spawning beaches fo sea turtles, Chapter 39.4.1; upwelling and similar high-productivity centres for foragin seabirds, Chapter 38.3; haul-out sites for pinnipeds, Chapter 37.3.3.2); mangrove (Chapter 48); seagrasses (Chapter 47); estuaries (Chapter 44); and cold-water coral (Chapter 42): all harbour juvenile fish which are important for fisheries in adjacen areas. +Sometimes because of the special physical features that contribute to high biodiversity and sometimes because of the concentration of biodiversity itself, these hotspots ar often magnets for human activities; therefore, many societies and industries are mos active in the areas that are also biodiversity hotspots. As on land, humanity has foun the greatest social and economic benefits in the places in the ocean that are highl productive and structurally complex. For example, of the 32 largest cities in the world 22 are located in estuaries (Chapter 44), mangroves and coral reefs support small-scal (artisanal) fisheries in developing countries (Chapter 36.D.2.3, Chapters 43, 48), an commercial fishing targets fish aggregations over seamounts (Chapter 51). +These hotspots are also recognized in the scientific and technical information on classe of special habitats, such as Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas [EBSAs] (CBD and Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems [VMEs] (FAO), and similar classes of special habitats These are available to policy-makers and managers in shipping, seabed mining and othe sectors. The tendency for biodiversity hotspots to attract human uses and becom socio-economic hotspots, with a disproportionate representation of ports and coasta infrastructure (Chapter 18), other coastal land used (Chapter 20), fishing (Chapter 11) +© 2016 United Nation + +and aquaculture (Chapter 12) is one of the major challenges to conservation an sustainable use of marine biodiversity. +3. Trends in biodiversity for species and groups of species +Superimposed on these patterns at all scales are temporal trends. Biodiversity is no static, hence both random variation and multi-year trends would occur withou anthropogenic pressures (for example, Chapter 36C, Figures 8,9,10, which sho substantial variation in chlorophyll and zooplankton well offshore of the main influence of land-based inputs, and Chapter 36F, Table 1A; Chapter 36D.2.1, 36G.2, 36H.2.1 36H2.2, showing substantial variation in bottom-up productivity in the open ocean an high-latitude seas where anthropogenic nutrient inputs are not large enough to b major drivers of basin-scale trends). +Human uses of the ocean have imposed much greater temporal trends on al biodiversity components. This Assessment found evidence of these temporal trend due to human drivers in every regional assessment and for all components o biodiversity, with some emergent patterns. They are summarized below. +3.1 Phytoplankton and zooplankton +Natural regime shifts have changed baseline bottom-up productivity to some extent and the species composition of the phytoplankton and zooplankton to a greater exten (e.g., Chapter 36C, Figures 1, 3, 4) on the change in plankton community composition Changes in species composition of lower trophic levels have broader ecologica consequences, because such changes have been found to affect pathways of energ flow to higher levels, affecting species of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals (e.g. Chapter 36A.7 [Gulf of St. Lawrence], Chapter 36G, Figure 1, both showing changes i food-web structure; Chapter 36A.3, 36D.2.1, 36D.2.2, and 36H.2.2, all showing change in animal community composition in response to productivity drivers). +In coastal areas, human pressures on bottom-up processes were documented in all th divisions of the ocean described in chapter 36. Scales can be local to, occasionally, tha of full semi-enclosed seas; the largest effects are documented where huma populations are most dense (Chapter 36A.7 [Mediterranean, Baltic and North Seas] Chapter 36C, Figure 36C-6), but local effects are even seen in high-latitude seas (Chapte 36G [Trends]; 36H.1). +Many documented cases were found where high levels of contaminants or land-base nutrient runoff dramatically reduced diversity of species (Chapter 36C, Figure 36C-1 Chapter 36E.2; see also Chapter 20) or diminished or sometimes eliminated diversit due to hypoxia (see Chapter 36C.2(c) on hypoxia; Chapters 20, 44). +© 2016 United Nation + +Many documented cases were also found where adoption of appropriate policies t address sources, along with funding for monitoring, correcting problems at source, an when necessary clean-up of affected areas, has reversed these trends and achieve good environmental quality (examples in Chapter 36A.7 [North Sea, Baltic Sea Chesapeake Bay]). +Further out on shelves and in the open ocean, anthropogenically driven trends in lowe trophic levels were less conclusively documented except for climate change (example in Chapter 36C, Figures 36C-8, 9; 36D.2.1, 36G ). Documentation of effects seems t emerge more strongly as monitoring continues. When direct impacts of pressures wer found, causes generally were due to changes in temperature, water masses (currents upwelling) and seasonality (examples in Chapters 36A.2, 36B.2, Table 36B1; 36C.1 36D.2.1, 36E.2) and acidification (Chapter 6.5.3). +A second pervasive pressure on phytoplankton and zooplankton in all parts of th ocean, from coastal embayments to open-ocean areas, are alien invasive species Ocean physical transport processes and incidental transfer by highly migratory specie have always resulted in the possibility that new species would be introduced into a area, become established, and alter energy flows and community structure. As climat change affects temperature and salinity conditions in the ocean, species also ma respond with changes in range; the relatively cold-adapted species in a communit withdraws towards the poles and species relatively more adapted to warmer condition expand their range towards the poles. Both types of range changes again can affect th patterns of productivity and community relationships in the areas experiencing change in species composition of lower trophic levels (e.g., Chapter 36D.2.2). Active, albei unintentional, transport of species with shipping (Chapter 17) and occasionally touris can lead to invasions of species across basins and sometimes even greater distances. I is a largely academic argument whether changes associated with natural transpor processes and climate-related changes in physical ocean conditions are “invasions”, bu the impacts on system structure and dynamics can range from negligible to dramatic. +Cases are documented in all regions of alien species becoming established in new areas and a portion of such invasions have caused almost complete restructuring of th plankton communities at scales from bays to semi-enclosed seas, with consequences fo the biodiversity of all higher trophic levels (Chapter 36A.7 [Black Sea]; 36C, Figure 7). +3.2 Benthos +Temporal trends have been less widely documented because of the more local scale o patterns in seafloor biota. Quantifying trends requires expensive and local sampling which has been undertaken for the most part only in rich countries, in restricted site close to coasts, and often where problems are already thought to exist, usually due t human pressures. +In cases where appropriate monitoring has occurred, trends in benthos are commonl associated with human pressures. Causes include direct removals for harvesting +© 2016 United Nation + +(Chapter 11), indirect impacts due to fishing gear and aggregate extraction (Chapte 36A.7 [North Sea]; 36D.2.3; Chapters 11, 42, 43 [corals], 44 [estuaries], 51 [seamounts)) and indirect effects due to pollution, sedimentation, etc. For example, loss of cora cover has been linked to catchment disturbance (Chapter 36D.3; Chapter 43), an species loss due to pollution is widespread in many estuaries (Chapter 44). Salt marshe have been drained, diked, ditched, grazed, sprayed for mosquito control, and invade by a range of non-native species that have altered their ecology (Chapter 50). Man examples were found of high pollution, etc., altering benthic communities extensivel and changing both species composition and biomass/productivity (Chapter 36A.7, 36B. [hydrocarbons]; 36C.2b; Chapters 20, 44). Trends in benthic populations o communities are often used as indicators for effects monitoring, because some bentho are sensitive to specific pressures and have high local patchiness of occurrence i specific response to those particular pressures. +This Assessment also contains many documented cases where adoption of appropriat policies to address sources, along with funding for monitoring, reducing the threat a source, and when necessary taking actions to remediate or restore damage populations, communities or habitats, have reversed these trends and achieved goo environmental quality (Chapter 36A.4.b, 36B.4.3, 36D). For example, coral-reef fis populations have been shown to recover within MPAs after they have been declare (Chapter 43) and management of shrimp aquaculture that prohibits clearing o mangroves and replanting of new forest has resulted in an improved condition of tha habitat (Chapters 12, 48). Climate change also affects benthic biodiversity, bu documentation and understanding of pathways and consequences are at an early stag (Chapter 36A.3, 36G.3). +For offshore benthos, the overwhelming pressure is the impacts of fishing gears. Trend were documented in all regions, and the commonality of these trends has led to th occasional characterization of all mobile bottom gear as a destructive fishing practice Many types of seafloor habitats and benthic communities, particularly those comprise of soft bodied and leathery species, do show recovery from bottom trawling when th pressure is released, although just as with the fishery communities that are bein exploited, full recovery may requires years to decades. During periods of disturbanc and recovery the relative species composition is changed, as long-lived species ar reduced in abundance and dominance. However, as long as recovery can commenc rapidly and is secure, such perturbations are sustainable and the habitats are considere to have resilience (Chapter 36A.3, 36B.4, 36C.3.b; Chapter 11). However, some specia types of habitats and benthic communities are not resilient. Pressures, causing change to seabed structure or increased mortality of species that are more hard-bodied an that create habitat diversity through burrowing or creating three-dimensiona structures, may cause large and lasting trends in the benthic community. Productivit can be reduced and recovery, if feasible at all, could take many decades to centurie (e.g., cold-water coral communities, especially on seamounts; Chapters 42, 43, 51). I such cases, spatial management to prevent impacts is the only effective option t mitigate these trends and allow recovery to commence. Some policies that protect +© 2016 United Nation + +these highly vulnerable to sensitive benthic habitats are in place for the high seas an many national jurisdictions. For example, some States and intergovernmental entitie have adopted measures for the protection of seamounts and other deep water habitat within EBSAs, VMEs and MPAs, as discussed in Chapters 42 and 51. But this has no been done in most parts of the ocean, since the task of identifying such areas o particular importance to biodiversity is incomplete in some parts of the ocean. I addition, the necessary scientific and technical information is sometimes not availabl to the relevant States and intergovernmental organizations. +As with the plankton in the water column, invasions of alien species pose a risk o altering benthic biodiversity on scales from local and coastal to seas or large stretches o coastlines. The same processes of natural transport of reproductive propagules, rang changes in response to climate-related changes in ocean conditions, and accidenta transport with shipping or tourism have all been documented, with resultant majo changes in benthic and occasionally pelagic community structure at scales at least o bays of hundreds of kilometres of coastline documented in all regions where sampling i adequate to detect such effects (Chapter 36A.3, 36B.4, 36C.3.b). In addition, a fe cases are recorded of intentional introduction of larger invertebrates to develop ne harvesting opportunities, with subsequent expansion of the species well beyond th area of introduction (such as Kamchatka crab in the Barents Sea Chapter 36A). +The shipping industry is actively seeking to improve practices and reduce risk o transferring species to new areas, and cost-effective risk-management practices ar available (Chapters 17, 27). Detection of new benthic species requires intensive an often costly monitoring, for which capacity is limited in many areas. Once alien specie are established, their elimination and remediation of the impacts have proven to b very difficult, costly, and rarely feasible. +3.3 Fish and pelagic macro-invertebrates +As with the other species groups, fish communities have always varied in abundanc over time, sometimes by orders of magnitude, especially for small pelagic species i areas with variable oceanographic conditions (examples in Chapter 11, Chapter 36A.4 36B, 36C, Figure 36C-4; 36D [salmon]; 36D.2.4). In several ocean basins changes i major portions of fish and invertebrate communities are well documented, and thes are often related to corresponding changes in the physical ocean (Chapter 36A.4 36C.3.a.iv, 36G.4). +Range changes of fish and macro-invertebrates in response to naturally changing ocea conditions are also documented in all regions (examples in Chapter 36A.4.4, 36C.3 36G.4, 36H.2.3). The responses of fish populations and communities to climate chang have been a particular priority for mid- and high-latitude parts of the ocean, wit documented effects on productivity, timing of life history processes (e.g., Chapte 36H.5), and community structure in essentially all regions, with magnitudes of effect varying both with the life history of the species and the magnitudes and patterns of +© 2016 United Nation + +change in the oceanographic conditions (examples in Chapter 36.A.4, 36C, Figure 36C-4 36D.2.4). +Another type of documented trends in ranges of fish and invertebrate species ar invasions of non-native species (example in Chapter 36C, Figure 36C-7) almost certainl associated with shipping. Some of the invasions by large pelagic invertebrates, such a comb-jellies, have completely changed the fish community on the scale of bays, and o the entire Black Sea (Chapter 36A.7, 36C.2). Although the magnitude of the disruption from such invasions may diminish over time due to both natural ecosystem processe and management interventions, it has not been possible to eliminate or reverse suc changes quickly, if at all, and costs have been high both in terms of costs to try t control the invading species, and in foregone benefits from the disrupted fis community (e.g., Black Sea). Prevention of introductions is by far the most logical an cost-effective option, and is receiving attention from the shipping industry. Again however, resources are needed to implement and ensure adherence to best practices. +Trends in fish populations are linked to contaminants, pollution, and particularly habita degradation due to land-based sources. However, population-scale effects have bee restricted to nearshore areas or semi-enclosed seas where contaminant, pollutio and/or sediment levels are high and water quality is degraded, with many fis populations and communities particularly susceptible to reduced oxygen levels in th water due to both climate change and increased nutrient enrichment (Chapter 36A. [Gulf of St. Lawrence, Chesapeake Bay, Gulf of Mexico]; 36B.2, 36C and F). However, th concern exists that long before population-scale impacts of contaminants may b apparent, fish may accumulate levels of contaminants in their flesh that pose healt risks for consumers (Chapters 10, 15). In addition, it was noted earlier that som specialized habitats that are hotspots for fish and invertebrate biodiversity are als particularly attractive for other human uses. Downward trends in fish population associated with such habitat losses are documented in many coastal areas (Chapte 36A.7 [all cases]; 36F). +Regardless of the cause of habitat loss or degradation, fish populations an communities have been documented as recovering when effective remediatio measures have been taken (Chapter 36.4.4, 36C, Figure 36C-11; Chapter 41). Again however, costs of remediation have often been high, time lags long, and prevention o loss or degradation is usually the more cost-effective option, with less uncertai outcomes than remediation initiatives. +Exceeding all of these other causes of trends in fish populations and communities ar the effects of fishing. Fishing necessarily changes the total abundance and size/ag composition of the exploited populations, with effects increasing as bycatch rate increase and as fishing becomes more intense and more selective of only particula species and sizes. The search for levels and methods of fishing that have sustainabl impacts has gone on for over a century (Chapters 10, 11). Nevertheless, overfishing ha not been eliminated, and downward trends in exploited populations, sometimes t depleted levels, can be found in all regions (Chapter 36A.4, 36B.4, 36D.2.4). Estimates +© 2016 United Nation + +of the economic cost of such depletions are available (Chapters 11, 15), but ecosyste costs from the biodiversity impacts of overfishing exist as well. If genetic diversity o populations is depleted, resilience to naturally varying environmental conditions i reduced (Chapter 34; Chapter 36A.4). Also as the abundance of large fish in community is reduced through fishing at levels that allow few fish to live long enough t reach their full potential size, any top-down structuring of community dynamics throug predation is weakened, again weakening the resilience of the community to any othe perturbation (Chapter 11 [ecosystem effects]; Chapter 36D.2.4). The properties o harvesting strategies that would keep effects of fishing sustainable for the exploite species and communities are generally known, and many examples show that whe fisheries are managed with sustainable practices, populations can rebuild to an subsequently remain at healthy levels, although varying in response to natura perturbations (Chapter 11; Chapter 36.A.4, 36D.2.4, although recovery may tak decades; e.g., 36H.4). However, management authorities must adopt sustainabl policies and practices that take biodiversity considerations into account, implemen them consistently, monitor population status and fishery performance effectively, an ensure compliance through a combination of stewardship, surveillance, an enforcement that is appropriate to the fishery and community of human users (e.g. Chapter 36A.6, 36H.4). +3.4 Marine Reptiles, Seabirds, and Marine Mammals +Many of the species with the greatest declines in abundance are in these groups of to predators (marine mammals, marine reptiles and seabirds); some species of all thre higher taxa are assessed as at risk of extinction by IUCN (Chapters 37, 38, 39). In case where overharvesting was a contributing factor, some of these declines have lasted fo over a century (Chapters 37, 39; Chapter 36H.4). All the factors considered for th above groupings of biodiversity are also implicated in the trends in marine reptiles seabirds and mammals. +Seabirds and marine reptiles have been particularly affected by habitat degradation e.g., where terrestrial breeding sites were converted to intensive use by coasta industries or tourism (Chapter 39), or, particularly for seabirds, where new predator were introduced on previously isolated breeding sites (Chapter 38). Body burdens o contaminants have been implicated in reduced breeding success of several population of pinnipeds and smaller cetaceans (Chapter 37; Chapter 20), and in a few cases thi pressure alone may be sufficient to pose a risk of extinction to small population (Chapter 36A.5; Chapter 37). +Bycatches in fishing gear are well-documented threats to populations and species in al three groups of top predators. Most types of fishing gear have been documented t pose potential threats to specific populations or species, including: mobile trawl gear fo turtles and sea snakes; longlines for seabirds and turtles; suspended nets for seabirds small cetaceans, and pinnipeds; and entanglements of whales with lines connected t traps and pots used in fishing (Chapters 37, 38, 39). Practices which mitigate these risk © 2016 United Nation + +have been proven to be effective for many types of gear, through changes in gear desig (e.g., excluder devices), fishing practices (e.g., surface deployment of longlines), an other methods. However, implementation of mitigation techniques often require training in their use and is specific to the species, fisheries, and areas where the fishin occurs. Hence additional measures, such as periodic and area closures in areas of hig bycatches, or closures of fisheries when allowable bycatch numbers are exceeded, ar often applied, with or without gear-based measures (Chapters 38, 39). Downwar trends in marine reptile, seabird, or marine mammal populations due to bycatc impacts can be stopped and population increases facilitated by the appropriat combination of these mitigation measures, but require expert study of the nature of th bycatch problem and evaluation of the potential effectiveness of alternative mixes o measures, monitoring of the fishery and the populations suffering the bycatch mortality often requiring expenditures of capital, time and training in acquiring, adapting, an learning to use the tools, and appropriate surveillance and enforcement. +Not all harvesting-related mortality of marine mammals, seabirds, and marine reptiles i due to bycatches in fisheries. Directed take of marine mammals reduced many whal populations to one or a few per cent of historical populations, and recovery of thes species has often been extremely slow, even after harvests were largely eliminate (Chapter 37). Directed harvests of seabirds were historically common in many areas and are still a practice in some places that still depend on subsistence hunting an fishing (Chapters 36A.5, 36B.8, 36G.6; Chapter 38). Directed harvest of sea turtles wa intensive until the early 20" century and depleted many populations, but is no prohibited in most jurisdictions, although again recovery has been slow, usually due t other pressures (Chapter 39). +Aside from directed take and bycatches, fisheries can also affect marine reptiles seabirds and marine mammals through trophodynamic pathways (examples in Chapte 36B.8). Fisheries on small pelagic stocks have been implicated in depleting the foo supply of seabirds, particularly when feeding chicks in breeding colonies (Chapter 38) and cases are documented where the discarding of fishing waste at sea has promote large increases in populations of scavenging seabirds that in turn displace other seabird from breeding colonies (Chapter 38). Spatial management measures and adjustments t overall harvesting levels have been successful in dealing with the first type of impac (Chapter 38), and the increasing policy dialogue about managing discard practices i fisheries (Chapter 11; Chapter 36A.5) is at least considering the implications for seabir communities. +Climate change has the potential to affect trends in all three of the types of top marin predators. Studies are being conducted on how changing ocean conditions may affec breeding and resting sites (e.g., sea-level rise and turtle and mammal breedin beaches), loss of ice cover affecting high-latitude seabirds, polar bears, cetaceans an pinnipeds, range changes of species from all groups as temperature and salinity pattern change, and indirect food web effects (Chapter 36.G.5.5, 36H and 38) . Given the lon life expectancies of most of these types of species, population impacts of climate drivers +© 2016 United Nation + +may only show up gradually, but may be hard to reverse. Moreover the impacts may b non-linear once they start to be manifest, with possibly steep “tipping points”, furthe increasing the policy and management challenges. Some interest exists in spatia management tools as a way to partially mitigate impacts of climate on thes populations, but work to test and, as appropriate, implement such measures is in th early stages (Chapters 38, 39). +For all of these species groups, measures to mitigate any of the anthropogenic an climate drivers of decreasing trends in populations have opportunity costs fro displacing or refraining from conducting an activity providing social and economi benefits and direct costs of deploying more expensive fishing gear, patrolling o breeding sites of turtles and mammals, etc. (Chapters 37, 39). However, the high regar in which many societies hold these types of species (Chapter 8) also provide opportunities for increasing public awareness of all marine biodiversity concerns, an building public and industry support for taking appropriate actions to address trend and ensure practices are sustainable. +4. Trends in biodiversity for habitats +In cases where habitat features make an area a hotspot for marine biodiversity, th potential for negative trends in biodiversity is greater for several different types o reasons: +— Special habitat types can host uncommon or rare species requiring the specia features of these habitats for some aspects of their life histories. Their inheren rarity and high ecological specialization can make such species particularl vulnerable to impacts from human activities and changes in environmenta conditions. This Assessment found examples of such vulnerable species in mos habitat types examined: for example, the general importance of seagrasses fo juvenile fish as well as dugongs and human activities that affect seagrass and/o water quality (Chapter 47), and salmon sensitivity to human impacts on coasta areas (Chapter 36C.5). +— Just by being rich in biodiversity, particularly high interdependencies can exis among the species in these specialized habitats. Perturbations of even a few ke species in these ecosystems can affect many other species with which they hav ecological relationships, spreading and sometimes amplifying the initia perturbations to produce much greater consequences for the biodiversity as whole. Again, such vulnerabilities of the biotic community to perturbations o even a few components were found in many of the special habitats assessed i the WOA. For example, overfishing of herbivorous reef fish has resulted i decline of coral cover because of overgrowth of algae (Chapter 43). +— Areas that are biodiversity hotspots often are associated with specialize structural features of the seafloor and/or the water column for which many +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +species use those particular areas for some or all life history processes. If thos specialized structural features are disturbed intentionally or collaterally b human activities, their ability to serve those functions for all the specie depending or attracted to them is reduced, again with the potential fo widespread detrimental effects on biodiversity. Some of the specialized habitat examined showed many examples of declines in biodiversity due to suc alterations or elimination of the physical attributes of the habitats. For example bottom trawling in many areas and cases of oil and gas development in som places have removed large areas of cold water corals and its associate biodiversity (Chapters 42, 51). +— By having specialized physical characteristics and by supporting many differen kinds of marine life, the specialized habitats can be particularly vulnerable t some kinds of human uses (e.g., Chapter 36D.2.3). Some are activities that focu on the special physical features, such as use of high local productivity fo aquaculture (for example, conversion of mangrove or other estuarine habitats Chapters 44, 48) and/or on the high concentration of biodiversity, such as fishin or tourism (for example, coral reefs; Chapter 43). Others are activities that ma not intentionally focus on the hotspot, but on the physical features an processes that result in the areas supporting high levels of biodiversity; thes also result in the areas being especially exposed to collateral impacts from othe human activities, such as the types of biodiversity hotspots that are areas of hig land-based inputs or that support higher concentrations of coastal residents tha other areas. Examples include estuaries (Chapter 44), mangroves (Chapter 48 and salt marshes (Chapter 49). +This Assessment not only found widespread evidence that specialized habitat commonly show particularly strong negative trends in components of biodiversity, i also found global spatial patterns in the types of vulnerabilities of various different type of specialized habitats. +A few of the specialized habitats were either offshore and/or deep-sea habitat (seamounts, hydrothermal vents and seeps, cold-water corals, the Sargasso Sea, high latitude ice), where human populations and industrial activities have historically no concentrated. These are highly specialized habitats requiring particularly hig adaptation by the biological community to their specialized conditions. However, i providing unique features, such as the enhanced biological productivity of seamount and the ice edge, high three-dimensional structure of the corals, etc., the areas becom biodiversity hotspots relative to adjacent areas that are not as productive. In thes habitats, recovery from physical damage to the specialized habitat features and/o depletion of the biological populations is often extremely slow and uncertain, jus because of the harshness of the background conditions in adjacent areas, and/or th particularly high specialization of the species to these special environments, and/or th complexity of the specialized habitat itself. Climate change poses particular threats t some of these types of special habitats, because ice melting and thermal stress ar altering the special habitat features themselves (e.g., reduction in the area of Arctic sea © 2016 United Nations +1 + +ice habitat (Chapter 46) caused by global warming). Also coral bleaching is widesprea and has affected the quality of coral reef habitat in all areas of the oceans (Chapte 36D2.3; Chapter 43). +Fishing is the primary activity likely to be attracted to the biota at these special habitats particularly in the deep sea. Both the complex structure of the habitats and the highl specialized fish populations may be highly vulnerable to physical damage and/o exploitation, and the slow recovery potential of much of the associated biodiversity is particular risk (for example, cold-water coral communities on, e.g., seamounts; Chapter 42, 43). Many human activities, such as shipping lanes, undersea cables, etc., can b designed to avoid these special areas. However, as the capacity to exploit the physica resources of the deep sea increases, extractive uses may be attracted to exactly thes specialized habitats (for example, species found associated with deep-sea hydrotherma vents and cold seeps; Chapter 45). The potential for increased shipping and tourism i the high latitudes is also an increasing threat to biodiversity. +The other specialized habitats are generally associated with nearshore and coastal area (kelps and seagrasses, mangroves, salt marshes, estuaries and deltas), although low latitude/warm-water corals may extend out onto continental shelves for man kilometres. A much wider range of human activities poses potential threats to thes habitats. Many have the high vulnerability to land-based run-off discussed above (e.g. estuarine habitats), high attractiveness of their biota to directed uses, such as fishin and tourism (e.g., coral reefs) and adjacent coastal development, and of their physica features to extractive uses (for example, carbonate mining of reef rock; Chapter 43) o intentional alteration (e.g., conversion of mangrove habitat for aquaculture; Chapte 48). +The productivity of these more coastal areas is often higher, such that recovery fro some types of perturbations of the biodiversity may be more rapid and secure than i off-shore, deep-water habitats (Chapter 36H). On the other hand, these specialize habitats and their biodiversity are likely to be exposed to a myriad of pressures fro multiple human activities. That diversity of pressures means that the cumulativ impacts on these habitats and communities can be high, even when individual pressure may be managed, and the effectiveness of management measures applied to on pressure may be affected by the nature and intensity of other pressures, e.g., sal marshes (Chapter 49). As a result, protection of these specialized habitats and thei biodiversity may require complex and coordinated planning and implementation, and i may be hard to motivate single industries to bear the costs of mitigation measures if th pressures from other uses are likely to continue (illustrations from all of Parts V and VI). +In summary, this Assessment finds that specialized habitats that are also biodiversit hotspots face a potential triple threat from higher vulnerability to perturbations, highe attractiveness to many human uses, and higher challenges to recovery fro perturbations if they occur. Correspondingly, evidence of degradation of habitats an communities from one, two, or all three of these factors is widespread for all habita types and in all regions where they are found. Nevertheless, many cases exist where +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +the threats have been adequately managed, the habitats and their biodiversit protected, and at least some recovery from past perturbations has been recorded. Fo example, 24 estuarine case studies reported that management has resulted i improving estuarine health (Chapter 44) and declaration of MPAs has prompted th recovery of ecosystem and fish populations in coral reefs (Chapter 43). Although th benefits of coordinated planning and management of pressures cannot b overemphasized, targeted and proactive measures can have high payoffs if even on pressure is reduced effectively (e.g., seasonal closures of fisheries to protect spawnin aggregations (Chapter 11); stopping mangrove habitat conversion for aquacultur (Chapter 48)). It is important, however, to match the management tool to the particula needs of the specialized habitat; for example, limits on catches or effort in a fishery ma keep a fishery sustainable at the population level, but spatial tools may need to b added if the fishery can concentrate on biodiversity hotspots causing local depletions o species serving key functions in the biotic community (illustrations from Part IV Chapters 36, 42-51]. However, progress and even success is possible with the prope suite of measures, and the capacity to implement them. +Methods used in the assessment of the status and condition of species and habitat have undergone a rapid transformation in recent years with the advent of predictiv habitat modelling (PHM). This approach has revolutionized the study of many habitat and their associated biota. For example, cold-water coral communities were virtuall unknown prior to the discovery of extensive bioherms off Norway in the early 1980s but the application of PHM enabled the discovery of a completely new habitat fo scleractinians on steep submarine cliffs in 2011 and was confirmed almost immediatel through field observation in the Mediterranean and Bay of Biscay (Chapter 42). +In summary, the diversity of the world’s oceans is rich and dynamic, but it has bee incompletely quantified, and even descriptions and inventories of marine biodiversit are incomplete for the open ocean, the deep sea and many shelf and coastal areas Despite our incomplete knowledge, however, trends in measures of biodiversity at th scales of populations, species, communities and habitats are found almost everywhere demonstrating that our information is sufficient to look for trends, and often to infor development of policies and management measures to address drivers of the trends Natural processes play some role in these trends, and occasionally can be a prominen driver. However, in the majority of cases, anthropogenic drivers are the major influenc on changes in biodiversity. +The nature of the human activity generating the pressure will strongly influence th scale of impacts in space and time. Some pressures, such as climate change, inherentl operate at large (global) scales, others, such as fisheries, may operate at the scale o individual fisheries, but fisheries are widespread and have adversely affecte biodiversity in most parts of the ocean. Other pressures are inherently more local i both operation and occurrence, such as hydrocarbon extraction and seabed mining, bu they can be intensive pressures where they do occur. Moreover, it is common for +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +biodiversity on local to basin-wide scales to be exposed to cumulative effects of multipl pressures interacting in ways that are usually poorly understood. +Certain types of species, such as marine mammals, seabirds, marine turtles, large shark and fragile benthic taxa, such as corals and sponges, and certain types of habitats including coral reefs, hydrothermal vents, estuaries, mangroves, and others, are bot particularly sensitive to pressures from many types of human activities and attrac human uses in large part because of their biodiversity characteristics. These are ofte the components of biodiversity showing the strongest declines over time, and thus pos particularly great conservation concern. +Notwithstanding the widespread negative trends in biodiversity and the number an ubiquity of anthropogenic pressures associated with those trends for all components o biodiversity and all types of pressures, positive examples of eliminating or mitigatin pressures and reversing the unsustainable trends exist. The likelihood of success i managing threats and protecting and recovering biodiversity that has been affecte increases with better knowledge of biodiversity and the pressures in the area, adoptio of policies appropriate to the context, and the improvement of capacity to implemen the policies effectively. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_52.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_52.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_53.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_53.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..894d88809b59afc52cd8ff32c063c68d6266f7f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_53.txt @@ -0,0 +1,205 @@ +Chapter 53. Capacity-Building Needs in Relation to the Status of Species and Habitats +Contributors: Renison Ruwa (Convenor and Lead Member), Amanuel Ajawin, Sea Green, Osman Keh Kamara, Jake Rice, Lorna Innis and Alan Simcock (Co-Lead Members) +1. Introduction +Knowledge of the status of species and habitats forms a fundamental basis fo understanding biodiversity at all scales (Chapter 34) and ecosystem functions an services (Part Ill and Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). This facilitate identifying the capacity-building needs for appropriate interventions that will enhanc and promote sustainability. This creates a need for knowledge of marine biologica diversity and habitats from a marine ecosystem approach, and of how biodiversit varies in relation to various levels of anthropogenic perturbations. Gaps in scientifi knowledge, technological advances, human skills and infrastructure for the conservatio of marine biodiversity and habitats are crucial. Part VI addresses these issues focusin on the major oceans in relation to marine ecosystems, habitats and major specie groups that are emerging from our assessments as potentially threatened, declining o needing special attention. All these categories need a variety of capacity building technical skills, technology and infrastructure to address their trends. To facilitate thi capacity building, we undertook the identification of knowledge gaps mainly from th Part VI Chapters, and the capacity building needed to address socio-economic issues fo human well-being. Chapter 32 and this Chapter both address capacity-building needs However, whereas the identification of needs in Chapter 32 was based on outcomes o regional workshops and the Chapters of Part V, this chapter is based on all the authore chapters, which also include identification of gaps from literature reviews on th oceans. +To address the objective of the Regular Process to ensure that capacity building an technology transfer are done through promoting cooperation, not only North to Sout but also South to South cooperation (UNGA, 2010; UNGA/AHWGW, 2009 UNGA/AHWGW, 2010), the synthesis is done in geographical areas following the ocean and the major regional seas addressed in Chapter 36. Further capacity needs wer identified in relation to the knowledge gaps from the chapters focused on the overal status of the major groups of species and habitats, including the socio-economic aspect of their conservation. +The marine species groups that were given special attention or protection are: marin mammals, seabirds, marine reptiles, sharks, tuna and billfish. These were dealt wit globally without specifically linking them to particular oceans. The same genera analysis was followed for specific marine ecosystems and habitats addressed in Chapter 42-51, including cold-water corals, warm-water corals, estuaries and deltas, open-ocean +© 2016 United Nation + +deep-sea biomass, hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, high-latitude ice, kelp forest and seagrass, mangroves, salt marshes, Sargasso Sea, seamounts and other submarin geological features potentially threatened by disturbances. +There are already many international initiatives to build capacities (both in terms o skills and of equipment) to meet many of the capacity-building gaps identified in thi Assessment. One example among many is the programme of the Food and Agricultur Organization of the United Nations, supported by Norway, using the Research Vessel Dr Fridtjof Nansen. However, on the information available, it is impossible to say wha gaps currently exist in arrangements to build these capacities: conclusions on where th capacity-building gaps exist could only be reached on the basis of a survey, country b country, of the capacity-building arrangements that currently exist and how suitabl they are for each country’s needs. This applies more generally, but is particularl important in relation to capacity-building in relation to marine bodiversity. The initia inventory of capacity-building arrangements’ compiled by the Division for Ocean Affair and Law of the Sea as part of the Regular Process would provide some initia information on which to base such a review, but it would take much more detaile study than has been possible in the first cycle of the Regular Process to match this wit the needs of each country. +2. Outcomes based on regional workshops on capacity-building needs +The following regional workshops were held: South-West Pacific region (UNGA, 2013a) Wider Caribbean region (UNGA, 2013b), Eastern and South-Eastern Asian Seas (UNGA 2012a), South-East Pacific region (UNGA, 2011), the joint North Atlantic, Baltic Sea Mediterranean and Black Sea region (UNGA, 2012b), the Western Indian Ocean (UNGA 2013c) South Atlantic Ocean (UNGA, 2013d) and Northern Indian Ocean (UNGA, 2014) From the regional synthesis based on the outcomes of the regional workshops, i appeared that some needs were regionally cross-cutting and some were directl relevant to Chapter 53. The following were more specific to species and habita relationships across the regions: +(1) Taxonomy and genetics +(2) Bio-physical/chemical research on the ocean environment +(3) Socio-economics of oceanic natural resources focusing on biodiversit and habitats +(4) Skills in integrated assessments, including modelling +(5) Infrastructure with relevant supportive technology, especially in research +vessels and laboratories to support multidisciplinary research +(6) Geographical Information System mapping skills. +1 See A/67/87, Annex V. +© 2016 United Nation + +3. Outcomes based on chapters focusing on knowledge gaps to inform capacity building needs +3.1 Overview of marine biological biodiversity +The global biological diversity patterns are described in relation to key taxa and habitat and to the identification of key environmental and anthropogenic drivers. The gradient in marine biodiversity are assessed using a taxonomic framework of well-known ke groups of organisms (for example, marine mammals; turtles; finfish; plankto (phytoplankton and zooplankton), and seabirds in Chapters 34-36. In addition, a habita framework was used when the taxonomic identity of the species was of secondar importance to the type of community or conditions in which they occurred, the specie and habitat framework focusing on marine ecosystems, species and habitats (Chapter 37-51, Section B). +3.2 Overall status of marine biological diversity in the oceans and knowledge gaps +The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are relatively more studied than the Indian Ocean, whic is the third-largest ocean and almost entirely surrounded by developing countries. B contrast, both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are mostly surrounded by develope countries or economies in rapid transition. However the North Atlantic and the Nort Pacific Oceans are comparatively better studied than the South Atlantic and Sout Pacific Oceans. +In terms of identifying the global diversity patterns, the gradients in marine biodiversit of the North Atlantic and the North Pacific are assessed primarily in terms of taxonomi frameworks, whereas for the South Atlantic and South Pacific the taxonomic framewor is used when possible, but is often augmented by the habitat frameworks in area surrounded by developed countries and developing countries, respectively. For area surrounding the Indian Ocean, where many knowledge gaps are found, the gradients i marine biodiversity are assessed primarily in terms of habitat frameworks. As regard the Polar waters, the Antarctic has been more studied than the Arctic, but it is necessar to increase scientific efforts for the Arctic and Antarctic due to their uniqueness. +3.3 Deep-sea environment +Shallow coastal waters are comparatively better researched than the deep sea becaus of their greater accessibility. It is necessary to build the essential capacity, includin deep-sea platforms to provide relevant research and technical skills at regional an global levels to address the following problems: +© 2016 United Nation + +Despite technological advances and a sharp increase in deep-sea exploration i the past few decades, a remarkably small portion of the deep sea has bee investigated in detail. There are therefore large gaps in what we know about th deep sea. +— Although the species which are specifically considered in this Assessment ar vertebrates, it is important to improve the knowledge base about invertebrates microbes and viruses. +— Deep-sea biodiversity is very poorly characterized compared to the shallow water and terrestrial realms. Without better characterization of deep-se biodiversity, its protection will be hampered. +— The deep ocean has many species, with genetic, enzymatic, metabolic an biogeochemical properties which may hold potential for major ne pharmaceutical and industrial applications. Without better knowledge of thes species and their properties, important opportunities may be missed. +— The deep oceans are estimated to have up to millions of species. Becaus conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is improved when the specie are known and their biological characteristics inventoried, much effort and tim will be required to describe them. +— The deep seas are threatened by ongoing global climatic changes due t increasing anthropogenic emissions and resulting biogeochemical changes. Th impacts of climate drivers on the deep sea biota and the magnitude of th drivers in the deep sea need to be better documented. +— The deep oceans may be threatened by, e.g., oil and gas exploitation, mining fo metals, fishing practices (both destructive fishing techniques and an excessiv scale of fishing) and pollution. More measurement is needed of the scale o these pressures and their potential impacts. +— Perhaps the most important knowledge gap is the knowledge of th effectiveness of alternative management options when applied in such a vast dynamic space, much of which is beyond national jurisdiction, to reduce th impact of man-made stressors. +— The design of protected areas based on geographic definitions must necessaril account for the fluxes through the system as well as the movement of th inhabitants. +— Deep-sea observatories are becoming increasingly important in monitoring +deep-sea ecosystems and the environmental changes that will affect them. +These observatories aim at addressing important societal issues, such as climate +change adaptation, ecosystem conservation and _ sustainable resource +management. Tackling these issues, along with efficient and clear stakeholde communication, is particularly important for the deep sea, which remains largel unexplored, yet affects the lives and livelihoods of the global population directl or indirectly. Technological advances in recent years offer the ability t continuously monitor the ocean in time and space; in particular, th development of in-situ sensors, autonomous vehicles, and cyber-infrastructure, +© 2016 United Nation + +including telecommunications and networking. If these technologies are applie more widely in the world’s oceans they would add to the capacity to monitor th deep sea and feed the obtained information into science-policy interfaces an marine management and policy. +4. Specific data or knowledge gaps identified in the Assessments by key marin species or habitats +4.1 Marine specie 4.1.1 Marine mammals +Data are obtained mostly from ship-board observations and use of satellite telemetry The latter has improved offshore data acquisition, because most of the data are take within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). USA, European and Antarctic waters ar the best assessed waters. The largest knowledge gaps occur in Indian Ocean waters Only by continuing to monitor and assess the marine mammals in EEZs and puttin more research effort into the Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ) can sufficien data be obtained to document trends and inform decision-making. +4.1.2 Seabirds +Birdlife International, the IUCN Red List authority for birds, has the most authoritativ global database on seabirds. At regional levels, Europe and North America are mos thoroughly assessed; many knowledge gaps remain in the developing world. +— Important knowledge gaps exist in studies of seabird migrations, some of whic cross continents, or are inter-continental, because these routes are not wel known. Other gaps that cannot be filled without additional capacity includ improving understanding and increasing data available on seabird coasta habitats; seabird bycatch; vulnerability to pollution (especially oil, garbage i dumpsites, marine litter and plastics); disturbances of coastal and deep-se habitats; adequacy of habitat protection; whether and what kind of marin protected areas (MPAs) may address this gap globally; their role in ecosystem socio-economic and livelihood services; the effectiveness of alternativ conservation elements for taking the migratory habits of seabirds into account and other factors for sustainability in protected areas. +4.1.3 Sea turtles +With respect to sea turtles, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity-buildin are involved include: +— Assessments spearheaded by IUCN’s Red List of threatened species and th global listing for vulnerable species exist. However, marine turtle populatio traits and trajectories can vary geographically and the listing criteria could only +© 2016 United Nation + +be applied effectively if there were a better characterization of the status an trends of individual populations and if the information was used to establis categories for regional sub-populations in addition to the single overall globa listings. +— Gaps in knowledge of risks due to effects of climate change still remain challenge because of insufficient data for analysis of long-term trends. Improve conservation of sea turtles could result from an increase in regional assessment for sea turtles due to their migratory nature. Monitoring and reporting criteri would also perform for effectively if they were augmented by information on th status and trends of population sizes, as well as global threats to the sea turtles. +— Data needs are critical for data-poor regions, especially Africa, the Indian Ocea and South East Asia. +Increased capacity to address these gaps at regional and global levels would allow mor effective conservation of marine reptiles. Such efforts would benefit from cooperativ regional and global partnerships, because sea turtles are migratory and transboundary. +4.1.4 Sharks and other elasmobranchs +In relation to sharks and other elasmobranchs, there is inadequate capacity in man countries and most regions to address the following issues: +Lack of or deficient monitoring data make it difficult to assess the status of man sharks. The most data-deficient areas are: Western Central Atlantic Ocean, Easter Central Atlantic Ocean, the Wider Caribbean Sea, South West Indian Ocean and th eastern and southeastern Asian Seas. +In addition to obtaining data from fisheries, surveys and catch landings increasin the capacity to use emerging technologies, such as satellite tags, acoustic tracking digital underwater photography, and sophisticated photo identification system would facilitate population and distribution estimates in defined geographi locations. +Although the recent decline in reported landings is consistent with declinin abundance due to overfishing, any interpretation should consider that reporte landings are almost certainly a gross underestimation of actual catches. To ascertai actual trends in shark catch and landings, which are likely to be even worse tha expected, would require increasing the management priority of sharks by regiona fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and national management bodies Better independent catch and bycatch monitoring data are needed to know th effectiveness of conservation measures taken by RFMOs, noting that destructiv fishing is still increasing in regions such as the Indian, central Pacific and south an central Atlantic Oceans. +Mortality due to fishing, both directly and as bycatch, is almost entirely responsibl for the worldwide declines in shark and ray abundance. However, knowledge o survival of living sharks released at sea is limited. +Persistent bioaccumulation of toxins and heavy metals has been documented i sharks feeding at high trophic levels. Levels which can be toxic to human consumers +© 2016 United Nation + +have been reached in some areas, but their effect on the host shark remain unknown. The global extent and specificity in occurrence of various contaminan burdens are unknown. These knowledge gaps would have to be filled before th population-level threat of toxins and heavy metals could be evaluated effectively. +— Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) play an important role in the marine ecosyste food chains as top predators; they contribute to maintaining balances in specie numbers and biomass abundances. This function is, however, not very clear at loca and sometimes regional scales; its overall global manifestation is not well know either as the role of temporal variability is poorly understood. These knowledg gaps would have to be filled in order to place shark conservation in the context o ecosystem functioning. +— A key challenge is to secure ongoing assessment activities, particularly th continuance of research surveys, and to expand assessment activity to encompas not only the largest, most charismatic species, but also the lesser-known specie which are often more threatened, particularly the rays and shark-like rays, and th 90 obligate and euryhaline freshwater species. Geographically, greater attentio needs to be paid to Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. +4.1.5 Tuna and Billfishes +These fish are an important part of the global capture fisheries sector. Billfishes ar heavily fished and have therefore attracted the attention of IUCN; some species ar listed as vulnerable. Capacity-building gaps exist in addressing the following gaps: +— Assessments are done by RFMOs using fisheries stock assessment methodolog and capacity is inadequate in many parts of the world to employ thi methodology and to establish research infrastructure with the necessar technology, including satellite tracking facilities, to facilitate the required studies Lack of this capacity hinders conservation and management of these species. global paucity of data exists on the population status of these species. Only wit additional stock assessments would it be possible to identify and protect earl enough many species possibly threatened by overfishing for effectiv conservation measures to be taken. This can only be done effectively if it i approached at both regional and global levels. +— Although the current exploitation status for the principal market tunas i relatively well known globally, knowledge on the exploitation status for the non tuna billfish stocks and species is fragmentary and uncertain. Furthermore, tun RFMOs have not yet conducted formal fisheries stock assessment evaluations o adopted management and conservation measures for any of the eight non principal market tuna species. Therefore their current exploitation status i unknown or highly uncertain throughout their distribution range, and can onl be filled by additional capacity to assess their status. +— It is generally agreed that catch estimates for non-principal market tunas an billfishes have been and still are underestimated, as the majority of these specie are caught by small-scale fisheries or as a bycatch of principal market tuna +© 2016 United Nation + +4. 4.2.1 +fisheries. Therefore effective assessmetns of these species requires improve catch reporting from small-scale coastal fisheries targeting both principal marke tunas and the smaller non-principal market tunas. Similarly, billfish catches which generally come from industrial tuna fisheries as bycatch, have also bee commonly poorly reported and monitored. +Climate change is another potential pressure that needs to be taken into accoun in the assessment of the biology, economics and management of tuna an billfish species. Climate change might have an effect on tuna and billfish specie by changing their physiology, temporal and spatial distribution and abundance but these possible relationships can only be known with much more study. +To what extent the widespread declines in tuna and billfish populations hav altered the capacity of the ocean to support vital ecosystem processes, function and services by reducing their abundances and altering species interactions an food web dynamics is poorly known. +Incorporating ecosystem considerations into the management of tunas an billfish fisheries would help to move their assessments into an ecosyste context. +The main challenges to conservation responses and factors for sustainability are (1) reduction in the existing overcapacity of fishing fleets; and (2) adoption o protocols that ensure implementation of effective Monitoring, Control an Surveillance (MSC) techniques. +A further challenge is the paucity of knowledge of the impacts of tuna and billfis fisheries on other less productive species such as sharks, on species interaction and food web dynamics, and on the greater marine ecosystems. +Marine ecosystems and habitats +Cold-water corals +With respect to cold-water corals, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity building are involved include: +Information on cold-water corals (CWC) in the Indian Ocean region is scanty even though the region covers an area between latitudes 70°N - 60°S, a rang where seamount CWC are known to occur. +Technology and skills for discovering CWC are still lacking in some regions especially the developing world. Additional fine-grained and broad-scale habita modelling are still needed to discover additional habitats, and to forecast th fate of CWC facing both direct (fisheries) and indirect (environmental) impacts. +It is necessary to increase knowledge of the characteristic geological structure and environmental factors facilitating CWC settlement and growth. The curren list includes provision of hard, current-swept substrate, and _ ofte topographically guided hydrodynamic settings. All need to be identified an mapped. The skills needed include knowledge of combined physical, bio-geo- +© 2016 United Nation + +4.2.2 +hydro-chemical analytical techniques (e.g., of ambient seawater characteristic and measurement of current velocities. +Global knowledge is lacking of CWC distribution in terms of their specie occurrences and population abundances; this makes it difficult to set up regiona cooperation to consider these species. +Knowledge of how cold-water corals respond to damage inflicted by pollution i limited. Without better knowledge, it will be difficult to design protectiv regimes and response mechanisms. +Warm-water corals +With respect to warm-water corals, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity building are involved include: +Damage to warm-water corals may be more serious than currently perceive because submerged reefs below 20m depth cannot be detected using satellit technology. Submerged reefs cover large areas and understanding the extent o submerged reefs is therefore important. +GIS mapping of coral reefs is necessary to understand their spatial distribution especially in shallow water areas where the worst affected reefs are found. +Corals show trends that justify measures to protect them from anthropogeni impacts. Such protection can be enhanced by spatial management tools including the creation of MPAs. Globally, only six percent of warm-water reef are contained in marine reserves. Establishment of more spatial managemen measures including MPAs would address this concern and aid in reducin anthropogenic impacts, and also assist in meeting other challenges. +Monitoring sites and the flow of information on coral ecosystems (and in som cases other marine habitats such as mangrove and seagrasses beds) have bee reduced in some cases. This will not help to improve the little that is known o the status of their ecological interaction with the changing pressures. +Restoration and enhancement of capacity for monitoring would be required t allow status and trends of these habitats to be assessed effectively. +Where warm-water corals are damaged by cumulative impacts, measures whic address the full range of the pressures will be the most effective response. Thi includes pressures from tourism (see Chapter 27). +Corals provide important cultural values. Indigenous people in some develope countries have been granted rights to access and benefit sharing of geneti resources and traditional knowledge. This recognition acknowledges th importance of these cultural aspects that link human populations and reefs Capacity building for indigenous access and benefit sharing would be beneficia to the well-being of these peoples. +© 2016 United Nation + +It would be extremely useful to build capacity for studying and managing coral reefs, a national, regional and global levels, to provide the right skills and infrastructure t address the issues identified and continue to enable coral reefs to provide goods an services that contribute to socioeconomic well-being and the health of the planet as a +whole. +4.2.3 +Estuaries and Deltas +With respect to estuaries and deltas, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity building are involved include: +4.2.4 +A paucity of knowledge exists about the threats due to human activities, globa climate change and extreme natural events. +Globally very few integrated assessments encompass multiple aspects o estuarine environments, i.e., that include habitats, species, ecological processes biophysical and socio-economic aspects. +It would be extremely useful for the better conservation of estuaries and delta to develop and apply the capacity to address these issues, includin incorporating hydrological modelling into coastal modelling and forecastin efforts, in order to link better with the land-coast interface where thes important habitats are located. +Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps +With respect to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, the issues where gaps in knowledg and capacity-building are involved include: +4.2.5 +The survey and research activities have mostly been undertaken in the Pacifi (especially in the northeast and northwest Pacific) and Atlantic Ocean (especially the north Atlantic). Very few have been conducted in the India Ocean, and those few have mostly been carried out in international waters Therefore a better global picture of trends would require survey and researc efforts to be expanded. +Increasing knowledge of vents and seeps would only be possible if essentia capacity to address all these gaps were built. For developing countries, thi would need to be greatly increased, because the capacity is at best low, an usually almost non-existent, in many countries. +High-Latitude Ice +With respect to high-latitude ice, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity building are involved include: +The ecology of the Arctic and Antarctic regions is still little known due to th challenges their unique environments pose to human beings. This ha necessitated the use of special skills and technology to undertake the essentia research to understand the effects of the emerging threats of climate change not only in these regions, but also how these effects would consequently affect +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +4.2.6 +wider geographical regions. Capacity to apply these skills and technologie would have to be increased to obtain the full benefit of their potential; +The ability to manage the effects of sea-level rise caused by melting of polar ic is still a challenge. It is causing considerable social and economic losses alon continental coasts and is threatening property and life on entire islands. This i due to the loss of habitats and consequently of biodiversity on which human depend for their well-being. The costs of economic losses and level of huma suffering are not fully quantified, and augmenting this knowledge is necessary t perform threat assessments of these factors; +Further challenges stem from the inadequate understanding of the pola ecosystems; these are under increasing pressure caused by anthropogeni activities in the form of commercial exploitation of polar natural resources which include oil and gas. With little ecological understanding of thes ecosystems and therefore inadequate mitigation measures, a concern is growin as to how to deal with the looming complex environmental degradation and th need to identify and implement mitigation measures. These possible threats ca only be assessed and managed if our ecological understanding is improve through expanded research and monitoring. +Kelp Forests and Seagrass Meadows +With respect to kelp forests and seagrass meadows, the issues where gaps in knowledg and capacity-building are involved include: +The rate of loss of species is very high due to encroachments on thes ecosystems and their proximity to coasts and consequently to human activities The gravity and extent of these losses vary regionally and have yet to b determined in most areas. However, the causes are commonly due to coasta urbanization and industrialization, and conversion of some areas to buil recreation facilities and harbours which involve heavy dredging. However, thes pressures are rarely well quantified at local scales. Effective conservation an sustainable use of these habitats will require better quantification at local an regional scales. +The costs of restoring these habitats (in the rare event that restoration is eve possible) are high and the requisite restoration technology and skills are yet t be readily available in most regions. Even when restoration efforts are made, it i difficult to attain the original conditions and biodiversity that were presen before degradation. Where restoration is desired or necessary for return o ecosystem services, greater study of restoration technologies would be required The multitude and variety of uses of seagrass and kelp habitats (examples aquaculture, harvesting, recreational and commercial fishing, tourism, etc.) hav created conflicts over best management practices within these ecosystems. I these conflicts are going to be managed and best practices applied, improve capacity in integrated management would be necessary to address thes conflicts in their early stages. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +4.2.7 +Mangroves +With respect to mangroves, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity-buildin are involved include: +Despite considerable regional and global awareness campaigns on the value o mangrove ecosystems, and therefore the need to sustain their integrity so tha they can provide their ecosystem services sustainably for the benefit of huma well-being and the environment, estimates of increased destruction and loss i mangrove coverage continue to be reported regionally and globally at differen levels of exploitation, although the actual data underpinning these estimates ar unclear. If these trends are to be reversed, it is essential to documen quantitatively, using the best available technological advances in skills, th various types of losses characteristic of each region and the consequences fo biodiversity loss or extinction at the relevant taxonomic levels, as well as th ecosystem services that will be lost regionally and globally. This will enabl assessment and quantification of the real risks and development of means t mitigate them. +The ecosystem services provided by salt marshes are largely unknown. +At regional and global levels, it is still not clear how to distinguish th characteristic biodiversity index of mangrove species taxonomically in a give area because of the ambiguous definition of a mangrove tree or vegetation. Wit existing technological advances, species identification should be based not onl on morphological descriptions but also on their molecular attributes to avoi ambiguous descriptive terms like mangrove associates or hybrids. Use of thes technologies in conservation and management will require building capacity fo their application. +Mangrove restoration is still at its early stages of development. It either use seeds planted directly in the soil of mangrove habitat or seeds that are firs nurtured and grown in a nursery before being planted in the mangrove habitat along the shores. These seeds are not improved in any way. If mangrov restoration is to accelerate it would be necessary to promote faster growin mangrove trees, including those improved through the use of biotechnolog application and to ensure that the physical and chemical properties of the soil are optimal for their growth and that mangrove pests are eliminated or kep away from the plantations. These activities should involve local communities t enhance their education about and awareness of this ecosystem. +Conservation and sustainable use of mangroves would benefit from promotio of ecotourism in natural and restored mangrove forests, managed by loca communities for income generation; this is expected to instil in them th importance of these ecosystems in supporting their livelihoods withou destroying them for unsustainable exploitation. +To enhance carbon sequestration and at the same time increase their economi income as well as supporting mangrove conservation and enhancing mangrove +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +4.2.8 +ecosystem services would require increased carbon credits to local communitie that become involved in growing mangrove forests. +Protection of mangroves will require improved understanding of why naturall occurring bare, salty, and sandy flats occur in mangrove ecosystems, whic would also inform the creation of buffer zones in landward areas that will allo mangroves to migrate landward in response to sea-level rise. This is a established practice for integrated coastal zone management. +Promotion of ecotourism in natural and restored mangrove forests, as well a management by local communities for income generation, will instil in them th importance of these ecosystems for supporting their livelihoods, withou destroying the system through unsustainable exploitation. +Capacity-building needs should be recognized if there is a desire to addres acquisition of technological skills to enhance restoration, growth an management of mangrove forests, infrastructure to support development an use of biotechnology techniques to promote faster growing mangroves and t improve soils. +Salt Marshes +With respect to salt marshes, issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity-building ar involved include: +4.2.9 +Salt marshes, in both tropical and temperate zones, are one of the fastes disappearing ecosystems worldwide. This is mostly due to anthropogeni activities, yet little is known about them in terms of their ecology and socio economic contribution to human well-being. +In the tropics and sub-tropics, the nature of the ecological interaction of sal marshes and mangrove ecosystems where they share a location is largel unknown; one result is the classification of salt marsh vegetation as associat mangrove species. In other words, the ecological role of salt marshes is maske by, or confused with, mangrove vegetation and therefore constitutes a larg knowledge gap for both ecosystems. +The ecological significance of the role of migratory fauna between salt mars and mangrove vegetation is poorly known. +Sargasso Sea +With respect to the Sargasso Sea, the issues where gaps in knowledge and capacity building are involved include: +If the following issues are to be addressed, it is necessary to build techniques personnel and infrastructure to address them: The Sargasso Sea is a comple habitat characterized by an interdependent mix of its physical oceanography, it ecosystems and its role in the global scale of ocean and earth processes. It is no fully known how these processes operate to produce this unique habitat. +The Sargasso Sea ecosystem links to ecosystems in Europe, Africa, the America and the Caribbean. This provides a unique ecosystem for study to understand +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +how the divergent and convergent ecological functions of these widely spread but interlinked, geographic ecosystem regimes operate. Targeted research coul produce new knowledge of impacts caused by climate change. +4.2.10 Seamounts and other submarine geological features +With respect to submarine geological features, the issues where gaps in knowledge an capacity-building are involved include: +Seamounts are predominantly submerged volcanoes, generally now extinct, tha can rise to a few thousand metres above the surrounding seafloor. The mos significant human activities around seamounts so far are fishing and, potentially mining. To increase the knowledge available to manage activities around thes features, it would be necessary to build techniques, personnel and infrastructur to address the following issues: Only about 6.5 per cent of the sea floor i mapped, so the global number of seamounts can only be estimated. +Globally, overall species richness in seamount ecosystems is poorly known an therefore improving our knowledge of species composition would requir undertaking comprehensive studies of the ecology of seamounts, ridges an other sensitive submarine benthic habitats. Appropriate conservation of thes ecosystems requires scientific research. +The interaction of the geological features with the overlying water column i poorly known. +Impacts of acidification and de-oxygenation on these ecosystems are als unknown, and are not monitored sufficiently to detect impacts: many seamount already experience low oxygen and low calcium carbonate saturation levels Trawl gear disturbs and destroys benthic fauna and in some seamounts littl decolonization is observed, even years after the closure of fishing. Th destructive effects of trawl gear on benthic communities are generall incompletely known, but it is possible that these have reduced the ecologica resilience and consequently also reduced reproductive potential, an contributed to the loss of genetic diversity and ecological connectivity. +Capacity for stock assessment and sustainable management, includin investment in shared infrastructure (for example, fisheries research vessels), i insufficient and capacity building would improve the possibility that suc fisheries could be sustainably managed. +Mining of seamounts would benefit from multisectoral management, especiall for balancing mining and fishery interests. A first step in this direction could b to build the capacities of those involved to participate in the international wor on this subject. +Managing the effects of multiple stressors on seamounts would benefit fro expanding both monitoring and research and may require building capacity t address this need. This would include capacity building for personnel an infrastructure, including multidisciplinary research teams, research vessels an laboratories. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +References +Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being Washington, D.C., Island Press. +UNGA (2010). Report of the Secretary-General (A/65/69/Add.1). +UNGA (2011). Final report of the workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the regular process for global reporting and assessment o the state of the marine environment, including Socio-economic aspects Santiago, Chile, 13-15 September 2011(A/66/587). +UNGA (2012a). Final report of the Workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the state of the Marine Environment, including Socio-economic Aspects. Sanya China, 21-23 February 2012 (A/66/799). +UNGA (2012b). Final Report of the workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the State of the Marine Environment, including Socio-economic Aspects. Brussels 27 to 29 June 2012 (A/67/679). +UNGA (2013a). Final Report of the sixth workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the State of the Marine Environment including, Socio-economic Aspects. Brisban Australia, 25-27 February 2013 (A/67/885). +UNGA (2013b). Final report of the fourth workshop held under the auspices of th United Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment, including Socio-economi Aspects. Miami, United States of America, 13-15 November 2012 (A/67/687). +UNGA (2013c). Final report of the fifth workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for the Global Reporting an Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including Socio-economi Aspects. Maputo, Mozambique, 6 and 7 December 2012 (A/67/896). +UNGA (2013d). Final report of the fourth workshop held under the auspices of th United Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting an Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment, including Socio-economi Aspects. Grand-Bassam, Cote d' Ivoire, 28-30 October 2013 (A/68/766). +UNGA (2014). Report of the eighth workshop held under the auspices of the Unite Nations in support of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment o the State of the Marine Environment, including Socio-economic Aspects. Chennai India, 27-29 January 2014 (A/68/812). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +UNGA/AHWGW (2009). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whol to recommend a course of action to the General Assembly on the Regular Proces for Global Reporting and Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment including Socio-economic Aspects. (A/64/347). +UNGA/AHWGW (2010). Report on the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whol to recommend a course of action to the General Assembly on the Regular Proces for Global Reporting and Assessment of the state of the Marine Environment including Socio-economic Aspects. (A65/358). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_53.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_53.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_54.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_54.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9205d8d5b706f3d5602f0ac6ccd4ea32166e4200 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_54.txt @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ +Chapter 54. Overall Assessment of Human Impact on the Oceans +Group of Experts: Patricio Bernal, Beatrice Ferreira, Lorna Inniss, Enrique Marschoff Jake Rice, Andy Rosenberg, Alan Simcock +1. Overview of impacts +No part of the ocean has today completely escaped the impact of human pressures including the most remote areas. One clear example of this is the universal presenc of stratospheric fall-out from atmospheric nuclear-weapons testing, but many othe pressures on the marine environment are nearly as widespread. +Human pressures impact on the ocean in many and complex ways. They can tak effect directly (as when an oil spill kills sea-birds and sessile benthic biota) o indirectly (as when climate change results in changes to the stratification o seawater, with an adverse effect on the nutrient cycle and the production of th plankton on which fish feed). Equally, the effects can be seen both on the natura environment (as when populations of sea turtles are reduced by touris development on or near their breeding beaches) as well as on human society an economic activities (as when the collapse of a fish stock removes the economic bas of coastal communities). Human pressures can also vary widely in their intensity an spread. Sometimes they have a concentrated impact: for example, the annua expansion of a large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico, resulting from the high level o inputs of nitrogen compounds in the run-off from the Mississippi and othe catchments. Sometimes the effects of human pressures have a very widel distributed effect: for example, the diffusion of persistent organic pollutants over th Arctic zone by airborne volatilization (for both examples, see Chapter 20 on land based inputs) (Halpern, 2008). +1.1 Summarizing the impacts +An analysis of the overall impact of all the human pressures examined in thi Assessment has to start by looking at the direct impacts and collateral effects of eac pressure and to examine where those impacts and effects are found. However (a argued below), although this is an essential first step, it is not enough. In addition any review of the effects of human pressures on the marine environment has to loo both at the effects on the marine environment and at the consequences for huma society and economies. A taxonomy of the main sources of human pressures on th marine environment that need to be considered must include the following (thoug these are not listed in any order of priority): +(a) Climate change (and ocean acidification, including the resulting change in salinity, sea-level, ocean heat content and sea-ice coverage, reductio in oxygen content, changes in ultra-violet radiation); +© 2016 United Nation + +(b) Human-induced mortality and physical disturbance of marine biota (suc as capture fisheries, including by-catch), other forms of harvesting accidental deaths such as through collisions and entanglement i discarded nets, disturbance of critical habitat, including breeding an nursery areas); +(c) Inputs to the ocean (these can be broken down according to the natur of their effects: toxic substances and endocrine disruptors, waterborn pathogens, radioactive substances, plastics, explosives, excessiv nutrient loads, hydrocarbons). Remobilization of past inputs also need to be considered; +(d) Demand for ocean space and alteration, or increase in use, of coasts an seabed (conflicting demands lead to both changes in human use of th ocean and changes to marine habitats); +(e) Underwater noise (from shipping, sonar and seismic surveys); +(f) Interference with migration from structures in the sea or other change in routes along coasts or between parts of the sea and/or inland water (for example, wind-farms, causeways, barrages, major canals, coas reinforcement, etc.); +(g) Introduction of non-native species. +It is a matter of debate how any taxonomy should be structured. For example, al inputs might be classed together, since they are all the result of human activitie affecting the ocean. However, there are important differences in the ways in whic these pressures will affect the littoral, the water column and the benthos. I addition, the way in which these affect the environment and human societies an economies differs significantly. Hazardous substances may have toxic effects (eithe directly on animals which ingest them or through the food web on animals an humans that eat contaminated fish and seafood), may affect resilience to infection or may affect reproductive success. Waterborne pathogens may affect marin biota, but can be of particular concern when they are likely to affect humans wh bathe in the sea or eat seafood. Excessive nutrients may lead to dead zones or caus blooms of algae that generate toxins. Explosives from past wars dumped into th sea may well not affect marine biota, but may kill or maim fishers who bring them u in trawls. Hydrocarbons may kill marine biota directly, but can also be broken dow by bacteria and thus enter the food web. The worst effects of some emissions (suc as exhaust fumes from ships) may not be the way that they enter the sea, but th way in which they contribute to damage to human health on land through ai pollution. No taxonomy of these kinds of pressures, which are operating in ver different fields, is likely to be beyond debate. Table 1 (at the end of this chapter summarizes the varieties of human pressures on the marine environment, indicatin the environmental and the social and economic effects. The categories of pressur aim to bring together the pressures resulting from various human activities that hav similar effects, but keep separate some categories which have some effects of a ver different nature, even though they may overlap with other categories in creatin some effects. +© 2016 United Nation + +1.2 Environmental effects +This chapter aims to summarize the overall impact of human activities on the ocean The elements noted in Table 1 therefore relate very much to the impact of huma activities on the marine environment. As the regional biodiversity assessments i chapter 36 of Part VI of this Assessment show, there are well-documented example of cases where habitats, lower-trophic-level productivity, benthic communities, fis communities, or seabirds or marine mammal populations have been severely altere by pressures from a specific activity (such as over-fishing, pollution, nutrient loading physical disturbance, or non-native species). However, many biodiversity impacts particularly at larger scales, are the result of cumulative and interactive effects o multiple pressures from multiple drivers. It has repeatedly proven difficult t disentangle the effects of the individual pressures. This impedes the ability t address the individual causes. +Even in the Arctic Ocean, where human settlements are relatively few and small, th potentially synergistic effects of multiple stressors come together. And this i against a background of pressures from a changing climate and increasing huma maritime activity, primarily related to hydrocarbon and mineral development and t the opening of shipping routes. These changes bring risks of direct mortality displacement from critical habitats, noise disturbance, and increased exposure t hunting, which are superimposed on high levels of contaminants, notabl organochlorines and heavy metals, as a result of the presence of these substances i the Arctic food web. +Likewise, in the open ocean (remote from land-based inputs), shifts in bottom-u forcing (that is, primary productivity) and competitive, or top-down forcing (that is by large predators) will produce complex and indirect effects on ecosystem services Stress imposed by lower oxygen, lower pH (that is, higher acidity), or elevate temperature can reduce the resilience of individual species and ecosystems throug stressing organism tolerances or shifting community interactions. Where thi happens, it retards recovery from disturbance caused by human activities such as oi spills and trawling and (potentially in the future) seabed mining. Acidification-slowe growth of carbonate skeletons, delayed development under hypoxic conditions, an declining food availability illustrate how climate change could exacerbat anthropogenic impacts and compromise deep-sea ecosystem structure and function and ultimately its benefits to human welfare. +These multiple pressures interact in ways that are poorly understood, but that ca amplify the effects expected from each pressure separately. The North Atlantic i comparatively rich in scientific resources. It has many long-term ocean-monitorin programmes and a scientific organization (the International Council for th Exploration of the Sea) that have functioned for over a century to promote an coordinate scientific and technical cooperation among the countries around th North Atlantic. Even here, however, experts are commonly unable to disentangl consistently the causation of unsustainable uses of, and impacts on, marin biodiversity. This may seem initially discouraging. Nevertheless many well documented examples exist of the benefits that can follow from actions to address +© 2016 United Nation + +past unsustainable practices, even if other perturbations are also occurring in th same area. +Cumulative effects are documented for species groups of the top predators in th ocean, including marine mammals, seabirds, and marine reptiles. Many of thes species tend to be highly mobile, and some species migrate across multipl ecosystems and even entire ocean basins, so they can be exposed in their annua cycle to many threats. Direct harvest occurs for some of these species, particularl some pinnipeds (seals and related species), seabirds and sharks, and bycatch i fisheries can cause significant mortality for many species. However, in addition t having to sustain the impacts from these direct deaths, all of these species suffe from varying levels of exposure to land-based pollution sources and increasing level of noise in the ocean. Land-nesting seabirds, marine turtles and pinnipeds also fac habitat disturbance, including invasive predators on isolated breeding islands disturbance of beaches where eggs are laid, or direct human disturbance fro tourism, including ecotourism. +Some global measures have been helpful in addressing specific sources of mortality such as the global ban on high-seas drift-netting introduced by the United Nation General Assembly in 1994, which was a major step in limiting the bycatch of severa marine mammal and seabird species that were especially vulnerable t entanglement. However, for seabirds alone, at least 10 different pressures hav been identified that can affect a single population through its annual cycle, wit efforts to mitigate one sometimes increasing vulnerability to other pressures Because of the complexity of these issues, conservation and management must b approached with care and with alertness to the nature of the interactions among th many human interests, the needs of the animals and their role in marin ecosystems. +1.3 Social and economic effects +Many of the human activities that affect the ocean affect not only its environmenta condition, but also various social and economic aspects related to the marin environment. Most human activities in and around the ocean are aimed at gettin some form of social or economic benefit from the ocean, and Chapter 57 (Overal value of the ocean to humans) attempts to pull together these aspects. Som human activities, in effect, can undermine their own success: capture fisheries an tourism are a good example of this: over-fishing results in keeping harvested specie at less than the maximum sustainable yield, while tourism that attracts too man tourists can downgrade the environment that originally attracted them. In addition many types of human activity may have adverse impacts on the success of othe human activities. For example, marine noise from ships may cause the marin mammals to re-locate and thus undermine a previously successful whale-watchin activity (see Chapters 27 and 37). The trade-offs among classes of interactin activities need careful consideration — especially as governance arrangements ma make it difficult for such trade-offs to be easily considered together. This ca happen either because the voices of some of those affected are not easily heard (fo example, small-scale fishers) or because the governance arrangements do not +© 2016 United Nation + +address the same areas (for example, long-range aerial or riverine transport o pollutants may start in areas well away from any ocean). Some effects (such a ocean acidification) may only be capable of being addressed at a global scale, but th ecological effects may be much more localized, because of the uneven distribution o the environmental effects. Likewise, the social and economic impacts of such globa pressures may be much more unequally distributed than the ecological effects because of regional differences in uses of the ocean. +Many of the more serious cases of trade-offs of this kind affect food from the sea As explained in Part IV, overfishing of certain fish stocks is a very clear example o the way in which an activity can undermine its own success in generating economi and social benefits in terms both of food from the sea and of employments an livelihoods. At the same time, excessive inputs of nutrients (among other things from sewage discharges or agricultural run-off) can lead to dead zones or hypoxi zones, which can seriously affect the recruitment of fish stocks on which both large scale and small-scale fisheries depend. To these adverse effects on fish stocks ca be added further effects such as those from losses of breeding or nursery area through land reclamation, the effects of hazardous substances on reproductiv success and oil pollution from shipping. Since small-scale fisheries are in general les well studied than the larger, more commercial fisheries, the social and economi consequences of these multiple impacts are not easily quantified. Indeed, as note above, even for larger, more commercial fisheries the overall way in which multipl pressures work together to produce adverse effects is not well understood Nevertheless, it is clear that some problems are sufficiently well understood tha remedial actions can have some success. For example, reductions in the occurrenc of liver tumours in fish in Netherlands waters have been linked to decreases in th levels of organic pollutants (OSPAR 2010). On the other hand, improvements i aquaculture techniques have allowed substantially increased production with lowe inputs of fishmeal (FAO, 2012). +The changes in marine biodiversity can have knock-on effects on other ecosyste services that humans obtain from the ocean. An illustration of this is the importan link between the health of warm-water corals and tourism. Warm-water coral represent a major component of the attractiveness of many tourist resorts in th Caribbean, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, south-east Asia and the South Pacific. Th competitive position of their resorts would be seriously undermined if the tourist could no longer enjoy the corals. The same applies to other resorts (even in cold water areas) where one of the attractions is scuba diving to enjoy the marin ecosystems. +The disappearance (or, more commonly, the reduction in numbers) of iconic specie can similarly adversely affect traditional practices. For example, native people o the north-east Pacific coast have seen their traditional whale-hunting halted because of past over-harvesting by others of grey whales (see Chapter 8, Cultura ecosystem services from the ocean). This hunting was an integral part of thei cultural heritage, and the affected tribes consider the cultural loss to be very serious Pollution can have similar effects: for example, the Faeroese authorities are takin measures to control the traditional food obtained in the islands from pilot whales because of the high levels of pollutants they contain (see Chapter 20, Land-Based +© 2016 United Nation + +inputs to the ocean). Demand for ocean space and alteration of coasts and seabe will lead to destruction of underwater cultural heritage (see Chapter 26 on land/se physical interaction; and Chapter 27 on tourism and recreation). +2. Information gaps and capacity building gaps +2.1 Information gaps +Taking an overall view of the state of the world’s marine environment presents man challenges, because it requires a large number of different sets of data to be brough together. Techniques for doing this are in their infancy, and many difficult problem need to be resolved. +In the first place, as the chapters in Parts Ill, IV, V and VI of this Assessmen demonstrate, there are many gaps in the basic information necessary to build reliable, world-wide, comprehensive, quantified survey of the state of the ocean This Assessment shows that a qualitative view can generally be achieved of mos aspects of the oceans and that some aspects can, at least in places, be quantified More quantified information is needed to achieve a robust quantified assessment The various chapters of Parts Ill, IV, V and VI of this Assessment identify majo information gaps. Most of these will need to be filled before detailed methods o quantification can be developed that will achieve general acceptance. +In pursuing the aim of a more quantified integrated assessment of the ocean, it wil therefore be important to try to improve the detailed information available. +2.2. Capacity gaps +At the same time, there is a more general gap in techniques for bringing informatio on the different aspects of the ocean together to give an overall picture. Variou attempts have been made to do this at various levels, both as to the area to b covered and as to the degree of integration sought. +2.3. Ocean Health Index +One of these is the Ocean Health Index (OHI) (OHI, 2014; OHI, 2013; OHI, 2014). Thi index is mentioned as an illustration of the challenges in preparing even a semi quantitative, but comprehensive, assessment of the ocean. There is a wide range o expert views of the robustness of this index — and, indeed, of other such indices. A the same time, it should be noted that many of the most important messages draw from the OHI do correspond to conclusions drawn in this Assessment. Thos conclusions have been drawn by other assessments as well. +The OHI is an attempt to produce a comprehensive assessment of the ocean i numerical terms at the highest possible level. Originally covering only coasta waters, it now covers all aspects of the marine environment and all parts of th ocean (220 areas within national jurisdictions and 16 much larger areas beyond +© 2016 United Nation + +national jurisdictions). Its aim is to convert all the information into numerical score for the status of each of the goals and sub-goals (shown in Table 2). Some of thes goals have clear gaps: for example, the “Clean Water” goal does not cover poin source discharges. The exercise also derives figures for trends, pressures an resilience to allow forecasting of future status. Given the limitations of the data tha are available, various statistical techniques have had to be applied to that data i order to achieve coherent, comprehensive outputs. A detailed study of the effort involved in developing the Ocean Health Index quickly shows how difficult it is t gather full information. +Having derived numerical scores for the goals and sub-goals, the next step in the OH process is then to aggregate the indices developed for each goal into a single inde figure for the status of each area of sea covered by the exercise, and then into single figure for the ocean as a whole. It is possible to allow for different weighting between the results for the different goals, based on expert judgement, in order t allow for different views on the balance between preservation and exploitation (OHI 2013). +Table 2. Summary of the goals and sub-goals used for the Ocean Health Index +GOAL SUB-GOAL REFERENCE POINT TYPE AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF BASIS +Food Provision Fisheries Functional relationship (difference of total landed biomass fro estimated maximum sustainable yield) +Mariculture Spatial comparison (sustainably harvested yield of maricultur normalised for the area of inshore waters) +Small-scale Functional relationship (level of demand for small-scale fisherie Fishing (estimated from poverty level and degree of regulation of suc Opportunities fisheries) +Natural Temporal comparison (historical benchmark) (level of exports fo Products the area of coral, ornamental fish, fish oil, seaweeds and marine +plants, shells, and sponges compared with the highest leve achieved, as a substitute for the maximum possible level) +Carbon Storage Temporal comparison (historical benchmark) (Current area o mangroves, seagrass beds and salt-marshes compared wit historical benchmark) +Coastal Temporal comparison (historical benchmark) (Current area o Protection mangroves,coral reefs, seagrasses, salt marshes, and sea ic compared with historical benchmark and adjusted for th differing protective effects of each) +© 2016 United Nations + +GOAL SUB-GOAL REFERENCE POINT TYPE AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF BASI Coastal Livelihoods: Temporal and spatial comparisons (moving target) (Number o Livelihoods & jobs and jobs directly and indirectly supported by tourism, commercia Economies wages fishing, marine mammal watching, aquarium fishing, wave and +tidal energy, mariculture, transportation & shipping, ports an harbours, shipbuilding and boatbuilding, compared with averag of last five years, and adjusted by the average wage in eac sector Economies Temporal comparison (moving target) (contribution to Gros Domestic Product generated directly or indirectly by the sector mentioned in the entry of the previous sub-goal, compared wit historical benchmark Tourism & Spatial comparison (Originally based on international touris Recreation arrivals, but since 2013 based on employment in tourism, +adjusted by for sustainability in line with the World Economi Forum’s Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index) +Sense of Place +Iconic Species +Known target (Percentage of species in the World-Wide Fund fo Nature’s lists of Priority Species and Flagship Species for the are that are classed by the International Union for the Conservation +of Nature (IUCN) as threatened, weighted by the threat category) +Lastin Special Places +Established target (The mean of (a) area of coastal marin protected areas as a percentage of an assumed target that 30 of the area within 3 nautical miles of the coast should b protected, and (b) the length of coastline within 1 kilometre o the shore that is protected as a proportion of an assumed targe that 30% of such coast should be protected) +Clean Waters +Known target (Geometric mean of (a) number of people in th coastal area without access to enhanced sanitation, rescaled t the global maximum, (b) modelled index of land-based inorgani pollution from urban runoff from impervious surfaces, (c modelled index of land-based organic pollution from pesticide and (d) modelled index of pollution from shipping and ports) +Biodiversity +Habitats +Temporal comparison (historical benchmark) (average of th assessed conditions of such of the range of mangroves, cora reefs, seagrass beds, salt marshes, sea-ice edge, and sub-tida soft-bottom habitats as are present in the area; the assessment of conditions are drawn from a variety of wide-rangin assessments of these habitats) +Species +Known target (Temporal comparison (historical benchmark (IUCN Global Marine Species Assessment of the extinction ris status of 2,377 species for which distribution maps exist calculated as the area- and threat-status-weighted average of th number of threatened species within each 0.52 grid cell) +Source: adapted from Halpern et al., 2012 and OHI, 2013. +The OHI depends crucially on the availability of satisfactory data across many fields and on the expert judgements made about the weighting to be given to the differen fields covered. Much of the necessary data is not available, and estimates of various +© 2016 United Nations + +kinds have to be used instead. The scale of the expert judgements needed mean that there is a substantial subjective component in any results. +2.4 Water-quality indexes +At a much less aggregated level, as described in Chapter 20 (Land-based inputs t the ocean), some regional seas organizations and some States have tried to produc a single index of water quality in the parts of the ocean with which they ar concerned. Such efforts, too, require judgements on the relative importance of th effects of hazardous substances and of eutrophication problems, and therefore rel to a substantial degree on expert judgement. +2.5 Ecological quality objectives +An alternative approach accepts that there will inevitably be an element of exper judgement involved, and legitimate differences in views on the appropriate weight given to various types of impacts and benefits, and therefore develops measure along a number of axes. There is no attempt to convert these various measures int a single quantified measure. Rather, users are left to apply their varying exper judgements on how much importance to attach to each axis, and on how t interpret what the different measures show. One version of this approach developed by the regional seas organization for the North-East Atlantic, has been t try to find a suitable set of ecological quality objectives (EcoQOs) for an ocean are (OSPAR, 2007). These EcoQOs are derived by considering successively: +(a) What are the important ecosystem components that collectively reflect high ecological quality? +(b) What are the human impacts on this component and how can they b monitored? +(c) What are the objectives to be achieved, taking into account existin policies? +These EcoQOs may be quite numerous, and no attempt has yet been made to specif what the relation among them should be: the aim is to develop a set of measure that can be used for diagnosing whether there are problems. So far, a pilot projec has looked at 11 such EcoQOs for the North Sea (OSPAR, 2007). +2.6 European Union’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive +A related approach is being developed for the implementation of the Europea Union’s (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (EU, 2008). As a startin point, this involves each EU coastal Member State assessing the state of its water against a list of eleven descriptors, shown in Table 3. The European Commission ha produced a set of criteria and indicators to assist in developing common approache to making these assessments. An initial assessment should then be made whethe assessments show that the waters of the Member States have “good environmenta status”. Environmental targets, associated indicators and a programme of measures +© 2016 United Nation + +to maintain that state, or to achieve it by 2020, should then be established by 2015 A preliminary report by the European Commission suggests that much work remain to be done to deliver this programme, and agreement on the relative or absolut benchmarks for good environmental status on many of the descriptors has not bee reached (EU, 2014). +Table 3. Descriptors of Good Environmental Quality for the European Union Marine Strateg Framework Directive +DESCRIPTOR TITLE DETAIL +1 Biodiversity Biological diversity is maintained. The quality an occurrence of habitats and the distribution and abundanc of species are in line with prevailing physiographic geographic and climatic conditions. +2 Non-indigenous | Non-indigenous species (NIS) introduced by human +species activities are at levels that do not adversely alter th ecosystems. +3 Fish and Populations of all commercially exploited fish and shellfish +Shellfish stocks | are within safe biological limits, exhibiting a population ag and size distribution that is indicative of a healthy stock. +4 Food webs All elements of the marine food webs, to the extent tha they are known, occur at normal abundance and diversit and levels capable of ensuring the long-term abundance o the species and the retention of their full reproductiv capacity. +5 Eutrophication Human-induced eutrophication is minimised, especiall adverse effects thereof, such as losses in biodiversity ecosystem degradation, harmful algae blooms and oxyge deficiency in bottom waters. +6 Benthos Sea floor integrity is at a level that ensures that th structure and functions of the ecosystems are safeguarde and benthic ecosystems, in particular, are not adversel affected. +7 Hydrography Permanent alteration of hydrographical conditions does no adversely affect marine ecosystems. +8 Contaminants Concentrations of contaminants are at levels not giving ris to pollution effects. +9 Fish and Contaminants in fish and other seafood for human +seafood quality | consumption do not exceed levels established b Community legislation or other relevant standards. +10 Marine litter Properties and quantities of marine litter do not cause har to the coastal and marine environment. +11 Energy Introduction of energy, including underwater noise, is at +introduction +levels that do not adversely affect the marine environment. +Source: EU, 2008, Annex | +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +Unlike the Ocean Health Index, however, these EcoQO and MSFD approaches do no specifically integrate social and economic aspects, although the effects o sustainable uses are taken into account in setting their benchmarks for goo environmental status. +2.7 Conclusion on capacity-building gaps +Some attempts have been made to develop ecosystem-based approaches t managing human activities that affect the ocean. Even here, however, much wor remains to be done to develop systems for assessing the overall impacts of huma activities on the ocean. There thus remains a general need to develop methods fo integrated assessments of the marine environment that can deliver an assessment o the marine environment that is not only (1) integrated across environmental, socia and economic aspects, (2) integrated across sectors of human activities, and (3 integrated across all the components of the marine environment, but also give reliable, quantified information about all parts of the world. There is therefore general need for capacities to develop and implement such assessment methods. +Table 1. Pressures and Impacts of Human Activities on Environmental and Socioeconomic Aspects o the Marine Environment +z +No PRESSURES FROM HUMAN SEE Impacts ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON SOCIOECONOMIC Me Activities* ASPECTS OF THE MARINE ASPECTS OF THE MARIN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMEN 1 Acidification of the ocean | Ch5 Reduction of reproductive | Losses in livelihoods in some No (arising from increased success, recruitment, small-scale fisheries. Lower ye eee Ch7 . CO, emissions) growth and survival of production of som Ch 36 some species, especially commercial fisheries. Loss o A-H those with (calcareous) competitiveness for touris exoskeletons (shells etc). dependent on corals Ch 42 Reduced resilience of Potential loss of coasta Ch 43 | coral reefs to other protection services wher stresses. Second-order coral reefs are degraded Ch 46 loss of habitat for other . we Potential costs of reducin species if coral reefs c CO, emissions degrade. +‘In alphabetical order, not in any order of importance. +? Mot = Management possibilities: “Yes”: examples are known of successful management strategies t reduce this pressure generally; “Some”: examples are known of successful management strategies t reduce some aspects of this pressure; “Not yet”: no such examples are yet known. NOTE -— thi marking does not allow for measures that ADAPT to changes: for example, the way in which som aquaculture facilities are mitigating some impacts of acidification. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +No PRESSURES FROM HUMAN SEE Impacts ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON SOCIOECONOMIC Me Activimies* ASPECTS OF THE MARINE ASPECTS OF THE MARIN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMEN 2 Changes in sea ch4 Increased sea-surface Adverse changes in weather No temperature temperature will probably | patterns, including increased ye chs . cee ae aoe increase stratification and | storms in higher latitudes Ch7 thus affect nutrient Fisheries and aquacultur cycling, with effects on potential may have t Ch 34 productivity. relocate or change preferre species. Changes in hig mee Changes in species latitude temperature AH distribution and : . ductivities, bottom up regimes increase access fo Ch 42- | Pro ” _. many industries with th 50 ecosystem productivity , o . potential for major impact and community structure. . a ch 43 on Arctic communities Coral bleaching Ch 1 Reduction of sea-ice cove in Arctic and Antarctic wil impair species dependen on that habitat 3 Changes in the salinity of ch4 Changes to the Potential fundamental No seawater (arising from thermohaline circulation changes in availability of ye . Ch6é . . climate change) of the ocean, in some fishery resources wit chi5 places leading to implications for food securit increased up-welling of and other importan Ch 34 nutrients (see also Item ecosystem services 14). Increased likelihoo Ch 36 ) tgs Changes in currents ma A-G of stratification o i alter the way that ocea seawater, wit moves heat around th consequent adverse 5 . planet, with widesprea effects on primar production that supports consequence fish and seabirds 4 Creation of underwater Ch17 | Disturbance of fish, Potential costs of reducing Ye noise (arising from ch21 macro-invertebrates, and noise emissions, includin shipping, offshore Ch 22 marine mammals. potential closure of sensitiv prospecting, offshore Mortality due to noise areas to certain activitie renewable energy Ch 23 rare but disruption of seasonally or permanently installations and tourism h behaviour may have thus limiting economi and recreation) Ch 27 consequences for life activity Ch 36. | history activities includin feeding, migration Ch 37 +recruitment and socia behaviour. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +No PRESSURES FROM HUMAN SEE Impacts ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON SOCIOECONOMIC Me Activimies* ASPECTS OF THE MARINE ASPECTS OF THE MARIN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMEN 5 Increased demands for Ch11 | Depending on the human Conflicts among potential Ye marine space for activity, the ecological uses of a place may arise, +. eae Ch 12 . . e potentially conflicting functions of natural causing problems in findin uses (arising from Ch 14 habitats in the marine most suitable allocation o fisheries, aquaculture, space allocated for human | space among potential uses shipping routes, Ch 18 use may be altered, and increases in costs t submarine cables and Chi9 | degraded, or destroyed manage conflicts pipelines, offshore (including by removing or +ch21 - - Development pressures ma hydrocarbon and mining smothering marine plants . ' +A . favour higher impact use operations, solid waste Ch22 | and benthos). +. . such as ports or energ disposal, tourism) . . Ch 23 Consequent reductions of | production, with negativ habitat available for implications for lower impac Ch 24 | nature. Changes in uses such as small-scal ch 26 habitat productivity can subsistence fishing alter ecosystems. impacting food security Ch 2 Disposal of disused Secondary impacts o Ch 48 | offshore installations can harvesting and tourism ar create new habitats. possible, if the permitte uses decrease biologica productivity or make th area unavailable. +6 Increased direct mortality | Ch 11 Decline in populations if Unsustainable mortality Ye of marine animal the mortality is rates imply declines of livin . . . Ch 15 . . . . +populations, including unsustainable. Alterations | marine resources, wit those not directly Ch17 in population structures implications of decreasin targeted (arising towards ones composed food security, reduce particularly from fisheries, Ch 27 of smaller and younger livelihoods in coastal areas including recreational Ch 36. | individuals, with broader and reduction in recreationa fisheries) impacts on productivity. enjoyment Ch 37 | potential alterations to The costs of restoring over Ch3g | ecosystem balance , - exploited resources ar through differential Ch 39 | effects on species. generally very hig compared to those o Ch 40 preventing overexploitatio from occurring 7 Increased disturbance of Ch17 High levels of the Need to manage access of Ye fauna and flora, arising ch18 presence of people affect people to ecologicall from increased numbers n animal behaviour, significant places can impos of people in the coastal Ch 21 including breeding, costs on development, an zone, and increased rearing, feeding, and limit scale of industries suc amounts of shipping Ch 23 migration. May reduce the | as eco-touris Ch26 | carrying capacity of th coastal zone for marin Ch27 | biota Chs 3 -44 +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +No PRESSURES FROM HUMAN SEE Impacts ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON SOCIOECONOMIC Me Activimies* ASPECTS OF THE MARINE ASPECTS OF THE MARIN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMEN 8 Increased ultra-violet ch6é Possible adverse effects Potential effects on Ye radiation (arising from on primary production harvesting if fish stocks ar reductions in ozone layer) and on fish larvae. affected Effects on titaniu dioxide nanoparticles creating biocides affectin phytoplankton, and thu potentially the food web 9 Input of explosives and Ch 24 | Additional source of Harm to fishers who catch Ye hazardous gases in hazardous substances and | such dumped material i containers (from seabed smothering: see their nets, and to pipeline dumping) Items 12 and 17. and cable-laying in affecte areas 10 | Input of hydrocarbons h12 Killing of benthic biota, Consequent damage to Ye (from land-based sources, v7 fish, marine mammals and | aquaculture and fisheries offshore installations, n reptiles and sea birds. Fouling of beaches an aa a h19 . pipelines and shipping) 20 Adverse effects on their consequent adverse impac " 1 later reproductive success. | on touris h 2 h 2 h 3 h 3 h 3 11 | Input of nutrients, both h6 Coastal eutrophication, Adverse effects on human Some +airborne and water-born (arising from land-base activities, shipping, soli waste disposal). +h1 h1 h 20 +h 2 h2 h 2 h 36 +h 4 h 4 h 48 +ggg FPFAaAnaAA aAagaaAaAIA aAaAaAaAAaAaAnAA A +leading to dead zones hypoxic zones and alga blooms (including toxi algal blooms). +Shifts of ecosyste regimes. +Consequent loss o benthic diversity an adverse effects on fis and shellfish stocks and o seabirds and marin mammals and reptiles. +Algal smothering of cora reefs +health, especially throug shell-fish poisoning an waterborne pathogens. +Adverse effects on fisherie and shellfisheries from dea zones and hypoxic areas. +Adverse effects on touris from beaches covered i algae, and loss o competitiveness fro reduced marine wildlif (especially where coral reef are affected) +Increased costs of treatmen of inputs. +3 There has been some success in reducing the ozone-depleting effects of certain chemicals, with +consequent improvements in the UV-filtering effects of the ozone layer. +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +No PRESSURES FROM HUMAN SEE Impacts ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON SOCIOECONOMIC Me Activimies* ASPECTS OF THE MARINE ASPECTS OF THE MARIN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMEN 12 | Input of plastics (from Ch6 Potential effects from Potential effects on fish and Ye shipping, fishing, offshore breakdown into shellfish stocks throug . Ch 11 . installations, poor control nanoparticles on food changes in the food web of land-based waste Ch17 web, through effects on . . . Loss of vulnerable specie disposal, dumping). plankton and on filter- . Ch 24 . . . may impact tourism o feeding species, resultin . - - cultural needs Ch25_ | inchanges in productivity ch37 Mortality from ingestion Loss of amenity and foulin . of beaches by, and physica Ch 38 entanglement of, fish, Consequent adverse impact Ch39 | marine mammals, reptiles | on tourism and seabirds Costs for cleanup of plastics Loss of habitat lost fishing gear etc., are ver contaminated with high durable debris 13 | Input and transfer of Cch12 Possible adverse effects Damage to human health Ye waterborne pathogens ch17 on marine fish, bird, turtle | from the spread of disease (arising from land-based n and mammal populations and from contaminated foo activities, open-pen Ch 20 due to introduction of from the sea aquaculture, shipping and diseases . . Ch 2 offshore installations). . Coral diseases leading t Ch 37 death and impacts i Ch 43. | coralline communities 14 | Input, or remobilization, Ch17 Reduction in reproductive | Damage to human health Ye of hazardous substances, ch20 success and in ability to from contaminated foo by both airborne and n resist disease of marine from the sea. Advers waterborne routes Ch 21 biota. In extreme cases, effects on fisheries an (arising from land-based killing of marine biota. shellfisheries from effects o activities, dumping, Ch 23 Bio-accumulation of toxins | stocks offshore installations and | ch 24 | in organisms that ar shipping). subsequently harvested Ch 1 15 | Interference with aerial Ch22 | Potential damage to Benefits of increasing non migration routes (from seabird population from carbon-intense energ . Ch 38 a . Ye wind-farms) deaths and injuries from sources involve trade-of collisions with rotors of with risk of increases from wind-farms during new source of direc migration. mortality 16 | Introductions of non- Ch 12 Degrading genetic pools, Interference with fisheries Yes native species or genetic ch17 Reduction in biodiversity. and shellfisheries strains (arising from 0 Destruction of existing Interference with operatio aquaculture, shipping and | Ch27 | wild stocks. of plant. Aquacultur recreational boats) Potential for di ti benefits greatly from the us Ch 36 ot ta Io wlaty tons d of strains of fish adapted fo AH or na ura Popula fons ani culture, which are ofte biotic communities. : ch 43 different genetically from +natural populations. +* Transfers of foreign species in ships’ ballast water can be managed. It is difficult to impose regimes +to protect against transfer of s +boats. +© 2016 United Nations +pecies through attachments to the hull, especially on recreational + +No PRESSURES FROM HUMAN SEE Impacts ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON SOCIOECONOMIC Me Activimies* ASPECTS OF THE MARINE ASPECTS OF THE MARIN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMEN 17 | Physical alteration of sea- | Ch 11 Direct mortality by Costs of reducing impacts: Som bed habitats (arising from physical impacts or some activities necessaril bottom-fishing, Ch 12 smothering. Reduction in require habitat impacts a aquaculture, dredging for Ch18 | three-dimensional habitat | part of the business (mining shipping, ports, submarine structure can reduce aggregate extraction); othe cables and pipelines, Ch 19 biodiversity and activities result in habita offshore hydrocarbon ch21 productivity. Disturbance impacts as a collateral, bu industries and mining, of sediments can reduce sometimes unavoidable coastal defences, land Ch22 | water quality and/or consequence (fishing wit reclamation, solid waste Ch 23 release contaminants, also | mobile bottom-contactin disposal and tourism and Ch24 impacting biotic gears) recreation). communities an Ch 27 | populations Ch 3 A- Ch 42-5 18 | Sea-based emission of Ch17_ | Additional source of Damage to human health Ye air-polluting substances nutrients, and thus of the from coastal air pollution (nitrogen oxides etc) Ch 20 problems related to them . (arising from shipping, Ch 21 (see Item 14). Potential costs of controllin fishing vessels, offshore emissions hydrocarbon and mining Ch 2 operations) 19 | Sea-level rise (arising ch4 Changes in coastal Inundation of low-lying No from climate change). habitats. Contaminants States. Inundation of low- ye Ch7 A a from frequent coastal lying cities and other areas (Env Ch 26 flooding are likely to add resulting in loss of property Ye to toxics and nutrient and population (S/E Ch 36 pollution. displacement Ch 43 Loss of costal ecosystems Critical infrastructure built i Ch47_ | suchas seagrasses due to | low lying areas is highly +increase in turbulence. +vulnerable (airports, se ports, highways and trai routes). +Potential costs of protectin the built environment. +EU (2008). European Union, Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC). +References +EU (2014). European Commission, Report from the Commission to the Council an the European Parliament: The first phase of implementation of the Marine +Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC). The European Commission' assessment and guidance (COM/2014/097 final). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +FAO (2012). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. FAO. Rome. +Halpern, B.S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K.A., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., D’Agrosa, C. Bruno, J.F., Casey, K.S., Ebert, C., Fox, H.E., Fujita, R., Heinemann, D. Lenihan, H.S., Madin, E.M.P., Perry, M.T., Selig, E.R., Spalding, M., Steneck, R and Watson, R. (2008). A Global Map of Human Impact on Marin Ecosystems, Science, vol. 319, no. 5865. +Halpern, B.S., Longo, C., Hardy, D., McLeod, K.L., Samhouri, J.F., Katona, S.K. Kleisner, K., Lester, S.E., O’Leary, J., Ranelletti, M., Rosenberg, A.A. Scarborough, C., Selig, E.R., Best, B.D., Brumbaugh, D.R., Chapin, F.S. Crowder, L.B., Daly, K.L, Doney, S.C., Elfes, C., Fogarty, M.J., Gaines, S.D. Jacobsen, K.I., Karrer, L.B., Leslie, H.M., Neeley, E., Pauly, D., Polasky, S., +Ris, B., St Martin, K., Stone, G.S., Sumaila, U.R., and Zeller, D. (2012). An inde to assess the health and benefits of the global ocean, Nature 488, togethe with Supplementary Information available at doi:10.1038/nature1139 (accessed 1 November 2014). +OHI (2013). Ocean Health Index, Supplementary Methods, downloaded fro http://www.oceanhealthindex.org/About/Methods/ on 1 November 2014. +OHI (2014). Ocean Health Index, Ocean Health Index, Global Ocean Assessment downloaded from http://www.oceanhealthindex.org/About/Methods/ on November 2014. +OSPAR (2007). OSPAR Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment o the North-East Atlantic, Ecological Quality Objectives: Working towards healthy North Sea, London, United Kingdom. (ISBN: 978-1-905859-57-3). +OSPAR (2010). OSPAR Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment o the North-East Atlantic, Quality Status Report 2010, London, United Kingdom (ISBN: 978-1-907390-38-8). +© 2016 United Nation + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_54.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_54.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391 diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_55.txt b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_55.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5d4c4108d8624b6f2ee57fc940a62d609d8b5cb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_55.txt @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +Chapter 55. Overall Value of the Oceans to Humans +Group of Experts: Patricio Bernal, Beatrice Ferreira, Lorna Inniss, Enrique Marschoff, +Jake Rice, Andy Rosenberg, Alan Simcock (Lead Members) +1. Introduction +The ocean provides countless ecosystem services. The Millennium Ecosyste Assessment describes ecosystem services as “the benefits people obtain fro ecosystems” (MEA, 2005). Some of the ecosystem services from the ocean ar delivered without human intervention — though they can be affected or disrupted b such intervention. Examples of these are the regulating and supporting ecosyste services (as described in Chapter 3), such as distribution of heat around the planet the functioning of the hydrological cycle and the absorption of carbon dioxide as par of the carbon cycle. Other ecosystem services are obtained as a result of huma activity to acquire the benefits. Most of these are provisioning ecosystem service (as also described in Chapter 3). The obvious example of such acquired ecosyste services is the food provided by capture fisheries, where humans take from th ocean significant amounts of the protein required for human diets. As demonstrate in Part IV and Part V and in Chapter 54, if the human activities are not carefull managed to maintain ecosystem structure and function, the acquisition of suc ecosystem services can result in damage to the marine environment and reductio or loss of ecosystem services. Important issues arise for the institutions of ocea governance at global, regional, national and local levels in balancing the benefits o acquiring these services against the disbenefits (referred to by some as detriments caused by over-exploitation and in preventing or mitigating those disbenefits. +Very different aspects of the concept of value are brought into play by thes different kinds of ecosystem services. For most of the ecosystem services obtaine from the ocean by human effort, there are global or local markets for the product obtained. Market valuations are therefore possible, although in some case questions arise whether such a market value captures all the facets of the value t humans. For example, the value of fish in the sea in maintaining biodiversity an ecosystem functions may be more than the market value of the fish if they wer caught and sold for consumption. Or, ona lesser scale, the value of their activities t recreational sea anglers may well be more than the market value of the fish (if any that they catch. For ecosystem services that do not involve human effort to benefi from them, there is no market, and it is a question of producing a valuation in othe ways. It is also important to remember that any discussion of value has to take int account the question of who is benefiting (or suffering the disbenefits) - even wher they are unaware of what they are benefiting (or suffering). +A further category of ecosystem services of importance to humans are the aesthetic cultural, religious and spiritual ecosystem services (“cultural ecosystem services” fo short). Some of these (such as cultural objects and marine plants and animals that +© 2016 United Nation + +have cultural significance) are on much the same footing as the other material tha humans take from the sea, and may well have market value (see Chapter 8) However, even marketed objects of cultural significance have an added dimensio that may well not be captured by the market. This is particularly the case where th cultural value lies in communal self-identification through sharing in the activity tha wins the cultural objects (such as communal whale-hunting in the North-East Pacifi or the Faeroe Islands). Other cultural ecosystem services stand outside any market for example, the cultural/religious values that are obtained by having access to th sea during rituals, through the existence of special, sacred places, the cultural value that lie in the enjoyment of the seascape or watching the beauty of seabirds, marin mammals or corals and the knowledge that comes from underwater cultura heritage. +2. Quantification +To mention value is almost inevitably to raise the issue of quantification: comparin values and assessing trade-offs require some idea of the relative sizes of what i being compared. There are many ways of measuring the benefit that humans deriv from ecosystem services from the marine environment. “Consuming an ecosyste service” can cover all facets of deriving benefit from some aspect or aspects of th marine environment. It can, for example, include the way that, in some countries houses enjoying a view of the sea can command higher prices than identical house without such a view. It is not therefore easy to delimit the scope of what are th values that need to be taken into account. This is particularly the case with cultura values. +Looking only at economic valuations of the marine environment, one library amon many contains nearly a thousand such valuations, with nearly twice as man valuation estimates (MESP 2014). And economic valuations are not the only form of valuation that can be made: social and ecological metrics can be equall significant, without necessarily being reduced to a single economic balance-sheet Among the metrics that can be important for many different groups of stakeholder are: +(a) The net economic value (for example, the net economic benefits tha those who enjoy an ecosystem service derive from it (consumer surplus) or the economic value that those who use some component of th marine environment derive from it (producer surplus). This kind of metri can be valuable when the economic services enter directly int commerce; +(b) The gross and net revenues in monetary terms that are gained by thos who enjoy an ecosystem service, or use some component of the marin environment. Such metrics focus on the cash flows related to th ecosystem service, and can sometimes be more readily derived as measure of changes in the enjoyment of an ecosystem service. This kin of metric can be valuable in many contexts of ecosystem services, +© 2016 United Nation + +including those where non-monetary valuation approaches ar necessary; +(c) Measures of the numbers of those employed in a human activity and th rewards (in kind or in cash) that they gain. This kind of metric can b valuable when considering livelihoods outside the monetary economy, a well as when labour is engaged for wages; +(d) Numbers of people benefiting from specific forms of ecosystem service such as coast protection, recreational use of beaches, eating food fro the sea or enjoyment of watching wildlife. This kind of metric can b useful in considering the extent to which different groups benefit fro the ecosystem service, since it will avoid building differences in economi circumstances between the groups into the valuation; +(e) Direct measurements of the environmental situation (for example, are covered by mangroves, proportion of coral reefs that are in goo condition, lengths of beaches with low levels of marine debris proportion of dead seabirds contaminated with oil). This kind of metri can be useful when considering values where some of the areas are no (or only sparsely) inhabited, and the value lies in the areas’ contribution to some other metric of overall global or regional value. +Considering only economic valuations, there are a wide range of techniques that ca be used. Table 1 sets out some of the main approaches that can be used. +Table 1. Some economic valuation methods, typical applications, examples, and limitations +VALUATION APPROACH TYPICAL EXAMPLES LIMITATION METHOD APPLICATION Some of these ma apply to more tha one metho Methods using issue-specific dat Market price | Observe market Coastal goods and | Fisheries, Market prices can b prices and volumes of | services that are tourism, distorted (fo trade to analyze the traded on markets | mangrove example, b economic activity timber subsidies). Additiona generated by use of data is required t an ecosystem good or estimate net valu service. (Includes added. Unde economic impact conditions o analysis, which unsustainable use th examines the impacts value in trade may b of spending related to higher than the valu the good or service, the ecosystem ca and can also include provide sustainably indirect impacts in Many ecosyste related economic services are no sectors, as well as traded in markets financial analysis where operating costs +© 2016 United Nations + +VALUATION APPROACH TYPICAL EXAMPLES LIMITATION METHOD APPLICATION Some of these ma apply to more tha one metho are subtracted. Replacement | Estimate cost of Ecosystem Shoreline Estimates might no cost replacing ecosystem services that have | protection by | reflect the true valu service with man- a man-made reefs and of ecosystem good made service. equivalent that mangroves; and services. Th Requires three provides similar water method only seek conditions be met to benefits filtration by equivalence for th be valid: (1) man- forests and subset of service made equivalent wetlands being costed. The co provides the same benefits of othe level of ecosystem services provided b service; (2) man-made the ocean feature o equivalent is the concern are no least-cost option of considered. Fo providing the service; example, a seawal (3) people would be might effectivel willing to incur the protect the shore, bu cost rather than forgo does not provide fis the service. habitat in the way healthy coral ree does Cost of Estimate damage Ecosystem Shoreline Difficult to relat avoided avoided (e.g., from services that protection by | damage levels t damage hurricanes or floods) provide protection | reefs and ecosystem quality due to ecosystem to houses, mangrove service infrastructure o other asset Production Estimate value of Ecosystem Commercial Technically difficult t function ecosystem service as services that fisheries determine and mode input in production of | provide an input in the relationshi marketed good the production of between ecosyste a marketed good change and its impac on the provision of th ecosystem service High dat requirements Hedonic Estimate influence of | Environmental Tourism, It is possible to valu pricing environmental characteristics shoreline individual units, bu characteristics on that vary across protection much more difficult to +© 2016 United Nations + +VALUATION APPROACH TYPICAL EXAMPLES LIMITATION METHOD APPLICATION Some of these ma apply to more tha one metho price of marketed goods (for generalize from this t goods example, houses broader coverage or hotels with sea vie compared wit those that do not Travel cost Travel costs people Recreation sites Tourism Technically difficult are prepared toincur | (for example, High dat to access a resource some marine requirements indicate a minimum protected areas valu Contingent Ask survey Any ecosystem Tourism Expensive t valuation respondents directly service (most implement because o for willingness to pay | widely used for survey costs for ecosystem service | non-market Vulnerable to man ecosystem and sources of bias an services) requires carefu survey design Choice Ask survey Any ecosystem Tourism Expensive t modelling respondents to trade | service (most implement because o off ecosystem widely used for survey costs services to elicit their | non-market Vulnerable to man willingness to pay ecosystem and sources of bias an services) requires carefu survey design Methods using data not specific to the particular issu Benefits Value transfer: Use Any ecosystem Any Relies on judgement transfer values estimated at service ecosystem of what othe other locations service locations ar (“study sites”) sufficiently similar Function transfer: Use Possible transfe a value function errors if the “stud estimated at another sites” and “policy site location to predict are different value Meta- Synthesize results Any ecosystem Any Requires compilatio analysis from multiple existing | service ecosystem of multiple studie valuation studies, service and power depends +using mathematica methods to estimat a value function Meta-analysis can b used for benefit transfer. +on sample size o value estimates Adequacy of studie may vary. Can lead t a loss of importan valuation informatio during dat aggregation process +Source: adapted from Waite et al, 2014. +© 2016 United Nations + +Although such economic valuation methods have been used to varying degrees, an several of them widely and with considerable success, in many cases the results d not achieve general acceptance as a significant factor to be taken into account. Th reasons for lack of acceptance can include that: +(a) | Decision-makers do not consider that the decision should turn on purel economic factors. They may wish to apply some overriding principle such as national security or some other long-term goal, which the regard as incommensurable with economic factors; +(b) The techniques may not manage to give an economic value to som policy or other concerns of the decision-makers or of the society involve that is sufficient to carry conviction that a valid value has bee calculated; +(c) The margins of error in the techniques are such that the meaning of th results is unclear to users; +(d) The potential users distrust the reliability of the method of valuation This can sometimes be because the method has not been adequatel explained; +(e) The decision-makers may not have an adequate understanding of th techniques or access to the necessary skills. +Furthermore, most of these techniques require detailed data, which in many case does not exist for them to be applied. However, where they have been applied a local, national and sometimes regional level, the results are interesting, and can b used for a number of purposes. +3. Value of non-marketed ecosystem services +Looking at the ecosystem services that are delivered without human intervention there are major problems in trying to place a value on them, especially in monetar terms. Some of these ecosystem services (such as the transfer of heat from th equatorial regions towards the poles) are such fundamental and inherent features o the way in which the whole planet operates that it is not possible to imagine th planet without this type of ecosystem service. It is not possible to conceive of th earth with its present populations of plants and animals (including humans) withou the ocean. Without the ocean and therefore without the ecosystem services that i provides, the planet would be totally different. We cannot therefore conside scenarios with and without one of these non-marketed ecosystem services, and us the difference between the two scenarios to isolate an absolute value (whether i monetary terms or in some other form) of the benefits conferred by that ecosyste service. +Nevertheless, changes in the way in which the planetary ecosystem services operat can be measured, since it is possible to compare two different situations. The +© 2016 United Nation + +consequences of those changes can be seen to be massive. A good example of this i the El Nifio Southern Oscillation (ENSO). This name refers to the way in which th ocean system of the tropical and subtropical Pacific can, in some years, produce significant warming of the sea off the western coast of North and South America often greatest off Peru, in the middle of the southern hemisphere summer. Th coastal water temperature difference between one year and another, measured o the same day at the same hour, can be as much as 102 Celsius (Glantz, 2001). Thi produces major changes in weather across not only South and North America (wit major increases in rainfall or other changes in Brazil, Peru, and the United States o America, for example), but also in Australia, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, an parts of Africa (see Chapter 5). There are only limited economic studies of the globa effects of the variations brought about by the ENSO. Nevertheless, one stud concluded that, over the period 1963-1997, the ENSO cycle can explain about 10-2 per cent of the variation in the growth in gross domestic product of the world’ seven largest economies and about 20 per cent of real commodity-price movement (Brunner, 2002). A more recent modelling exercise, looking at the period 1979-2013 concluded that Australia, Chile, Indonesia, India, Japan, New Zealand and Sout Africa faced short-lived falls in economic activity following an El Nifio shock, but tha the United States may have benefitted from such events (Cashin et al., 2014). Th conclusion on the situation in the United States is illuminated by an analysis of th severe El Nifio event of 1998/1999. This analysis estimated that, compared with a average year, the 1998/1999 El Nifio event led to costs of 4,000 million United State dollars for the United States; however, there were offsetting savings of 19,00 million dollars (in lower expenditure on natural gas and heating oil, increase economic activity, lack of spring flood damages and savings in highway-based an airline transportation) (Changon, 1999). Elsewhere, of course, the costs outweighe the savings. Such estimates of the economic implications of changes in th behaviour of the ocean are, of course, capable of generating endless discussion, bu they serve to give an idea of the orders of magnitude of the costs and benefits tha such changes can cause. In Part Ill of this assessment, likely and potential changes i the delivery of non-marketed ecosystem services from the ocean are noted. Suc changes would be accompanied by massive economic consequences, but the data t develop sound economic valuations have not yet been assembled. +The distribution of those economic consequences around the globe is likely to follo the distribution of the changes, but it is clear that some of that distribution will hav very different effects in different situations. Some States are at risk of finding much if not all, of their territory lost to the sea as a result of sea-level rise. Elsewhere some island and coastal communities risk suffering a similar fate, but impacts woul be more local — although with consequences (such as population movements possible far beyond the coastal sites potentially inundated. Where it is possible t safeguard against such losses by improved sea defences, the cost implications can b regarded as the cost of such improvements. Where the whole territory is lost different considerations of value come into play. Where sites of cultural significanc are lost, another dimension is added to the problem. In addition, of course, th capacities to address the costs are not distributed equally around the world. +© 2016 United Nation + +It has not proved possible to come to conclusions on one important aspect o assessing the marine environment: a quantitative picture of the levels of many of th non-marketed ecosystem services provided by the ocean. There is simpl insufficient quantitative information to allow an assessment of the way in whic different regions of the globe benefit from these. Nor do current data-collectio programmes appear to make robust regional assessments of ocean ecosyste services likely in the near future, especially for the less developed parts of th planet. Calculations can be made on the basis of sweeping assumptions, which allo estimates to be produced, but the assessment would then be an assessment of th assumptions, and not of the situation that is actually present. This is not to say tha some valuations cannot be made at a local level where adequate data is available Such local valuations can be valuable in assessing the marginal trade-offs betwee options for action in relation to the management of human activities. +4. Value of cultural ecosystem services +If it is difficult to approach the physical value of non-marketed ecosystem services, i is even more difficult to do so in respect of the cultural aspects of ecosyste services. We may be able to rank some cultural ecosystem services in terms of thei importance for the cultures that they support. For isolated aspects such as particular view of a seascape, it may even be possible to produce a monetar valuation, using one of the methods described in Table 5.1. But the more an aspec of an ecosystem services is embedded in a culture, and the more fundamental tha aspect is to the culture, the less that kind of approach can work. Putting an explici value of any kind on a whole cultural system is impossible, since it would involv value judgements for which there is no recognized system. However, the world ma sometimes make implicit valuations of such cultural ecosystem services when i allows a cultural ecosystem service to be downgraded or lost as a result of pursuin some other objective. +5. Value of market-related ecosystem services +The discussions in Parts Ill, IV and V of the various ecosystem services from th marine environment that are linked to markets contain estimates of the values tha can be linked to them. It is not, however, sensible to try to compile such estimate to give an overall picture. There are several reasons for this conclusion. +First, there are the problems of the quality of the estimates. If one takes th example of capture fisheries, it appears from Part IV that there is probably under reporting, including of the scale of activities of small-scale fisheries. Such under reporting is bound to distort any attempt to bring together estimates of the value o the different fisheries. Moreover, the “value” of fisheries must be viewed throug multiple lenses. Estimates suggest that small-scale fisheries contribute about half o global fish catches, and large-scale fisheries the other half. When considering +© 2016 United Nation + +market-price, production-function or even hedonic-pricing valuations, the revenue generated through commerce would indicate large scale fisheries have much highe “value”. However, when considering the provision of livelihoods, nutrition and foo security to low income, food-deficit parts of the world, then the value of catche contributed by small-scale fishers increases greatly, on account of the importance o affordable fish and employment to populations in developing countries. Any singl method of valuation would fail to communicate crucial information about each typ of fishery. Even if a view is taken through a single lens — using a single one of thes valuation methods — the uncertainty about the statistics in this field mean tha overall estimates of the economic value of fisheries, and of the number of peopl working in them, are not sufficiently well-founded to compare with the figures for say, seafarers, where much more comprehensive reporting is available. +Second, there are problems of definition. A good example of this is the touris industries. Estimates exist of the number of people employed in tourism and of th contributions of tourism to Gross Domestic Product, both directly and indirectly (se Chapter 27). At present, however, there is considerable doubt about ho consistently definitions are applied to the tourist industries in deriving the data o which those estimates are based (for example, how far back up supply chains th effects are estimated). There is further difficulty in deciding what parts of the value that can be attributed to “tourism” are related to the ocean and coasts directly Most reports of tourism revenues do not differentiate revenues from touris directly related to maritime areas from inland tourism. Even where tourism in th coastal zone can be separated from that inland, it may be generated by the direc attractions of the sea and coast (with tourists engaging in ocean-based activities), i may be indirectly linked, (with tourists visiting coastal cities or sites for cultural o historical features that are present because of the links between the places to th sea), or it may not be linked to the sea at all (for example, if a casino simply happen to be at the seaside). Consequently, the value of ocean-related tourism is a matte of inference. Therefore, there are major issues on how far it is appropriate to analys or aggregate information within this field, or indeed other fields, and how to brin that information together with information from other fields. +Third, there are problems of the availability of data. Tourism is again an exampl here. For example, the involvement of international companies in the trade give rise to uncertainty about the levels of value generated in particular areas (se Chapter 27). Shipping is another field where the lack of information is significant International shipping is the foundation of most global trade. Without it, muc economic activity would cease. Some information can be gathered on the earning of those employed in the industry, and revenues earned in some parts of the world However, information is not readily available on the overall earnings of the industry and therefore its share in the world economy (see Chapter 17), nor on th distribution around the globe of direct revenues, profits, and increases in value o trade goods because ocean-based trade is available. +Nevertheless, some States are making efforts to put values on the benefits create from the ocean areas under their jurisdiction. For example, the United Kingdo published in 2010 a first attempt to put monetary values on a range of activitie taking place in its waters. The activities covered were offshore oil and gas, maritime +© 2016 United Nation + +transport, telecommunications cables, leisure and recreation, military defence fisheries, aquaculture, water abstraction, mineral extraction, renewable energy coastal defence, waste disposal, education, power transmission and storage of gases For most of these, an estimate was made of the gross value added, but for some i was only possible to estimate the money being invested in the process. The detaile workings of this exercise show the amount of effort needed to achieve eve approximate values (DEFRA, 2010). +6. Global distribution +Some observations can, nevertheless, be made about the way in which the values o some of the market-related ecosystem services provided by the ocean ar distributed around the world. +6.1 Fish and seafood consumption +Annual per capita consumption of fishery products has grown steadily in developin regions (from 5.2 kg in 1961 to 17.0 kg in 2009) and in low-income food-defici countries (from 4.9 kg in 1961 to 10.1 kg in 2009) (see Chapters 10 and 11). Thi total consumption is still considerably lower than in more developed regions although the gap is narrowing. A sizeable share of fish consumed in develope countries consists of imports, and, owing to a steady demand and declining domesti fishery production (down 10 percent in the period 2000-2010) (see Chapters 10 an 11), their dependence on imports, in particular from developing countries, i projected to grow. Studies have shown that the selling or trading of even a portio of their catch represents as much as a third of the total income of subsistence fisher in some low income countries. Thus an increase in imports of fish by mor developed countries from less developed countries has the potential simultaneousl to increase wealth in low income communities and to increase inequities in foo security and nutrition, unless these considerations are taken into account in globa trade arrangements (see Part IV). +Over time, there has been a striking shift in the operation and location of captur fisheries. In the 1950s, capture fisheries were largely undertaken by develope fishing States, and their activities were largely in fishing grounds in the North Atlanti and North Pacific. Since then, developing countries have increased their share, an the distant water fleets of developed countries range further in the sea. It i illuminating to compare the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Although the tw hemispheres do not precisely reflect developed as compared with developing fishin States, the figures are, nonetheless, indicative. In the 1950s, the Souther Hemisphere accounted for no more than 8 per cent of the landed market value o fish. By the 2000s, the Southern Hemisphere’s share had risen to 20 per cent (se Part IV). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +6.2. Maritime transport +All sectors of maritime transport (cargo trades, passenger and vehicle ferries an cruise ships) are growing in line with the world economy. According to estimates b the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), owners fro five countries (Greece, Japan, China, Germany and the Republic of Korea) togethe accounted for 53 per cent of the world tonnage in 2013. Among the top 35 ship owning countries and territories, 17 are in Asia, 14 in Europe, and 4 in the Americas It seems likely that profits and losses are broadly proportional to ownership (se Chapter 17). +6.3 Offshore energy businesses +Offshore oil production is predominantly in the Gulf of Mexico (about 60 per cent o the industry is located in the Gulf of Mexico) and the North Sea. The industr accounts for about 1.5 per cent of the United States GDP, 3.5 per cent of the Unite Kingdom’s GDP, 21 per cent of Norway’s GDP and 35 per cent of Nigeria’s GDP. Th large majority of offshore hydrocarbon production is in the hands of internationa corporations or national companies (often working in partnership with th international companies). This makes the tracking of the distribution of benefit from this sector, other than direct employment in extraction and processing, ver difficult (see Chapter 21). Offshore renewable energy production is very much in it infancy, and it will be some time before a clear picture of what will be the long-ter future of the industry emerges (see Chapter 22). +6.4 Developments in offshore mining +There is limited information about the value of the offshore mining industry or th number of people employed, but it is unlikely to be significant in comparison t terrestrial mining. For example, in the United Kingdom, which is the world’s larges producer of marine aggregates, the industry directly employs approximately 40 people. There seems little doubt that there will eventually be substantial expansio of offshore mining as terrestrial mineral deposits are worked out. In some cases (fo example, diamond and tin mining), major international undertakings are involved. I the remaining cases, most offshore mining is within exclusive economic zones (and indeed, generally close to the shore), and undertaken by relatively local enterprises Mining in the Area (seabed, ocean floor and subsoil thereof) will be subject to decision of the International Seabed Authority (see Chapter 23). +6.5 Tourism +Tourism has generally been increasing fairly steadily for the last 40 years (wit occasional set-backs or slowing down in times of global recession). In 2012 estimates of international tourism expenditure exceeded 1 trillion dollars for the firs time. Total expenditure on tourism — domestic as well as international — is severa times that amount. Globally, the direct turnover of tourism was estimated t contribute 2.9 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2013, rising to 8.9 per +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +cent when the multiplier effect on the rest of the economy is taken into account The Middle East is the region where tourism plays the smallest part in the econom (6.4 per cent of GDP including the multiplier effect), and the Caribbean the regio where it plays the largest part (13.9 per cent including the multiplier effect). In smal island and coastal States, coastal tourism is inevitably predominant. Particularl noteworthy is the way in which international tourism is increasing in Asia and th Pacific, both in absolute terms and as a proportion of world tourism, with th implication that pressures from tourism are becoming of significantly more concer in those regions (see Chapter 27). +Tourism is also a significant component of employment. Globally, it is estimated tha in 2013, tourism provided 3.3 per cent of employment, looking at the number directly employed in tourist industries, and 8.9 per cent when the multiplier effect i taken into account. In the different regions, the proportion of employmen supported by tourism is approximately the same as the share of GDP contributed b tourism, although again the proportion of that which is based on the attractions o sea and coast is poorly known (see Chapter 27). +6.6 Use of marine genetic material +The commercial exploitation of marine genetic resources had very modes beginnings in the 20" century. The value of the use of marine genetic material i therefore only just beginning to develop and projections of its potential economi value differ greatly among plausible scenarios for its future development. Al scenarios assume that increases in commercial exploitation will be driven primaril by more developed countries, making considerations relating to access and benefi sharing of marine genetic resources an important issue (see Chapter 29). +7. Knowledge and capacity-building gaps +As is apparent from what has been said in this chapter, there are major gaps in th knowledge available for considering the overall value of the ocean to humans. Thes gaps in knowledge have important implications for the governance of the ocean because many issues turn on weighing advantages and disadvantages, and how the are distributed among the marine ecosystems and the maritime countries of th planet. Informed consideration of these issues is made the more difficult the les that is known about the values to be put upon those advantages and disadvantages. +So far there is still much debate on methods of valuing the provision of non marketed ecosystem services. The work of the United Nations Statistics Division o valuing such ecosystem services for the purposes of national accounts may assist i informing the debate on these issues (see Chapter 9 for discussion of thi programme). Other initiatives, such as the WAVES (Wealth Accounting and th Valuation of Ecosystem Services) partnership, aimed ensuring that natural resource are mainstreamed in development planning and national economic accounts, ma also help in this task (WAVES, 2014). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + +As has been said, there are also many gaps in the basic information needed fo valuation of market-related ecosystem services, in whatever manner this i eventually applied. These gaps are identified in the individual chapters dealing wit the various human activities that result in the acquisition of these services, and th need for this information for comparative valuation purposes adds to the case fo filling these gaps. Equally, there are gaps in our understanding of the biophysica models linking metrics of the basic features of ecosystems to the production of th goods and services to be valued. Resolving such gaps requires interdisciplinar collaboration. +There is likewise a need for capacity building in most developing countries in the us of valuation techniques and in the collection of the necessary data. +References +Brunner, A.D. (2002). El Nifio and World Primary Commodity Prices: Warm Water o Hot Air? The Review of Economics and Statistics 84(1), 176-183. +Cashin, P., Mohaddes, K. and Raissi, M. (2014). Fair Weather or Foul? Th Macroeconomic Effects of El Nifio, Cambridge Working Papers in Economic 1418. +Changnon, S.A. (1999). Impacts of 1997—98 El Nifio Generated Weather in th United States, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Vol 80, 1819 1827. +DEFRA (2010). United Kingdom, Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Charting Progress II, London, United Kingdom. +Glantz, M.H., (2001). Currents of Change: Impacts of El Nifio and La Nifia on Climat and Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom (ISBN: 521 78672 X). +MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2005). (Millennium Ecosyste Assessment). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis, Island Press Washington, DC, 2005 (ISBN: 1-59726-040-1). +MESP (2014). Marine Ecosystems Services Programme (http://www.marineecosystemservices.org/home) accessed 19 July 2014. +Waite, R., Burke, L., Gray, E., van Beukering, P., Brander, L., McKenzie, E. Pendleton, L., Schuhmann, P., Tompkins, E. (2014). Coastal Capital Ecosystem Valuation for Decision Making in the Caribbean, World Resource Institute Washington, DC. (www.wri.org/coastal-capital accessed 17 Jul 2014). +© 2016 United Nations 1 + +WAVES (2014). The WAVES Partnershi (http://www.wavespartnership.org/en/about-us accessed 10 Decembe 2014). +© 2016 United Nations +1 + diff --git a/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_55.txt:Zone.Identifier b/data/datasets/onu/Chapter_55.txt:Zone.Identifier new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e69de29bb2d1d6434b8b29ae775ad8c2e48c5391