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a position Pillow up took at on January 14, 1862 , Johnston ordered January 14, 1862 , Tilghman Johnston ordered , Tilghman Johnston ordered to Tilghman Johnston ordered to fortify Johnston's headquarters Gen. Beauregard at arrived at February 6, 1862 , Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced , the defenses quickly Union Navy gunboats reduced the defenses quickly Union Navy gunboats reduced of the 94 remaining officers Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered and men Fort Donelson also Johnston reinforced with the commanders did He order of his cavalry force Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest with escaped of an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner The Confederates about 1,500 casualties with suffered Nashville of the forts The fall exposed various remaining military units Johnston had scattered throughout the force himself Johnston with retreated With Beauregard's help , Johnston decided Beauregard's help , Johnston decided to forces Johnston to concentrate decided the Union forces Johnston kept , now the Confederates of 17,000 men Johnston's army gave motion Johnston his army in started , surprise the element of felt surprise the element of felt had his concentrated forces Johnston a massive surprise attack with launched the Union camps , Johnston personally rallied , troops personally Johnston rallied troops personally Johnston rallied up in the battle he when occurred the battle he when occurred witnessed some when he witnessed occurred " the officer Johnston at roared the officer Johnston at roared , his popliteal artery The bullet a part of clipped a few minutes , Johnston was observed Johnston was his staff by observed was his staff by observed to his staff by observed to be Among his staff Isham G. Harris was , his staff Isham G. Harris was , the Governor his leg wound Johnston down at glanced Johnston and other staff officers Harris removed an aide then Harris sent to , blood loss Johnston from died General Johnston's body and the other officers Harris wrapped the army P. G. T. Beauregard command of assumed , the final Confederate attack Beauregard off called the final Confederate attack Beauregard off called around 1900 hours Grant was 20,000 fresh troops by reinforced

was 20,000 fresh troops by reinforced from Don Carlos Buell's Army by 20,000 fresh troops from reinforced Corinth , Johnston's body was taken the home was Johnston's body to taken the war Johnston the highest-ranking fatality of was Johnston was his wife by survived was his wife by survived Eliza his wife by survived Eliza and in Los Angeles , Albert Jr. was Los Angeles , Albert Jr. was on , his way Albert Jr. on was his way Albert Jr. on was out from the ferry , a wave swamped the ferry , the smaller boat a wave swamped , the smaller boat a wave swamped , the smaller boat a wave swamped , causing the smaller boat its boilers , causing swamped the Confederate government : accounts were published the Texas Legislature of a joint resolution was passed - 1867 interment in occurred a historical marker has The Texas Historical Commission erected near , Austin at the University of Texas recognized several confederate veterans at Austin the University of Texas recognized America , Johnston's statue was taken the earliest use " The "Oxford English Dictionary traces ( US patents " The term "android in appears was a more modern sense in by used the French author in a more modern sense by used Hadaly This story an artificial humanlike robot named features As the officer by said in the story by the officer in said the term have Authors used "android other stories , authors have used , the word have authors used the word have authors used "android the field have been Japanese robotics leading 1967 Waseda University the WABOT project in initiated distances it to measure allowed 1984 , WABOT-2 was revealed ten fingers Wabot-2 had and two feet Osaka University , and the Kokoro company demonstrated , and the Actroid at Expo 2005 the Kokoro company demonstrated and the Actroid at Expo 2005 the Kokoro company demonstrated in Aichi Prefecture the Kokoro company the Actroid at Expo 2005 in demonstrated In 2006 , Kokoro developed 2006 , a new "DER 2" android Kokoro developed via a servosystem , the movement is

a servosystem , the movement is very that DER2 a slimmer body than realized to the previous model , DER2 has the previous model , thinner arms DER2 has , thinner arms DER2 has and thinner arms DER2 has and a wider repertoire the world There several other initiatives around are first , the positions the creators decided , the positions the creators decided of the necessary points the creators the positions of decided to the decided positions , they say a year later , a couple they made , a couple they made of major improvements they a couple of made an elastic mask The robot features made from a 3DOF unit It a driving system with uses its facial features can The WD-2 robot change by 17 facial points This one has , for a highly elastic material is the WD-2's mask with fabricated a shaft Other technical features reveal driven behind the shape can also the researchers modify " a face , they need a face , only a 3D scanner they need , only a 3D scanner they need to only a 3D scanner they need to determine Nadine is software by powered is software by powered similar software by powered similar to EDGAR can A remote user control with the Biblical Eve EveR-1's name from derives , speech recognition EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables and vocal synthesis expression inside her artificial brain handles An independent microchip gesture In South Korea , the Ministry of Information and Communication has South Korea , an ambitious plan the Ministry of Information and Communication has , an ambitious plan the Ministry of Information and Communication has to an ambitious plan the Ministry of Information and Communication has to put research and development centers will The new robot city feature for the infamous fictional robot was This Interface AI android after named the university level Maria Bot the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at is the shoulders up , Maria Bot is up , a virtual being android Maria Bot is , Maria Bot a virtual being android that is

Maria Bot a virtual being android that is has complex facial expressions a virtual being android that has is AI She uses to process Maria Bot was an international high-tech company by built was an international high-tech company by built for Barry by an international high-tech company for built of Texas and KAIST produced Texas and an android portrait KAIST produced and an android portrait KAIST produced of Albert Einstein KAIST an android portrait of produced "Albert Hubo , also This Einstein android called science fiction Androids a staple of are the science Isaac Asimov the fictionalization of pioneered most fictional androids common to One thing is to most fictional androids the real-life technological challenges that is most fictional androids the real-life technological challenges that is associated Pinocchio Some android heroes , like seek Perhaps this of the clearest example is John Brunner's 1968 novel of this the clearest example is "Pygmalion Examples the Greek myth of include one ( ) Alberta is Western Canada It part of is Alberta is British Columbia by bordered is British Columbia by bordered to the west by British Columbia to bordered the only two landlocked provinces It one of is the province of The eastern part is occupied of the province is by occupied the province is the Great Plains by occupied is the Great Plains by occupied , the Great Plains by occupied , while a predominantly continental climate The province has but experiences area Alberta the 4th largest province by is Edmonton Alberta's capital is , while Edmonton Calgary , while is The Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas two are ( Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas two are ( CMAs Albertans of More than half live in the province English the official language of is a part The oil and gas industry also is of hydrocarbons is Alberta's economy on based a pillar has The oil industry been of in hydrocarbons , it provides hydrocarbons , 70% it provides , 70% it provides of the oil and natural gas it 70% of provides of Canada , Alberta was Canada , home Alberta was

, home Alberta was to several First Nations Alberta home to was Canada the lands that acquired would the lands that acquired would become September 1, 1905 , Alberta was separated the NWT was Alberta from separated to early 1900s , many immigrants arrived early 1900s , many immigrants arrived , which , the biggest wave of arrived its natural beauty Alberta renowned for is six UNESCO World Heritage Sites Alberta home to is Princess Louise Caroline Alberta was Alberta after named John Campbell Princess Louise the wife of was Alberta's southern border the 49th parallel north which , is the 49th parallel north which , is separates south The province north to extends of the south-eastern section , the province has the south-eastern section , adequate water resources the province has numerous rivers There are and lakes three large lakes There are , Lake Claire an average flow The largest river the Peace River with is Canada It the most northerly major city in is to Canada's largest oil fields , the region has Canada's largest oil fields , most the region has , most the region has of western Canada's oil refinery capacity the region most of has south Calgary about is of the province's population of Almost 75% lives in boreal forest the Rocky Mountains , while is the province of The southern quarter is prairie southeastern Alberta are The Alberta badlands in located the Rocky Mountains of The presence also influences the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean Alberta cause of the Pacific Ocean Alberta cause to the Pacific Ocean Alberta cause to have a dry climate Alberta to have cause is mostly boreal forest by covered mostly boreal forest by covered and boreal forest by covered and has a semi-arid steppe climate of southern Alberta The agricultural area has southern Alberta a semi-arid steppe climate the annual precipitation because has a semi-arid steppe climate the annual precipitation because has is Western Alberta is the mountains by protected is the mountains by protected and the mountains by protected and enjoys warm summers Alberta a humid continental climate with has

cold arctic weather systems The province open to is Alberta , the temperature can change the summer , continental air masses have produced , record maximum temperatures have continental air masses produced record maximum temperatures have continental air masses produced from daylight Northern Alberta about 18 hours of gets , great speed with by pushed the continental polar jetstream with great speed by pushed are frequently warm, dry chinook winds by interrupted frequently warm, dry chinook winds by interrupted blowing warm, dry chinook winds by interrupted blowing from at Pincher Creek , temperatures soared Pincher Creek , temperatures soared from just one hour temperatures from in soared the most chinooks around Lethbridge The region has After Saskatchewan , Alberta experiences Saskatchewan , the most tornadoes Alberta experiences , the most tornadoes Alberta experiences in Canada Alberta the most tornadoes in experiences Alberta of The southern and east central parts are covered of Alberta are by covered Alberta are short prairie grass by covered are short prairie grass by covered , short prairie grass by which , covered of the North Saskatchewan River , evergreen forests prevail the North Saskatchewan River , evergreen forests prevail for , thousands of square kilometres evergreen forests for prevail , and the primary large deciduous species paper birch are the American bison The south and central prairie the homeland of was the province are Herbivorous animals throughout found many large carnivores Alberta home to is of the canine and feline families include the canine and coyotes feline families include and coyotes feline families include , coyotes feline families include , red foxes some water bodies are Turtles in found Canada Alberta the only province in is Alberta of the Government has operated has a rat-control program which , operated a rat-control program which , operated has rats have been the only rat interceptions domesticated have been rats that domesticated been rats that domesticated have rats that domesticated have been be the province in by kept zoos in the province by kept the greatest diversities Alberta one of has Taxa are complete fossil skeletons by represented are complete fossil skeletons by represented ,

complete fossil skeletons by represented , isolated material the province were At least 38 dinosaur type specimens in collected the Dinosaur Park Formation The Dinosaur Provincial Park area outcrops of contains In the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions Horseshoe Canyon facies are there exposed The latter a lower diversity two have latter a lower diversity two have of documented dinosaurs two a lower diversity of have teeth Their dinosaur fossils primarily are recovered only a few fossils have produced that are strata The Bearpaw Formation represents deposited during Alberta Paleo-Indians in arrived at Rupert's Land part of which became Peter Pond of the Athabasca region The first European explorer was the Athabasca region Peter Pond who , was Peter Pond who , was learned the North West Company Fur traders formed ( NWC Alberta territory The NWC the northern part of occupied Lac la Biche Peter Pond Fort Athabasca on built Lake Athabasca Roderick Mackenzie Fort Chipewyan on built the mighty outflow river there he discovered was the north Fur trade in expanded , Alberta The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company trade in dominated the Crown First Nations treaties with negotiated Alberta of The District was created the North-West Legislative Assembly to local representatives were added Alberta of the District was enlarged Less than a decade later , special challenges the First World War presented , special challenges the First World War presented to the new province the First World War special challenges to presented June 21, 2013 , the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta during , the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta during experienced heavy rainfall the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced during The 2016 census a population Alberta had reported a population Alberta had reported of a land area of , it had of , a population density it had , a population density it had of a population density it had of in 2000 , Alberta's population has experienced , a relatively high rate has Alberta's population experienced a relatively high rate has Alberta's population experienced of Between 2003 and 2004 , high birthrates the province had

, high birthrates the province had ( high birthrates the province had ( on In 2016 , Alberta continued 2016 , Alberta continued to the youngest population Alberta to have continued the population of About 81% lives in The Calgary – the most urbanized area Edmonton Corridor is – the most urbanized area Edmonton Corridor is in the province Edmonton Corridor the most urbanized area in is to the 2016 census , Alberta has the 2016 census , 779,155 residents Alberta has , 779,155 residents Alberta has ( 779,155 residents Alberta has ( 19.2% the most common mother tongue English is , with This is Tagalog by followed is Tagalog by followed , Tagalog by followed , with Aboriginal 253,460 residents as identify , There 933,165 residents also who are 933,165 residents also who are identify 97,275 native speakers The next most common mother tongues Chinese with were Punjabi Other mother tongues : include , Cree The most common aboriginal language is 17,215 ( 13,095 speakers Other common mother tongues Italian with include Canada , many are descended immigrants are many from descended to Statistics Canada , Alberta is Statistics Canada , home Alberta is , home Alberta is to the second-highest proportion Alberta home to is Despite this , relatively few Albertans claim this , French relatively few Albertans claim , French relatively few Albertans claim as their mother tongue relatively few Albertans French as claim Alberta's French-speaking residents of Many live in in the 2001 census , the Chinese represented the 2001 census , nearly four percent the Chinese represented , nearly four percent the Chinese represented of Alberta's population the Chinese nearly four percent of represented historic Chinatowns and Calgary Both Edmonton have historic Chinatowns Calgary , and have workers The Chinese presence with began employed , Albertans among the most commonly reported ethnic origins were Albertans among the most commonly reported ethnic origins were : ( as many ethnicities could Each person choose as many ethnicities could Each person choose as terms Alberta the third most diverse province in is 5.8% Aboriginal Identity Peoples up made of

a small number There also are of of the 2011 National Household Survey , the largest religious group was the 2011 National Household Survey , Roman Catholic the largest religious group was , Roman Catholic the largest religious group was , Roman Catholic the largest religious group was , representing non-religious residents Alberta the second-highest percentage of had , the population of 7.5% identified themselves of the population 7.5% identified 3.3% Lutherans up made of Hutterites Alberta a population of has several Byzantine Rite Churches Alberta home to is 3.2% Muslims up made of immigrants of these Many are immigrants others , but are home Alberta also is to one Alberta's economy was of the In 2013 , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded 2013 , that Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded , that Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded of the United States Alberta's per capita GDP that of exceeded , the national average from the deviation was the national average from the deviation was the , taxes after the median annual family income was taxes after the median annual family income was $ In 2014 , Alberta had 2014 , the second-largest economy Alberta had , the second-largest economy Alberta had in Canada Alberta the second-largest economy in had the province The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor the most urbanized region in is a distance The region covers of roughly 400 kilometres , the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor of the population was 2.15 million of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor the population was one It also is of A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group the corridor found by TD Bank Financial Group the corridor found to TD Bank Financial Group the corridor found to be the only Canadian urban centre the corridor to be found In 2014 , Merchandise exports totalled 2014 , US$121.4 billion Merchandise exports totalled $12.9 billion from agricultural products Farm Cash receipts totalled $5.4 billion of forest products Shipments totalled forest products $5.4 billion exports while totalled $5.4 billion exports while totalled were $79.4 billion Manufacturing sales totalled , and In total , Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed total , $364.5 billion Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed

, $364.5 billion Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed in 2007 dollars Alberta's 2014 GDP $364.5 billion in amassed the province's economy Agriculture a significant position in has cattle The province over three million head of has all Canadian beef of Nearly one half is produced the top producers Alberta one of is in spring wheat production ; other grains are spring wheat production ; other grains are also the farming of Much is dryland Canada Alberta the leading beekeeping province of is Alberta's economy Forestry a vital role in plays conventional crude oil Alberta the largest producer of is natural gas Alberta the world's second-largest exporter of is and vinyl manufacturers products that produce vinyl manufacturers products that produce are products that produce are shipped Fort McMurray surrounding The Athabasca oil sands have estimated surrounding Fort McMurray have unconventional oil reserves estimated Fort McMurray have unconventional oil reserves estimated approximately both conventional strip mining Many companies employ and non 2003 since The oil price increases have made since 2003 have it made 2003 have it made profitable oil prices and stabilizing rising costs threatened the provincial government , several high-tech industries have found , their birth have several high-tech industries found their birth have several high-tech industries found in a tourist destination has Alberta been from the Rocky Mountains are about three million people by visited are about three million people by visited per year by about three million people per visited natural attractions There also are like well-known tourist destinations Alberta's Rockies include Banff National Park and The two mountain parks are the scenic Icefields Parkway by connected west is Banff located of Canada's fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Five are located the Calgary Stampede About 1.2 million people visit , a celebration Edmonton's K-Days About 700,000 people enjoy ( formerly Klondike Days more than 650,000 visitors draws that each year is also one a rich mining history being had one a rich mining history being had of Alberta of The Government is organized of Canada , Elizabeth II is Canada , the head Elizabeth II is , the head Elizabeth II is of

state Elizabeth II the head of is Alberta in Her duties are carried Alberta are by out carried are Lieutenant Governor Salma Lakhani out by carried figureheads and lieutenant governor The Queen are and lieutenant governor figureheads whose actions are lieutenant governor figureheads whose actions are are figureheads whose actions are are highly the name The lieutenant governor numerous honorific duties in handles The government is the premier by headed a member The premier normally is of the seat of Edmonton The City is the 1960s , Alberta has had , three main political parties has Alberta had three main political parties has Alberta had , For 44 years Alberta the Progressive Conservatives governed the NDP They the 2015 election to lost 10 types is The province into divided This organization the province it until policed the province it until policed was It that time at the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police was that time at the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police was resumed In 2006 , Alberta formed 2006 , the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams Alberta formed , the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams Alberta formed (ALERT the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams Alberta formed (ALERT ) Canadian Forces Base in Alberta Military bases include CFB Cold Lake stationed at Air force units have the 3rd Canadian Division CFB Edmonton the headquarters for is , that year in government revenue came that year in government revenue came mainly In 2014 , Alberta received 2014 , $6.1 billion Alberta received , $6.1 billion Alberta received in bitumen royalties Alberta $6.1 billion in received oil in 2015 it was in 2015 it was down 2015 it was down to $1.4 billion it down to was In 2016 , Alberta received 2016 , Alberta received " , about $837 million Alberta " received about $837 million Alberta " received in Canada Alberta the only province in is a progressive character Alberta's personal income tax system maintained by continuing their own governments and school jurisdictions Alberta's municipalities have and school jurisdictions their own governments who have school jurisdictions their own governments who have usually

their own governments who have usually work those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more earn about $25,000 to $75,000 that pay of income tax , Alberta is income tax , the "best province Alberta is , the "best province Alberta is " the "best province Alberta is " for In 2017/18 about $2.4 billion Alberta collected 2017/18 about $2.4 billion Alberta collected in education property taxes Alberta about $2.4 billion in collected their income Albertan municipalities a significant portion of raise farmland to market value assessment The exceptions are the province Summer many festivals to brings over 70 ethnic groups The city's "heritage days" festival the participation of sees Canada's biggest rodeo festival The Stampede is and features festivals The Banff Centre a range of hosts the province's cultural diversity in Alberta These cultural events highlight several performing theatre companies of the major cities Most have of the major cities several performing theatre companies who have the major cities several performing theatre companies who have entertain several performing theatre companies who have entertain in Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced and Tourism the Alberta Artist Ricardo Miranda announced Tourism the Alberta Artist Ricardo Miranda announced in Residence Ricardo Miranda the Alberta Artist in announced The award $60,000 funding with which comes $60,000 funding with which comes includes On January 31, 2019 , Lauren Crazybull named January 31, 2019 , Alberta's 1st Artist Lauren Crazybull named , Alberta's 1st Artist Lauren Crazybull named in Residence Lauren Crazybull Alberta's 1st Artist in named Alberta There forty-two public school jurisdictions in are a Catholic electorate of the operating separate school jurisdictions Sixteen have a Catholic electorate one , and have For many years the provincial government has funded many years the greater part has the provincial government funded the greater part has the provincial government funded of , the province of the government eliminated this right of the province the government eliminated the mill rate , the money is collected the money is the local municipal authority by collected is the local municipal authority by collected and the local municipal authority by collected and remitted

In early September 2009 , Mount Royal University became early September 2009 , Calgary's second public university Mount Royal University became , Calgary's second public university Mount Royal University became , Calgary's second public university Mount Royal University became , and There 15 colleges that are receive direct public funding 15 colleges that receive are many private post-secondary institutions There also are , government loans may also Students receive 2005 There some controversy in was a publicly funded, fully integrated health system Alberta provides , through all its residents The Alberta government health services for provides the 2018–2019 fiscal year Alberta's health care budget $22.5 billion during was Alberta are by operationally delivered are Alberta Health Services operationally by delivered the province's single health authority AHS is , established WestJet Airlines Calgary's airport a hub for is , and substantial public transit systems Lethbridge have light rail transit (LRT) systems and Edmonton Calgary operate more There are than of this trackage of The vast majority is owned of this trackage is by owned this trackage is the Canadian Pacific Railway by owned is the Canadian Pacific Railway by owned and the Canadian Pacific Railway by owned and Canadian National Railway companies the province in Additional railfreight service is provided in the province is by provided the province is two shortline railways by provided is two shortline railways by provided : two shortline railways by provided : the Battle River Railway highways Alberta over of has The main north–south corridor Highway 2 which , is Highway 2 which , is begins of Edmonton , the highway continues Edmonton , the highway continues to , Athabasca the highway to continues Athabasca the highway to continues , 2 is two more highways by supplemented is two more highways by that supplemented two more highways by that supplemented run the most scenic drives of One is along the Icefields Parkway along which , is Highway through central Alberta Another major corridor is is Deerfoot Trail it as called Deerfoot Trail it as called passes By species count , actinopterygians dominate species count , the vertebrates actinopterygians dominate

, the vertebrates actinopterygians dominate , the vertebrates actinopterygians dominate , and the vertebrates they , and dominate freshwater They ubiquitous throughout are size can Extant species in range a typical ray-finned fish of The main features are shown scales Ray-finned fishes many different types of have In nearly all ray-finned fish , the sexes are nearly all ray-finned fish , the sexes are separate a free-swimming larval stage then Development with proceeds In most cases protogyny this involves most cases protogyny this involves , protogyny this involves , fish external Most families use rather than of the 422 teleost families ; no care is the 422 teleost families ; no care is likely ; the ancestral condition no care likely is of living teleost species ; male care is living teleost species ; male care is far fish There a few examples of are an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite The mangrove rivulus is , producing the classes is Actinopterygii into divided The the subclasses latter comprises Chondrostei the subclasses latter comprises Chondrostei and the teleosts Cenozoic in particular diversified the main clades below The cladogram shows of The mostly terrestrial species latter include but mostly terrestrial species latter include but also a group Tetrapods from evolved of Andreolepis hedei The earliest known fossil actinopterygian " is " a summary below The listing is of the two pillars Relativity and quantum mechanics together are of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics He received " for ) , four groundbreaking papers Einstein published the photoelectric effect These the theory of outlined classical mechanics that the laws of thought to gravitational fields ; he published gravitational fields ; a paper he published ; a paper he published on general relativity he a paper on published In 1917 , he applied 1917 , the general theory he applied , the general theory he applied of relativity he the general theory of applied of his career , he worked his career , he worked on , two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors he on worked to quantum mechanics , he opposed quantum mechanics , what he opposed , he what it opposed

he what it opposed evolved what it opposed evolved into a unified field theory he to devise attempted the German Empire was Einstein in born at the age of 17 , he enrolled the age of 17 , he enrolled in , the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he in enrolled the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he in enrolled at In 1901 , he acquired 1901 , Swiss citizenship he acquired , Swiss citizenship he acquired , which he Swiss citizenship , acquired which Swiss citizenship , he acquired 1905 , he was awarded , a PhD was he awarded he was a PhD by awarded was the University of Zurich a PhD by awarded In 1914 , Einstein moved 1914 , Einstein moved to , Berlin Einstein to moved Berlin Einstein to moved in visiting the United States , Adolf Hitler came the United States , Adolf Hitler came to , power Adolf Hitler to came power Adolf Hitler to came in of the newly elected Nazi government ; he settled the newly elected Nazi government ; he settled in ; the United States he in settled the United States he in settled and the eve of World War II , he endorsed World War II , a letter he endorsed , a letter he endorsed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt he a letter to endorsed Ulm was Albert Einstein in born Hermann Einstein His parents were , a salesman Munich Albert a Catholic elementary school in attended In 1894 , Hermann and Jakob's company lost 1894 , a bid Hermann and Jakob's company lost , a bid Hermann and Jakob's company lost to a bid Hermann and Jakob's company lost to supply the Munich factory The loss the sale of forced of business , the Einstein family moved business , the Einstein family moved to , Italy the Einstein family to moved Italy the Einstein family to moved , learning that the spirit of wrote At the end of December 1894 , he traveled the end of December 1894 , he traveled to , Italy he to traveled

Italy he to traveled to math Einstein at excelled and algebra The 12-year-old Einstein himself taught and his own original proof also independently Einstein discovered himself thereupon He devoted to his mathematical genius of Soon the flight was so his mathematical genius I so high was Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason was Einstein to introduced Kant his favorite philosopher his tutor , became his favorite philosopher his tutor , became stating at the age of 16 , Einstein took the age of 16 , the entrance examinations Einstein took , the entrance examinations Einstein took for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school Einstein the entrance examinations for took the required standard He to reach failed of the polytechnic school , he attended the polytechnic school , the Argovian cantonal school he attended , the Argovian cantonal school he attended ("gymnasium the Argovian cantonal school he attended ("gymnasium " of Professor Jost Winteler , he fell Professor Jost Winteler , he fell in , love he in fell love he in fell with Winteler's son Maja later Albert's sister married with his father's approval , Einstein renounced his father's approval , his citizenship Einstein renounced , his citizenship Einstein renounced in the German Kingdom Einstein his citizenship in renounced In September 1896 the Swiss "Matura he passed September 1896 the Swiss "Matura he passed " the Swiss "Matura he passed " with At 17 , he enrolled 17 , he enrolled in , the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he in enrolled the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he in enrolled at the six students She the only woman among was Over the next few years , Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed the next few years , Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into , a romance Einstein's and Marić's friendship into developed a romance Einstein's and Marić's friendship into developed , his letters Einstein in wrote to In 1900 , Einstein passed 1900 , the exams Einstein passed , the exams Einstein passed in Maths and Physics Einstein the exams in passed Switzerland Marić to returned without Berlin The couple to moved in

in 2015 , Einstein wrote 2015 , Einstein wrote to , his early love Einstein to wrote his early love Einstein to wrote Marie Winteler 1910 He in wrote , 1919 Einstein Löwenthal in married the United States They to emigrated in In 1923 , Einstein fell 1923 , Einstein fell in , love Einstein in fell love Einstein in fell with in 2006 , Einstein described 2006 , about six women Einstein described , about six women Einstein described , about six women Einstein described , including his second wife Elsa , Einstein was a relationship Einstein briefly in was a breakdown Eduard Einstein's son had at in 1900 , Einstein spent 1900 , almost two frustrating years Einstein spent , almost two frustrating years Einstein spent searching almost two frustrating years Einstein spent searching for February 1901 He Swiss citizenship in acquired a variety Einstein patent applications for evaluated met in a small discussion group Bern, Einstein started in a small discussion group Bern, Einstein started in 1902 Bern, Einstein a small discussion group in started they were Mileva by joined were Mileva by who joined Mileva by who joined attentively On 30 April 1905 , Einstein completed 30 April 1905 , his dissertation Einstein completed , his dissertation Einstein completed , his dissertation Einstein completed , " 1908 , he was recognized a leading scientist was he as recognized at the University of Zurich , Alfred Kleiner recommended the University of Zurich , him Alfred Kleiner recommended , him Alfred Kleiner recommended to the faculty Alfred Kleiner him to recommended the German Charles-Ferdinand University Einstein a full professor at became In July 1912 , he returned July 1912 , he returned to , his alma mater he to returned his alma mater he to returned in until 1914 , he was 1914 , a professor he was , a professor he was of theoretical physics he a professor of was " confirmation " The New York Times reported confirmation " The New York Times reported of the spring of 1913 , Einstein was enticed On 3 July 1913 , he became

3 July 1913 , a member he became , a member he became of the Prussian Academy of Sciences he a member of became him and Walther Nernst Max Planck visited paid salary in the academy Membership included Berlin was also by influenced was also the prospect by influenced also the prospect by influenced of the prospect by influenced of living the academy Einstein his position with assumed Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics for the plan was aborted 1 October 1917 was The institute on established In 1911 , Einstein used 1911 , his 1907 Equivalence principle Einstein used , his 1907 Equivalence principle Einstein used to his 1907 Equivalence principle Einstein used to calculate In 1913 , Einstein improved 1913 , Einstein improved upon , those calculations Einstein upon improved those calculations Einstein upon improved by his general theory had successfully Einstein completed deflection prediction was Sir Arthur Eddington by confirmed was Sir Arthur Eddington by confirmed during the solar eclipse by Sir Arthur Eddington during confirmed the international media were Those observations in published In 1920 , he became 1920 , a Foreign Member he became , a Foreign Member he became of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences he a Foreign Member of became 1922 , he was awarded , the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics was he awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics was he awarded " a Foreign Member was Einstein elected of the Prussian Academy Einstein from resigned in the first time Einstein New York City for visited an essay also He published , " What a visitor strikes is What the joyous, positive attitude a visitor strikes is the joyous, positive attitude a visitor strikes is to In 1922 , his travels took 1922 , him his travels took , him his travels took to Asia his travels him to took After his first public lecture , he met his first public lecture , the emperor he met , the emperor he met and the emperor he met and empress to his sons , he described his sons , his impression he described

, his impression he described of the Japanese he his impression of described to the Far East , he was the Far East , he was unable On his return voyage , he visited his return voyage , Palestine he visited , Palestine he visited for 12 days he Palestine for visited one reception , the building was stormed the building was people by stormed was people by who stormed people by who stormed wanted From 1922 to 1932 , Einstein was 1922 to 1932 , a member Einstein was , a member Einstein was of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations Einstein a member of was the Swiss delegate , Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded Secretary-General Eric Drummond was Catholic activists by persuaded was Catholic activists by Oskar Halecki persuaded Catholic activists by Oskar Halecki persuaded and April 1925 , South America Einstein visited , South America Einstein visited , South America Einstein visited , where South America he , where visited Einstein's visit was Jorge Duclout by initiated was Jorge Duclout by initiated ( Jorge Duclout by initiated ( 1856–1927 In December 1930 , Einstein visited December 1930 , America Einstein visited , America Einstein visited for the second time Einstein America for visited After the national attention , he received the national attention , he received during , his first trip he during received his first trip he during received to New York City , Einstein was taken various places was Einstein to taken , the keys was he given the keys was he given to California next Einstein to traveled Millikan with His friendship was " war to This aversion also led an instant rapport They had , with an instant rapport Chaplin , with had his home Chaplin Einstein at visited in early 1933 , he undertook early 1933 , his third two-month visiting professorship he undertook , his third two-month visiting professorship he undertook at the California Institute of Technology he his third two-month visiting professorship at undertook , his family's apartment repeatedly the Gestapo raided his family's apartment repeatedly the Gestapo raided in

28 March , Einstein immediately went the German consulate immediately Einstein to went In April 1933 , Einstein discovered April 1933 , Einstein discovered that , those Einstein's works among were those Einstein's works among were targeted those among by targeted were a list One German magazine him in included to England , Einstein wrote England , Einstein wrote , a permanent home Einstein now without was De Haan He a house in rented In late July 1933 , he went late July 1933 , he went to , England he to went England he to went for him Locker-Lampson invited to stay Einstein Locker-Lampson took to meet them Einstein asked to help a bill also Locker-Lampson submitted to one of his speeches he denounced of his speeches Germany's treatment he denounced his speeches Germany's treatment he denounced of Jews he Germany's treatment of denounced In his speech Einstein he described his speech Einstein he described as a "citizen he Einstein as described In October 1933 , Einstein returned October 1933 , Einstein returned to , the US Einstein to returned the US Einstein to returned and the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein's affiliation would last one He was of the The long walks would two take long walks would two take together Hungarian scientists émigré physicist Leó Szilárd included that attempted émigré physicist Leó Szilárd included that attempted to Einstein and Wigner Szilárd visited to the letter , Einstein used the letter , his connections Einstein used , his connections Einstein used with the Belgian Royal Family Einstein his connections with used Einstein , " war was , " a disease war was " a disease war was   ] resistance he for called resistance he for called to to Roosevelt , some argue Roosevelt , some he argue his pacifist principles he went against argue before his death , Einstein said his death , Einstein said to , his old friend Einstein to said his old friend Einstein to said , 1940 Einstein an American citizen in became New Jersey , his appreciation he expressed , his appreciation he expressed of

the meritocracy he his appreciation of expressed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Einstein joined ( NAACP racism America's "worst disease He considered " , of his involvement , he corresponded his involvement , he corresponded with , civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois he with corresponded civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois he with corresponded and In 1946 , Einstein visited 1946 , Lincoln University Einstein visited , Lincoln University Einstein visited in Pennsylvania Einstein Lincoln University in visited to African Americans ; alumni include African Americans ; Langston Hughes alumni include ; Langston Hughes alumni include and Langston Hughes alumni include and Thurgood Marshall racism Einstein a speech about gave Princeton of A resident recalls that of Princeton Einstein that recalls Princeton Einstein that recalls had a figurehead leader Einstein was in helping 1921 , he was asked he was the biochemist by asked was the biochemist by asked and the biochemist by asked and president Among those , he advised those , he advised first an Institute of Agriculture he first creating advised a nationalist ; he was nationalist ; he was against ; the creation he against was the creation he against was of of Ezriel Carlebach , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Ezriel Carlebach , Einstein Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered , the position Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion Einstein offered the position Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion Einstein offered of The offer was Israel's ambassador by presented was Israel's ambassador by presented in Washington by Israel's ambassador in presented music Einstein an appreciation for developed In his late journals he wrote : his late journals he wrote : " music often I in think music I my daydreams in live terms I my life in see life I most joy in get the piano His mother played reasonably well to conductor Leon Botstein , Einstein began conductor Leon Botstein , Einstein began playing turned 13 , he discovered 13 , the violin sonatas he discovered , the violin sonatas he discovered of Mozart he the violin sonatas of discovered himself Einstein taught to play

age 17 , he was heard he was a school examiner by heard was a school examiner by heard in Aarau by a school examiner in heard this student Music an unusual meaning for possessed a pivotal and permanent role Music on took in of becoming a professional musician himself was becoming a professional musician himself was not a professional musician himself was not on his mind himself not on was a regular part had also Chamber music become at the California Institute of Technology , he visited the California Institute of Technology , the Zoellner family conservatory he visited , the Zoellner family conservatory he visited in Los Angeles he the Zoellner family conservatory in visited In 1918 , Einstein was 1918 , one Einstein was , one Einstein was of the founding members Einstein one of was in his life , Einstein's political view was his life , Einstein's political view was in , favor Einstein's political view in was favor Einstein's political view in was of the Bolsheviks on His opinions also changed In 1925 , he criticized 1925 , them he criticized , them he criticized for them he criticized for not " In Lenin I honor In Lenin a man I honor Lenin a man I honor , I a man who , honor a man who , honor in : him like men are the guardians like him men are the idea strongly He advocated of a democratic global government the idea of that advocated world government " I advocate wrote was deeply Mahatma Gandhi by impressed deeply Mahatma Gandhi by impressed , Mahatma Gandhi by impressed , with Gandhi He described as " 27 September 1931 was The initial connection on established Gandhi's disciple Sundaram was and special envoy During the visit , Einstein wrote the visit , a short letter Einstein wrote , a short letter Einstein wrote to Gandhi Einstein a short letter to wrote Gandhi a short letter to that wrote his spiritual outlook Einstein of spoke in He sympathy he had said sympathy he had said for not a personal god in who believe

a personal god in who believe concerns in an afterlife , Einstein replied an afterlife , Einstein replied , me one life enough for is the advisory board He on served of of the New York Society for Ethical Culture , he stated the New York Society for Ethical Culture , he stated that Ethical Culture that the idea of stated , The word Einstein : wrote Einstein The word : God wrote The word : God wrote is me all other religions like the Jewish religion is an incarnation like all other religions the Jewish religion is whom to I And the Jewish people gladly On 17 April 1955 , Einstein experienced 17 April 1955 , internal bleeding Einstein experienced , internal bleeding Einstein experienced caused Einstein internal bleeding by caused experienced the rupture internal bleeding caused by experienced surgery Einstein refused , saying done my share ; it is my share ; time it is ; time it is to time it is to go it will I do elegantly autopsy , the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's , brain Thomas Stoltz the pathologist Harvey removed Einstein's brain Thomas Stoltz the pathologist Harvey removed Einstein's for at UNESCO headquarters , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized UNESCO headquarters , his impression nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized , his impression nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized of Einstein nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer his impression of summarized him There always with was Throughout his life , Einstein published his life , hundreds Einstein published , hundreds Einstein published of books Einstein hundreds of published more than 300 scientific papers He published and 150 non-scientific ones the release and archives universities announced 1901 was It in published the 1905 paper These papers the foundation for were the problem Einstein to returned of the density fluctuations are the second derivative by controlled are the second derivative by controlled of the free energy by the second derivative of controlled At the critical point , this derivative is the critical point , zero this derivative is , zero this derivative is ,

zero this derivative is , leading density fluctuations of The effect is that of density fluctuations light that is density fluctuations light that is of all wavelengths that light of is Rayleigh scattering Einstein this to relates Maxwell's equations It conflicts between reconciled , these changes of the effects are these changes of the effects are most this paper The theory in developed later Einstein's writings There evidence from is on mass–energy equivalence , Einstein produced mass–energy equivalence , "E Einstein produced , "E Einstein produced " "E Einstein produced "   special relativity originally Einstein framed in In 1908 , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted 1908 , special relativity Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted , special relativity Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted in geometric terms Hermann Minkowski special relativity in reinterpreted gravitation a theory of that is an essential tool has General relativity into developed of general relativity the preference that was general relativity the preference that was of inertial motions that the preference of was , in 1907 he published in 1907 an article he published 1907 an article he published on acceleration he an article on published It " , he argued In 1911 , Einstein published 1911 , another article Einstein published , another article Einstein published " another article Einstein published " On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light In 1916 , Einstein predicted 1916 , gravitational waves Einstein predicted , gravitational waves Einstein predicted , gravitational waves Einstein predicted , ripples gravitational waves of The existence is possible gravitational waves of The first, indirect, detection came in in their orbital period they that was their orbital period they that was were developing general relativity , Einstein became general relativity , Einstein became confused the gauge invariance Einstein confused about became He an argument that formulated led him an argument that led formulated ' ) the result theory was ) the result theory was of these investigations theory the result of was suggests , a sketch it was , a sketch it was of a theory it a sketch of was In 1917 , Einstein applied 1917 , the general theory Einstein applied

, the general theory Einstein applied of relativity Einstein the general theory of applied a universe that the general field equations predicted discovered at the time , Einstein introduced the time , a new term Einstein introduced , a new term Einstein introduced , a new term Einstein introduced , the cosmological constant closed curvature The modified field equations a static universe of predicted in 1929 , Einstein abandoned 1929 , his static model Einstein abandoned , his static model Einstein abandoned of the universe Einstein his static model of abandoned many Einstein biographies , it is claimed led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered by the Irish physicist evidence Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered the Irish physicist evidence Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered that evidence Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered that , in early 1931 , Einstein explored early 1931 , a model Einstein explored , a model Einstein explored of the expanding universe Einstein a model of explored a steady-state model that Einstein considered appears a dynamical spacetime , so it is In 1935 , Einstein collaborated 1935 , Einstein collaborated with , Nathan Rosen Einstein with collaborated Nathan Rosen Einstein with collaborated to elementary particles His motivation to model was into general relativity , the affine connection needed general relativity , the affine connection needed to a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations of general relativity The theory has general relativity a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations which , has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations which , has describe would a trajectory on which move a trajectory on which move is In a 1905 paper , Einstein postulated a 1905 paper , Einstein that light postulated nearly universally all physicists by rejected universally all physicists by rejected , all physicists by rejected , including frequency that each wave of concluded In 1907 , Einstein proposed 1907 , a model Einstein proposed , a model Einstein proposed of matter Einstein a model of proposed the frequency aware that getting was Throughout the 1910s , quantum mechanics expanded the 1910s , quantum mechanics expanded in , scope quantum mechanics in expanded scope quantum mechanics in expanded to

these developments Einstein to contributed by adiabatic invariance that the hypothesis of shown 1911 Einstein in noted that 1911 in the same adiabatic principle that noted In 1924 , Einstein received 1924 , a description Einstein received , a description Einstein received of a statistical model Einstein a description of received his own articles also Einstein published describing 1995 It not until was In 1908 , he became 1908 , a "Privatdozent he became , a "Privatdozent he became " a "Privatdozent he became " at in an earlier 1909 paper , Einstein showed an earlier 1909 paper , Einstein showed that the "photon" concept This paper introduced ( although the "photon" concept the name "photon ( although introduced from 1911 to 1913 , Planck reformulated 1911 to 1913 , his 1900 quantum theory Planck reformulated , his 1900 quantum theory Planck reformulated and his 1900 quantum theory Planck reformulated and introduced Soon , the attention this idea attracted , the attention this idea attracted of Einstein this idea the attention of attracted zero-point energy , they then compared , the theoretical specific heat then they compared the theoretical specific heat then they compared of absorption that the statistics of showed Louis de Broglie's work Einstein discovered and supported from this era , Einstein gave this era , a wave equation Einstein gave , a wave equation Einstein gave for de Broglie waves Einstein a wave equation for gave a major role Einstein played in developing modern quantum mechanics he displeased with became public disputes The Bohr–Einstein debates a series of were In 1935 , Einstein returned 1935 , Einstein returned to , quantum mechanics Einstein to returned quantum mechanics Einstein to returned , In a thought experiment , he considered a thought experiment , two particles he considered , two particles he considered , he two particles which , considered two particles which , considered had of local realism , there were local realism , two possibilities there were , two possibilities there were : two possibilities there were : ( question , it must be a physical principle , local realism was shown

these and subsequent experiments of The results demonstrate that of these and subsequent experiments quantum physics that demonstrate these and subsequent experiments quantum physics that demonstrate can on general relativity , Einstein attempted general relativity , Einstein attempted to his theory Einstein to generalize attempted In 1950 , he described 1950 , his "unified field theory he described , his "unified field theory he described " his "unified field theory he described " in the strong and weak nuclear forces did not Einstein's unification project accommodate not the strong and weak nuclear forces neither , accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces neither , accommodate of Einstein other investigations that conducted were other investigations that conducted were unsuccessful show this , they reversed this , the magnetization they reversed , the magnetization they reversed in an iron bar they the magnetization in reversed the bar that this leads confirmed Erwin Schrödinger Einstein to suggested that Erwin Schrödinger to he that suggested second quantization This formulation a form of is this Erwin Schrödinger applied to derive his wife Einstein daily to wrote the papers were The letters in included the personal letters Margot Einstein permitted to be publicity of Einstein's right was litigated the most famous scientific celebrities Einstein one of became " a vignette " The New Yorker published a vignette " The New Yorker published in a way finally He out figured his inquirers He told " Pardon Professor Einstein I mistaken for am the subject has Einstein been of numerous awards Einstein received and honors It is Pakistan by bordered is Pakistan by bordered to the east by Pakistan to bordered of land , the country is land , the country is predominately Afghanistan in Human habitation dates back the source also Afghanistan as served Afghanistan of The modern state began with Timur Shah , it was divided the smaller independent kingdoms was it into divided in the second war it successfully established the second war a British protected state successfully it established a British protected state successfully it established over in 1919 , the country became 1919 , the country became free

foreign dominance the country free of became the late 1970s has been by dominated has been prolonged warfare by dominated been prolonged warfare by dominated , prolonged warfare by dominated , starting terrorism The country high levels of has prehistoric sites of Excavations suggest that of prehistoric sites humans that suggest prehistoric sites humans that suggest were the 20th century done in Archaeological exploration suggests in the 20th century the geographical area that suggests the 20th century the geographical area that suggests of Afghanistan that the geographical area of suggests In more detail , it extended more detail , it extended from , what it from extended it what from today extended what from today extended is several smaller IVC colonies There are to be the middle of the 6th century BCE , the Achaemenids overthrew BCE , the Medes the Achaemenids overthrew , the Medes the Achaemenids overthrew and the Medes the Achaemenids overthrew and incorporated Darius Persia of I mentions the Kabul Valley of Persia I mentions , the Seleucid Empire of the successor state controlled the region of the Seleucid Empire the successor state controlled the area The Mauryans controlled south of it of Much soon broke the first century BCE The Silk Road during appeared , the first century BCE , the Parthian Empire subjugated BCE , the region the Parthian Empire subjugated , the region the Parthian Empire subjugated but the region the Parthian Empire subjugated but lost The Kushans were the Sassanids by overthrown were the Sassanids by overthrown in the 3rd century CE by the Sassanids in overthrown They were the Kidarites by followed were the Kidarites by who followed the Kidarites by who followed , They were the Turk Shahi by replaced were the Turk Shahi by replaced in the 7th century by the Turk Shahi in replaced 870 , this Hindu dynasty was called , Hindu Shahi was this Hindu dynasty called of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted the native inhabitants it encountered they accepted it encountered they accepted while encountered it others while accepted it others while accepted revolted of Islam , the region used

Islam , the region used to the region would people that be patrons that people were be first 870 CE in by conquered the Saffarid Muslims in 870 CE by conquered Later , their Islamic influence the Samanids extended , their Islamic influence the Samanids extended south their Islamic influence the Samanids extended south of By the 11th century , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the 11th century , the remaining Hindu rulers Mahmud of Ghazni defeated , the remaining Hindu rulers Mahmud of Ghazni defeated and the remaining Hindu rulers Mahmud of Ghazni defeated and effectively an important city Mahmud Ghazni into made The Ghaznavid dynasty was the Ghurids by overthrown was the Ghurids by overthrown , the Ghurids by whose architectural achievements , overthrown The destruction caused the Mongols by forced caused many locals the Mongols by forced many locals the Mongols by forced to the Ilkhanate Mongol rule with continued in In the early 16th century , Babur arrived the early 16th century , Babur arrived from , Ferghana Babur from arrived Ferghana Babur from arrived and , and parts Indian Mughals ruled and parts Indian Mughals ruled of the territory Indian Mughals parts of ruled Afghanistan of the northwestern area was referred Afghanistan was by to referred was the regional name to by referred the regional name to by referred Khorasan Gurgin Khan He defeated and established natural causes Mirwais of died in 1722 Mahmud the Afghan army in led Kandahar and his forces Nader Shah captured India , Nader Shah had plundered , Delhi had Nader Shah plundered Delhi had Nader Shah plundered , 1747 , Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned Kandahar had Ahmad Shah Durrani to returned 1747 , Ahmad Shah had led , multiple campaigns had Ahmad Shah led multiple campaigns had Ahmad Shah led against Kabul had Ahmad Shah captured and Herat had then Ahmad Shah conquered two campaigns had Ahmad Shah launched into siege Nishapur , however he was in 1754 , he captured 1754 , Tun he captured , Tun he captured , Tun he captured , and 1755 was Shah rokh in reappointed

India 8 Ahmad Shah invaded times during during his Invasions of India , he sought his Invasions of India , the reasons he sought , the reasons he sought needed the reasons he sought needed to his first invasion had Ahmad Shah launched in Mughal armies had Ahmad Shah met at the throne Timur Shah Durrani to ascended in his reign Timur Shah began by consolidating also the Durrani Empire the capital of saw the Durrani Empire the capital of saw being the modern capital This reform Kabul as saw campaigns would also Timur Shah lead this campaign would Timur Shah where be his forces where Timur Shah led be 30,000 would The Sikhs over lose by Timur Shah , Timur Shah was Timur Shah , Timur Shah was able would be his son by succeeded be his son by succeeded , his son by succeeded , Zaman Shah Durrani the attempted stabilization Timur Shah's reign oversaw and consolidation the Durrani Throne would Zaman Shah Durrani to succeed his brothers This civil war with instigated With Kandahar Humayun in centered Kandahar Humayun in centered , Humayun would Zaman Shah defeat and the throne , Zaman Shah had led , 3 campaigns had Zaman Shah led 3 campaigns had Zaman Shah led into his third campaign Zaman Shah on embarked for would be his brother by deposed be his brother by deposed , his brother by deposed , Shah Shuja Durrani By the early 19th century , the Afghan empire was the early 19th century , the Afghan empire was under , threat the Afghan empire under was threat the Afghan empire under was from would be Mahmud Shah Durrani by sentenced be Mahmud Shah Durrani by sentenced , Mahmud Shah Durrani by sentenced , having During this turbulent period , Afghanistan had this turbulent period , many temporary rulers Afghanistan had , many temporary rulers Afghanistan had until Afghanistan many temporary rulers Dost Mohammad Khan until had many temporary rulers Dost Mohammad Khan until had declared Ranjit Singh to who , lost In 1838 , a British expeditionary force marched 1838 , a British expeditionary force marched into

, Afghanistan a British expeditionary force into marched Afghanistan a British expeditionary force into marched and to its recapture , the British gave its recapture , the British gave up their attempts the British up on gave most would Dost Mohammad Khan spend of numerous campaigns would Dost Mohammad Khan launch , 9 June 1863 Dost Mohammad on died , the throne would Dost Mohammad's successors for fight in the region , Abdur Rahman Khan replaced the region , Ayub Khan Abdur Rahman Khan replaced , Abdur Rahman Khan Ayub Khan who replaced Abdur Rahman Khan Ayub Khan who replaced had Ayub Khan who replaced had succeeded control would Britain gain of In 1893 , Amir Abdur Rahman signed 1893 , an agreement Amir Abdur Rahman signed , an agreement Amir Abdur Rahman signed in which Amir Abdur Rahman an agreement in signed which an agreement in the ethnic Pashtun signed the "Iron Amir was He as known railway " The "Iron Amir viewed and Habibullah Khan was officials by met was officials by met of the Central Powers by officials of met the Central Powers it , but failed a hunting trip was Habibullah during assassinated on 19 August 1919 , Emir Amanullah Khan declared 19 August 1919 , Emir Amanullah Khan the Emirate of Afghanistan declared his country's traditional isolation He to end moved himself He proclaimed King of Turkey , several reforms he introduced , several reforms he introduced intended several reforms he introduced intended to Mahmud Tarzi behind these reforms A key force was Article 68 He for fought of slavery of The institution was abolished many tribal and religious leaders this , and alienated with the overwhelming armed opposition , King Amanullah abdicated the overwhelming armed opposition , King Amanullah abdicated in , January 1929 King Amanullah in abdicated January 1929 King Amanullah in abdicated , King Zahir's reign of 1944–1947 The tribal revolts saw 1944–1947 King Zahir's reign by challenged saw Zadran King Zahir's reign challenged by saw roads The 1930s the development of saw a large part in the north Road links played Until 1946 , King Zahir ruled

1946 , King Zahir ruled with , the assistance King Zahir with ruled the assistance King Zahir with ruled of 1953 was He in replaced was 1953 in by replaced Mohammed Daoud Khan in 1953 by replaced until 1963 , Daoud Khan pressed 1963 , Daoud Khan pressed for , social modernization reforms Daoud Khan for pressed social modernization reforms Daoud Khan for pressed and However , a beneficiary it was , a beneficiary it was of the latter rivalry it a beneficiary of was On a per capita basis , Afghanistan received a per capita basis , more Soviet development aid Afghanistan received , more Soviet development aid Afghanistan received than any other country Afghanistan more Soviet development aid than received both Cold War enemies Afghanistan , therefore, good relations with had Afghanistan the communist People's Democratic Party of (PDPA ) seized the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan The PDPA the establishment of declared a series would This trigger of events a series of that trigger The PDPA various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that initiated provoked strong opposition various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked initiated unrest This caused and quickly with covert training centers , the United States supported covert training centers , them the United States supported , them the United States supported through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence the United States them through supported September 1979 , PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated an internal coup was PDPA General Secretary Taraki in assassinated an internal coup in by orchestrated assassinated the country in The situation deteriorated under with Amin's government , the Soviet Army invaded Amin's government , the country the Soviet Army invaded , the country the Soviet Army invaded in December 1979 the Soviet Army the country in invaded more substantial numbers in Soviet troops were deployed Lasting nine years , the war caused nine years , the deaths the war caused , the deaths the war caused of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans the war the deaths of caused Heavy air bombardment many countryside villages millions , destroyed many countryside villages millions , destroyed of

an organisational and networking base Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province as functioned for Afghanistan The Soviet-Afghan War drastic social effects on had society of The militarization led to the creation Another civil war out after broke factional infighting , widespread rape various "mujahideen" factions committed , widespread rape various "mujahideen" factions committed , widespread rape various "mujahideen" factions committed , murder September 1994 The Taliban in emerged as Kandahar city that year , they conquered that year , more territories they conquered , more territories they conquered until more territories they conquered until finally the Northern Alliance and Abdul Rashid Dostum Ahmad Shah Massoud formed Afghanistan The Islamic Emirate of was swiftly restored is apparently supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada by led apparently supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada by led and supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada by led and acting Prime Minister Hasan Akhund their previous Emirate ; his appointment was seen a compromise was his appointment as seen Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai was A new, all-male cabinet including formed On 20 September 2021 , United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received 20 September 2021 , a letter United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received , a letter United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received from acting minister United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres a letter from received most humanitarian aid have Western nations suspended to , Afghanistan's 39 million people of more than half faced an acute food shortage of Afghanistan's 39 million people more than half faced over , the world's 41st largest country Afghanistan is , the world's 41st largest country Afghanistan is , the world's 41st largest country Afghanistan is , slightly no coastline There is , as no coastline Afghanistan , as is to the north-east ; India recognizes the north-east ; a border India recognizes ; a border India recognizes with Afghanistan India a border with recognizes Afghanistan in The geography is varied It is the Hindu Kush range by dominated is the Hindu Kush range by dominated , the Hindu Kush range by dominated , the western extension the highest points of Most are in ; rolling grasslands these two regions of consist

rolling grasslands these two regions of consist and the corridor Forests in exist between Noshaq The country's highest point is , at , the country of large parts are the country of large parts are dry the driest regions The endorheic Sistan Basin one of is the north The Amu Darya at rises of streams a number of that flow One exception the Kabul River which is flows the Kabul River which is flows in the winter Afghanistan heavy snow during receives , the country's water of two-thirds flows the country's water of two-thirds flows into a geologically active area in earthquakes where is 1998 The last strong earthquakes in were , 1998 in which , were This was the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes by followed was the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes by followed in which by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in followed harsh winters Afghanistan a continental climate with has the driest of northern and western Afghanistan The lower areas are mammals of Several types exist throughout the Wakhan Corridor region exclusively The Marco Polo sheep in live the steppe plains and jackals wild pigs populate the Afghan flying squirrel of Afghanistan Endemic fauna includes Iris afghanica Endemic flora " include " vegetation of Afghanistan The forest region has hardy grasses are The colder high elevation regions of composed designated protected areas ; there are protected areas ; three national parks there are ; three national parks there are : three national parks there are : Band-e Amir Afghanistan of The population was estimated In 1979 the total population was reported 1979 the total population was reported to the Afghan population of An estimated 99.7% is Muslim the Afghan population most Muslim and is to Pew Research Center , as much as 90% are Pew Research Center , as much as 90% are of , the Sunni denomination as much as 90% of are the Sunni denomination as much as 90% of are , up to 89.7% variously The CIA Factbook estimates Sunni Afghanistan There a small Jewish community in was the years , this small community was forced

the end of the twentieth century , the entire community had emigrated Israel had the entire community to emigrated years He for remained , , the population of 26% was the population of 26% was urbanized ; in Asia it is in Asia it is only Asia it is only higher its capital with over a million residents The only city is during the 2021 Taliban offensive , the Taliban declared the 2021 Taliban offensive , the country the Taliban declared , the country the Taliban declared an Islamic Emirate 7 September was A new caretaker government on announced , a transitional political period is the Islamic Emirate undergoing a transitional political period is the Islamic Emirate undergoing with men-only meetings on government formation The Kabul meetings are the Taliban within Many figures generally agree the Taliban generally continuation that agree the Constitution of Afghanistan that continuation of agree 30 August , a Taliban official interviewed said head would be Abdul Ghani Baradar named to CNN , the new government is CNN , the new government is likely by CNN-News18 , sources said CNN-News18 , sources the new government said an executive body would The Supreme Leader over preside , News18 later interviews to disclosed News18 later interviews to disclosed that News18 to negotiations that disclosed This a skirmish in which culminated a skirmish in which culminated led early September , the Taliban were planning , the Cabinet were the Taliban planning the Cabinet were the Taliban planning to a governor Each province has and a capital nearly 400 provincial districts into each , divided are now the Prime Minister by appointed now the Prime Minister by appointed of Afghanistan by the Prime Minister of appointed the central government The provincial governors representatives of are There provincial councils also that are provincial councils also that are are the United Nations Afghanistan a member of became Historically , strong relations Afghanistan had , strong relations Afghanistan had with Germany Afghanistan strong relations with had Afghanistan of The present Islamic Emirate is currently of Afghanistan , it enjoyed Afghanistan , cordial relations it enjoyed

, cordial relations it enjoyed with a number it cordial relations with enjoyed weapons The Islamic Emirate Army a large amount of captured 2018 Afghanistan's nominal GDP $21.7 billion in was capita per Its GDP is $ in mineral deposits , it remains mineral deposits , one it remains , one it remains of the world's least developed countries it one of remains reasons as the country why cited goods The country over $7 billion worth of imports external debt It $2.8 billion in has donor money , only a small portion is provided the nation as the central bank of serves construction in which , involved the $35 billion New Kabul City of the major national construction projects Some include the business environment to Improvements have resulted WTO Afghanistan a member of is SCO It an observer status in holds Afghanistan's economy Agricultural production the backbone of is recent years , there has been , an uptick has there been an uptick has there been in coal The country's natural resources : include , the Brookings Institution of Michael E. O'Hanlon estimated that the Brookings Institution Afghanistan that if estimated 2006 in northern Afghanistan that estimated lithium The country significant amounts of has Helmand Province in The Khanashin carbonatite contains of 2007 , a 30-year lease was granted , for was a 30-year lease granted the Aynak copper mine was a 30-year lease for granted the mining rights The state-run Steel Authority of India won to develop the country's untapped mineral deposits that 30% of estimate 21 Mio. tons of The lithium reserves could amount Bauxit Other larger deposits the ones of are a 2011 news story , the "CSM " reported In 2016 , Afghanistan had 2016 , 0.43 global hectares Afghanistan had , 0.43 global hectares Afghanistan had of biocapacity Afghanistan 0.43 global hectares of had In 2016 0.73 global hectares Afghanistan used 2016 0.73 global hectares Afghanistan used of biocapacity Afghanistan 0.73 global hectares of used This just under double as much biocapacity they use means just under double as much biocapacity they use means as , the rural population of 98% have

access of the rural population 98% have Overall 98.7% the figure at stands of 2016 , Afghanistan produces 2016 , 1,400 megawatts Afghanistan produces , 1,400 megawatts Afghanistan produces of power Afghanistan 1,400 megawatts of produces electricity production of The majority is via under development the CASA-1000 project which are development the CASA-1000 project which are will the CASA-1000 project which are will transmit Afghanistan Tourism a small industry in is Nevertheless , the country some 20,000 foreign tourists visit , the country some 20,000 foreign tourists visit annually the country some 20,000 foreign tourists visit annually as particular domestic and international tourism for an important region is the picturesque Bamyan Valley for domestic and international tourism an important region is domestic and international tourism the picturesque Bamyan Valley which , is the picturesque Bamyan Valley which , is includes the late 1960s onwards , Afghanistan was onwards , a popular stop Afghanistan was , a popular stop Afghanistan was on the famous hippie trail Afghanistan a popular stop on was from Iran , the trail traveled Iran , the trail traveled through , various Afghan provinces the trail through traveled various Afghan provinces the trail through traveled and significant history of Ghazni The city has by Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine is Muhammad inside kept the Shrine of Ali by , believed is Afghanistan in Telecommunication services are provided in Afghanistan are by provided Afghanistan are Afghan Telecom by provided are Afghan Telecom by provided , Afghan Telecom by provided , Afghan Wireless Afghansat 1 The country its own space satellite called uses of civil war , telecommunications was civil war , telecommunications was virtually , a non-existent sector telecommunications virtually was a non-existent sector telecommunications virtually was , the Salang Tunnel of the Ring Road A key portion is It the only land route that is connects Central Asia the only land route that connects is the Hindu Kush Several mountain passes travel between allow Afghan roads Serious traffic accidents common on are Afghanistan in Air transport is provided in Afghanistan is by provided

Afghanistan is the national carrier by provided is the national carrier by provided , the national carrier by provided , Ariana Afghan Airlines Air India These include , Emirates four international airports The country has : Hamid Karzai International Airport Including domestic airports , there are domestic airports , 43 there are three rail links The country has : one freight are These lines for used the line of About will lie color Taxis yellow in are rural Afghanistan , villagers often use , donkeys often villagers use donkeys often villagers use , are primarily the Kochi nomads by used K–12 in Afghanistan Education includes the country There over 16,000 schools in are Of this , about 60% are this , males about 60% are , males about 60% are and males about 60% are and 40% females different universities are Over 174,000 students in enrolled females of these About 21% are the American University of Afghanistan in Afghanistan The top universities are Qargha was The Afghan Defense University near constructed Kabul outside of Major universities include six faculties is The United States building of to the Human Development Index , Afghanistan is the Human Development Index , the 15th least developed country Afghanistan is , the 15th least developed country Afghanistan is in the world Afghanistan the 15th least developed country in is The country's maternal mortality rate 396 deaths/100,000 live births its infant mortality rate and is 396 deaths/100,000 live births its infant mortality rate and is is the infant mortality rate The Ministry of Public Health to cut plans Afghanistan There over 100 hospitals in are 2006 was It in reported 2006 in nearly 60% that reported both common cultural features Afghans have and those both common cultural features that and those have Afghan society Family the mainstay of is In the southern and eastern region , the people live the southern and eastern region , the people live according the Pashtun culture the people according to live hospitality of Pashtunwali Key tenets include been further the cultures by influenced further the cultures by influenced of those neighboring nations by the cultures of influenced

the best way the tribal system to be considers various Afghan tribes There are , and bacha bazi One example " is " ; marriage for the legal age is 16 for marriage the legal age is the villages , families typically occupy , mudbrick houses typically families occupy mudbrick houses typically families occupy , a headman typically Villages have ( These were some women by worn were some women by worn of the Pashtun community by some women of worn Another popular dress the "chapan which " is the "chapan which " is acts a hat " The "karakul is made It was former kings by favored was former kings by favored of Afghanistan by former kings of favored was popularly the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud by worn The nation a complex history that has has a complex history that has has survived all ages Afghanistan many remnants from contains most well known the Great Mosque of Herat are well known the Great Mosque of Herat are , known the Great Mosque of Herat are , the Blue Mosque The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were the Taliban by destroyed were the Taliban by destroyed , the Taliban by who , destroyed Buddhist relics are still archaeologists finding Afghanistan Carpet weaving an ancient practice in is its own specific characteristics Every province has in making a long history of Afghanistan The lands have Gandhara Art by , produced is the Persian miniature style Later eras increased use of saw Since the 1900s , the nation began the 1900s , the nation began to Western techniques the nation to use began around 350 radio stations Afghanistan has and over 200 television stations the 1970s Television programs airing in began 1873 was The first Afghan newspaper in published the 1920s , Radio Kabul was broadcasting , local radio services was Radio Kabul broadcasting been some Bollywood films in by represented actors in some Bollywood films by represented Afghanistan Many Bollywood film stars roots in have Indian classical music Afghan classical music close historical links with has the country's national instrument The rubab is and precurses

the 1950s Pop music in developed through During this time female artists also started this time female artists also started appearing Perhaps this genre of the most famous artist was Ahmad Zahir of this genre the most famous artist was this genre Ahmad Zahir who , was Ahmad Zahir who , was synthesized Afghanistan Attan the national dance of is native fruits these staples Accompanying are and Afghanistan Kabuli palaw the national dish of is its high quality pomegranates is Afghanistan for known Afghan culture Classic Persian and Pashto poetry a cherished part of are one has always Poetry been the poetic styles of One is called countless Persian-speaking poets has The Afghan region produced and the 17th century of Khushal Khan Khattak is considered Nowruz Afghanistan's official New Year with starts , the vernal equinox It every year at occurs 19 August is National Independence Day on celebrated Afghanistan in Sport is managed in Afghanistan is by managed Afghanistan is the Afghan Sports Federation by managed the country Cricket and Association football the two most popular sports in are titles are increasingly Afghanistan's sports teams celebrating the 2010 South Asian Games basketball team the first team sports title at won Later that year , it the country's cricket team followed , it the country's cricket team followed with the winning the country's cricket team it with followed In 2012 , the country's 3x3 basketball team won 2012 , the gold medal the country's 3x3 basketball team won , the gold medal the country's 3x3 basketball team won at the 2012 Asian Beach Games the country's 3x3 basketball team the gold medal at won 2007 It the ACC Twenty20 Cup in won it eventually The team made and the country There several other stadiums throughout are the Ghazi Stadium The national team its home games at plays polo It similar to is the Adriatic and Ionian Sea is It on located varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions Albania displays , defined has been different civilisations by inhabited been different civilisations by inhabited over time by different civilisations over inhabited the 12th century The Albanians the autonomous Principality of Arbër in established

Europe led Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg by won led them Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg by won acclaim Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg by them won Ottoman rule Albania under remained for , Albania of the modern nation state declared independence of Albania the modern nation state declared the 20th century , the Kingdom of Albania was invaded the Kingdom of Albania was Italy by invaded was Italy by which invaded Italy by which invaded formed World War II Enver Hoxha the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after formed a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic Albania is and a developing country a process It through went of universal health care Albania provides and free primary and secondary education the United Nations Albania a member of is membership It an official candidate for is The term the medieval Latin name Albania is term the medieval Latin name Albania is of the country Albania the medieval Latin name of is a continuation may The term have in the 10th century , the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was first Michael Attaliates the Byzantine historian the was Nowadays , their country Albanians call , their country Albanians call ' central and southern Albania in which , unearthed the conclusion have Archaeologists to come the conclusion to these regions that come Albania was historically by inhabited was historically Indo-European peoples by inhabited historically Indo-European peoples by inhabited , Indo-European peoples by inhabited , among of the Illyrian tribes , there is the Illyrian tribes , no evidence there is , no evidence there is that there no evidence these tribes that is no evidence these tribes that is used the Illyrian groups of The first account comes from The west was the Thracian tribe by inhabited was the Thracian tribe by inhabited of the Bryges by the Thracian tribe of inhabited King Agron Their Ardiaean Kingdom its greatest extent under reached other neighbouring tribes Agron his rule over extended their operations Teuta's forces extended further southwards In 229 BC , Rome declared 229 BC , war Rome declared , war Rome declared on the kingdom Rome war on declared Illyrian defeat The war in ended in

eventually Gentius by   succeeded Gentius by   succeeded   the Romans Gentius with clashed in Roman conquest The conflict in resulted of 395 was The Roman Empire in split In the 11th century , the Great Schism formalised the 11th century , the break the Great Schism formalised , the break the Great Schism formalised of communion the Great Schism the break of formalised Lake Ochrida The Albanian people the west of inhabited of Dhimiter , the territory came Dhimiter , the territory came under , the rule the territory under came the rule the territory under came of the 13th century , the principality was dissolved however Albanians of the first undisputed mention dates Albanians of the first undisputed mention dates back In 1272 , he established 1272 , the Kingdom of Albania he established , the Kingdom of Albania he established and the Kingdom of Albania he established and conquered central Albania territory The kingdom all of claimed the papal plans A catholic political structure a basis for was the support This plan also found of the Byzantine Empire Internal power within struggles in In 1367 , various Albanian rulers established 1367 , the Despotate of Arta various Albanian rulers established that time , several Albanian principalities were created of Constantinople , the Ottoman Empire continued Constantinople , an extended period the Ottoman Empire continued , an extended period the Ottoman Empire continued of conquest the Ottoman Empire an extended period of continued 1385 They the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in reached the formation A prosperous and longstanding revolution after erupted of the goal consistently Skanderbeg pursued relentlessly the Ottomans He every attempt by thwarted the region , Albanian towns were organised four principal sanjaks were Albanian towns into organised trade The government fostered by settling Vlorë of The city saw passing equal opportunities Islam them offered and , conversion for motives were conversion for motives were , , a significant proportion they up made a significant proportion they up made of important political and military positions of Muslim Albanians A couple attained of Muslim Albanians important political and military positions who attained

Muslim Albanians important political and military positions who attained culturally important political and military positions who attained culturally contributed Enjoying this privileged position , they held this privileged position , various high administrative positions they held , various high administrative positions they held with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers they various high administrative positions with held the prominent Köprülü family Others members of included its roots The Albanian Renaissance a period with was of nationalism , Albania was nationalism , Albania was under , the rule Albania under was the rule Albania under was of the Treaty of San Stefano the execution of which resulted the assistance The league initially had of the assembly Approximately 300 Muslims in participated composed the assembly in by composed participated Ottomans authorities their assistance the league when cancelled their assistance the league when cancelled , military force The league used to prevent Novšiće , the league was forced the Ottoman Empire Albania independence from declared Its sovereignty was the Conference of London by recognised Vlorë , the International Commission of Control was established 15 October 1913 was the International Commission of Control on established the first law enforcement agency was The International Gendarmerie as established In November , the first gendarmerie members arrived November , the first gendarmerie members arrived in , the country the first gendarmerie members in arrived November 1913 , the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered , the throne had the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces offered the throne had the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces offered of February 1914 , the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed Gjirokastër was the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in proclaimed was Gjirokastër in by proclaimed the local Greek population in Gjirokastër by proclaimed of Albania , Prince Wied appointed Albania , their leader Prince Wied appointed , their leader Prince Wied appointed , their leader Prince Wied appointed , Prênk Bibë Doda May and June 1914 , the International Gendarmerie was joined the International Gendarmerie was Isa Boletini by joined was Isa Boletini by joined and Isa Boletini by joined and his men of Fan Noli , the parliament adopted

Fan Noli , a new constitution the parliament adopted , a new constitution the parliament adopted and a new constitution the parliament adopted and proclaimed Zogu of The politics was authoritarian nearly every Albanian official Italians control over exercised was eventually another monarchy by replaced eventually another monarchy by replaced with a strong support by another monarchy with replaced donations also He made of until 1943 , the Kingdom of Albania was 1943 , a protectorate the Kingdom of Albania was , a protectorate the Kingdom of Albania was and a protectorate the Kingdom of Albania was and a dependency In October 1940 , Albania served October 1940 , Albania served as , a staging ground Albania as served a staging ground Albania as served for a sizeable portion A counterattack in resulted of the country Germans to occupy started of the war , the country fell the war , the country fell into , a civil war-like state the country into fell a civil war-like state the country into fell between the south The communists the last anti-communist forces in defeated the end of November , the main German troops had withdrawn Tirana had the main German troops from withdrawn the country entirely The partisans liberated from of the nation , the Communist party sent the nation , forces the Communist party sent , to the Communist party forces sent northern Albania the Communist party forces to sent Nikaj-Mërtur They open resistance in faced On 15 January 1945 , a clash took 15 January 1945 , place a clash took , place a clash took between partisans a clash place between took many other issues This event the starting point of was many other issues the starting point of which was , agricultural cooperatives of the institution brought agricultural cooperatives of the institution brought about of the Axis Powers , the country became the Axis Powers , the country became initially , a satellite state the country initially became a satellite state the country initially became of During this period , the country experienced this period , an increasing industrialisation the country experienced

, an increasing industrialisation the country experienced and an increasing industrialisation the country experienced and urbanisation ownership were The new land reform laws granting passed education , illiteracy was eliminated the country's adult population was illiteracy among eliminated the country's national income in The average annual increase was 29% and 56% large debts The nation incurred initially with In 1945 , the Agrarian Reform Law meant 1945 , the Agrarian Reform Law meant that property that large swaths of meant destroyed , Albania Hoxha proclaimed , Albania Hoxha proclaimed the world's first atheist state Albania Hoxha proclaimed the world's first atheist state in all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity A 1967 law banned and propaganda their beliefs many Albanians to practise continued schemes to pyramid that devoted February 1997 The protests violent in turned were promptly militias by emptied promptly militias by emptied and militias by emptied and criminal gangs both Aleksandër Meksi The crisis led and Sali Berisha led Italy by , entered the country Italy , by entered of the communist system , Albania focused the communist system , Albania focused on , an active process Albania on focused an active process Albania on focused of , the Socialist Party of Edi Rama won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections of the Socialist Party Edi Rama won As Prime Minister , he implemented Prime Minister , numerous reforms he implemented , numerous reforms he implemented focused numerous reforms he implemented focused on On 26 November 2019 , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged 26 November 2019 , Albania a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged , Albania a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged with a 6.4 magnitude earthquake Albania the epicentre with ravaged Albania the epicentre with ravaged positioned Tirana was The tremor in felt From March to June 2020 , the government declared March to June 2020 , a state the government declared , a state the government declared of emergency the government a state of declared an area Albania has of and the northwest Its shoreline the Adriatic Sea to faces at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude ; the westernmost point is

39° 40' 0" northern latitude ; Sazan the westernmost point is ; Sazan the westernmost point is at Sazan the westernmost point is at 19 above the Adriatic ; the lowest point is the Adriatic ; the Mediterranean Sea the lowest point is ; the Mediterranean Sea the lowest point is at , Albania of much rises Albania of much rises into Perhaps the country of the most remarkable feature is the presence of the country the most remarkable feature is the largest lake of Shkodër The Lake is In the southeast the Lake of Ohrid that rises the southeast the Lake of Ohrid that rises is one the Lake of Ohrid that is rises Farther Large south the extends Large south the extends and the east Rivers mostly in rise its source , the Drin that is , the Drin that is starts the Drin that is starts at the country in The climate is extremely a mediterranean Albania predominantly experiences and the contrary , the coldest areas are positioned winter The mean monthly temperature between in ranges season naturally Rainfall from varies the precipitation The country most of receives four glaciers from the University of Colorado An expedition discovered winter Snowfall frequently in occurs hotspot , an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity Albania possesses , an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity Albania possesses on account Albania an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on possesses of phytogeography , Albania is phytogeography , part Albania is , part Albania is of the Boreal Kingdom Albania part of is be Albania in which found Albania in which found refers herbal and medicinal practices The country a vibrant tradition of maintains areas of Albania The protected areas are 15 national parks There are , 4 ramsar sites a combined territory and Theth National Park Valbonë Valley National Park cover the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast Divjakë-Karavasta National Park along extends and a peninsula the Butrint National Park on that Further south sprawls air and water pollution, climate change in Albania Environmental issues include a parliamentary constitutional republic Albania is and sovereign the separation is The government on based

the supreme court is The judicial power in vested the country in Law enforcement is primarily The executive power is the president by exercised is the president by exercised and the president by exercised and prime minister the commander The president is - in the president of The tenure depends on the parliament by , is authorised , its responsibilities has Albania extended its responsibilities has Albania extended and ) was Albanian politicians by considered was Albanian politicians by considered to Albanian politicians by considered to be the United States Albania strong ties with maintains , a number have both countries signed a number have both countries signed of an active member has Albania been of membership country They on took vice president It as served of 2014 , it also joined , the United Nations Human Rights Council also it joined the United Nations Human Rights Council also it joined from Land, Air and Naval Forces The Albanian Armed Forces of consist and communism , the country has participated six international missions has the country in participated February 2008 , Albania has participated active troops Albania the number of reduced In the 1990s , the country scrapped the 1990s , enormous amounts the country scrapped , enormous amounts the country scrapped of obsolete hardware the country enormous amounts of scrapped one the military budget Increasing was of a territorial area is Albania within defined three regions is The country into divided the twelve constituent counties of administrative divisions The highest level are 31 July 2000 were The counties on created the new administrative divisions The government introduced to be neighbourhoods are The defunct municipalities as known overall 2980 villages There are or communities The country a developing mixed economy by classified has the World Bank a developing mixed economy classified by has In 2016 , it had 2016 , the 4th lowest unemployment rate it had , the 4th lowest unemployment rate it had in the Balkans it the 4th lowest unemployment rate in had Italy Its largest trading partners are , Greece both The country's most important infrastructure facilities course through take

, capita per Albania's GDP stood capita per Albania's GDP stood at three countries Albania one of was Albania The International Monetary Fund 2.6% growth for predicted −9.7% The country a trade balance of had the country in Agriculture is based the economy It a significant sector of remains the population It 41% of employs fruits Albania significant amounts of produces Further , a worldwide significant producer the country is , a worldwide significant producer the country is of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian the country a worldwide significant producer of is Europe's longest histories Albania one of has the few places The today's region one of was the region in The oldest found seeds are 4,000 In 2009 , the nation produced 2009 , an estimated 17,500 tonnes the nation produced , an estimated 17,500 tonnes the nation produced of wine the nation an estimated 17,500 tonnes of produced Albania of The secondary sector have undergone Fushë-Krujë in The Antea Cement plant is considered represents and gas Albanian oil is the Balkan peninsula Albania the second largest oil deposits in has The Albpetrol company is the Albanian state by owned is the Albanian state by owned and the Albanian state by owned and monitors an extensive expansion has The textile industry seen by a significant minerals producer Albania is and is a notable producer The nation also is of the country's economy The tertiary sector the fastest growing sector of represents in the world , telecommunication industry represents the world , nowadays another major contributor telecommunication industry represents , nowadays another major contributor telecommunication industry represents to the sector telecommunication industry nowadays another major contributor to represents privatisation It largely through developed an industry is Tourism as recognised 8.4% directly It for accounted foreign visitors of The increase has been 2005 Albania only 500,000 visitors in had , summer in tourism increased summer in tourism increased by the tourist industry of The bulk is concentrated , the southwest in the Albanian Riviera has the most scenic and pristine beaches in the southwest the Albanian Riviera has The coast a particular character it because has

a particular character it because has is this seaside of Some parts are very the premier air gateway of Tirana The international airport is 2019 The airport more than 3.3 million passengers in carried Durrës will prospectively It link part (A2 ) The Autostrada 2 is , one it as is one it as is of The rail network is the national railway company by administered is the national railway company by administered Hekurudha Shqiptare the national railway company by which Hekurudha Shqiptare administered a considerable increase has There been in In the country , education is the country , education is secular two semesters is The academic year into apportioned the primary language Albanian as serves of a first foreign language of The study is mandatory schools taught in The languages are two levels is Compulsory primary education into divided private and public institutions There a significant number of is equal, free and universal health care of Albania The constitution guarantees 68.8 years The average healthy life expectancy at is and 12 per 1,000 live births is The country's infant mortality rate at estimated death Cardiovascular disease the principal cause of remain In 2009 , the country had 2009 , a fruit and vegetable supply the country had , a fruit and vegetable supply the country had of 886 grams the country a fruit and vegetable supply of had to other developed and developing countries , Albania has other developed and developing countries , a relatively low rate Albania has , a relatively low rate Albania has of obesity Albania a relatively low rate of has natural resources , a wide variety Albania has , a wide variety Albania has of energy resources Albania a wide variety of has , Albania of the electricity generation sector is Albania of the electricity generation sector is dependent oil Albania considerably large deposits of has Europe It the 10th largest oil reserves in has the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast are The country's main petroleum deposits around located the planned Southern Gas Corridor to that , connected Albania's territory the TAP for across runs

Albania of The water resources are particularly fresh water of The country's available average quantity is estimated In 2009 , the government approved 2009 , the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation the government approved , the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation the government approved in Albania the government the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in approved the fastest growing and dynamic sectors Telecommunication one of represents in 2018 , the country had 2018 , approximately 2.7 million active mobile users the country had , approximately 2.7 million active mobile users the country had with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers the country approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with had Albania of the population was estimated 259 inhabitants Its population density at stands per 78.5 years at birth The overall life expectancy is the Balkans The country the 8th most populous country in is 2.5 million The country's population steadily from rose the fall for the recent population decrease The explanation is That period was economic mass emigration by marked was economic mass emigration by marked from Albania by economic mass emigration from marked this period At least 900,000 people Albania during left the country's population of About 53.4% lives in the total population of Almost 30% is found Tirana County in by followed found Tirana are Over 1 million people in concentrated largest cities Tirana one of is a delicate topic of ethnicity Issues are ) , ethnicity no declared , ethnicity no declared 390,938 ethnicity no declared 390,938 ( National Minorities the results that " stated nine national or cultural minorities Albania recognises : Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples the Gorani people Other Albanian minorities are and Jews the Greeks , " it is ethnic Greeks The estimates between 60,000 and 300,000 vary in , Western sources of most put the number of Western sources most put The 300,000 mark is Greek government by supported is Greek government by supported as Greek government by supported as well the country of The official language is Albanian of the country which Albanian is

the country which Albanian is is the two dialects The Shkumbin river the rough dividing line between is areas in by inhabited spoken Albania ethnic minorities in by include the Pustec Municipality Macedonian official in is The Greek language is an important percentage by spoken is an important percentage by spoken in the southern part by an important percentage in spoken Among young people 25 or aged less young people 25 or aged less , a stable interest Greek , while had the country Greek the second most-spoken language in is Greek of the teaching was banned a growing interest have Young people shown in them of Some go to agreements and Germany Albania have of the 2011 census , there were the 2011 census , 1,587,608 there were , 1,587,608 there were ( 1,587,608 there were ( 56.7% the lives Religion an important role in constitute religious themselves non - considered God 80% in believed and God in 40% and believed the 2011 census of The preliminary results seemed to the data Some Muslim Community officials unhappiness with expressed doubts also The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference cast on the country are The Muslim Albanians throughout spread classical times , there are thought Durrës was purportedly by founded was purportedly Paul the Apostle by founded purportedly Paul the Apostle by founded , Paul the Apostle by founded , while medieval times , the Albanian people first appeared historical records first the Albanian people within appeared At this point , they were this point , they were mostly the first time Islam for arrived in an official religion has never The country had all faiths of the clergy was weakened religious observance The communist regime and suppressed persecuted communist era persecution Islam survived and reemerged Evangelicals in Albania Some smaller Christian sects include Said Toptani of Albania The first recorded Protestant was Albania Said Toptani who , was Said Toptani who , was travelled that , he was arrested the Ottoman authorities and imprisoned by arrested the 19th century The first evangelical Protestants in appeared and the 19th century in the Evangelical Alliance and appeared

Nowadays , 160 member congregations it has , 160 member congregations it has from different Protestant denominations it 160 member congregations from has many symbols Albania shares associated with a red flag of Albania The flag is the flag used in The red colour symbolises has been Albanians by used been Albanians by used since the Middle Ages by Albanians since used been particularly a multitude by influenced particularly a multitude by influenced of ancient and medieval people by a multitude of influenced in the Middle Ages was by accompanied the Middle Ages was a corresponding growth by accompanied was a corresponding growth by accompanied in Christian and Islamic art by a corresponding growth in accompanied Centuries later , crucial the Albanian Renaissance proved , crucial the Albanian Renaissance proved to the emancipation the Albanian Renaissance crucial to proved the legacy of Albania The architecture reflects Albania in Major cities have evolved a whole spectrum and towns the cities reflect Albania is Ancient architecture throughout found of the Byzantine Empire , they introduced the Byzantine Empire , castles they introduced , castles they introduced , castles they introduced , citadels new architectural styles The 20th century brought such as the communist era Socialist classicism during arrived in the list are Three Albanian archaeological sites in included Butrint These the ancient remains of include been widely Albanian culture by influenced widely Albanian culture by influenced , Albanian culture by influenced , geography many varieties Albanians and use produce another national dish Fërgesë is , made multiple crêpe-like layers Flia of consists brushed the Albanian lifestyle Coffee an integral part of is capita The country more coffee houses per has Southern Albania is It across cultivated wine production Albania a long and ancient history of has the constitution is the right to free expression in guaranteed 84th was Albania ranked on the 20th century Albanian cinema its roots in has During the Peoples Republic of Albania , Albanian cinema developed the Peoples Republic of Albania , Albanian cinema developed rapidly the inauguration Albanian cinema rapidly with developed 2003 , the Tirana International Film Festival was established

the national identity Albanian folk music a prominent part of is Albanian folk music of The first compilation was made of Albanian folk music was by made Albanian folk music was two Himariot musicians by made was two Himariot musicians by made , two Himariot musicians by made , Neço Muka Festivali i a traditional Albanian song contest Këngës is organised Këngës a traditional Albanian song contest by organised is the national broadcaster a traditional Albanian song contest organised by is its own specific variety of Albania Every cultural and geographical region has costume its own specific variety of that has traditional clothing Some elderly people to wear continue an independent branch The Albanian language comprises and is all The cultural renaissance first of was the development The Protestant reforms hopes for invigorated written Gjon Buzuku by was published Gjon Buzuku by was published in 1332 AD The earliest evidence from dates with a baptism formula Other significant examples : include ( They are the humanist Marin Barleti by mentioned are the humanist Marin Barleti by mentioned , the humanist Marin Barleti by mentioned , who the 20th and 21st century in The most famous Albanian writer is probably the Olympic Games Albania at participated in 2006 The country their Winter Olympic Games debut in made the next four games Albania missed , two all games have Albania in participated events normally Albania in competes normally events in that competes events in that competes include have been the National Olympic Committee of Albania by represented been the National Olympic Committee of Albania by represented since 1972 by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since represented the Mediterranean Games has The nation at participated Popular sports in Albania Football include in Albania Football include , Albania Football include , weightlifting the most popular sport Football by far is It is the Football Association of Albania by governed is the Football Association of Albania by governed ( the Football Association of Albania by governed ( , a major tournament Albania their first ever goal in scored the most successful individual sport Weightlifting one of is

a total have Albanian weightlifters won of , several communities have the Albanian people established several communities have the Albanian people established in Albanians of large numbers have migrated the neighbouring territories Albanian minorities present in are In Kosovo , Albanians make Kosovo , Albanians make up , the largest ethnic group Albanians up make the largest ethnic group Albanians up make in the English language , the word generally refers God generally the word to refers has been Arabic people by used been Arabic people by used of different religions by Arabic people of used The pre-Islamic Arabs whom a supreme deity they worshipped whom a supreme deity they worshipped called the word Muhammad used " Allah been classical Arab philologists extensively by discussed it of the Basra school Grammarians regarded of the name "Allāh " exist the name "Allāh " exist in other Semitic languages " "Allāh in exist "Elah The corresponding Aramaic form is " ( the word " Allah " occur both pagan " Allah in occur the Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir , Arab pagans considered Ibn Kathir , Allah Arab pagans considered , Allah Arab pagans considered as an unseen God Arab pagans Allah as considered an unseen God Allah as who considered Pagans humans worship of believed humans worship of believed or a host Pre-Islamic Meccans Allah alongside worshiped anyone Islam worship of forbade the name that polytheistic Arabs used suggested Quraysh ) a designation that was ) a designation that was consecrated the superiority a designation that consecrated was , evidence there also is evidence there also is that evidence also Allah that is to that hypothesis , the Kaaba was that hypothesis , the Kaaba was first the use Some inscriptions to indicate seem disagreement There is on whether disagreement Allah on whether is Allah of No iconic representation is known Mecca Allah the only god in is Mecca the only god in that is no other word of today The Christian Arabs have two forms have Arab Christians used of invocations two forms of that used the Muslim They adopted ' ,

the words do not The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations have God used for the name was the 10th-century encyclopedic collection quoting Irfan Shahîd Kitab al-Aghani notes the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani pre-Islamic Arab Christians that notes " the unique, omnipotent and only deity " Allah is the unique, omnipotent and only deity " Allah is and the pivot and commandments divine ordinances is " the only God He is , the only God He is , creator Allah can No human eyes see till the reality The Qur'an " declares of a part God not is of In Islamic tradition , there are Islamic tradition , 99 Names there are , 99 Names there are of God there 99 Names of are Allah All these names to refer , the untranslated Arabic phrase Most Muslims use " Insha'Allah things Muslim discursive piety beginning encourages with a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs in believed over a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate in which man over believed Francis Edward Peters , " The Qur’ān insists The Qur’an's Allah the same Creator God who is covenanted the same Creator God who is covenanted with no hamza , the initial is elided may still popular expressions which contain still popular expressions which contain use the word popular expressions which use contain the name Some Muslims leave "Allāh " early translation work This back to goes but 2009 in the Malayan High Court revoked the law in 2009 the Malayan High Court revoked more than four centuries , the contemporary controversy was triggered the contemporary controversy was usage by triggered was usage by triggered of "Allah by usage of triggered the court ruling The government appealed , and the court ruling the High Court , and appealed In October 2013 the court ruled in October 2013 favor the court in ruled favor the court in ruled of In early 2014 more than 300 bibles the Malaysian government confiscated early 2014 more than 300 bibles the Malaysian government confiscated for more than 300 bibles the Malaysian government confiscated for using

in these two states usage that is these two states usage that is has some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced , a "10-point solution has the Malaysian government introduced a "10-point solution has the Malaysian government introduced " the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription , God is referred is the term to by referred the term to by referred , new text this discouraged for is " a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal " Algorithms is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal " Algorithms is of The journal is MDPI by published is MDPI by published and MDPI by published and was the South Caucasus region It a part of is its independence of Azerbaijan The modern Republic proclaimed , the Nagorno-Karabakh region of the ethnic Armenian majority formed self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh of the Nagorno-Karabakh region the ethnic Armenian majority formed six independent Turkic states It one of is 182 countries Azerbaijan diplomatic relations with has the founding members It one of is a developing country Azerbaijan is and ranks economic development It a high rate of has a modern etymology , the term "Azerbaijan " derives that " the term "Azerbaijan from derives this name of The original etymology is thought ) , a mention there is , a mention there is of "âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide there a mention of is The Greek name was Diodorus Siculus by mentioned was Diodorus Siculus by mentioned and Diodorus Siculus by mentioned and Strabo the 9th century Early settlements the Scythians during included Following the Scythians , Iranian Medes came the Scythians , Iranian Medes came to the area Iranian Medes to dominate came 900 and 700 BC The Medes a vast empire between forged a vassal state The Sasanian Empire Caucasian Albania into turned Despite Sassanid rule , Albania remained Sassanid rule , an entity Albania remained , an entity Albania remained in the region Albania an entity in remained both the Sasanians The Umayyad Caliphate repulsed and Byzantines of the Abbasid Caliphate was by filled the Abbasid Caliphate was numerous local dynasties by filled was numerous local dynasties by filled such

numerous local dynasties by filled such as was gradually the waves by seized gradually the waves by seized of Oghuz Turks by the waves of seized the subsequent Seljuk Empire of the possessions were ruled of the subsequent Seljuk Empire were by ruled the subsequent Seljuk Empire were Eldiguzids by ruled were Eldiguzids by ruled , Eldiguzids by ruled , technically vassals a vassal state of the Shirvanshahs The local dynasty became Following Timur's death , two independent and rival states emerged Timur's death , two independent and rival states emerged : , Iran of the Safavid dynasty subdued the Shirvanshahs of Iran the Safavid dynasty subdued of the next century , the Safavids converted the next century , the formerly Sunni population the Safavids converted , the formerly Sunni population the Safavids converted to Shia Islam the Safavids the formerly Sunni population to converted the early 17th century , they were ousted were briefly the Russians by occupied briefly the Russians by occupied as a consequence by the Russians as occupied the Safavids , the area was ruled the area was the Iranian Afsharid dynasty by ruled , the successive rule the area under was the successive rule the area under was of From the late 18th century , Imperial Russia switched the late 18th century , Imperial Russia switched to , a more aggressive geo-political stance Imperial Russia to switched a more aggressive geo-political stance Imperial Russia to switched towards In 1804 , the Russians invaded 1804 , the Russians invaded and the Iranian town the Russians and sacked invaded the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan lies territory , was , Iranian territory Russia until was Iranian territory Russia until was occupied of the Gulistan treaty , the Russians invaded the Gulistan treaty , Iran's Erivan Khanate the Russians invaded hostilities This the final bout of sparked Qajar Iran , The resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay forced to It was the March Days massacres by followed was the March Days massacres by that followed the March Days massacres by that followed took in May 1918 , the leading Musavat party declared

May 1918 , independence the leading Musavat party declared , independence the leading Musavat party declared as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic the leading Musavat party independence as declared the Muslim world The ADR the first modern parliamentary republic in was By March 1920 , it was March 1920 , it was obvious Independent Azerbaijan only 23 months the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army until lasted only 23 months the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army until lasted invaded their brief independence did not Azerbaijanis surrender , and an agreement Georgia signed and an agreement Georgia signed with Turkey Georgia an agreement with signed the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic would also The previously independent Republic of Aras become During World War II , Azerbaijan played World War II , a crucial role Azerbaijan played , a crucial role Azerbaijan played in the strategic energy policy Azerbaijan a crucial role in played Operation Edelweiss the German Wehrmacht out by carried the German Wehrmacht out by carried targeted all Azerbaijanis of A fifth fought in Azerbaijan from Some 250,000 people were killed Heroes were More than 130 Azerbaijanis named of in 1990 , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped 1990 , the words the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped , the words the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped " the words the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped " Soviet Socialist on 18 October 1991 , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted 18 October 1991 , a Declaration the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted , a Declaration the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted of Independence the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan a Declaration of adopted Independence a Declaration of which adopted independence of The early years were overshadowed of independence were by overshadowed independence were the First Nagorno-Karabakh war by overshadowed were the First Nagorno-Karabakh war by overshadowed with the ethnic Armenian majority by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with overshadowed in 1994 , Armenians controlled 1994 , Armenians controlled up , to 14–16 percent Armenians up controlled to 14–16 percent Armenians up controlled of During the war many atrocities were committed

the war many atrocities were committed including the massacres were many atrocities including committed 1993 , democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was a military insurrection by overthrown was a military insurrection by overthrown led a military insurrection by by led overthrown 1995 , another coup was attempted Aliyev was another coup against attempted the same time , the country was tainted the country was rampant corruption by tainted was rampant corruption by tainted in the governing bureaucracy by rampant corruption in tainted October 1998 , Aliyev was reelected a second term was Aliyev for reelected a third term was He to reelected In April 2018 , President Ilham Aliyev secured April 2018 , his fourth consecutive term President Ilham Aliyev secured , his fourth consecutive term President Ilham Aliyev secured in the election President Ilham Aliyev his fourth consecutive term in secured the election his fourth consecutive term in that secured , the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict in new clashes resumed the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict in new clashes resumed along the South Caucasus region is Azerbaijan in located latitudes It between lies 38 Azerbaijan's land borders of The total length is , which , of 1,007 kilometers is the Caspian Sea Three physical features Azerbaijan : dominate three mountain ranges There also are , three mountain ranges also the Greater , are Mount Bazardüzü of Azerbaijan The highest peak is the 8,350 rivers of Only 24 are greater the Caspian Sea All the rivers into drain in , and Kur the longest river is and Kur the longest river is ( Kur the longest river is ( 1,515 km 1991 , the Azerbaijani government has taken , measures has the Azerbaijani government taken measures has the Azerbaijani government taken to the environment of National protection accelerated after 2001 after the state budget when accelerated Within four years , protected areas doubled four years , protected areas doubled and a wide variety Azerbaijan home to is Azerbaijan's terrain of The rest consists of Azerbaijan is by particularly influenced is cold arctic air masses particularly by influenced

cold arctic air masses particularly by influenced of Azerbaijan's diverse landscape the ways air masses affects enter the country the ways air masses enter affects direct influences The Greater Caucasus the country from protects the formation That to leads of 11 existing climate zones out of 9 are Azerbaijan , they were formed a long geological timeframe were they over formed is particularly remnants by evidenced particularly remnants by evidenced of ancient rivers by remnants of evidenced of water supply , Azerbaijan is water supply , Azerbaijan is below , the average Azerbaijan below is the average Azerbaijan below is in Kur are All big water reservoirs on built the major rivers and Aras The Kura are " , a natural gas fire which is , a natural gas fire which is blazes a natural gas fire which is blazes continuously the air Flames out into jet mammals There 106 species of are the Karabakh horse of Azerbaijan The national animal is its good temper The Karabakh horse a reputation for has more than 4,500 species Azerbaijan's flora of consists of in Azerbaijan , the flora is Azerbaijan , the flora is much whole Caucasus can be found four ecoregions The country within lies : Azerbaijan's political system of The structural formation was completed of Azerbaijan's political system was by completed Azerbaijan's political system was the adoption by completed was the adoption by completed of the new Constitution by the adoption of completed , the Azerbaijan Republic of the state symbols are the flag of the Azerbaijan Republic the state symbols are Azerbaijan of The Constitution states that of Azerbaijan it that states Azerbaijan it that states is a presidential republic that it is states The legislative power is the unicameral National Assembly by held is the unicameral National Assembly by held and the unicameral National Assembly by held and the Supreme National Assembly Milli Majlis , The Parliament of Azerbaijan called , The executive power is the President by held is the President by held , the President by who , held the prime minister The Cabinet of Azerbaijan primarily of consists

the right does not The president have the presidential veto , the parliament must have , a majority must the parliament have a majority must the parliament have of the Constitutional Court is The judicial power in vested these courts The president the judges in nominates the government the Executive Power by headed is President the Executive Power headed by is the Cabinet of Ministers The President appoints and other high-ranking officials a continuation The Local Executive Authority merely is of local state administration The Provision the legal status of determines In June 2012 , the President approved June 2012 , the new Regulation the President approved , the new Regulation the President approved , the President the new Regulation which , approved the new Regulation which , approved granted municipalities of governance The other nominal tier is Currently , 1,607 municipalities there are , 1,607 municipalities there are across the country there 1,607 municipalities across are municipal employees The Law on Municipal Service the activities of regulates the president The Security Council the deliberative body under is 10 April 1997 was It on established of democracy , it remains democracy , it remains classified September 2015 the European Parliament in by described , Azerbaijan of the President signed a decree of Azerbaijan the President signed a positive step was This decree as welcomed at home , a practice termed home , Caviar diplomacy a practice termed that report in ESISC asserted that ) , a part ESISC is , a part ESISC is of Baku's lobbying efforts ESISC a part of is diplomatic relations The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in establishing succeeded Azerbaijan to recognize The most recent country was 158 countries Azerbaijan diplomatic relations with has the Non-Aligned Movement It observer status in holds membership was 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan to elected office of The term began on international coalitions Azerbaijan an active member of is the first countries Azerbaijan one of was peacekeeping efforts is The country to contributing NATO's Partnership for Peace Azerbaijan an active member of is 1 July 2021 the US Congress , On advanced

the modern Azerbaijan army of The history dates back the Soviet Union , the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created of 2021 , Azerbaijan had 2021 , 126,000 active personnel Azerbaijan had , 126,000 active personnel Azerbaijan had in its armed forces Azerbaijan 126,000 active personnel in had 17,000 paramilitary troops There also are and three branches The armed forces have : the Land Forces Additionally - the armed forces several military sub embrace groups the armed forces several military sub - embrace groups several military sub - that embrace the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs These are and the State Border Service NATO closely Azerbaijan with cooperates ) of which 12 are of which 12 are under which the direct authority 12 under are the direct authority 12 under are of Moreover , the Autonomous Republic Azerbaijan includes , the Autonomous Republic Azerbaijan includes ( the Autonomous Republic Azerbaijan includes ( " in 1991 , Azerbaijan became 1991 , a member Azerbaijan became , a member Azerbaijan became of the International Monetary Fund Azerbaijan a member of became Azerbaijan of The banking system consists of 1992 was (now Central) Bank in created Azerbaijan's central bank The Central Bank as serves , demand growth , 16.6% the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached the early 2000s , chronically high inflation was brought control was chronically high inflation under brought 57th is also Azerbaijan ranked World Bank's Doing Business report 2019 , Azerbaijan improved 2019 , its position Azerbaijan improved , its position Azerbaijan improved in the Ease Azerbaijan its position in improved Azerbaijan There many pipelines in are the Lesser Caucasus of The region accounts for September 1994 , a 30-year contract was signed the State Oil Company was a 30-year contract between signed the Soviet exploitation , Azerbaijan is considered , one is Azerbaijan considered one is Azerbaijan considered of In 2016 , Azerbaijan had 2016 , 0.8 global hectares Azerbaijan had , 0.8 global hectares Azerbaijan had of biocapacity Azerbaijan 0.8 global hectares of had In 2016 2.1 global hectares Azerbaijan used 2016 2.1 global hectares Azerbaijan used of

biocapacity Azerbaijan 2.1 global hectares of used This more biocapacity they use means more biocapacity they use means than the sponsors Azerbaijan one of is the Caspian region will Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway line connect with the region Azerbaijan the largest agricultural basin in has agricultural land of Azerbaijan About 54.9 percent is At the beginning of 2007 4,755,100 hectares there were the beginning of 2007 4,755,100 hectares there were of utilized agricultural area there 4,755,100 hectares of were In the same year 136 million m3 the total wood resources counted meadows are Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes on focused In some areas it is profitable some areas it is profitable to the dwindling stocks The Caspian fishing industry on concentrates of the economy Tourism an important part of is the 1980s The country a well-known tourist spot in was the 2000s It not until was a popular destination has also Azerbaijan become Azerbaijan of The government has set a national strategy It is to make a national strategy tourism to make is an important economic hub Azerbaijan also is in In 2002 , the Azerbaijani government established 2002 , the Ministry of Transport the Azerbaijani government established , the Ministry of Transport the Azerbaijani government established with a broad range the Azerbaijani government the Ministry of Transport with established In the same year , the country became the same year , a member the country became , a member the country became of a member the country became of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway of The 2012 construction was meant In the 21st century , a new oil and gas boom helped the 21st century , a new oil and gas boom helped improve , the situation a new oil and gas boom improve helped the situation a new oil and gas boom improve helped in a campaign The government launched aimed at 2007–2008 ; rapid growth is forecast at least five more years is rapid growth for forecast local calls Public payphones available for are indefinite duration Tokens a call of allow , 1,397,000 main telephone lines there were and

1,397,000 main telephone lines there were and 1,485,000 internet users its first satellite The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched AzerSat 1 into Europe The satellite covers and a significant part the total population of 50.1% is female 0.85% The 2011 population growth-rate was , compared a high level restricting population growth A significant factor is In total , Azerbaijan has total , 78 cities Azerbaijan has , 78 cities Azerbaijan has , 78 cities Azerbaijan has , 63 city districts The official language Azerbaijani which , is Azerbaijani which , is is Azerbaijani is approximately 92% by spoken is approximately 92% by spoken of the population by approximately 92% of spoken a dozen other minority languages There are spoken natively are all small minorities by spoken these language communities of Some are very Nagorno-Karabakh Armenian the majority language in was Muslims of the population Around 97% are Sunni ; the second-highest proportion the Republic of Azerbaijan has ; the second-highest proportion the Republic of Azerbaijan has of Shia Muslims the Republic of Azerbaijan the second-highest proportion of has Other faiths are the country's various ethnic groups by practised of its Constitution , Azerbaijan is its Constitution , a secular state Azerbaijan is , a secular state Azerbaijan is and a secular state Azerbaijan is and ensures In 2003 , there were 2003 , 250 Roman Catholics there were 2002 as of Other Christian denominations include with a 2,000-year history ; Jewish organizations estimate a 2,000-year history ; Jewish organizations estimate that home also Azerbaijan is to Azerbaijanis of A relatively high percentage have obtained the reestablishment have Initial alterations included of to elementary schools , the education institutions include elementary schools , thousands the education institutions include , thousands the education institutions include of preschools the education institutions thousands of include of many influences ; that 's many influences ; that 's why the traditional celebration is The latter from derived Azerbaijan's population of The profile consists , the Chokha Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are and Papakhi Russian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgian and Talysh languages There radio broadcasts in are In Baku several newspapers are published

Baku several newspapers are published in Russian are several newspapers in published Azerbaijan of Music builds on Azerbaijan folk traditions on that builds folk traditions on that builds reach For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge has Azerbaijani music under evolved a branchy mode system Azerbaijani music has , where a branchy mode system chromatization , where has Among national musical instruments 14 string instruments there are national musical instruments 14 string instruments there are , 14 string instruments there are , eight percussion instruments a suite Mugham usually is with performing mugham , the singers have mugham , the singers have to their emotions the singers to transform have UNESCO a Masterpiece the Azerbaijani mugham tradition proclaimed a Masterpiece the Azerbaijani mugham tradition proclaimed of storytelling, dance, and vocal and instrumental music Ashiq poetry , combines a mystic troubadour It is or traveling the Shamanistic beliefs This tradition its origin in has the international popularity Azerbaijani pop and Azerbaijani folk music with arose of the Eurovision Song Contest Azerbaijan an enthusiastic participant in is the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest Azerbaijan its debut appearance at made 2009 The country's entry third place in gained the first place and Nikki Ell won Azerbaijani folk dances There dozens of are formal celebrations are They at performed formal celebrations at the dancers and performed Izzeddin Hasanoglu in Azerbaijani literature The earliest known figure was Azerbaijani literature Izzeddin Hasanoglu who , was Izzeddin Hasanoglu who , was composed Azerbaijani in Classical literature was formed the poets of this period Gazi Burhanaddin were of this period Gazi Burhanaddin were , this period Gazi Burhanaddin were , Haqiqi the period The end of the 14th century also was of two manuscripts " Book of Dede Korkut of consists 12 stories It a collection of is The 16th-century poet , his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals Muhammed Fuzuli produced , his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals Muhammed Fuzuli produced " his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals Muhammed Fuzuli produced " in his predecessors , Fuzuli was destined The Divan of Ghazals His major works " include "

the same century , Azerbaijani literature further flourished the development further Azerbaijani literature with flourished Shah Ismail about 1400 verses I wrote in Azerbaijani I about 1400 verses in wrote were prominent poets up by taken prominent poets up by taken and , the Epic of Koroglu also Azerbaijanis celebrate the Epic of Koroglu also Azerbaijanis celebrate ( Azerbaijan in Modern Azerbaijani literature is based the mid-19th century , it was taught the schools was it in taught Azerbaijanis a rich and distinctive culture a major part , have a rich and distinctive culture a major part , have of This art form is a wide range by represented is a wide range by represented of handicrafts by a wide range of represented various sizes The Azerbaijani carpet a traditional handmade textile of is ancient times has Azerbaijan since been the Azerbaijani carpet of Scientific research is connected an abundance The traditional cuisine famous for is the national dishes in which , reflected Azerbaijan Saffron-rice plov the flagship food in is traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass often Azerbaijanis use as often traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass they as use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass they as use have elements typically Azerbaijani architecture combines of Persian architecture Azerbaijani architecture heavy influences from has Among other architectural treasures Quadrangular Castle are in other architectural treasures Mardakan Quadrangular Castle in are Mardakan Quadrangular Castle in are , the 19th and early 20th centuries , little monumental architecture was created diverse application for modern Azerbaijani architecture The task is some 1500 They of consist dislodged the centuries , Azerbaijani art has gone many stylistic changes has Azerbaijani art through gone is traditionally a warmth by characterized traditionally a warmth by characterized of colour by a warmth of characterized Caucasus Azerbaijani painting preeminence in enjoyed Azerbaijan in The film industry dates back In fact , Azerbaijan was fact , Azerbaijan was among , the first countries Azerbaijan among was the first countries Azerbaijan among was involved the Caspian on this bay town was producing like today , the oil industry attracted today , foreigners the oil industry attracted , foreigners the oil industry attracted eager

foreigners the oil industry attracted eager to the Soviet Union , the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held Baku was the first Baku International Film Festival East-West in held three state-owned television channels There are : AzTV Azerbaijan of The Constitution claims to , Azerbaijan in the media environment deteriorated Azerbaijan in the media environment deteriorated rapidly " the country’s lack Racial discrimination to contributes the country’s lack Racial discrimination to contributes of the last few years , three journalists were killed journalists Azerbaijan the biggest number of had the country on Amnesty's 2015/16 annual report stated ' the country persecution ' ... stated conscience of At least 18 prisoners remained in this money of Some went to Azerbaijan Football the most popular sport in is relatively low performance of Azerbaijan The national football team demonstrates Neftchi Baku The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are , Qarabağ In 2012 , Neftchi Baku became 2012 , the first Azerbaijani team Neftchi Baku became , the first Azerbaijani team Neftchi Baku became to the first Azerbaijani team Neftchi Baku became to advance In 2014 , Qarabağ became 2014 , the second Azerbaijani club Qarabağ became , the second Azerbaijani club Qarabağ became advancing the second Azerbaijani club Qarabağ became advancing to of the UEFA Champions League , Qarabağ became the UEFA Champions League , the first Azerbaijani club Qarabağ became , the first Azerbaijani club Qarabağ became to the first Azerbaijani club Qarabağ became to reach Azerbaijan Futsal another popular sport in is the 2010 UEFA Futsal Championship The Azerbaijan national futsal team fourth place in reached the traditional powerhouses Azerbaijan one of is a major role also Backgammon plays in the strongest women Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League one of is the 2005 European Championship Its women's national team fourth at came a Formula One race-track Azerbaijan has , made the late 2000s Azerbaijan several major sport competitions since hosted 8 December 2012 , Baku was selected Amateur astronomy a hobby participants where is a hobby participants where is enjoy the field do not Amateur astronomers use hobbyists Most amateurs are , while

hobbyists others , while are the sky typically Amateur astronomers view at the sky just Some at look amateur astronomical societies as members of join Collectively , a variety amateur astronomers observe , a variety amateur astronomers observe of celestial objects amateur astronomers a variety of observe the Sun of amateur astronomers Common targets include visible wavelengths Most amateur astronomers at work , Grote Reber of radio astronomy An early pioneer was Grote Reber who , an amateur astronomer was infrared filters Non-visual amateur astronomy the use of includes home-made radio telescopes Some amateur astronomers use , while home-made radio telescopes others , while use instruments Amateur astronomers a range of use Amateur astronomers also star charts that use also star charts that use , star charts that use , depending details logs typically Observing record typically details which objects about record details which objects about record were of a star chart , many others are a star chart , many others are so a method Star hopping is often used a method by often used is maps It the use of involves the inbuilt hardware These apps use of make Setting circles angular measurement scales that are can angular measurement scales that are can be , the setting circle can the telescope user use the setting circle can the telescope user use to a "digital setting circle is A computerized setting circle called " display a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates , they are a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates , they are not a digital read-out they not simply are the electronic database is the object from chosen the electronic database from which , chosen zero until the two angular distance values reach moved the eyepiece should the object in be computing coordinate precession Computerized systems the further advantage of provide Traditional printed sources are the "epoch" year by subtitled are the "epoch" year by subtitled , the "epoch" year by which , subtitled these computer-driven telescopes , the user typically enters , the name typically the user enters the name typically the user enters of amateur astronomers They several notable advantages for have

For example , GOTO telescopes tend example , GOTO telescopes tend to equatorial tracking manufacturers to add allows in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now and a viable means CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy now is a viable means CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy now is for a telescope anyone to control enables the telescope can The observer through image the telescope by is then transmitted many imaging techniques Amateur astronomers in engage including not the "main" goal Scientific research most often is scientific merit of Work is possible amateur astronomers where large numbers of applies activities often Amateur astronomers toward contribute professional setups , amateur astronomers can measure , the light spectrum can amateur astronomers measure the light spectrum can amateur astronomers measure emitted , a major role have amateur astronomers played a major role have amateur astronomers played in amateur astronomical societies There a large number of are active observers Members from range with their goals Societies widely in range their own journal generally Major national or international societies publish or , ) a modern Japanese martial art that is ) a modern Japanese martial art that is is a modern Japanese martial art that is is split was originally Morihei Ueshiba by developed originally Morihei Ueshiba by developed , Morihei Ueshiba by developed , as an art Ueshiba's goal to create was various techniques Its curriculum comprises , primarily throws the martial art Aikido mainly from derives aikido Ueshiba's senior students different approaches to have was 1883–1969 by ( created 1883–1969 by ( created ) which Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu , Ueshiba is the primary technical influence of The art is on with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques , Ueshiba incorporated empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques , training movements Ueshiba incorporated , training movements Ueshiba incorporated with weapons Ueshiba training movements with incorporated ; Daitō-ryū with His official association continued Daitō-ryū with His official association continued until At that time Ueshiba referred to that time his martial art Ueshiba to referred his martial art Ueshiba to referred as

in 1919 , he met 1919 , he met and Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy This idea a great influence on was its emphasis Aikido this philosophy in demonstrates , Deguchi with the connection gave Ueshiba entry with Deguchi the connection gave of this exposure , he was this exposure , he was able He was Tadashi Abe by followed was Tadashi Abe by followed in 1952 by Tadashi Abe in followed a delegation Kenji Tomiki with toured of Koichi Tohei was Aikikai Hombu by sent was Aikikai Hombu by sent to Hawaii by Aikikai Hombu to sent This trip was several subsequent visits by followed was several subsequent visits by followed and several subsequent visits by followed and is 1955 The United Kingdom in followed ; by Morihei Ueshiba , Masamichi Noro arrived Morihei Ueshiba , Masamichi Noro arrived in , France Masamichi Noro in arrived France Masamichi Noro in arrived in The largest aikido organization the Aikikai Foundation which , is the Aikikai Foundation which , is remains Yoseikan Aikido to emerge The earliest independent styles were Yoseikan Aikido by , begun were not any major upheavals they when cause any major upheavals they when cause were in 1969 , two more major styles emerged the departure Significant controversy with arose of a result Tohei as left of the proper role The disagreement over was of Saito of followers subsequently split an important component of The study is of aikido of in Ueshiba's application took Takemusu Aiki was This concept as known in virtually all Japanese martial arts , there are virtually all Japanese martial arts , there are both , physical and mental aspects there both are physical and mental aspects there both are of aikido in The physical training is diverse of throws , beginners learn throws , beginners learn how ; defense for the techniques consist defense for the techniques consist of movements or extending pushing are coordinated whole-body movement Aikido-related training the use of emphasizes aikido principles are Both studying of the technique Good attention to involves The a sample following are of the basic or widely practiced throws following a sample of are

these techniques of Many derive from styles ; the terms the following are ; the terms the following are used the following the terms by used are the Aikikai Foundation the terms used by are body movement Aikido use of makes their side ; a technique is applied motion is a technique with applied From these few basic techniques , there are these few basic techniques , there are numerous possible implementations there numerous of are For instance , Gozo Shioda described instance , Gozo Shioda described using a brawl Gozo Shioda using in described aikido in Weapons training traditionally includes firearm-disarming techniques Some schools incorporate , where the empty-handed techniques The founder many of developed aikido of One feature is training multiple attackers with Freestyle practice called is during training , it is training , the responsibility it is , the responsibility it is of the responsibility it is of to in the martial arts the type that showed the martial arts the type that showed of injuries that the type of showed the most common types Soft tissue injuries one of are belts Some aikido organizations use to distinguish so one organization in a particular rank is one organization in a particular rank is not wide pleated black or indigo trousers Most aikido systems a pair of add their intention Aikido styles in vary as counteract this , some styles allow this , some styles students allow the issue Shodokan Aikido addresses by practicing There no generally agreed definition what of is no generally agreed definition what of is constitutes visual art of The three classical branches are painting the 17th century , "art " referred any skill " "art to referred "artistic works that the typical concept of feel the older Latin meaning to which , related this meaning derived from English words include questions in Plato Several dialogues tackle this He approvingly of speaks "Ion " , Socrates gives " , no hint Socrates gives , no hint Socrates gives of the disapproval Socrates no hint of gives the musical arts , epic poetry Aristotle considered , epic poetry Aristotle considered ,

epic poetry Aristotle considered , tragedy For example , music imitates example , music imitates with , the media music with imitates the media music with imitates of their object also The forms in differ , their manner the forms in differ their manner the forms in differ of disciplines a collection of which are Art something that is stimulates an individual's thoughts something that stimulates is a common or practical way , people will consider commercial art may be it considered fine art that the difference between argued , goals often even fine art has goals often even fine art has beyond art has been by described has been philosopher Richard Wollheim by described been philosopher Richard Wollheim by described as philosopher Richard Wollheim by described as " deep roots as mimesis Art has a use Leo Tolstoy art as identified the idealist view and R. G. Collingwood Benedetto Croce advanced R. G. Collingwood the idealist view art that advanced the idealist view art that advanced expresses influenced Martin Heidegger by have interpreted art Martin Heidegger have by interpreted an institutional theory has George Dickie offered of art an institutional theory of that offered fine art has Larry Shiner described as cut marks of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons A set bear cut marks that and abrasion bear a foundation in art Many great traditions have their art works of more have survived their art works have more and survived their influence and more of survived the first records also have Some provided the first records artists of how provided of the Western Middle Ages , much art focused the Western Middle Ages , much art focused on , the expression much art on focused the expression much art on focused of , iconography of Islamic art's rejection led iconography of Islamic art's rejection led to east , artistic styles religion dominated , artistic styles religion dominated and artistic styles religion dominated and forms emphasis and Tibet India saw many art forms China the flourishing of saw era Chinese styles greatly from vary for example , Tang dynasty paintings are

example , Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic imperial dynasties Japan its styles after names Romantic rejections This to led of a narrative of 20th-century art The history is an equivalent influence during this time Increasing global interaction saw influenced Western Renaissance draftsmanship by ) had an immense influence Western Renaissance draftsmanship ) by had were Picasso up by taken Picasso up by taken and 1970 Theodor W. Adorno in said , an unavoidable truth was Relativism as accepted an unavoidable truth as which , accepted art of Works are not the Silk Road of this An example is the Silk Road Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences , where is the most vivid examples Greco Buddhist art one of is the elements " Art form to refers It the methods by adopted covers the artist the methods adopted by covers In general three schools there are general three schools there are of philosophy there three schools of are Extreme Formalism the view all aesthetic properties that is the view all aesthetic properties that is of this view almost universally Philosophers reject Unfortunately , little consensus there is , little consensus there is on terminology there little consensus on is Extreme Intentionalism a decisive role that authorial intent plays holds a decisive role that authorial intent plays holds in It the subject the persons as defines the subject the persons as defines or by the title , the subject is the title , Napoleon the subject is , Napoleon the subject is , Napoleon the subject is , and Napoleon the content , and is the artist's techniques often The cultural context to reduces in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate other cases historical and material conditions may predominate , a sense can Art connote of some modern art of A common contemporary criticism occurs along conceptual art , Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain " is the first examples " Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain among is the conceptual design Hirst up with came a great number has Art had of Art that the purpose of imply those of art The non-motivated purposes are

of art those that are art those that are are those that are are integral the finest art of much has represented , many periods have there been many periods have there been where have many periods art where been many periods art where been of moulds such as Reproductive methods made the 15th century Another important innovation in came in its collection is an impressively wide historic span by distinguished is an impressively wide historic span by distinguished , an impressively wide historic span by distinguished , from it of emphasis Its various areas give Italy the Grand Tour of the art tourism became a major industry of the Grand Tour the art tourism became Florence in The Uffizi opened entirely the United States in Museums tend to example , was by created , was John Taylor Johnston by created was John Taylor Johnston by created , John Taylor Johnston by created , a railroad executive attempts have There been by art to create that was than mere objects " the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys said such things This time period the rise of saw the heading broadly Artists under identified works of these performances Many create of these performances works that create these performances works that create are works that create are only status of The marker becomes understanding art Iconoclasm the destruction of is art the destruction of that is either all figurative images Aniconism a general dislike of is a crucial factor has It been in art of The iconographic content could cause of art , the artists' vision became art , the usual determinant the artists' vision became , the usual determinant the artists' vision became of the content the artists' vision the usual determinant of became what the appropriate balance is have shifted After Greenberg , several important art theorists emerged Greenberg , several important art theorists emerged , Andy Warhol like Pop artists became both any activity that art is proposed There evidence there that is evidence there that is may In ' , Larry Shiner examines ' , the construction Larry Shiner examines

, the construction Larry Shiner examines of the modern system Larry Shiner the construction of examines the term art did not Ancient Greek society possess , general aesthetic theory to a significant shift took place to general aesthetic theory a significant shift took to general aesthetic theory place which took general aesthetic theory place which took attempted place which took attempted to the rise This in resulted of a classic and controversial New Critical essay and Monroe Beardsley William K. Wimsatt published later be theorists by repudiated be theorists by repudiated from the reader-response school by theorists from repudiated was himself New Critics by trained the intentionalists and Livingston Gaut define " criticism of The task is the reconstruction of criticism The task is an extensive debate The end of the 20th century fostered known as 1981 , the artist Mark Tansey created , a work Mark Tansey the artist created a work Mark Tansey the artist created of Judith Butler Influential theorists include , Luce Irigaray historical discourse was Hayden White by explored thought had been by stressed had been a very different form by stressed been a very different form by stressed of philosophy by a very different form of stressed the basis was He on challenged the 20th century in Classificatory disputes have included the definition that disagreement about argued to Novitz , classificatory disputes are Novitz , more often disputes classificatory disputes are , more often disputes classificatory disputes are about societal values classificatory disputes more often disputes about are a definition are not they advancing 1998 , Arthur Danto , suggested , a thought experiment , Arthur Danto suggested a thought experiment , Arthur Danto suggested showing of art ; it is art ; term it is ; term it is associated term it is associated with the word It this use of is value judgments of Making requires "art " it whether is the pursuit need not an artist's prime motivation be , terrible images often art depicts terrible images often art depicts made at the same time , the horrific imagery demonstrates the same time , Goya's keen artistic ability the horrific imagery demonstrates

, Goya's keen artistic ability the horrific imagery demonstrates in composition the horrific imagery Goya's keen artistic ability in demonstrates their own ways have Countless schools proposed to aesthetic or moral feelings can It arouse , something Artists express so that something their audience so that express of the human condition ; that is the human condition ; that is , ; what that , is that what , it is what , it is is Internationally extensive efforts there also are extensive efforts there also are to the economic basis should also This secure “ part Cultural goods are of the identity Cultural goods part of are their culture , you also destroy , their identity also you destroy arthropod Agnostida an order of is arthropod an order of which is the Lower Cambrian fossil record They present in are two suborders are The Agnostida into divided As a group , agnostids are a group , agnostids are isopygous Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains within the class Trilobita remains uncertain the class Trilobita remains uncertain , the status to The challenge has focused agnostids of the limbs closely resemble a pelagic whether the agnostids lived debated swimming , and their fossils found and association their fossils in found association their fossils in found with the fossil record in Their wide geographic dispersion is uncharacteristic a hinge The thoracic segment to form appears the thoracic appendages of The orientation appears ill a pregnancy Abortion the termination of is a pregnancy , it is called , an induced abortion is it called an induced abortion is it called , done , one abortion is , one abortion is of the safest procedures abortion one of is medication Modern methods use or surgery the cervix The most common surgical technique dilating involves and abortions induced do not increase Countries abortions permit that have different limits permit abortions that have In some areas , abortion is some areas , abortion is legal the moral, ethical, and legal issues There debate over is abortion oppose who often argue abortion often an embryo that argue

abortion often it that argue part that it is argue abortions of 1 to 2% are done conceptions of Only 30% to 50% progress past known pregnancies of Between 15% and 30% end in vascular disease Other causes include ( such Medical abortions those by induced are abortifacient pharmaceuticals those induced by are combination The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens mifepristone in use Mifepristone work –misoprostol combination regimens faster work –misoprostol combination regimens faster and the second trimester This regimen effective in is a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen using medical abortion is considered mifepristone using Early medical abortion regimens , followed mifepristone , by 24–48 hours later followed , buccal or vaginal misoprostol 24–48 hours later by followed buccal or vaginal misoprostol 24–48 hours later by followed are A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review women that providing concluded women that providing concluded with self-administer abortion medication women to permitting has induced abortion Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration the most common surgical methods of are very early pregnancy in cervical dilation when used a standard gynecological procedure D&C is performed for be hysterotomy surgically by performed hysterotomy surgically by performed or a procedure Hysterotomy abortion is similar to a caesarean section It a smaller incision than requires removal Gravid hysterectomy to refers of labor by first inducing induced "induced miscarriage is sometimes This called this method Only limited data available comparing are may be the occurrence by complicated be the occurrence by complicated of brief fetal survival by the occurrence of complicated In Southeast Asia , there is Southeast Asia , an ancient tradition there is , an ancient tradition there is of an ancient tradition there is of attempting misuse of unsafe, self-induced abortion Reported methods include abortion of The health risks depend principally the developed world performed in Legal abortions are 2012 , abortion was estimated 2019 CDC in estimated that 2019 in US pregnancy-related mortality that estimated to 2009 , abortion had 2009 , a mortality rate abortion had , a mortality rate abortion had lower a mortality rate abortion had lower than terms There little difference in is

the safest method in the first trimester Vacuum aspiration is one-third Infections for account of those second-trimester abortion similar to are to the U.S. , historian Linda Gordon states the U.S. , historian Linda Gordon states : most induced abortions Current evidence no relationship between finds the American Psychological Association by A report concluded that by the American Psychological Association a woman's first abortion that concluded the American Psychological Association a woman's first abortion that concluded is US women among A long term-study found that among US women about 99% that found US women about 99% that found of women that about 99% of found Relief the primary emotion few women with was the primary emotion few women with was feeling an abortion seeking Women may use self-induced abortion may They attempt or injury Unsafe abortions a major cause of are deaths of Estimates vary according , abortion of opponents point abortion of opponents point out higher rates with restrictive abortion laws Countries have the United States A 2011 study that in concluded unsafe abortion that the incidence of estimated the world's women of Forty percent are able from safe abortions , unsafe abortions result safe abortions , unsafe abortions result in , 70,000 deaths unsafe abortions in result 70,000 deaths unsafe abortions in result and Secondary infertility caused an unsafe abortion by affects caused an estimated 24 million women an unsafe abortion by affects unsafe abortions of The rate has increased , abortion of medical reporting is abortion of medical reporting is not 28 worldwide The abortion rate was per , abortion of the incidence is abortion of the incidence is similar increases are restrictive abortion laws with associated legal of The rate , induced employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from Guttmacher Institute 7 it from ranged 7 it from ranged per 2002 in An American study concluded that in 2002 about half that concluded 2002 about half that concluded of women that about half of concluded reported legal induced abortions that 26% of reported these of 91% were classified during 2000 ; this accounts

2000 ; this accounts for ; <0.2% this for accounts <0.2% this for accounts of , terminations of 89% occurred terminations of 89% occurred at those of 64% reported were why abortions have women are abortions have women are diverse the reasons of Some may include the result are Some abortions as undergone the preference might These include for the life that the state's interest in ruled the life can not the state favor privacy , physicians must be Roe , it also decided , Doe also it decided Doe also it decided v. health may All these factors to relate This the attending physician he the room allows the attending physician he the room allows needs America Public opinion in shifted following in the United States , she traveled the United States , she traveled to , Sweden she to traveled , German measles of an outbreak left 15,000 babies of German measles an outbreak left 1967 , the American Medical Association publicly supported , liberalization publicly the American Medical Association supported liberalization publicly the American Medical Association supported of may be radical hysterectomy by treated be radical hysterectomy by treated and radical hysterectomy by treated and pelvic lymph node dissection a single chemotherapy drug to Exposure is estimated Gy above 0.005–0.025 Exposures cause dissemination may Vaginal delivery in result performing abortions ; other scholars disagree abortions ; other scholars disagree with ; this interpretation other scholars with disagree this interpretation other scholars with disagree , The physician 43 CE Scribonius Largus in wrote 43 CE Scribonius Largus in wrote that 43 CE in the Hippocratic Oath that wrote which he belonged — was of its history the Catholic Church was divided its history the Catholic Church was divided on From 1750 , excommunication became 1750 , the punishment excommunication became , the punishment excommunication became for abortions excommunication the punishment for became abortion has traditionally Islamic tradition permitted their services they , and advertised to some sources , abortion was some sources , abortion was more abortions was a law permitting passed the source has long Induced abortion been

abortion surrounding Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues are related In both public and private debate , arguments presented both public and private debate , arguments presented in , favor arguments in presented favor arguments in presented of are often groups by spearheaded often groups by spearheaded advocating one by groups advocating spearheaded a human person that a human fetus is argues abortion pertaining to Current laws are abortion laws Religious, moral, and cultural factors to influence continue the age usually These requirements on depend the procedure Some jurisdictions a waiting period before require the consent that a woman obtain require emergency situations are Many restrictions in waived abortion Other jurisdictions ban almost entirely jurisdiction These circumstances based on vary Nicaragua , medical authorities have recorded , rises have medical authorities recorded rises have medical authorities recorded in may also clinics that support also clinics that support perform abortions clinics that perform support a terminology This also is in heavy social stigma , pregnant women may engage medical tourism may pregnant women in engage Waves Women on The organization has a shipping container The NGO a mobile medical clinic inside created in the Netherlands , Dutch law prevails the Netherlands , Dutch law prevails when sex parents to determine allow this technology of The development has led male children for The preference is reported the fact despite the country that occurs legislative steps have Many countries taken to Anti-abortion violence is both governmental and scholarly sources by classified is both governmental and scholarly sources by classified as terrorism by both governmental and scholarly sources as classified have been providers by recorded been providers by recorded since 1977 by providers since recorded some countries into abortion where brought In 2003 , Chris Danze organized 2003 , anti-abortion organizations Chris Danze organized , anti-abortion organizations Chris Danze organized throughout Texas Chris Danze anti-abortion organizations throughout organized the personal information The organizations released online , sheep it may be caused may be stress by caused be stress by caused or stress by caused or physical exertion may be contagious disease by caused

be contagious disease by caused , contagious disease by caused , such abortion can Viral infection cause in spontaneous abortion can Cats experience for be mares in that induced mares in that induced have horses can Feticide in occur all deeds also The abstract records , , abstracts through searching is a common way through abstracts searching is April 19, 1775 Fighting on began , The American Patriots were France by supported were France by supported and France by supported and Spain in the 17th and 18th centuries , the American colonies were the 17th and 18th centuries , the American colonies were largely in 1763 , tensions arose 1763 , tensions arose over , trade tensions over arose trade tensions over arose , on September 5, 1774 , the First Continental Congress drafted September 5, 1774 , a Petition the First Continental Congress drafted , a Petition the First Continental Congress drafted to the King the First Continental Congress a Petition to drafted achieve a peaceful solution , fighting began a peaceful solution , fighting began with , the Battle of Lexington fighting with began the Battle of Lexington fighting with began on Parliament , both sides increasingly viewed , conflict increasingly both sides viewed conflict increasingly both sides viewed as November He New York City in captured In summer 1777 , Howe succeeded summer 1777 , Howe succeeded in Philadelphia Howe in taking succeeded in 1763 , France provided 1763 , the Patriots France provided , informal economic and military support France the Patriots provided informal economic and military support France the Patriots provided from After Saratoga , the two countries signed Saratoga , a commercial agreement the two countries signed , a commercial agreement the two countries signed and a commercial agreement the two countries signed and a Treaty of Alliance of independence , Congress joined independence , France Congress joined , France Congress joined in their global war Congress France in joined the 1778 "Southern Strategy This undermined " devised the 1778 "Southern Strategy by " devised undermined by September 1781 Cornwallis was besieged September 1781 Cornwallis was by besieged

Cornwallis was a Franco-American force by besieged was a Franco-American force by besieged in Yorktown by a Franco-American force in besieged the garrison failed , Cornwallis surrendered , October Cornwallis in surrendered October Cornwallis in surrendered , to the Pacific ; the Mississippi River became the Pacific ; the dividing line the Mississippi River became ; the dividing line the Mississippi River became between British and Spanish possessions the Mississippi River the dividing line between became , French or Spanish-speaking Catholics largely by inhabited French or Spanish-speaking Catholics largely by inhabited , 1763 of The Proclamation Line sought to were largely native-born property owners by governed London , colonial militia were funded the Royal Navy The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed to stop to 1763 , it had 1763 , a significant economic impact it had , a significant economic impact it had since it a significant economic impact 85% since had a significant economic impact 85% since had of These measures were the Sugar Act and Stamp Act by followed were the Sugar Act and Stamp Act by followed , the Sugar Act and Stamp Act by which , followed in 1768 , a riot started 1768 , a riot started in , Boston a riot in started Boston a riot in started when Boston in the authorities when started March 1770 Tensions further in escalated the partial repeal The Massacre with coincided of the destruction Tensions following escalated of support it , Parliament passed it , the Tea Act Parliament passed , the Tea Act Parliament passed , the Tea Act Parliament passed , giving the Dutch , the Act was opposed the Act was those by opposed was those by who opposed those by who opposed managed In December 1773 , a group called December 1773 , the Sons of Liberty a group called , disguised a group the Sons of Liberty called disguised a group the Sons of Liberty called as disguised the Sons of Liberty Mohawk as called the so-called Intolerable Acts Parliament by passing responded the colonial legislatures in the elected lower houses gradually wrested

, ad hoc provincial legislatures now these Assemblies established ad hoc provincial legislatures now these Assemblies established , of Georgia , twelve colonies sent Georgia , representatives twelve colonies sent , representatives twelve colonies sent to the First Continental Congress twelve colonies representatives to sent the delegates of Many feared that of the delegates an all-out boycott that feared the delegates an all-out boycott that feared would James Duane by and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway Congress insisted future Loyalist Joseph Galloway Parliament's right Congress recognize insisted Parliament's right Congress recognize insisted to enforce the boycott ; this succeeded the boycott ; this succeeded in British imports this in reducing succeeded , on February 9 Parliament declared on February 9 Parliament Massachusetts declared February 9 Parliament Massachusetts declared to tension in The increase led to Congress led John Dickinson by drafted led the Olive Branch Petition John Dickinson by drafted the Olive Branch Petition John Dickinson by drafted , as insincere ; he refused insincere ; he refused to the petition he to present refused oppose his own government , it disappointed his own government , those Americans it disappointed , it those Americans who disappointed it those Americans who disappointed hoped those Americans he who hoped disappointed the Whigs , Parliament initially rejected , the imposition initially Parliament rejected the imposition initially Parliament rejected of the end of 1774 British authority of the collapse meant the collapse of British authority both North meant of British authority both North meant and British authority both North meant and George III awaited reinforcements ; the recruitment the Irish Parliament approved ; the recruitment the Irish Parliament approved of new regiments the Irish Parliament the recruitment of approved a series also Britain signed of by Gage , it allowed Gage , it the Patriots allowed control the Patriots to take allowed draft the Declaration of Independence , Congress appointed the Declaration of Independence , the Committee of Five Congress appointed , the Committee of Five Congress appointed , the Committee of Five Congress appointed , consisting On July 2 , Congress voted

July 2 , Congress voted for , independence Congress for voted independence Congress for voted and At this point , the Revolution ceased this point , the Revolution ceased to an internal dispute the Revolution to be ceased independence generally Patriots supported from of the war , Congress realized the war , Congress realized defeating foreign alliances defeating Britain required realized From 1775 to 1776 , it shared 1775 to 1776 , information it shared , information it shared and information it shared and built in North America , there were North America , two principal campaign theaters there were , two principal campaign theaters there were within the thirteen states there two principal campaign theaters within were the states The full-on military campaigning in began north at Valley Forge , General Washington observed Valley Forge , General Washington British operations observed British initiatives then He off closed in 1779 , the British initiated 1779 , a southern strategy the British initiated , a southern strategy the British initiated to a southern strategy the British initiated to begin on intelligence , Gage planned intelligence , Gage planned to stores Gage to destroy planned commence The operation to was before which , Paul Revere However, Patriot intelligence had a brief skirmish of the war The first action was The next month generals William Howe 4,500 British reinforcements with arrived generals William Howe 4,500 British reinforcements with arrived , On June 17 , they seized June 17 , the Charlestown Peninsula they seized , the Charlestown Peninsula they seized at the Battle of Bunker Hill they the Charlestown Peninsula at seized June 14, 1775 , the Continental Congress officially assumed , command officially the Continental Congress assumed command officially the Continental Congress assumed of June 16 , John Hancock officially announced Virginia militia regiments had previously Washington commanded Boston He to proceeded to In early March 1776 , Colonel Henry Knox arrived early March 1776 , Colonel Henry Knox arrived with , heavy artillery Colonel Henry Knox with arrived heavy artillery Colonel Henry Knox with arrived captured the cover of darkness Washington placed

of darkness his artillery Washington placed darkness his artillery Washington placed atop Dorchester Heights Washington his artillery atop placed Bunker Hill , so he evacuated , so Boston he evacuated in August 1775 , American privateers began August 1775 , American privateers began raiding , villages American privateers raiding began villages American privateers raiding began in Canso and Jonathan Eddy John Paul Jones raided Quebec in British officials began negotiating the former French territory into The second American expedition was defeated British pursuit was American ships by blocked was American ships by blocked on Lake Champlain by American ships on blocked local public opinion The cumulative failures the Patriots support in cost In Virginia , Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted Virginia , Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted to the Assembly's militia Royal Governor Lord Dunmore to disarm attempted November 7, 1775 He a proclamation on issued the Battle of Great Bridge were Dunmore's troops at repulsed its militia The Third Virginia Convention to disband refused part Negotiations in failed because part in Randolph because failed Savage's Old Fields of The siege began on North Carolina were Loyalists in recruited Congress in Patriot gunpowder Shortages led On March 3, 1776 , the Americans landed March 3, 1776 , the Americans landed and The expedition what supplies they confiscated could what supplies they confiscated could and New York He for sailed in on July 30 ; Washington knew July 30 ; Washington knew that the city that an attack on knew August 12, 1776 , Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given , orders was Patriot Thomas Knowlton given orders was Patriot Thomas Knowlton given to Nathan Hale included which , became off Long Island he soon realized Long Island he soon realized that positions Washington his army into split at the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked the Battle of Long Island , Washington Howe outflanked , Washington Howe outflanked and Washington Howe outflanked and forced the night of August 28 , General Henry Knox bombarded August 28 , the British General Henry Knox bombarded against overwhelming odds , Washington ordered overwhelming odds , the assembly Washington ordered

, the assembly Washington ordered of a war council Washington the assembly of ordered a delegation officially General Howe with met On September 15 , Howe seized September 15 , control Howe seized , control Howe seized of New York City Howe control of seized On October 18 Howe failed to October 18 Howe failed to encircle the Americans Howe to encircle failed Washington's most disastrous defeat there The British victory to amounted Long Island on The remaining American regiments fell back Washington's disorganized army General Sir Henry Clinton to pursue wanted the American cause : the reduced army had dwindled fewer than 5,000 men had the reduced army to dwindled a peak Public support reached , and a peak King George III , and reached of a stronger one , his inexperienced staff misread a stronger one , the military situation his inexperienced staff misread , the military situation his inexperienced staff misread , the military situation his inexperienced staff misread , and the military situation American troops , and misread predictions The successes to led that predictions to the British that led to safer Maryland , Washington crossed safer Maryland , the ice-choked Delaware River Washington crossed , the ice-choked Delaware River Washington crossed about 30 miles the ice-choked Delaware River Washington crossed about 30 miles upriver Hessian Colonel Johann Rall over frozen trails His approach surprised Trenton The Continentals the Hessian garrison at overwhelmed the American army's flagging morale The celebrated victory rescued , gave January 2 , Washington outmaneuvered 2 , Cornwallis Washington outmaneuvered , Cornwallis Washington outmaneuvered and Cornwallis Washington outmaneuvered and defeated May Washington winter quarters from January to entered 1778 New England regaining demonstrated would be would a prolonged affair which , be a prolonged affair which , be led the north This isolating involved from In December 1776 , Howe wrote December 1776 , Howe wrote to , the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain Howe to wrote the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain Howe to wrote , Burgoyne several alternatives all , supplied several alternatives all , supplied of him selected The option required to

Albany would two at meet June 14, 1777 Burgoyne out on set retreated , roads his troops blocked , roads his troops blocked , roads his troops blocked , destroyed these , more than 700 British troops were captured the Battle of Bennington were more than 700 British troops at captured by Gates , Burgoyne continued Gates , Burgoyne continued onto , Albany Burgoyne onto continued Albany Burgoyne onto continued rather his troops among Morale rapidly declined on October 7 was by repulsed October 7 was Gates by repulsed was Gates by repulsed at the Battle of Bemis Heights by Gates at repulsed securing additional supplies , Howe made additional supplies , another attempt Howe made , another attempt Howe made on Philadelphia Howe another attempt on made failure now He compounded to on September 20 , Cornwallis occupied September 20 , Philadelphia Cornwallis occupied , Philadelphia Cornwallis occupied on September 26 Cornwallis Philadelphia on occupied by sea , the Patriots erected sea , Fort Mifflin the Patriots erected , Fort Mifflin the Patriots erected and Fort Mifflin the Patriots erected and nearby Fort Mercer This was a small flotilla by supported was a small flotilla by supported of Continental Navy ships by a small flotilla of supported Red Bank failed ; a second attack captured failed ; Fort Mifflin a second attack captured ; Fort Mifflin a second attack captured on November 16 a second attack Fort Mifflin on captured Frederick the Great such as foreign observers were to the entire Continental Army ; he did the entire Continental Army ; this he did ; this he did by this he did by training Like his predecessors , French foreign minister Vergennes considered his predecessors , the 1763 Peace French foreign minister Vergennes considered , the 1763 Peace French foreign minister Vergennes considered a national humiliation the 1763 Peace French foreign minister Vergennes considered a national humiliation * open conflict initially He avoided , favored the American cause , Finance Minister Turgot argued the American cause , Finance Minister Turgot they argued a French alliance Many Americans opposed , fearing

with Britain , Congress had Britain , three choices Congress had , three choices Congress had ; three choices Congress had ; making had wide public support , Adams was wide public support , Adams was among , those Adams among was those Adams among was reluctant Paris was Silas Deane to sent October 1777 Talks slowly until progressed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the United States France signed these provisions over conflict would lead Spain of Charles III was invited for example , the French claimed example , exclusive control the French claimed , exclusive control the French claimed of the Newfoundland cod fisheries the French exclusive control of claimed another treaty would not the US sign in Paris , Silas Deane promised Paris , promotion Silas Deane promised , promotion Silas Deane promised and promotion Silas Deane promised and command proved incompetent , one outstanding exception was incompetent , Gilbert du Motier one outstanding exception was , Gilbert du Motier one outstanding exception was , Gilbert du Motier one outstanding exception was , Marquis de Lafayette the Dutch-based Scots Brigade Britain to borrow tried to 1774 they still dominated 1774 the European carrying trade still they dominated the European carrying trade still they dominated , the European carrying trade Dutch merchants , and dominated war when Britain declared ended for cost reasons ; this prevented cost reasons ; the institution this prevented ; the institution this prevented of an effective blockade this the institution of prevented war did not He welcome a powerful ally could not Britain find the war , he was ordered Charles Lee's broken regiments had Washington rallied , had Charles Lee's broken regiments the Continentals , rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments the Continentals , rallied repulsed , in August they launched in August a combined attack they launched August a combined attack they launched on Newport they a combined attack on launched by a storm , the French withdrew a storm , the French withdrew to In July 1779 , the Americans captured July 1779 , British positions the Americans captured , British positions the Americans captured at

Stony Point and Paulus Hook the Americans British positions at captured the winter of 1779–1780 , the Continental Army suffered 1779–1780 , greater hardships the Continental Army suffered , greater hardships the Continental Army suffered than greater hardships the Continental Army suffered than at a British defeat two weeks later A second attempt in ended along the Cuyahoga River was by halted the Cuyahoga River was adverse weather by halted the year , a second campaign was undertaken Indian allies commanded Colonel George Rogers Clark by captured commanded Kaskaskia Colonel George Rogers Clark by captured Kaskaskia Colonel George Rogers Clark by captured on In early 1779 , the Virginians counterattacked early 1779 , the Virginians counterattacked in , the siege the Virginians in counterattacked the siege the Virginians in counterattacked of On May 25, 1780 , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded May 25, 1780 , Kentucky British Colonel Henry Bird invaded , Kentucky British Colonel Henry Bird invaded as part British Colonel Henry Bird Kentucky as invaded New Orleans on Their Pensacola advance was overcome on New Orleans was by overcome New Orleans was Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive by overcome was Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive by overcome on Mobile by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on overcome St. Louis were Simultaneous British attacks on repulsed were St. Louis on by repulsed the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba on St. Louis by repulsed men It to led of French soldier a Canadian militia Augustin de La Balme led in an attempt Augustin de La Balme a Canadian militia in led " was Lord Germain by developed was Lord Germain by developed , Lord Germain by developed , based They no sense it made argued no sense it made argued to , tobacco on duties made tobacco on duties made the on tobacco South the made tobacco South the made far Augustine Prévost accordingly Germain ordered , nearly 1,100 He a Loyalist militia of recruited In June , Prévost launched June , an abortive assault Prévost launched , an abortive assault Prévost launched on Charleston Prévost an abortive assault on launched , Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln under a joint French and American operation failed

Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln under a joint French and American operation failed to the war ; over 5,000 prisoners were taken the south and the Continental Army in taken the Battle of Waxhaws ; over 120 were killed despite their success , the two men left their success , the two men left barely speaking terms the two men barely on left local support The Southern strategy on depended , the south ; he was defeated the Battle of Camden was he at defeated north , Loyalist militia Cornwallis sent , Loyalist militia Cornwallis sent under Major Patrick Ferguson Cornwallis Loyalist militia under sent early October , Ferguson was defeated the Battle of Kings Mountain was Ferguson at defeated Cornwallis ; a detachment was sent the initiative now The Patriots held in a series Greene Cornwallis on led at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill , they recaptured the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill , Fort Watson they recaptured , Fort Watson they recaptured and Fort Watson they recaptured and Fort Motte On June 6 , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured June 6 , Augusta Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured , Augusta Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens Augusta leaving , captured the British Augusta , leaving captured would the fighting most of do the fighting most of do left 1779 , their treaty specifically excluded , Spanish military action specifically their treaty excluded Spanish military action specifically their treaty excluded in of Spanish Louisiana , the Americans allowed Spanish Louisiana , the Americans allowed to supplies the Americans to import allowed The trade was Oliver Pollock by organized was Oliver Pollock by organized , Oliver Pollock by organized , a successful merchant Despite official neutrality , Gálvez initiated official neutrality , offensive operations Gálvez initiated , offensive operations Gálvez initiated against British outposts Gálvez offensive operations against initiated First , British garrisons he cleared , British garrisons he cleared in Baton Rouge he British garrisons in cleared in New York City ; he failed New York City ; he failed to a coherent operational strategy he to construct failed

Charleston , Cornwallis independently developed , an aggressive plan independently Cornwallis developed an aggressive plan independently Cornwallis developed for their options ; the former wanted New York former to attack wanted way eventually Washington gave and eventually way Lafayette and gave way Lafayette and gave took entered Virginia , Cornwallis complied Virginia , Cornwallis complied with , Clinton's orders Cornwallis with complied Clinton's orders Cornwallis with complied and to defend the French West Indies Admiral de Grasse allowed defend the French West Indies Admiral de Grasse allowed to the French West Indies Admiral de Grasse allowed to relocate Lafayette naval support This provided , while Lafayette naval support the failure , while provided from his subordinates , Cornwallis made his subordinates , no attempt Cornwallis made , no attempt Cornwallis made to no attempt Cornwallis made to engage , Thomas Graves under a British fleet left New York under Thomas Graves a British fleet left losses , Graves was forced negotiations , these were finalized the subject for defeat Responsibility was Yorktown , American forces were assigned Paris in British-American negotiations led to their slaves with Loyalists were transported New Windsor Washington his army to moved At that time , Congress decommissioned that time , the regiments Congress decommissioned , the regiments Congress decommissioned of Washington's Continental Army Congress the regiments of decommissioned win their insurrection , the Americans needed their insurrection , the Americans needed to restore the empire , the British had the empire , the British had to the Continental Army the British to defeat had warfare Historian Terry M. Mays three separate types of identifies all thirteen states The second a civil war with was France The third element a global war between was in 1778 , France provided 1778 , the Americans money France provided , the Americans money France provided , the Americans money France provided , weapons to 1774 they still dominated 1774 the European carrying trade still they dominated the European carrying trade still they dominated , the European carrying trade Dutch merchants , and dominated war when Britain declared ended Congress multiple advantages the rebellion if had

multiple advantages the rebellion if had turned local production Their prosperous state populations on depended for most were They across spread the seaports Most farms remote from were local militia Each former colony a long-established system of had Together French claims they away took French claims they away took in In the American Revolution , they trained the American Revolution , they trained and Continental Line regiments they and provided trained also a major asset : each colonial capital had a major asset : its own newspapers each colonial capital had : its own newspapers each colonial capital had and its own newspapers each colonial capital had and printers began , a professional army Congress lacked , a professional army Congress lacked or a professional army Congress lacked or navy only a few weeks Their units for served or for this , Congress established this , a regular force Congress established , a regular force Congress established known a regular force Congress established known as smaller British forces them to overwhelm allowed was largely local state militias by supplemented Initially , the inexperienced officers Washington employed , the inexperienced officers Washington employed and the inexperienced officers Washington employed and untrained troops particular were the difficulty by constrained were the difficulty by constrained of the difficulty by constrained of transporting more than 17,000 men never directly Washington commanded more than 17,000 men the combined Franco-American army , while commanded At the beginning of 1776 , Patriot forces consisted the beginning of 1776 , Patriot forces consisted of , 20,000 men Patriot forces of consisted 20,000 men Patriot forces of consisted , a whole , American officers never equaled , their opponents never American officers equaled their opponents never American officers equaled in 1778 , Washington's army was transformed a more disciplined and effective force was Washington's army into transformed from Valley Forge , it proved Valley Forge , its ability it proved , its ability it proved to its ability it proved to match Henry Laurens Washington informed " that Henry Laurens the possession " that informed of war ; there was

war ; there was never its committee oversight Congress in evolved and its own internal procedures , Congress also created , the post also Congress created the post also Congress created of of the war , Washington began the war , Washington began outfitting , schooners Washington outfitting began schooners Washington outfitting began and of the war , it consisted the war , it consisted of , a handful it of consisted a handful it of consisted of the first American naval hero John Paul Jones became by capturing The the frigate USS "Alliance last by was the frigate USS "Alliance last by was " privateers primarily Congress commissioned to Overall , 1,700 ships they included , they 1,700 ships that included they 1,700 ships that included successfully 1,700 ships that included successfully captured of the war , the Americans had the war , no major international allies the Americans had , no major international allies the Americans had , no major international allies the Americans had , as no major international allies most nation-states , as had Over time , the Continental Army acquitted time , itself the Continental Army acquitted , itself the Continental Army acquitted well itself the Continental Army acquitted well in France at Saratoga The decisive American victory convinced Saratoga France who , convinced France who , convinced was a defensive Treaty of Alliance also The two nations to agreed a war on Britain initiating conditioned On June 13, 1778 , France declared June 13, 1778 , war France declared , war France declared on Great Britain France war on declared the soldiers Washington closely with worked fighting The British military considerable experience of had previous conflicts , in they However to the conflict , the colonies were the conflict , largely autonomous economic and political entities the colonies were , largely autonomous economic and political entities the colonies were , largely autonomous economic and political entities the colonies were , with the Royal Navy British power reliant on was the colonies and limited manpower the British meant inevitable ; it one British statesman described ; it one British statesman described as

it one British statesman described as " of a miracle , Ellis suggests a miracle , Ellis the odds suggests the Americans the odds always favored suggests in 1775 , there were 1775 , only 8,500 regular soldiers there were , only 8,500 regular soldiers there were among a civilian population there only 8,500 regular soldiers among were the Caribbean ; Jamaica alone generated ; more revenue alone Jamaica generated more revenue alone Jamaica generated than of the war , there were the war , four separate British commanders there were , four separate British commanders there were - four separate British commanders there were - in , London in many blamed the revolt in London many blamed the capabilities the British overestimated showed the initiative the Patriots to take allowed of reinforcements , Bunker Hill seems reinforcements , Bunker Hill seems to his decisions of Many were attributed of the Carlisle Commission , British policy changed the Carlisle Commission , British policy changed from the Patriots British policy from treating changed 1778 , Howe was replaced Howe was Sir Henry Clinton by replaced was Sir Henry Clinton by replaced , Sir Henry Clinton by replaced , appointed like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped his predecessors Clinton was by handicapped Clinton was chronic supply issues by handicapped addition , Clinton's strategy was compromised Clinton's strategy was conflict by compromised was conflict by compromised with political superiors by conflict with compromised during the Seven Years' War , they comprised the Seven Years' War , 10% they comprised , 10% they comprised of the British army they 10% of comprised America , it was decided this There several reasons for were over the next decade , more than 40,000 Germans fought the next decade , more than 40,000 Germans fought in , North America more than 40,000 Germans in fought North America more than 40,000 Germans in fought , Hessians " , they included " , men they included , men they included from many other states they men from included Unlike previous wars their use led to previous wars intense political debate their use to led

intense political debate their use to led in March 1776 , the agreements were challenged Parliament were the agreements in challenged were Parliament in by challenged Whigs in Parliament by challenged detail were The debates in covered were detail in by covered American newspapers in detail by covered to war , it made war , it hopes made it reconciliation hopes of made reconciliation hopes of made seem Russians suggested employing Clinton was employing Russians he that was Russians he that was felt in August 1776 , Congress approved August 1776 , the printing Congress approved , the printing Congress approved of "handbills Congress the printing of approved campaign The British a counter - launched the Germans among Desertion occurred throughout Loyalists British military planners on recruiting relied British Approximately 25,000 Loyalists for the fought the colonial population , they were concentrated distinct communities were they in concentrated : organized Loyalist activity of any significant level required a continued presence of organized Loyalist activity any significant level required America had in the British was the South were constantly by defeated were constantly neighboring Patriot militia by defeated local homes when their troops ransacked suffered the Carolinas in neutral colonists often allied the Patriots with brutal combat whenever allied in the British Army : it was the British Army : a mixed regiment it was : a mixed regiment it was of 250 dragoons it a mixed regiment of was It was Banastre Tarleton by commanded was Banastre Tarleton by commanded and Banastre Tarleton by commanded and gained the Revolutionary War ; they often accompanied ; their husbands often they accompanied their husbands often they accompanied when throughout the war Martha Washington was known the war Martha Washington was known to armies often Women accompanied as often armies camp followers as accompanied armies camp followers as accompanied to military roles also Women assumed : the Army Anna Maria Lane her husband in joined the "female Paul Revere has been she called men A few others themselves as disguised , the Thirteen Colonies of the population included an estimated 500,000 slaves of the Thirteen Colonies the population included

Virginia , a proclamation that issued , a proclamation that issued promised freedom a proclamation that promised issued fill a temporary manpower shortage , white Loyalist prejudice meant a temporary manpower shortage , white Loyalist prejudice recruits meant The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued Clinton by extended issued the offer Clinton by extended the offer Clinton by extended of entire families It persuaded to escape the Black Pioneers , he also ensured the Continental Army were Black Patriots from barred the Continental Army from Washington until barred , its 225 soldiers of only 140 were its 225 soldiers of only 140 were black its 225 soldiers recruitment black and were , the Continental Army around 5,000 African-Americans in served the Continental Army around 5,000 African-Americans in served and in 1781 , Washington insisted 1781 , Washington all escapees insisted ; London some onto moved London some onto moved , Jamaica White Loyalists 15,000 enslaved blacks to transported of the Mississippi River were by affected the Mississippi River were the war by affected were the war by affected , the war by affected , and the colonists A few tribes friendly with were , Britain of Cherokee allies attacked the short-lived Washington District of Britain Cherokee allies attacked Britain of Creek and Seminole allies fought against , 800 Creeks of a force destroyed American settlements of 800 Creeks a force destroyed Thomas Brown's raids also Creek warriors joined into the fight were Many Native Americans in involved ; the Mohawks of members fought the Mohawks of members fought on their Indian allies , the Sullivan Expedition the Continental Army dispatched , the Sullivan Expedition the Continental Army dispatched on a punitive expedition the Continental Army the Sullivan Expedition on dispatched of Paris , Great Britain ceded Paris , control Great Britain ceded , control Great Britain ceded of the disputed lands Great Britain control of ceded Saratoga in 1777 it made in 1777 it made clear 1777 the revolt it clear made a second peace settlement now British negotiators proposed to The terms presented the Carlisle Peace Commission by included presented acceptance the Carlisle Peace Commission by included

acceptance the Carlisle Peace Commission by included of Congress would Parliament recognize as in November 1778 , they recommended November 1778 , a change they recommended , a change they recommended in policy they a change in recommended the Southern strategy initially North backed attempting in America was by carried America was 19 votes by carried of the Patriot cause , he made the Patriot cause , a commitment he made , a commitment he made to US independence he a commitment to made to Prime Minister , Congress consolidated Prime Minister , its diplomatic consuls Congress consolidated , its diplomatic consuls Congress consolidated in Europe Congress its diplomatic consuls in consolidated Congressional leadership were All in experienced Benjamin Franklin of the delegation The dean was a celebrity had He become in Since the 1760s he had been the 1760s an organizer had he been an organizer had he been of Massachusetts of John Adams had been New York of John Jay had been South Carolina of Henry Laurens had secured a successor had He been to the US British strategy to strengthen was , their opponents between divisions allowed divisions between their opponents them allowed between their opponents them allowed to their opponents them allowed to negotiate excluding the Americans ; France proposed the Americans ; France proposed setting ; the western boundary France setting proposed the western boundary France setting proposed of independence ; the "conclusive" treaty was signed September 2, 1783 was the "conclusive" treaty on signed draft the treaty , it claimed the treaty , it claimed represented one it represented " claimed Paris were the final versions in exchanged Washington astonishment the Americans that expressed astonishment the Americans that expressed had Savannah The last uniformed British troops their last east coast port cities in departed On April 9, 1783 , Washington issued April 9, 1783 , orders Washington issued , orders Washington issued that Washington orders he that issued orders he that issued had with Washington , General Carleton issued Washington , a similar order General Carleton issued , to General Carleton a similar order issued

British troops General Carleton a similar order to issued its colonial Mother country was the United States from ceded sparsely settled acres It millions of included the years The tentative colonial migration west a flood during became 1775 Virginia's Kentucky County 150 men in counted the US for Britain's extended post-war policy continued to , in practice the British refused in practice the British refused to practice the British refused to abandon the forts the British to abandon refused Instead , military allies they provisioned , military allies they provisioned for continuing frontier raids they military allies for provisioned on the United States the Anglo-American Jay Treaty until continued the United States the Anglo-American Jay Treaty until continued went was most American independence by threatened most American independence by threatened , American independence by threatened , and , so a combination Spanish policy developed so a combination Spanish policy developed of initiatives Spanish policy a combination of developed the British territorial cession west diplomatically Spanish soft power challenged to American goods It a high tariff on imposed war alliances Spanish hard power extended and arms smallpox such as diseases claimed North America a smallpox epidemic out throughout broke these , approximately 6,800 were killed battle were approximately 6,800 in killed the latter of The majority died while 2,112 The French suffered killed in their total Army deaths in 1781 A British report puts its numerous civil liberties The American Revolution the United States with established the world's oldest written constitution The United States has , and the world's oldest written constitution the constitutions , and has of inequality , it did inequality , little it did , little it did to little it did to change slavery it to end failed slavery to end which failed southern states on slave labor abolition made on slave labor abolition made too slave labor abolition made too great a challenge abolition too great made In 1782 , Virginia passed 1782 , a law Virginia passed , a law Virginia passed permitting manumission Virginia a law permitting passed abolitionist movements of the number greatly increased

large historiography the reasons the Americans concerns historiography the reasons the Americans concerns revolted the reasons the Americans concerns revolted and adopted the Americans by , stressed the constitutional rights the Americans , by stressed the American Enlightenment Contemporaries credited with laying the liberalism Founders to referred in the 1960s since Historians have emphasized the 1960s have the Patriot constitutional argument that emphasized turn , that nationalism was rooted a Republican value system was that nationalism in rooted was a Republican value system in that rooted a Republican value system in that rooted demanded Britain itself , republicanism was itself , a fringe view republicanism was , a fringe view republicanism was since republicanism a fringe view it since was a fringe view it since was challenged was not an aristocracy by controlled not an aristocracy by controlled or an aristocracy by controlled or nobility a broader context The Atlantic history view the American story in places republicanism that centers on The ideological approach no royalty there would be dictated 1849 , the U.S. Post Office frequently issued , commemorative stamps frequently the U.S. Post Office issued commemorative stamps frequently the U.S. Post Office issued celebrating to this selection , many primary sources are this selection , many primary sources are available the Princeton University Law School Avalon Project many primary sources available at are terms The International System of Units the ampere in defines current The earlier CGS system two different definitions of had amperes are Constant, instantaneous and average current in expressed French physicist is The ampere for named an early realization " The "international ampere was of an attractive or repulsive force that there is states specifications are Algorithms as used ) , a computation the instructions describe , the instructions a computation that describe the instructions a computation that describe , a computation that describe , when algorithm of The concept has existed a division algorithm , were by used , were ancient Babylonian mathematicians by used were ancient Babylonian mathematicians by c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians used ancient Babylonian mathematicians by c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians used c. 1550

algorithms later Greek mathematicians used in mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī a was , About 825 , an Arabic language treatise al-Khwarizmi wrote , an Arabic language treatise al-Khwarizmi wrote on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system al-Khwarizmi an Arabic language treatise on wrote the phrase The manuscript with starts "Dixit Algorizmi Europe Al-Khwarizmi the most widely read mathematician in was attempts were formalizations as framed certain enumerably infinite sets : They can give explicit instructions can They " give 1987 ] , an algorithm is ] , a computational process an algorithm is , a computational process an algorithm is defined an algorithm a computational process by defined is a Turing machine" a computational process defined by is Turing machines can computational processes that define can computational processes that define do computational processes that define do not algorithms of The informal definitions generally require algorithms generally the algorithm that require part are Stored data as regarded , computation of the order is computation of the order is always the most common conception This is — one the most common conception which — one is this conception of formalized algorithms the assignment operation is of formalized algorithms the assignment operation is , formalized algorithms which the assignment operation , is the intuition It from derives of algorithms of Natural language expressions tend to algorithms to express that ways a method Algorithm design to refers or part of algorithms The design is For a given function multiple algorithms may exist , a tradeoff may there be a tradeoff may there be between Lambek's "abacus" model Minsky a more congenial variation of describes Besides HALT , Minsky's machine includes HALT , three "assignment Minsky's machine includes , three "assignment Minsky's machine includes " three "assignment Minsky's machine includes " ( Rarely must "code a programmer write must "code a programmer write " "code a programmer write " with for Turing-completeness ; their exact specification is Turing-completeness ; their exact specification is somewhat " : the reader Knuth advises : the reader Knuth advises that the reader Knuth advises that " the reader the best way that " advises